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The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Guide to the Study of
Fishes, Volume 2 (of 2)
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Title: A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume 2 (of 2)
Author: David Starr Jordan
Release date: April 9, 2016 [eBook #51702]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51702
Credits: Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, Bryan Ness and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GUIDE TO
THE STUDY OF FISHES, VOLUME 2 (OF 2) ***
Fishes, Volume 2 (of 2)
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: A Guide to the Study of Fishes, Volume 2 (of 2)
Author: David Starr Jordan
Release date: April 9, 2016 [eBook #51702]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51702
Credits: Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, Bryan Ness and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GUIDE TO
THE STUDY OF FISHES, VOLUME 2 (OF 2) ***
Page 4
GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF FISHES
VARIATIONS IN THE COLOR OF FISHES
The Oniokose or Demon Stinger, Inimicus japonicus (Cuv. and
VARIATIONS IN THE COLOR OF FISHES
The Oniokose or Demon Stinger, Inimicus japonicus (Cuv. and
Page 5
Val.), from Wakanoura, Japan. From nature by Kako Morita.
Surface coloration about lava rocks.
Coloration of specimens living among red algæ.
Coloration in deep water; Inimicus aurantiacus (Schlegel).
Surface coloration about lava rocks.
Coloration of specimens living among red algæ.
Coloration in deep water; Inimicus aurantiacus (Schlegel).
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A GUIDE
TO
THE STUDY OF FISHES
BY
DAVID STARR JORDAN
President of Leland Stanford Junior University
With Colored Frontispieces and 507 Illustrations
IN TWO VOLUMES
Vol II.
"I am the wiser in respect to all knowledge
and the better qualified for all fortunes
for knowing that there is a minnow in that
brook."—Thoreau
TO
THE STUDY OF FISHES
BY
DAVID STARR JORDAN
President of Leland Stanford Junior University
With Colored Frontispieces and 507 Illustrations
IN TWO VOLUMES
Vol II.
"I am the wiser in respect to all knowledge
and the better qualified for all fortunes
for knowing that there is a minnow in that
brook."—Thoreau
Page 7
NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
1905
Copyright, 1905
BY
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
Published March, 1905
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
1905
Copyright, 1905
BY
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
Published March, 1905
Page 8
CONTENTS
VOL. II.
CHAPTER I.
THE GANOIDS.
PAGE
Subclass Actinopteri.—The Series Ganoidei.—Are the Ganoids a 1
Natural Group?—Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.—Gill on
the Ganoids as a Natural Group.
CHAPTER II.
THE GANOIDS (Continued).
Classification of Ganoids.—Order Lysopteri.—The 13
Palæoniscidæ.—The Platysomidæ.—The Dorypteridæ.—The
Dictyopygidæ.—Order Chondrostei.—Order Selachostomi: the
Paddle-fishes.—Order Pycnodonti.—Order Lepidostei.—
Family Lepisosteidæ.—Embryology of the Garpike.—Fossil
Garpikes.—Order Halecomorphi.—Pachycormidæ.—The
Bowfins: Amiidæ.—The Oligopleuridæ.
CHAPTER III.
ISOSPONDYLI.
The Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—Order Isospondyli.— 37
The Classification of the Bony Fishes.—Relationships of
Isospondyli.—The Clupeoidea.—The Leptolepidæ.—The
Elopidæ.—The Albulidæ.—The Chanidæ.—The Hiodontidæ.
—The Pterothrissidæ.—The Ctenothrissidæ.—The
VOL. II.
CHAPTER I.
THE GANOIDS.
PAGE
Subclass Actinopteri.—The Series Ganoidei.—Are the Ganoids a 1
Natural Group?—Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.—Gill on
the Ganoids as a Natural Group.
CHAPTER II.
THE GANOIDS (Continued).
Classification of Ganoids.—Order Lysopteri.—The 13
Palæoniscidæ.—The Platysomidæ.—The Dorypteridæ.—The
Dictyopygidæ.—Order Chondrostei.—Order Selachostomi: the
Paddle-fishes.—Order Pycnodonti.—Order Lepidostei.—
Family Lepisosteidæ.—Embryology of the Garpike.—Fossil
Garpikes.—Order Halecomorphi.—Pachycormidæ.—The
Bowfins: Amiidæ.—The Oligopleuridæ.
CHAPTER III.
ISOSPONDYLI.
The Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—Order Isospondyli.— 37
The Classification of the Bony Fishes.—Relationships of
Isospondyli.—The Clupeoidea.—The Leptolepidæ.—The
Elopidæ.—The Albulidæ.—The Chanidæ.—The Hiodontidæ.
—The Pterothrissidæ.—The Ctenothrissidæ.—The
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Notopteridæ.—The Clupeidæ.—The Dorosomatidæ.—The
Engraulididæ.—Gonorhynchidæ.—The Osteoglossidæ.—The
Pantodontidæ.
CHAPTER IV.
SALMONIDÆ.
The Salmon Family.—Coregonus, the Whitefish.—Argyrosomus, 61
the Lake Herring.—Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.
—Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.—The Parent-stream
Theory.—The Jadgeska Hatchery.—Salmon-packing.
CHAPTER V.
SALMONIDÆ (Continued).
Salmo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.—The Atlantic Salmon.— 89
The Ouananiche.—The Black-spotted Trout.—The Trout of
Western America.—Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.—Hucho,
the Huchen.—Salvelinus, the Charr.—Cristivomer, the Great
Lake Trout.—The Ayu, or Sweetfish.—Cormorant-fishing.—
Fossil Salmonidæ.
CHAPTER VI.
THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT.
The Grayling, or Thymallidæ.—The Argentinidæ.—The 120
Microstomidæ.—The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.—The
Haplochitonidæ.—Stomiatidæ.—Suborder Iniomi, the
Lantern-fishes.—Aulopidæ.—The Lizard-fishes.—Ipnopidæ.
—Rondeletiidæ.—Myctophidæ.—Chirothricidæ.—
Maurolicidæ.—The Lancet-fishes.—The Sternoptychidæ.—
Order Lyopomi.
CHAPTER VII.
THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES.
The Eels.—Order Symbranchia.—Order Apodes, or True Eels.— 139
Suborder Archencheli.—Suborder Enchelycephali.—Family
Engraulididæ.—Gonorhynchidæ.—The Osteoglossidæ.—The
Pantodontidæ.
CHAPTER IV.
SALMONIDÆ.
The Salmon Family.—Coregonus, the Whitefish.—Argyrosomus, 61
the Lake Herring.—Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.
—Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.—The Parent-stream
Theory.—The Jadgeska Hatchery.—Salmon-packing.
CHAPTER V.
SALMONIDÆ (Continued).
Salmo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.—The Atlantic Salmon.— 89
The Ouananiche.—The Black-spotted Trout.—The Trout of
Western America.—Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.—Hucho,
the Huchen.—Salvelinus, the Charr.—Cristivomer, the Great
Lake Trout.—The Ayu, or Sweetfish.—Cormorant-fishing.—
Fossil Salmonidæ.
CHAPTER VI.
THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT.
The Grayling, or Thymallidæ.—The Argentinidæ.—The 120
Microstomidæ.—The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.—The
Haplochitonidæ.—Stomiatidæ.—Suborder Iniomi, the
Lantern-fishes.—Aulopidæ.—The Lizard-fishes.—Ipnopidæ.
—Rondeletiidæ.—Myctophidæ.—Chirothricidæ.—
Maurolicidæ.—The Lancet-fishes.—The Sternoptychidæ.—
Order Lyopomi.
CHAPTER VII.
THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES.
The Eels.—Order Symbranchia.—Order Apodes, or True Eels.— 139
Suborder Archencheli.—Suborder Enchelycephali.—Family
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Anguillidæ.—Reproduction of the Eel.—Food of the Eel.—
Larva of the Eel.—Species of Eels.—Pug-nosed Eels.—
Conger-eels.—The Snake-eels.—Suborder Colocephali, or
Morays.—Family Moringuidæ.—Order Carencheli, the Long-
necked Eels.—Order Lyomeri or Gulpers.—Order Heteromi.
CHAPTER VIII.
SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI.
Ostariophysi.—The Heterognathi.—The Eventognathi.—The 159
Cyprinidæ.—Species of Dace and Shiner.—Chubs of the
Pacific Slope.—The Carp and Goldfish.—The Catostomidæ.—
Fossil Cyprinidæ.—The Loaches.
CHAPTER IX.
THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES.
The Nematognathi.—Families of Nematognathi.—The Siluridæ. 177
—The Sea Catfish.—The Channel Cats.—Horned Pout.—The
Mad-toms.—The Old World Catfishes.—The Sisoridæ.—The
Plotosidæ.—The Chlariidæ.—The Hypophthalmidæ or
Pygidiidæ.—The Loricariidæ.—The Callichthyidæ.—Fossil
Catfishes.—Order Gymnonoti.
CHAPTER X.
THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI.
Order Scyphophori.—The Mormyridæ.—The Haplomi.—The 188
Pikes.—The Mud minnows.—The Killifishes.—Amblyopsidæ.
—Kneriidæ, etc.—The Galaxiidæ.—Order Xenomi.
CHAPTER XI.
ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI.
Order Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—Suborder 208
Synentognathi.—The Garfishes: Belonidæ.—The Flying-
fishes: Exocœtidæ.
Larva of the Eel.—Species of Eels.—Pug-nosed Eels.—
Conger-eels.—The Snake-eels.—Suborder Colocephali, or
Morays.—Family Moringuidæ.—Order Carencheli, the Long-
necked Eels.—Order Lyomeri or Gulpers.—Order Heteromi.
CHAPTER VIII.
SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI.
Ostariophysi.—The Heterognathi.—The Eventognathi.—The 159
Cyprinidæ.—Species of Dace and Shiner.—Chubs of the
Pacific Slope.—The Carp and Goldfish.—The Catostomidæ.—
Fossil Cyprinidæ.—The Loaches.
CHAPTER IX.
THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES.
The Nematognathi.—Families of Nematognathi.—The Siluridæ. 177
—The Sea Catfish.—The Channel Cats.—Horned Pout.—The
Mad-toms.—The Old World Catfishes.—The Sisoridæ.—The
Plotosidæ.—The Chlariidæ.—The Hypophthalmidæ or
Pygidiidæ.—The Loricariidæ.—The Callichthyidæ.—Fossil
Catfishes.—Order Gymnonoti.
CHAPTER X.
THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI.
Order Scyphophori.—The Mormyridæ.—The Haplomi.—The 188
Pikes.—The Mud minnows.—The Killifishes.—Amblyopsidæ.
—Kneriidæ, etc.—The Galaxiidæ.—Order Xenomi.
CHAPTER XI.
ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI.
Order Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—Suborder 208
Synentognathi.—The Garfishes: Belonidæ.—The Flying-
fishes: Exocœtidæ.
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CHAPTER XII.
PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI.
Suborder Percesoces.—The Silversides: Atherinidæ.—The 215
Mullets: Mugilidæ.—The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.—
Stephanoberycidæ.—Crossognathidæ.—Cobitopsidæ.—
Suborder Rhegnopteri.
CHAPTER XIII.
PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII,
AND
HYPOSTOMIDES.
Suborder Hemibranchii.—The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.— 227
The Aulorhynchidæ.—Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.—The
Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomidæ.—The Snipefishes:
Macrorhamphosidæ.—The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.—The
Lophobranchs.—The Solenostomidæ.—The Pipefishes:
Syngnathidæ.—The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.—Suborder
Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.
CHAPTER XIV.
SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL GROUPS.
Suborder Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.— 241
Erismatopteridæ.—Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs:
Lamprididæ.—Suborder Zeoidea.—Amphistiidæ.—The John
Dories: Zeidæ.—Grammicolepidæ.
CHAPTER XV.
BERYCOIDEI.
The Berycoid Fishes.—The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.—The Soldier- 250
fishes: Holocentridæ.—The Polymixiidæ.—The Pine-cone
Fishes: Monocentridæ.
CHAPTER XVI.
PERCOMORPHI.
PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI.
Suborder Percesoces.—The Silversides: Atherinidæ.—The 215
Mullets: Mugilidæ.—The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.—
Stephanoberycidæ.—Crossognathidæ.—Cobitopsidæ.—
Suborder Rhegnopteri.
CHAPTER XIII.
PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII,
AND
HYPOSTOMIDES.
Suborder Hemibranchii.—The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.— 227
The Aulorhynchidæ.—Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.—The
Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomidæ.—The Snipefishes:
Macrorhamphosidæ.—The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.—The
Lophobranchs.—The Solenostomidæ.—The Pipefishes:
Syngnathidæ.—The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.—Suborder
Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.
CHAPTER XIV.
SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL GROUPS.
Suborder Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.— 241
Erismatopteridæ.—Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs:
Lamprididæ.—Suborder Zeoidea.—Amphistiidæ.—The John
Dories: Zeidæ.—Grammicolepidæ.
CHAPTER XV.
BERYCOIDEI.
The Berycoid Fishes.—The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.—The Soldier- 250
fishes: Holocentridæ.—The Polymixiidæ.—The Pine-cone
Fishes: Monocentridæ.
CHAPTER XVI.
PERCOMORPHI.
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Suborder Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.—The 258
Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea.—The True Mackerels:
Scombridæ.—The Escolars: Gempylidæ.—Scabbard and
Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and Trichiuridæ.—The
Palæorhynchidæ.—The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.—The
Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.
CHAPTER XVII.
CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS.
The Pampanos: Carangidæ.—The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.— 272
The Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.—The Sergeant-fishes:
Rachycentridæ.—The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.—The Rag-
fishes: Icosteidæ.—The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.—The Dolphins:
Coryphænidæ.—The Menidæ.—The Pempheridæ.—Luvaridæ.
—The Square-tails: Tetragonuridæ.—The Crested Bandfishes:
Lophotidæ.
CHAPTER XVIII.
PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES.
Percoid Fishes.—The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.—The 293
Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.—The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.
—Crappies and Rock Bass.—The Black Bass.—The Saleles:
Kuhliidæ.—The True Perches: Percidæ.—Relations of Darters
to Perches.—The Perches.—The Darters: Etheostominæ.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES.
The Cardinal-fishes: Apogonidæ.—The Anomalopidæ.—The 316
Asineopidæ—The Robalos: Oxylabracidæ.—The Sea-bass:
Serranidæ.—The Jewfishes.—The Groupers.—The Serranos.
—The Flashers: Lobotidæ.—The Big eyes: Priacanthidæ.—
The Pentacerotidæ.—The Snappers: Lutianidæ.—The Grunts:
Hæmulidæ.—The Porgies: Sparidæ.—The Picarels: Mænidæ.
—The Mojarras: Gerridæ.—The Rudder-fishes: Kyphosidæ.
Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea.—The True Mackerels:
Scombridæ.—The Escolars: Gempylidæ.—Scabbard and
Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and Trichiuridæ.—The
Palæorhynchidæ.—The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.—The
Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.
CHAPTER XVII.
CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS.
The Pampanos: Carangidæ.—The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.— 272
The Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.—The Sergeant-fishes:
Rachycentridæ.—The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.—The Rag-
fishes: Icosteidæ.—The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.—The Dolphins:
Coryphænidæ.—The Menidæ.—The Pempheridæ.—Luvaridæ.
—The Square-tails: Tetragonuridæ.—The Crested Bandfishes:
Lophotidæ.
CHAPTER XVIII.
PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES.
Percoid Fishes.—The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.—The 293
Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.—The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.
—Crappies and Rock Bass.—The Black Bass.—The Saleles:
Kuhliidæ.—The True Perches: Percidæ.—Relations of Darters
to Perches.—The Perches.—The Darters: Etheostominæ.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES.
The Cardinal-fishes: Apogonidæ.—The Anomalopidæ.—The 316
Asineopidæ—The Robalos: Oxylabracidæ.—The Sea-bass:
Serranidæ.—The Jewfishes.—The Groupers.—The Serranos.
—The Flashers: Lobotidæ.—The Big eyes: Priacanthidæ.—
The Pentacerotidæ.—The Snappers: Lutianidæ.—The Grunts:
Hæmulidæ.—The Porgies: Sparidæ.—The Picarels: Mænidæ.
—The Mojarras: Gerridæ.—The Rudder-fishes: Kyphosidæ.
Page 13
CHAPTER XX.
THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR
RELATIVES.
The Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.—The Croakers: 351
Sciænidæ.—The Sillaginidæ, etc.—The Jawfishes:
Opisthognathidæ, etc.—The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.
—The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.—The Malacanthidæ.—
The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.—The Bandfishes: Cepolidæ.—The
Cirrhitidæ.—The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.
CHAPTER XXI.
LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI.
The Labyrinthine Fishes.—The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ. 365
—The Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.—The Snake-head Mullets:
Ophicephalidæ.—Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—The
Embiotocidæ.
CHAPTER XXII.
CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI.
Suborder Chromides.—The Cichlidæ.—The Damsel-fishes: 380
Pomacentridæ.—Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The Wrasse
Fishes: Labridæ.—The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE SQUAMIPINNES.
The Squamipinnes.—The Scorpididæ.—The Boarfishes: 397
Antigoniidæ.—The Arches: Toxotidæ.—The Ephippidæ.—The
Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.—The Platacidæ.—The Butterfly-
fishes: Chætodontidæ.—The Pygæidæ.—The Moorish Idols:
Zanclidæ.—The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.—Suborder
Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.
CHAPTER XXIV.
SERIES PLECTOGNATHI.
THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR
RELATIVES.
The Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.—The Croakers: 351
Sciænidæ.—The Sillaginidæ, etc.—The Jawfishes:
Opisthognathidæ, etc.—The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.
—The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.—The Malacanthidæ.—
The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.—The Bandfishes: Cepolidæ.—The
Cirrhitidæ.—The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.
CHAPTER XXI.
LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI.
The Labyrinthine Fishes.—The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ. 365
—The Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.—The Snake-head Mullets:
Ophicephalidæ.—Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—The
Embiotocidæ.
CHAPTER XXII.
CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI.
Suborder Chromides.—The Cichlidæ.—The Damsel-fishes: 380
Pomacentridæ.—Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The Wrasse
Fishes: Labridæ.—The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE SQUAMIPINNES.
The Squamipinnes.—The Scorpididæ.—The Boarfishes: 397
Antigoniidæ.—The Arches: Toxotidæ.—The Ephippidæ.—The
Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.—The Platacidæ.—The Butterfly-
fishes: Chætodontidæ.—The Pygæidæ.—The Moorish Idols:
Zanclidæ.—The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.—Suborder
Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.
CHAPTER XXIV.
SERIES PLECTOGNATHI.
Page 14
The Plectognaths.—The Scleroderms.—The Trigger-fishes: 411
Balistidæ.—The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.—The
Spinacanthidæ.—The Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.—The
Gymnodontes.—The Triodontidæ.—The Globefishes:
Tetraodontidæ.—The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.—The
Head-fishes: Molidæ.
CHAPTER XXV.
PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES.
The Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.— 426
The Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.—The Greenlings:
Hexagrammidæ.—The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.—
The Sculpins: Cottidæ.—The Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.—The
Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.—The Sea-snails: Liparididæ.—
The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.—Suborder Craniomi: the
Gurnards, Triglidæ.—The Peristediidæ.—The Flying
Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.
CHAPTER XXVI.
GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI.
Suborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.—Suborder 459
Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.—Suborder
Tæniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.—The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.—
The Dealfishes: Trachypteridæ.
CHAPTER XXVII.
SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA.
The Flatfishes.—Optic Nerves of Flounders.—Ancestry of 481
Flounders.—The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.—The Turbot
Tribe: Bothinæ.—The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.—The
Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.—The Soles: Soleidæ.—The
Broad Soles: Achirinæ.—The European Soles (Soleinæ).—The
Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Balistidæ.—The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.—The
Spinacanthidæ.—The Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.—The
Gymnodontes.—The Triodontidæ.—The Globefishes:
Tetraodontidæ.—The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.—The
Head-fishes: Molidæ.
CHAPTER XXV.
PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES.
The Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.— 426
The Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.—The Greenlings:
Hexagrammidæ.—The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.—
The Sculpins: Cottidæ.—The Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.—The
Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.—The Sea-snails: Liparididæ.—
The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.—Suborder Craniomi: the
Gurnards, Triglidæ.—The Peristediidæ.—The Flying
Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.
CHAPTER XXVI.
GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI.
Suborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.—Suborder 459
Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.—Suborder
Tæniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.—The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.—
The Dealfishes: Trachypteridæ.
CHAPTER XXVII.
SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA.
The Flatfishes.—Optic Nerves of Flounders.—Ancestry of 481
Flounders.—The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.—The Turbot
Tribe: Bothinæ.—The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.—The
Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.—The Soles: Soleidæ.—The
Broad Soles: Achirinæ.—The European Soles (Soleinæ).—The
Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Page 15
SUBORDER JUGULARES.
The Jugular-fishes.—The Weevers: Trachinidæ.—The 499
Nototheniidæ.—The Leptoscopidæ.—The Star-gazers:
Uranoscopidæ.—The Dragonets: Callionymidæ.—The
Dactyloscopidæ.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ.
The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.—The 507
Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.—The Blochiidæ.—The Patæcidæ,
etc.—The Gadopsidæ, etc.—The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.
—The Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.—The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.—
Sand-lances: Ammodytidæ.—The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.—
The Brotulidæ.—Ateleopodidæ.—Suborder Haplodoci.—
Suborder Xenopterygii.
CHAPTER XXX.
OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI.
Order Opisthomi.—Order Anacanthini.—The Codfishes: Gadidæ. 532
—The Hakes: Merluciidæ.—The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.
CHAPTER XXXI.
ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS.
The Angler-fishes.—The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.—The Sea- 542
devils: Ceratiidæ.—The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.—The
Batfishes: Ogcocephalidæ.
The Jugular-fishes.—The Weevers: Trachinidæ.—The 499
Nototheniidæ.—The Leptoscopidæ.—The Star-gazers:
Uranoscopidæ.—The Dragonets: Callionymidæ.—The
Dactyloscopidæ.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ.
The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.—The 507
Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.—The Blochiidæ.—The Patæcidæ,
etc.—The Gadopsidæ, etc.—The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.
—The Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.—The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.—
Sand-lances: Ammodytidæ.—The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.—
The Brotulidæ.—Ateleopodidæ.—Suborder Haplodoci.—
Suborder Xenopterygii.
CHAPTER XXX.
OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI.
Order Opisthomi.—Order Anacanthini.—The Codfishes: Gadidæ. 532
—The Hakes: Merluciidæ.—The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.
CHAPTER XXXI.
ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS.
The Angler-fishes.—The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.—The Sea- 542
devils: Ceratiidæ.—The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.—The
Batfishes: Ogcocephalidæ.
Page 16
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
VOL. II.
PAGE
Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, Paralichthys californicus 2
Palæoniscum frieslebenense 14
Eurynotus crenatus 15
Dorypterus hoffmani 16
Chondrosteus acipenseroides 18
Acipenser sturio, Common Sturgeon 19
Acipenser rubicundus, Lake Sturgeon 20
Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus, Shovel-nosed Sturgeon 20
Polyodon spathula, Paddle-fish, side-view 21
Polyodon spathula, Paddle-fish, view from below 21
Psephurus gladius 21
Gyrodus hexagonus 22
Mesturus verrucosus 23
Semionotus kapffi 24
Dapedium politum 25
Tetragonolepis semicinctus 26
Isopholis orthostomus 27
Lepisosteus osseus, Long-nosed Garpike 27
Caturus elongatus 28
Notagogus pentlandi 28
Ptycholepis curtus 28
VOL. II.
PAGE
Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, Paralichthys californicus 2
Palæoniscum frieslebenense 14
Eurynotus crenatus 15
Dorypterus hoffmani 16
Chondrosteus acipenseroides 18
Acipenser sturio, Common Sturgeon 19
Acipenser rubicundus, Lake Sturgeon 20
Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus, Shovel-nosed Sturgeon 20
Polyodon spathula, Paddle-fish, side-view 21
Polyodon spathula, Paddle-fish, view from below 21
Psephurus gladius 21
Gyrodus hexagonus 22
Mesturus verrucosus 23
Semionotus kapffi 24
Dapedium politum 25
Tetragonolepis semicinctus 26
Isopholis orthostomus 27
Lepisosteus osseus, Long-nosed Garpike 27
Caturus elongatus 28
Notagogus pentlandi 28
Ptycholepis curtus 28
Page 17
Pholidophorus crenulatus 29
Lepisosteus tristœchus, Alligator-gar 31
Lower Jaw of Amia calva, showing the gular plate 33
Amia calva, Bowfin (female) 35
Megalurus elegantissimus 36
Leptolepis dubius 41
Elops saurus, Ten-pounder 42
Holcolepis lewesiensis 42
Tarpon atlanticus, Tarpon or Grand Écaille 43
Albula vulpes, Lady-fish 44
Chanos chanos, Milkfish 45
Hiodon tergisus, Mooneye 45
Istieus grandis 46
Chirothrix libanicus 46
Skeleton of Portheus molossus 47
Ctenothrissa vexillifera 48
Clupea harengus, Herring 49
Pomolobus pseudoharengus, Alewife 50
Brevoortia tyrannus, Menhaden 51
Diplomystus humilis 52
Dorosoma cepedianum, Hickory-shad 53
Anchovia perthecata, Silver Anchovy 54
Notogoneus osculus 55
Phareodus testis 57
Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing Phareodus, at Fossil, 58
Wyoming
A Day's Catch of fossil-fishes, Green River Eocene Shales 59
Alepocephalus agassizii 60
Coregonus williamsoni, Rocky Mountain Whitefish 63
Coregonus clupeiformis, Whitefish 64
Argyrosomus nigripinnis, Bluefin Cisco 66
Stenodus mackenziei, Inconnu 67
Lepisosteus tristœchus, Alligator-gar 31
Lower Jaw of Amia calva, showing the gular plate 33
Amia calva, Bowfin (female) 35
Megalurus elegantissimus 36
Leptolepis dubius 41
Elops saurus, Ten-pounder 42
Holcolepis lewesiensis 42
Tarpon atlanticus, Tarpon or Grand Écaille 43
Albula vulpes, Lady-fish 44
Chanos chanos, Milkfish 45
Hiodon tergisus, Mooneye 45
Istieus grandis 46
Chirothrix libanicus 46
Skeleton of Portheus molossus 47
Ctenothrissa vexillifera 48
Clupea harengus, Herring 49
Pomolobus pseudoharengus, Alewife 50
Brevoortia tyrannus, Menhaden 51
Diplomystus humilis 52
Dorosoma cepedianum, Hickory-shad 53
Anchovia perthecata, Silver Anchovy 54
Notogoneus osculus 55
Phareodus testis 57
Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing Phareodus, at Fossil, 58
Wyoming
A Day's Catch of fossil-fishes, Green River Eocene Shales 59
Alepocephalus agassizii 60
Coregonus williamsoni, Rocky Mountain Whitefish 63
Coregonus clupeiformis, Whitefish 64
Argyrosomus nigripinnis, Bluefin Cisco 66
Stenodus mackenziei, Inconnu 67
Page 18
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, Quinnat Salmon (female) 69
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, King-salmon (grilse) 70
Oncorhynchus nerka, Male Red Salmon 70
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, Humpback Salmon (female) 72
Oncorhynchus masou, Masu 72
Oncorhynchus nerka, Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male after 76
spawning)
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, Quinnat Salmon (dying after 77
spawning)
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, Quinnat Salmon 79
Salmo irideus shasta, Rainbow Trout (male) 98
Salmo irideus shasta, Rainbow Trout (female) 99
Salmo rivularis, Steelhead Trout 101
Head of Adult Trout-worm, Dibothrium cordiceps. From intestine 103
of white pelican
Median segments of Dibothrium cordiceps 103
Salmo henshawi, Tahoe Trout 104
Salmo stomias, Green-back Trout 105
Salmo macdonaldi, Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes 105
Salmo clarkii spilurus, Rio Grande Trout 106
Salmo clarkii pleuriticus, Colorado River Trout 106
Hucho blackistoni, Ito 107
Salvelinus oquassa, Rangeley Trout 108
Salvelinus aureolus, Sunapee Trout 109
Salvelinus fontinalis, Speckled Trout (male) 110
Salvelinus fontinalis, Speckled Trout 111
Salvelinus malma, Malma Trout 113
Salvelinus malma, Dolly Varden Trout 114
Cristivomer namaycush, Great Lake Trout 114
Plecoglossus altivelis, Ayu, or Japanese Samlet 116
Thymallus signifer, Alaska Grayling 120
Thymallus tricolor, Michigan Grayling 122
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, King-salmon (grilse) 70
Oncorhynchus nerka, Male Red Salmon 70
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, Humpback Salmon (female) 72
Oncorhynchus masou, Masu 72
Oncorhynchus nerka, Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male after 76
spawning)
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, Quinnat Salmon (dying after 77
spawning)
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, Quinnat Salmon 79
Salmo irideus shasta, Rainbow Trout (male) 98
Salmo irideus shasta, Rainbow Trout (female) 99
Salmo rivularis, Steelhead Trout 101
Head of Adult Trout-worm, Dibothrium cordiceps. From intestine 103
of white pelican
Median segments of Dibothrium cordiceps 103
Salmo henshawi, Tahoe Trout 104
Salmo stomias, Green-back Trout 105
Salmo macdonaldi, Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes 105
Salmo clarkii spilurus, Rio Grande Trout 106
Salmo clarkii pleuriticus, Colorado River Trout 106
Hucho blackistoni, Ito 107
Salvelinus oquassa, Rangeley Trout 108
Salvelinus aureolus, Sunapee Trout 109
Salvelinus fontinalis, Speckled Trout (male) 110
Salvelinus fontinalis, Speckled Trout 111
Salvelinus malma, Malma Trout 113
Salvelinus malma, Dolly Varden Trout 114
Cristivomer namaycush, Great Lake Trout 114
Plecoglossus altivelis, Ayu, or Japanese Samlet 116
Thymallus signifer, Alaska Grayling 120
Thymallus tricolor, Michigan Grayling 122
Page 19
Osmerus mordax, Smelt 123
Thaleichthys pretiosus, Eulachon or Ulchen 124
Page of William Clark's Handwriting with Sketch of the Eulachon 125
(Thaleichthys pacificus)
Mallotus villosus, Capelin 126
Salanx hyalocranius, Icefish 128
Stomias ferox 128
Chauliodus sloanei 129
Synodus fætens, Lizard-fish 130
Ipnops murrayi 131
Cetomimus gillii 132
Diaphus lucidus, Headlight-fish 132
Myctophum opalinum, Lantern-fish 133
Ceratoscopelus madeirensis, Lantern-fish 133
Rhinellus furcatus 134
Plagyodus ferox, Lancet-fish 135
Eurypholis sulcidens 136
Eurypholis freyeri 137
Argyropelecus olfersi 137
Aldrovandia gracilis 138
Anguilla chrisypa, Common Eel 143
Anguilla chrisypa, Larva of Common Eel 148
Simenchelys parasiticus, Pug-nosed Eel 149
Synaphobranchus pinnatus 149
Leptocephalus conger, Conger-eel 150
Larva of Conger-eel, Leptocephalus conger 150
Xyrias revulsus 151
Myrichthys pantostigmius 151
Ophichthus ocellatus 151
Nemichthys avocetta, Thread-eel 152
Jaws of Nemichthys avocetta 152
Muræna retifera 153
Thaleichthys pretiosus, Eulachon or Ulchen 124
Page of William Clark's Handwriting with Sketch of the Eulachon 125
(Thaleichthys pacificus)
Mallotus villosus, Capelin 126
Salanx hyalocranius, Icefish 128
Stomias ferox 128
Chauliodus sloanei 129
Synodus fætens, Lizard-fish 130
Ipnops murrayi 131
Cetomimus gillii 132
Diaphus lucidus, Headlight-fish 132
Myctophum opalinum, Lantern-fish 133
Ceratoscopelus madeirensis, Lantern-fish 133
Rhinellus furcatus 134
Plagyodus ferox, Lancet-fish 135
Eurypholis sulcidens 136
Eurypholis freyeri 137
Argyropelecus olfersi 137
Aldrovandia gracilis 138
Anguilla chrisypa, Common Eel 143
Anguilla chrisypa, Larva of Common Eel 148
Simenchelys parasiticus, Pug-nosed Eel 149
Synaphobranchus pinnatus 149
Leptocephalus conger, Conger-eel 150
Larva of Conger-eel, Leptocephalus conger 150
Xyrias revulsus 151
Myrichthys pantostigmius 151
Ophichthus ocellatus 151
Nemichthys avocetta, Thread-eel 152
Jaws of Nemichthys avocetta 152
Muræna retifera 153
Page 20
Gymnothorax berndti 154
Gymnothorax jordani 155
Gymnothorax moringa, Moray 155
Derichthys serpentinus 156
Gastrostomus bairdi, Gulper-eel 156
Notacanthus phasganorus 158
Inner view of shoulder-girdle of Buffalo-fish (Ictiobus bubalus), 160
showing the mesocoracoid
Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp 160
Brycon dentex 162
Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, Leuciscus 163
cephalus
Rhinichthys dulcis, Black-nosed Dace 164
Notropis hudsonius, White Chub 165
Ericymba buccata, Silver-jaw Minnow 165
Notropis whipplei, Silverfin 166
Campostoma anomalum, Stone-roller 167
Head of Day-chub, Exoglossum maxillingua 167
Semotilus atromaculatus, Horned Dace 168
Abramis chrysoleucus, Shiner 168
Ptychocheilus grandis, Squawfish 169
Leuciscus lineatus, Chub of the Great Basin 169
Lower Pharyngeal of Placopharynx duquesnii 171
Erimyzon sucetta, Creekfish or Chub-sucker 172
Ictiobus cyprinella, Buffalo-fish 173
Carpiodes cyprinus, Carp-sucker 173
Catostomus commersoni, Common Sucker 174
Catostomus occidentalis, California Sucker 174
Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, Catostomus macrocheilus 175
Xyrauchen cypho, Razor-back Sucker 175
Felichthys felis, Gaff-topsail Cat 179
Galeichthys milberti, Sea Catfish 179
Gymnothorax jordani 155
Gymnothorax moringa, Moray 155
Derichthys serpentinus 156
Gastrostomus bairdi, Gulper-eel 156
Notacanthus phasganorus 158
Inner view of shoulder-girdle of Buffalo-fish (Ictiobus bubalus), 160
showing the mesocoracoid
Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp 160
Brycon dentex 162
Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, Leuciscus 163
cephalus
Rhinichthys dulcis, Black-nosed Dace 164
Notropis hudsonius, White Chub 165
Ericymba buccata, Silver-jaw Minnow 165
Notropis whipplei, Silverfin 166
Campostoma anomalum, Stone-roller 167
Head of Day-chub, Exoglossum maxillingua 167
Semotilus atromaculatus, Horned Dace 168
Abramis chrysoleucus, Shiner 168
Ptychocheilus grandis, Squawfish 169
Leuciscus lineatus, Chub of the Great Basin 169
Lower Pharyngeal of Placopharynx duquesnii 171
Erimyzon sucetta, Creekfish or Chub-sucker 172
Ictiobus cyprinella, Buffalo-fish 173
Carpiodes cyprinus, Carp-sucker 173
Catostomus commersoni, Common Sucker 174
Catostomus occidentalis, California Sucker 174
Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, Catostomus macrocheilus 175
Xyrauchen cypho, Razor-back Sucker 175
Felichthys felis, Gaff-topsail Cat 179
Galeichthys milberti, Sea Catfish 179
Page 21
Ictalurus punctatus, Channel Catfish 180
Ameiurus nebulosus, Horned Pout 181
Schilbeodes furiosus, Mad-tom. Showing the poisoned pectoral 182
spine
Torpedo electricus, Electric Catfish 183
Chlarias breviceps, African Catfish 185
Loricaria aurea, Mailed Catfish from Venezuela 186
Gnathonemus curvirostris 189
Esox lucius, Pike 191
Esox masquinongy, Muskallunge 192
Umbra pygmæa, Mud-minnow 193
Anableps dovii, Four-eyed Fish 195
Cyprinodon variegatus, Round Minnow 196
Jordanella floridæ, Everglade Minnow 197
Fundulis majalis, Mayfish (male) 198
Fundulis majalis, Mayfish (female) 198
Zygonectes notatus, Top-minnow 198
Empetrichthys merriami, Death Valley Fish 199
Xiphophorus helleri, Sword-tail Minnow (male) 199
Goodea luitpoldi, a Viviparous Fish 200
Chologaster cornutus, Dismal Swamp Fish 201
Typhlichthys subterraneus, Blind Cave-fish 202
Amblyopsis spelæus, Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave 203
Dallia pectoralis, Alaska Blackfish 206
Tylosurus acus, Needle-fish 210
Scombresox saurus, Saury 212
Hyporhamphus unifasciatus, Halfbeak 212
Fodiator acutus, Sharp-nosed Flying-fish 213
Cypselurus californicus, Catalina Flying-fish 214
Chirostoma humboldtianum, Pescado blanco 217
Kirtlandia vagrans, Silverside or Brit 217
Atherinopsis californiensis, Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey 218
Ameiurus nebulosus, Horned Pout 181
Schilbeodes furiosus, Mad-tom. Showing the poisoned pectoral 182
spine
Torpedo electricus, Electric Catfish 183
Chlarias breviceps, African Catfish 185
Loricaria aurea, Mailed Catfish from Venezuela 186
Gnathonemus curvirostris 189
Esox lucius, Pike 191
Esox masquinongy, Muskallunge 192
Umbra pygmæa, Mud-minnow 193
Anableps dovii, Four-eyed Fish 195
Cyprinodon variegatus, Round Minnow 196
Jordanella floridæ, Everglade Minnow 197
Fundulis majalis, Mayfish (male) 198
Fundulis majalis, Mayfish (female) 198
Zygonectes notatus, Top-minnow 198
Empetrichthys merriami, Death Valley Fish 199
Xiphophorus helleri, Sword-tail Minnow (male) 199
Goodea luitpoldi, a Viviparous Fish 200
Chologaster cornutus, Dismal Swamp Fish 201
Typhlichthys subterraneus, Blind Cave-fish 202
Amblyopsis spelæus, Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave 203
Dallia pectoralis, Alaska Blackfish 206
Tylosurus acus, Needle-fish 210
Scombresox saurus, Saury 212
Hyporhamphus unifasciatus, Halfbeak 212
Fodiator acutus, Sharp-nosed Flying-fish 213
Cypselurus californicus, Catalina Flying-fish 214
Chirostoma humboldtianum, Pescado blanco 217
Kirtlandia vagrans, Silverside or Brit 217
Atherinopsis californiensis, Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey 218
Page 22
Iso flos-maris, Flower of the Waves 218
Mugil cephalus, Striped Mullet 221
Joturus pichardi, Joturo or Bobo 222
Sphyræna barracuda, Barracuda 223
Cobitopsis acuta 224
Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, Polydactylus approximans 225
Polydactylus octonemus, Threadfin 225
Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus 227
Shoulder-girdle of Fistularia petimba, showing greatly extended 227
interclavicle, the surface ossified
Gasterosteus aculeatus, Three-spined Stickleback 232
Apeltes quadracus, Four-spined Stickleback 232
Aulostomus chinensis, Trumpet-fish 234
Macrorhamphosus sagifue, Japanese Snipefish 234
Æoliscus strigatus, Shrimp-fish 235
Æoliscus heinrichi 235
Solenostomus cyanopterus 237
Hippocampus hudsonius, Sea-horse 238
Zalises umitengu, Sea-moth 240
Percopsis guttatus, Sand-roller 241
Erismatopterus endlicheri 242
Columbia transmontana, Oregon Trout-perch 242
Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, Lampris guttatus (Brünnich), 243
showing the enlarged infraclavicle
LigaturesSemiophorus velifer 246
Amphistium paradoxum 247
Zeus faber, John Dory 248
Skull of a Berycoidfish, Beryx splendens, showing the 250
orbitosphenoid
Beryx splendens 251
Hoplopteryx lewesiensis 252
Paratrachichthys prosthemius 253
Mugil cephalus, Striped Mullet 221
Joturus pichardi, Joturo or Bobo 222
Sphyræna barracuda, Barracuda 223
Cobitopsis acuta 224
Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, Polydactylus approximans 225
Polydactylus octonemus, Threadfin 225
Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus 227
Shoulder-girdle of Fistularia petimba, showing greatly extended 227
interclavicle, the surface ossified
Gasterosteus aculeatus, Three-spined Stickleback 232
Apeltes quadracus, Four-spined Stickleback 232
Aulostomus chinensis, Trumpet-fish 234
Macrorhamphosus sagifue, Japanese Snipefish 234
Æoliscus strigatus, Shrimp-fish 235
Æoliscus heinrichi 235
Solenostomus cyanopterus 237
Hippocampus hudsonius, Sea-horse 238
Zalises umitengu, Sea-moth 240
Percopsis guttatus, Sand-roller 241
Erismatopterus endlicheri 242
Columbia transmontana, Oregon Trout-perch 242
Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, Lampris guttatus (Brünnich), 243
showing the enlarged infraclavicle
LigaturesSemiophorus velifer 246
Amphistium paradoxum 247
Zeus faber, John Dory 248
Skull of a Berycoidfish, Beryx splendens, showing the 250
orbitosphenoid
Beryx splendens 251
Hoplopteryx lewesiensis 252
Paratrachichthys prosthemius 253
Page 23
Holocentrus ascenscionis, Soldier-fish 254
Holocentrus ittodai 254
Ostichthys japonicus 255
Monocentris japonicus, Pine-cone Fish 256
Scomber scombrus, Mackerel 260
Germo alalunga, Long-fin Albacore 263
Scomberomorus maculatus, Spanish Mackerel 264
Trichiurus lepturus, Cutlass-fish 268
Palæorhynchus glarisianus 268
Xiphias gladius, Young Swordfish 269
Xiphias gladius, Swordfish 270
Naucrates ductor, Pilot-fish 273
Seriola lalandi, Amber-fish 273
Trachurus trachurus, Saurel 274
Carangus chrysos, Yellow Mackerel 275
Trachinotus carolinus, the Pampano 277
Cheilodipterus saltatrix, Bluefish 279
Rachycentron canadum, Sergeant-fish 282
Peprilus paru, Harvest-fish 284
Gobiomorus gronovii, Portuguese Man-of-War Fish 285
Coryphæna hippurus, Dolphin or Dorado 287
Mene maculata 288
Gasteronemus rhombeus 289
Pempheris mulleri, Catalufa de lo Alto 289
Pempheris nyctereutes 290
Luvarus imperialis, Louvar 290
Aphredoderus sayanus, Pirate Perch 295
Elassoma evergladei, Everglade Pigmy Perch 295
Skull of the Rock Bass, Ambloplites rupestris 296
Pomoxis annularis, Crappie 297
Pomoxis annularis, Crappie (from life) 298
Ambloplites rupestris, Rock Bass 299
Holocentrus ittodai 254
Ostichthys japonicus 255
Monocentris japonicus, Pine-cone Fish 256
Scomber scombrus, Mackerel 260
Germo alalunga, Long-fin Albacore 263
Scomberomorus maculatus, Spanish Mackerel 264
Trichiurus lepturus, Cutlass-fish 268
Palæorhynchus glarisianus 268
Xiphias gladius, Young Swordfish 269
Xiphias gladius, Swordfish 270
Naucrates ductor, Pilot-fish 273
Seriola lalandi, Amber-fish 273
Trachurus trachurus, Saurel 274
Carangus chrysos, Yellow Mackerel 275
Trachinotus carolinus, the Pampano 277
Cheilodipterus saltatrix, Bluefish 279
Rachycentron canadum, Sergeant-fish 282
Peprilus paru, Harvest-fish 284
Gobiomorus gronovii, Portuguese Man-of-War Fish 285
Coryphæna hippurus, Dolphin or Dorado 287
Mene maculata 288
Gasteronemus rhombeus 289
Pempheris mulleri, Catalufa de lo Alto 289
Pempheris nyctereutes 290
Luvarus imperialis, Louvar 290
Aphredoderus sayanus, Pirate Perch 295
Elassoma evergladei, Everglade Pigmy Perch 295
Skull of the Rock Bass, Ambloplites rupestris 296
Pomoxis annularis, Crappie 297
Pomoxis annularis, Crappie (from life) 298
Ambloplites rupestris, Rock Bass 299
Page 24
Mesogonistius chætodon, Banded Sunfish 299
Lepomis pallidus, Blue-gill 300
Lepomis megalotis, Long-eared Sunfish 300
Eupomotis gibbosus, Common Sunfish 301
Micropterus dolomieu, Small Mouth Black Bass 303
Micropterus salmoides, Large Mouth Black Bass 305
Perca flavescens, Yellow perch 308
Stizostedion canadense, Sauger 309
Aspro asper, Aspron 309
Zingel zingel, Zingel 310
Percina caprodes, Log-perch 311
Hadropterus aspro, Black-sided Darter 311
Diplesion blennioides, Green-sided Darter 312
Boleosoma olmstedi, Tessellated Darter 312
Crystallaria asprella, Crystal Darter 313
Ammocrypta clara, Sand-darter 313
Etheostoma jordani 314
Etheostoma camurum, Blue-breasted Darter 314
Apogon retrosella, Cardinal-fish 316
Telescopias gilberti, Kuromutsu 318
Apogon semilineatus 319
Oxylabrax undecimalis, Robalo 319
Morone americana, White Perch 322
Promicrops itaiara, Florida Jewfish 323
Epinephelus striatus, Nassau Grouper: Cherna criolla 324
Epinephelus drummond-hayi, John Paw or Speckled Hind 325
Epinephelus morio, Red Grouper 325
Epinephelus adscensionis, Red Hind 326
Mycteroperca venenosa, Yellow-fin Grouper 327
Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans 328
Epinephelus niveatus, Snowy Grouper 329
Rypticus bistrispinus, Soapfish 330
Lepomis pallidus, Blue-gill 300
Lepomis megalotis, Long-eared Sunfish 300
Eupomotis gibbosus, Common Sunfish 301
Micropterus dolomieu, Small Mouth Black Bass 303
Micropterus salmoides, Large Mouth Black Bass 305
Perca flavescens, Yellow perch 308
Stizostedion canadense, Sauger 309
Aspro asper, Aspron 309
Zingel zingel, Zingel 310
Percina caprodes, Log-perch 311
Hadropterus aspro, Black-sided Darter 311
Diplesion blennioides, Green-sided Darter 312
Boleosoma olmstedi, Tessellated Darter 312
Crystallaria asprella, Crystal Darter 313
Ammocrypta clara, Sand-darter 313
Etheostoma jordani 314
Etheostoma camurum, Blue-breasted Darter 314
Apogon retrosella, Cardinal-fish 316
Telescopias gilberti, Kuromutsu 318
Apogon semilineatus 319
Oxylabrax undecimalis, Robalo 319
Morone americana, White Perch 322
Promicrops itaiara, Florida Jewfish 323
Epinephelus striatus, Nassau Grouper: Cherna criolla 324
Epinephelus drummond-hayi, John Paw or Speckled Hind 325
Epinephelus morio, Red Grouper 325
Epinephelus adscensionis, Red Hind 326
Mycteroperca venenosa, Yellow-fin Grouper 327
Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans 328
Epinephelus niveatus, Snowy Grouper 329
Rypticus bistrispinus, Soapfish 330
Page 25
Lobotes surinamensis, Flasher 331
Priacanthus arenatus, Catalufa 331
Pseudopriacanthus altus, Bigeye 332
Lutianus griseus, Gray Snapper 334
Lutianus apodus, Schoolmaster 335
Hoplopagrus guntheri 336
Lutianus synagris, Lane Snapper or Biajaiba 336
Ocyurus chrysurus, Yellow-tail Snapper 337
Etelis oculatus, Cachucho 337
Xenocys jessiæ 338
Aphareus furcatus 339
Hæmulon plumieri, Grunt 340
Anisotremus virginicus, Porkfish 341
Pagrus major, Red Tai of Japan 342
Ebisu, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai 343
Stenotomus chrysops, Scup 344
Calamus bajonado, Jolt-head Porgy 345
Calamus proridens, Little-head Porgy 345
Diplodus holbrooki 346
Archosargus unimaculatus, Salema, Striped Sheepshead 347
Xystæma cinereum, Mojarra 348
Gerres olisthostomus, Irish Pampano 349
Kyphosus sectatrix, Chopa or Rudder-fish 349
Apomotis cyanellus, Blue-green Sunfish 350
Pseudupeneus maculatus, Red Goatfish or Salmonete 351
Mullus auratus, Golden Surmullet 352
Cynoscion nebulosus, Spotted Weakfish 353
Bairdiella chrysura, Mademoiselle 355
Sciænops ocellata, Red Drum 356
Umbrina sinaloæ, Yellow-fin Roncador 357
Menticirrhus americanus, Kingfish 357
Pogonias chromis, Drum 358
Priacanthus arenatus, Catalufa 331
Pseudopriacanthus altus, Bigeye 332
Lutianus griseus, Gray Snapper 334
Lutianus apodus, Schoolmaster 335
Hoplopagrus guntheri 336
Lutianus synagris, Lane Snapper or Biajaiba 336
Ocyurus chrysurus, Yellow-tail Snapper 337
Etelis oculatus, Cachucho 337
Xenocys jessiæ 338
Aphareus furcatus 339
Hæmulon plumieri, Grunt 340
Anisotremus virginicus, Porkfish 341
Pagrus major, Red Tai of Japan 342
Ebisu, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai 343
Stenotomus chrysops, Scup 344
Calamus bajonado, Jolt-head Porgy 345
Calamus proridens, Little-head Porgy 345
Diplodus holbrooki 346
Archosargus unimaculatus, Salema, Striped Sheepshead 347
Xystæma cinereum, Mojarra 348
Gerres olisthostomus, Irish Pampano 349
Kyphosus sectatrix, Chopa or Rudder-fish 349
Apomotis cyanellus, Blue-green Sunfish 350
Pseudupeneus maculatus, Red Goatfish or Salmonete 351
Mullus auratus, Golden Surmullet 352
Cynoscion nebulosus, Spotted Weakfish 353
Bairdiella chrysura, Mademoiselle 355
Sciænops ocellata, Red Drum 356
Umbrina sinaloæ, Yellow-fin Roncador 357
Menticirrhus americanus, Kingfish 357
Pogonias chromis, Drum 358
Page 26
Gnathypops evermanni 359
Opisthognathus macrognathus, Jawfish 359
Opisthognathus nigromarginatus 360
Chiasmodon niger, Black Swallower 360
Cirrhitus rivulatus 364
Trichodon trichodon, Sandfish 364
Anabas scandens, Climbing Perch 366
Channa formosana 371
Ophicephalus barca, Snake-headed China-fish 371
Cymatogaster aggregatus, White Surf-fish 372
Hysterocarpus traski, Fresh-water Viviparous Perch 373
Hypsurus caryi 373
Damalichthys argyrosomus, White Surf-fish 374
Rhacochilus toxotes, Thick-lipped Surf-fish 374
Hypocritichthys analis, Silver Surf-fish, Viviparous 375
Hysterocarpus traski, Viviparous Perch (male) 379
Hypsypops rubicunda, Garibaldi 382
Pomacentrus leucostictus, Damsel-fish 382
Glyphisodon marginatus, Cockeye Pilot 383
Microspathodon dorsalis, Indigo Damsel-fish 384
Tautoga onitis, Tautog 384
Tautoga onitis, Tautog 386
Lachnolaimus falcatus, Capitaine or Hogfish 387
Xyrichthys psittacus, Razor-fish 388
Pimelometopon pulcher, Redfish (male) 389
Lepidaplois perditio 389
Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, Sparisoma cretense. a, Upper; 391
b, Lower
Jaws of Parrot-fish, Calotomus xenodon 391
Cryptotomus beryllinus 391
Sparisoma hoplomystax 392
Sparisoma abildgaardi, Red Parrot-fish 392
Opisthognathus macrognathus, Jawfish 359
Opisthognathus nigromarginatus 360
Chiasmodon niger, Black Swallower 360
Cirrhitus rivulatus 364
Trichodon trichodon, Sandfish 364
Anabas scandens, Climbing Perch 366
Channa formosana 371
Ophicephalus barca, Snake-headed China-fish 371
Cymatogaster aggregatus, White Surf-fish 372
Hysterocarpus traski, Fresh-water Viviparous Perch 373
Hypsurus caryi 373
Damalichthys argyrosomus, White Surf-fish 374
Rhacochilus toxotes, Thick-lipped Surf-fish 374
Hypocritichthys analis, Silver Surf-fish, Viviparous 375
Hysterocarpus traski, Viviparous Perch (male) 379
Hypsypops rubicunda, Garibaldi 382
Pomacentrus leucostictus, Damsel-fish 382
Glyphisodon marginatus, Cockeye Pilot 383
Microspathodon dorsalis, Indigo Damsel-fish 384
Tautoga onitis, Tautog 384
Tautoga onitis, Tautog 386
Lachnolaimus falcatus, Capitaine or Hogfish 387
Xyrichthys psittacus, Razor-fish 388
Pimelometopon pulcher, Redfish (male) 389
Lepidaplois perditio 389
Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, Sparisoma cretense. a, Upper; 391
b, Lower
Jaws of Parrot-fish, Calotomus xenodon 391
Cryptotomus beryllinus 391
Sparisoma hoplomystax 392
Sparisoma abildgaardi, Red Parrot-fish 392
Page 27
Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, Scarus cæruleus 393
Upper pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, Scarus strongylocephalus 393
Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, Scarus strongylocephalus 393
Scarus emblematicus 394
Scarus cæruleus, Blue Parrot-fish 394
Scarus vetula, Parrot-fish 395
Halichæres bivittatus, Slippery Dick or Doncella, a fish of the 399
coral-reefs
Monodactylus argenteus 397
Psettus sebæ 399
Chætodipterus faber, Spadefish 401
Chætodon capistratus, Butterfly-fish 402
Pomacanthus arcuatus, Black Angel-fish 403
Holacanthus ciliaris, Angel-fish or Isabelita 404
Holacanthus tricolor, Rock Beauty 405
Zanclus canescens, Moorish Idol 406
Teuthis cæruleus, Blue Tang 407
Teuthis bahianus, Brown Tang 408
Balistes carolinensis, Trigger-fish 412
Osbeckia lævis, File-fish 414
Amanses scopas, Needle-bearing File-fish 414
Stephanolepis hispidus, Common File-fish 415
Lactophrys tricornis, Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold 416
Ostracion cornutum, Horned Trunkfish 416
Lactophrys bicaudalis, Spotted Trunkfish 416
Lactophrys bicaudalis, Spotted Trunkfish (face view) 417
Lactophrys triqueter, Spineless Trunkfish 417
Lactophrys trigonus, Hornless Trunkfish 418
Skeleton of the Cowfish, Lactophrys tricornis 418
Lagocephalus lævigatus, Silvery Puffer 419
Spheroides spengleri, Puffer, Inflated 420
Spheroides maculatus, Puffer 420
Upper pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, Scarus strongylocephalus 393
Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, Scarus strongylocephalus 393
Scarus emblematicus 394
Scarus cæruleus, Blue Parrot-fish 394
Scarus vetula, Parrot-fish 395
Halichæres bivittatus, Slippery Dick or Doncella, a fish of the 399
coral-reefs
Monodactylus argenteus 397
Psettus sebæ 399
Chætodipterus faber, Spadefish 401
Chætodon capistratus, Butterfly-fish 402
Pomacanthus arcuatus, Black Angel-fish 403
Holacanthus ciliaris, Angel-fish or Isabelita 404
Holacanthus tricolor, Rock Beauty 405
Zanclus canescens, Moorish Idol 406
Teuthis cæruleus, Blue Tang 407
Teuthis bahianus, Brown Tang 408
Balistes carolinensis, Trigger-fish 412
Osbeckia lævis, File-fish 414
Amanses scopas, Needle-bearing File-fish 414
Stephanolepis hispidus, Common File-fish 415
Lactophrys tricornis, Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold 416
Ostracion cornutum, Horned Trunkfish 416
Lactophrys bicaudalis, Spotted Trunkfish 416
Lactophrys bicaudalis, Spotted Trunkfish (face view) 417
Lactophrys triqueter, Spineless Trunkfish 417
Lactophrys trigonus, Hornless Trunkfish 418
Skeleton of the Cowfish, Lactophrys tricornis 418
Lagocephalus lævigatus, Silvery Puffer 419
Spheroides spengleri, Puffer, Inflated 420
Spheroides maculatus, Puffer 420
Page 28
Tetraodon meleagris 421
Tetraodon setosus, Bristly Globefish 422
Diodon hystrix, Porcupine-fish 422
Chilomycterus schœpfi, Rabbit-fish 423
Mola mola, Headfish (adult) 424
Ranzania makua, King of the Mackerel, from Honolulu 425
Sebastes marinus, Rosefish 427
Skull of Scorpænichthys marmoratus 427
Sebastolobus altivelis 428
Sebastodes mystinus, Priest-fish 430
Sebastichthys serriceps 431
Sebastichthys nigrocinctus, Banded Rockfish 432
Scorpæna grandicornis, Lion-fish 433
Scorpæna mystes, Sea-scorpion 434
Pterois volitans, Lion-fish or Sausolele 435
Emmydrichthys vulcanus, Black Nohu or Poison-fish 436
Snyderina yamanokami 437
Trachicephalus uranoscopus 438
Anoplopoma fimbria, Skilfish 438
Pleurogrammus monopterygius, Atka-fish 439
Hexagrammos decagrammus, Greenling 440
Ophiodon elongatus, Cultus Cod 440
Jordania zonope 442
Astrolytes notospilotus 442
Hemilepidotus jordani, Irish Lord 443
Triglops pingeli 443
Enophrys bison, Buffalo Sculpin 443
Ceratocottus diceraus 444
Elanura forficata 444
Cottus punctulatus, Yellowstone Miller's Thumb 444
Uranidea tenuis, Miller's Thumb 445
Cottus evermanni 445
Tetraodon setosus, Bristly Globefish 422
Diodon hystrix, Porcupine-fish 422
Chilomycterus schœpfi, Rabbit-fish 423
Mola mola, Headfish (adult) 424
Ranzania makua, King of the Mackerel, from Honolulu 425
Sebastes marinus, Rosefish 427
Skull of Scorpænichthys marmoratus 427
Sebastolobus altivelis 428
Sebastodes mystinus, Priest-fish 430
Sebastichthys serriceps 431
Sebastichthys nigrocinctus, Banded Rockfish 432
Scorpæna grandicornis, Lion-fish 433
Scorpæna mystes, Sea-scorpion 434
Pterois volitans, Lion-fish or Sausolele 435
Emmydrichthys vulcanus, Black Nohu or Poison-fish 436
Snyderina yamanokami 437
Trachicephalus uranoscopus 438
Anoplopoma fimbria, Skilfish 438
Pleurogrammus monopterygius, Atka-fish 439
Hexagrammos decagrammus, Greenling 440
Ophiodon elongatus, Cultus Cod 440
Jordania zonope 442
Astrolytes notospilotus 442
Hemilepidotus jordani, Irish Lord 443
Triglops pingeli 443
Enophrys bison, Buffalo Sculpin 443
Ceratocottus diceraus 444
Elanura forficata 444
Cottus punctulatus, Yellowstone Miller's Thumb 444
Uranidea tenuis, Miller's Thumb 445
Cottus evermanni 445
Page 29
Cottus gulosus, California Miller's Thumb 446
Myxocephalus niger, Pribilof Sculpin 446
Myxocephalus octodecimspinosus, 18-spined Sculpin 447
Oncocottus quadricornis 447
Blepsias cirrhosus 448
Hemitripterus americanus, Sea-raven 448
Oligocottus maculosus 449
Ereunias grallator 450
Psychrolutes paradoxus, Sleek Sculpin 451
Gilbertidia sigolutes 451
Rhamphocottus richardsoni, Richardson's Sculpin 451
Stelgis vulsus 451
Draciscus sachi 452
Pallasina barbata, Agonoid-fish 453
Aspidophoroides monopterygius 453
Cyclopterus lumpus, Lumpfish 454
Crystallias matsushimæ, Liparid 454
Neoliparis mucosus, Snailfish 455
Prionotus evolans, Sea-robin 456
Cephalacanthus volitans, Flying Gurnard 457
Peristedion miniatum 457
Philypnus dormitor, Guavina de Rio 460
Eleotris pisonis, Dormeur 460
Dormitator maculatus, Guavina mapo 461
Vireosa hanæ 461
Gobionellus oceanicus, Esmeralda de Mar 461
Pterogobius daimio 462
Aboma etheostoma, Darter Goby 462
Gillichthys mirabilis, Long-jawed Goby 463
Boleophthalmus chinensis, Pond-skipper 466
Periophthalmus barbarus, Mud-skippy 466
Eutæniichthys gillii 467
Myxocephalus niger, Pribilof Sculpin 446
Myxocephalus octodecimspinosus, 18-spined Sculpin 447
Oncocottus quadricornis 447
Blepsias cirrhosus 448
Hemitripterus americanus, Sea-raven 448
Oligocottus maculosus 449
Ereunias grallator 450
Psychrolutes paradoxus, Sleek Sculpin 451
Gilbertidia sigolutes 451
Rhamphocottus richardsoni, Richardson's Sculpin 451
Stelgis vulsus 451
Draciscus sachi 452
Pallasina barbata, Agonoid-fish 453
Aspidophoroides monopterygius 453
Cyclopterus lumpus, Lumpfish 454
Crystallias matsushimæ, Liparid 454
Neoliparis mucosus, Snailfish 455
Prionotus evolans, Sea-robin 456
Cephalacanthus volitans, Flying Gurnard 457
Peristedion miniatum 457
Philypnus dormitor, Guavina de Rio 460
Eleotris pisonis, Dormeur 460
Dormitator maculatus, Guavina mapo 461
Vireosa hanæ 461
Gobionellus oceanicus, Esmeralda de Mar 461
Pterogobius daimio 462
Aboma etheostoma, Darter Goby 462
Gillichthys mirabilis, Long-jawed Goby 463
Boleophthalmus chinensis, Pond-skipper 466
Periophthalmus barbarus, Mud-skippy 466
Eutæniichthys gillii 467
Page 30
Leptecheneis naucrates, Sucking-fish or Pegador 468
Rhombochirus osteochir 469
Regalecus russelli, Glesnæs Oarfish 476
Trachypterus rex-salmonorum, Dealfish or King of the Salmon 478
Young Flounder just hatched 482
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, Larval Flounder 483
Larval Stages of Platophrys podas, a Flounder 484
Platophrys lunatus, Peacock Flounder 485
Heterocercal Tail of Young Trout, Salmo fario 486
Homocercal Tail of a Flounder, Paralichthys californicus 486
Lophopsetta maculata, Window-pane 487
Syacium papillosum, Wide-eyed Flounder 488
Etropus crossotus 489
Hippoglossus hippoglossus, Halibut 492
Paralichthys dentatus, Wide-mouthed Flounder 493
Liopsetta putnami, Eel-back Flounder 494
Platichthys stellatus, Starry Flounder 495
Achirus lineatus, Hog-choker Sole 496
Symphurus plagiusa 498
Pteropsaron evolans 502
Bathymaster signatus 503
Ariscopus iburius 504
Astroscopus guttatus, Star-gazer 505
Neoclinus satiricus, Sarcastic Blenny 507
Gibbonsia evides, Kelp Blenny 508
Blennius cristatus 508
Alticus atlanticus, Rock-skipper 509
Alticus saliens, Lizard-skipper 509
Emblemaria atlantica 510
Scartichthys enosimæ, Fish of the rock-pools of the sacred island 510
of Enoshima, Japan
Zacalles bryope 511
Rhombochirus osteochir 469
Regalecus russelli, Glesnæs Oarfish 476
Trachypterus rex-salmonorum, Dealfish or King of the Salmon 478
Young Flounder just hatched 482
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, Larval Flounder 483
Larval Stages of Platophrys podas, a Flounder 484
Platophrys lunatus, Peacock Flounder 485
Heterocercal Tail of Young Trout, Salmo fario 486
Homocercal Tail of a Flounder, Paralichthys californicus 486
Lophopsetta maculata, Window-pane 487
Syacium papillosum, Wide-eyed Flounder 488
Etropus crossotus 489
Hippoglossus hippoglossus, Halibut 492
Paralichthys dentatus, Wide-mouthed Flounder 493
Liopsetta putnami, Eel-back Flounder 494
Platichthys stellatus, Starry Flounder 495
Achirus lineatus, Hog-choker Sole 496
Symphurus plagiusa 498
Pteropsaron evolans 502
Bathymaster signatus 503
Ariscopus iburius 504
Astroscopus guttatus, Star-gazer 505
Neoclinus satiricus, Sarcastic Blenny 507
Gibbonsia evides, Kelp Blenny 508
Blennius cristatus 508
Alticus atlanticus, Rock-skipper 509
Alticus saliens, Lizard-skipper 509
Emblemaria atlantica 510
Scartichthys enosimæ, Fish of the rock-pools of the sacred island 510
of Enoshima, Japan
Zacalles bryope 511
Page 31
Bryostemma tarsodes 511
Exerpes asper 511
Pholis gunnellus, Gunnel 512
Xiphistes chirus 512
Ozorthe dictyogramma 513
Stichæus punctatus 513
Bryostemma otohime 514
Ptilichthys goodei, Quillfish 514
Blochius longirostris 514
Xiphasia setifera 515
Cryptacanthodes maculatus, Wrymouth 516
Anarhichas lupus, Wolf-fish 517
Skull of Anarrhichthys ocellatus 517
Zoarces anguillaris, Eel-pout 518
Lycodes reticulatus, Eel-pout 519
Lycenchelys verrilli 519
Scytalina cerdale 519
Rissola marginata, Cusk-eel 520
Lycodapus dermatinus 520
Ammodytes americanus, Sand-lance 521
Embolichthys mitsukurii 521
Fierasfer dubius, Pearlfish, Embedded in Pearl 522
Fierasfer acus, Pearlfish 523
Brotula barbata 524
Lucifuga subterranea, Blind Brotula 524
Opsanus pardus, Leopard Toadfish 525
Porichthys porosissimus, Singing Fish (with Many Lateral Lines) 526
Aspasma ciconiæ 530
Caularchus mæandricus, Clingfish 531
Mastacembelus ellipsifer 532
Gadus callarias, Codfish 533
Skull of Haddock, Melanogrammus æglifinus 536
Exerpes asper 511
Pholis gunnellus, Gunnel 512
Xiphistes chirus 512
Ozorthe dictyogramma 513
Stichæus punctatus 513
Bryostemma otohime 514
Ptilichthys goodei, Quillfish 514
Blochius longirostris 514
Xiphasia setifera 515
Cryptacanthodes maculatus, Wrymouth 516
Anarhichas lupus, Wolf-fish 517
Skull of Anarrhichthys ocellatus 517
Zoarces anguillaris, Eel-pout 518
Lycodes reticulatus, Eel-pout 519
Lycenchelys verrilli 519
Scytalina cerdale 519
Rissola marginata, Cusk-eel 520
Lycodapus dermatinus 520
Ammodytes americanus, Sand-lance 521
Embolichthys mitsukurii 521
Fierasfer dubius, Pearlfish, Embedded in Pearl 522
Fierasfer acus, Pearlfish 523
Brotula barbata 524
Lucifuga subterranea, Blind Brotula 524
Opsanus pardus, Leopard Toadfish 525
Porichthys porosissimus, Singing Fish (with Many Lateral Lines) 526
Aspasma ciconiæ 530
Caularchus mæandricus, Clingfish 531
Mastacembelus ellipsifer 532
Gadus callarias, Codfish 533
Skull of Haddock, Melanogrammus æglifinus 536
Page 32
Melanogrammus æglifinus, Haddock 536
Theragra chalcogramma, Pollock 537
Microgadus tomcod, Tomcod 538
Lota maculosa, Burbot 539
Enchelyopus cimbrius, Four-bearded Rockling 539
Merluccius productus, California Hake 540
Coryphænoides carapinus, showing leptocercal tail 540
Cælorhynchus carminatus, Grenadier 541
Steindachnerella argentea 541
Lophius litulon, Anko or Fishing-frog 545
Cryptopsaras couesi 547
Ceratias holbolli, Deep-sea Angler 548
Caulophryne jordani 548
Pterophryne tumida, Sargassum-fish, one of the Anglers 549
Antennarius nox, Fishing-frog 550
Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, Ogcocephalus radiatus 551
Antennarius scaber, Frogfish 551
Ogcocephalus vespertilio 552
Ogcocephalus vespertilio, Batfish 553
Ogcocephalus vespertilio, Batfish 553
Theragra chalcogramma, Pollock 537
Microgadus tomcod, Tomcod 538
Lota maculosa, Burbot 539
Enchelyopus cimbrius, Four-bearded Rockling 539
Merluccius productus, California Hake 540
Coryphænoides carapinus, showing leptocercal tail 540
Cælorhynchus carminatus, Grenadier 541
Steindachnerella argentea 541
Lophius litulon, Anko or Fishing-frog 545
Cryptopsaras couesi 547
Ceratias holbolli, Deep-sea Angler 548
Caulophryne jordani 548
Pterophryne tumida, Sargassum-fish, one of the Anglers 549
Antennarius nox, Fishing-frog 550
Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, Ogcocephalus radiatus 551
Antennarius scaber, Frogfish 551
Ogcocephalus vespertilio 552
Ogcocephalus vespertilio, Batfish 553
Ogcocephalus vespertilio, Batfish 553
Page 33
ERRATA[1]
Vol. II
Page xviii, line 7, for Ophicæphalus read Ophicephalus
xviii, " 37, for Mononactylus read Monodactylus
xix, " 33, for Trachicephales read Trachicephalus
xx, " 37, for Regaleaus glesneacsanius read
Regalecus russelli
xxi, " 2, for Etopus read Etropus
xxi, " 35, for Zoacres read Zoarces
1, " 7, for jaws read jaw
14, " 9, for hetercoercal read heterocercal
136, " 3, for Evermannellus read Evermannella
170, " 11, for the fin read the dorsal fin
171, " 10, for have read has
303, legend, for Lacepède read Lacépède
307, line 14, for vertebrate read vertebral
311, " 12, not clearly stated. The air-bladder is least
developed in those species which cling
closest to the bottom of the stream
350, legend, for Apomotes read Apomotis
355, line 18, for ours read our
357, " 14, for chætodon read Chætodon
358, " 17, for Scriænidæ read Sciænidæ
360, " 14, for Percesoces read Percesoces
409, " 16, for naseus read Naseus
Vol. II
Page xviii, line 7, for Ophicæphalus read Ophicephalus
xviii, " 37, for Mononactylus read Monodactylus
xix, " 33, for Trachicephales read Trachicephalus
xx, " 37, for Regaleaus glesneacsanius read
Regalecus russelli
xxi, " 2, for Etopus read Etropus
xxi, " 35, for Zoacres read Zoarces
1, " 7, for jaws read jaw
14, " 9, for hetercoercal read heterocercal
136, " 3, for Evermannellus read Evermannella
170, " 11, for the fin read the dorsal fin
171, " 10, for have read has
303, legend, for Lacepède read Lacépède
307, line 14, for vertebrate read vertebral
311, " 12, not clearly stated. The air-bladder is least
developed in those species which cling
closest to the bottom of the stream
350, legend, for Apomotes read Apomotis
355, line 18, for ours read our
357, " 14, for chætodon read Chætodon
358, " 17, for Scriænidæ read Sciænidæ
360, " 14, for Percesoces read Percesoces
409, " 16, for naseus read Naseus
Page 34
419, " 23, for of the generic of this group read
separating the group into genera
440, " 17, for Chinnook read Chinook
459, " 24, for but the most read but most
459, " 25, for thme read them
467, " 14, for Typhogobius read Typhlogobius
472, lines 34, omit "but never in the United States".
35, Specimens of Regalecus have been
taken at Anclote Key, Florida, and at the
Tortugas.
580, col. 3, line 17, for 165 read 105
The adoption of the Code of the International Congress of Zoology
necessitates a few changes in generic names used in this book.
Thus Amia (ganoid) becomes Amiatus
Apogon becomes Amia
Scarus becomes Callyodon
Teuthis becomes Hepatus
Acanthurus becomes Monoceros
Paramia becomes Cheilodipterus
Centropomus (Oxylabrax) remains Centropomus
Lucioperca (Centropomus) becomes Sander
Pomatomus (Cheilodipterus) remains Pomatomus
Nomeus (Gobiomorus) remains Nomeus
Galeus (Galeorhinus) remains Galeus
Carcharias (Carcharhinus) remains Carcharias
1. For most of this list of errata I am indebted to the kindly interest of Dr. B. W. Evermann.
separating the group into genera
440, " 17, for Chinnook read Chinook
459, " 24, for but the most read but most
459, " 25, for thme read them
467, " 14, for Typhogobius read Typhlogobius
472, lines 34, omit "but never in the United States".
35, Specimens of Regalecus have been
taken at Anclote Key, Florida, and at the
Tortugas.
580, col. 3, line 17, for 165 read 105
The adoption of the Code of the International Congress of Zoology
necessitates a few changes in generic names used in this book.
Thus Amia (ganoid) becomes Amiatus
Apogon becomes Amia
Scarus becomes Callyodon
Teuthis becomes Hepatus
Acanthurus becomes Monoceros
Paramia becomes Cheilodipterus
Centropomus (Oxylabrax) remains Centropomus
Lucioperca (Centropomus) becomes Sander
Pomatomus (Cheilodipterus) remains Pomatomus
Nomeus (Gobiomorus) remains Nomeus
Galeus (Galeorhinus) remains Galeus
Carcharias (Carcharhinus) remains Carcharias
1. For most of this list of errata I am indebted to the kindly interest of Dr. B. W. Evermann.
Page 35
CHAPTER I
THE GANOIDS
ubclass Actinopteri.—In our glance over the taxonomy of the
earlier Chordates, or fish-like vertebrates, we have detached
from the main stem one after another a long series of archaic
or primitive types. We have first set off those with
rudimentary notochord, then those with retrogressive
development who lose the notochord, then those without skull or brain, then
those without limbs or lower jaw. The residue assume the fish-like form of
body, but still show great differences among themselves. We have then
detached those without membrane-bones, or trace of lung or air-bladder. We
next part company with those having the air-bladder a veritable lung, and
those with an ancient type of paired fins, a jointed axis fringed with rays,
and those having the palate still forming the upper jaw. We have finally left
only those having fish-jaws, fish-fins, and in general the structure of the
modern fish. For all these in all their variety, as a class or subclass, the
name Actinopteri, or Actinopterygii, suggested by Professor Cope, is now
generally adopted. The shorter form, Actinopteri, being equally correct is
certainly preferable. This term (ακτίς, ray; πτερόν or πτερύξ, fin) refers to
the structure of the paired fins. In all these fishes the bones supporting the
fin-rays are highly specialized and at the same time concealed by the
general integument of the body. In general two bones connect the pectoral
fin with the shoulder-girdle. The hypercoracoid is a flat square bone,
usually perforated by a foramen. Lying below it and parallel with it is the
irregularly formed hypocoracoid. Attached to them is a row of bones, the
actinosts, or pterygials, short, often hour-glass-shaped, which actually
support the fin-rays. In the more specialized forms, or Teleosts, the actinosts
are few (four to six) in number, but in the more primitive types, or Ganoids,
THE GANOIDS
ubclass Actinopteri.—In our glance over the taxonomy of the
earlier Chordates, or fish-like vertebrates, we have detached
from the main stem one after another a long series of archaic
or primitive types. We have first set off those with
rudimentary notochord, then those with retrogressive
development who lose the notochord, then those without skull or brain, then
those without limbs or lower jaw. The residue assume the fish-like form of
body, but still show great differences among themselves. We have then
detached those without membrane-bones, or trace of lung or air-bladder. We
next part company with those having the air-bladder a veritable lung, and
those with an ancient type of paired fins, a jointed axis fringed with rays,
and those having the palate still forming the upper jaw. We have finally left
only those having fish-jaws, fish-fins, and in general the structure of the
modern fish. For all these in all their variety, as a class or subclass, the
name Actinopteri, or Actinopterygii, suggested by Professor Cope, is now
generally adopted. The shorter form, Actinopteri, being equally correct is
certainly preferable. This term (ακτίς, ray; πτερόν or πτερύξ, fin) refers to
the structure of the paired fins. In all these fishes the bones supporting the
fin-rays are highly specialized and at the same time concealed by the
general integument of the body. In general two bones connect the pectoral
fin with the shoulder-girdle. The hypercoracoid is a flat square bone,
usually perforated by a foramen. Lying below it and parallel with it is the
irregularly formed hypocoracoid. Attached to them is a row of bones, the
actinosts, or pterygials, short, often hour-glass-shaped, which actually
support the fin-rays. In the more specialized forms, or Teleosts, the actinosts
are few (four to six) in number, but in the more primitive types, or Ganoids,
Page 36
they may remain numerous, a reminiscence of the condition seen in the
Crossopterygians, and especially in Polypterus. Other variations may occur;
the two coracoids sometimes are imperfect or specially modified, the upper
sometimes without a foramen, and the actinosts may be distorted in form or
position.
Fig. 1.—Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder,
Paralichthys californicus (Ayres).
Crossopterygians, and especially in Polypterus. Other variations may occur;
the two coracoids sometimes are imperfect or specially modified, the upper
sometimes without a foramen, and the actinosts may be distorted in form or
position.
Fig. 1.—Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder,
Paralichthys californicus (Ayres).
Page 37
The Series Ganoidei.—Among the lower Actinopteri many archaic traits
still persist, and in its earlier representatives the group approaches closely to
the Crossopterygii, although no forms actually intermediate are known
either living or fossil. The great group of Actinopteri may be divided into
two series or subclasses, the Ganoidei, or Chrondrostei, containing those
forms, mostly extinct, which retain archaic traits of one sort or another, and
the Teleostei, or bony fishes, in which most of the primitive characters have
disappeared. Doubtless all of the Teleostei are descended from a ganoid
ancestry.
Even among the Ganoidei, as the term is here restricted, there remains a
very great variety of form and structure. The fossil and existing forms do
not form continuous series, but represent the tips and remains of many
diverging branches perhaps from some Crossopterygian central stock. The
group constitutes at least three distinct orders and, as a whole, does not
admit of perfect definition. In most but not all of the species the tail is
distinctly and obviously heterocercal, the lack of symmetry of the tail in
some Teleosts being confined to the bones and not evident without
dissection. Most of the Ganoids have the skeleton still cartilaginous, and in
some it remains in a very primitive condition. Usually the Ganoids have an
armature of bony plates, diamond-shaped, with an enamel like that
developed on the teeth. In all of them the pectoral fin has numerous basal
bones or actinosts. All of them have the air-bladder highly developed,
usually cellular and functional as a lung, but connecting with the dorsal side
of the gullet, not with the ventral side as in the Dipnoans. In all living forms
there is a more or less perfect optic chiasma. These ancient forms retain also
the many valves of the arterial bulb and the spiral valve of the intestines
found in the more archaic types of fishes. But traces of some or all of these
structures are found in some bony fishes, and their presence in the Ganoids
by no means justifies the union of the Ganoids with the sharks, Dipnoans,
and Crossopterygians to form a great primary class, Palæichthyes, as
proposed by Dr. Günther. Almost every form of body may be found among
the Ganoids. In the Mesozoic seas these fishes were scarcely less varied and
perhaps scarcely less abundant than the Teleosts in the seas of to-day. They
far exceed the Crossopterygians in number and variety of forms.
Transitional forms connecting the two groups are thus far not recognized.
So far as fossils show, the characteristic actinopterous fin with its reduced
and altered basal bones appeared at once without intervening gradations.
still persist, and in its earlier representatives the group approaches closely to
the Crossopterygii, although no forms actually intermediate are known
either living or fossil. The great group of Actinopteri may be divided into
two series or subclasses, the Ganoidei, or Chrondrostei, containing those
forms, mostly extinct, which retain archaic traits of one sort or another, and
the Teleostei, or bony fishes, in which most of the primitive characters have
disappeared. Doubtless all of the Teleostei are descended from a ganoid
ancestry.
Even among the Ganoidei, as the term is here restricted, there remains a
very great variety of form and structure. The fossil and existing forms do
not form continuous series, but represent the tips and remains of many
diverging branches perhaps from some Crossopterygian central stock. The
group constitutes at least three distinct orders and, as a whole, does not
admit of perfect definition. In most but not all of the species the tail is
distinctly and obviously heterocercal, the lack of symmetry of the tail in
some Teleosts being confined to the bones and not evident without
dissection. Most of the Ganoids have the skeleton still cartilaginous, and in
some it remains in a very primitive condition. Usually the Ganoids have an
armature of bony plates, diamond-shaped, with an enamel like that
developed on the teeth. In all of them the pectoral fin has numerous basal
bones or actinosts. All of them have the air-bladder highly developed,
usually cellular and functional as a lung, but connecting with the dorsal side
of the gullet, not with the ventral side as in the Dipnoans. In all living forms
there is a more or less perfect optic chiasma. These ancient forms retain also
the many valves of the arterial bulb and the spiral valve of the intestines
found in the more archaic types of fishes. But traces of some or all of these
structures are found in some bony fishes, and their presence in the Ganoids
by no means justifies the union of the Ganoids with the sharks, Dipnoans,
and Crossopterygians to form a great primary class, Palæichthyes, as
proposed by Dr. Günther. Almost every form of body may be found among
the Ganoids. In the Mesozoic seas these fishes were scarcely less varied and
perhaps scarcely less abundant than the Teleosts in the seas of to-day. They
far exceed the Crossopterygians in number and variety of forms.
Transitional forms connecting the two groups are thus far not recognized.
So far as fossils show, the characteristic actinopterous fin with its reduced
and altered basal bones appeared at once without intervening gradations.
Page 38
The name Ganoidei (γάνος, brightness; εἶδος, resemblance), alluding to the
enameled plates, was first given by Agassiz to those forms, mostly extinct,
which were covered with bony scales or hard plates of one sort or another.
As the term was originally defined, mailed catfishes, sea-horses, Agonidæ,
Arthrodires, Ostracophores, and other wholly unrelated types were included
with the garpikes and sturgeons as Ganoids. Most of these intruding forms
among living fishes were eliminated by Johannes Müller, who recognized
the various archaic characters common to the existing forms after the
removal of the mailed Teleosts. Still later Huxley separated the
Crossopterygians as a distinct group, while others have shown that the
Ostracophori and Arthrodira should be placed far from the garpike in
systematic classification. Cope, Woodward, Hay, and others have dropped
the name Ganoid altogether as productive of confusion through the many
meanings attached to it. Others have kept it as a convenient group name for
the orders of archaic Actinopteri. For these varied and more or less
divergent forms it seems convenient to retain it. As an adjective "ganoid" is
sometimes used as descriptive of bony plates or enameled scales, some-in
the sense of archaic, as applied to fishes.
Are the Ganoids a Natural Group?—Several writers have urged that the
Ganoidei, even as thus restricted, should not be considered as a natural
group, whether subclass, order, or group of orders. The reasons for this
view in brief are the following:
1. The group is heterogeneous. The Amiidæ differ more from the other
Ganoids than they do from the herring-like Teleosts. The garpikes,
sturgeons, paddle-fishes likewise diverge widely from each other and from
the Palæoniscidæ and the Platysomidæ. Each of the living families
represents the residue or culmination of a long series, in some cases
advancing, as in the case of the bowfin, sometimes perhaps degenerating, as
in the case of the sturgeons.
2. Of the traits possessed in common by these forms, several (the cellular
air-bladder, the many valves in the heart, the spiral valve in the intestine,
the heterocercal tail) are all possessed in greater or less degree by certain
Isospondyli or allies of the herring. All these characters are still better
developed in Crossoptergyii and Dipneusti, and each one disappears by
degrees. Of the characters drawn from the soft parts we can know nothing
so far as the extinct Ganoids are concerned.
enameled plates, was first given by Agassiz to those forms, mostly extinct,
which were covered with bony scales or hard plates of one sort or another.
As the term was originally defined, mailed catfishes, sea-horses, Agonidæ,
Arthrodires, Ostracophores, and other wholly unrelated types were included
with the garpikes and sturgeons as Ganoids. Most of these intruding forms
among living fishes were eliminated by Johannes Müller, who recognized
the various archaic characters common to the existing forms after the
removal of the mailed Teleosts. Still later Huxley separated the
Crossopterygians as a distinct group, while others have shown that the
Ostracophori and Arthrodira should be placed far from the garpike in
systematic classification. Cope, Woodward, Hay, and others have dropped
the name Ganoid altogether as productive of confusion through the many
meanings attached to it. Others have kept it as a convenient group name for
the orders of archaic Actinopteri. For these varied and more or less
divergent forms it seems convenient to retain it. As an adjective "ganoid" is
sometimes used as descriptive of bony plates or enameled scales, some-in
the sense of archaic, as applied to fishes.
Are the Ganoids a Natural Group?—Several writers have urged that the
Ganoidei, even as thus restricted, should not be considered as a natural
group, whether subclass, order, or group of orders. The reasons for this
view in brief are the following:
1. The group is heterogeneous. The Amiidæ differ more from the other
Ganoids than they do from the herring-like Teleosts. The garpikes,
sturgeons, paddle-fishes likewise diverge widely from each other and from
the Palæoniscidæ and the Platysomidæ. Each of the living families
represents the residue or culmination of a long series, in some cases
advancing, as in the case of the bowfin, sometimes perhaps degenerating, as
in the case of the sturgeons.
2. Of the traits possessed in common by these forms, several (the cellular
air-bladder, the many valves in the heart, the spiral valve in the intestine,
the heterocercal tail) are all possessed in greater or less degree by certain
Isospondyli or allies of the herring. All these characters are still better
developed in Crossoptergyii and Dipneusti, and each one disappears by
degrees. Of the characters drawn from the soft parts we can know nothing
so far as the extinct Ganoids are concerned.
Page 39
3. The optic chiasma, thus far characteristic of Ganoids as distinct from
Teleosts, may have no great value. It is urged that in closely related species
of lizards some have the optic chiasma and others do not. This, however,
proves nothing as to the value of the same character among fishes.
4. The transition from Ganoids to Teleosts is of much the same character as
the transition from spiny-rayed to soft-rayed fishes, or that from fishes with
a duct to the air-bladder to those without such duct.
Admitting all this, it is nevertheless natural and convenient to retain the
Ganoidei (or Chrondrostei if the older name be discarded on account of the
many meanings attached to it) as a group equivalent to that of Teleostei
within the class or subclass of Actinopteri. It comprises the transitional
forms between the Crossopterygii and the bony fishes, and its members are
especially characteristic of the Mesozoic age, ranging from the Devonian to
the present era.
Of the extensive discussion relating to this important question we may
quote two arguments for the retention of the subclass of Ganoids, the first
by Francis M. Balfour and William Kitchen Parker, the second from the pen
of Theodore Gill.
Balfour and Parker ("Structure and Development of Lepidosteus," pp. 430-
433) thus discuss the
Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.—"Alexander Agassiz concludes his
memoir on the development of Lepidosteus by pointing out that in spite of
certain affinities in other directions this form is 'not so far removed from the
bony fishes as has been supposed.' Our own observations go far to confirm
Agassiz's opinion.
"Apart from the complete segmentation, the general development of
Lepidosteus is strikingly Teleostean. In addition to the general Teleostean
features of the embryo and larva, which can only be appreciated by those
who have had an opportunity of practically working at the subject, we may
point to the following developmental features[2] as indicative of Teleostean
affinities:
"(1) The formation of the nervous system as a solid keel of the epiblast.
"(2) The division of the epiblast into a nervous and epidermic stratum.
Teleosts, may have no great value. It is urged that in closely related species
of lizards some have the optic chiasma and others do not. This, however,
proves nothing as to the value of the same character among fishes.
4. The transition from Ganoids to Teleosts is of much the same character as
the transition from spiny-rayed to soft-rayed fishes, or that from fishes with
a duct to the air-bladder to those without such duct.
Admitting all this, it is nevertheless natural and convenient to retain the
Ganoidei (or Chrondrostei if the older name be discarded on account of the
many meanings attached to it) as a group equivalent to that of Teleostei
within the class or subclass of Actinopteri. It comprises the transitional
forms between the Crossopterygii and the bony fishes, and its members are
especially characteristic of the Mesozoic age, ranging from the Devonian to
the present era.
Of the extensive discussion relating to this important question we may
quote two arguments for the retention of the subclass of Ganoids, the first
by Francis M. Balfour and William Kitchen Parker, the second from the pen
of Theodore Gill.
Balfour and Parker ("Structure and Development of Lepidosteus," pp. 430-
433) thus discuss the
Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.—"Alexander Agassiz concludes his
memoir on the development of Lepidosteus by pointing out that in spite of
certain affinities in other directions this form is 'not so far removed from the
bony fishes as has been supposed.' Our own observations go far to confirm
Agassiz's opinion.
"Apart from the complete segmentation, the general development of
Lepidosteus is strikingly Teleostean. In addition to the general Teleostean
features of the embryo and larva, which can only be appreciated by those
who have had an opportunity of practically working at the subject, we may
point to the following developmental features[2] as indicative of Teleostean
affinities:
"(1) The formation of the nervous system as a solid keel of the epiblast.
"(2) The division of the epiblast into a nervous and epidermic stratum.
Page 40
"(3) The mode of development of the gut.
"(4) The mode of development of the pronephros; though the pronephros of
Lepidosteus has primitive characters not retained by Teleostei.
"(5) The early stages in the development of the vertebral column.
2. The features enumerated above are not in all cases confined to Lepidosteus and Teleostei, but
are always eminently characteristic of the latter.
"In addition to these, so to speak, purely embryonic characters there are not
a few important adult characters:
"(1) The continuity of the oviducts with the genital glands.
"(2) The small size of the pancreas, and the presence of numerous so-called
pancreatic cæca.
"(3) The somewhat coiled small intestine.
"(4) Certain characters of the brain, e.g., the large size of the cerebellum;
the presence of the so-called lobi inferiores on the infundibulum, and of tori
semi-circulares in the mid-brain.
"In spite of the undoubtedly important list of features to which we have just
called attention, a list containing not less important characters, both
embryological and adult, separating Lepidosteus from the Teleostei, can be
drawn up:
"(1) The character of the truncus arteriosus.
"(2) The fact of the genital ducts joining the ureters.
"(3) The presence of vasa efferentia in the male carrying the semen from the
testes to the kidney, and through the tubules of the latter into the kidney-
duct.
"(4) The presence of a well-developed opercular gill.
"(5) The presence of a spiral valve; though this character may possibly
break down with the extension of our knowledge.
"(6) The typical Ganoid characters of the thalamencephalon and the
cerebral hemispheres.
"(7) The chiasma of the optic nerves.
"(4) The mode of development of the pronephros; though the pronephros of
Lepidosteus has primitive characters not retained by Teleostei.
"(5) The early stages in the development of the vertebral column.
2. The features enumerated above are not in all cases confined to Lepidosteus and Teleostei, but
are always eminently characteristic of the latter.
"In addition to these, so to speak, purely embryonic characters there are not
a few important adult characters:
"(1) The continuity of the oviducts with the genital glands.
"(2) The small size of the pancreas, and the presence of numerous so-called
pancreatic cæca.
"(3) The somewhat coiled small intestine.
"(4) Certain characters of the brain, e.g., the large size of the cerebellum;
the presence of the so-called lobi inferiores on the infundibulum, and of tori
semi-circulares in the mid-brain.
"In spite of the undoubtedly important list of features to which we have just
called attention, a list containing not less important characters, both
embryological and adult, separating Lepidosteus from the Teleostei, can be
drawn up:
"(1) The character of the truncus arteriosus.
"(2) The fact of the genital ducts joining the ureters.
"(3) The presence of vasa efferentia in the male carrying the semen from the
testes to the kidney, and through the tubules of the latter into the kidney-
duct.
"(4) The presence of a well-developed opercular gill.
"(5) The presence of a spiral valve; though this character may possibly
break down with the extension of our knowledge.
"(6) The typical Ganoid characters of the thalamencephalon and the
cerebral hemispheres.
"(7) The chiasma of the optic nerves.
Page 41
"(8) The absence of a pecten, and presence of a vascular membrane between
the vitreous humor and the retina.
"(9) The opisthocœlous form of the vertebræ.
"(10) The articulation of the ventral parts of the hæmal arches of the tail
with the processes of the vertebral column.
"(11) The absence of a division of the muscles into dorso-lateral and ventro-
lateral divisions.
"(12) The complete segmentation of the ovum.
"The list just given appears to us sufficient to demonstrate that Lepidosteus
cannot be classed with the Teleostei; and we hold that Müller's view is
correct, according to which Lepidosteus is a true Ganoid.
"The existence of the Ganoids as a distinct group has, however, recently
been challenged by so distinguished an ichthyologist as Günther, and it may
therefore be well to consider how far the group as defined by Müller is a
natural one for living forms, and how far recent researches enable us to
improve upon Müller's definitions. In his classical memoir the characters of
the Ganoids are thus shortly stated:
"'These fishes are either provided with plate-like angular or rounded
cement-covered scales, or they bear osseous plates, or are quite naked. The
fins are often, but not always, beset with a double or single row of spinous
plates or splints. The caudal fin embraces occasionally in its upper lobe the
end of the vertebral column, which may be prolonged to the end of the
upper lobe. Their double nasal openings resemble those of Teleostei. The
gills are free, and lie in a branchial cavity under an operculum, like those of
Teleostei. Many of them have an accessory organ of respiration, in the form
of an opercular gill, which is distinct from the pseudobranch, and can be
present together with the latter; many also have spiracles like
Elasmobranchii. They have many valves in the stem of the aorta like the
latter, also a muscular coat in the stem of the aorta. Their ova are
transported from the abdominal cavity by oviducts. Their optic nerves do
not cross each other. The intestine is often provided with a spiral valve, like
Elasmobranchii. They have a swimming-bladder with a duct, like many
Teleostei. Their pelvic fins are abdominal.
the vitreous humor and the retina.
"(9) The opisthocœlous form of the vertebræ.
"(10) The articulation of the ventral parts of the hæmal arches of the tail
with the processes of the vertebral column.
"(11) The absence of a division of the muscles into dorso-lateral and ventro-
lateral divisions.
"(12) The complete segmentation of the ovum.
"The list just given appears to us sufficient to demonstrate that Lepidosteus
cannot be classed with the Teleostei; and we hold that Müller's view is
correct, according to which Lepidosteus is a true Ganoid.
"The existence of the Ganoids as a distinct group has, however, recently
been challenged by so distinguished an ichthyologist as Günther, and it may
therefore be well to consider how far the group as defined by Müller is a
natural one for living forms, and how far recent researches enable us to
improve upon Müller's definitions. In his classical memoir the characters of
the Ganoids are thus shortly stated:
"'These fishes are either provided with plate-like angular or rounded
cement-covered scales, or they bear osseous plates, or are quite naked. The
fins are often, but not always, beset with a double or single row of spinous
plates or splints. The caudal fin embraces occasionally in its upper lobe the
end of the vertebral column, which may be prolonged to the end of the
upper lobe. Their double nasal openings resemble those of Teleostei. The
gills are free, and lie in a branchial cavity under an operculum, like those of
Teleostei. Many of them have an accessory organ of respiration, in the form
of an opercular gill, which is distinct from the pseudobranch, and can be
present together with the latter; many also have spiracles like
Elasmobranchii. They have many valves in the stem of the aorta like the
latter, also a muscular coat in the stem of the aorta. Their ova are
transported from the abdominal cavity by oviducts. Their optic nerves do
not cross each other. The intestine is often provided with a spiral valve, like
Elasmobranchii. They have a swimming-bladder with a duct, like many
Teleostei. Their pelvic fins are abdominal.
Page 42
"'If we include in a definition only those characters which are invariable,
the Ganoids may be shortly defined as being those fish with numerous
valves to the stem of the aorta, which is also provided with a muscular coat,
with free gills, and an operculum, and with abdominal pelvic fins.'
"To these distinctive characters he adds, in an appendix to his paper, the
presence of the spiral valve, and the absence of a processus falciformis and
a choroid gland.
"To the distinctive set of characters given by Müller we may probably add
the following:
"(1) Oviducts and urinary ducts always unite, and open by a common
urogenital aperture behind the anus.
"(2) Skull hyostylic.
"(3) Segmentation complete in the types so far investigated, though perhaps
Amia may be found to resemble the Teleostei in this particular.
"(4) A pronephros of the Teleostean type present in the larva.
"(5) Thalamencephalon very large and well developed.
"(6) The ventricle in the posterior part of the cerebrum is not divided behind
into lateral halves, the roof of the undivided part being extremely thin.
"(7) Abdominal pores always present.
"The great number of characters just given are amply sufficient to
differentiate the Ganoids as a group; but, curiously enough, the only
characters, amongst the whole series which have been given, which can be
regarded as peculiar to the Ganoids are (1) the characters of the brain, and
(2) the fact of the oviducts and kidney-ducts uniting together and opening
by a common pore to the exterior.
"This absence of characters peculiar to the Ganoids is an indication of how
widely separated in organization are the different members of this great
group.
"At the same time, the only group with which existing Ganoids have close
affinities is the Teleostei. The points they have in common with the
Elasmobranchii are merely such as are due to the fact that both retain
the Ganoids may be shortly defined as being those fish with numerous
valves to the stem of the aorta, which is also provided with a muscular coat,
with free gills, and an operculum, and with abdominal pelvic fins.'
"To these distinctive characters he adds, in an appendix to his paper, the
presence of the spiral valve, and the absence of a processus falciformis and
a choroid gland.
"To the distinctive set of characters given by Müller we may probably add
the following:
"(1) Oviducts and urinary ducts always unite, and open by a common
urogenital aperture behind the anus.
"(2) Skull hyostylic.
"(3) Segmentation complete in the types so far investigated, though perhaps
Amia may be found to resemble the Teleostei in this particular.
"(4) A pronephros of the Teleostean type present in the larva.
"(5) Thalamencephalon very large and well developed.
"(6) The ventricle in the posterior part of the cerebrum is not divided behind
into lateral halves, the roof of the undivided part being extremely thin.
"(7) Abdominal pores always present.
"The great number of characters just given are amply sufficient to
differentiate the Ganoids as a group; but, curiously enough, the only
characters, amongst the whole series which have been given, which can be
regarded as peculiar to the Ganoids are (1) the characters of the brain, and
(2) the fact of the oviducts and kidney-ducts uniting together and opening
by a common pore to the exterior.
"This absence of characters peculiar to the Ganoids is an indication of how
widely separated in organization are the different members of this great
group.
"At the same time, the only group with which existing Ganoids have close
affinities is the Teleostei. The points they have in common with the
Elasmobranchii are merely such as are due to the fact that both retain
Page 43
numerous primitive vertebrate characters,[3] and the gulf which really
separates them is very wide.
3. As instances of this we may cite (1) the spiral valve; (2) the frequent presence of a spiracle; (3)
the frequent presence of a communication between the pericardium and the body-cavity; (4)
the heterocercal tail.
"There is again no indication of any close affinity between the Dipnoans
and, at any rate, existing Ganoids.
"Like the Ganoids, the Dipnoans are no doubt remnants of a very primitive
stock; but in the conversion of the air-bladder into a true lung, the highly
specialized character of their limbs,[4] their peculiar autostylic skulls, the
fact of their ventral nasal openings leading directly into the mouth, their
multi-segmented bars (interspinous bars) directly prolonged from the neural
and hæmal and supporting the fin-rays of the unpaired dorsal and ventral
fins, and their well-developed cerebral hemispheres, very unlike those of
Ganoids and approaching the Amphibian type, they form a very well-
defined group and one very distinctly separated from the Ganoids.
4. Vide F. M. Balfour, "On the Development of the Skeleton of the Paired Fins of
Elasmobranchs," Proc. Zool. Soc., 1881.
"No doubt the Chondrostean Ganoids are nearly as far removed from the
Teleostei as from the Dipnoans, but the links uniting these Ganoids with the
Teleostei have been so fully preserved in the existing fauna of the globe that
the two groups almost run into each other. If, in fact, we were anxious to
make any radical change in the ordinary classification of fishes, it would be
by uniting the Teleostei and Ganoids, or rather constituting the Teleostei
into one of the subgroups of the Ganoids, equivalent to the Chondrostei. We
do not recommend such an arrangement, which in view of the great
preponderance of the Teleostei amongst living fishes would be highly
inconvenient, but the step from Amia to the Teleostei is certainly not so
great as that from the Chondrostei to Amia, and is undoubtedly less than
that from the Selachii to the Holocephali."
Gill on the Ganoids as a Natural Group.—Dr. Gill observes ("Families of
Fishes," 1872): "The name Ganoides (or Ganiolepedoti) was originally
framed by Prof. Agassiz as an ordinal term for fishes having the scales
(when present) angular and covered with enamel; and in the group so
characterized were combined the Ganoids of subsequent authors as well as
separates them is very wide.
3. As instances of this we may cite (1) the spiral valve; (2) the frequent presence of a spiracle; (3)
the frequent presence of a communication between the pericardium and the body-cavity; (4)
the heterocercal tail.
"There is again no indication of any close affinity between the Dipnoans
and, at any rate, existing Ganoids.
"Like the Ganoids, the Dipnoans are no doubt remnants of a very primitive
stock; but in the conversion of the air-bladder into a true lung, the highly
specialized character of their limbs,[4] their peculiar autostylic skulls, the
fact of their ventral nasal openings leading directly into the mouth, their
multi-segmented bars (interspinous bars) directly prolonged from the neural
and hæmal and supporting the fin-rays of the unpaired dorsal and ventral
fins, and their well-developed cerebral hemispheres, very unlike those of
Ganoids and approaching the Amphibian type, they form a very well-
defined group and one very distinctly separated from the Ganoids.
4. Vide F. M. Balfour, "On the Development of the Skeleton of the Paired Fins of
Elasmobranchs," Proc. Zool. Soc., 1881.
"No doubt the Chondrostean Ganoids are nearly as far removed from the
Teleostei as from the Dipnoans, but the links uniting these Ganoids with the
Teleostei have been so fully preserved in the existing fauna of the globe that
the two groups almost run into each other. If, in fact, we were anxious to
make any radical change in the ordinary classification of fishes, it would be
by uniting the Teleostei and Ganoids, or rather constituting the Teleostei
into one of the subgroups of the Ganoids, equivalent to the Chondrostei. We
do not recommend such an arrangement, which in view of the great
preponderance of the Teleostei amongst living fishes would be highly
inconvenient, but the step from Amia to the Teleostei is certainly not so
great as that from the Chondrostei to Amia, and is undoubtedly less than
that from the Selachii to the Holocephali."
Gill on the Ganoids as a Natural Group.—Dr. Gill observes ("Families of
Fishes," 1872): "The name Ganoides (or Ganiolepedoti) was originally
framed by Prof. Agassiz as an ordinal term for fishes having the scales
(when present) angular and covered with enamel; and in the group so
characterized were combined the Ganoids of subsequent authors as well as
Page 44
the Teleostean orders Plectognathi, Lophobranchii, and Nematognathi, and
(subsequently) the genus Sudis (Arapaima), the last being regarded as a
Cœlacanth. The group has not been accepted with these limits or characters.
"But the researches of Prof. Johannes Müller on the anatomy and
classification of the fishes culminated at length in his celebrated memoirs
on those fishes for which he retained the ordinal name Ganoidei; those
memoirs have left an impression on ichthyology perhaps more decided than
made by any other contributions to science, and that published in extenso
will ever be classical; numerous as have been the modifications since
introduced into the system, no forms except those recognized by Müller
(unless it be Dipnoi) have been interjected since among the Ganoids.
"It has been objected that the Ganoids do not constitute a natural group, and
that the characters (i.e., chiasma of optic nerves and multivalvular bulbus
arteriosus) alleged by Müller to be peculiar to the teleostomous forms
combined therein are problematical, and only inferentially supposed to be
common to the extinct Ganoids so called, and, finally, such objections
couched in too strong language have culminated in the assertion that the
characters in question are actually shared by other physostome fishes.
"No demonstration, however, has been presented as yet that any
physostome fishes do really have the optic chiasma and multivalvular
bulbus arteriosus, and the statement to the contrary seems to have been the
result of a venial misapprehension of Prof. Kner's statements, or the
offspring of impressions left on the memory by his assertions, in
forgetfulness of his exact words.
"But Prof. Kner, in respect to the anatomical characters referred to, merely
objects: (1) that they are problematical, are not confirmable for the extinct
types, and were probably not existent in certain forms that have been
referred to the Ganoids; (2) the difference in number of the valves of the
bulbus arteriosus among recent Ganoids is so great as to show the
unreliability of the character; (3) a spiral valve is developed in the intestine
of several osseous fishes ('genera of the so-called intermediate clupeoid
groups'), as well as in Ganoids; and (4) the chiasma of the optic nerves in
no wise furnishes a positive character for the Ganoids.
"It will be noticed that all these objections (save in the case of the intestinal
spiral valve) are hypothetical and vague. The failure of the intestinal spiral
(subsequently) the genus Sudis (Arapaima), the last being regarded as a
Cœlacanth. The group has not been accepted with these limits or characters.
"But the researches of Prof. Johannes Müller on the anatomy and
classification of the fishes culminated at length in his celebrated memoirs
on those fishes for which he retained the ordinal name Ganoidei; those
memoirs have left an impression on ichthyology perhaps more decided than
made by any other contributions to science, and that published in extenso
will ever be classical; numerous as have been the modifications since
introduced into the system, no forms except those recognized by Müller
(unless it be Dipnoi) have been interjected since among the Ganoids.
"It has been objected that the Ganoids do not constitute a natural group, and
that the characters (i.e., chiasma of optic nerves and multivalvular bulbus
arteriosus) alleged by Müller to be peculiar to the teleostomous forms
combined therein are problematical, and only inferentially supposed to be
common to the extinct Ganoids so called, and, finally, such objections
couched in too strong language have culminated in the assertion that the
characters in question are actually shared by other physostome fishes.
"No demonstration, however, has been presented as yet that any
physostome fishes do really have the optic chiasma and multivalvular
bulbus arteriosus, and the statement to the contrary seems to have been the
result of a venial misapprehension of Prof. Kner's statements, or the
offspring of impressions left on the memory by his assertions, in
forgetfulness of his exact words.
"But Prof. Kner, in respect to the anatomical characters referred to, merely
objects: (1) that they are problematical, are not confirmable for the extinct
types, and were probably not existent in certain forms that have been
referred to the Ganoids; (2) the difference in number of the valves of the
bulbus arteriosus among recent Ganoids is so great as to show the
unreliability of the character; (3) a spiral valve is developed in the intestine
of several osseous fishes ('genera of the so-called intermediate clupeoid
groups'), as well as in Ganoids; and (4) the chiasma of the optic nerves in
no wise furnishes a positive character for the Ganoids.
"It will be noticed that all these objections (save in the case of the intestinal
spiral valve) are hypothetical and vague. The failure of the intestinal spiral
Page 45
valve, as a diagnostic character, has long been conceded, and in this case
only have the forms that prove the failure been referred to; in the other
cases, where it would be especially desirable to have indicated the actual
types falsifying the universality or exclusiveness of the characters, they
have not been referred to, and the objections must be met as if they were
not known to exist.
"(1) The characters in question are, in the sense used, problematical,
inasmuch as no examination can be made of the soft parts of extinct forms,
but with equal force may it be urged that any characters that have not been
or cannot be directly confirmed are problematical in the case of all other
groups (e.g., mammals), and it can only be replied that the coordination of
parts has been so invariably verified that all probabilities are in favor of
similar coordination in any given case.
"(2) There is doubtless considerable difference in the number of valves of
the bulbus arteriosus among the various Ganoids, and even among the
species of a single family (e.g., Lepidosteidæ), but the character of Ganoids
lies not in the number, more or less, but in the greater number and relations
(in contradistinction to the opposite pair of the Teleosts) in conjunction with
the development of a bulbus arteriosus. In no other forms of Teleostomes
have similar relations and structures been yet demonstrated.
"(3) The failure of the spiral intestinal valve has already been conceded, and
no great stress has ever been laid on the character.
"(4) The chiasma of the optic nerves is so common to all the known
Ganoids, and has not been found in those forms (e.g., Arapaima,
Osteoglossum, and Clupeiform types) agreeing with typical physostome
Teleosts in the skeleton, heart, etc., but which at the same time simulate
most certain Ganoids (e.g., Amia) in form.
"Therefore, in view of the evidence hitherto obtained, the arguments against
the validity of title, to natural association, of the Ganoids, have to meet the
positive evidence of the coordinations noted; the value of such
characteristics and coordinations can only be affected or destroyed by the
demonstration that in all other respects there is (1) very close agreement of
certain of the constituents of the subclass with other forms, and (2)
inversely proportionate dissimilarity of those forms from any (not all) other
only have the forms that prove the failure been referred to; in the other
cases, where it would be especially desirable to have indicated the actual
types falsifying the universality or exclusiveness of the characters, they
have not been referred to, and the objections must be met as if they were
not known to exist.
"(1) The characters in question are, in the sense used, problematical,
inasmuch as no examination can be made of the soft parts of extinct forms,
but with equal force may it be urged that any characters that have not been
or cannot be directly confirmed are problematical in the case of all other
groups (e.g., mammals), and it can only be replied that the coordination of
parts has been so invariably verified that all probabilities are in favor of
similar coordination in any given case.
"(2) There is doubtless considerable difference in the number of valves of
the bulbus arteriosus among the various Ganoids, and even among the
species of a single family (e.g., Lepidosteidæ), but the character of Ganoids
lies not in the number, more or less, but in the greater number and relations
(in contradistinction to the opposite pair of the Teleosts) in conjunction with
the development of a bulbus arteriosus. In no other forms of Teleostomes
have similar relations and structures been yet demonstrated.
"(3) The failure of the spiral intestinal valve has already been conceded, and
no great stress has ever been laid on the character.
"(4) The chiasma of the optic nerves is so common to all the known
Ganoids, and has not been found in those forms (e.g., Arapaima,
Osteoglossum, and Clupeiform types) agreeing with typical physostome
Teleosts in the skeleton, heart, etc., but which at the same time simulate
most certain Ganoids (e.g., Amia) in form.
"Therefore, in view of the evidence hitherto obtained, the arguments against
the validity of title, to natural association, of the Ganoids, have to meet the
positive evidence of the coordinations noted; the value of such
characteristics and coordinations can only be affected or destroyed by the
demonstration that in all other respects there is (1) very close agreement of
certain of the constituents of the subclass with other forms, and (2)
inversely proportionate dissimilarity of those forms from any (not all) other
Page 46
of the Ganoids, and consequently evidence ubi plurima nitent against the
taxonomic value of the characters employed for distinction.
"And it is true that there is a greater superficial resemblance between the
Hyoganoids (Lepisosteus, Amia, etc.) and ordinary physostome Teleosts
than between the former and the other orders of Ganoids, but it is equally
true that they agree in other respects than in the brain and heart with the
more generalized Ganoids. They all have, for example, (1) the paraglenal
elements undivided (not disintegrated into hypercoracoid, hypocoracoid,
and mesocoracoid); (2) a humerus (simple or divided, that is, differentiated
into metapterygium and mesopterygium); and (3) those with ossified
skeletons agree in the greater number of elements in the lower jaw.
Therefore, until these coordinates fail, it seems advisable to recognize the
Ganoids as constituents of a natural series; and especially on account of the
superior taxonomic value of modifications of the brain and heart in other
classes of vertebrates, for the same reason, and to keep prominently before
the mind the characters in question, it appears also advisable to designate
the series, until further discovery, as a subclass.
"But it is quite possible that among some of the generalized Teleosts at least
traces of some of the characters now considered to be peculiar to the
Ganoids may be discovered. In anticipation of such a possibility, the author
had at first discarded the subclass, recognizing the group only as one of the
'superorders' of the Teleostomes, but reconsideration convinces him of the
propriety of classification representing known facts and legitimate
inferences rather than too much anticipation.
"It is remembered that all characters are liable to fail with increasing
knowledge, and the distinctness of groups are but little more than the
expressions of our want of knowledge of the intermediate forms; it may in
truth be said that ability to segregate a class into well-defined groups is in
ratio to our ignorance of all the terms."
taxonomic value of the characters employed for distinction.
"And it is true that there is a greater superficial resemblance between the
Hyoganoids (Lepisosteus, Amia, etc.) and ordinary physostome Teleosts
than between the former and the other orders of Ganoids, but it is equally
true that they agree in other respects than in the brain and heart with the
more generalized Ganoids. They all have, for example, (1) the paraglenal
elements undivided (not disintegrated into hypercoracoid, hypocoracoid,
and mesocoracoid); (2) a humerus (simple or divided, that is, differentiated
into metapterygium and mesopterygium); and (3) those with ossified
skeletons agree in the greater number of elements in the lower jaw.
Therefore, until these coordinates fail, it seems advisable to recognize the
Ganoids as constituents of a natural series; and especially on account of the
superior taxonomic value of modifications of the brain and heart in other
classes of vertebrates, for the same reason, and to keep prominently before
the mind the characters in question, it appears also advisable to designate
the series, until further discovery, as a subclass.
"But it is quite possible that among some of the generalized Teleosts at least
traces of some of the characters now considered to be peculiar to the
Ganoids may be discovered. In anticipation of such a possibility, the author
had at first discarded the subclass, recognizing the group only as one of the
'superorders' of the Teleostomes, but reconsideration convinces him of the
propriety of classification representing known facts and legitimate
inferences rather than too much anticipation.
"It is remembered that all characters are liable to fail with increasing
knowledge, and the distinctness of groups are but little more than the
expressions of our want of knowledge of the intermediate forms; it may in
truth be said that ability to segregate a class into well-defined groups is in
ratio to our ignorance of all the terms."
Page 47
CHAPTER II
THE GANOIDS—Continued
lassification of Ganoids.—The subdivision of the series of
Ganoidei into orders offers great difficulty from the fact of the
varying relationships of the members of the group and the fact
that the great majority of the species are known only from
broken skeletons preserved in the rocks. It is apparently easy
to separate those with cartilaginous skeletons from those with these bones
more or less ossified. It is also easy to separate those with bony scales or
plates from those having the scales cycloid. But the one type of skeleton
grades into the other, and there is a bony basis even to the thinnest of scales
found in this group. Among the multitude of names and divisions proposed
we may recognize six orders, for which the names Lysopteri, Chondrostei,
Selachostomi, Pycnodonti, Lepidostei, and Halecomorphi are not
inappropriate. Each of these seems to represent a distinct offshoot from the
first primitive group.
Order Lysopteri.—In the most primitive order, called Lysopteri (λυσός,
loose; πτερόν, fin) by Cope, Heterocerci by Zittel and Eastman, and the
"ascending series of Chondrostei" by Woodward, we find the nearest
approach to the Chondropterygians. In this order the arches of the vertebræ
are more or less ossified, the body is more or less short and deep, covered
with bony dermal plates. The opercular apparatus is well developed, with
numerous branchiostegals. Infraclavicles are present, and the fins provided
with fulcra. Dorsal and anal fins are present, with rays more numerous than
their supports; ventral fin with basal supports which are imperfectly
ossified; caudal fin mostly heterocercal, the scales mostly rhombic in form.
All the members of this group are now extinct.
THE GANOIDS—Continued
lassification of Ganoids.—The subdivision of the series of
Ganoidei into orders offers great difficulty from the fact of the
varying relationships of the members of the group and the fact
that the great majority of the species are known only from
broken skeletons preserved in the rocks. It is apparently easy
to separate those with cartilaginous skeletons from those with these bones
more or less ossified. It is also easy to separate those with bony scales or
plates from those having the scales cycloid. But the one type of skeleton
grades into the other, and there is a bony basis even to the thinnest of scales
found in this group. Among the multitude of names and divisions proposed
we may recognize six orders, for which the names Lysopteri, Chondrostei,
Selachostomi, Pycnodonti, Lepidostei, and Halecomorphi are not
inappropriate. Each of these seems to represent a distinct offshoot from the
first primitive group.
Order Lysopteri.—In the most primitive order, called Lysopteri (λυσός,
loose; πτερόν, fin) by Cope, Heterocerci by Zittel and Eastman, and the
"ascending series of Chondrostei" by Woodward, we find the nearest
approach to the Chondropterygians. In this order the arches of the vertebræ
are more or less ossified, the body is more or less short and deep, covered
with bony dermal plates. The opercular apparatus is well developed, with
numerous branchiostegals. Infraclavicles are present, and the fins provided
with fulcra. Dorsal and anal fins are present, with rays more numerous than
their supports; ventral fin with basal supports which are imperfectly
ossified; caudal fin mostly heterocercal, the scales mostly rhombic in form.
All the members of this group are now extinct.
Page 48
The Palæoniscidæ.—The numerous genera of this order are referred to
three families, the Palæoniscidæ, Platysomidæ, and Dictyopygidæ; a fourth
family, Dorypteridæ, of uncertain relations, being also tentatively
recognized. The family of Palæoniscidæ is the most primitive, ranging from
the Devonian to the Lias, and some of them seem to have entered fresh
waters in the time of the coal-measures. These fishes have the body
elongate and provided with one short dorsal fin. The tail is heterocercal and
the body covered with rhombic plates. Fulcra or rudimentary spine-like
scales are developed on the upper edge of the caudal fin in most recent
Ganoids, and often the back has a median row of undeveloped scales. A
multitude of species and genera are recorded. A typical form is the genus
Palæoniscum,[5] with many species represented in the rocks of various parts
of the world. The longest known species is Palæoniscum frieslebenense
from the Permian of Germany and England. Palæoniscum magnum, sixteen
inches long, occurs in the Permian of Germany. From Canobius, the most
primitive genus, to Coccolepis, the most modern, is a continuous series, the
suspensorium of the lower jaw becoming more oblique, the basal bones of
the dorsal fewer, the dorsal extending farther forward, and the scales more
completely imbricate. Other prominent genera are Amblypterus, Eurylepis,
Cheirolepis, Rhadinichthys, Pygopterus, Elonichthys, Ærolepis, Gyrolepis,
Myriolepis, Oxygnathus, Centrolepis, and Holurus.
5. This word is usually written Palæoniscus, but Blainville, its author (1818), chose the neuter
form.
Fig. 2.—Palæoniscum frieslebenense Blainville. Family Palæoniscidæ.
(After Zittel.)
three families, the Palæoniscidæ, Platysomidæ, and Dictyopygidæ; a fourth
family, Dorypteridæ, of uncertain relations, being also tentatively
recognized. The family of Palæoniscidæ is the most primitive, ranging from
the Devonian to the Lias, and some of them seem to have entered fresh
waters in the time of the coal-measures. These fishes have the body
elongate and provided with one short dorsal fin. The tail is heterocercal and
the body covered with rhombic plates. Fulcra or rudimentary spine-like
scales are developed on the upper edge of the caudal fin in most recent
Ganoids, and often the back has a median row of undeveloped scales. A
multitude of species and genera are recorded. A typical form is the genus
Palæoniscum,[5] with many species represented in the rocks of various parts
of the world. The longest known species is Palæoniscum frieslebenense
from the Permian of Germany and England. Palæoniscum magnum, sixteen
inches long, occurs in the Permian of Germany. From Canobius, the most
primitive genus, to Coccolepis, the most modern, is a continuous series, the
suspensorium of the lower jaw becoming more oblique, the basal bones of
the dorsal fewer, the dorsal extending farther forward, and the scales more
completely imbricate. Other prominent genera are Amblypterus, Eurylepis,
Cheirolepis, Rhadinichthys, Pygopterus, Elonichthys, Ærolepis, Gyrolepis,
Myriolepis, Oxygnathus, Centrolepis, and Holurus.
5. This word is usually written Palæoniscus, but Blainville, its author (1818), chose the neuter
form.
Fig. 2.—Palæoniscum frieslebenense Blainville. Family Palæoniscidæ.
(After Zittel.)
Page 49
The Platysomidæ.—The Platysomidæ are different in form, the body being
deep and compressed, often diamond-shaped, with very long dorsal and
anal fins. In other respects they are very similar to the Palæoniscidæ, the
osteology being the same. The Palæoniscidæ were rapacious fishes with
sharp teeth, the Platysomidæ less active, and, from the blunter teeth,
probably feeding on small animals, as crabs and snails.
The rhombic enameled scales are highly specialized and held together as a
coat of mail by peg-and-socket joints. The most extreme form is
Platysomus, with the body very deep. Platysomus gibbosus and other
species occur in the Permian rocks of Germany. Cheirodus is similar to
Platysomus, but without ventral fins. Eurynotus, the most primitive genus,
is remarkable for its large pectoral fins. Eurynotus crenatus occurs in the
Subcarboniferous of Scotland. Other genera are Mesolepis, Globulodus,
Wardichthys, and Cheirodopsis.
Fig. 3.—Eurynotus crenatus Agassiz, restored. Carboniferous. Family
Platysomidæ. (After Traquair.)
Some of the Platysomidæ have the interneural spines projecting through the
skin before the dorsal fin. This condition is found also in certain bony fishes
allied to the Carangidæ.
deep and compressed, often diamond-shaped, with very long dorsal and
anal fins. In other respects they are very similar to the Palæoniscidæ, the
osteology being the same. The Palæoniscidæ were rapacious fishes with
sharp teeth, the Platysomidæ less active, and, from the blunter teeth,
probably feeding on small animals, as crabs and snails.
The rhombic enameled scales are highly specialized and held together as a
coat of mail by peg-and-socket joints. The most extreme form is
Platysomus, with the body very deep. Platysomus gibbosus and other
species occur in the Permian rocks of Germany. Cheirodus is similar to
Platysomus, but without ventral fins. Eurynotus, the most primitive genus,
is remarkable for its large pectoral fins. Eurynotus crenatus occurs in the
Subcarboniferous of Scotland. Other genera are Mesolepis, Globulodus,
Wardichthys, and Cheirodopsis.
Fig. 3.—Eurynotus crenatus Agassiz, restored. Carboniferous. Family
Platysomidæ. (After Traquair.)
Some of the Platysomidæ have the interneural spines projecting through the
skin before the dorsal fin. This condition is found also in certain bony fishes
allied to the Carangidæ.
Page 50
The Dorypteridæ.—Dorypterus hoffmani, the type of the singular
Palæozoic family of Dorypteridæ, with thoracic or sub-jugular many-rayed
ventrals, is Stromateus-like to all appearance, with distinct resemblances to
certain Scombroid forms, but with a heterocercal tail like a ganoid,
imperfectly ossified back-bone, and other very archaic characters. The body
is apparently scaleless, unlike the true Platysomidæ, in which the scales are
highly developed. A second species, Dorypterus althausi, also from the
German copper shales, has been described. This species has lower fins than
Dorypterus hoffmani, but may be the adult of the same type. Dorypterus is
regarded by Woodward as a specialized offshoot from the Platysomidæ. The
many-rayed ventrals and the general form of the body and fins suggest
affinity with the Lampridæ.
Palæozoic family of Dorypteridæ, with thoracic or sub-jugular many-rayed
ventrals, is Stromateus-like to all appearance, with distinct resemblances to
certain Scombroid forms, but with a heterocercal tail like a ganoid,
imperfectly ossified back-bone, and other very archaic characters. The body
is apparently scaleless, unlike the true Platysomidæ, in which the scales are
highly developed. A second species, Dorypterus althausi, also from the
German copper shales, has been described. This species has lower fins than
Dorypterus hoffmani, but may be the adult of the same type. Dorypterus is
regarded by Woodward as a specialized offshoot from the Platysomidæ. The
many-rayed ventrals and the general form of the body and fins suggest
affinity with the Lampridæ.
Page 51
Fig. 4.—Dorypterus hoffmani Germar, restored. (After
Hancock and Howse.)
Dictyopygidæ.—In the Dictyopygidæ (Catopteridæ), the body is gracefully
elongate, less compressed, the heterocercal tail is short and abruptly turned
upwards, the teeth are sharp and usually hooked, and the bony plates well
developed. Of this group two genera are recognized, each containing
numerous species. In Redfieldius (= Catopterus Redfield, not of Agassiz)
the dorsal is inserted behind the anal, while in Dictyopyge this is not the
case. Redfieldius gracilis and other species are found in the Triassic of the
Hancock and Howse.)
Dictyopygidæ.—In the Dictyopygidæ (Catopteridæ), the body is gracefully
elongate, less compressed, the heterocercal tail is short and abruptly turned
upwards, the teeth are sharp and usually hooked, and the bony plates well
developed. Of this group two genera are recognized, each containing
numerous species. In Redfieldius (= Catopterus Redfield, not of Agassiz)
the dorsal is inserted behind the anal, while in Dictyopyge this is not the
case. Redfieldius gracilis and other species are found in the Triassic of the
Page 52
Connecticut River. Dictyopyge macrura is found in the same region, and
Dictyopyge catoptera and other species in Europe.
Order Chondrostei.—The order Chondrostei (χόνδρος, cartilage; ὀστέον,
bone), as accepted by Woodward, is characterized by the persistence of the
notochord in greater or less degree, the endoskeleton remaining
cartilaginous. In all, the axonosts and baseosts of the median fins are
arranged in simple regular series and the rays are more numerous than the
supporting elements. The shoulder-girdle has a pair of infraclavicular plates.
The pelvic fins have well-developed baseosts. The branchiostegals are few
or wanting. In the living forms, and probably in all others, a matter which
can never be ascertained, the optic nerves are not decussating, but form an
optic chiasma, and the intestine is provided with a spiral valve. In all the
species there is one dorsal and one anal fin, separate from the caudal. The
teeth are small or wanting, the body naked or covered with bony plates; the
caudal fin is usually heterocercal, and on the tail are rhombic plates. To this
order, as thus defined, about half of the extinct Ganoids belong, as well as
the modern degenerate forms known as sturgeons and perhaps the paddle-
fishes, which are apparently derived from fishes with rhombic enameled
scales. The species extend from the Upper Carboniferous to the present
time, being most numerous in the Triassic.
At this point in Woodward's system diverges a descending series,
characterized as a whole by imperfect squamation and elongate form, this
leading through the synthetic type of Chondrosteidæ to the modern sturgeon
and paddle-fish, which are regarded as degenerate types.
The family of Saurorhynchidæ contains pike-like forms, with long jaws,
and long conical teeth set wide apart. The tail is not heterocercal, but short-
diphycercal; the bones of the head are covered with enamel, and those of
the roof of the skull form a continuous shield. The opercular apparatus is
much reduced, and there are no branchiostegals. The fins are all small,
without fulcra, and the skin has isolated longitudinal series of bony scutes,
but is not covered with continuous scales. The principal genus is
Saurorhynchus (= Belonorhynchus; the former being the earlier name) from
the Triassic. Saurorhynchus acutus from the English Triassic is the best
known species.
Dictyopyge catoptera and other species in Europe.
Order Chondrostei.—The order Chondrostei (χόνδρος, cartilage; ὀστέον,
bone), as accepted by Woodward, is characterized by the persistence of the
notochord in greater or less degree, the endoskeleton remaining
cartilaginous. In all, the axonosts and baseosts of the median fins are
arranged in simple regular series and the rays are more numerous than the
supporting elements. The shoulder-girdle has a pair of infraclavicular plates.
The pelvic fins have well-developed baseosts. The branchiostegals are few
or wanting. In the living forms, and probably in all others, a matter which
can never be ascertained, the optic nerves are not decussating, but form an
optic chiasma, and the intestine is provided with a spiral valve. In all the
species there is one dorsal and one anal fin, separate from the caudal. The
teeth are small or wanting, the body naked or covered with bony plates; the
caudal fin is usually heterocercal, and on the tail are rhombic plates. To this
order, as thus defined, about half of the extinct Ganoids belong, as well as
the modern degenerate forms known as sturgeons and perhaps the paddle-
fishes, which are apparently derived from fishes with rhombic enameled
scales. The species extend from the Upper Carboniferous to the present
time, being most numerous in the Triassic.
At this point in Woodward's system diverges a descending series,
characterized as a whole by imperfect squamation and elongate form, this
leading through the synthetic type of Chondrosteidæ to the modern sturgeon
and paddle-fish, which are regarded as degenerate types.
The family of Saurorhynchidæ contains pike-like forms, with long jaws,
and long conical teeth set wide apart. The tail is not heterocercal, but short-
diphycercal; the bones of the head are covered with enamel, and those of
the roof of the skull form a continuous shield. The opercular apparatus is
much reduced, and there are no branchiostegals. The fins are all small,
without fulcra, and the skin has isolated longitudinal series of bony scutes,
but is not covered with continuous scales. The principal genus is
Saurorhynchus (= Belonorhynchus; the former being the earlier name) from
the Triassic. Saurorhynchus acutus from the English Triassic is the best
known species.
Page 53
The family of Chondrosteidæ includes the Triassic precursors of the
sturgeons. The general form is that of the sturgeon, but the body is scaleless
except on the upper caudal lobe, and there are no plates on the median line
of the skull. The opercle and subopercle are present, the jaws are toothless,
and there are a few well-developed caudal rays. The caudal has large fulcra.
The single well-known species of this group, Chondrosteus acipenseroides,
is found in the Triassic rocks of England and reaches a length of about three
feet. It much resembles a modern sturgeon, though differing in several
technical respects. Chondrosteus pachyurus is based on the tail of a species
of much larger size and Gyrosteus mirabilis, also of the English Triassic, is
known from fragments of fishes which must have been 18 to 20 feet in
length.
Fig. 5.—Chondrosteus acipenseroides Egerton. Family Chondrosteidæ.
(After Woodward.)
The sturgeons constitute the recent family of Acipenseridæ, characterized
by the prolonged snout and toothless jaws and the presence of four barbels
below the snout. In the Acipenseridæ there are no branchiostegals and a
median series of plates is present on the head. The body is armed with five
rows of large bony bucklers,—each often with a hooked spine, sharpest in
the young. Besides these, rhombic plates are developed on the tail, besides
large fulcra. The sturgeons are the youngest of the Ganoids, not occurring
before the Lower Eocene, one species, Acipenser toliapicus occurring in the
London clay. About thirty living species of sturgeon are known, referred to
three genera: Acipenser, found throughout the Northern Hemisphere,
Scaphirhynchus, in the Mississippi Valley, and Kessleria (later called
sturgeons. The general form is that of the sturgeon, but the body is scaleless
except on the upper caudal lobe, and there are no plates on the median line
of the skull. The opercle and subopercle are present, the jaws are toothless,
and there are a few well-developed caudal rays. The caudal has large fulcra.
The single well-known species of this group, Chondrosteus acipenseroides,
is found in the Triassic rocks of England and reaches a length of about three
feet. It much resembles a modern sturgeon, though differing in several
technical respects. Chondrosteus pachyurus is based on the tail of a species
of much larger size and Gyrosteus mirabilis, also of the English Triassic, is
known from fragments of fishes which must have been 18 to 20 feet in
length.
Fig. 5.—Chondrosteus acipenseroides Egerton. Family Chondrosteidæ.
(After Woodward.)
The sturgeons constitute the recent family of Acipenseridæ, characterized
by the prolonged snout and toothless jaws and the presence of four barbels
below the snout. In the Acipenseridæ there are no branchiostegals and a
median series of plates is present on the head. The body is armed with five
rows of large bony bucklers,—each often with a hooked spine, sharpest in
the young. Besides these, rhombic plates are developed on the tail, besides
large fulcra. The sturgeons are the youngest of the Ganoids, not occurring
before the Lower Eocene, one species, Acipenser toliapicus occurring in the
London clay. About thirty living species of sturgeon are known, referred to
three genera: Acipenser, found throughout the Northern Hemisphere,
Scaphirhynchus, in the Mississippi Valley, and Kessleria (later called
Page 54
Pseudoscaphirhynchus), in Central Asia alone. Most of the species belong
to the genus Acipenser, which abounds in all the rivers and seas in which
salmon are found. Some of the smaller species spend their lives in the
rivers, ascending smaller streams to spawn. Other sturgeons are marine,
ascending fresh waters only for a moderate distance in the spawning season.
They range in length from 2½ to 30 feet.
All are used as food, although the flesh is rather coarse and beefy. From
their large size and abundance they possess great economic value. The eggs
of some species are prepared as caviar.
Fig. 6.—Common Sturgeon, Acipenser sturio Mitchill. Potomac River.
The sturgeons are sluggish, clumsy, bottom-feeding fish. The mouth,
underneath the long snout, is very protractile, sucker-like, and without teeth.
Before it on the under side of the snout are four long feelers. Ordinarily the
sturgeon feeds on mud and snails with other small creatures, but I have seen
large numbers of Eulachon (Thaleichthys) in the stomach of the Columbia
River sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus). This fish and the Eulachon run
in the Columbia at the same time, and the sucker-mouth of a large sturgeon
will draw into it numbers of small fishes who may be unsuspiciously
engaged in depositing their spawn. In the spawning season in June these
clumsy fishes will often leap wholly out of the water in their play. The
sturgeons have a rough skin besides five series of bony plates which change
much with age and which in very old examples are sometimes lost or
absorbed in the skin. The common sturgeon of the Atlantic on both shores is
Acipenser sturio. Acipenser huso and numerous other species are found in
Russia and Siberia. The great sturgeon of the Columbia is Acipenser
transmontanus, and the great sturgeon of Japan Acipenser kikuchii. Smaller
species are found farther south, as in the Mediterranean and along the
Carolina coast. Other small species abound in rivers and lakes. Acipenser
to the genus Acipenser, which abounds in all the rivers and seas in which
salmon are found. Some of the smaller species spend their lives in the
rivers, ascending smaller streams to spawn. Other sturgeons are marine,
ascending fresh waters only for a moderate distance in the spawning season.
They range in length from 2½ to 30 feet.
All are used as food, although the flesh is rather coarse and beefy. From
their large size and abundance they possess great economic value. The eggs
of some species are prepared as caviar.
Fig. 6.—Common Sturgeon, Acipenser sturio Mitchill. Potomac River.
The sturgeons are sluggish, clumsy, bottom-feeding fish. The mouth,
underneath the long snout, is very protractile, sucker-like, and without teeth.
Before it on the under side of the snout are four long feelers. Ordinarily the
sturgeon feeds on mud and snails with other small creatures, but I have seen
large numbers of Eulachon (Thaleichthys) in the stomach of the Columbia
River sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus). This fish and the Eulachon run
in the Columbia at the same time, and the sucker-mouth of a large sturgeon
will draw into it numbers of small fishes who may be unsuspiciously
engaged in depositing their spawn. In the spawning season in June these
clumsy fishes will often leap wholly out of the water in their play. The
sturgeons have a rough skin besides five series of bony plates which change
much with age and which in very old examples are sometimes lost or
absorbed in the skin. The common sturgeon of the Atlantic on both shores is
Acipenser sturio. Acipenser huso and numerous other species are found in
Russia and Siberia. The great sturgeon of the Columbia is Acipenser
transmontanus, and the great sturgeon of Japan Acipenser kikuchii. Smaller
species are found farther south, as in the Mediterranean and along the
Carolina coast. Other small species abound in rivers and lakes. Acipenser
Page 55
rubicundus is found throughout the Great Lake region and the Mississippi
Valley, never entering the sea. It is four to six feet long, and at Sandusky,
Ohio, in one season 14,000 sturgeons were taken in the pound nets. A
similar species, Acipenser mikadoi, is abundant and valuable in the streams
of northern Japan.
Fig. 7.—Lake Sturgeon, Acipenser rubicundus Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich.
In the genus Acipenser the snout is sharp and conical, and the shark-like
spiracle is still retained.
Fig. 8.—Shovel-nosed Sturgeon. Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus
(Rafinesque). Ohio River.
The shovel-nosed sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus) has lost the
spiracles, the tail is more slender, its surface wholly bony, and the snout is
broad and shaped like a shovel. The single species of Scaphirhynchus
abounds in the Mississippi Valley, a fish more interesting to the naturalist
than to the fisherman. It is the smallest of our sturgeons, often taken in the
nets in large numbers.
In Scaphirhynchus the tail is covered by a continuous coat of mail. In
Kessleria[6] fedtschenkoi, rossikowi, and other Asiatic species the tail is not
Valley, never entering the sea. It is four to six feet long, and at Sandusky,
Ohio, in one season 14,000 sturgeons were taken in the pound nets. A
similar species, Acipenser mikadoi, is abundant and valuable in the streams
of northern Japan.
Fig. 7.—Lake Sturgeon, Acipenser rubicundus Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich.
In the genus Acipenser the snout is sharp and conical, and the shark-like
spiracle is still retained.
Fig. 8.—Shovel-nosed Sturgeon. Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus
(Rafinesque). Ohio River.
The shovel-nosed sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus) has lost the
spiracles, the tail is more slender, its surface wholly bony, and the snout is
broad and shaped like a shovel. The single species of Scaphirhynchus
abounds in the Mississippi Valley, a fish more interesting to the naturalist
than to the fisherman. It is the smallest of our sturgeons, often taken in the
nets in large numbers.
In Scaphirhynchus the tail is covered by a continuous coat of mail. In
Kessleria[6] fedtschenkoi, rossikowi, and other Asiatic species the tail is not
Page 56
mailed.
6. These species have also been named Pseudoscaphirhynchus. Kessleria is the earlier name, left
undefined by its describer, although the type was indicated.
Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.—Another type of Ganoids, allied
to the sturgeons, perhaps still further degenerate, is that of the paddle-fishes,
called by Cope Selachostomi (σέλαχος, shark; στόμα, mouth). This group
consists of a single family, Polyodontidæ, having apparently little in
common with the other Ganoids, and in appearance still more suggestive of
the sharks. The common name of paddle-fishes is derived from the long flat
blade in which the snout terminates. This extends far beyond the mouth, is
more or less sensitive, and is used to stir up the mud in which are found the
minute organisms on which the fish feeds. Under the paddle are four very
minute barbels corresponding to those of the sturgeons. The vernacular
names of spoonbill, duckbill cat, and shovel-fish are also derived from the
form of the snout. The skin is nearly smooth, the tail is heterocercal, the
teeth are very small, and a long fleshy flap covers the gill-opening. The
very long and slender gill-rakers serve to strain the food (worms, leeches,
water-beetles, crustaceans, and algæ) from the muddy waters from which
they are taken. The most important part of this diet consists of
Entomostracans. The single American species, Polyodon spathula, abounds
through the Mississippi Valley in all the larger streams. It reaches a length
of three or four feet. It is often taken in the nets, but the coarse tough flesh,
like that of our inferior catfish, is not much esteemed. In the great rivers of
China, the Yangtse and the Hoang Ho, is a second species, Psephurus
gladius, with narrower snout, fewer gill-rakers, and much coarser fulcra on
the tail. The habits, so far as known, are much the same.
Fig. 9.—Paddle-fish, Polyodon spathula (Walbaum). Ohio River.
6. These species have also been named Pseudoscaphirhynchus. Kessleria is the earlier name, left
undefined by its describer, although the type was indicated.
Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.—Another type of Ganoids, allied
to the sturgeons, perhaps still further degenerate, is that of the paddle-fishes,
called by Cope Selachostomi (σέλαχος, shark; στόμα, mouth). This group
consists of a single family, Polyodontidæ, having apparently little in
common with the other Ganoids, and in appearance still more suggestive of
the sharks. The common name of paddle-fishes is derived from the long flat
blade in which the snout terminates. This extends far beyond the mouth, is
more or less sensitive, and is used to stir up the mud in which are found the
minute organisms on which the fish feeds. Under the paddle are four very
minute barbels corresponding to those of the sturgeons. The vernacular
names of spoonbill, duckbill cat, and shovel-fish are also derived from the
form of the snout. The skin is nearly smooth, the tail is heterocercal, the
teeth are very small, and a long fleshy flap covers the gill-opening. The
very long and slender gill-rakers serve to strain the food (worms, leeches,
water-beetles, crustaceans, and algæ) from the muddy waters from which
they are taken. The most important part of this diet consists of
Entomostracans. The single American species, Polyodon spathula, abounds
through the Mississippi Valley in all the larger streams. It reaches a length
of three or four feet. It is often taken in the nets, but the coarse tough flesh,
like that of our inferior catfish, is not much esteemed. In the great rivers of
China, the Yangtse and the Hoang Ho, is a second species, Psephurus
gladius, with narrower snout, fewer gill-rakers, and much coarser fulcra on
the tail. The habits, so far as known, are much the same.
Fig. 9.—Paddle-fish, Polyodon spathula (Walbaum). Ohio River.
Page 57
Fig. 10.—Paddle-fish. Polyodon Spathula (Walbaum). Ohio River.
Fig. 11.—Psephurus gladius Günther. Yangtse River. (After Günther.)
Crossopholis magnicaudatus of the Green River Eocene shales is a
primitive member of the Polyodontidæ. Its rostral blade is shorter than that
of Polyodon, and the body is covered with small thin scales, each in the
form of a small grooved disk with several posterior denticulations, arranged
in oblique series but not in contact. The scales are quadrate in form, and
more widely separated anteriorly than posteriorly. As in Polyodon, the teeth
are minute and there are no branchiostegals. The squamation of this fish
shows that Polyodon as well as Acipenser may have sprung from a type
having rhombic scales. The tail of a Cretaceous fish, Pholidurus disjectus
from the Cretaceous of Europe, has been referred with doubt to this family
of Polyodontidæ.
Order Pycnodonti.—In the extinct order Pycnodonti, as recognized by Dr.
O. P. Hay, the notochord is persistent and without ossification, the body is
very deep, the teeth are always blunt, the opercular apparatus is reduced, the
dorsal fin many-rayed, and the fins without fulcra. The scales are rhombic,
but are sometimes wanting, at least on the tail. Many genera and species of
Pycnodontidæ are described, mostly from Triassic and Jurassic rocks of
Europe. Leading European genera are Pycnodus, Typodus (Mesodon),
Gyrodus, and Palæobalistum. The numerous American species belong to
Typodus, Cœlodus, Pycnodus, Hadrodus, and Uranoplosus. These forms
Fig. 11.—Psephurus gladius Günther. Yangtse River. (After Günther.)
Crossopholis magnicaudatus of the Green River Eocene shales is a
primitive member of the Polyodontidæ. Its rostral blade is shorter than that
of Polyodon, and the body is covered with small thin scales, each in the
form of a small grooved disk with several posterior denticulations, arranged
in oblique series but not in contact. The scales are quadrate in form, and
more widely separated anteriorly than posteriorly. As in Polyodon, the teeth
are minute and there are no branchiostegals. The squamation of this fish
shows that Polyodon as well as Acipenser may have sprung from a type
having rhombic scales. The tail of a Cretaceous fish, Pholidurus disjectus
from the Cretaceous of Europe, has been referred with doubt to this family
of Polyodontidæ.
Order Pycnodonti.—In the extinct order Pycnodonti, as recognized by Dr.
O. P. Hay, the notochord is persistent and without ossification, the body is
very deep, the teeth are always blunt, the opercular apparatus is reduced, the
dorsal fin many-rayed, and the fins without fulcra. The scales are rhombic,
but are sometimes wanting, at least on the tail. Many genera and species of
Pycnodontidæ are described, mostly from Triassic and Jurassic rocks of
Europe. Leading European genera are Pycnodus, Typodus (Mesodon),
Gyrodus, and Palæobalistum. The numerous American species belong to
Typodus, Cœlodus, Pycnodus, Hadrodus, and Uranoplosus. These forms
Page 58
have no affinity with Balistes, although there is some resemblance in
appearance, which has suggested the name of Palæobalistum.
Fig. 12.—Gyrodus hexagonus Agassiz. Family Pycnodontidæ.
Lithographic Shales.
Woodward places these fishes with the Semionotidæ and Halecomorphi in
his suborder of Protospondyli. It seems preferable, however, to consider
them as forming a distinct order.
appearance, which has suggested the name of Palæobalistum.
Fig. 12.—Gyrodus hexagonus Agassiz. Family Pycnodontidæ.
Lithographic Shales.
Woodward places these fishes with the Semionotidæ and Halecomorphi in
his suborder of Protospondyli. It seems preferable, however, to consider
them as forming a distinct order.
Page 59
Fig. 13.—Mesturus verrucosus Wagner. Family Pycnodontidæ. (After
Woodward.)
Order Lepidostei.—We may place, following Eastman's edition of Zittel,
the allies and predecessors of the garpike in a single order, for which
Huxley's name Lepidostei may well be used. In this group the notochord is
persistent, and the vertebræ are in various degrees of ossification and of
different forms. The opercles are usually complete, the branchiostegals
present, and there is often a gular plate. There is no infraclavicle and the
jaws have sharp teeth. The fins have fulcra, and the supports of the fins
agree in number with the rays. The tail is more or less heterocercal. The
scales are rhombic, arranged in oblique series, which are often united above
and below with peg-and-socket articulations. This group contains among
recent fishes only the garpikes (Lepisosteus). They are closely allied to the
Palæoniscidæ, but the skeleton is more highly ossified. On the other hand
they approach very closely to the ancestors of the bowfin, Amia. One genus,
Acentrophorus, appears in the Permian; the others are scattered through
Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, the isolated group of gars still persisting. In
the gars the vertebræ are concavo-convex, with ball-and-socket joints. In
the others the vertebræ are incomplete or else double-concave, as in fishes
generally.
Woodward.)
Order Lepidostei.—We may place, following Eastman's edition of Zittel,
the allies and predecessors of the garpike in a single order, for which
Huxley's name Lepidostei may well be used. In this group the notochord is
persistent, and the vertebræ are in various degrees of ossification and of
different forms. The opercles are usually complete, the branchiostegals
present, and there is often a gular plate. There is no infraclavicle and the
jaws have sharp teeth. The fins have fulcra, and the supports of the fins
agree in number with the rays. The tail is more or less heterocercal. The
scales are rhombic, arranged in oblique series, which are often united above
and below with peg-and-socket articulations. This group contains among
recent fishes only the garpikes (Lepisosteus). They are closely allied to the
Palæoniscidæ, but the skeleton is more highly ossified. On the other hand
they approach very closely to the ancestors of the bowfin, Amia. One genus,
Acentrophorus, appears in the Permian; the others are scattered through
Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, the isolated group of gars still persisting. In
the gars the vertebræ are concavo-convex, with ball-and-socket joints. In
the others the vertebræ are incomplete or else double-concave, as in fishes
generally.
Page 60
For the group here called Lepidostei numerous other names have been used
corresponding wholly or in part. Rhomboganoidea of Gill covers nearly the
same groups; Holostei of Müller and Hyoganoidea of Gill include the
Halecomorphi also; Ginglymodi of Cope includes the garpikes only, while
Ætheospondyli of Woodward includes the Aspidorhynchidæ and the
garpikes.
Fig. 14.—Semionotus kapffi Fraas, restored. Family Semionotidæ. (After
Fraas, per Nicholson.)
The Semionotidæ (Stylodontidæ) are robust-bodied Ganoids, having the
vertebræ developed as rings, the jaws with several rows of teeth, those of
the outer row styliform.
Semionotus bergeri is a well-known species, with the body moderately
elongate. Semionotus agassizi and many other species occur in the Triassic
of the Connecticut valley and in New Jersey. The body is very deep in the
related genus Dapedium, and the head is covered with strong bony plates.
Dapedium politum is a well-known species of the English Triassic.
Tetragonolepis (Pleurolepis) is a similar form, very deep and compressed,
with strong, firm scales.
In the extinct family of Lepidotidæ the teeth are conical or chisel-shaped,
while blunt or molar teeth are on the inside of the mouth, which is small,
and the suspensorium of the mandible is vertical or inclined forward. The
corresponding wholly or in part. Rhomboganoidea of Gill covers nearly the
same groups; Holostei of Müller and Hyoganoidea of Gill include the
Halecomorphi also; Ginglymodi of Cope includes the garpikes only, while
Ætheospondyli of Woodward includes the Aspidorhynchidæ and the
garpikes.
Fig. 14.—Semionotus kapffi Fraas, restored. Family Semionotidæ. (After
Fraas, per Nicholson.)
The Semionotidæ (Stylodontidæ) are robust-bodied Ganoids, having the
vertebræ developed as rings, the jaws with several rows of teeth, those of
the outer row styliform.
Semionotus bergeri is a well-known species, with the body moderately
elongate. Semionotus agassizi and many other species occur in the Triassic
of the Connecticut valley and in New Jersey. The body is very deep in the
related genus Dapedium, and the head is covered with strong bony plates.
Dapedium politum is a well-known species of the English Triassic.
Tetragonolepis (Pleurolepis) is a similar form, very deep and compressed,
with strong, firm scales.
In the extinct family of Lepidotidæ the teeth are conical or chisel-shaped,
while blunt or molar teeth are on the inside of the mouth, which is small,
and the suspensorium of the mandible is vertical or inclined forward. The
Page 61
body is robust-fusiform, covered with rhomboid scales; the vertebræ form
rings about the notochord; the teeth are either sharp or blunt. The dorsal fin
is short, with large fulcra.
The best known of the numerous genera are Lepidotes, rather elongate in
body, with large, blunt teeth. Of the many species of Lepidotes, Lepidotes
elvensis abounds in the English and German Triassic, and Lepidotes minor
in the English Triassic. Another well-known European species is Lepidotes
mantelli.
Fig. 15.—Dapedium politum Leach, restored. Family Semionotidæ. (After
Woodward.)
The Isopholidæ (Eugnathidæ) differ from the families last named in the
large pike-like mouth with strong teeth. The mandibular suspensorium is
inclined backwards. The body is elongate, the vertebræ forming incomplete
rings; the dorsal fin is short with large fulcra.
Isopholis dentosus is found with numerous other species in the British
Triassic. Caturus furcatus is especially characteristic of Triassic rocks in
Germany. Ptycholepis marshi occurs in the Connecticut valley.
rings about the notochord; the teeth are either sharp or blunt. The dorsal fin
is short, with large fulcra.
The best known of the numerous genera are Lepidotes, rather elongate in
body, with large, blunt teeth. Of the many species of Lepidotes, Lepidotes
elvensis abounds in the English and German Triassic, and Lepidotes minor
in the English Triassic. Another well-known European species is Lepidotes
mantelli.
Fig. 15.—Dapedium politum Leach, restored. Family Semionotidæ. (After
Woodward.)
The Isopholidæ (Eugnathidæ) differ from the families last named in the
large pike-like mouth with strong teeth. The mandibular suspensorium is
inclined backwards. The body is elongate, the vertebræ forming incomplete
rings; the dorsal fin is short with large fulcra.
Isopholis dentosus is found with numerous other species in the British
Triassic. Caturus furcatus is especially characteristic of Triassic rocks in
Germany. Ptycholepis marshi occurs in the Connecticut valley.
Page 62
Fig. 16.—Tetragonolepis semicinctus Brown. Lias. Family Semionotidæ.
(After Woodward.)
The Macrosemiidæ are elongate fishes with long dorsal fin, the numerous
species being found in the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous of Europe.
Macrosemius rostratus has a very high, continuous dorsal. Macropistius
arenatus is found in the Cretaceous of Texas, the only American species
known. Prominent European genera are Notagogus, Ophiopsis, and
Petalopteryx.
(After Woodward.)
The Macrosemiidæ are elongate fishes with long dorsal fin, the numerous
species being found in the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous of Europe.
Macrosemius rostratus has a very high, continuous dorsal. Macropistius
arenatus is found in the Cretaceous of Texas, the only American species
known. Prominent European genera are Notagogus, Ophiopsis, and
Petalopteryx.
Page 63
Fig. 17.—Isopholis orthostomus (Agassiz). Lias. (After Woodward.)
Fig. 18.—The Long-nosed Garpike, Lepisosteus osseus (Linnæus). Fox
River, Wisconsin. (From nature; D. S. Jordan and M. L. McDonald, 1874.)
Intermediate between the allies of the gars and the modern herrings is the
large extinct family of Pholidophoridæ, referred by Woodward to the
Isospondyli, and by Eastman to the Lepidostei. These are small fishes,
fusiform in shape, chiefly of the Triassic and Jurassic. The fins are fringed
with fulcra, the scales are ganoid and rhombic, and the vertebræ reduced to
rings. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and formed as in the
Isospondyli. The caudal is scarcely heterocercal.
Fig. 18.—The Long-nosed Garpike, Lepisosteus osseus (Linnæus). Fox
River, Wisconsin. (From nature; D. S. Jordan and M. L. McDonald, 1874.)
Intermediate between the allies of the gars and the modern herrings is the
large extinct family of Pholidophoridæ, referred by Woodward to the
Isospondyli, and by Eastman to the Lepidostei. These are small fishes,
fusiform in shape, chiefly of the Triassic and Jurassic. The fins are fringed
with fulcra, the scales are ganoid and rhombic, and the vertebræ reduced to
rings. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and formed as in the
Isospondyli. The caudal is scarcely heterocercal.
Page 64
Fig. 19.—Caturus elongatus Agassiz. Jurassic. Family Isopholidæ. (After
Zittel.)
Fig. 20.—Notagogus pentlandi Agassiz. Jurassic. Family Macrosemiidæ.
(After Woodward.)
Zittel.)
Fig. 20.—Notagogus pentlandi Agassiz. Jurassic. Family Macrosemiidæ.
(After Woodward.)
Page 65
Fig. 21.—Ptycholepis curtus Egerton. Lias. Family Isopholidæ. (After
Woodward.)
Of Pholidophorus, with scales joined by peg-and-socket joints and uniform
in size, there are many species. Pholidophorus latiusculus and many others
are found in the Triassic of England and the Continent. Pholidophorus
americanus occurs in the Jurassic of South Dakota. Pleuropholis, with the
scales on the lateral line, which runs very low, excessively deepened, is also
widely distributed. I have before me a new species from the Cretaceous
rocks near Los Angeles. The Archæomænidæ differ from Pholidophoridæ in
having cycloid scales. In both families the vertebræ are reduced to rings
about the notochord. From fishes allied to the Pholidophoridæ the earliest
Isospondyli are probably descended.
Woodward.)
Of Pholidophorus, with scales joined by peg-and-socket joints and uniform
in size, there are many species. Pholidophorus latiusculus and many others
are found in the Triassic of England and the Continent. Pholidophorus
americanus occurs in the Jurassic of South Dakota. Pleuropholis, with the
scales on the lateral line, which runs very low, excessively deepened, is also
widely distributed. I have before me a new species from the Cretaceous
rocks near Los Angeles. The Archæomænidæ differ from Pholidophoridæ in
having cycloid scales. In both families the vertebræ are reduced to rings
about the notochord. From fishes allied to the Pholidophoridæ the earliest
Isospondyli are probably descended.
Page 66
Fig. 22.—Pholidophorus crenulatus Egerton. Lias. (After Woodward.)
In the Aspidorhynchidæ the snout is more or less produced, the mandible
has a distinct presymphysial bone, the vertebræ are double-concave or ring-
like, and the fins are without fulcra. This family constitutes the suborder
Ætheospondyli. In form these fishes resemble Albula and other modern
types, but have mailed heads and an ancient type of scales. Two genera are
well known, Aspidorhynchus and Belonostomus. Aspidorhynchus
acutirostris reaches a length of three feet, and is found in the Triassic
lithographic stone of Bavaria. Other species occur in rocks of Germany and
England.
Belonostomus has the snout scarcely produced. Belonostomus sphyrænoides
is the best known of the numerous species, all of the Triassic, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous.
Family Lepisosteidæ.—The family of Lepisosteidæ, constituting the
suborder Ginglymodi (γιγγλυμός, hinge), is characterized especially by the
form of the vertebræ.
These are opisthocœlian, convex in front and concave behind, as in reptiles,
being connected by ball-and-socket joints. The tail is moderately
heterocercal, less so than in the Halecomorphi, and the body is covered
with very hard, diamond-shaped, enameled scales in structure similar to that
of the teeth. A number of peculiar characters are shown by these fishes,
some of them having often been regarded as reptilian traits. Notable
features are the elongate, crocodile-like jaws, the upper the longer, and both
armed with strong teeth. The mandible is without presymphysial bone. The
fins are small with large fulcra, and the scales are nearly uniform in size.
All the species belong to a single family, Lepisosteidæ, which includes the
modern garpikes and their immediate relatives, some of which occur in the
early Tertiary. These voracious fishes are characterized by long and slender
cylindrical bodies, with enameled scales and mailed heads and heterocercal
tail. The teeth are sharp and unequal. The skeleton is well ossified, and the
animal itself is extremely voracious. The vertebræ, reptile-like, are
opisthocœlian, that is, convex in front, concave behind, forming ball-and-
socket joints. In almost all other fishes they are amphicœlian or double-
concave, the interspace filled with gelatinous substance. The recent species,
In the Aspidorhynchidæ the snout is more or less produced, the mandible
has a distinct presymphysial bone, the vertebræ are double-concave or ring-
like, and the fins are without fulcra. This family constitutes the suborder
Ætheospondyli. In form these fishes resemble Albula and other modern
types, but have mailed heads and an ancient type of scales. Two genera are
well known, Aspidorhynchus and Belonostomus. Aspidorhynchus
acutirostris reaches a length of three feet, and is found in the Triassic
lithographic stone of Bavaria. Other species occur in rocks of Germany and
England.
Belonostomus has the snout scarcely produced. Belonostomus sphyrænoides
is the best known of the numerous species, all of the Triassic, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous.
Family Lepisosteidæ.—The family of Lepisosteidæ, constituting the
suborder Ginglymodi (γιγγλυμός, hinge), is characterized especially by the
form of the vertebræ.
These are opisthocœlian, convex in front and concave behind, as in reptiles,
being connected by ball-and-socket joints. The tail is moderately
heterocercal, less so than in the Halecomorphi, and the body is covered
with very hard, diamond-shaped, enameled scales in structure similar to that
of the teeth. A number of peculiar characters are shown by these fishes,
some of them having often been regarded as reptilian traits. Notable
features are the elongate, crocodile-like jaws, the upper the longer, and both
armed with strong teeth. The mandible is without presymphysial bone. The
fins are small with large fulcra, and the scales are nearly uniform in size.
All the species belong to a single family, Lepisosteidæ, which includes the
modern garpikes and their immediate relatives, some of which occur in the
early Tertiary. These voracious fishes are characterized by long and slender
cylindrical bodies, with enameled scales and mailed heads and heterocercal
tail. The teeth are sharp and unequal. The skeleton is well ossified, and the
animal itself is extremely voracious. The vertebræ, reptile-like, are
opisthocœlian, that is, convex in front, concave behind, forming ball-and-
socket joints. In almost all other fishes they are amphicœlian or double-
concave, the interspace filled with gelatinous substance. The recent species,
Page 67
and perhaps all the extinct species also, belong to the single genus
Lepisosteus (more correctly, but also more recently, spelled Lepidosteus).
Of existing forms there are not many species, three to five at the most, and
they swarm in the lakes, bayous, and sluggish streams from Lake
Champlain to Cuba and along the coast to Central America. The best known
of the species is the long-nosed garpike, Lepisosteus osseus, which is found
throughout most of the Great Lake region and the Mississippi Valley, and in
which the long and slender jaws are much longer than the rest of the head.
The garpike frequents quiet waters and is apparently of sleepy habit. It often
lies quiet for a long time, carried around and around by the eddies. It does
not readily take the hook and seldom feeds in the aquarium. It feeds on
crayfishes and small fishes, to which it is exceedingly destructive, as its bad
reputation indicates. Fishermen everywhere destroy it without mercy. Its
flesh is rank and tough and unfit even for dogs.
In the young garpike the caudal fin appears as a second dorsal and anal, the
filamentous tip of the tail passing through and beyond it.
The short-nosed garpike, Lepisosteus platystomus, is generally common
throughout the Mississippi Valley. It has a short broad snout like the
alligator-gar, but seldom exceeds three feet in length. In size, color, and
habits it agrees closely with the common gar, differing only in the form of
the snout. The form is subject to much variation, and it is possible that two
or more species have been confounded.
Fig. 23.—Alligator-gar, Lepisosteus tristœchus (Bloch). Cuba.
The great alligator-gar, Lepisosteus tristœchus, reaches a length of twenty
feet or more, and is a notable inhabitant of the streams about the Gulf of
Lepisosteus (more correctly, but also more recently, spelled Lepidosteus).
Of existing forms there are not many species, three to five at the most, and
they swarm in the lakes, bayous, and sluggish streams from Lake
Champlain to Cuba and along the coast to Central America. The best known
of the species is the long-nosed garpike, Lepisosteus osseus, which is found
throughout most of the Great Lake region and the Mississippi Valley, and in
which the long and slender jaws are much longer than the rest of the head.
The garpike frequents quiet waters and is apparently of sleepy habit. It often
lies quiet for a long time, carried around and around by the eddies. It does
not readily take the hook and seldom feeds in the aquarium. It feeds on
crayfishes and small fishes, to which it is exceedingly destructive, as its bad
reputation indicates. Fishermen everywhere destroy it without mercy. Its
flesh is rank and tough and unfit even for dogs.
In the young garpike the caudal fin appears as a second dorsal and anal, the
filamentous tip of the tail passing through and beyond it.
The short-nosed garpike, Lepisosteus platystomus, is generally common
throughout the Mississippi Valley. It has a short broad snout like the
alligator-gar, but seldom exceeds three feet in length. In size, color, and
habits it agrees closely with the common gar, differing only in the form of
the snout. The form is subject to much variation, and it is possible that two
or more species have been confounded.
Fig. 23.—Alligator-gar, Lepisosteus tristœchus (Bloch). Cuba.
The great alligator-gar, Lepisosteus tristœchus, reaches a length of twenty
feet or more, and is a notable inhabitant of the streams about the Gulf of
Page 68
Mexico. Its snout is broad and relatively wide, and its teeth are very strong.
It is very destructive to all sorts of food-fishes. Its flesh is worthless, and its
enameled scales resist a spear or sometimes even shot. It breathes air to a
certain extent by its lungs, but soon dies in foul water, not having the
tenacity of life seen in Amia.
Embryology of the Garpike.—Mr. Alexander Agassiz has given an
account of the embryology of the garpike, of which the following is an
abstract:
"The garpike comes up the St. Lawrence in May, lays its eggs about the
20th, and then disappears. The eggs are large, viscous, stick fast in an
isolated way to whatever they fall upon, and look much like those of toads,
having a large outer membrane and a small yolk. Artificial fecundation
failed, but about 500 naturally-laid eggs were secured, of which all but 30
perished through mold. The young began to hatch in six days. Out of 30
young hatched, 27 lived until the 15th of July. Connection with the sharks
appears in the similarity of the branchial arches and by the presence of the
lateral fold in which the pectoral fins are formed; the way the tail is
developed is very like that of the bony fishes. Among the Ganoids it
appears, as well as in ordinary fishes, the dorsal cord is straight at first, then
assumes a slightly upward curve at the extremity, when finally there
appears the beginning of a lobe underneath, pointing to a complete
heterocercal tail. All this is as in the bony fishes, but this is the permanent
condition of the garpike, while in the bony fishes the extremity of the dorsal
cord becomes extinct. The mode of development of the pectoral lobe (very
large in this species) furnishes another resemblance. In the brain, and in the
mode of formation of the gills, a likeness to the sharks is noticeable. The
young garpikes move very slowly, and seem to float quietly, save an
exceedingly rapid vibration of the pectorals and the tip of the tail. They do
not swim about much, but attach themselves to fixed objects by an
extraordinary horseshoe-shaped ring of sucker-appendages about the mouth.
These appendages remain even after the snout has become so extended that
the ultimate shape is hinted at; and furthermore, it is a remnant of this
feature that forms the fleshy bulb at the end of the snout in the adult. The
investigations thus far show that the young garpike has many characteristics
in common with the sharks and skates, but it is not so different from the
bony fishes as has been supposed."
It is very destructive to all sorts of food-fishes. Its flesh is worthless, and its
enameled scales resist a spear or sometimes even shot. It breathes air to a
certain extent by its lungs, but soon dies in foul water, not having the
tenacity of life seen in Amia.
Embryology of the Garpike.—Mr. Alexander Agassiz has given an
account of the embryology of the garpike, of which the following is an
abstract:
"The garpike comes up the St. Lawrence in May, lays its eggs about the
20th, and then disappears. The eggs are large, viscous, stick fast in an
isolated way to whatever they fall upon, and look much like those of toads,
having a large outer membrane and a small yolk. Artificial fecundation
failed, but about 500 naturally-laid eggs were secured, of which all but 30
perished through mold. The young began to hatch in six days. Out of 30
young hatched, 27 lived until the 15th of July. Connection with the sharks
appears in the similarity of the branchial arches and by the presence of the
lateral fold in which the pectoral fins are formed; the way the tail is
developed is very like that of the bony fishes. Among the Ganoids it
appears, as well as in ordinary fishes, the dorsal cord is straight at first, then
assumes a slightly upward curve at the extremity, when finally there
appears the beginning of a lobe underneath, pointing to a complete
heterocercal tail. All this is as in the bony fishes, but this is the permanent
condition of the garpike, while in the bony fishes the extremity of the dorsal
cord becomes extinct. The mode of development of the pectoral lobe (very
large in this species) furnishes another resemblance. In the brain, and in the
mode of formation of the gills, a likeness to the sharks is noticeable. The
young garpikes move very slowly, and seem to float quietly, save an
exceedingly rapid vibration of the pectorals and the tip of the tail. They do
not swim about much, but attach themselves to fixed objects by an
extraordinary horseshoe-shaped ring of sucker-appendages about the mouth.
These appendages remain even after the snout has become so extended that
the ultimate shape is hinted at; and furthermore, it is a remnant of this
feature that forms the fleshy bulb at the end of the snout in the adult. The
investigations thus far show that the young garpike has many characteristics
in common with the sharks and skates, but it is not so different from the
bony fishes as has been supposed."
Page 69
Fossil Garpikes.—A number of fossil garpikes, referred by Cope to the
genus Clastes and by Eastman and Woodward to Lepidosteus, are found in
the Eocene of Europe and America. The most perfect of these remains is
called Lepisosteus atrox, upward of four feet long, as large as an alligator-
gar, which the species much resembles. Although found in the Eocene, Dr.
C. R. Eastman declares that "it has no positively archaic features. If we
inquire into the more remote or pre-Eocene history of Lepidosteids,
palæontology gives no answer. They blossom forth suddenly and fully
differentiated at the dawn of the Tertiary, without the least clue to their
ancestry, unheralded and unaccompanied by any intermediate forms, and
they have remained essentially unchanged ever since."
Another fossil species is Lepisosteus fimbriatus, from the Upper Eocene of
England. Scales and other fragments of garpikes are found in Germany,
Belgium, and France, in Eocene and Miocene rocks. On some of these the
nominal genera Naisia, Trichiurides, and Pneumatosteus are founded.
Clastes, regarded by Eastman as fully identical with Lepisosteus, is said to
have the "mandibular ramus without or with a reduced fissure of the dental
foramen, and without the groove continuous with it in Lepisosteus. One
series of large teeth, with small ones external to them on the dentary bone."
Most of the fossil forms belong to Clastes, but the genus shows no
difference of importance which will distinguish it from the ordinary
garpike.
genus Clastes and by Eastman and Woodward to Lepidosteus, are found in
the Eocene of Europe and America. The most perfect of these remains is
called Lepisosteus atrox, upward of four feet long, as large as an alligator-
gar, which the species much resembles. Although found in the Eocene, Dr.
C. R. Eastman declares that "it has no positively archaic features. If we
inquire into the more remote or pre-Eocene history of Lepidosteids,
palæontology gives no answer. They blossom forth suddenly and fully
differentiated at the dawn of the Tertiary, without the least clue to their
ancestry, unheralded and unaccompanied by any intermediate forms, and
they have remained essentially unchanged ever since."
Another fossil species is Lepisosteus fimbriatus, from the Upper Eocene of
England. Scales and other fragments of garpikes are found in Germany,
Belgium, and France, in Eocene and Miocene rocks. On some of these the
nominal genera Naisia, Trichiurides, and Pneumatosteus are founded.
Clastes, regarded by Eastman as fully identical with Lepisosteus, is said to
have the "mandibular ramus without or with a reduced fissure of the dental
foramen, and without the groove continuous with it in Lepisosteus. One
series of large teeth, with small ones external to them on the dentary bone."
Most of the fossil forms belong to Clastes, but the genus shows no
difference of importance which will distinguish it from the ordinary
garpike.
Page 70
Fig. 24.—Lower jaw of Amia calva Linnæus, showing the gular plate.
Order Halecomorphi.—To this order belong the allies, living or extinct, of
the bowfin (Amia), having for the most part cycloid scales and vertebræ
approaching those of ordinary fishes. The resemblance to the Isospondyli,
or herring group, is indicated in the name (Halec, a herring; μορφή, form).
The notochord is persistent, the vertebræ variously ossified. The opercles
are always complete. The branchiostegals are broad and there is always a
gular plate. The teeth are pointed, usually strong. There is no infraclavicle.
Fulcra are present or absent. The supports of the dorsal and anal are equal in
number to the rays. Tail heterocercal. Scales thin, mostly cycloid, but bony
at base, not jointed with each other. Mandible complex, with well-
developed splenial rising into a coronoid process, which is completed by a
distinct coronoid bone. Pectoral fin with more than five actinosts; scales
ganoid or cycloid. In the living forms the air-bladder is connected with the
œsophagus through life; optic chiasma present; intestine with a spiral valve.
This group corresponds to the Amioidei of Lütken and essentially to the
Order Halecomorphi.—To this order belong the allies, living or extinct, of
the bowfin (Amia), having for the most part cycloid scales and vertebræ
approaching those of ordinary fishes. The resemblance to the Isospondyli,
or herring group, is indicated in the name (Halec, a herring; μορφή, form).
The notochord is persistent, the vertebræ variously ossified. The opercles
are always complete. The branchiostegals are broad and there is always a
gular plate. The teeth are pointed, usually strong. There is no infraclavicle.
Fulcra are present or absent. The supports of the dorsal and anal are equal in
number to the rays. Tail heterocercal. Scales thin, mostly cycloid, but bony
at base, not jointed with each other. Mandible complex, with well-
developed splenial rising into a coronoid process, which is completed by a
distinct coronoid bone. Pectoral fin with more than five actinosts; scales
ganoid or cycloid. In the living forms the air-bladder is connected with the
œsophagus through life; optic chiasma present; intestine with a spiral valve.
This group corresponds to the Amioidei of Lütken and essentially to the
Page 71
Cycloganoidei of Gill. The Protospondyli (προτός, before; σπόνδυλος,
vertebra) of Woodward contains essentially the same elements.
Pachycormidæ.—In the family of Pachycormidæ the notochord is
persistent, the ethmoids and vomer fused and projecting between the
maxillaries to form the prominent snout, the teeth large, the body fusiform,
the dorsal short, with slender rays and few fulcra or none, and the scales are
thin and rhombic. The numerous species are characteristic of the Triassic,
Jurassic, and Cretaceous. In Sauropsis (longimana) the body is elongate,
and the pectoral fins are large and sickle-shaped. Euthynotus has small
fulcra. In Pachycormus (macropterus, esocinus, etc.) the form is robust and
the ventral fins are wanting. In Hypsycormus ventrals are present, and the
caudal deeply forked.
In the American family of Protosphyrænidæ the jaws are armed with very
strong teeth, as in the Barracuda, which, however, the species do not
resemble in other respects. Protosphyræna nitida, perniciosa, and numerous
other extinct forms, some of them of large size, were voracious inhabitants
of the Cretaceous seas, and are found fossil, especially in North Carolina
and Kansas. Numerous species called Erisichthe and Pelecopterus are all
referred by Hay to Protosphyræna. In this family the scapula and coracoids
are ossified, and perhaps the vertebræ also, and, as Dr. Hay has recently
suggested, the Protosphyrænidæ may really belong to the Isospondyli. In
any event, they stand on the border-line between the most fish-like of the
Ganoids and the most archaic of the bony fishes.
The Liodesmidæ (genus Liodesmus) are much like Amia, but the notochord
is persistent, its sheath without ossification. Liodesmus gracilis and L.
sprattiformis occur in the lithographic stones of Bavaria. Woodward places
Liodesmus with Megalurus among the Amiidæ.
The Bowfins: Amiidæ.—The Amiidæ have the vertebræ more complete.
The dorsal fin is many-rayed and is without distinct fulcra. The diamond-
shaped enameled scales disappear, giving place to cycloid scales, which
gradually become thin and membranous in structure. A median gular plate
is developed between the branchiostegals. The tail is moderately
heterocercal, and the head covered with a bony coat of mail.
The family of Amiidæ contains a single recent species, Amia calva, the only
living member of the order Halecomorphi. The bowfin, or grindle, is a
vertebra) of Woodward contains essentially the same elements.
Pachycormidæ.—In the family of Pachycormidæ the notochord is
persistent, the ethmoids and vomer fused and projecting between the
maxillaries to form the prominent snout, the teeth large, the body fusiform,
the dorsal short, with slender rays and few fulcra or none, and the scales are
thin and rhombic. The numerous species are characteristic of the Triassic,
Jurassic, and Cretaceous. In Sauropsis (longimana) the body is elongate,
and the pectoral fins are large and sickle-shaped. Euthynotus has small
fulcra. In Pachycormus (macropterus, esocinus, etc.) the form is robust and
the ventral fins are wanting. In Hypsycormus ventrals are present, and the
caudal deeply forked.
In the American family of Protosphyrænidæ the jaws are armed with very
strong teeth, as in the Barracuda, which, however, the species do not
resemble in other respects. Protosphyræna nitida, perniciosa, and numerous
other extinct forms, some of them of large size, were voracious inhabitants
of the Cretaceous seas, and are found fossil, especially in North Carolina
and Kansas. Numerous species called Erisichthe and Pelecopterus are all
referred by Hay to Protosphyræna. In this family the scapula and coracoids
are ossified, and perhaps the vertebræ also, and, as Dr. Hay has recently
suggested, the Protosphyrænidæ may really belong to the Isospondyli. In
any event, they stand on the border-line between the most fish-like of the
Ganoids and the most archaic of the bony fishes.
The Liodesmidæ (genus Liodesmus) are much like Amia, but the notochord
is persistent, its sheath without ossification. Liodesmus gracilis and L.
sprattiformis occur in the lithographic stones of Bavaria. Woodward places
Liodesmus with Megalurus among the Amiidæ.
The Bowfins: Amiidæ.—The Amiidæ have the vertebræ more complete.
The dorsal fin is many-rayed and is without distinct fulcra. The diamond-
shaped enameled scales disappear, giving place to cycloid scales, which
gradually become thin and membranous in structure. A median gular plate
is developed between the branchiostegals. The tail is moderately
heterocercal, and the head covered with a bony coat of mail.
The family of Amiidæ contains a single recent species, Amia calva, the only
living member of the order Halecomorphi. The bowfin, or grindle, is a
Page 72
remarkable fish abounding in the lakes and swamps of the Mississippi
Valley, the Great Lake region, and southward to Virginia, where it is known
by the imposing but unexplained title of John A. Grindle. In the Great Lakes
it is usually called "dogfish," because even the dogs will not eat it, and
"lawyer," because, according to Dr. Kirtland, "it will bite at anything and is
good for nothing when caught."
The bowfin reaches a length of two and one half feet, the male being
smaller than the female and marked by an ocellated black spot on the tail.
Both sexes are dark mottled green in color. The flesh of the species is very
watery, pasty, much of the substance evaporating when exposed to the air. It
is ill-flavored, and is not often used as food. The species is very voracious
and extremely tenacious of life. Its well-developed lung enables it to
breathe even when out of the water, and it will live in the air longer than
any other fish of American waters, longer even than the horned pout
(Ameiurus) or the mud-minnow (Umbra). As a game fish the grindle is one
of the very best, if the angler does not care for the flesh of what he catches,
it being one of the hardest fighters that ever took the hook.
Fig. 25.—Bowfin (female), Amia calva Linnæus. Lake Michigan.
The Amiidæ retain many of the Ganoid characters, though approaching
more nearly than any other of the Ganoids to the modern herring tribe. For
this reason the name Halecomorphi (shad-formed) was given to this order
by Professor Cope. The gular plate found in Amia and other Ganoids
reappears in the herring-like family of Elopidæ, which includes the tarpon
and the ten-pounder.
Valley, the Great Lake region, and southward to Virginia, where it is known
by the imposing but unexplained title of John A. Grindle. In the Great Lakes
it is usually called "dogfish," because even the dogs will not eat it, and
"lawyer," because, according to Dr. Kirtland, "it will bite at anything and is
good for nothing when caught."
The bowfin reaches a length of two and one half feet, the male being
smaller than the female and marked by an ocellated black spot on the tail.
Both sexes are dark mottled green in color. The flesh of the species is very
watery, pasty, much of the substance evaporating when exposed to the air. It
is ill-flavored, and is not often used as food. The species is very voracious
and extremely tenacious of life. Its well-developed lung enables it to
breathe even when out of the water, and it will live in the air longer than
any other fish of American waters, longer even than the horned pout
(Ameiurus) or the mud-minnow (Umbra). As a game fish the grindle is one
of the very best, if the angler does not care for the flesh of what he catches,
it being one of the hardest fighters that ever took the hook.
Fig. 25.—Bowfin (female), Amia calva Linnæus. Lake Michigan.
The Amiidæ retain many of the Ganoid characters, though approaching
more nearly than any other of the Ganoids to the modern herring tribe. For
this reason the name Halecomorphi (shad-formed) was given to this order
by Professor Cope. The gular plate found in Amia and other Ganoids
reappears in the herring-like family of Elopidæ, which includes the tarpon
and the ten-pounder.
Page 73
Woodward unites the extinct genera called Cyclurus, Notæus, Amiopsis,
Protamia, Hypamia, and Pappichthys with Amia. Pappichthys (corsoni,
etc.), from the Wyoming Eocene, is doubtless a valid genus, having but one
row of teeth in each jaw, and Amiopsis is also recognized by Hay.
Woodward refers to Amia the following extinct species: Amia
valenciennesi, from the Miocene of France; Amia macrocephala, from the
Miocene of Bohemia; and Amia ignota, from the Eocene of Paris. Other
species of Amia are known from fragments. Several of these are from the
Eocene of Wyoming and Colorado. Some of them have a much shorter
dorsal fin than that of Amia calva and may be generically different.
Fig. 26.—Megalurus elegantissimus Wagner. Family Amiidæ. (After
Zittel.)
The genus Megalurus differs from Amia in the still shorter dorsal fin, less
than one-third the length of the back. The body is elongate and much
depressed. Megalurus lepidotus and several other species are found in the
lithographic stones of Bavaria and elsewhere.
The Oligopleuridæ.—In the extinct family Oligopleuridæ the scales are
cycloid, the bones of the head scarcely enameled, and the vertebræ well
ossified. Fulcra are present, and the mouth is large, with small teeth. The
genera are Oligopleurus, Ionoscopus, and Spathiurus, the species not very
numerous and chiefly of the Cretaceous. Ionoscopus cyprinoides of the
lithographic shales of Bavaria is a characteristic species.
Protamia, Hypamia, and Pappichthys with Amia. Pappichthys (corsoni,
etc.), from the Wyoming Eocene, is doubtless a valid genus, having but one
row of teeth in each jaw, and Amiopsis is also recognized by Hay.
Woodward refers to Amia the following extinct species: Amia
valenciennesi, from the Miocene of France; Amia macrocephala, from the
Miocene of Bohemia; and Amia ignota, from the Eocene of Paris. Other
species of Amia are known from fragments. Several of these are from the
Eocene of Wyoming and Colorado. Some of them have a much shorter
dorsal fin than that of Amia calva and may be generically different.
Fig. 26.—Megalurus elegantissimus Wagner. Family Amiidæ. (After
Zittel.)
The genus Megalurus differs from Amia in the still shorter dorsal fin, less
than one-third the length of the back. The body is elongate and much
depressed. Megalurus lepidotus and several other species are found in the
lithographic stones of Bavaria and elsewhere.
The Oligopleuridæ.—In the extinct family Oligopleuridæ the scales are
cycloid, the bones of the head scarcely enameled, and the vertebræ well
ossified. Fulcra are present, and the mouth is large, with small teeth. The
genera are Oligopleurus, Ionoscopus, and Spathiurus, the species not very
numerous and chiefly of the Cretaceous. Ionoscopus cyprinoides of the
lithographic shales of Bavaria is a characteristic species.
Page 74
From the three families last named, with the Pholidophoridæ, there is an
almost perfect transition from the Ganoid fishes to teleosteans of the order
of Isospondyli, the primitive order from which all other bony fishes are
perhaps descended. The family of Leptolepidæ, differing from
Oligopleuridæ in the absence of fulcra, is here placed with the Isospondyli,
but it might about as well be regarded as Ganoid.
almost perfect transition from the Ganoid fishes to teleosteans of the order
of Isospondyli, the primitive order from which all other bony fishes are
perhaps descended. The family of Leptolepidæ, differing from
Oligopleuridæ in the absence of fulcra, is here placed with the Isospondyli,
but it might about as well be regarded as Ganoid.
Page 75
CHAPTER III
ISOSPONDYLI
he Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—The fishes which
still remain for discussion constitute the great subclass or
series of Teleostei (τελεός, true; οστέον, bone), or bony fishes.
They lack wholly or partly the Ganoid traits, or show them
only in the embryo. The tail is slightly, if at all, heterocercal;
the actinosts of the pectoral fins are few and large, rarely over five in
number, except among the eels; the fulcra disappear; the air-bladder is no
longer cellular, except in very rare cases, nor does it assist in respiration.
The optic nerves are separate, one running to each eye without crossing; the
skeleton is almost entirely bony, the notochord usually disappearing entirely
with age; the valves in the arterial bulb are reduced in number, and the
spiral valve of the intestines disappears. Traces of each of the Ganoid traits
may persist somewhere in some group, but as a whole we see a distinct
specialization and a distinct movement toward the fish type, with the loss of
characters distinctive of sharks, Dipnoans, and Ganoids. In a general way
the skeleton of all Teleosts corresponds with that of the striped bass (see
Figs. 22, 23, Vol. I), and the visceral anatomy is in all cases sufficiently like
that of the sunfish (Fig. 16, Vol. I).
The mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch, found in all Ganoids, persists in the
less specialized types of bony fishes, although no trace of it is found in the
perch-like forms. With all this, there is developed among the bony fishes an
infinite variety in details of structure. For this reason the Teleostei must be
broken into many orders, and these orders are very different in value and in
degrees of distinctness, the various groups being joined by numerous and
puzzling intergradations.
ISOSPONDYLI
he Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—The fishes which
still remain for discussion constitute the great subclass or
series of Teleostei (τελεός, true; οστέον, bone), or bony fishes.
They lack wholly or partly the Ganoid traits, or show them
only in the embryo. The tail is slightly, if at all, heterocercal;
the actinosts of the pectoral fins are few and large, rarely over five in
number, except among the eels; the fulcra disappear; the air-bladder is no
longer cellular, except in very rare cases, nor does it assist in respiration.
The optic nerves are separate, one running to each eye without crossing; the
skeleton is almost entirely bony, the notochord usually disappearing entirely
with age; the valves in the arterial bulb are reduced in number, and the
spiral valve of the intestines disappears. Traces of each of the Ganoid traits
may persist somewhere in some group, but as a whole we see a distinct
specialization and a distinct movement toward the fish type, with the loss of
characters distinctive of sharks, Dipnoans, and Ganoids. In a general way
the skeleton of all Teleosts corresponds with that of the striped bass (see
Figs. 22, 23, Vol. I), and the visceral anatomy is in all cases sufficiently like
that of the sunfish (Fig. 16, Vol. I).
The mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch, found in all Ganoids, persists in the
less specialized types of bony fishes, although no trace of it is found in the
perch-like forms. With all this, there is developed among the bony fishes an
infinite variety in details of structure. For this reason the Teleostei must be
broken into many orders, and these orders are very different in value and in
degrees of distinctness, the various groups being joined by numerous and
puzzling intergradations.
Page 76
Order Isospondyli.—Of the various subordinate groups of bony fishes,
there can be no question as to which is most primitive in structure, or as to
which stands nearest the orders of Ganoids. Earliest of the bony fishes in
geological time is the order of Isospondyli (ἴσος, equal; σπόνδυλος,
vertebra), containing the allies, recent or fossil, of the herring and the trout.
This order contains those soft-rayed fishes in which the ventral fins are
abdominal, a mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch is developed, and the
anterior vertebræ are unmodified and essentially similar to the others. The
orbitosphenoid is present in all typical forms. In certain forms of doubtful
affinity (Iniomi) the mesocoracoid is wanting or lost in degeneration.
Through the Isospondyli all the families of fishes yet to be considered are
apparently descended, their ancestors being Ganoid fishes and, still farther
back, the Crossopterygians.
Woodward gives this definition of the Isospondyli: "Notochord varying in
persistence, the vertebral centra usually complete, but none coalesced; tail
homocercal, but hæmal supports not much expanded or fused. Symplectic
bone present, mandible simple, each dentary consisting only of two
elements (dentary and articulo-angular), with rare rudiments of a splenoid
on the inner side. Pectoral arch suspended from the cranium; precoracoid
(mesocoracoid) arch present; infraclavicular plates wanting. Pelvic (ventral)
fins abdominal. Scales ganoid only in the less specialized families. In the
living forms air-bladder connected with the œsophagus in the adult; optic
nerves decussating (without chiasma), and intestine either wanting spiral
valve or with an incomplete representative of it."
The Classification of the Bony Fishes.—The classification of fishes has
been greatly complicated by the variety of names applied to groups which
are substantially but not quite identical one with another. The difference in
these schemes of classification lies in the point of view. In all cases a single
character must be brought to the front; such characters never stand quite
alone, and to lay emphasis on another character is to make an alteration
large or small in the name or in the boundaries of a class or order. Thus the
Ostariophysi with the Isospondyli, Haplomi, and a few minor groups make
up the great division of the Abdominales. These are fishes in which the
ventral fins are abdominal, that is, inserted backward, so that the pelvis is
free from the clavicle, the two sets of limbs being attached to different parts
of the skeleton. Most of the abdominal fishes are also soft-rayed fishes, that
there can be no question as to which is most primitive in structure, or as to
which stands nearest the orders of Ganoids. Earliest of the bony fishes in
geological time is the order of Isospondyli (ἴσος, equal; σπόνδυλος,
vertebra), containing the allies, recent or fossil, of the herring and the trout.
This order contains those soft-rayed fishes in which the ventral fins are
abdominal, a mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch is developed, and the
anterior vertebræ are unmodified and essentially similar to the others. The
orbitosphenoid is present in all typical forms. In certain forms of doubtful
affinity (Iniomi) the mesocoracoid is wanting or lost in degeneration.
Through the Isospondyli all the families of fishes yet to be considered are
apparently descended, their ancestors being Ganoid fishes and, still farther
back, the Crossopterygians.
Woodward gives this definition of the Isospondyli: "Notochord varying in
persistence, the vertebral centra usually complete, but none coalesced; tail
homocercal, but hæmal supports not much expanded or fused. Symplectic
bone present, mandible simple, each dentary consisting only of two
elements (dentary and articulo-angular), with rare rudiments of a splenoid
on the inner side. Pectoral arch suspended from the cranium; precoracoid
(mesocoracoid) arch present; infraclavicular plates wanting. Pelvic (ventral)
fins abdominal. Scales ganoid only in the less specialized families. In the
living forms air-bladder connected with the œsophagus in the adult; optic
nerves decussating (without chiasma), and intestine either wanting spiral
valve or with an incomplete representative of it."
The Classification of the Bony Fishes.—The classification of fishes has
been greatly complicated by the variety of names applied to groups which
are substantially but not quite identical one with another. The difference in
these schemes of classification lies in the point of view. In all cases a single
character must be brought to the front; such characters never stand quite
alone, and to lay emphasis on another character is to make an alteration
large or small in the name or in the boundaries of a class or order. Thus the
Ostariophysi with the Isospondyli, Haplomi, and a few minor groups make
up the great division of the Abdominales. These are fishes in which the
ventral fins are abdominal, that is, inserted backward, so that the pelvis is
free from the clavicle, the two sets of limbs being attached to different parts
of the skeleton. Most of the abdominal fishes are also soft-rayed fishes, that
Page 77
is, without consecutive spines in the dorsal and anal fins, and they show a
number of other archaic peculiarities. The Malacopterygians (μαλακός, soft;
πτερύξ, fin) of Cuvier therefore correspond very nearly to the Abdominales.
But they are not quite the same, as the spiny-rayed barracudas and mullets
have abdominal ventrals, and many unquestioned thoracic or jugular fishes,
as the sea-snails and brotulids, have lost, through degeneration, all of their
fin-spines.
In nearly but not quite all of the Abdominal fishes the slender tube
connecting the air-bladder with the œsophagus persists through life. This
character defines Müller's order of Physostomi (φυσός, bladder; στόμα,
mouth), as opposed to his Physoclysti (φυσός, bladder; κλεῖστός, closed), in
which this tube is present in the embryo or larva only. Thus the Thoracices
and Jugulares, or fishes having the ventrals thoracic or jugular, together
correspond almost exactly to the Acanthopterygians, (ακανθα, spine;
πτερύξ, fin), or spiny-rayed fishes of Cuvier, or to the Physoclysti of Müller.
The Malacopterygians, the Abdominales, and the Physostomi are in the
same way practically identical groups. As the spiny-rayed fishes have
mostly ctenoid scales, and the soft-rayed fishes cycloid scales, the
Physostomi correspond roughly to Agassiz's Cycloidei, and the Physoclysti
to his Ctenoidei.
But in none of these cases is the correspondence perfectly exact, and in any
system of classification we must choose characters for primary divisions so
ancient and therefore so permanent as to leave no room for exceptions. The
extraordinary difficulty of doing this, with the presence of most puzzling
intergradations, has led Dr. Gill to suggest that the great body of bony
fishes, soft-rayed and spiny-rayed, abdominal, thoracic, and jugular alike,
be placed in a single great order which he calls Teleocephali (τελεός,
perfect; κεφαλή, head). The aberrant forms with defective skull and
membrane-bones he would separate as minor offshoots from this great mass
with the name of separate orders. But while the divisions of Teleocephali
are not strongly differentiated, their distinctive characters are real, ancient,
and important, while those of the aberrant groups, called orders by Gill (as
Plectognathi, Pediculati, Hemibranchii), are relatively modern and
superficial, which is one reason why they are more easily defined. There
seems to us no special advantage in the retention of a central order
number of other archaic peculiarities. The Malacopterygians (μαλακός, soft;
πτερύξ, fin) of Cuvier therefore correspond very nearly to the Abdominales.
But they are not quite the same, as the spiny-rayed barracudas and mullets
have abdominal ventrals, and many unquestioned thoracic or jugular fishes,
as the sea-snails and brotulids, have lost, through degeneration, all of their
fin-spines.
In nearly but not quite all of the Abdominal fishes the slender tube
connecting the air-bladder with the œsophagus persists through life. This
character defines Müller's order of Physostomi (φυσός, bladder; στόμα,
mouth), as opposed to his Physoclysti (φυσός, bladder; κλεῖστός, closed), in
which this tube is present in the embryo or larva only. Thus the Thoracices
and Jugulares, or fishes having the ventrals thoracic or jugular, together
correspond almost exactly to the Acanthopterygians, (ακανθα, spine;
πτερύξ, fin), or spiny-rayed fishes of Cuvier, or to the Physoclysti of Müller.
The Malacopterygians, the Abdominales, and the Physostomi are in the
same way practically identical groups. As the spiny-rayed fishes have
mostly ctenoid scales, and the soft-rayed fishes cycloid scales, the
Physostomi correspond roughly to Agassiz's Cycloidei, and the Physoclysti
to his Ctenoidei.
But in none of these cases is the correspondence perfectly exact, and in any
system of classification we must choose characters for primary divisions so
ancient and therefore so permanent as to leave no room for exceptions. The
extraordinary difficulty of doing this, with the presence of most puzzling
intergradations, has led Dr. Gill to suggest that the great body of bony
fishes, soft-rayed and spiny-rayed, abdominal, thoracic, and jugular alike,
be placed in a single great order which he calls Teleocephali (τελεός,
perfect; κεφαλή, head). The aberrant forms with defective skull and
membrane-bones he would separate as minor offshoots from this great mass
with the name of separate orders. But while the divisions of Teleocephali
are not strongly differentiated, their distinctive characters are real, ancient,
and important, while those of the aberrant groups, called orders by Gill (as
Plectognathi, Pediculati, Hemibranchii), are relatively modern and
superficial, which is one reason why they are more easily defined. There
seems to us no special advantage in the retention of a central order
Page 78
Teleocephali, from which the divergent branches are separated as distinct
orders.
While our knowledge of the osteology and embryology of most of the
families of fishes is very incomplete, it is evident that the relationships of
the groups cannot be shown in any linear series or by any conceivable
arrangement of orders and suborders. The living teleost fishes have sprung
from many lines of descent, their relationships are extremely diverse, and
their differences are of every possible degree of value. The ordinary
schemes have magnified the value of a few common characters, at the same
time neglecting other differences of equal value. No system of arrangement
which throws these fishes into large groups can ever be definite or
permanent.
Relationships of Isospondyli.—For our purposes we may divide the
physostomous fishes as understood by Müller into several orders, the most
primitive, the most generalized, and economically the most important being
the order of Isospondyli. This order contains those bony fishes which have
the anterior vertebræ unaltered (as distinguished from the Ostariophysi), the
skull relatively complete, or at least not eel-like, the mesocoracoid typically
developed, but atrophied in deep-sea forms and finally lost, the
orbitosphenoid present. In all the species the ventral fins are abdominal and
normally composed of more than six rays; the air-duct is developed. The
scales are chiefly cycloid and the fins are without true spines. In many ways
the order is more primitive than Nematognathi, Plectospondyli, or Apodes.
It is certain that it began earlier in geological time than any of these. On the
other hand, the Isospondyli are closely connected through the Berycoidei
with the highly specialized fishes. The continuity of the natural series is
therefore interrupted by the interposition of the side branches of
Ostariophysans and eels before considering the Haplomi and the other
transitional forms. The forms called Iniomi, which lack the mesocoracoid
and the orbitosphenoid, have been lately transferred to the Haplomi by
Boulenger. This arrangement is probably a step in advance.
Ganoid traits are present in certain families of Isospondyli. Among these are
the gular plate (found in Amia and the Elopidæ), doubtless derived from the
similar structure in earlier Ganoids; additional valves in the arterial bulb in
the cellular air-bladder of Notopterus and Osteoglossum, the spiral intestinal
valve in Chirocentridæ, and the ganoid scales of the extinct Leptolepidæ.
orders.
While our knowledge of the osteology and embryology of most of the
families of fishes is very incomplete, it is evident that the relationships of
the groups cannot be shown in any linear series or by any conceivable
arrangement of orders and suborders. The living teleost fishes have sprung
from many lines of descent, their relationships are extremely diverse, and
their differences are of every possible degree of value. The ordinary
schemes have magnified the value of a few common characters, at the same
time neglecting other differences of equal value. No system of arrangement
which throws these fishes into large groups can ever be definite or
permanent.
Relationships of Isospondyli.—For our purposes we may divide the
physostomous fishes as understood by Müller into several orders, the most
primitive, the most generalized, and economically the most important being
the order of Isospondyli. This order contains those bony fishes which have
the anterior vertebræ unaltered (as distinguished from the Ostariophysi), the
skull relatively complete, or at least not eel-like, the mesocoracoid typically
developed, but atrophied in deep-sea forms and finally lost, the
orbitosphenoid present. In all the species the ventral fins are abdominal and
normally composed of more than six rays; the air-duct is developed. The
scales are chiefly cycloid and the fins are without true spines. In many ways
the order is more primitive than Nematognathi, Plectospondyli, or Apodes.
It is certain that it began earlier in geological time than any of these. On the
other hand, the Isospondyli are closely connected through the Berycoidei
with the highly specialized fishes. The continuity of the natural series is
therefore interrupted by the interposition of the side branches of
Ostariophysans and eels before considering the Haplomi and the other
transitional forms. The forms called Iniomi, which lack the mesocoracoid
and the orbitosphenoid, have been lately transferred to the Haplomi by
Boulenger. This arrangement is probably a step in advance.
Ganoid traits are present in certain families of Isospondyli. Among these are
the gular plate (found in Amia and the Elopidæ), doubtless derived from the
similar structure in earlier Ganoids; additional valves in the arterial bulb in
the cellular air-bladder of Notopterus and Osteoglossum, the spiral intestinal
valve in Chirocentridæ, and the ganoid scales of the extinct Leptolepidæ.
Page 79
The Clupeoidea.—The Isospondyli are divisible into numerous families,
which may be grouped roughly under three subdivisions, Clupeoidea, the
herring-like forms; the Salmonoidea, the trout-like forms; and the Iniomi, or
lantern-fishes, and their allies. The last-named group should probably be
removed from the order of Isospondyli. In the Clupeoidea, the allies of the
great family of the herring, the shoulder-girdle is normally developed,
retaining the mesocoracoid arch on its inner edge, and through the post-
temporal is articulated above with the cranium. The fishes in this group lack
the adipose fin which is characteristic of most of the higher or salmon-like
families.
Fig. 27.—Leptolepis dubius Blainville, Lithographic Stone. (After
Woodward.)
The Leptolepidæ.—Most primitive of the Isospondyli is the extinct family
of Leptolepidæ, closely allied to the Ganoid families of Pholidophoridæ and
Oligopleuridæ. It is composed of graceful, herring-like fishes, with the
bones of the head thin but covered with enamel, and the scales thin but firm
and enameled on their free portion. There are no fulcra and there is no
lateral line. The vertebræ are well developed, but always pierced by the
notochord. The genera are Lycoptera, Leptolepis, Æthalion, and Thrissops.
In Lycoptera of the Jurassic of China the vertebral centra are feebly
developed, and the dorsal fin short and posterior. In Leptolepis the anal is
short and placed behind the dorsal. There are many species, mostly from the
Triassic and lithographic shales of Europe, one being found in the
Cretaceous. Leptolepis coryphænoides and Leptolepis dubius are among the
which may be grouped roughly under three subdivisions, Clupeoidea, the
herring-like forms; the Salmonoidea, the trout-like forms; and the Iniomi, or
lantern-fishes, and their allies. The last-named group should probably be
removed from the order of Isospondyli. In the Clupeoidea, the allies of the
great family of the herring, the shoulder-girdle is normally developed,
retaining the mesocoracoid arch on its inner edge, and through the post-
temporal is articulated above with the cranium. The fishes in this group lack
the adipose fin which is characteristic of most of the higher or salmon-like
families.
Fig. 27.—Leptolepis dubius Blainville, Lithographic Stone. (After
Woodward.)
The Leptolepidæ.—Most primitive of the Isospondyli is the extinct family
of Leptolepidæ, closely allied to the Ganoid families of Pholidophoridæ and
Oligopleuridæ. It is composed of graceful, herring-like fishes, with the
bones of the head thin but covered with enamel, and the scales thin but firm
and enameled on their free portion. There are no fulcra and there is no
lateral line. The vertebræ are well developed, but always pierced by the
notochord. The genera are Lycoptera, Leptolepis, Æthalion, and Thrissops.
In Lycoptera of the Jurassic of China the vertebral centra are feebly
developed, and the dorsal fin short and posterior. In Leptolepis the anal is
short and placed behind the dorsal. There are many species, mostly from the
Triassic and lithographic shales of Europe, one being found in the
Cretaceous. Leptolepis coryphænoides and Leptolepis dubius are among the
Page 80
more common species. Æthalion (knorri) differs in the form of the jaws. In
Thrissops the anal fin is long and opposite the dorsal. Thrissops salmonea is
found in the lithographic stone; Thrissops exigua in the Cretaceous. In all
these early forms there is a hard casque over the brain-cavity, as in the
living types, Amia and Osteoglossum.
Fig. 28.—Ten-pounder, Elops saurus L. An ally of the earliest bony fishes.
Virginia.
Fig. 29.—A primitive Herring-like fish, Holcolepis lewesiensis, Mantell,
restored. Family Elopidæ. English Chalk. (After Woodward.)
The Elopidæ.—The family of Elopidæ contains large fishes herring-like in
form and structure, but having a flat membrane-bone or gular plate between
the branches of the lower jaw, as in the Ganoid genus Amia. The living
species are few, abounding in the tropical seas, important for their size and
numbers, though not valued as food-fishes save to those who, like the
Hawaiians and Japanese, eat fishes raw. These people prefer for that
Thrissops the anal fin is long and opposite the dorsal. Thrissops salmonea is
found in the lithographic stone; Thrissops exigua in the Cretaceous. In all
these early forms there is a hard casque over the brain-cavity, as in the
living types, Amia and Osteoglossum.
Fig. 28.—Ten-pounder, Elops saurus L. An ally of the earliest bony fishes.
Virginia.
Fig. 29.—A primitive Herring-like fish, Holcolepis lewesiensis, Mantell,
restored. Family Elopidæ. English Chalk. (After Woodward.)
The Elopidæ.—The family of Elopidæ contains large fishes herring-like in
form and structure, but having a flat membrane-bone or gular plate between
the branches of the lower jaw, as in the Ganoid genus Amia. The living
species are few, abounding in the tropical seas, important for their size and
numbers, though not valued as food-fishes save to those who, like the
Hawaiians and Japanese, eat fishes raw. These people prefer for that
Page 81
purpose the white-meated or soft-fleshed forms like Elops or Scarus to
those which yield a better flavor when cooked.
The ten-pounder (Elops saurus), pike-like in form but with very weak teeth,
is found in tropical America. Elops machnata, the jack mariddle, the
awaawa of the Hawaiians, abounding in the Pacific, is scarcely if at all
different.
Fig. 30.—Tarpon or Grande Écaille, Tarpon atlanticus Cuv. & Val.
Florida.
The tarpon, called also grande écaille, silver-king, and sable (Tarpon
atlanticus), is a favorite game-fish along the coasts of Florida and Carolina.
It takes the hook with great spirit, and as it reaches a length of six feet or
more it affords much excitement to the successful angler. The very large
scales are much used in ornamental work.
A similar species of smaller size, also with the last ray of the dorsal very
much produced, is Megalops cyprinoides of the East Indies. Other species
occur in the South Seas.
Numerous fossil genera related to Elops are found in the Cretaceous and
Tertiary rocks. Holcolepis lewesiensis (wrongly called Osmeroides) is the
best-known European species. Numerous species are referred to Elopopsis.
Megalops prisca and species of Elops also occur in the London Eocene.
In all these the large parietals meet along the median line of the skull. In the
closely related family of Spaniodontidæ the parietals are small and do not
those which yield a better flavor when cooked.
The ten-pounder (Elops saurus), pike-like in form but with very weak teeth,
is found in tropical America. Elops machnata, the jack mariddle, the
awaawa of the Hawaiians, abounding in the Pacific, is scarcely if at all
different.
Fig. 30.—Tarpon or Grande Écaille, Tarpon atlanticus Cuv. & Val.
Florida.
The tarpon, called also grande écaille, silver-king, and sable (Tarpon
atlanticus), is a favorite game-fish along the coasts of Florida and Carolina.
It takes the hook with great spirit, and as it reaches a length of six feet or
more it affords much excitement to the successful angler. The very large
scales are much used in ornamental work.
A similar species of smaller size, also with the last ray of the dorsal very
much produced, is Megalops cyprinoides of the East Indies. Other species
occur in the South Seas.
Numerous fossil genera related to Elops are found in the Cretaceous and
Tertiary rocks. Holcolepis lewesiensis (wrongly called Osmeroides) is the
best-known European species. Numerous species are referred to Elopopsis.
Megalops prisca and species of Elops also occur in the London Eocene.
In all these the large parietals meet along the median line of the skull. In the
closely related family of Spaniodontidæ the parietals are small and do not
Page 82
meet. All the species of this group, united by Woodward with the Elopidæ,
are extinct. These fishes preceded the Elopidæ in the Cretaceous period.
Leading genera are Thrissopater and Spaniodon, the latter armed with large
teeth. Spaniodon blondeli is from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. Many
other species are found in the European and American Cretaceous rocks,
but are known from imperfect specimens only.
Sardinius, an American Cretaceous fossil herring, may stand near
Spaniodon. Rhacolepis buccalis and Notelops brama are found in Brazil,
beautifully preserved in concretions of calcareous mud supposed to be of
Cretaceous age.
The extinct family of Pachyrhizodontidæ is perhaps allied to the Elopidæ.
Numerous species of Pachyrhizodus are found in the Cretaceous of
southern England and of Kansas.
The Albulidæ.—The Albulidæ, or lady-fishes, characterized by the blunt
and rounded teeth, are found in most warm seas. Albula vulpes is a
brilliantly silvery fish, little valued as food. The metamorphosis (see Fig.
112, Vol. I) which the larva undergoes is very remarkable. It is probably,
however, more or less typical of the changes which take place with soft-
rayed fishes generally, though more strongly marked in Albula and in
certain eels than in most related forms. Fossils allied to Albula, Albula
oweni, Chanoides macropomus, are found in the Eocene of Europe;
Syntegmodus altus in the Cretaceous of Kansas. In Chanoides, the most
primitive genus, the teeth are much fewer than in Albula. Plethodus and
Thryptodus, with peculiar dental plates on the roof and floor of the mouth,
probably constitute a distinct family, Thryptodontidæ. The species are found
in European and American rocks, but are known from imperfect specimens
only.
are extinct. These fishes preceded the Elopidæ in the Cretaceous period.
Leading genera are Thrissopater and Spaniodon, the latter armed with large
teeth. Spaniodon blondeli is from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. Many
other species are found in the European and American Cretaceous rocks,
but are known from imperfect specimens only.
Sardinius, an American Cretaceous fossil herring, may stand near
Spaniodon. Rhacolepis buccalis and Notelops brama are found in Brazil,
beautifully preserved in concretions of calcareous mud supposed to be of
Cretaceous age.
The extinct family of Pachyrhizodontidæ is perhaps allied to the Elopidæ.
Numerous species of Pachyrhizodus are found in the Cretaceous of
southern England and of Kansas.
The Albulidæ.—The Albulidæ, or lady-fishes, characterized by the blunt
and rounded teeth, are found in most warm seas. Albula vulpes is a
brilliantly silvery fish, little valued as food. The metamorphosis (see Fig.
112, Vol. I) which the larva undergoes is very remarkable. It is probably,
however, more or less typical of the changes which take place with soft-
rayed fishes generally, though more strongly marked in Albula and in
certain eels than in most related forms. Fossils allied to Albula, Albula
oweni, Chanoides macropomus, are found in the Eocene of Europe;
Syntegmodus altus in the Cretaceous of Kansas. In Chanoides, the most
primitive genus, the teeth are much fewer than in Albula. Plethodus and
Thryptodus, with peculiar dental plates on the roof and floor of the mouth,
probably constitute a distinct family, Thryptodontidæ. The species are found
in European and American rocks, but are known from imperfect specimens
only.
Page 83
Fig. 31.—The Lady-fish, Albula vulpes (Linnæus). Florida.
The Chanidæ.—The Chanidæ, or milkfishes, constitute another small
archaic type, found in the tropical Pacific. They are large, brilliantly silvery,
toothless fishes, looking like enormous dace, swift in the water, and very
abundant in the Gulf of California, Polynesia, and India. The single living
species is the Awa, or milkfish, Chanos chanos, largely used as food in
Hawaii. Species of Prochanos and Chanos occur in the Cretaceous, Eocene,
and Miocene. Allied to Chanos is the Cretaceous genus Ancylostylos
(gibbus), probably the type of a distinct family, toothless and with many-
rayed dorsal.
Fig. 32.—Milkfish, Chanos chanos (L.). Mazatlan.
The Chanidæ.—The Chanidæ, or milkfishes, constitute another small
archaic type, found in the tropical Pacific. They are large, brilliantly silvery,
toothless fishes, looking like enormous dace, swift in the water, and very
abundant in the Gulf of California, Polynesia, and India. The single living
species is the Awa, or milkfish, Chanos chanos, largely used as food in
Hawaii. Species of Prochanos and Chanos occur in the Cretaceous, Eocene,
and Miocene. Allied to Chanos is the Cretaceous genus Ancylostylos
(gibbus), probably the type of a distinct family, toothless and with many-
rayed dorsal.
Fig. 32.—Milkfish, Chanos chanos (L.). Mazatlan.
Page 84
Fig. 33.—Mooneye, Hiodon tergisus Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich.
The Hiodontidæ.—The Hiodontidæ, or mooneyes, inhabit the rivers of the
central portion of the United States and Canada. They are shad-like fishes
with brilliantly silvery scales and very strong sharp teeth, those on the
tongue especially long. They are very handsome fishes and take the hook
with spirit, but the flesh is rather tasteless and full of small bones, much like
that of the milkfish. The commonest species is Hiodon tergisus. No fossil
Hiodontidæ are known.
Fig. 34.—Istieus grandis Agassiz. Family Pterothrissidæ. (After Zittel.)
The Hiodontidæ.—The Hiodontidæ, or mooneyes, inhabit the rivers of the
central portion of the United States and Canada. They are shad-like fishes
with brilliantly silvery scales and very strong sharp teeth, those on the
tongue especially long. They are very handsome fishes and take the hook
with spirit, but the flesh is rather tasteless and full of small bones, much like
that of the milkfish. The commonest species is Hiodon tergisus. No fossil
Hiodontidæ are known.
Fig. 34.—Istieus grandis Agassiz. Family Pterothrissidæ. (After Zittel.)
Page 85
Fig. 35.—Chirothrix libanicus Pictet & Humbert. Cretaceous of Mt.
Lebanon. (After Woodward.)
The Pterothrissidæ.—The Pterothrissidæ are sea-fishes like Albula, but
more slender and with a long dorsal fin. They live in deep or cold waters
along the coasts of Japan, where they are known as gisu. The single species
is Pterothrissus gissu. The fossil genus Istieus, from the Upper Cretaceous,
probably belongs near the Pterothrissidæ. Istieus grandis is the best-known
species. Another ancient family, now represented by a single species, is that
of the Chirocentridæ, of which the living type is Chirocentrus dorab, a
long, slender, much compressed herring-like fish, with a saw-edge on the
belly, found in the East Indies, in which region Chirocentrus polyodon
occurs as a fossil. Numerous fossil genera related to Chirocentrus are
enumerated by Woodward, most of them to be referred to the related family
of Ichthyodectidæ (Saurodontidæ). Of these, Portheus, Ichthyodectes,
Saurocephalus (Saurodon), and Gillicus are represented by numerous
species, some of them fishes of immense size and great voracity. Portheus
molossus, found in the Cretaceous of Nebraska, is remarkable for its very
Lebanon. (After Woodward.)
The Pterothrissidæ.—The Pterothrissidæ are sea-fishes like Albula, but
more slender and with a long dorsal fin. They live in deep or cold waters
along the coasts of Japan, where they are known as gisu. The single species
is Pterothrissus gissu. The fossil genus Istieus, from the Upper Cretaceous,
probably belongs near the Pterothrissidæ. Istieus grandis is the best-known
species. Another ancient family, now represented by a single species, is that
of the Chirocentridæ, of which the living type is Chirocentrus dorab, a
long, slender, much compressed herring-like fish, with a saw-edge on the
belly, found in the East Indies, in which region Chirocentrus polyodon
occurs as a fossil. Numerous fossil genera related to Chirocentrus are
enumerated by Woodward, most of them to be referred to the related family
of Ichthyodectidæ (Saurodontidæ). Of these, Portheus, Ichthyodectes,
Saurocephalus (Saurodon), and Gillicus are represented by numerous
species, some of them fishes of immense size and great voracity. Portheus
molossus, found in the Cretaceous of Nebraska, is remarkable for its very
Page 86
strong teeth. Species of other genera are represented by numerous species in
the Cretaceous of both the Rocky Mountain region and of Europe.
Fig. 36.—Gigantic skeleton of Portheus molossus Cope. (Photograph by
Charles H. Sternberg.)
The Ctenothrissidæ.—A related family, Ctenothrissidæ, is represented
solely by extinct Cretaceous species. In this group the body is robust with
large scales, ctenoid in Ctenothrissa, cycloid in Aulolepis. The fins are
large, the belly not serrated, and the teeth feeble. Ctenothrissa vexillifera is
from Mount Lebanon. Other species occur in the European chalk. In the
small family of Phractolæmidæ the interopercle, according to Boulenger, is
enormously developed.
the Cretaceous of both the Rocky Mountain region and of Europe.
Fig. 36.—Gigantic skeleton of Portheus molossus Cope. (Photograph by
Charles H. Sternberg.)
The Ctenothrissidæ.—A related family, Ctenothrissidæ, is represented
solely by extinct Cretaceous species. In this group the body is robust with
large scales, ctenoid in Ctenothrissa, cycloid in Aulolepis. The fins are
large, the belly not serrated, and the teeth feeble. Ctenothrissa vexillifera is
from Mount Lebanon. Other species occur in the European chalk. In the
small family of Phractolæmidæ the interopercle, according to Boulenger, is
enormously developed.
Page 87
Fig. 37.—Ctenothrissa vexillifera Pictet, restored. Mt. Lebanon
Cretaceous. (After Woodward.)
The Notopteridæ.—The Notopteridæ is another small family in the rivers
of Africa and the East Indies. The body ends in a long and tapering fin, and,
as usual in fishes which swim by body undulations, the ventral fins are lost.
The belly is doubly serrate. The air-bladder is highly complex in structure,
being divided into several compartments and terminating in two horns
anteriorly and posteriorly, the anterior horns being in direct communication
with the auditory organ. A fossil Notopterus, N. primævus, is found in the
same region.
The Clupeidæ.—The great herring family, or Clupeidæ, comprises fishes
with oblong or herring-shaped body, cycloid scales, and feeble dentition.
From related families it is separated by the absence of lateral line and the
division of the maxillary into three pieces. In most of the genera the belly
ends in a serrated edge, though in the true herring this is not very evident,
and in some the belly has a blunt edge. Some of the species live in rivers,
some ascend from the sea for the purpose of spawning. The majority are
Cretaceous. (After Woodward.)
The Notopteridæ.—The Notopteridæ is another small family in the rivers
of Africa and the East Indies. The body ends in a long and tapering fin, and,
as usual in fishes which swim by body undulations, the ventral fins are lost.
The belly is doubly serrate. The air-bladder is highly complex in structure,
being divided into several compartments and terminating in two horns
anteriorly and posteriorly, the anterior horns being in direct communication
with the auditory organ. A fossil Notopterus, N. primævus, is found in the
same region.
The Clupeidæ.—The great herring family, or Clupeidæ, comprises fishes
with oblong or herring-shaped body, cycloid scales, and feeble dentition.
From related families it is separated by the absence of lateral line and the
division of the maxillary into three pieces. In most of the genera the belly
ends in a serrated edge, though in the true herring this is not very evident,
and in some the belly has a blunt edge. Some of the species live in rivers,
some ascend from the sea for the purpose of spawning. The majority are
Page 88
confined to the ocean. Among all the genera, the one most abundant in
individuals is that of Clupea, the herring. Throughout the North Atlantic are
immense schools of Clupea harengus. In the North Pacific on both shores
another herring, Clupea pallasi, is equally abundant, and with the same
market it would be equally valuable. As salted, dried, or smoked fish the
herring is found throughout the civilized world, and its spawning and
feeding-grounds have determined the location of cities.
Fig. 38.—Herring, Clupea harengus L. New York.
The genus Clupea, of northern distribution, has the vertebræ in increased
number (56), and there are weak teeth on the vomer. Several other genera
are very closely related, but ranging farther south they have, with other
characters, fewer (46 to 50) vertebræ. The alewife, or branch-herring
(Pomolobus pseudoharengus), ascends the rivers to spawn and has become
landlocked in the lakes of New York. The skipjack of the Gulf of Mexico,
Pomolobus chrysochloris, becomes very fat in the sea. The species becomes
landlocked in the Ohio River, where it thrives as to numbers, but remains
lean and almost useless as food. The glut-herring, Pomolobus æstivalis, and
the sprat, Pomolobus sprattus, of Europe are related forms.
individuals is that of Clupea, the herring. Throughout the North Atlantic are
immense schools of Clupea harengus. In the North Pacific on both shores
another herring, Clupea pallasi, is equally abundant, and with the same
market it would be equally valuable. As salted, dried, or smoked fish the
herring is found throughout the civilized world, and its spawning and
feeding-grounds have determined the location of cities.
Fig. 38.—Herring, Clupea harengus L. New York.
The genus Clupea, of northern distribution, has the vertebræ in increased
number (56), and there are weak teeth on the vomer. Several other genera
are very closely related, but ranging farther south they have, with other
characters, fewer (46 to 50) vertebræ. The alewife, or branch-herring
(Pomolobus pseudoharengus), ascends the rivers to spawn and has become
landlocked in the lakes of New York. The skipjack of the Gulf of Mexico,
Pomolobus chrysochloris, becomes very fat in the sea. The species becomes
landlocked in the Ohio River, where it thrives as to numbers, but remains
lean and almost useless as food. The glut-herring, Pomolobus æstivalis, and
the sprat, Pomolobus sprattus, of Europe are related forms.
Page 89
Fig. 39.—Alewife, Pomolobus pseudoharengus (Wilson). Potomac River.
Very near also to the herring is the shad (Alosa sapidissima) of the eastern
coasts of America, and its inferior relatives, the shad of the Gulf of Mexico
(Alosa alabamæ), the Ohio River shad (Alosa ohiensis), very lately
discovered, the Allice shad (Alosa alosa) of Europe, and the Thwaite shad
(Alosa finta). In the genus Alosa the cheek region is very deep, giving the
head a form different from that seen in the herring.
The American shad is the best food-fish in the family, peculiarly delicate in
flavor when broiled, but, to a greater degree than occurs in any other good
food-fish, its flesh is crowded with small bones. The shad has been
successfully introduced into the waters of California, where it abounds from
Puget Sound to Point Concepcion, ascending the rivers to spawn in May as
in its native region, the Atlantic coast.
The genus Sardinella includes species of rich flesh and feeble skeleton,
excellent when broiled, when they may be eaten bones and all. This
condition favors their preservation in oil as "sardines." All the species are
alike excellent for this purpose. The sardine of Europe is the Sardinella
pilchardus, known in England as the pilchard. The "Sardina de España" of
Cuba is Sardinella pseudohispanica, the sardine of California, Sardinella
cærulea. Sardinella sagax abounds in Chile, and Sardinella melanosticta is
the valued sardine of Japan.
Very near also to the herring is the shad (Alosa sapidissima) of the eastern
coasts of America, and its inferior relatives, the shad of the Gulf of Mexico
(Alosa alabamæ), the Ohio River shad (Alosa ohiensis), very lately
discovered, the Allice shad (Alosa alosa) of Europe, and the Thwaite shad
(Alosa finta). In the genus Alosa the cheek region is very deep, giving the
head a form different from that seen in the herring.
The American shad is the best food-fish in the family, peculiarly delicate in
flavor when broiled, but, to a greater degree than occurs in any other good
food-fish, its flesh is crowded with small bones. The shad has been
successfully introduced into the waters of California, where it abounds from
Puget Sound to Point Concepcion, ascending the rivers to spawn in May as
in its native region, the Atlantic coast.
The genus Sardinella includes species of rich flesh and feeble skeleton,
excellent when broiled, when they may be eaten bones and all. This
condition favors their preservation in oil as "sardines." All the species are
alike excellent for this purpose. The sardine of Europe is the Sardinella
pilchardus, known in England as the pilchard. The "Sardina de España" of
Cuba is Sardinella pseudohispanica, the sardine of California, Sardinella
cærulea. Sardinella sagax abounds in Chile, and Sardinella melanosticta is
the valued sardine of Japan.
Page 90
In the tropical Pacific occur other valued species, largely belonging to the
genus Kowala. The genus Harengula contains small species with very large,
firm scales which do not fall when touched, as is generally the case with the
sardines. Most common of these is Harengula sardina of the West Indies.
Similar species occur in southern Europe and in Japan.
Fig. 40.—Menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe). Wood's Hole, Mass.
In Opisthonema, the thread-herring, the last dorsal ray is much produced, as
in the gizzard-shad and the tarpon. The two species known are abundant,
but of little commercial importance. Of greater value are the menhaden, or
the moss-bunker, Brevoortia tyrannus, inhabiting the sandy coasts from
New England southward. It is a coarse and bony fish, rarely eaten when
adult, although the young in oil makes acceptable sardines. It is used chiefly
for oil, the annual yield exceeding in value that of whale-oil. The refuse is
used as manure, a purpose for which the fishes are often taken without
preparation, being carried directly to the cornfields. From its abundance this
species of inferior flesh exceeds in commercial value almost all other
American fishes excepting the cod, the herring, and the quinnat salmon.
One of the most complete of fish biographies is that of Dr. G. Brown Goode
on the "Natural and Economic History of Menhaden."
Numerous other herring-like forms, usually with compressed bodies, dry
and bony flesh, and serrated bellies, abound in the tropics and are largely
genus Kowala. The genus Harengula contains small species with very large,
firm scales which do not fall when touched, as is generally the case with the
sardines. Most common of these is Harengula sardina of the West Indies.
Similar species occur in southern Europe and in Japan.
Fig. 40.—Menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe). Wood's Hole, Mass.
In Opisthonema, the thread-herring, the last dorsal ray is much produced, as
in the gizzard-shad and the tarpon. The two species known are abundant,
but of little commercial importance. Of greater value are the menhaden, or
the moss-bunker, Brevoortia tyrannus, inhabiting the sandy coasts from
New England southward. It is a coarse and bony fish, rarely eaten when
adult, although the young in oil makes acceptable sardines. It is used chiefly
for oil, the annual yield exceeding in value that of whale-oil. The refuse is
used as manure, a purpose for which the fishes are often taken without
preparation, being carried directly to the cornfields. From its abundance this
species of inferior flesh exceeds in commercial value almost all other
American fishes excepting the cod, the herring, and the quinnat salmon.
One of the most complete of fish biographies is that of Dr. G. Brown Goode
on the "Natural and Economic History of Menhaden."
Numerous other herring-like forms, usually with compressed bodies, dry
and bony flesh, and serrated bellies, abound in the tropics and are largely
Page 91
salted and dried by the Chinese. Among these are Ilisha elongata of the
Chinese coast. Related forms occur in Mexico and Brazil.
The round herrings, small herrings which have no serrations on the belly,
are referred by Dr. Gill to the family of Dussumieriidæ. These are mostly
small tropical fishes used as food or bait. One of these, the Kobini-Iwashi of
Japan (Stolephorus japonicus), with a very bright silver band on the side,
has considerable commercial importance. Very small herrings of this type in
the West Indies constitute the genus Jenkinsia, named for Dr. Oliver P.
Jenkins, the first to study seriously the fishes of Hawaii. Other species
constitute the widely distributed genera Etrumeus and Dussumieria.
Etrumeus sardina is the round herring of the Virginia coast. Etrumeus
micropus is the Etrumei-Iwashi of Japan and Hawaii.
Fig. 41.—A fossil Herring, Diplomystus humilis Leidy. (From a specimen
obtained at Green River, Wyo.) The scutes along the back lost in the
specimen. Family Clupeidæ.
Fossil herring are plentiful and exist in considerable variety, even among
the Clupeidæ as at present restricted. Histiothrissa of the Cretaceous seems
to be allied to Dussumieria and Stolephorus. Another genus, from the
Cretaceous of Palestine, Pseudoberyx (syriacus, etc.), having pectinated
scales, should perhaps constitute a distinct subfamily, but the general
structure is like that of the herring. More evidently herring-like is
Scombroclupea (macrophthalma). The genus Diplomystus, with enlarged
scales along the back, is abundantly represented in the Eocene shales of
Green River, Wyoming. Species of similar appearance, usually but wrongly
Chinese coast. Related forms occur in Mexico and Brazil.
The round herrings, small herrings which have no serrations on the belly,
are referred by Dr. Gill to the family of Dussumieriidæ. These are mostly
small tropical fishes used as food or bait. One of these, the Kobini-Iwashi of
Japan (Stolephorus japonicus), with a very bright silver band on the side,
has considerable commercial importance. Very small herrings of this type in
the West Indies constitute the genus Jenkinsia, named for Dr. Oliver P.
Jenkins, the first to study seriously the fishes of Hawaii. Other species
constitute the widely distributed genera Etrumeus and Dussumieria.
Etrumeus sardina is the round herring of the Virginia coast. Etrumeus
micropus is the Etrumei-Iwashi of Japan and Hawaii.
Fig. 41.—A fossil Herring, Diplomystus humilis Leidy. (From a specimen
obtained at Green River, Wyo.) The scutes along the back lost in the
specimen. Family Clupeidæ.
Fossil herring are plentiful and exist in considerable variety, even among
the Clupeidæ as at present restricted. Histiothrissa of the Cretaceous seems
to be allied to Dussumieria and Stolephorus. Another genus, from the
Cretaceous of Palestine, Pseudoberyx (syriacus, etc.), having pectinated
scales, should perhaps constitute a distinct subfamily, but the general
structure is like that of the herring. More evidently herring-like is
Scombroclupea (macrophthalma). The genus Diplomystus, with enlarged
scales along the back, is abundantly represented in the Eocene shales of
Green River, Wyoming. Species of similar appearance, usually but wrongly
Page 92
referred to the same genus, occur on the coasts of Peru, Chile, and New
South Wales. A specimen of Diplomystus humilis from Green River is here
figured. Numerous herring, referred to Clupea, but belonging rather to
Pomolobus, or other non-Arctic genera, have been described from the
Eocene and later rocks.
Several American fossil herring-like fishes, of the genus Leptosomus, as
Leptosomus percrassus, are found in the Cretaceous of South Dakota.
Fossil species doubtfully referred to Dorosoma, but perhaps allied rather to
the thread-herring (Opisthonema), being herrings with a prolonged dorsal
ray, are recorded from the early Tertiary of Europe. Among these is
Opisthonema doljeanum from Austria.
Fig. 42.—Hickory-shad, Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur). Potomac
River.
The Dorosomatidæ.—The gizzard-shad, Dorosomatidæ, are closely related
to the Clupeidæ, differing in the small contracted toothless mouth and
reduced maxillary. The species are deep-bodied, shad-like fishes of the
rivers and estuaries of eastern America and eastern Asia. They feed on mud,
and the stomach is thickened and muscular like that of a fowl. As the
stomach has the size and form of a hickory-nut, the common American
South Wales. A specimen of Diplomystus humilis from Green River is here
figured. Numerous herring, referred to Clupea, but belonging rather to
Pomolobus, or other non-Arctic genera, have been described from the
Eocene and later rocks.
Several American fossil herring-like fishes, of the genus Leptosomus, as
Leptosomus percrassus, are found in the Cretaceous of South Dakota.
Fossil species doubtfully referred to Dorosoma, but perhaps allied rather to
the thread-herring (Opisthonema), being herrings with a prolonged dorsal
ray, are recorded from the early Tertiary of Europe. Among these is
Opisthonema doljeanum from Austria.
Fig. 42.—Hickory-shad, Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur). Potomac
River.
The Dorosomatidæ.—The gizzard-shad, Dorosomatidæ, are closely related
to the Clupeidæ, differing in the small contracted toothless mouth and
reduced maxillary. The species are deep-bodied, shad-like fishes of the
rivers and estuaries of eastern America and eastern Asia. They feed on mud,
and the stomach is thickened and muscular like that of a fowl. As the
stomach has the size and form of a hickory-nut, the common American
Page 93
species is often called hickory-shad. The gizzard-shad are all very poor
food-fish, bony and little valued, the flesh full of small bones. The belly is
always serrated. In three of the four genera of Dorosomatidæ the last dorsal
ray is much produced and whip-like. The long and slender gill-rakers serve
as strainers for the mud in which these fishes find their vegetable and
animal food. Dorosoma cepedianum, the common hickory-shad or gizzard-
shad, is found in brackish river-mouths and ponds from Long Island to
Texas, and throughout the Mississippi Valley in all the large rivers. Through
the canals it has entered Lake Michigan. The Konoshiro, Clupanodon
thrissa, is equally common in China and Japan.
The Engraulididæ.—The anchovies (Engraulididæ) are dwarf herrings
with the snout projecting beyond the very wide mouth. They are small in
size and weak in muscle, found in all warm seas, and making a large part of
the food of the larger fish. The genus Engraulis includes the anchovy of
Europe, Engraulis encrasicholus, with similar species in California, Chile,
Japan, and Australia. In this genus the vertebræ are numerous, the bones
feeble, and the flesh tender and oily. The species of Engraulis are preserved
in oil, often with spices, or are made into fish-paste, which is valued as a
relish. The genus Anchovia replaces Engraulis in the tropics. The vertebræ
are fewer, the bones firm and stiff, and the flesh generally dry. Except as
food for larger fish, these have little value, although existing in immense
schools. Most of the species have a bright silvery band along the side. The
most familiar of the very numerous species is the silver anchovy, Anchovia
browni, which abounds in sandy bays from Cape Cod to Brazil. Several
other genera occur farther southward, as well as in Asia, but Engraulis only
is found in Europe. Fossil anchovies called Engraulis are recorded from the
Tertiary of Europe.
food-fish, bony and little valued, the flesh full of small bones. The belly is
always serrated. In three of the four genera of Dorosomatidæ the last dorsal
ray is much produced and whip-like. The long and slender gill-rakers serve
as strainers for the mud in which these fishes find their vegetable and
animal food. Dorosoma cepedianum, the common hickory-shad or gizzard-
shad, is found in brackish river-mouths and ponds from Long Island to
Texas, and throughout the Mississippi Valley in all the large rivers. Through
the canals it has entered Lake Michigan. The Konoshiro, Clupanodon
thrissa, is equally common in China and Japan.
The Engraulididæ.—The anchovies (Engraulididæ) are dwarf herrings
with the snout projecting beyond the very wide mouth. They are small in
size and weak in muscle, found in all warm seas, and making a large part of
the food of the larger fish. The genus Engraulis includes the anchovy of
Europe, Engraulis encrasicholus, with similar species in California, Chile,
Japan, and Australia. In this genus the vertebræ are numerous, the bones
feeble, and the flesh tender and oily. The species of Engraulis are preserved
in oil, often with spices, or are made into fish-paste, which is valued as a
relish. The genus Anchovia replaces Engraulis in the tropics. The vertebræ
are fewer, the bones firm and stiff, and the flesh generally dry. Except as
food for larger fish, these have little value, although existing in immense
schools. Most of the species have a bright silvery band along the side. The
most familiar of the very numerous species is the silver anchovy, Anchovia
browni, which abounds in sandy bays from Cape Cod to Brazil. Several
other genera occur farther southward, as well as in Asia, but Engraulis only
is found in Europe. Fossil anchovies called Engraulis are recorded from the
Tertiary of Europe.
Page 94
Fig. 43.—A Silver Anchovy, Anchovia perthecata (Goode & Bean).
Tampa.
Fig. 44.—Notogoneus osculus Cope. Green River Eocene. Family
Gonorhynchidæ.
Gonorhynchidæ.—To the Isospondyli belongs the small primitive family
of Gonorhynchidæ, elongate fishes with small mouth, feeble teeth, no air-
bladder, small scales of peculiar structure covering the head, weak
dentition, the dorsal fin small, and posterior without spines. The
Tampa.
Fig. 44.—Notogoneus osculus Cope. Green River Eocene. Family
Gonorhynchidæ.
Gonorhynchidæ.—To the Isospondyli belongs the small primitive family
of Gonorhynchidæ, elongate fishes with small mouth, feeble teeth, no air-
bladder, small scales of peculiar structure covering the head, weak
dentition, the dorsal fin small, and posterior without spines. The
Page 95
mesocoracoid is present as in ordinary Isospondyli. Gonorhynchus
abbreviatus occurs in Japan, and Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus is found in
Australia and about the Cape of Good Hope. Numerous fossil species occur.
Charitosomus lineolatus and other species are found in the Cretaceous of
Mount Lebanon and elsewhere. Species without teeth from the Oligocene of
Europe and America are referred to the genus Notogoneus. Notogoneus
osculus occurs in the Eocene fresh-water deposits at Green River,
Wyoming. It bears a very strong resemblance in form to an ordinary sucker
(Catostomus), for which reason it was once described by the name of
Protocatostomus. The living Gonorhynchidæ are all strictly marine.
In the small family of Cromeriidæ the head and body are naked.
The Osteoglossidæ.—Still less closely related to the herring is the family
of Osteoglossidæ, huge pike-like fishes of the tropical rivers, armed with
hard bony scales formed of pieces like mosaic. The largest of all fresh-water
fishes is Arapaima gigas of the Amazon region, which reaches a length of
fifteen feet and a weight of 400 pounds. It has naturally considerable
commercial importance, as have species of Osteoglossum, coarse river-
fishes which occur in Brazil, Egypt, and the East Indies. Heterotis nilotica
is a large fish of the Nile. In some or all of these the air-bladder is cellular
or lung-like, like that of a Ganoid.
Allied to the Osteoglossidæ is Phareodus (Dapedoglossus), a group of large
shad-like fossil fishes, with large scales of peculiar mosaic texture and with
a bony casque on the head, found in fresh-water deposits of the Green River
Eocene. In the perfect specimens of Phareodus (or Dapedoglossus) testis
the first ray of the pectoral is much enlarged and serrated on its inner edge,
a character which may separate these fishes as a family from the true
Osteoglossidæ. It does not, however, appear in Cope's figures, none of his
specimens having the pectorals perfect. In these fishes the teeth are very
strong and sharp, the scales are very large and thin, looking like the scales
of a parrot-fish, the long dorsal is opposite to the anal and similar to it, and
the caudal is truncate. The end of the vertebral column is turned upward.
Other species are Phareodus acutus, known from the jaws; P. encaustus is
known from a mass of thick scales with reticulate or mosaic-like surface,
much as in Osteoglossum, and P. æquipennis from a small example, perhaps
immature. Phareodus testis is frequently found well preserved in the shales
abbreviatus occurs in Japan, and Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus is found in
Australia and about the Cape of Good Hope. Numerous fossil species occur.
Charitosomus lineolatus and other species are found in the Cretaceous of
Mount Lebanon and elsewhere. Species without teeth from the Oligocene of
Europe and America are referred to the genus Notogoneus. Notogoneus
osculus occurs in the Eocene fresh-water deposits at Green River,
Wyoming. It bears a very strong resemblance in form to an ordinary sucker
(Catostomus), for which reason it was once described by the name of
Protocatostomus. The living Gonorhynchidæ are all strictly marine.
In the small family of Cromeriidæ the head and body are naked.
The Osteoglossidæ.—Still less closely related to the herring is the family
of Osteoglossidæ, huge pike-like fishes of the tropical rivers, armed with
hard bony scales formed of pieces like mosaic. The largest of all fresh-water
fishes is Arapaima gigas of the Amazon region, which reaches a length of
fifteen feet and a weight of 400 pounds. It has naturally considerable
commercial importance, as have species of Osteoglossum, coarse river-
fishes which occur in Brazil, Egypt, and the East Indies. Heterotis nilotica
is a large fish of the Nile. In some or all of these the air-bladder is cellular
or lung-like, like that of a Ganoid.
Allied to the Osteoglossidæ is Phareodus (Dapedoglossus), a group of large
shad-like fossil fishes, with large scales of peculiar mosaic texture and with
a bony casque on the head, found in fresh-water deposits of the Green River
Eocene. In the perfect specimens of Phareodus (or Dapedoglossus) testis
the first ray of the pectoral is much enlarged and serrated on its inner edge,
a character which may separate these fishes as a family from the true
Osteoglossidæ. It does not, however, appear in Cope's figures, none of his
specimens having the pectorals perfect. In these fishes the teeth are very
strong and sharp, the scales are very large and thin, looking like the scales
of a parrot-fish, the long dorsal is opposite to the anal and similar to it, and
the caudal is truncate. The end of the vertebral column is turned upward.
Other species are Phareodus acutus, known from the jaws; P. encaustus is
known from a mass of thick scales with reticulate or mosaic-like surface,
much as in Osteoglossum, and P. æquipennis from a small example, perhaps
immature. Phareodus testis is frequently found well preserved in the shales
Page 96
at Fossil Station, to the northwestward of Green River. Whether all these
species possess the peculiar structure of the scales, and whether all belong
to one genus, is uncertain.
Fig. 45.—Phareodus testis (Cope). From a specimen 20 inches long
collected at Fossil, Wyo., in the Museum of the Univ. of Wyoming.
(Photograph by Prof. Wilbur C. Knight.)
In Eocene shales of England occurs Brychætus muelleri, a species closely
related to Phareodus, but the scales smaller and without the characteristic
reticulate or mosaic structure seen in Phareodus encaustus.
species possess the peculiar structure of the scales, and whether all belong
to one genus, is uncertain.
Fig. 45.—Phareodus testis (Cope). From a specimen 20 inches long
collected at Fossil, Wyo., in the Museum of the Univ. of Wyoming.
(Photograph by Prof. Wilbur C. Knight.)
In Eocene shales of England occurs Brychætus muelleri, a species closely
related to Phareodus, but the scales smaller and without the characteristic
reticulate or mosaic structure seen in Phareodus encaustus.
Page 97
Fig. 46.—Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing Phareodus, at Fossil,
Wyoming. (Photograph by Wilbur C. Knight.)
Wyoming. (Photograph by Wilbur C. Knight.)
Page 98
Fig. 47.—A day's catch of Fossil fishes, Phareodus, Diplomystus, etc.
Green River Eocene Shales, Fossil, Wyoming. (Photograph by Prof.
Wilbur C. Knight.)
The Pantodontidæ.—The bony casque of Osteoglossum is found again in
the Pantodontidæ, consisting of one species, Pantodon buchholzi, a small
fish of the brooks of West Africa. As in the Osteoglossidæ and in the
Siluridæ, the subopercle is wanting in Pantodon.
Fig. 48.—Alepocephalus agassizii Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
Green River Eocene Shales, Fossil, Wyoming. (Photograph by Prof.
Wilbur C. Knight.)
The Pantodontidæ.—The bony casque of Osteoglossum is found again in
the Pantodontidæ, consisting of one species, Pantodon buchholzi, a small
fish of the brooks of West Africa. As in the Osteoglossidæ and in the
Siluridæ, the subopercle is wanting in Pantodon.
Fig. 48.—Alepocephalus agassizii Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
Page 99
The Alepocephalidæ are deep-sea herring-like fishes very soft in texture
and black in color, taken in the oceanic abysses. Some species may be
found in almost all seas below the depth of half a mile. Alepocephalus
rostratus of the Mediterranean has been long known, but most of the other
genera, Talismania, Mitchillina, Conocara, etc., are of very recent
discovery, having been brought to the surface by the deep-sea dredging of
the Challenger, the Albatross, the Blake, the Travailleur, the Talisman, the
Investigator, the Hirondelle, and the Violante.
and black in color, taken in the oceanic abysses. Some species may be
found in almost all seas below the depth of half a mile. Alepocephalus
rostratus of the Mediterranean has been long known, but most of the other
genera, Talismania, Mitchillina, Conocara, etc., are of very recent
discovery, having been brought to the surface by the deep-sea dredging of
the Challenger, the Albatross, the Blake, the Travailleur, the Talisman, the
Investigator, the Hirondelle, and the Violante.
Page 100
CHAPTER IV
SALMONIDÆ
he Salmon Family.—The series or suborder Salmonoidea, or
allies of the salmon and trout, are characterized as a whole by
the presence of the adipose fin, a structure also retained in
Characins and catfishes, which have no evident affinity with
the trout, and in the lantern-fishes, lizard-fishes, and trout-
perches, in which the affinity is very remote. Probably these groups all have
a common descent from some primitive fish having an adipose fin, or at
least a fleshy fold on the back.
Of all the families of fishes, the one most interesting from almost every
point of view is that of the Salmonidæ, the salmon family. As now
restricted, it is not one of the largest families, as it comprises less than a
hundred species; but in beauty, activity, gaminess, quality as food, and even
in size of individuals, different members of the group stand easily with the
first among fishes. The following are the chief external characteristics
which are common to the members of the family:
Body oblong or moderately elongate, covered with cycloid, in scales of
varying size. Head naked. Mouth terminal or somewhat inferior, varying
considerably among the different species, those having the mouth largest
usually having also the strongest teeth. Maxillary provided with a
supplemental bone, and forming the lateral margin of the upper jaw.
Pseudobranchiæ present. Gill-rakers varying with the species. Opercula
complete. No barbels. Dorsal fin of moderate length, placed near the middle
of the length of the body. Adipose fin well developed. Caudal fin forked.
Anal fin moderate or rather long. Ventral fins nearly median in position.
SALMONIDÆ
he Salmon Family.—The series or suborder Salmonoidea, or
allies of the salmon and trout, are characterized as a whole by
the presence of the adipose fin, a structure also retained in
Characins and catfishes, which have no evident affinity with
the trout, and in the lantern-fishes, lizard-fishes, and trout-
perches, in which the affinity is very remote. Probably these groups all have
a common descent from some primitive fish having an adipose fin, or at
least a fleshy fold on the back.
Of all the families of fishes, the one most interesting from almost every
point of view is that of the Salmonidæ, the salmon family. As now
restricted, it is not one of the largest families, as it comprises less than a
hundred species; but in beauty, activity, gaminess, quality as food, and even
in size of individuals, different members of the group stand easily with the
first among fishes. The following are the chief external characteristics
which are common to the members of the family:
Body oblong or moderately elongate, covered with cycloid, in scales of
varying size. Head naked. Mouth terminal or somewhat inferior, varying
considerably among the different species, those having the mouth largest
usually having also the strongest teeth. Maxillary provided with a
supplemental bone, and forming the lateral margin of the upper jaw.
Pseudobranchiæ present. Gill-rakers varying with the species. Opercula
complete. No barbels. Dorsal fin of moderate length, placed near the middle
of the length of the body. Adipose fin well developed. Caudal fin forked.
Anal fin moderate or rather long. Ventral fins nearly median in position.
Page 101
Pectoral fins inserted low. Lateral line present. Outline of belly rounded.
Vertebræ in large number, usually about sixty.
The stomach in all the Salmonidæ is siphonal, and at the pylorus are many
(15 to 200) comparatively large pyloric cœca. The air-bladder is large. The
eggs are usually much larger than in fishes generally, and the ovaries are
without special duct, the ova falling into the cavity of the abdomen before
exclusion. The large size of the eggs, their lack of adhesiveness, and the
readiness with which they may be impregnated, render the Salmonidæ
peculiarly adapted for artificial culture.
The Salmonidæ are peculiar to the north temperate and Arctic regions, and
within this range they are almost equally abundant wherever suitable waters
occur. Some of the species, especially the larger ones, are marine and
anadromous, living and growing in the sea, and ascending fresh waters to
spawn. Still others live in running brooks, entering lakes or the sea when
occasion serves, but not habitually doing so. Still others are lake fishes,
approaching the shore or entering brooks in the spawning season, at other
times retiring to waters of considerable depth. Some of them are active,
voracious, and gamy, while others are comparatively defenseless and will
not take the hook. They are divisible into ten easily recognized genera:
Coregonus, Argyrosomus, Brachymystax, Stenodus, Oncorhynchus, Salmo,
Hucho, Cristivomer, Salvelinus, and Plecoglossus.
Fragments of fossil trout, very imperfectly known, are recorded chiefly
from Pleistocene deposits of Idaho, under the name of Rhabdofario
lacustris. We have also received from Dr. John C. Merriam, from
ferruginous sands of the same region, several fragments of jaws of salmon,
in the hook-nosed condition, with enlarged teeth, showing that the present
salmon-runs have been in operation for many thousands of years. Most
other fragments hitherto referred to Salmonidæ belong to some other kind
of fish.
Coregonus, the Whitefish.—The genus Coregonus, which includes the
various species known in America as lake whitefish, is distinguishable in
general by the small size of its mouth, the weakness of its teeth, and the
large size of its scales. The teeth, especially, are either reduced to slight
asperities, or else are altogether wanting. The species reach a length of one
to three feet. With scarcely an exception they inhabit clear lakes, and rarely
Vertebræ in large number, usually about sixty.
The stomach in all the Salmonidæ is siphonal, and at the pylorus are many
(15 to 200) comparatively large pyloric cœca. The air-bladder is large. The
eggs are usually much larger than in fishes generally, and the ovaries are
without special duct, the ova falling into the cavity of the abdomen before
exclusion. The large size of the eggs, their lack of adhesiveness, and the
readiness with which they may be impregnated, render the Salmonidæ
peculiarly adapted for artificial culture.
The Salmonidæ are peculiar to the north temperate and Arctic regions, and
within this range they are almost equally abundant wherever suitable waters
occur. Some of the species, especially the larger ones, are marine and
anadromous, living and growing in the sea, and ascending fresh waters to
spawn. Still others live in running brooks, entering lakes or the sea when
occasion serves, but not habitually doing so. Still others are lake fishes,
approaching the shore or entering brooks in the spawning season, at other
times retiring to waters of considerable depth. Some of them are active,
voracious, and gamy, while others are comparatively defenseless and will
not take the hook. They are divisible into ten easily recognized genera:
Coregonus, Argyrosomus, Brachymystax, Stenodus, Oncorhynchus, Salmo,
Hucho, Cristivomer, Salvelinus, and Plecoglossus.
Fragments of fossil trout, very imperfectly known, are recorded chiefly
from Pleistocene deposits of Idaho, under the name of Rhabdofario
lacustris. We have also received from Dr. John C. Merriam, from
ferruginous sands of the same region, several fragments of jaws of salmon,
in the hook-nosed condition, with enlarged teeth, showing that the present
salmon-runs have been in operation for many thousands of years. Most
other fragments hitherto referred to Salmonidæ belong to some other kind
of fish.
Coregonus, the Whitefish.—The genus Coregonus, which includes the
various species known in America as lake whitefish, is distinguishable in
general by the small size of its mouth, the weakness of its teeth, and the
large size of its scales. The teeth, especially, are either reduced to slight
asperities, or else are altogether wanting. The species reach a length of one
to three feet. With scarcely an exception they inhabit clear lakes, and rarely
Page 102
enter streams except to spawn. In far northern regions they often descend to
the sea; but in the latitude of the United States this is never possible for
them, as they are unable to endure warm or impure water. They seldom take
the hook, and rarely feed on other fishes. Numerous local varieties
characterize the lakes of Scandinavia, Scotland, and Arctic Asia and
America. Largest and most desirable of all these as a food-fish is the
common whitefish of the Great Lakes (Coregonus clupeiformis), with its
allies or variants in the Mackenzie and Yukon.
The species of Coregonus differ from each other in the form and size of the
mouth, in the form of the body, and in the development of the gill-rakers.
Coregonus oxyrhynchus—the Schnäbel of Holland, Germany, and
Scandinavia—has the mouth very small, the sharp snout projecting far
beyond it. No species similar to this is found in America.
The Rocky Mountain whitefish (Coregonus williamsoni) has also a small
mouth and projecting snout, but the latter is blunter and much shorter than
in C. oxyrhynchus. This is a small species abounding everywhere in the
clear lakes and streams of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada,
from Colorado to Vancouver Island. It is a handsome fish and excellent as
food.
Fig. 49.—Rocky Mountain Whitefish, Coregonus williamsoni Girard.
the sea; but in the latitude of the United States this is never possible for
them, as they are unable to endure warm or impure water. They seldom take
the hook, and rarely feed on other fishes. Numerous local varieties
characterize the lakes of Scandinavia, Scotland, and Arctic Asia and
America. Largest and most desirable of all these as a food-fish is the
common whitefish of the Great Lakes (Coregonus clupeiformis), with its
allies or variants in the Mackenzie and Yukon.
The species of Coregonus differ from each other in the form and size of the
mouth, in the form of the body, and in the development of the gill-rakers.
Coregonus oxyrhynchus—the Schnäbel of Holland, Germany, and
Scandinavia—has the mouth very small, the sharp snout projecting far
beyond it. No species similar to this is found in America.
The Rocky Mountain whitefish (Coregonus williamsoni) has also a small
mouth and projecting snout, but the latter is blunter and much shorter than
in C. oxyrhynchus. This is a small species abounding everywhere in the
clear lakes and streams of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada,
from Colorado to Vancouver Island. It is a handsome fish and excellent as
food.
Fig. 49.—Rocky Mountain Whitefish, Coregonus williamsoni Girard.
Page 103
Closely allied to Coregonus williamsoni is the pilot-fish, shad-waiter,
roundfish, or Menomonee whitefish (Coregonus quadrilateralis). This
species is found in the Great Lakes, the Adirondack region, the lakes of
New Hampshire, and thence northwestward to the Yukon, abounding in
cold deep waters, its range apparently nowhere coinciding with that of
Coregonus williamsoni.
Fig. 50.—Whitefish, Coregonus clupeiformis Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich.
The common whitefish (Coregonus clupeiformis) is the largest in size of the
species of Coregonus, and is unquestionably the finest as an article of food.
It varies considerably in appearance with age and condition, but in general
it is proportionately much deeper than any of the other small-mouthed
Coregoni. The adult fishes develop a considerable fleshy hump at the
shoulders, which causes the head, which is very small, to appear
disproportionately so. The whitefish spawns in November and December,
on rocky shoals in the Great Lakes. Its food was ascertained by Dr. P. R.
Hoy to consist chiefly of deep-water crustaceans, with a few mollusks, and
larvæ of water insects. "The whitefish," writes Mr. James W. Milner, "has
been known since the time of the earliest explorers as preeminently a fine-
flavored fish. In fact there are few table-fishes its equal. To be appreciated
in its fullest excellence it should be taken fresh from the lake and broiled.
Father Marquette, Charlevoix, Sir John Richardson—explorers who for
roundfish, or Menomonee whitefish (Coregonus quadrilateralis). This
species is found in the Great Lakes, the Adirondack region, the lakes of
New Hampshire, and thence northwestward to the Yukon, abounding in
cold deep waters, its range apparently nowhere coinciding with that of
Coregonus williamsoni.
Fig. 50.—Whitefish, Coregonus clupeiformis Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich.
The common whitefish (Coregonus clupeiformis) is the largest in size of the
species of Coregonus, and is unquestionably the finest as an article of food.
It varies considerably in appearance with age and condition, but in general
it is proportionately much deeper than any of the other small-mouthed
Coregoni. The adult fishes develop a considerable fleshy hump at the
shoulders, which causes the head, which is very small, to appear
disproportionately so. The whitefish spawns in November and December,
on rocky shoals in the Great Lakes. Its food was ascertained by Dr. P. R.
Hoy to consist chiefly of deep-water crustaceans, with a few mollusks, and
larvæ of water insects. "The whitefish," writes Mr. James W. Milner, "has
been known since the time of the earliest explorers as preeminently a fine-
flavored fish. In fact there are few table-fishes its equal. To be appreciated
in its fullest excellence it should be taken fresh from the lake and broiled.
Father Marquette, Charlevoix, Sir John Richardson—explorers who for
Page 104
months at a time had to depend upon the whitefish for their staple article of
food—bore testimony to the fact that they never lost their relish for it, and
deemed it a special excellence that the appetite never became cloyed with
it." The range of the whitefish extends from the lakes of New York and New
England northward to the Arctic Circle. The "Otsego bass" of Otsego Lake
in New York, celebrated by De Witt Clinton, is a local form of the ordinary
whitefish.
Allied to the American whitefish, but smaller in size, is the Lavaret,
Weissfisch, Adelfisch, or Weissfelchen (Coregonus lavaretus), of the
mountain lakes of Switzerland, Germany, and Sweden. Coregonus
kennicotti, the muksun, and Coregonus nelsoni, the humpback whitefish,
are found in northern Alaska and in the Yukon. Several other related species
occur in northern Europe and Siberia.
Another American species is the Sault whitefish, Lake Whiting or Musquaw
River whitefish (Coregonus labradoricus). Its teeth are stronger, especially
on the tongue, than in any of our other species, and its body is slenderer
than that of the whitefish. It is found in the upper Great Lakes, in the
Adirondack region, in Lake Winnipeseogee, and in the lakes of Maine and
New Brunswick. It is said to rise to the fly in the Canadian lakes. This
species runs up the St. Mary's River, from Lake Huron to Lake Superior, in
July and August. Great numbers are snared or speared by the Indians at this
season at the Sault Ste. Marie.
In the breeding season the scales are sometimes thickened or covered with
small warts, as in the male Cyprinidæ.
Argyrosomus, the Lake Herring.—In the genus Argyrosomus the mouth
is larger, the premaxillary not set vertical, but extending forward on its
lower edge, and the body is more elongate and more evenly elliptical. The
species are more active and predaceous than those of Coregonus and are, on
the whole, inferior as food.
The smallest and handsomest of the American whitefish is the cisco of Lake
Michigan (Argyrosomus hoyi). It is a slender fish, rarely exceeding ten
inches in length, and its scales have the brilliant silvery luster of the
mooneye and the ladyfish.
food—bore testimony to the fact that they never lost their relish for it, and
deemed it a special excellence that the appetite never became cloyed with
it." The range of the whitefish extends from the lakes of New York and New
England northward to the Arctic Circle. The "Otsego bass" of Otsego Lake
in New York, celebrated by De Witt Clinton, is a local form of the ordinary
whitefish.
Allied to the American whitefish, but smaller in size, is the Lavaret,
Weissfisch, Adelfisch, or Weissfelchen (Coregonus lavaretus), of the
mountain lakes of Switzerland, Germany, and Sweden. Coregonus
kennicotti, the muksun, and Coregonus nelsoni, the humpback whitefish,
are found in northern Alaska and in the Yukon. Several other related species
occur in northern Europe and Siberia.
Another American species is the Sault whitefish, Lake Whiting or Musquaw
River whitefish (Coregonus labradoricus). Its teeth are stronger, especially
on the tongue, than in any of our other species, and its body is slenderer
than that of the whitefish. It is found in the upper Great Lakes, in the
Adirondack region, in Lake Winnipeseogee, and in the lakes of Maine and
New Brunswick. It is said to rise to the fly in the Canadian lakes. This
species runs up the St. Mary's River, from Lake Huron to Lake Superior, in
July and August. Great numbers are snared or speared by the Indians at this
season at the Sault Ste. Marie.
In the breeding season the scales are sometimes thickened or covered with
small warts, as in the male Cyprinidæ.
Argyrosomus, the Lake Herring.—In the genus Argyrosomus the mouth
is larger, the premaxillary not set vertical, but extending forward on its
lower edge, and the body is more elongate and more evenly elliptical. The
species are more active and predaceous than those of Coregonus and are, on
the whole, inferior as food.
The smallest and handsomest of the American whitefish is the cisco of Lake
Michigan (Argyrosomus hoyi). It is a slender fish, rarely exceeding ten
inches in length, and its scales have the brilliant silvery luster of the
mooneye and the ladyfish.
Page 105
The lake herring, or cisco (Argyrosomus artedi), is, next to the whitefish,
the most important of the American species. It is more elongate than the
others, and has a comparatively large mouth, with projecting under-jaw. It is
correspondingly more voracious, and often takes the hook. During the
spawning season of the whitefish the lake herring feeds on the ova of the
latter, thereby doing a great amount of mischief. As food this species is fair,
but much inferior to the whitefish. Its geographical distribution is
essentially the same, but to a greater degree it frequents shoal waters. In the
small lakes around Lake Michigan, in Indiana and Wisconsin (Tippecanoe,
Geneva, Oconomowoc, etc.), the cisco has long been established; and in
these waters its habits have undergone some change, as has also its external
appearance. It has been recorded as a distinct species, Argyrosomus sisco,
and its excellence as a game-fish has been long appreciated by the angler.
These lake ciscoes remain for most of the year in the depths of the lake,
coming to the surface only in search of certain insects, and to shallow water
only in the spawning season. This periodical disappearance of the cisco has
led to much foolish discussion as to the probability of their returning by an
underground passage to Lake Michigan during the periods of their absence.
One author, confounding "cisco" with "siscowet," has assumed that this
underground passage leads to Lake Superior, and that the cisco is identical
with the fat lake trout which bears the latter name. The name "lake herring"
alludes to the superficial resemblance which this species possesses to the
marine herring, a fish of quite a different family.
Fig. 51.—Bluefin Cisco, Argyrosomus nigripinnis Gill. Sheboygan.
the most important of the American species. It is more elongate than the
others, and has a comparatively large mouth, with projecting under-jaw. It is
correspondingly more voracious, and often takes the hook. During the
spawning season of the whitefish the lake herring feeds on the ova of the
latter, thereby doing a great amount of mischief. As food this species is fair,
but much inferior to the whitefish. Its geographical distribution is
essentially the same, but to a greater degree it frequents shoal waters. In the
small lakes around Lake Michigan, in Indiana and Wisconsin (Tippecanoe,
Geneva, Oconomowoc, etc.), the cisco has long been established; and in
these waters its habits have undergone some change, as has also its external
appearance. It has been recorded as a distinct species, Argyrosomus sisco,
and its excellence as a game-fish has been long appreciated by the angler.
These lake ciscoes remain for most of the year in the depths of the lake,
coming to the surface only in search of certain insects, and to shallow water
only in the spawning season. This periodical disappearance of the cisco has
led to much foolish discussion as to the probability of their returning by an
underground passage to Lake Michigan during the periods of their absence.
One author, confounding "cisco" with "siscowet," has assumed that this
underground passage leads to Lake Superior, and that the cisco is identical
with the fat lake trout which bears the latter name. The name "lake herring"
alludes to the superficial resemblance which this species possesses to the
marine herring, a fish of quite a different family.
Fig. 51.—Bluefin Cisco, Argyrosomus nigripinnis Gill. Sheboygan.
Page 106
Closely allied to the lake herring is the bluefin of Lake Michigan and of
certain lakes in New York (Argyrosomus nigripinnis), a fine large species
inhabiting deep waters, and recognizable by the blue-black color of its
lower fins. In the lakes of central New York are found two other species, the
so-called lake smelt (Argyrosomus osmeriformis) and the long-jaw
(Argyrosomus prognathus). Argyrosomus lucidus is abundant in Great Bear
Lake. In Alaska and Siberia are still other species of the cisco type
(Argyrosomus laurettæ, A. pusillus, A. alascanus); and in Europe very
similar species are the Scotch vendace (Argyrosomus vandesius) and the
Scandinavian Lok-Sild (lake herring), as well as others less perfectly
known.
The Tullibee, or "mongrel whitefish" (Argyrosomus tullibee), has a deep
body, like the shad, with the large mouth of the ciscoes. It is found in the
Great Lake region and northward, and very little is known of its habits. A
similar species (Argyrosomus cyprinoides) is recorded from Siberia—a
region which is peculiarly suited for the growth of the Coregoni, but in
which the species have never received much study.
Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.—Another little-known form,
intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon, is Brachymystax lenock,
a large fish of the mountain streams of Siberia. Only the skins brought
home by Pallas a century ago are yet known. According to Pallas, it
sometimes reaches a weight of eighty pounds.
Fig. 52.—Inconnu, Stenodus mackenziei (Richardson). Nulato, Alaska.
certain lakes in New York (Argyrosomus nigripinnis), a fine large species
inhabiting deep waters, and recognizable by the blue-black color of its
lower fins. In the lakes of central New York are found two other species, the
so-called lake smelt (Argyrosomus osmeriformis) and the long-jaw
(Argyrosomus prognathus). Argyrosomus lucidus is abundant in Great Bear
Lake. In Alaska and Siberia are still other species of the cisco type
(Argyrosomus laurettæ, A. pusillus, A. alascanus); and in Europe very
similar species are the Scotch vendace (Argyrosomus vandesius) and the
Scandinavian Lok-Sild (lake herring), as well as others less perfectly
known.
The Tullibee, or "mongrel whitefish" (Argyrosomus tullibee), has a deep
body, like the shad, with the large mouth of the ciscoes. It is found in the
Great Lake region and northward, and very little is known of its habits. A
similar species (Argyrosomus cyprinoides) is recorded from Siberia—a
region which is peculiarly suited for the growth of the Coregoni, but in
which the species have never received much study.
Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.—Another little-known form,
intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon, is Brachymystax lenock,
a large fish of the mountain streams of Siberia. Only the skins brought
home by Pallas a century ago are yet known. According to Pallas, it
sometimes reaches a weight of eighty pounds.
Fig. 52.—Inconnu, Stenodus mackenziei (Richardson). Nulato, Alaska.
Page 107
Still another genus, intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon, is
Stenodus, distinguished by its elongate body, feeble teeth, and projecting
lower jaw. The Inconnu, or Mackenzie River salmon, known on the Yukon
as "charr" (Stenodus mackenziei), belongs to this genus. It reaches a weight
of twenty pounds or more, and in the far north is a food-fish of good
quality. It runs in the Yukon as far as White Horse Rapids. Not much is
recorded of its habits, and few specimens exist in museums. A species of
Stenodus called Stenodus leucichthys inhabits the Volga, Obi, Lena, and
other northern rivers; but as yet little is definitely known of the species.
Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.—The genus Oncorhynchus contains
the salmon of the Pacific. They are in fact, as well as in name, the king
salmon. The genus is closely related to Salmo, with which it agrees in
general as to the structure of its vomer, and from which it differs in the
increased number of anal rays, branchiostegals, pyloric cœca, and gill-
rakers. The character most convenient for distinguishing Oncorhynchus,
young or old, from all the species of Salmo, is the number of developed
rays in the anal fin. These in Oncorhynchus are thirteen to twenty, in Salmo
nine to twelve.
The species of Oncorhynchus have long been known as anadromous
salmon, confined to the North Pacific. The species were first made known
nearly one hundred and fifty years ago by that most exact of early
observers, Steller, who, almost simultaneously with Krascheninnikov,
another early investigator, described and distinguished them with perfect
accuracy under their Russian vernacular names. These Russian names were,
in 1792, adopted by Walbaum as specific names in giving to these animals a
scientific nomenclature. Five species of Oncorhynchus are well known on
both shores of the North Pacific, besides one other in Japan. These have
been greatly misunderstood by early observers on account of the
extraordinary changes due to differences in surroundings, in sex, and in age,
and in conditions connected with the process of reproduction.
There are five species of salmon (Oncorhynchus) in the waters of the North
Pacific, all found on both sides, besides one other which is known only
from the waters of Japan. These species may be called: (1) the quinnat, or
king-salmon, (2) the blue-back salmon, or redfish, (3) the silver salmon, (4)
the dog-salmon, (5) the humpback salmon, and (6) the masu; or (1)
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, (2) Oncorhynchus nerka, (3) Oncorhynchus
Stenodus, distinguished by its elongate body, feeble teeth, and projecting
lower jaw. The Inconnu, or Mackenzie River salmon, known on the Yukon
as "charr" (Stenodus mackenziei), belongs to this genus. It reaches a weight
of twenty pounds or more, and in the far north is a food-fish of good
quality. It runs in the Yukon as far as White Horse Rapids. Not much is
recorded of its habits, and few specimens exist in museums. A species of
Stenodus called Stenodus leucichthys inhabits the Volga, Obi, Lena, and
other northern rivers; but as yet little is definitely known of the species.
Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.—The genus Oncorhynchus contains
the salmon of the Pacific. They are in fact, as well as in name, the king
salmon. The genus is closely related to Salmo, with which it agrees in
general as to the structure of its vomer, and from which it differs in the
increased number of anal rays, branchiostegals, pyloric cœca, and gill-
rakers. The character most convenient for distinguishing Oncorhynchus,
young or old, from all the species of Salmo, is the number of developed
rays in the anal fin. These in Oncorhynchus are thirteen to twenty, in Salmo
nine to twelve.
The species of Oncorhynchus have long been known as anadromous
salmon, confined to the North Pacific. The species were first made known
nearly one hundred and fifty years ago by that most exact of early
observers, Steller, who, almost simultaneously with Krascheninnikov,
another early investigator, described and distinguished them with perfect
accuracy under their Russian vernacular names. These Russian names were,
in 1792, adopted by Walbaum as specific names in giving to these animals a
scientific nomenclature. Five species of Oncorhynchus are well known on
both shores of the North Pacific, besides one other in Japan. These have
been greatly misunderstood by early observers on account of the
extraordinary changes due to differences in surroundings, in sex, and in age,
and in conditions connected with the process of reproduction.
There are five species of salmon (Oncorhynchus) in the waters of the North
Pacific, all found on both sides, besides one other which is known only
from the waters of Japan. These species may be called: (1) the quinnat, or
king-salmon, (2) the blue-back salmon, or redfish, (3) the silver salmon, (4)
the dog-salmon, (5) the humpback salmon, and (6) the masu; or (1)
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, (2) Oncorhynchus nerka, (3) Oncorhynchus
Page 108
milktschitsch, (4) Oncorhynchus keta, (5) Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, (6)
Oncorhynchus masou. All these species save the last are now known to
occur in the waters of Kamchatka, as well as in those of Alaska and Oregon.
These species, in all their varied conditions, may usually be distinguished
by the characters given below. Other differences of form, color, and
appearance are absolutely valueless for distinction, unless specimens of the
same age, sex, and condition are compared.
The quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha),[7] called quinnat, tyee,
chinook, or king-salmon, has an average weight of 22 pounds, but
individuals weighing 70 to 100 pounds are occasionally taken. It has about
16 anal rays, 15 to 19 branchiostegals, 23 (9 + 14) gill-rakers on the anterior
gill-arch, and 140 to 185 pyloric cœca. The scales are comparatively large,
there being from 130 to 155 in a longitudinal series. In the spring the body
is silvery, the back, dorsal fin, and caudal fin having more or less of round
black spots, and the sides of the head having a peculiar tin-colored metallic
luster. In the fall the color is often black or dirty red, and the species can
then be distinguished from the dog-salmon by its larger size and by its
technical characters. The flesh is rich and salmon-red, becoming suddenly
pale as the spawning season draws near.
7. For valuable accounts of the habits of this species the reader is referred to papers by the late
Cloudsley Rutter, ichthyologist of the Albatross, in the publications of the United States Fish
Commission, the Popular Science Monthly, and the Overland Monthly.
Fig. 53.—Quinnat Salmon (female), Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
(Walbaum). Columbia River.
Oncorhynchus masou. All these species save the last are now known to
occur in the waters of Kamchatka, as well as in those of Alaska and Oregon.
These species, in all their varied conditions, may usually be distinguished
by the characters given below. Other differences of form, color, and
appearance are absolutely valueless for distinction, unless specimens of the
same age, sex, and condition are compared.
The quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha),[7] called quinnat, tyee,
chinook, or king-salmon, has an average weight of 22 pounds, but
individuals weighing 70 to 100 pounds are occasionally taken. It has about
16 anal rays, 15 to 19 branchiostegals, 23 (9 + 14) gill-rakers on the anterior
gill-arch, and 140 to 185 pyloric cœca. The scales are comparatively large,
there being from 130 to 155 in a longitudinal series. In the spring the body
is silvery, the back, dorsal fin, and caudal fin having more or less of round
black spots, and the sides of the head having a peculiar tin-colored metallic
luster. In the fall the color is often black or dirty red, and the species can
then be distinguished from the dog-salmon by its larger size and by its
technical characters. The flesh is rich and salmon-red, becoming suddenly
pale as the spawning season draws near.
7. For valuable accounts of the habits of this species the reader is referred to papers by the late
Cloudsley Rutter, ichthyologist of the Albatross, in the publications of the United States Fish
Commission, the Popular Science Monthly, and the Overland Monthly.
Fig. 53.—Quinnat Salmon (female), Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
(Walbaum). Columbia River.
Page 109
Fig. 54.—King-salmon grilse, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum).
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Fig. 55.—Male Red Salmon in September, Oncorhynchus nerka
(Walbaum). Payette Lake, Idaho.
The blue-back salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka),[8] also called red salmon,
sukkegh, or sockeye, usually weighs from 5 to 8 pounds. It has about 14
developed anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, and 75 to 95 pyloric cœca. The
gill-rakers are more numerous than in any other salmon, the number being
usually about 39 (16 + 23). The scales are larger, there being 130 to 140 in
the lateral line. In the spring the form is plumply rounded, and the color is a
clear bright blue above, silvery below, and everywhere immaculate. Young
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Fig. 55.—Male Red Salmon in September, Oncorhynchus nerka
(Walbaum). Payette Lake, Idaho.
The blue-back salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka),[8] also called red salmon,
sukkegh, or sockeye, usually weighs from 5 to 8 pounds. It has about 14
developed anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, and 75 to 95 pyloric cœca. The
gill-rakers are more numerous than in any other salmon, the number being
usually about 39 (16 + 23). The scales are larger, there being 130 to 140 in
the lateral line. In the spring the form is plumply rounded, and the color is a
clear bright blue above, silvery below, and everywhere immaculate. Young
Page 110
fishes often show a few round black spots, which disappear when they enter
the sea. Fall specimens in the lakes are bright crimson in color, the head
clear olive-green, and they become in a high degree hook-nosed and slab-
sided, and bear little resemblance to the spring run. Young spawning male
grilse follow the changes which take place in the adult, although often not
more than half a pound in weight. These little fishes often appear in
mountain lakes, but whether they are landlocked or have come up from the
sea is still unsettled. These dwarf forms, called kokos by the Indians and
benimasu in Japan, form the subspecies Oncorhynchus nerka kennerlyi. The
flesh in this species is firmer than that of any other and very red, of good
flavor, though drier and less rich than the king-salmon.
8. For valuable records of the natural history of this species the reader is referred to various
papers by Dr. Barton Warren Evermann in the Bulletins of the United States Fish Commission
and elsewhere.
The silver salmon, or coho (Oncorhynchus milktschitsch, or kisutch),
reaches a weight of 5 to 8 pounds. It has 13 developed rays in the anal, 13
branchiostegals, 23 (10 + 13) gill-rakers, and 45 to 80 pyloric cœca. There
are about 127 scales in the lateral line. The scales are thin and all except
those of the lateral line readily fall off. This feature distinguishes the
species readily from the red salmon. In color it is silvery in spring, greenish
above, and with a few faint black spots on the upper parts only. In the fall
the males are mostly of a dirty red. The flesh in this species is of excellent
flavor, but pale in color, and hence less valued than that of the quinnat and
the red salmon.
The dog-salmon, calico salmon, or chum, called saké in Japan
(Oncorhynchus keta), reaches an average weight of about 7 to 10 pounds. It
has about 14 anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, 24 (9 + 15) gill-rakers, and 140
to 185 pyloric cœca. There are about 150 scales in the lateral line. In spring
it is dirty silvery, immaculate, or sprinkled with small black specks, the fins
dusky, the sides with faint traces of gridiron-like bars. In the fall the male is
brick-red or blackish, and its jaws are greatly distorted. The pale flesh is
well flavored when fresh, but pale and mushy in texture and muddy in taste
when canned. It is said to take salt well, and great numbers of salt dog-
salmon are consumed in Japan.
The humpback salmon, or pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), is the
smallest of the American species, weighing from 3 to 5 pounds. It has
the sea. Fall specimens in the lakes are bright crimson in color, the head
clear olive-green, and they become in a high degree hook-nosed and slab-
sided, and bear little resemblance to the spring run. Young spawning male
grilse follow the changes which take place in the adult, although often not
more than half a pound in weight. These little fishes often appear in
mountain lakes, but whether they are landlocked or have come up from the
sea is still unsettled. These dwarf forms, called kokos by the Indians and
benimasu in Japan, form the subspecies Oncorhynchus nerka kennerlyi. The
flesh in this species is firmer than that of any other and very red, of good
flavor, though drier and less rich than the king-salmon.
8. For valuable records of the natural history of this species the reader is referred to various
papers by Dr. Barton Warren Evermann in the Bulletins of the United States Fish Commission
and elsewhere.
The silver salmon, or coho (Oncorhynchus milktschitsch, or kisutch),
reaches a weight of 5 to 8 pounds. It has 13 developed rays in the anal, 13
branchiostegals, 23 (10 + 13) gill-rakers, and 45 to 80 pyloric cœca. There
are about 127 scales in the lateral line. The scales are thin and all except
those of the lateral line readily fall off. This feature distinguishes the
species readily from the red salmon. In color it is silvery in spring, greenish
above, and with a few faint black spots on the upper parts only. In the fall
the males are mostly of a dirty red. The flesh in this species is of excellent
flavor, but pale in color, and hence less valued than that of the quinnat and
the red salmon.
The dog-salmon, calico salmon, or chum, called saké in Japan
(Oncorhynchus keta), reaches an average weight of about 7 to 10 pounds. It
has about 14 anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, 24 (9 + 15) gill-rakers, and 140
to 185 pyloric cœca. There are about 150 scales in the lateral line. In spring
it is dirty silvery, immaculate, or sprinkled with small black specks, the fins
dusky, the sides with faint traces of gridiron-like bars. In the fall the male is
brick-red or blackish, and its jaws are greatly distorted. The pale flesh is
well flavored when fresh, but pale and mushy in texture and muddy in taste
when canned. It is said to take salt well, and great numbers of salt dog-
salmon are consumed in Japan.
The humpback salmon, or pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), is the
smallest of the American species, weighing from 3 to 5 pounds. It has
Page 111
usually 15 anal rays, 12 branchiostegals, 28 (13 + 15) gill-rakers, and about
180 pyloric cœca. Its scales are much smaller than in any other salmon,
there being 180 to 240 in the lateral line. In color it is bluish above, silvery
below, the posterior and upper parts with many round black spots, the
caudal fin always having a few large black spots oblong in form. The males
in fall are dirty red, and are more extravagantly distorted than in any other
of the Salmonidæ. The flesh is softer than in the other species; it is pale in
color, and, while of fair flavor when fresh, is distinctly inferior when
canned.
Fig. 56.—Humpback Salmon (female), Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
(Walbaum). Cook's Inlet.
The masu, or yezomasu (Oncorhynchus masou), is very similar to the
humpback, the scales a little larger, the caudal without black spots, the back
usually immaculate. It is one of the smaller salmon, and is fairly abundant
in the streams of Hokkaido, the island formerly known as Yezo.
180 pyloric cœca. Its scales are much smaller than in any other salmon,
there being 180 to 240 in the lateral line. In color it is bluish above, silvery
below, the posterior and upper parts with many round black spots, the
caudal fin always having a few large black spots oblong in form. The males
in fall are dirty red, and are more extravagantly distorted than in any other
of the Salmonidæ. The flesh is softer than in the other species; it is pale in
color, and, while of fair flavor when fresh, is distinctly inferior when
canned.
Fig. 56.—Humpback Salmon (female), Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
(Walbaum). Cook's Inlet.
The masu, or yezomasu (Oncorhynchus masou), is very similar to the
humpback, the scales a little larger, the caudal without black spots, the back
usually immaculate. It is one of the smaller salmon, and is fairly abundant
in the streams of Hokkaido, the island formerly known as Yezo.
Page 112
Fig 57.—Masu (female), Oncorhynchus masou (Brevoort). Aomori, Japan.
Of these species the blue-back or red salmon predominates in Frazer River
and in most of the small rivers of Alaska, including all those which flow
from lakes. The greatest salmon rivers of the world are the Nushegak and
Karluk in Alaska, with the Columbia River, Frazer River, and Sacramento
River farther south. The red and the silver salmon predominate in Puget
Sound, the quinnat in the Columbia and the Sacramento, and the silver
salmon in most of the smaller streams along the coast. All the species occur,
however, from the Columbia northward; but the blue-back is not found in
the Sacramento. Only the quinnat and the dog-salmon have been noticed
south of San Francisco. In Japan keta is by far the most abundant species of
salmon. It is known as saké, and largely salted and sold in the markets.
Nerka is known in Japan only as landlocked in Lake Akan in northern
Hokkaido. Milktschitsch is generally common, and with masou is known as
masu, or small salmon, as distinguished from the large salmon, or saké.
Tschawytscha and gorbuscha are unknown in Japan. Masou has not been
found elsewhere.
The quinnat and blue-back salmon, the "noble salmon," habitually "run" in
the spring, the others in the fall. The usual order of running in the rivers is
as follows: tschawytscha, nerka, milktschitsch, gorbuscha, keta. Those
which run first go farthest. In the Yukon the quinnat runs as far as Caribou
Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. The red salmon runs to "Forty-
Mile," which is nearly 1800 miles. Both ascend to the head of the
Columbia, Fraser, Nass, Skeena, Stikeen, and Taku rivers. The quinnat runs
practically only in the streams of large size, fed with melting snows; the red
salmon only in streams which pass through lakes. It spawns only in small
Of these species the blue-back or red salmon predominates in Frazer River
and in most of the small rivers of Alaska, including all those which flow
from lakes. The greatest salmon rivers of the world are the Nushegak and
Karluk in Alaska, with the Columbia River, Frazer River, and Sacramento
River farther south. The red and the silver salmon predominate in Puget
Sound, the quinnat in the Columbia and the Sacramento, and the silver
salmon in most of the smaller streams along the coast. All the species occur,
however, from the Columbia northward; but the blue-back is not found in
the Sacramento. Only the quinnat and the dog-salmon have been noticed
south of San Francisco. In Japan keta is by far the most abundant species of
salmon. It is known as saké, and largely salted and sold in the markets.
Nerka is known in Japan only as landlocked in Lake Akan in northern
Hokkaido. Milktschitsch is generally common, and with masou is known as
masu, or small salmon, as distinguished from the large salmon, or saké.
Tschawytscha and gorbuscha are unknown in Japan. Masou has not been
found elsewhere.
The quinnat and blue-back salmon, the "noble salmon," habitually "run" in
the spring, the others in the fall. The usual order of running in the rivers is
as follows: tschawytscha, nerka, milktschitsch, gorbuscha, keta. Those
which run first go farthest. In the Yukon the quinnat runs as far as Caribou
Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. The red salmon runs to "Forty-
Mile," which is nearly 1800 miles. Both ascend to the head of the
Columbia, Fraser, Nass, Skeena, Stikeen, and Taku rivers. The quinnat runs
practically only in the streams of large size, fed with melting snows; the red
salmon only in streams which pass through lakes. It spawns only in small
Page 113
streams at the head of a lake. The other species spawn in almost any fresh
water and only close to the sea.
The economic value of the spring-running salmon is far greater than that of
the other species, because they can be captured in numbers when at their
best, while the others are usually taken only after deterioration.
The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied. Quinnat and
silver salmon of all sizes are taken with the seine at almost any season in
Puget Sound and among the islands of Alaska. This would indicate that
these species do not go far from the shore. The silver salmon certainly does
not. The quinnat pursues the schools of herring. It takes the hook freely in
Monterey Bay, both near the shore and at a distance of six to eight miles
out. We have reason to believe that these two species do not necessarily
seek great depths, but probably remain not very far from the mouth of the
rivers in which they were spawned. The blue-back or red salmon certainly
seeks deeper water, as it is seldom or never taken with the seine along
shore, and it is known to enter the Strait of Fuca in July, just before the
running season, therefore coming in from the open sea. The great majority
of the quinnat salmon, and probably all the blue-back salmon, enter the
rivers in the spring. The run of the quinnat begins generally at the last of
March; it lasts, with various modifications and interruptions, until the actual
spawning season in November, the greatest run being in early June in
Alaska, in July in the Columbia. The run begins earliest in the northernmost
rivers, and in the longest streams, the time of running and the proportionate
amount in each of the subordinate runs varying with each different river. In
general the runs are slack in the summer and increase with the first high
water of autumn. By the last of August only straggling blue-backs can be
found in the lower course of any stream; but both in the Columbia and in
the Sacramento the quinnat runs in considerable numbers at least till
October. In the Sacramento the run is greatest in the fall, and more run in
the summer than in spring. In the Sacramento and the smaller rivers
southward there is a winter run, beginning in December. The spring quinnat
salmon ascends only those rivers which are fed by the melting snows from
the mountains and which have sufficient volume to send their waters well
out to sea. Those salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults
(supposed to be at least three years old). Their milt and spawn are no more
developed than at the same time in others of the same species which have
water and only close to the sea.
The economic value of the spring-running salmon is far greater than that of
the other species, because they can be captured in numbers when at their
best, while the others are usually taken only after deterioration.
The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied. Quinnat and
silver salmon of all sizes are taken with the seine at almost any season in
Puget Sound and among the islands of Alaska. This would indicate that
these species do not go far from the shore. The silver salmon certainly does
not. The quinnat pursues the schools of herring. It takes the hook freely in
Monterey Bay, both near the shore and at a distance of six to eight miles
out. We have reason to believe that these two species do not necessarily
seek great depths, but probably remain not very far from the mouth of the
rivers in which they were spawned. The blue-back or red salmon certainly
seeks deeper water, as it is seldom or never taken with the seine along
shore, and it is known to enter the Strait of Fuca in July, just before the
running season, therefore coming in from the open sea. The great majority
of the quinnat salmon, and probably all the blue-back salmon, enter the
rivers in the spring. The run of the quinnat begins generally at the last of
March; it lasts, with various modifications and interruptions, until the actual
spawning season in November, the greatest run being in early June in
Alaska, in July in the Columbia. The run begins earliest in the northernmost
rivers, and in the longest streams, the time of running and the proportionate
amount in each of the subordinate runs varying with each different river. In
general the runs are slack in the summer and increase with the first high
water of autumn. By the last of August only straggling blue-backs can be
found in the lower course of any stream; but both in the Columbia and in
the Sacramento the quinnat runs in considerable numbers at least till
October. In the Sacramento the run is greatest in the fall, and more run in
the summer than in spring. In the Sacramento and the smaller rivers
southward there is a winter run, beginning in December. The spring quinnat
salmon ascends only those rivers which are fed by the melting snows from
the mountains and which have sufficient volume to send their waters well
out to sea. Those salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults
(supposed to be at least three years old). Their milt and spawn are no more
developed than at the same time in others of the same species which have
Page 114
not yet entered the rivers. It would appear that the contact with cold fresh
water, when in the ocean, in some way causes them to run towards it, and to
run before there is any special influence to that end exerted by the
development of the organs of generation. High water on any of these rivers
in the spring is always followed by an increased run of salmon. The salmon-
canners think—and this is probably true—that salmon which would not
have run till later are brought up by the contact with the cold water. The
cause of this effect of cold fresh water is not understood. We may call it an
instinct of the salmon, which is another way of expressing our ignorance. In
general it seems to be true that in those rivers and during those years when
the spring run is greatest the fall run is least to be depended on.
The blue-back salmon runs chiefly in July and early August, beginning in
late June in Chilcoot River, where some were found actually spawning July
15; beginning after the middle of July in Frazer River.
As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these species
(quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn, and in the fall these
young specimens are very numerous. We have thus far failed to notice any
gradations in size or appearance of these young fish by which their ages
could be ascertained. It is, however, probable that some of both sexes
reproduce at the age of one year. In Frazer River, in the fall, quinnat male
grilse of every size, from eight inches upwards, were running, the milt fully
developed, but usually not showing the hooked jaws and dark colors of the
older males. Females less than eighteen inches in length were not seen. All
of either sex, large and small, then in the river had the ovaries or milt
developed. Little blue-backs of every size, down to six inches, are also
found in the upper Columbia in the fall, with their organs of generation
fully developed. Nineteen-twentieths of these young fish are males, and
some of them have the hooked jaws and red color of the old males.
Apparently all these young fishes, like the old ones, die after spawning.
The average weight of the adult quinnat in the Columbia, in the spring, is
twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento, about sixteen. Individuals weighing
from forty to sixty pounds are frequently found in both rivers, and some as
high as eighty or even one hundred pounds are recorded, especially in
Alaska, where the species tends to run larger. It is questionable whether
these large fishes are those which, of the same age, have grown more
rapidly; those which are older, but have for some reason failed to spawn; or
water, when in the ocean, in some way causes them to run towards it, and to
run before there is any special influence to that end exerted by the
development of the organs of generation. High water on any of these rivers
in the spring is always followed by an increased run of salmon. The salmon-
canners think—and this is probably true—that salmon which would not
have run till later are brought up by the contact with the cold water. The
cause of this effect of cold fresh water is not understood. We may call it an
instinct of the salmon, which is another way of expressing our ignorance. In
general it seems to be true that in those rivers and during those years when
the spring run is greatest the fall run is least to be depended on.
The blue-back salmon runs chiefly in July and early August, beginning in
late June in Chilcoot River, where some were found actually spawning July
15; beginning after the middle of July in Frazer River.
As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these species
(quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn, and in the fall these
young specimens are very numerous. We have thus far failed to notice any
gradations in size or appearance of these young fish by which their ages
could be ascertained. It is, however, probable that some of both sexes
reproduce at the age of one year. In Frazer River, in the fall, quinnat male
grilse of every size, from eight inches upwards, were running, the milt fully
developed, but usually not showing the hooked jaws and dark colors of the
older males. Females less than eighteen inches in length were not seen. All
of either sex, large and small, then in the river had the ovaries or milt
developed. Little blue-backs of every size, down to six inches, are also
found in the upper Columbia in the fall, with their organs of generation
fully developed. Nineteen-twentieths of these young fish are males, and
some of them have the hooked jaws and red color of the old males.
Apparently all these young fishes, like the old ones, die after spawning.
The average weight of the adult quinnat in the Columbia, in the spring, is
twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento, about sixteen. Individuals weighing
from forty to sixty pounds are frequently found in both rivers, and some as
high as eighty or even one hundred pounds are recorded, especially in
Alaska, where the species tends to run larger. It is questionable whether
these large fishes are those which, of the same age, have grown more
rapidly; those which are older, but have for some reason failed to spawn; or
Page 115
those which have survived one or more spawning seasons. All these origins
may be possible in individual cases. There is, however, no positive evidence
that any salmon of the Pacific survives the spawning season.
Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring continue their ascent till
death or the spawning season overtakes them. Doubtless not one of them
ever returns to the ocean, and a large proportion fail to spawn. They are
known to ascend the Sacramento to its extreme head-waters, about four
hundred miles. In the Columbia they ascend as far as the Bitter Root and
Sawtooth mountains of Idaho, and their extreme limit is not known. This is
a distance of nearly a thousand miles. In the Yukon a few ascend to Caribou
Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. At these great distances, when the
fish have reached the spawning grounds, besides the usual changes of the
breeding season their bodies are covered with bruises, on which patches of
white fungus (Saprolegnia) develop. The fins become mutilated, their eyes
are often injured or destroyed, parasitic worms gather in their gills, they
become extremely emaciated, their flesh becomes white from the loss of
oil; and as soon as the spawning act is accomplished, and sometimes before,
all of them die. The ascent of the Cascades and the Dalles of the Columbia
causes the injury or death of a great many salmon.
Fig. 58.—Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male, after spawning),
Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum). Alturas Lake, Idaho.
When the salmon enter the river they refuse to take bait, and their stomachs
are always found empty and contracted. In the rivers they do not feed; and
may be possible in individual cases. There is, however, no positive evidence
that any salmon of the Pacific survives the spawning season.
Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring continue their ascent till
death or the spawning season overtakes them. Doubtless not one of them
ever returns to the ocean, and a large proportion fail to spawn. They are
known to ascend the Sacramento to its extreme head-waters, about four
hundred miles. In the Columbia they ascend as far as the Bitter Root and
Sawtooth mountains of Idaho, and their extreme limit is not known. This is
a distance of nearly a thousand miles. In the Yukon a few ascend to Caribou
Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. At these great distances, when the
fish have reached the spawning grounds, besides the usual changes of the
breeding season their bodies are covered with bruises, on which patches of
white fungus (Saprolegnia) develop. The fins become mutilated, their eyes
are often injured or destroyed, parasitic worms gather in their gills, they
become extremely emaciated, their flesh becomes white from the loss of
oil; and as soon as the spawning act is accomplished, and sometimes before,
all of them die. The ascent of the Cascades and the Dalles of the Columbia
causes the injury or death of a great many salmon.
Fig. 58.—Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male, after spawning),
Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum). Alturas Lake, Idaho.
When the salmon enter the river they refuse to take bait, and their stomachs
are always found empty and contracted. In the rivers they do not feed; and
Page 116
when they reach the spawning grounds their stomachs, pyloric cœca and all,
are said to be no larger than one's finger. They will sometimes take the fly,
or a hook baited with salmon-roe, in the clear waters of the upper
tributaries, but this is apparently solely out of annoyance, snapping at the
meddling line. Only the quinnat and blue-back (there called redfish) have
been found at any great distance from the sea, and these (as adult fishes)
only in late summer and fall.
Fig. 59.—Young Male Quinnat Salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha,
dying after spawning. Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley
Rutter.)
The spawning season is probably about the same for all the species. It
varies for each of the different rivers, and for different parts of the same
river. It doubtless extends from July to December, and takes place usually
as soon as the temperature of the water falls to 54°. The manner of
spawning is probably similar for all the species. In the quinnat the fishes
pair off; the male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad, shallow "nest" in
the gravelly bed of the stream, in rapid water, at a depth of one to four feet
are said to be no larger than one's finger. They will sometimes take the fly,
or a hook baited with salmon-roe, in the clear waters of the upper
tributaries, but this is apparently solely out of annoyance, snapping at the
meddling line. Only the quinnat and blue-back (there called redfish) have
been found at any great distance from the sea, and these (as adult fishes)
only in late summer and fall.
Fig. 59.—Young Male Quinnat Salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha,
dying after spawning. Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley
Rutter.)
The spawning season is probably about the same for all the species. It
varies for each of the different rivers, and for different parts of the same
river. It doubtless extends from July to December, and takes place usually
as soon as the temperature of the water falls to 54°. The manner of
spawning is probably similar for all the species. In the quinnat the fishes
pair off; the male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad, shallow "nest" in
the gravelly bed of the stream, in rapid water, at a depth of one to four feet
Page 117
and the female deposits her eggs in it. They then float down the stream tail
foremost, the only fashion in which salmon descend to the sea. As already
stated, in the head-waters of the large streams, unquestionably, all die; it is
the belief of the writer that none ever survive. The young hatch in sixty
days, and most of them return to the ocean during the high water of the
spring. They enter the river as adults at the age of about four years.
The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted or not according to
the species, and with the mouth about equally symmetrical in both sexes. As
the spawning season approaches the female loses her silvery color, becomes
more slimy, the scales on the back partly sink into the skin, and the flesh
changes from salmon-red and becomes variously paler, from the loss of oil;
the degree of paleness varying much with individuals and with inhabitants
of different rivers. In the Sacramento the flesh of the quinnat, in either
spring or fall, is rarely pale. In the Columbia a few with pale flesh are
sometimes taken in spring, and an increasing number from July on. In
Frazer River the fall run of the quinnat is nearly worthless for canning
purposes, because so many are "white-meated." In the spring very few are
"white-meated"; but the number increases towards fall, when there is every
variation, some having red streaks running through them, others being red
toward the head and pale toward the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be
distinguished externally, and the color is dependent on neither age nor sex.
There is said to be no difference in the taste, but there is little market for
canned salmon not of the conventional orange-color.
Fig. 60.—Quinnat Salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum).
Monterey Bay. (Photograph by C. Rutter.)
foremost, the only fashion in which salmon descend to the sea. As already
stated, in the head-waters of the large streams, unquestionably, all die; it is
the belief of the writer that none ever survive. The young hatch in sixty
days, and most of them return to the ocean during the high water of the
spring. They enter the river as adults at the age of about four years.
The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted or not according to
the species, and with the mouth about equally symmetrical in both sexes. As
the spawning season approaches the female loses her silvery color, becomes
more slimy, the scales on the back partly sink into the skin, and the flesh
changes from salmon-red and becomes variously paler, from the loss of oil;
the degree of paleness varying much with individuals and with inhabitants
of different rivers. In the Sacramento the flesh of the quinnat, in either
spring or fall, is rarely pale. In the Columbia a few with pale flesh are
sometimes taken in spring, and an increasing number from July on. In
Frazer River the fall run of the quinnat is nearly worthless for canning
purposes, because so many are "white-meated." In the spring very few are
"white-meated"; but the number increases towards fall, when there is every
variation, some having red streaks running through them, others being red
toward the head and pale toward the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be
distinguished externally, and the color is dependent on neither age nor sex.
There is said to be no difference in the taste, but there is little market for
canned salmon not of the conventional orange-color.
Fig. 60.—Quinnat Salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum).
Monterey Bay. (Photograph by C. Rutter.)
Page 118
As the season advances the difference between the males and females
becomes more and more marked, and keeps pace with the development of
the milt, as is shown by dissection. The males have (1) the premaxillaries
and the tip of the lower jaw more and more prolonged, both of the jaws
becoming finally strongly and often extravagantly hooked, so that either
they shut by the side of each other like shears, or else the mouth cannot be
closed. (2) The front teeth become very long and canine-like, their growth
proceeding very rapidly, until they are often half an inch long. (3) The teeth
on the vomer and tongue often disappear. (4) The body grows more
compressed and deeper at the shoulders, so that a very distinct hump is
formed; this is more developed in the humpback salmon, but is found in all.
(5) The scales disappear, especially on the back, by the growth of spongy
skin. (6) The color changes from silvery to various shades of black and red,
or blotchy, according to the species. The blue-back turns rosy-red, the head
bright olive; the dog-salmon a dull red with blackish bars, and the quinnat
generally blackish. The distorted males are commonly considered
worthless, rejected by the canners and salmon-salters, but preserved by the
Indians. These changes are due solely to influences connected with the
growth of the reproductive organs. They are not in any way due to the
action of fresh water. They take place at about the same time in the adult
males of all species, whether in the ocean or in the rivers. At the time of the
spring runs all are symmetrical. In the fall all males, of whatever species,
are more or less distorted. Among the dog-salmon, which run only in the
fall, the males are hook-jawed and red-blotched when they first enter the
Strait of Fuca from the outside. The humpback, taken in salt water about
Seattle, have the same peculiarities. The male is slab-sided, hook-billed, and
distorted, and is rejected by the canners. No hook-jawed females of any
species have been seen.
On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if playing. They always
head towards the current, and this appearance of playing may be simply due
to facing the moving tide. Afterwards they enter the deepest parts of the
stream and swim straight up, with few interruptions. Their rate of travel at
Sacramento is estimated by Stone at about two miles per day; on the
Columbia at about three miles per day. Those which enter the Columbia in
the spring and ascend to the mountain rivers of Idaho must go at a more
rapid rate than this, as they must make an average of nearly four miles per
day.
becomes more and more marked, and keeps pace with the development of
the milt, as is shown by dissection. The males have (1) the premaxillaries
and the tip of the lower jaw more and more prolonged, both of the jaws
becoming finally strongly and often extravagantly hooked, so that either
they shut by the side of each other like shears, or else the mouth cannot be
closed. (2) The front teeth become very long and canine-like, their growth
proceeding very rapidly, until they are often half an inch long. (3) The teeth
on the vomer and tongue often disappear. (4) The body grows more
compressed and deeper at the shoulders, so that a very distinct hump is
formed; this is more developed in the humpback salmon, but is found in all.
(5) The scales disappear, especially on the back, by the growth of spongy
skin. (6) The color changes from silvery to various shades of black and red,
or blotchy, according to the species. The blue-back turns rosy-red, the head
bright olive; the dog-salmon a dull red with blackish bars, and the quinnat
generally blackish. The distorted males are commonly considered
worthless, rejected by the canners and salmon-salters, but preserved by the
Indians. These changes are due solely to influences connected with the
growth of the reproductive organs. They are not in any way due to the
action of fresh water. They take place at about the same time in the adult
males of all species, whether in the ocean or in the rivers. At the time of the
spring runs all are symmetrical. In the fall all males, of whatever species,
are more or less distorted. Among the dog-salmon, which run only in the
fall, the males are hook-jawed and red-blotched when they first enter the
Strait of Fuca from the outside. The humpback, taken in salt water about
Seattle, have the same peculiarities. The male is slab-sided, hook-billed, and
distorted, and is rejected by the canners. No hook-jawed females of any
species have been seen.
On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if playing. They always
head towards the current, and this appearance of playing may be simply due
to facing the moving tide. Afterwards they enter the deepest parts of the
stream and swim straight up, with few interruptions. Their rate of travel at
Sacramento is estimated by Stone at about two miles per day; on the
Columbia at about three miles per day. Those which enter the Columbia in
the spring and ascend to the mountain rivers of Idaho must go at a more
rapid rate than this, as they must make an average of nearly four miles per
day.
Page 119
As already stated, the economic value of any species depends in great part
on its being a "spring salmon." It is not generally possible to capture salmon
of any species in large numbers until they have entered the estuaries or
rivers, and the spring salmon enter the large rivers long before the growth of
the organs of reproduction has reduced the richness of the flesh. The fall
salmon cannot be taken in quantity until their flesh has deteriorated; hence
the dog-salmon is practically almost worthless except to the Indians, and
the humpback salmon was regarded as little better until comparatively
recently, when it has been placed on the market in cans as "Pink Salmon." It
sells for about half the price of the red salmon and one-third that of the
quinnat. The red salmon is smaller than the quinnat but, outside the
Sacramento and the Columbia, far more abundant, and at present it exceeds
the quinnat in economic value. The pack of red salmon in Alaska amounted
in 1902 to over two million cases (48 pounds each), worth wholesale about
$4.00 per case, or about $8,000,000. The other species in Alaska yield about
one million cases, the total wholesale value of the pack for 1902 being
$8,667,673. The aggregate value of the quinnat is considerably less, but
either species far exceed in value all other fishes of the Pacific taken
together. The silver salmon is found in the inland waters of Puget Sound for
a considerable time before the fall rains cause the fall runs, and it may be
taken in large numbers with seines before the season for entering the rivers.
The fall salmon of all species, but especially of the dog-salmon, ascend
streams but a short distance before spawning. They seem to be in great
anxiety to find fresh water, and many of them work their way up little
brooks only a few inches deep, where they perish miserably, floundering
about on the stones. Every stream of whatever kind, from San Francisco to
Bering Sea, has more or less of these fall salmon.
The absence of the fine spring salmon in the streams of Japan is the cause
of the relative unimportance of the river fisheries of the northern island of
Japan, Hokkaido. It is not likely that either the quinnat or the red salmon
can be introduced into these rivers, as they have no snow-fed streams, and
few of them pass through lakes which are not shut off by waterfalls. For the
same reason neither of these species is likely to become naturalized in the
waters of our Eastern States, though it is worth while to bring the red
salmon to the St. Lawrence. The silver salmon, already abundant in Japan,
should thrive in the rivers and bays of New England.
on its being a "spring salmon." It is not generally possible to capture salmon
of any species in large numbers until they have entered the estuaries or
rivers, and the spring salmon enter the large rivers long before the growth of
the organs of reproduction has reduced the richness of the flesh. The fall
salmon cannot be taken in quantity until their flesh has deteriorated; hence
the dog-salmon is practically almost worthless except to the Indians, and
the humpback salmon was regarded as little better until comparatively
recently, when it has been placed on the market in cans as "Pink Salmon." It
sells for about half the price of the red salmon and one-third that of the
quinnat. The red salmon is smaller than the quinnat but, outside the
Sacramento and the Columbia, far more abundant, and at present it exceeds
the quinnat in economic value. The pack of red salmon in Alaska amounted
in 1902 to over two million cases (48 pounds each), worth wholesale about
$4.00 per case, or about $8,000,000. The other species in Alaska yield about
one million cases, the total wholesale value of the pack for 1902 being
$8,667,673. The aggregate value of the quinnat is considerably less, but
either species far exceed in value all other fishes of the Pacific taken
together. The silver salmon is found in the inland waters of Puget Sound for
a considerable time before the fall rains cause the fall runs, and it may be
taken in large numbers with seines before the season for entering the rivers.
The fall salmon of all species, but especially of the dog-salmon, ascend
streams but a short distance before spawning. They seem to be in great
anxiety to find fresh water, and many of them work their way up little
brooks only a few inches deep, where they perish miserably, floundering
about on the stones. Every stream of whatever kind, from San Francisco to
Bering Sea, has more or less of these fall salmon.
The absence of the fine spring salmon in the streams of Japan is the cause
of the relative unimportance of the river fisheries of the northern island of
Japan, Hokkaido. It is not likely that either the quinnat or the red salmon
can be introduced into these rivers, as they have no snow-fed streams, and
few of them pass through lakes which are not shut off by waterfalls. For the
same reason neither of these species is likely to become naturalized in the
waters of our Eastern States, though it is worth while to bring the red
salmon to the St. Lawrence. The silver salmon, already abundant in Japan,
should thrive in the rivers and bays of New England.
Page 120
The Parent-stream Theory.—It has been generally accepted as
unquestioned by packers and fishermen that salmon return to spawn to the
very stream in which they were hatched. As early as 1880 the present writer
placed on record his opinion that this theory was unsound. In a general way
most salmon return to the parent stream, because when in the sea the parent
stream is the one most easily reached. The channels and runways which
directed their course to the sea may influence their return trip in the same
fashion. When the salmon is mature it seeks fresh water. Other things being
equal, about the same number will run each year in the same channel. With
all this, we find some curious facts. Certain streams will have a run of
exceptionally large or exceptionally small red salmon. The time of the run
bears some relation to the length of the stream: those who have farthest to
go start earliest. The time of running bears also a relation to the temperature
of the spawning grounds: where the waters cool off earliest the fish run
soonest.
The supposed evidence in favor of the parent-stream theory may be
considered under three heads:[9] (1) Distinctive runs in various streams. (2)
Return of marked salmon. (3) Introduction of salmon into new streams
followed by their return.
9. See an excellent article by H. S. Davis in the Pacific Fisherman for July, 1903.
Under the first head it is often asserted of fishermen that they can
distinguish the salmon of different streams. Thus the Lynn Canal red
salmon are larger than those in most waters, and it is claimed that those of
Chilcoot Inlet are larger than those of the sister stream at Chilcat. The red
salmon of Red Fish Bay on Baranof Island are said to be much smaller than
usual, and those of the neighboring Necker Bay are not more than one-third
the ordinary size. Those of a small rapid stream near Nass River are more
wiry than those of the neighboring large stream. The same claim is made for
the different streams of Puget Sound, each one having its characteristic run.
In all this there is some truth and perhaps some exaggeration. I have noticed
that the Chilcoot fish seem deeper in body than those at Chilcat. The red
salmon becomes compressed before spawning, and the Chilcoot fishes
having a short run spawn earlier than the Chilcat fishes, which have many
miles to go, the water being perhaps warmer at the mouth of the river.
Perhaps some localities may meet the nervous reactions of small fishes,
while not attracting the large ones. Mr. H. S. Davis well observes that "until
unquestioned by packers and fishermen that salmon return to spawn to the
very stream in which they were hatched. As early as 1880 the present writer
placed on record his opinion that this theory was unsound. In a general way
most salmon return to the parent stream, because when in the sea the parent
stream is the one most easily reached. The channels and runways which
directed their course to the sea may influence their return trip in the same
fashion. When the salmon is mature it seeks fresh water. Other things being
equal, about the same number will run each year in the same channel. With
all this, we find some curious facts. Certain streams will have a run of
exceptionally large or exceptionally small red salmon. The time of the run
bears some relation to the length of the stream: those who have farthest to
go start earliest. The time of running bears also a relation to the temperature
of the spawning grounds: where the waters cool off earliest the fish run
soonest.
The supposed evidence in favor of the parent-stream theory may be
considered under three heads:[9] (1) Distinctive runs in various streams. (2)
Return of marked salmon. (3) Introduction of salmon into new streams
followed by their return.
9. See an excellent article by H. S. Davis in the Pacific Fisherman for July, 1903.
Under the first head it is often asserted of fishermen that they can
distinguish the salmon of different streams. Thus the Lynn Canal red
salmon are larger than those in most waters, and it is claimed that those of
Chilcoot Inlet are larger than those of the sister stream at Chilcat. The red
salmon of Red Fish Bay on Baranof Island are said to be much smaller than
usual, and those of the neighboring Necker Bay are not more than one-third
the ordinary size. Those of a small rapid stream near Nass River are more
wiry than those of the neighboring large stream. The same claim is made for
the different streams of Puget Sound, each one having its characteristic run.
In all this there is some truth and perhaps some exaggeration. I have noticed
that the Chilcoot fish seem deeper in body than those at Chilcat. The red
salmon becomes compressed before spawning, and the Chilcoot fishes
having a short run spawn earlier than the Chilcat fishes, which have many
miles to go, the water being perhaps warmer at the mouth of the river.
Perhaps some localities may meet the nervous reactions of small fishes,
while not attracting the large ones. Mr. H. S. Davis well observes that "until
Page 121
a constant difference has been demonstrated by a careful examination of
large numbers of fish from each stream taken at the same time, but little
weight can be attached to arguments of this nature."
It is doubtless true as a general proposition that nearly all salmon return to
the region in which they were spawned. Most of them apparently never go
far away from the mouth of the stream or the bay into which it flows. It is
true that salmon are occasionally taken well out at sea, and it is certain that
the red salmon runs of Puget Sound come from outside the Straits of Fuca.
There is, however, evidence that they rarely go so far as that. When seeking
shore they do not reach the original channels.
In 1880 the writer, studying the salmon of the Columbia, used the following
words, which he has not had occasion to change:
"It is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some special instinct
which leads them to return to spawn in the same spawning grounds where
they were originally hatched. We fail to find any evidence of this in the case
of the Pacific-coast salmon, and we do not believe it to be true. It seems
more probable that the young salmon hatched in any river mostly remain in
the ocean within a radius of twenty, thirty, or forty miles of its mouth.
These, in their movements about in the ocean, may come into contact with
the cold waters of their parent rivers, or perhaps of any other river, at a
considerable distance from the shore. In the case of the quinnat and the
blue-back their 'instinct' seems to lead them to ascend these fresh waters,
and in a majority of cases these waters will be those in which the fishes in
question were originally spawned. Later in the season the growth of the
reproductive organs leads them to approach the shore and search for fresh
waters, and still the chances are that they may find the original stream. But
undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to ascend, streams in which no
salmon was ever hatched. In little brooks about Puget Sound, where the
water is not three inches deep, are often found dead or dying salmon which
have entered them for the purpose of spawning. It is said of the Russian
River and other California rivers that their mouths, in the time of low water
in summer, generally become entirely closed by sand-bars, and that the
salmon, in their eagerness to ascend them, frequently fling themselves
entirely out of water on the beach. But this does not prove that the salmon
are guided by a marvelous geographical instinct which leads them to their
parent river in spite of the fact that the river cannot be found. The waters of
large numbers of fish from each stream taken at the same time, but little
weight can be attached to arguments of this nature."
It is doubtless true as a general proposition that nearly all salmon return to
the region in which they were spawned. Most of them apparently never go
far away from the mouth of the stream or the bay into which it flows. It is
true that salmon are occasionally taken well out at sea, and it is certain that
the red salmon runs of Puget Sound come from outside the Straits of Fuca.
There is, however, evidence that they rarely go so far as that. When seeking
shore they do not reach the original channels.
In 1880 the writer, studying the salmon of the Columbia, used the following
words, which he has not had occasion to change:
"It is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some special instinct
which leads them to return to spawn in the same spawning grounds where
they were originally hatched. We fail to find any evidence of this in the case
of the Pacific-coast salmon, and we do not believe it to be true. It seems
more probable that the young salmon hatched in any river mostly remain in
the ocean within a radius of twenty, thirty, or forty miles of its mouth.
These, in their movements about in the ocean, may come into contact with
the cold waters of their parent rivers, or perhaps of any other river, at a
considerable distance from the shore. In the case of the quinnat and the
blue-back their 'instinct' seems to lead them to ascend these fresh waters,
and in a majority of cases these waters will be those in which the fishes in
question were originally spawned. Later in the season the growth of the
reproductive organs leads them to approach the shore and search for fresh
waters, and still the chances are that they may find the original stream. But
undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to ascend, streams in which no
salmon was ever hatched. In little brooks about Puget Sound, where the
water is not three inches deep, are often found dead or dying salmon which
have entered them for the purpose of spawning. It is said of the Russian
River and other California rivers that their mouths, in the time of low water
in summer, generally become entirely closed by sand-bars, and that the
salmon, in their eagerness to ascend them, frequently fling themselves
entirely out of water on the beach. But this does not prove that the salmon
are guided by a marvelous geographical instinct which leads them to their
parent river in spite of the fact that the river cannot be found. The waters of
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Russian River soak through these sand-bars, and the salmon instinct, we
think, leads them merely to search for fresh waters. This matter is much in
need of further investigation; at present, however, we find no reason to
believe that the salmon enter the Rogue River simply because they were
spawned there, or that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas River is more
likely, on that account, to return to the Clackamas than to go up the Cowlitz
or the Des Chûtes."
Attempts have been made to settle this question by marking the fry. But this
is a very difficult matter indeed. Almost the only structure which can be
safely mutilated is the adipose fin, and this is often nipped off by
sticklebacks and other meddling fish. The following experiments have been
tried, according to Mr. Davis:
In March, 1896, 5000 king-salmon fry were marked by cutting off the
adipose fin, then set free in the Clackamas River. Nearly 400 of these
marked fish are said to have been taken in the Columbia in 1898, and a few
more in 1899. In addition a few were taken in 1898, 1899, and 1900 in the
Sacramento River, but in much less numbers than in the Columbia. In the
Columbia most were taken at the mouth of the river, where nearly all of the
fishing was done, but a few were in the original stream, the Clackamas. It is
stated that the fry thus set free in the Clackamas came from eggs obtained
in the Sacramento—a matter which has, however, no bearing on the present
case.
In the Kalama hatchery on the Columbia River, Washington, 2000 fry of the
quinnat or king-salmon were marked in 1899 by a V-shaped notch in the
caudal fin. Numerous fishes thus marked were taken in the lower Columbia
in 1901 and 1902. A few were taken at the Kalama hatchery, but some also
at the hatcheries on Wind River and Clackamas River. At the hatchery on
Chehalis River six or seven were taken, the stream not being a tributary of
the Columbia, but flowing into Shoalwater Bay. None were noticed in the
Sacramento. The evidence shows that the most who are hatched in a large
stream tend to return to it, and that in general most salmon return to the
parent region. There is no evidence that a salmon hatched in one branch of a
river tends to return there rather than to any other. Experiments of Messrs.
Rutter and Spaulding in marking adult fish at Karluk would indicate that
they roam rather widely about the island before spawning. An adult
think, leads them merely to search for fresh waters. This matter is much in
need of further investigation; at present, however, we find no reason to
believe that the salmon enter the Rogue River simply because they were
spawned there, or that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas River is more
likely, on that account, to return to the Clackamas than to go up the Cowlitz
or the Des Chûtes."
Attempts have been made to settle this question by marking the fry. But this
is a very difficult matter indeed. Almost the only structure which can be
safely mutilated is the adipose fin, and this is often nipped off by
sticklebacks and other meddling fish. The following experiments have been
tried, according to Mr. Davis:
In March, 1896, 5000 king-salmon fry were marked by cutting off the
adipose fin, then set free in the Clackamas River. Nearly 400 of these
marked fish are said to have been taken in the Columbia in 1898, and a few
more in 1899. In addition a few were taken in 1898, 1899, and 1900 in the
Sacramento River, but in much less numbers than in the Columbia. In the
Columbia most were taken at the mouth of the river, where nearly all of the
fishing was done, but a few were in the original stream, the Clackamas. It is
stated that the fry thus set free in the Clackamas came from eggs obtained
in the Sacramento—a matter which has, however, no bearing on the present
case.
In the Kalama hatchery on the Columbia River, Washington, 2000 fry of the
quinnat or king-salmon were marked in 1899 by a V-shaped notch in the
caudal fin. Numerous fishes thus marked were taken in the lower Columbia
in 1901 and 1902. A few were taken at the Kalama hatchery, but some also
at the hatcheries on Wind River and Clackamas River. At the hatchery on
Chehalis River six or seven were taken, the stream not being a tributary of
the Columbia, but flowing into Shoalwater Bay. None were noticed in the
Sacramento. The evidence shows that the most who are hatched in a large
stream tend to return to it, and that in general most salmon return to the
parent region. There is no evidence that a salmon hatched in one branch of a
river tends to return there rather than to any other. Experiments of Messrs.
Rutter and Spaulding in marking adult fish at Karluk would indicate that
they roam rather widely about the island before spawning. An adult
Page 123
spawning fish, marked and set free at Karluk, was taken soon after on the
opposite side of the island of Kadiak.
The introduction of salmon into new streams may throw some light on this
question. In 1897 and 1898 3,000,000 young quinnat-salmon fry were set
free in Papermill Creek near Olema, California. This is a small stream
flowing into the head of Tomales Bay, and it had never previously had a run
of salmon. In 1900, and especially in 1901, large quinnat salmon appeared
in considerable numbers in this stream. One specimen weighing about
sixteen pounds was sent to the present writer for identification. These fishes
certainly returned to the parent stream, although this stream was one not at
all fitted for their purpose.
But this may be accounted for by the topography of the bay. Tomales Bay is
a long and narrow channel, about twenty miles long and from one to five in
width, isolated from other rivers and with but one tributary stream.
Probably the salmon had not wandered far from it; some may not have left
it at all. In any event, a large number certainly came back to the same place.
That the salmon rarely go far away is fairly attested. Schools of king-
salmon play in Monterey Bay, and chase the herring about in the channels
of southeastern Alaska. A few years since Captain J. F. Moser, in charge of
the Albatross, set gill-nets for salmon at various places in the sea off the
Oregon and Washington coast, catching none except in the bays.
Mr. Davis gives an account of the liberation of salmon in Chinook River,
which flows into the Columbia at Baker's Bay:
"It is a small, sluggish stream and has never been frequented by Chinook
salmon, although considerable numbers of silver and dog salmon enter it
late in the fall. A few years ago the State established a hatchery on this
stream, and since 1898 between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 Chinook fry have
been turned out here annually. The fish are taken from the pound-nets in
Baker's Bay, towed into the river in crates and then liberated above the dike,
which prevents their return to the Columbia. When ripe the salmon ascend
to the hatchery, some two or three miles farther up the river, where they are
spawned.
"The superintendent of the hatchery, Mr. Hansen, informs me that in 1902,
during November and December, quite a number of Chinook salmon
opposite side of the island of Kadiak.
The introduction of salmon into new streams may throw some light on this
question. In 1897 and 1898 3,000,000 young quinnat-salmon fry were set
free in Papermill Creek near Olema, California. This is a small stream
flowing into the head of Tomales Bay, and it had never previously had a run
of salmon. In 1900, and especially in 1901, large quinnat salmon appeared
in considerable numbers in this stream. One specimen weighing about
sixteen pounds was sent to the present writer for identification. These fishes
certainly returned to the parent stream, although this stream was one not at
all fitted for their purpose.
But this may be accounted for by the topography of the bay. Tomales Bay is
a long and narrow channel, about twenty miles long and from one to five in
width, isolated from other rivers and with but one tributary stream.
Probably the salmon had not wandered far from it; some may not have left
it at all. In any event, a large number certainly came back to the same place.
That the salmon rarely go far away is fairly attested. Schools of king-
salmon play in Monterey Bay, and chase the herring about in the channels
of southeastern Alaska. A few years since Captain J. F. Moser, in charge of
the Albatross, set gill-nets for salmon at various places in the sea off the
Oregon and Washington coast, catching none except in the bays.
Mr. Davis gives an account of the liberation of salmon in Chinook River,
which flows into the Columbia at Baker's Bay:
"It is a small, sluggish stream and has never been frequented by Chinook
salmon, although considerable numbers of silver and dog salmon enter it
late in the fall. A few years ago the State established a hatchery on this
stream, and since 1898 between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 Chinook fry have
been turned out here annually. The fish are taken from the pound-nets in
Baker's Bay, towed into the river in crates and then liberated above the dike,
which prevents their return to the Columbia. When ripe the salmon ascend
to the hatchery, some two or three miles farther up the river, where they are
spawned.
"The superintendent of the hatchery, Mr. Hansen, informs me that in 1902,
during November and December, quite a number of Chinook salmon
Page 124
ascended the Chinook River. About 150 salmon of both sexes were taken in
a trap located in the river about four miles from its mouth. At first thought it
would appear that these were probably fish which, when fry, had been
liberated in the river, but unfortunately there is no proof that this was the
case. According to Mr. Hansen, the season of 1902 was remarkable in that
the salmon ran inshore in large schools, a thing which they had not done
before for years. It is possible that the fish, being forced in close to the
shore, came in contact with the current from the Chinook River, which,
since the stream is small and sluggish, would not be felt far from shore.
Once brought under the influence of the current from the river, the salmon
would naturally ascend that stream, whether they had been hatched there or
not."
The general conclusion, apparently warranted by the facts at hand, is that
salmon, for the most part, do not go to a great distance from the stream in
which they are hatched, that most of them return to the streams of the same
region, a majority to the parent stream, but that there is no evidence that
they choose the parental spawning grounds in preference to any other, and
none that they will prefer an undesirable stream to a favorable one for the
reason that they happen to have been hatched in the former.
The Jadgeska Hatchery.—Mr. John C. Callbreath of Wrangel, Alaska, has
long conducted a very interesting but very costly experiment in this line.
About 1890 he established himself in a small stream called Jadgeska on the
west coast of Etolin Island, tributary to McHenry Inlet, Clarence Straits.
This stream led from a lake, and in it a few thousand red salmon spawned,
besides multitudes of silver salmon, dog-salmon, and humpback salmon.
Making a dam across the stream, he helped the red salmon over it,
destroying all of the inferior kinds which entered the stream. He also
established a hatchery for the red salmon, turning loose many fry yearly for
ten or twelve years. This was done in the expectation that all the salmon
hatched would return to Jadgeska in about four years. By destroying all
individuals of other species attempting to run, it was expected that they
would become extinct so far as the stream is concerned.
The result of this experiment has been disappointment. After twelve years
or more there has been no increase of red salmon in the stream, and no
decrease of humpbacks and other humbler forms of salmon. Mr. Callbreath
draws the conclusion that salmon run at a much greater age than has been
a trap located in the river about four miles from its mouth. At first thought it
would appear that these were probably fish which, when fry, had been
liberated in the river, but unfortunately there is no proof that this was the
case. According to Mr. Hansen, the season of 1902 was remarkable in that
the salmon ran inshore in large schools, a thing which they had not done
before for years. It is possible that the fish, being forced in close to the
shore, came in contact with the current from the Chinook River, which,
since the stream is small and sluggish, would not be felt far from shore.
Once brought under the influence of the current from the river, the salmon
would naturally ascend that stream, whether they had been hatched there or
not."
The general conclusion, apparently warranted by the facts at hand, is that
salmon, for the most part, do not go to a great distance from the stream in
which they are hatched, that most of them return to the streams of the same
region, a majority to the parent stream, but that there is no evidence that
they choose the parental spawning grounds in preference to any other, and
none that they will prefer an undesirable stream to a favorable one for the
reason that they happen to have been hatched in the former.
The Jadgeska Hatchery.—Mr. John C. Callbreath of Wrangel, Alaska, has
long conducted a very interesting but very costly experiment in this line.
About 1890 he established himself in a small stream called Jadgeska on the
west coast of Etolin Island, tributary to McHenry Inlet, Clarence Straits.
This stream led from a lake, and in it a few thousand red salmon spawned,
besides multitudes of silver salmon, dog-salmon, and humpback salmon.
Making a dam across the stream, he helped the red salmon over it,
destroying all of the inferior kinds which entered the stream. He also
established a hatchery for the red salmon, turning loose many fry yearly for
ten or twelve years. This was done in the expectation that all the salmon
hatched would return to Jadgeska in about four years. By destroying all
individuals of other species attempting to run, it was expected that they
would become extinct so far as the stream is concerned.
The result of this experiment has been disappointment. After twelve years
or more there has been no increase of red salmon in the stream, and no
decrease of humpbacks and other humbler forms of salmon. Mr. Callbreath
draws the conclusion that salmon run at a much greater age than has been
Page 125
supposed—at the age of sixteen years, perhaps, instead of four. A far more
probable conclusion is that his salmon have joined other bands bound for
more suitable streams. It is indeed claimed that since the establishment of
Callbreath's hatchery on Etolin Island there has been a notable increase of
the salmon run in the various streams of Prince of Wales Island on the
opposite side of Clarence Straits. But this statement, while largely current
among the cannerymen, and not improbable, needs verification.
We shall await with much interest the return of the thousands of salmon
hatched in 1902 in Naha stream. We may venture the prophecy that while a
large percentage will return to Loring, many others will enter Yes Bay,
Karta Bay, Moira Sound, and other red salmon waters along the line of their
return from Dixon Entrance or the open sea.
Salmon-packing.—The canning of salmon, that is, the packing of the flesh
in tin cases, hermetically sealed after boiling, was begun on the Columbia
River by the Hume Brothers in 1866. In 1874 canneries were established on
the Sacramento River, in 1876 on Puget Sound and on Frazer River, and in
1878 in Alaska. At first only the quinnat salmon was packed; afterwards the
red salmon and the silver salmon, and finally the humpback, known
commercially as pink salmon. In most cases the flesh is packed in one-
pound tins, forty-eight of which constitute a case. The wholesale price in
1903 was for quinnat salmon $5.60 per case, red salmon $4.00, silver
salmon $2.60, humpback salmon $2.00, and dog-salmon $1.50. It costs in
round numbers $2.00 to pack a case of salmon. The very low price of the
inferior brands is due to overproduction.
The output of the salmon fishery of the Pacific coast amounts to about
fifteen millions per year, that of Alaska constituting seven to nine millions
of this amount. Of this amount the red salmon constitutes somewhat more
than half, the quinnat about four-fifths of the rest.
In almost all salmon streams there is evidence of considerable diminution in
numbers, although the evidence is sometimes conflicting. In Alaska this has
been due to the vicious custom, now done away with, of barricading the
streams so that the fish could not reach the spawning grounds, but might be
all taken with the net. In the Columbia River the reduction in numbers is
mainly due to stationary traps and salmon-wheels, which leave the fish
relatively little chance to reach the spawning grounds. In years of high
probable conclusion is that his salmon have joined other bands bound for
more suitable streams. It is indeed claimed that since the establishment of
Callbreath's hatchery on Etolin Island there has been a notable increase of
the salmon run in the various streams of Prince of Wales Island on the
opposite side of Clarence Straits. But this statement, while largely current
among the cannerymen, and not improbable, needs verification.
We shall await with much interest the return of the thousands of salmon
hatched in 1902 in Naha stream. We may venture the prophecy that while a
large percentage will return to Loring, many others will enter Yes Bay,
Karta Bay, Moira Sound, and other red salmon waters along the line of their
return from Dixon Entrance or the open sea.
Salmon-packing.—The canning of salmon, that is, the packing of the flesh
in tin cases, hermetically sealed after boiling, was begun on the Columbia
River by the Hume Brothers in 1866. In 1874 canneries were established on
the Sacramento River, in 1876 on Puget Sound and on Frazer River, and in
1878 in Alaska. At first only the quinnat salmon was packed; afterwards the
red salmon and the silver salmon, and finally the humpback, known
commercially as pink salmon. In most cases the flesh is packed in one-
pound tins, forty-eight of which constitute a case. The wholesale price in
1903 was for quinnat salmon $5.60 per case, red salmon $4.00, silver
salmon $2.60, humpback salmon $2.00, and dog-salmon $1.50. It costs in
round numbers $2.00 to pack a case of salmon. The very low price of the
inferior brands is due to overproduction.
The output of the salmon fishery of the Pacific coast amounts to about
fifteen millions per year, that of Alaska constituting seven to nine millions
of this amount. Of this amount the red salmon constitutes somewhat more
than half, the quinnat about four-fifths of the rest.
In almost all salmon streams there is evidence of considerable diminution in
numbers, although the evidence is sometimes conflicting. In Alaska this has
been due to the vicious custom, now done away with, of barricading the
streams so that the fish could not reach the spawning grounds, but might be
all taken with the net. In the Columbia River the reduction in numbers is
mainly due to stationary traps and salmon-wheels, which leave the fish
relatively little chance to reach the spawning grounds. In years of high
Page 126
water doubtless many salmon run in the spring which might otherwise have
waited until fall.
The key to the situation lies in the artificial propagation of salmon by means
of well-ordered hatcheries. By this means the fisheries of the Sacramento
have been fully restored, those of the Columbia approximately maintained,
and a hopeful beginning has been made in hatching red salmon in Alaska.
waited until fall.
The key to the situation lies in the artificial propagation of salmon by means
of well-ordered hatcheries. By this means the fisheries of the Sacramento
have been fully restored, those of the Columbia approximately maintained,
and a hopeful beginning has been made in hatching red salmon in Alaska.
Page 127
CHAPTER V
SALMONIDÆ—(Continued)
almo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.—The genus Salmo
comprises those forms of salmon which have been longest
known. As in related genera, the mouth is large, and the jaws,
palatines, and tongue are armed with strong teeth. The vomer
is flat, its shaft not depressed below the level of the head or
chevron (the anterior end). There are a few teeth on the chevron; and behind
it, on the shaft, there is either a double series of teeth or an irregular single
series. These teeth in the true salmon disappear with age, but in the others
(the black-spotted trout) they are persistent. The scales are silvery and
moderate or small in size. There are 9 to 11 developed rays in the anal fin.
The caudal fin is truncate, or variously concave or forked. There are usually
40 to 70 pyloric cœca, 11 or 12 branchiostegals, and about 20 (8 + 12) gill-
rakers. The sexual peculiarities are in general less marked than in
Oncorhynchus; they are also greater in the anadromous species than in
those which inhabit fresh waters. In general the male in the breeding season
is redder, its jaws are prolonged, the front teeth enlarged, the lower jaw
turned upwards at the end, and the upper jaw notched, or sometimes even
perforated, by the tip of the lower. All the species of Salmo (like those of
Oncorhynchus) are more or less spotted with black. Unlike the species of
Oncorhynchus, the species of Salmo feed more or less while in fresh water,
and the individuals for the most part do not die after spawning, although
many old males do thus perish.
The Atlantic Salmon.—The large species of Salmo, called salmon by
English-speaking people (Salmo salar, Salmo trutta), are marine and
anadromous, taking the place in the North Atlantic occupied in the North
Pacific by the species of Oncorhynchus. Two others more or less similar in
SALMONIDÆ—(Continued)
almo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.—The genus Salmo
comprises those forms of salmon which have been longest
known. As in related genera, the mouth is large, and the jaws,
palatines, and tongue are armed with strong teeth. The vomer
is flat, its shaft not depressed below the level of the head or
chevron (the anterior end). There are a few teeth on the chevron; and behind
it, on the shaft, there is either a double series of teeth or an irregular single
series. These teeth in the true salmon disappear with age, but in the others
(the black-spotted trout) they are persistent. The scales are silvery and
moderate or small in size. There are 9 to 11 developed rays in the anal fin.
The caudal fin is truncate, or variously concave or forked. There are usually
40 to 70 pyloric cœca, 11 or 12 branchiostegals, and about 20 (8 + 12) gill-
rakers. The sexual peculiarities are in general less marked than in
Oncorhynchus; they are also greater in the anadromous species than in
those which inhabit fresh waters. In general the male in the breeding season
is redder, its jaws are prolonged, the front teeth enlarged, the lower jaw
turned upwards at the end, and the upper jaw notched, or sometimes even
perforated, by the tip of the lower. All the species of Salmo (like those of
Oncorhynchus) are more or less spotted with black. Unlike the species of
Oncorhynchus, the species of Salmo feed more or less while in fresh water,
and the individuals for the most part do not die after spawning, although
many old males do thus perish.
The Atlantic Salmon.—The large species of Salmo, called salmon by
English-speaking people (Salmo salar, Salmo trutta), are marine and
anadromous, taking the place in the North Atlantic occupied in the North
Pacific by the species of Oncorhynchus. Two others more or less similar in
Page 128
character occur in Japan and Kamchatka. The others (trout), forming the
subgenus Salar, are non-migratory, or at least irregularly or imperfectly
anadromous. The true or black-spotted trout abound in all streams of
northern Europe, northern Asia, and in that part of North America which
lies west of the Mississippi Valley. The black-spotted trout are entirely
wanting in eastern America—a remarkable fact in geographical distribution,
perhaps explained only on the hypothesis of the comparatively recent and
Eurasiatic origin of the group, which, we may suppose, has not yet had
opportunity to extend its range across the plains, unsuitable for salmon life,
which separate the upper Missouri from the Great Lakes.
The salmon (Salmo salar) is the only black-spotted salmonoid found in
American waters tributary to the Atlantic. In Europe, where other species
similarly colored occur, the species may be best distinguished by the fact
that the teeth on the shaft of the vomer mostly disappear with age. From the
only other species positively known, the salmon trout (Salmo trutta), which
shares this character, the true salmon may be distinguished by the presence
of but eleven scales between the adipose fin and the lateral line, while
Salmo trutta has about fourteen. The scales are comparatively large in the
salmon, there being about one hundred and twenty-five in the lateral line.
The caudal fin, which is forked in the young, becomes, as in other species
of salmon, more or less truncate with age. The pyloric cœca are fifty to
sixty in number.
The color in adults, according to Dr. Day, is "superiorly of a steel-blue,
becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. Mostly a few rounded or X-
shaped spots scattered above the lateral line and upper half of the head,
being more numerous in the female than in the male. Dorsal, caudal, and
pectoral fins dusky; ventrals and anal white, the former grayish internally.
Prior to entering fresh waters these fish are of a brilliant steel-blue along the
back, which becomes changed to a muddy tinge when they enter rivers.
After these fish have passed into the fresh waters for the purpose of
breeding, numerous orange streaks appear in the cheeks of the male, and
also spots or even marks of the same, and likewise of a red color, on the
body. It is now termed a 'redfish.' The female, however, is dark in color and
known as 'blackfish.' 'Smolts' (young river fish) are bluish along the upper
half of the body, silvery along the sides, due to a layer of silvery scales
being formed over the trout-like colors, while they have darker fins than the
subgenus Salar, are non-migratory, or at least irregularly or imperfectly
anadromous. The true or black-spotted trout abound in all streams of
northern Europe, northern Asia, and in that part of North America which
lies west of the Mississippi Valley. The black-spotted trout are entirely
wanting in eastern America—a remarkable fact in geographical distribution,
perhaps explained only on the hypothesis of the comparatively recent and
Eurasiatic origin of the group, which, we may suppose, has not yet had
opportunity to extend its range across the plains, unsuitable for salmon life,
which separate the upper Missouri from the Great Lakes.
The salmon (Salmo salar) is the only black-spotted salmonoid found in
American waters tributary to the Atlantic. In Europe, where other species
similarly colored occur, the species may be best distinguished by the fact
that the teeth on the shaft of the vomer mostly disappear with age. From the
only other species positively known, the salmon trout (Salmo trutta), which
shares this character, the true salmon may be distinguished by the presence
of but eleven scales between the adipose fin and the lateral line, while
Salmo trutta has about fourteen. The scales are comparatively large in the
salmon, there being about one hundred and twenty-five in the lateral line.
The caudal fin, which is forked in the young, becomes, as in other species
of salmon, more or less truncate with age. The pyloric cœca are fifty to
sixty in number.
The color in adults, according to Dr. Day, is "superiorly of a steel-blue,
becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. Mostly a few rounded or X-
shaped spots scattered above the lateral line and upper half of the head,
being more numerous in the female than in the male. Dorsal, caudal, and
pectoral fins dusky; ventrals and anal white, the former grayish internally.
Prior to entering fresh waters these fish are of a brilliant steel-blue along the
back, which becomes changed to a muddy tinge when they enter rivers.
After these fish have passed into the fresh waters for the purpose of
breeding, numerous orange streaks appear in the cheeks of the male, and
also spots or even marks of the same, and likewise of a red color, on the
body. It is now termed a 'redfish.' The female, however, is dark in color and
known as 'blackfish.' 'Smolts' (young river fish) are bluish along the upper
half of the body, silvery along the sides, due to a layer of silvery scales
being formed over the trout-like colors, while they have darker fins than the
Page 129
yearling 'ping,' but similar bands and spots, which can be seen (as in the
parr) if the example be held in certain positions of light. 'Parr' (fishes of the
year) have two or three black spots only on the opercle, and black spots and
also orange ones along the upper half of the body, and no dark ones below
the lateral line, although there may be orange ones which can be seen in its
course. Along the side of the body are a series (12 to 15) of transverse
bluish bands, wider than the ground color and crossing the lateral line,
while in the upper half of the body the darker color of the back forms an
arch over each of these bands, a row of spots along the middle of the rayed
dorsal fin, and the adipose orange-tipped."
The dusky cross-shades found in the young salmon or parr are characteristic
of the young of salmon, trout, grayling, and nearly all the other Salmonidæ.
The salmon of the Atlantic is, as already stated, an anadromous fish,
spending most of its life in the sea, and entering the streams in the fall for
the purpose of reproduction. The time of running varies much in different
streams and also in different countries. As with the Pacific species, these
salmon are not easily discouraged in their progress, leaping cascades and
other obstructions, or, if these prove impassable, dying after repeated
fruitless attempts.
The young salmon, known as the "parr," is hatched in the spring. It usually
remains about two years in the rivers, descending at about the third spring
to the sea, when it is known as "smolt." In the sea it grows much more
rapidly, and becomes more silvery in color, and is known as "grilse." The
grilse rapidly develop into the adult salmon; and some of them, as in the
case with the grilse of the Pacific salmon, are capable of reproduction.
After spawning the salmon are very lean and unwholesome in appearance,
as in fact. They are then known as "kelts." The Atlantic salmon does not
ascend rivers to any such distances as those traversed by the quinnat and the
blue-back. Its kelts, therefore, for the most part survive the act of spawning.
Dr. Day thinks that they feed upon the young salmon in the rivers, and that,
therefore, the destruction of the kelts might increase the supply of salmon.
As a food-fish the Atlantic salmon is very similar to the quinnat salmon,
neither better nor worse, so far as I can see, when equally fresh. In both the
flesh is rich and finely flavored; but the appetite of man becomes cloyed
with salmon-flesh sooner than with that of whitefish, smelt, or charr. In size
parr) if the example be held in certain positions of light. 'Parr' (fishes of the
year) have two or three black spots only on the opercle, and black spots and
also orange ones along the upper half of the body, and no dark ones below
the lateral line, although there may be orange ones which can be seen in its
course. Along the side of the body are a series (12 to 15) of transverse
bluish bands, wider than the ground color and crossing the lateral line,
while in the upper half of the body the darker color of the back forms an
arch over each of these bands, a row of spots along the middle of the rayed
dorsal fin, and the adipose orange-tipped."
The dusky cross-shades found in the young salmon or parr are characteristic
of the young of salmon, trout, grayling, and nearly all the other Salmonidæ.
The salmon of the Atlantic is, as already stated, an anadromous fish,
spending most of its life in the sea, and entering the streams in the fall for
the purpose of reproduction. The time of running varies much in different
streams and also in different countries. As with the Pacific species, these
salmon are not easily discouraged in their progress, leaping cascades and
other obstructions, or, if these prove impassable, dying after repeated
fruitless attempts.
The young salmon, known as the "parr," is hatched in the spring. It usually
remains about two years in the rivers, descending at about the third spring
to the sea, when it is known as "smolt." In the sea it grows much more
rapidly, and becomes more silvery in color, and is known as "grilse." The
grilse rapidly develop into the adult salmon; and some of them, as in the
case with the grilse of the Pacific salmon, are capable of reproduction.
After spawning the salmon are very lean and unwholesome in appearance,
as in fact. They are then known as "kelts." The Atlantic salmon does not
ascend rivers to any such distances as those traversed by the quinnat and the
blue-back. Its kelts, therefore, for the most part survive the act of spawning.
Dr. Day thinks that they feed upon the young salmon in the rivers, and that,
therefore, the destruction of the kelts might increase the supply of salmon.
As a food-fish the Atlantic salmon is very similar to the quinnat salmon,
neither better nor worse, so far as I can see, when equally fresh. In both the
flesh is rich and finely flavored; but the appetite of man becomes cloyed
with salmon-flesh sooner than with that of whitefish, smelt, or charr. In size
Page 130
the Atlantic salmon does not fall far short of the quinnat. The average
weight of the adult is probably less than fifteen pounds. The largest one of
which I find a record was taken on the coast of Ireland in 1881, and
weighed 84¾ pounds.
The salmon is found in Europe between the latitude of 45° and 75°. In the
United States it is now rarely seen south of Cape Cod, although formerly
the Hudson and numerous other rivers were salmon-streams. Overfishing,
obstructions in the rivers, and pollution of the water by manufactories and
by city sewage are agencies against which the salmon cannot cope.
Seven species of salmon (as distinguished from trout) are recognized by Dr.
Günther in Europe, and three in America. The landlocked forms, abundant
in Norway, Sweden, and Maine, which cannot, or at least do not, descend to
the sea, are regarded by him as distinct species. "The question," observes Dr
Günther, "whether any of the migratory species can be retained by artificial
means in fresh water, and finally accommodate themselves to a permanent
sojourn therein, must be negatived for the present." On this point I think
that the balance of evidence leads to a different conclusion. These fresh-
water forms (Sebago and Ouananiche) are actually salmon which have
become landlocked. I have compared numerous specimens of the common
landlocked salmon (Salmo salar sebago) of the lakes of Maine and New
Brunswick with landlocked salmon (Salmo salar hardini) from the lakes of
Sweden, and with numerous migratory salmon, both from America and
Europe. I see no reason for regarding them as specifically distinct. The
differences are very trivial in kind, and not greater than would be expected
on the hypothesis of recent adaptation of the salmon to lake life. We have
therefore on our Atlantic coast but one species of salmon, Salmo salar. The
landlocked form of the lakes of Maine is Salmo salar sebago. The
Ouananiche of Lake St. John and the Saguenay, beloved of anglers, is
Salmo salar ouananiche.
The Ouananiche.—Dr. Henry Van Dyke writes thus of the Ouananiche:
"But the prince of the pool was the fighting Ouananiche, the little salmon of
St. John. Here let me chant thy praise, thou noblest and most high-minded
fish, the cleanest feeder, the merriest liver, the loftiest leaper, and the
bravest warrior of all creatures that swim! Thy cousin, the trout, in his
purple and gold with crimson spots, wears a more splendid armor than thy
russet and silver mottled with black, but thine is the kinglier nature.
weight of the adult is probably less than fifteen pounds. The largest one of
which I find a record was taken on the coast of Ireland in 1881, and
weighed 84¾ pounds.
The salmon is found in Europe between the latitude of 45° and 75°. In the
United States it is now rarely seen south of Cape Cod, although formerly
the Hudson and numerous other rivers were salmon-streams. Overfishing,
obstructions in the rivers, and pollution of the water by manufactories and
by city sewage are agencies against which the salmon cannot cope.
Seven species of salmon (as distinguished from trout) are recognized by Dr.
Günther in Europe, and three in America. The landlocked forms, abundant
in Norway, Sweden, and Maine, which cannot, or at least do not, descend to
the sea, are regarded by him as distinct species. "The question," observes Dr
Günther, "whether any of the migratory species can be retained by artificial
means in fresh water, and finally accommodate themselves to a permanent
sojourn therein, must be negatived for the present." On this point I think
that the balance of evidence leads to a different conclusion. These fresh-
water forms (Sebago and Ouananiche) are actually salmon which have
become landlocked. I have compared numerous specimens of the common
landlocked salmon (Salmo salar sebago) of the lakes of Maine and New
Brunswick with landlocked salmon (Salmo salar hardini) from the lakes of
Sweden, and with numerous migratory salmon, both from America and
Europe. I see no reason for regarding them as specifically distinct. The
differences are very trivial in kind, and not greater than would be expected
on the hypothesis of recent adaptation of the salmon to lake life. We have
therefore on our Atlantic coast but one species of salmon, Salmo salar. The
landlocked form of the lakes of Maine is Salmo salar sebago. The
Ouananiche of Lake St. John and the Saguenay, beloved of anglers, is
Salmo salar ouananiche.
The Ouananiche.—Dr. Henry Van Dyke writes thus of the Ouananiche:
"But the prince of the pool was the fighting Ouananiche, the little salmon of
St. John. Here let me chant thy praise, thou noblest and most high-minded
fish, the cleanest feeder, the merriest liver, the loftiest leaper, and the
bravest warrior of all creatures that swim! Thy cousin, the trout, in his
purple and gold with crimson spots, wears a more splendid armor than thy
russet and silver mottled with black, but thine is the kinglier nature.
Page 131
"The old salmon of the sea who begat thee long ago in these inland waters
became a backslider, descending again to the ocean, and grew gross and
heavy with coarse feeding. But thou, unsalted salmon of the foaming
floods, not landlocked as men call thee, but choosing of thine own free will
to dwell on a loftier level in the pure, swift current of a living stream, hath
grown in grace and risen to a better life.
"Thou art not to be measured by quantity but by quality, and thy five
pounds of pure vigor will outweigh a score of pounds of flesh less vitalized
by spirit. Thou feedest on the flies of the air, and thy food is transformed
into an aerial passion for flight, as thou springest across the pool, vaulting
toward the sky. Thine eyes have grown large and keen by piercing through
the foam, and the feathered hook that can deceive thee must be deftly tied
and delicately cast. Thy tail and fins, by ceaseless conflict with the rapids,
have broadened and strengthened, so that they can flash thy slender body
like a living arrow up the fall. As Launcelot among the knights, so art thou
among the fish, the plain-armored hero, the sunburnt champion of all the
water-folk."
Dr. Francis Day, who has very thoroughly studied these fishes, takes, in his
memoir on "The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland," and in other papers, a
similar view in regard to the European species. Omitting the species with
permanent teeth on the shaft of the vomer (subgenus Salar), he finds among
the salmon proper only two species, Salmo salar and Salmo trutta. The
latter species, the sea-trout or salmon-trout of England and the estuaries of
northern Europe, is similar to the salmon in many respects, but has rather
smaller scales, there being fourteen in an oblique series between the adipose
fin and the lateral line. It is not so strong a fish as the salmon, nor does it
reach so large a size. Although naturally anadromous, like the true salmon,
landlocked forms of the salmon-trout are not uncommon. These have been
usually regarded as different species, while aberrant or intermediate
individuals are usually regarded as hybrids. The salmon-trout of Europe
have many analogies with the steelhead of the Pacific.
The present writer has examined many thousands of American Salmonidæ,
both of Oncorhynchus and Salmo. While many variations have come to his
attention, and he has been compelled more than once to modify his views as
to specific distinctions, he has never yet seen an individual which he had
the slightest reason to regard as a "hybrid." It is certainly illogical to
became a backslider, descending again to the ocean, and grew gross and
heavy with coarse feeding. But thou, unsalted salmon of the foaming
floods, not landlocked as men call thee, but choosing of thine own free will
to dwell on a loftier level in the pure, swift current of a living stream, hath
grown in grace and risen to a better life.
"Thou art not to be measured by quantity but by quality, and thy five
pounds of pure vigor will outweigh a score of pounds of flesh less vitalized
by spirit. Thou feedest on the flies of the air, and thy food is transformed
into an aerial passion for flight, as thou springest across the pool, vaulting
toward the sky. Thine eyes have grown large and keen by piercing through
the foam, and the feathered hook that can deceive thee must be deftly tied
and delicately cast. Thy tail and fins, by ceaseless conflict with the rapids,
have broadened and strengthened, so that they can flash thy slender body
like a living arrow up the fall. As Launcelot among the knights, so art thou
among the fish, the plain-armored hero, the sunburnt champion of all the
water-folk."
Dr. Francis Day, who has very thoroughly studied these fishes, takes, in his
memoir on "The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland," and in other papers, a
similar view in regard to the European species. Omitting the species with
permanent teeth on the shaft of the vomer (subgenus Salar), he finds among
the salmon proper only two species, Salmo salar and Salmo trutta. The
latter species, the sea-trout or salmon-trout of England and the estuaries of
northern Europe, is similar to the salmon in many respects, but has rather
smaller scales, there being fourteen in an oblique series between the adipose
fin and the lateral line. It is not so strong a fish as the salmon, nor does it
reach so large a size. Although naturally anadromous, like the true salmon,
landlocked forms of the salmon-trout are not uncommon. These have been
usually regarded as different species, while aberrant or intermediate
individuals are usually regarded as hybrids. The salmon-trout of Europe
have many analogies with the steelhead of the Pacific.
The present writer has examined many thousands of American Salmonidæ,
both of Oncorhynchus and Salmo. While many variations have come to his
attention, and he has been compelled more than once to modify his views as
to specific distinctions, he has never yet seen an individual which he had
the slightest reason to regard as a "hybrid." It is certainly illogical to
Page 132
conclude that every specimen which does not correspond to our closet-
formed definition of its species must therefore be a "hybrid" with some
other. There is no evidence worth mentioning, known to me, of extensive
hybridization in a state of nature in any group of fishes. This matter is much
in need of further study; for what is true of the species in one region, in this
regard, may not be true of others. Dr. Günther observes:
"Johnson, a correspondent of Willughby, had already expressed his belief
that the different salmonoids interbreed; and this view has since been shared
by many who have observed these fishes in nature. Hybrids between the
sewin (Salmo trutta cambricus) and the river-trout (Salmo fario) were
numerous in the Rhymney and other rivers of South Wales before
salmonoids were almost exterminated by the pollutions allowed to pass into
these streams, and so variable in their characters that the passage from one
species to the other could be demonstrated in an almost unbroken series,
which might induce some naturalists to regard both species as identical.
Abundant evidence of a similar character has accumulated, showing the
frequent occurrence of hybrids between Salmo fario and S. trutta.... In some
rivers the conditions appear to be more favorable to hybridism than in
others in which hybrids are of comparatively rare occurrence. Hybrids
between the salmon and other species are very scarce everywhere."
Very similar to the European Salmo trutta is the trout of Japan (Salmo
perryi), the young called yamabe, the adult kawamasu, or river-salmon.
This species abounds everywhere in Japan, the young being the common
trout of the brooks, black-spotted and crossed by parr-marks, the adult
reaching a weight of ten or twelve pounds in the larger rivers and
descending to the sea. In Kamchatka is another large, black-spotted,
salmon-like species properly to be called a salmon-trout. This is Salmo
mykiss, a name very wrongly applied to the cutthroat trout of the Columbia.
The black-spotted trout, forming the subgenus Salar, differ from Salmo
salar and Salmo trutta in the greater development of the vomerine teeth,
which are persistent throughout life, in a long double series on the shaft of
the vomer. About seven species are laboriously distinguished by Dr.
Günther in the waters of western Europe. Most of these are regarded by Dr.
Day as varieties of Salmo fario. The latter species, the common river-trout
or lake-trout of Europe, is found throughout northern and central Europe,
wherever suitable waters occur. It is abundant, gamy, takes the hook readily,
formed definition of its species must therefore be a "hybrid" with some
other. There is no evidence worth mentioning, known to me, of extensive
hybridization in a state of nature in any group of fishes. This matter is much
in need of further study; for what is true of the species in one region, in this
regard, may not be true of others. Dr. Günther observes:
"Johnson, a correspondent of Willughby, had already expressed his belief
that the different salmonoids interbreed; and this view has since been shared
by many who have observed these fishes in nature. Hybrids between the
sewin (Salmo trutta cambricus) and the river-trout (Salmo fario) were
numerous in the Rhymney and other rivers of South Wales before
salmonoids were almost exterminated by the pollutions allowed to pass into
these streams, and so variable in their characters that the passage from one
species to the other could be demonstrated in an almost unbroken series,
which might induce some naturalists to regard both species as identical.
Abundant evidence of a similar character has accumulated, showing the
frequent occurrence of hybrids between Salmo fario and S. trutta.... In some
rivers the conditions appear to be more favorable to hybridism than in
others in which hybrids are of comparatively rare occurrence. Hybrids
between the salmon and other species are very scarce everywhere."
Very similar to the European Salmo trutta is the trout of Japan (Salmo
perryi), the young called yamabe, the adult kawamasu, or river-salmon.
This species abounds everywhere in Japan, the young being the common
trout of the brooks, black-spotted and crossed by parr-marks, the adult
reaching a weight of ten or twelve pounds in the larger rivers and
descending to the sea. In Kamchatka is another large, black-spotted,
salmon-like species properly to be called a salmon-trout. This is Salmo
mykiss, a name very wrongly applied to the cutthroat trout of the Columbia.
The black-spotted trout, forming the subgenus Salar, differ from Salmo
salar and Salmo trutta in the greater development of the vomerine teeth,
which are persistent throughout life, in a long double series on the shaft of
the vomer. About seven species are laboriously distinguished by Dr.
Günther in the waters of western Europe. Most of these are regarded by Dr.
Day as varieties of Salmo fario. The latter species, the common river-trout
or lake-trout of Europe, is found throughout northern and central Europe,
wherever suitable waters occur. It is abundant, gamy, takes the hook readily,
Page 133
and is excellent as food. It is more hardy than the different species of charr,
although from an æsthetic point of view it must be regarded as inferior to
all of the Salvelini. The largest river-trout recorded by Dr. Day weighed
twenty-one pounds. Such large individuals are usually found in lakes in the
north, well stocked with smaller fishes on which trout may feed. Farther
south, where the surroundings are less favorable to trout-life, they become
mature at a length of less than a foot, and a weight of a few ounces. These
excessive variations in the size of individuals have received too little notice
from students of Salmonidæ. Similar variations occur in all the non-
migratory species of Salmo and of Salvelinus. Numerous river-trout have
been recorded from northern Asia, but as yet nothing can be definitely
stated as to the number of species actually existing.
The Black-spotted Trout.—In North America only the region west of the
Mississippi Valley, the streams of southeastern Alaska, and the valley of
Mackenzie River have species of black-spotted trout. There are few of these
north of Sitka in Alaska, although black-spotted trout are occasionally taken
on Kadiak and about Bristol Bay, and none east of the Rocky Mountain
region. If we are to follow the usage of the names "salmon" and "trout"
which prevails in England, we should say that, in America, it is only these
western regions which have any trout at all. Of the number of species
(about twenty-five in all) which have been indicated by authors, certainly
not more than about 8 to 10 can possibly be regarded as distinct species.
The other names are either useless synonyms, or else they have been
applied to local varieties which pass by degrees into the ordinary types.
The Trout of Western America.—In the western part of America are found
more than a score of forms of trout of the genus Salmo, all closely related
and difficult to distinguish. There are representatives in the head-waters of
the Rio Grande, Arkansas, South Platte, Missouri, and Colorado rivers; also
in the Great Salt Lake basin, throughout the Columbia basin, in all suitable
waters from southern California and Chihuahua to Sitka, and even to Bristol
Bay, similar forms again appearing in Kamchatka and Japan.
Among the various more or less tangible species that may be recognized,
three distinct series appear. These have been termed the cutthroat-trout
series (allies of Salmo clarkii), the rainbow-trout series (allies of Salmo
irideus), and the steelhead series (allies of Salmo rivularis, a species more
usually but wrongly called Salmo gairdneri).
although from an æsthetic point of view it must be regarded as inferior to
all of the Salvelini. The largest river-trout recorded by Dr. Day weighed
twenty-one pounds. Such large individuals are usually found in lakes in the
north, well stocked with smaller fishes on which trout may feed. Farther
south, where the surroundings are less favorable to trout-life, they become
mature at a length of less than a foot, and a weight of a few ounces. These
excessive variations in the size of individuals have received too little notice
from students of Salmonidæ. Similar variations occur in all the non-
migratory species of Salmo and of Salvelinus. Numerous river-trout have
been recorded from northern Asia, but as yet nothing can be definitely
stated as to the number of species actually existing.
The Black-spotted Trout.—In North America only the region west of the
Mississippi Valley, the streams of southeastern Alaska, and the valley of
Mackenzie River have species of black-spotted trout. There are few of these
north of Sitka in Alaska, although black-spotted trout are occasionally taken
on Kadiak and about Bristol Bay, and none east of the Rocky Mountain
region. If we are to follow the usage of the names "salmon" and "trout"
which prevails in England, we should say that, in America, it is only these
western regions which have any trout at all. Of the number of species
(about twenty-five in all) which have been indicated by authors, certainly
not more than about 8 to 10 can possibly be regarded as distinct species.
The other names are either useless synonyms, or else they have been
applied to local varieties which pass by degrees into the ordinary types.
The Trout of Western America.—In the western part of America are found
more than a score of forms of trout of the genus Salmo, all closely related
and difficult to distinguish. There are representatives in the head-waters of
the Rio Grande, Arkansas, South Platte, Missouri, and Colorado rivers; also
in the Great Salt Lake basin, throughout the Columbia basin, in all suitable
waters from southern California and Chihuahua to Sitka, and even to Bristol
Bay, similar forms again appearing in Kamchatka and Japan.
Among the various more or less tangible species that may be recognized,
three distinct series appear. These have been termed the cutthroat-trout
series (allies of Salmo clarkii), the rainbow-trout series (allies of Salmo
irideus), and the steelhead series (allies of Salmo rivularis, a species more
usually but wrongly called Salmo gairdneri).
Page 134
The steelhead, or rivularis series, is found in the coastwise streams of
California and in the streams of Oregon and Washington, below the great
Shoshone Falls of Snake River, and northward in Alaska along the mainland
as far as Skaguay. The steelhead-trout reach a large size (10 to 20 pounds).
They spend a large part of their life in the sea. In all the true steelheads the
head is relatively very short, its length being contained about five times in
the distance from tip of snout to base of caudal fin. The scales in the
steelhead are always rather small, about 150 in a linear series, and there is
no red under the throat. The spots on the dorsal fin are fewer in the
steelhead (4 to 6 rows) than in the other American trout.
The rainbow forms are chiefly confined to the streams of California and
Oregon. In these the scales are large (about 135 in a lengthwise series) and
the head is relatively large, forming nearly one-fourth of the length to base
of caudal. These enter the sea only when in the small coastwise streams.
Usually they have no red under the throat. The cutthroat forms are found
from Humboldt Bay northward as far as Sitka, in the coastwise streams of
northern California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska, and all the clear
streams on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, and in the Great Basin and
the head-waters of the Colorado. The cutthroat-trout have the scales small,
about 180, and there is always a bright dash of orange-red on each side
concealed beneath the branches of the lower jaw. Along the western slope
of the Sierra Nevada there are also forms of trout with the general
appearance of rainbow-trout and evidently belonging to that species, but
with scales intermediate in number (in McCloud River), var. shasta, or with
scales as small as in the typical cutthroat (Kern River), var. gilberti. In these
small-scaled forms more or less red appears below the lower jaw, and they
are doubtless what they appear to be, really intermediate between clarkii
and irideus, although certainly nearest the latter. A similar series of forms
occurs in the Columbia basin, the upper Snake being inhabited by clarkii
and the lower Snake by clarkii and rivularis, together with a medley of
forms apparently intermediate.
It seems probable that the American trout originated in Asia, extended its
range to southeast Alaska, thence southward to the Fraser and Columbia,
thence to the Yellowstone and the Missouri via Two-Ocean Pass; from the
Snake River to the Great Basins of Utah and Nevada; from the Missouri
southward to the Platte and the Arkansas, thence from the Platte to the Rio
California and in the streams of Oregon and Washington, below the great
Shoshone Falls of Snake River, and northward in Alaska along the mainland
as far as Skaguay. The steelhead-trout reach a large size (10 to 20 pounds).
They spend a large part of their life in the sea. In all the true steelheads the
head is relatively very short, its length being contained about five times in
the distance from tip of snout to base of caudal fin. The scales in the
steelhead are always rather small, about 150 in a linear series, and there is
no red under the throat. The spots on the dorsal fin are fewer in the
steelhead (4 to 6 rows) than in the other American trout.
The rainbow forms are chiefly confined to the streams of California and
Oregon. In these the scales are large (about 135 in a lengthwise series) and
the head is relatively large, forming nearly one-fourth of the length to base
of caudal. These enter the sea only when in the small coastwise streams.
Usually they have no red under the throat. The cutthroat forms are found
from Humboldt Bay northward as far as Sitka, in the coastwise streams of
northern California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska, and all the clear
streams on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, and in the Great Basin and
the head-waters of the Colorado. The cutthroat-trout have the scales small,
about 180, and there is always a bright dash of orange-red on each side
concealed beneath the branches of the lower jaw. Along the western slope
of the Sierra Nevada there are also forms of trout with the general
appearance of rainbow-trout and evidently belonging to that species, but
with scales intermediate in number (in McCloud River), var. shasta, or with
scales as small as in the typical cutthroat (Kern River), var. gilberti. In these
small-scaled forms more or less red appears below the lower jaw, and they
are doubtless what they appear to be, really intermediate between clarkii
and irideus, although certainly nearest the latter. A similar series of forms
occurs in the Columbia basin, the upper Snake being inhabited by clarkii
and the lower Snake by clarkii and rivularis, together with a medley of
forms apparently intermediate.
It seems probable that the American trout originated in Asia, extended its
range to southeast Alaska, thence southward to the Fraser and Columbia,
thence to the Yellowstone and the Missouri via Two-Ocean Pass; from the
Snake River to the Great Basins of Utah and Nevada; from the Missouri
southward to the Platte and the Arkansas, thence from the Platte to the Rio
Page 135
Grande and the Colorado, and then from Oregon southward coastwise and
along the Sierras to northern Mexico, thence northward and coastwise, the
sea-running forms passing from stream to stream.
Fig. 61.—Rainbow Trout (male), Salmo irideus shasta Jordan.
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Of the American species the rainbow trout of California (Salmo irideus)
most nearly approaches the European Salmo fario. It has the scales
comparatively large, although rather smaller than in Salmo fario, the usual
number in a longitudinal series being about 135. The mouth is smaller than
in other American trout; the maxillary, except in old males, rarely extending
beyond the eye. The caudal fin is well forked, becoming in very old fishes
more nearly truncate. The head is relatively large, about four times in the
total length. The size of the head forms the best distinctive character. The
color, as in all the other species, is bluish, the sides silvery in the males,
with a red lateral band, and reddish and dusky blotches. The head, back, and
upper fins are sprinkled with round black spots, which are very variable in
number, those on the dorsal usually in about nine rows. In specimens taken
in the sea this species, like most other trout in similar conditions, is bright
silvery, and sometimes immaculate. This species is especially characteristic
of the waters of California. It abounds in every clear brook, from the
Mexican line northward to Mount Shasta, or beyond, the species passing in
the Columbia region by degrees into the species or form known as Salmo
along the Sierras to northern Mexico, thence northward and coastwise, the
sea-running forms passing from stream to stream.
Fig. 61.—Rainbow Trout (male), Salmo irideus shasta Jordan.
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Of the American species the rainbow trout of California (Salmo irideus)
most nearly approaches the European Salmo fario. It has the scales
comparatively large, although rather smaller than in Salmo fario, the usual
number in a longitudinal series being about 135. The mouth is smaller than
in other American trout; the maxillary, except in old males, rarely extending
beyond the eye. The caudal fin is well forked, becoming in very old fishes
more nearly truncate. The head is relatively large, about four times in the
total length. The size of the head forms the best distinctive character. The
color, as in all the other species, is bluish, the sides silvery in the males,
with a red lateral band, and reddish and dusky blotches. The head, back, and
upper fins are sprinkled with round black spots, which are very variable in
number, those on the dorsal usually in about nine rows. In specimens taken
in the sea this species, like most other trout in similar conditions, is bright
silvery, and sometimes immaculate. This species is especially characteristic
of the waters of California. It abounds in every clear brook, from the
Mexican line northward to Mount Shasta, or beyond, the species passing in
the Columbia region by degrees into the species or form known as Salmo
Page 136
masoni, the Oregon rainbow trout, a small rainbow trout common in the
forest streams of Oregon, with smaller mouth and fewer spots on the dorsal.
No true rainbow trout have been anywhere obtained to the eastward of the
Cascade Range or of the Sierra Nevada, except as artificially planted in the
Truckee River. The species varies much in size; specimens from northern
California often reach a weight of six pounds, while in the streams above
Tia Juana in Lower California the southernmost locality from which I have
obtained trout, they seldom exceed a length of six inches. Although not
usually an anadromous species, the rainbow trout frequently moves about in
the rivers, and it often enters the sea, large sea-run specimens being often
taken for steelheads. Several attempts have been made to introduce it in
Eastern streams, but it appears to seek the sea when it is lost. It is
apparently more hardy and less greedy than the American charr, or brook-
trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). On the other hand, it is distinctly inferior to the
latter in beauty and in gaminess.
Fig. 62.—Rainbow Trout (female), Salmo irideus shasta Jordan.
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
forest streams of Oregon, with smaller mouth and fewer spots on the dorsal.
No true rainbow trout have been anywhere obtained to the eastward of the
Cascade Range or of the Sierra Nevada, except as artificially planted in the
Truckee River. The species varies much in size; specimens from northern
California often reach a weight of six pounds, while in the streams above
Tia Juana in Lower California the southernmost locality from which I have
obtained trout, they seldom exceed a length of six inches. Although not
usually an anadromous species, the rainbow trout frequently moves about in
the rivers, and it often enters the sea, large sea-run specimens being often
taken for steelheads. Several attempts have been made to introduce it in
Eastern streams, but it appears to seek the sea when it is lost. It is
apparently more hardy and less greedy than the American charr, or brook-
trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). On the other hand, it is distinctly inferior to the
latter in beauty and in gaminess.
Fig. 62.—Rainbow Trout (female), Salmo irideus shasta Jordan.
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Page 137
Three varieties of some importance have been indicated, Salmo irideus
stonei, the Nissui trout of the Klamath, with spots on the posterior parts
only, Salmo irideus shasta of the upper Sacramento, and the small-scaled
Salmo irideus gilberti of the Kings and Kern rivers. In the head-waters of
the Kern, in a stream called Volcano Creek or Whitney Creek, the waterfall
sometimes called Agua-Bonita shuts off the movements of the trout. Above
this fall is a dwarf form with bright golden fins, and the scales scarcely
imbricated. This is the "golden trout of Mount Whitney," Salmo irideus
agua-bonita. It will possibly be found to change back to the original type if
propagated in different waters.
In beauty of color, gracefulness of form and movement, sprightliness when
in the water, reckless dash with which it springs from the water to meet the
descending fly ere it strikes the surface, and the mad and repeated leaps
from the water when hooked, the rainbow trout must ever hold a very high
rank. "The gamest fish we have ever seen," writes Dr. Evermann, "was a
16-inch rainbow taken on a fly in a small spring branch tributary of
Williamson River in southern Oregon. It was in a broad and deep pool of
exceedingly clear water. As the angler from behind a clump of willows
made the cast the trout bounded from the water and met the fly in the air a
foot or more above the surface; missing it, he dropped upon the water, only
to turn about and strike viciously a second time at the fly just as it touched
the surface; though he again missed the fly, the hook caught him in the
lower jaw from the outside, and then began a fight which would delight the
heart of any angler. His first effort was to reach the bottom of the pool, then,
doubling upon the line, he made three jumps from the water in quick
succession, clearing the surface in each instance from one to four feet, and
every time doing his utmost to free himself from the hook by shaking his
head as vigorously as a dog shakes a rat. Then he would rush wildly about
in the large pool, now attempting to go down over the riffle below the pool,
now trying the opposite direction, and often striving to hide under one or
the other of the banks. It was easy to handle the fish when the dash was
made up or down stream or for the opposite side, but when he turned about
and made a rush for the protection of the overhanging bank upon which the
angler stood it was not easy to keep the line taut. Movements such as these
were frequently repeated, and two more leaps were made. But finally he
was worn out after as honest a fight as trout ever made."
stonei, the Nissui trout of the Klamath, with spots on the posterior parts
only, Salmo irideus shasta of the upper Sacramento, and the small-scaled
Salmo irideus gilberti of the Kings and Kern rivers. In the head-waters of
the Kern, in a stream called Volcano Creek or Whitney Creek, the waterfall
sometimes called Agua-Bonita shuts off the movements of the trout. Above
this fall is a dwarf form with bright golden fins, and the scales scarcely
imbricated. This is the "golden trout of Mount Whitney," Salmo irideus
agua-bonita. It will possibly be found to change back to the original type if
propagated in different waters.
In beauty of color, gracefulness of form and movement, sprightliness when
in the water, reckless dash with which it springs from the water to meet the
descending fly ere it strikes the surface, and the mad and repeated leaps
from the water when hooked, the rainbow trout must ever hold a very high
rank. "The gamest fish we have ever seen," writes Dr. Evermann, "was a
16-inch rainbow taken on a fly in a small spring branch tributary of
Williamson River in southern Oregon. It was in a broad and deep pool of
exceedingly clear water. As the angler from behind a clump of willows
made the cast the trout bounded from the water and met the fly in the air a
foot or more above the surface; missing it, he dropped upon the water, only
to turn about and strike viciously a second time at the fly just as it touched
the surface; though he again missed the fly, the hook caught him in the
lower jaw from the outside, and then began a fight which would delight the
heart of any angler. His first effort was to reach the bottom of the pool, then,
doubling upon the line, he made three jumps from the water in quick
succession, clearing the surface in each instance from one to four feet, and
every time doing his utmost to free himself from the hook by shaking his
head as vigorously as a dog shakes a rat. Then he would rush wildly about
in the large pool, now attempting to go down over the riffle below the pool,
now trying the opposite direction, and often striving to hide under one or
the other of the banks. It was easy to handle the fish when the dash was
made up or down stream or for the opposite side, but when he turned about
and made a rush for the protection of the overhanging bank upon which the
angler stood it was not easy to keep the line taut. Movements such as these
were frequently repeated, and two more leaps were made. But finally he
was worn out after as honest a fight as trout ever made."
Page 138
"The rainbow takes the fly so readily that there is no reason for resorting to
grasshoppers, salmon-eggs, or other bait. It is a fish whose gaminess will
satisfy the most exacting of expert anglers and whose readiness to take any
proper line will please the most impatient of inexperienced amateurs."
The steelhead (Salmo rivularis) is a large trout, reaching twelve to twenty
pounds in weight, found abundantly in river estuaries and sometimes in
lakes from Lynn Canal to Santa Barbara. The spent fish abound in the rivers
in spring at the time of the salmon-run. The species is rarely canned, but is
valued for shipment in cold storage. Its bones are much more firm than
those of the salmon—a trait unfavorable for canning purposes. The flesh
when not spent after spawning is excellent. The steelhead does not die after
spawning, as all the Pacific salmon do.
Fig. 63.—Steelhead Trout, Salmo rivularis Ayres. Columbia River.
It is thought by some anglers that the young fish hatched in the brooks from
eggs of the steelhead remain in mountain streams from six to thirty-six
months, going down to the sea with the high waters of spring, after which
they return to spawn as typical steelhead trout. I now regard this view as
unfounded. In my experience the rainbow and the steelhead are always
distinguishable: the steelhead abounds where the rainbow trout is unknown;
the scales in the steelhead are always smaller (about 155) than in typical
rainbow trout; finally, the small size of the head in the steelhead is always
distinctive.
The Kamloops trout, described by the writer from the upper Columbia,
seems to be a typical steelhead as found well up the rivers away from the
grasshoppers, salmon-eggs, or other bait. It is a fish whose gaminess will
satisfy the most exacting of expert anglers and whose readiness to take any
proper line will please the most impatient of inexperienced amateurs."
The steelhead (Salmo rivularis) is a large trout, reaching twelve to twenty
pounds in weight, found abundantly in river estuaries and sometimes in
lakes from Lynn Canal to Santa Barbara. The spent fish abound in the rivers
in spring at the time of the salmon-run. The species is rarely canned, but is
valued for shipment in cold storage. Its bones are much more firm than
those of the salmon—a trait unfavorable for canning purposes. The flesh
when not spent after spawning is excellent. The steelhead does not die after
spawning, as all the Pacific salmon do.
Fig. 63.—Steelhead Trout, Salmo rivularis Ayres. Columbia River.
It is thought by some anglers that the young fish hatched in the brooks from
eggs of the steelhead remain in mountain streams from six to thirty-six
months, going down to the sea with the high waters of spring, after which
they return to spawn as typical steelhead trout. I now regard this view as
unfounded. In my experience the rainbow and the steelhead are always
distinguishable: the steelhead abounds where the rainbow trout is unknown;
the scales in the steelhead are always smaller (about 155) than in typical
rainbow trout; finally, the small size of the head in the steelhead is always
distinctive.
The Kamloops trout, described by the writer from the upper Columbia,
seems to be a typical steelhead as found well up the rivers away from the
Page 139
sea. Derived from the steelhead, but apparently quite distinct from it, are
three very noble trout, all confined so far as yet known to Lake Crescent in
northwestern Washington. These are the crescent trout, Salmo crescentis,
the Beardslee trout, Salmo beardsleei, and the long-headed trout, Salmo
bathæcetor. The first two, discovered by Admiral L. A. Beardslee, are trout
of peculiar attractiveness and excellence. The third is a deep-water form,
never rising to the surface, and caught only on set lines. Its origin is still
uncertain, and it may be derived from some type other than the steelhead.
Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.—This species has much smaller scales
than the rainbow trout or steelhead, the usual number in a longitudinal
series being 160 to 170. Its head is longer (about four times in length to
base of caudal). Its mouth is proportionately larger, and there is always a
narrow band of small teeth on the hyoid bone at the base of the tongue.
These teeth are always wanting in Salmo irideus and rivularis in which
species the rim of the tongue only has teeth. The color in Salmo clarkii is,
as in other species, exceedingly variable. In life there is always a deep-red
blotch on the throat, between the branches of the lower jaw and the
membrane connecting them. This is not found in other species, or is reduced
to a narrow strip or pinkish shade. It seems to be constant in all varieties of
Salmo clarkii, at all ages, thus furnishing a good distinctive character. It is
the sign manual of the Sioux Indians, and the anglers have already accepted
from this mark the name of cutthroat-trout. The cutthroat-trout of some
species is found in every suitable river and lake in the great basin of Utah,
in the streams of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, on both sides of the
Rocky Mountains. It is also found throughout Oregon, Washington, Idaho,
British Columbia, the coastwise islands of southeastern Alaska (Baranof,
etc.), to Kadiak and Bristol Bay, probably no stream or lake suitable for
trout-life being without it. In California the species seems to be
comparatively rare, and its range rarely extending south of Cape
Mendocino. Large sea-run individuals analogous to the steelheads are
sometimes found in the mouth of the Sacramento. In Washington and
Alaska this species regularly enters the sea. In Puget Sound it is a common
fish. These sea-run individuals are more silvery and less spotted than those
found in the mountain streams and lakes. The size of Salmo clarkii is
subject to much variation. Ordinarily four to six pounds is a large size; but
in certain favored waters, as Lake Tahoe, and the fjords of southeastern
Alaska, specimens from twenty to thirty pounds are occasionally taken.
three very noble trout, all confined so far as yet known to Lake Crescent in
northwestern Washington. These are the crescent trout, Salmo crescentis,
the Beardslee trout, Salmo beardsleei, and the long-headed trout, Salmo
bathæcetor. The first two, discovered by Admiral L. A. Beardslee, are trout
of peculiar attractiveness and excellence. The third is a deep-water form,
never rising to the surface, and caught only on set lines. Its origin is still
uncertain, and it may be derived from some type other than the steelhead.
Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.—This species has much smaller scales
than the rainbow trout or steelhead, the usual number in a longitudinal
series being 160 to 170. Its head is longer (about four times in length to
base of caudal). Its mouth is proportionately larger, and there is always a
narrow band of small teeth on the hyoid bone at the base of the tongue.
These teeth are always wanting in Salmo irideus and rivularis in which
species the rim of the tongue only has teeth. The color in Salmo clarkii is,
as in other species, exceedingly variable. In life there is always a deep-red
blotch on the throat, between the branches of the lower jaw and the
membrane connecting them. This is not found in other species, or is reduced
to a narrow strip or pinkish shade. It seems to be constant in all varieties of
Salmo clarkii, at all ages, thus furnishing a good distinctive character. It is
the sign manual of the Sioux Indians, and the anglers have already accepted
from this mark the name of cutthroat-trout. The cutthroat-trout of some
species is found in every suitable river and lake in the great basin of Utah,
in the streams of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, on both sides of the
Rocky Mountains. It is also found throughout Oregon, Washington, Idaho,
British Columbia, the coastwise islands of southeastern Alaska (Baranof,
etc.), to Kadiak and Bristol Bay, probably no stream or lake suitable for
trout-life being without it. In California the species seems to be
comparatively rare, and its range rarely extending south of Cape
Mendocino. Large sea-run individuals analogous to the steelheads are
sometimes found in the mouth of the Sacramento. In Washington and
Alaska this species regularly enters the sea. In Puget Sound it is a common
fish. These sea-run individuals are more silvery and less spotted than those
found in the mountain streams and lakes. The size of Salmo clarkii is
subject to much variation. Ordinarily four to six pounds is a large size; but
in certain favored waters, as Lake Tahoe, and the fjords of southeastern
Alaska, specimens from twenty to thirty pounds are occasionally taken.
Page 140
Those species or individuals dwelling in lakes of considerable size, where
the water is of such temperature and depth as insures an ample food-supply,
will reach a large size, while those in a restricted environment, where both
the water and food are limited, will be small directly in proportion to these
environing restrictions. The trout of the Klamath Lakes, for example, reach
a weight of at least 17 pounds, while in Fish Lake in Idaho mature trout do
not exceed 8 to 9¼ inches in total length or one-fourth pound in weight. In
small creeks in the Sawtooth Mountains and elsewhere they reach maturity
at a length of 5 or 6 inches, and are often spoken of as brook-trout and with
the impression that they are a species different from the larger ones found in
the lakes and larger streams. But as all sorts and gradations between these
extreme forms may be found in the intervening and connecting waters, the
differences are not even of sub-specific significance.
Dr. Evermann
observes: "The
various forms of
cutthroat-trout vary
Fig. 64.—Head of adult greatly in game
Trout-worm, Dibothrium qualities; even the
cordiceps Leidy, a same subspecies in Fig. 65.—Median
parasite of Salmo clarkii. different waters, in segments of Dibothrium
From intestine of white different parts of its cordiceps.
pelican, Yellowstone habitat, or at
Lake. (After Linton.) different seasons,
will vary greatly in this regard. In general,
however, it is perhaps a fair statement to say
that the cutthroat-trout are regarded by anglers as being inferior in gaminess
to the Eastern brook-trout. But while this is true, it must not by any means
be inferred that it is without game qualities, for it is really a fish which
possesses those qualities in a very high degree. Its vigor and voraciousness
are determined largely, of course, by the character of the stream or lake in
which it lives. The individuals which dwell in cold streams about cascades
and seething rapids will show marvelous strength and will make a fight
which is rarely equaled by its Eastern cousin; while in warmer and larger
streams and lakes they may be very sluggish and show but little fight. Yet
this is by no means always true. In the Klamath Lakes, where the trout grow
very large and where they are often very logy, one is occasionally hooked
the water is of such temperature and depth as insures an ample food-supply,
will reach a large size, while those in a restricted environment, where both
the water and food are limited, will be small directly in proportion to these
environing restrictions. The trout of the Klamath Lakes, for example, reach
a weight of at least 17 pounds, while in Fish Lake in Idaho mature trout do
not exceed 8 to 9¼ inches in total length or one-fourth pound in weight. In
small creeks in the Sawtooth Mountains and elsewhere they reach maturity
at a length of 5 or 6 inches, and are often spoken of as brook-trout and with
the impression that they are a species different from the larger ones found in
the lakes and larger streams. But as all sorts and gradations between these
extreme forms may be found in the intervening and connecting waters, the
differences are not even of sub-specific significance.
Dr. Evermann
observes: "The
various forms of
cutthroat-trout vary
Fig. 64.—Head of adult greatly in game
Trout-worm, Dibothrium qualities; even the
cordiceps Leidy, a same subspecies in Fig. 65.—Median
parasite of Salmo clarkii. different waters, in segments of Dibothrium
From intestine of white different parts of its cordiceps.
pelican, Yellowstone habitat, or at
Lake. (After Linton.) different seasons,
will vary greatly in this regard. In general,
however, it is perhaps a fair statement to say
that the cutthroat-trout are regarded by anglers as being inferior in gaminess
to the Eastern brook-trout. But while this is true, it must not by any means
be inferred that it is without game qualities, for it is really a fish which
possesses those qualities in a very high degree. Its vigor and voraciousness
are determined largely, of course, by the character of the stream or lake in
which it lives. The individuals which dwell in cold streams about cascades
and seething rapids will show marvelous strength and will make a fight
which is rarely equaled by its Eastern cousin; while in warmer and larger
streams and lakes they may be very sluggish and show but little fight. Yet
this is by no means always true. In the Klamath Lakes, where the trout grow
very large and where they are often very logy, one is occasionally hooked
Page 141
which tries to the utmost the skill of the angler to prevent his tackle from
being smashed and at the same time save the fish."
Of the various forms derived from Salmo clarkii some mere varieties, some
distinct species, the following are among the most marked:
Salmo henshawi, the trout of Lake Tahoe and its tributaries and outlet,
Truckee River, found in fact also in the Humboldt and the Carson and
throughout the basin of the former glacial lake called Lake Lahontan. This
is a distinct species from Salmo clarkii and must be regarded as the finest of
all the cutthroat-trout. It is readily known by its spotted belly, the black
spots being evenly scattered over the whole surface of the body, above and
below. This is an excellent game-fish, and from Lake Tahoe and Pyramid
Lake it is brought in large numbers to the markets of San Francisco. In the
depths of Lake Tahoe, which is the finest mountain lake of the Sierra
Nevada, occurs a very large variety which spawns in the lake, Salmo
henshawi tahoensis. This reaches a weight of twenty-eight pounds.
Fig. 66.—Tahoe Trout, Salmo henshawi Gill & Jordan. Lake Tahoe,
California.
In the Great Basin of Utah is found a fine trout, very close to the ordinary
cutthroat of the Columbia, from which it is derived. This is known as Salmo
clarkii virginalis. In Utah Lake it reaches a large size.
In Waha Lake in Washington, a lake without outlet, is found a small trout
with peculiar markings called Salmo clarkii bouvieri.
being smashed and at the same time save the fish."
Of the various forms derived from Salmo clarkii some mere varieties, some
distinct species, the following are among the most marked:
Salmo henshawi, the trout of Lake Tahoe and its tributaries and outlet,
Truckee River, found in fact also in the Humboldt and the Carson and
throughout the basin of the former glacial lake called Lake Lahontan. This
is a distinct species from Salmo clarkii and must be regarded as the finest of
all the cutthroat-trout. It is readily known by its spotted belly, the black
spots being evenly scattered over the whole surface of the body, above and
below. This is an excellent game-fish, and from Lake Tahoe and Pyramid
Lake it is brought in large numbers to the markets of San Francisco. In the
depths of Lake Tahoe, which is the finest mountain lake of the Sierra
Nevada, occurs a very large variety which spawns in the lake, Salmo
henshawi tahoensis. This reaches a weight of twenty-eight pounds.
Fig. 66.—Tahoe Trout, Salmo henshawi Gill & Jordan. Lake Tahoe,
California.
In the Great Basin of Utah is found a fine trout, very close to the ordinary
cutthroat of the Columbia, from which it is derived. This is known as Salmo
clarkii virginalis. In Utah Lake it reaches a large size.
In Waha Lake in Washington, a lake without outlet, is found a small trout
with peculiar markings called Salmo clarkii bouvieri.
Page 142
In the head-waters of the Platte and Arkansas rivers is the small green-back
trout, green or brown, with red throat-patch and large black spots. This is
Salmo clarkii stomias, and it is especially fine in St. Vrain's River and the
streams of Estes Park. In Twin Lakes, a pair of glacial lakes tributary of the
Arkansas near Leadville, is found Salmo clarkii macdonaldi, the yellow-
finned trout, a large and very handsome species living in deep water, and
with the fins golden yellow. This approaches the Colorado trout, Salmo
clarkii pleuriticus, and it may be derived from the latter, although it occurs
in the same waters as the very different green-back trout, or Salmo clarkii
stomias.
Fig. 67.—Green-back Trout, Salmo stomias Cope. Arkansas River,
Leadville, Colo.
Fig. 68.—Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes, Salmo macdonaldi Jordan &
Evermann. Twin Lakes, Colo.
trout, green or brown, with red throat-patch and large black spots. This is
Salmo clarkii stomias, and it is especially fine in St. Vrain's River and the
streams of Estes Park. In Twin Lakes, a pair of glacial lakes tributary of the
Arkansas near Leadville, is found Salmo clarkii macdonaldi, the yellow-
finned trout, a large and very handsome species living in deep water, and
with the fins golden yellow. This approaches the Colorado trout, Salmo
clarkii pleuriticus, and it may be derived from the latter, although it occurs
in the same waters as the very different green-back trout, or Salmo clarkii
stomias.
Fig. 67.—Green-back Trout, Salmo stomias Cope. Arkansas River,
Leadville, Colo.
Fig. 68.—Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes, Salmo macdonaldi Jordan &
Evermann. Twin Lakes, Colo.
Page 143
Two fine trout derived from Salmo clarkii have been lately discovered by
Dr. Daniel G. Elliot in Lake Southerland, a mountain lake near Lake
Crescent, but not connected with it, the two separated from the sea by high
waterfalls. These have been described by Dr. Seth E. Meek as Salmo
jordani, the "spotted trout" of Lake Southerland, and Salmo declivifrons, the
"salmon-trout." These seem to be distinct forms or subspecies produced
through isolation.
Fig. 69.—Rio Grande Trout, Salmo clarkii spilurus Cope. Del Norte, Colo.
Fig. 70.—Colorado River Trout, Salmo clarkii pleuriticus Cope. Trapper's
Lake, Colo.
Dr. Daniel G. Elliot in Lake Southerland, a mountain lake near Lake
Crescent, but not connected with it, the two separated from the sea by high
waterfalls. These have been described by Dr. Seth E. Meek as Salmo
jordani, the "spotted trout" of Lake Southerland, and Salmo declivifrons, the
"salmon-trout." These seem to be distinct forms or subspecies produced
through isolation.
Fig. 69.—Rio Grande Trout, Salmo clarkii spilurus Cope. Del Norte, Colo.
Fig. 70.—Colorado River Trout, Salmo clarkii pleuriticus Cope. Trapper's
Lake, Colo.
Page 144
The Rio Grande trout (Salmo clarkii spilurus) is a large and profusely
spotted trout, found in the head-waters of the Rio Grande, the mountain
streams of the Great Basin of Utah, and as far south as the northern part of
Chihuahua. Its scales are still smaller than those of the ordinary cutthroat-
trout, and the black spots are chiefly confined to the tail. Closely related to
it is the trout of the Colorado Basin, Salmo clarkii pleuriticus, a large and
handsome trout with very small scales, much sought by anglers in western
Colorado, and abounding in all suitable streams throughout the Colorado
Basin.
Hucho, the Huchen.—The genus Hucho has been framed for the Huchen
or Rothfisch (Hucho hucho) of the Danube, a very large trout, differing
from the genus Salmo in having no teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and
from the Salvelini at least in form and coloration. The huchen is a long and
slender, somewhat pike-like fish, with depressed snout and strong teeth. The
color is silvery, sprinkled with small black dots. It reaches a size little
inferior to that of the salmon, and it is said to be an excellent food-fish. In
northern Japan is a similar species, Hucho blackistoni, locally known as Ito,
a large and handsome trout with very slender body, reaching a length of 2½
feet. It is well worthy of introduction into American and European waters.
Fig. 71.—Ito, Hucho blackistoni (Hilgendorf). Hokkaido, Japan.
Salvelinus, the Charr.—The genus Salvelinus comprises the finest of the
Salmonidæ, from the point of view of the angler or the artist. In England the
species are known as charr or char, in contradistinction to the black-spotted
species of Salmo, which are called trout. The former name has
spotted trout, found in the head-waters of the Rio Grande, the mountain
streams of the Great Basin of Utah, and as far south as the northern part of
Chihuahua. Its scales are still smaller than those of the ordinary cutthroat-
trout, and the black spots are chiefly confined to the tail. Closely related to
it is the trout of the Colorado Basin, Salmo clarkii pleuriticus, a large and
handsome trout with very small scales, much sought by anglers in western
Colorado, and abounding in all suitable streams throughout the Colorado
Basin.
Hucho, the Huchen.—The genus Hucho has been framed for the Huchen
or Rothfisch (Hucho hucho) of the Danube, a very large trout, differing
from the genus Salmo in having no teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and
from the Salvelini at least in form and coloration. The huchen is a long and
slender, somewhat pike-like fish, with depressed snout and strong teeth. The
color is silvery, sprinkled with small black dots. It reaches a size little
inferior to that of the salmon, and it is said to be an excellent food-fish. In
northern Japan is a similar species, Hucho blackistoni, locally known as Ito,
a large and handsome trout with very slender body, reaching a length of 2½
feet. It is well worthy of introduction into American and European waters.
Fig. 71.—Ito, Hucho blackistoni (Hilgendorf). Hokkaido, Japan.
Salvelinus, the Charr.—The genus Salvelinus comprises the finest of the
Salmonidæ, from the point of view of the angler or the artist. In England the
species are known as charr or char, in contradistinction to the black-spotted
species of Salmo, which are called trout. The former name has
Page 145
unfortunately been lost in America, where the name "trout" is given
indiscriminately to both groups, and, still worse, to numerous other fishes
(Micropterus, Hexagrammos, Cynoscion, Agonostomus) wholly unlike the
Salmonidæ in all respects. It is sometimes said that "the American brook-
trout is no trout, nothing but a charr," almost as though "charr" were a word
of reproach. Nothing higher, however, can be said of a salmonoid than that
it is a "charr." The technical character of the genus Salvelinus lies in the
form of its vomer. This is deeper than in Salmo; and when the flesh is
removed the bone is found to be somewhat boat-shaped above, and with the
shaft depressed and out of the line of the head of the vomer. Only the head
or chevron is armed with teeth, and the shaft is covered by skin.
In color all the charrs differ from the salmon and trout. The body in all is
covered with round spots which are paler than the ground color, and
crimson or gray. The lower fins are usually edged with bright colors. The
sexual differences are not great. The scales, in general, are smaller than in
other Salmonidæ, and they are imbedded in the skin to such a degree as to
escape the notice of casual observers and even of most anglers.
"One trout scale in the scales I'd lay
(If trout had scales), and 'twill outweigh
The wrong side of the balances."—Lowell.
The charrs inhabit, in general, only the clearest and coldest of mountain
streams and lakes, or bays of similar temperature. They are not migratory,
or only to a limited extent. In northern regions they descend to the sea,
where they grow much more rapidly and assume a nearly uniform silvery-
gray color. The different species are found in all suitable waters throughout
the northern parts of both continents, except in the Rocky Mountains and
Great Basin, where only the black-spotted trout occur. The number of
species of charr is very uncertain, as, both in America and Europe, trivial
variations and individual peculiarities have been raised to the rank of
species. More types, however, seem to be represented in America than in
Europe.
indiscriminately to both groups, and, still worse, to numerous other fishes
(Micropterus, Hexagrammos, Cynoscion, Agonostomus) wholly unlike the
Salmonidæ in all respects. It is sometimes said that "the American brook-
trout is no trout, nothing but a charr," almost as though "charr" were a word
of reproach. Nothing higher, however, can be said of a salmonoid than that
it is a "charr." The technical character of the genus Salvelinus lies in the
form of its vomer. This is deeper than in Salmo; and when the flesh is
removed the bone is found to be somewhat boat-shaped above, and with the
shaft depressed and out of the line of the head of the vomer. Only the head
or chevron is armed with teeth, and the shaft is covered by skin.
In color all the charrs differ from the salmon and trout. The body in all is
covered with round spots which are paler than the ground color, and
crimson or gray. The lower fins are usually edged with bright colors. The
sexual differences are not great. The scales, in general, are smaller than in
other Salmonidæ, and they are imbedded in the skin to such a degree as to
escape the notice of casual observers and even of most anglers.
"One trout scale in the scales I'd lay
(If trout had scales), and 'twill outweigh
The wrong side of the balances."—Lowell.
The charrs inhabit, in general, only the clearest and coldest of mountain
streams and lakes, or bays of similar temperature. They are not migratory,
or only to a limited extent. In northern regions they descend to the sea,
where they grow much more rapidly and assume a nearly uniform silvery-
gray color. The different species are found in all suitable waters throughout
the northern parts of both continents, except in the Rocky Mountains and
Great Basin, where only the black-spotted trout occur. The number of
species of charr is very uncertain, as, both in America and Europe, trivial
variations and individual peculiarities have been raised to the rank of
species. More types, however, seem to be represented in America than in
Europe.
Page 146
Fig. 72.—Rangeley Trout, Salvelinus oquassa (Girard). Lake Oquassa,
Maine.
The only really well-authenticated species of charr in European waters is
the red charr, sälbling, or ombre chevalier (Salvelinus alpinus). This species
is found in cold, clear streams in Switzerland, Germany, and throughout
Scandinavia and the British Islands. Compared with the American charr or
brook-trout, it is a slenderer fish, with smaller mouth, longer fins, and
smaller red spots, which are confined to the sides of the body. It is a
"gregarious and deep-swimming fish, shy of taking the bait and feeding
largely at night-time. It appears to require very pure and mostly deep water
for its residence." It is less tenacious of life than the trout. It reaches a
weight of from one to five pounds, probably rarely exceeding the latter in
size. The various charr described from Siberia are far too little known to be
enumerated here.
Of the American charr the one most resembling the European species is the
Rangeley Lake trout (Salvelinus oquassa). The exquisite little fish is known
in the United States only from the Rangeley chain of lakes in western
Maine. This is very close to the Greenland charr, Salvelinus stagnalis, a
beautiful species of the far north. The Rangeley trout is much slenderer than
the common brook-trout, with much smaller head and smaller mouth. In life
it is dark blue above, and the deep-red spots are confined to the sides of the
body. The species rarely exceeds the length of a foot in the Rangeley Lakes,
but in some other waters it reaches a much larger size. So far as is known it
keeps itself in the depths of the lake until its spawning season approaches,
in October, when it ascends the stream to spawn.
Maine.
The only really well-authenticated species of charr in European waters is
the red charr, sälbling, or ombre chevalier (Salvelinus alpinus). This species
is found in cold, clear streams in Switzerland, Germany, and throughout
Scandinavia and the British Islands. Compared with the American charr or
brook-trout, it is a slenderer fish, with smaller mouth, longer fins, and
smaller red spots, which are confined to the sides of the body. It is a
"gregarious and deep-swimming fish, shy of taking the bait and feeding
largely at night-time. It appears to require very pure and mostly deep water
for its residence." It is less tenacious of life than the trout. It reaches a
weight of from one to five pounds, probably rarely exceeding the latter in
size. The various charr described from Siberia are far too little known to be
enumerated here.
Of the American charr the one most resembling the European species is the
Rangeley Lake trout (Salvelinus oquassa). The exquisite little fish is known
in the United States only from the Rangeley chain of lakes in western
Maine. This is very close to the Greenland charr, Salvelinus stagnalis, a
beautiful species of the far north. The Rangeley trout is much slenderer than
the common brook-trout, with much smaller head and smaller mouth. In life
it is dark blue above, and the deep-red spots are confined to the sides of the
body. The species rarely exceeds the length of a foot in the Rangeley Lakes,
but in some other waters it reaches a much larger size. So far as is known it
keeps itself in the depths of the lake until its spawning season approaches,
in October, when it ascends the stream to spawn.
Page 147
Fig. 73.—Sunapee Trout, Salvelinus aureolus Bean. Sunapee Lake, N. H.
Still other species of this type are the Sunapee trout, Salvelinus aureolus, a
beautiful charr almost identical with the European species, found in
numerous ponds and lakes of eastern New Hampshire and neighboring parts
of Maine. Mr. Garman regards this trout as the offspring of an importation
of the ombre chevalier and not as a native species, and in this view he may
be correct. Salvelinus alipes of the far north may be the same species.
Another remarkable form is the Lac de Marbre trout of Canada, Salvelinus
marstoni of Garman.
In Arctic regions another species, called Salvelinus naresi, is very close to
Salvelinus oquassa and may be the same.
Another beautiful little charr, allied to Salvelinus stagnalis, is the Floeberg
charr (Salvelinus arcturus). This species has been brought from Victoria
Lake and Floeberg Beach, in the extreme northern part of Arctic America,
the northernmost point whence any salmonoid has been obtained.
Still other species of this type are the Sunapee trout, Salvelinus aureolus, a
beautiful charr almost identical with the European species, found in
numerous ponds and lakes of eastern New Hampshire and neighboring parts
of Maine. Mr. Garman regards this trout as the offspring of an importation
of the ombre chevalier and not as a native species, and in this view he may
be correct. Salvelinus alipes of the far north may be the same species.
Another remarkable form is the Lac de Marbre trout of Canada, Salvelinus
marstoni of Garman.
In Arctic regions another species, called Salvelinus naresi, is very close to
Salvelinus oquassa and may be the same.
Another beautiful little charr, allied to Salvelinus stagnalis, is the Floeberg
charr (Salvelinus arcturus). This species has been brought from Victoria
Lake and Floeberg Beach, in the extreme northern part of Arctic America,
the northernmost point whence any salmonoid has been obtained.
Page 148
Fig. 74.—Speckled Trout (male), Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill). New
York.
Fig. 75.—Brook Trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill), natural size. (From
life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
York.
Fig. 75.—Brook Trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill), natural size. (From
life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
Page 149
The American charr, or, as it is usually called, the brook-trout (Salvelinus
fontinalis), although one of the most beautiful of fishes, is perhaps the least
graceful of all the genuine charrs. It is technically distinguished by the
somewhat heavy head and large mouth, the maxillary bone reaching more
or less beyond the eye. There are no teeth on the hyoid bone, traces at least
of such teeth being found in nearly all other species. Its color is somewhat
different from that of the others, the red spots being large and the black
more or less mottled and barred with darker olive. The dorsal and caudal
fins are likewise barred or mottled, while in the other species they are
generally uniform in color. The brook-trout is found only in streams east of
the Mississippi and Saskatchewan. It occurs in all suitable streams of the
Alleghany region and the Great Lake system, from the Chattahoochee River
in northern Georgia northward at least to Labrador and Hudson Bay, the
northern limits of its range being as yet not well ascertained. It varies
greatly in size, according to its surroundings, those found in lakes being
larger than those resident in small brooks. Those found farthest south, in the
head-waters of the Chattahoochee, Savannah, Catawba, and French Broad,
rarely pass the dimensions of fingerlings. The largest specimens are
recorded from the sea along the Canadian coast. These frequently reach a
weight of ten pounds; and from their marine and migratory habits, they
have been regarded as forming a distinct variety (Salvelinus fontinalis
immaculatus), but this form is merely a sea-run brook-trout. The largest
fresh-water specimens rarely exceed seven pounds in weight. Some
unusually large brook-trout have been taken in the Rangeley Lakes, the
largest known to me having a reputed weight of eleven pounds. The brook-
trout is the favorite game-fish of American waters, preëminent in wariness,
in beauty, and in delicacy of flesh. It inhabits all clear and cold waters
within its range, the large lakes and the smallest ponds, the tiniest brooks
and the largest rivers; and when it can do so without soiling its aristocratic
gills on the way, it descends to the sea and grows large and fat on the
animals of the ocean. Although a bold biter it is a wary fish, and it often
requires much skill to capture it. It can be caught, too, with artificial or
natural flies, minnows, crickets, worms, grasshoppers, grubs, the spawn of
other fish, or even the eyes or cut pieces of other trout. It spawns in the fall,
from September to late in November. It begins to reproduce at the age of
two years, then having a length of about six inches. In spring-time the trout
delight in rapids and swiftly running water; and in the hot months of
fontinalis), although one of the most beautiful of fishes, is perhaps the least
graceful of all the genuine charrs. It is technically distinguished by the
somewhat heavy head and large mouth, the maxillary bone reaching more
or less beyond the eye. There are no teeth on the hyoid bone, traces at least
of such teeth being found in nearly all other species. Its color is somewhat
different from that of the others, the red spots being large and the black
more or less mottled and barred with darker olive. The dorsal and caudal
fins are likewise barred or mottled, while in the other species they are
generally uniform in color. The brook-trout is found only in streams east of
the Mississippi and Saskatchewan. It occurs in all suitable streams of the
Alleghany region and the Great Lake system, from the Chattahoochee River
in northern Georgia northward at least to Labrador and Hudson Bay, the
northern limits of its range being as yet not well ascertained. It varies
greatly in size, according to its surroundings, those found in lakes being
larger than those resident in small brooks. Those found farthest south, in the
head-waters of the Chattahoochee, Savannah, Catawba, and French Broad,
rarely pass the dimensions of fingerlings. The largest specimens are
recorded from the sea along the Canadian coast. These frequently reach a
weight of ten pounds; and from their marine and migratory habits, they
have been regarded as forming a distinct variety (Salvelinus fontinalis
immaculatus), but this form is merely a sea-run brook-trout. The largest
fresh-water specimens rarely exceed seven pounds in weight. Some
unusually large brook-trout have been taken in the Rangeley Lakes, the
largest known to me having a reputed weight of eleven pounds. The brook-
trout is the favorite game-fish of American waters, preëminent in wariness,
in beauty, and in delicacy of flesh. It inhabits all clear and cold waters
within its range, the large lakes and the smallest ponds, the tiniest brooks
and the largest rivers; and when it can do so without soiling its aristocratic
gills on the way, it descends to the sea and grows large and fat on the
animals of the ocean. Although a bold biter it is a wary fish, and it often
requires much skill to capture it. It can be caught, too, with artificial or
natural flies, minnows, crickets, worms, grasshoppers, grubs, the spawn of
other fish, or even the eyes or cut pieces of other trout. It spawns in the fall,
from September to late in November. It begins to reproduce at the age of
two years, then having a length of about six inches. In spring-time the trout
delight in rapids and swiftly running water; and in the hot months of
Page 150
midsummer they resort to deep, cool, and shaded pools. Later, at the
approach of the spawning season, they gather around the mouths of cool,
gravelly brooks, whither they resort to make their beds.[10]
10. Hallock.
The trout are rapidly disappearing from our streams through the agency of
the manufacturer and the summer boarder. In the words of an excellent
angler, the late Myron W. Reed of Denver: "This is the last generation of
trout-fishers. The children will not be able to find any. Already there are
well-trodden paths by every stream in Maine, in New York, and in
Michigan. I know of but one river in North America by the side of which
you will find no paper collar or other evidence of civilization. It is the
Nameless River. Not that trout will cease to be. They will be hatched by
machinery and raised in ponds, and fattened on chopped liver, and grow
flabby and lose their spots. The trout of the restaurant will not cease to be.
He is no more like the trout of the wild river than the fat and songless
reedbird is like the bobolink. Gross feeding and easy pond-life enervate and
deprave him. The trout that the children will know only by legend is the
gold-sprinkled, living arrow of the white water; able to zigzag up the
cataract; able to loiter in the rapids; whose dainty meat is the glancing
butterfly."
The brook-trout adapts itself readily to cultivation in artificial ponds. It has
been successfully transported to Europe, and it is already abundant in
certain streams in England, in California, and elsewhere.
In Dublin Pond, New Hampshire, is a gray variety without red spots, called
Salvelinus agassizi.
approach of the spawning season, they gather around the mouths of cool,
gravelly brooks, whither they resort to make their beds.[10]
10. Hallock.
The trout are rapidly disappearing from our streams through the agency of
the manufacturer and the summer boarder. In the words of an excellent
angler, the late Myron W. Reed of Denver: "This is the last generation of
trout-fishers. The children will not be able to find any. Already there are
well-trodden paths by every stream in Maine, in New York, and in
Michigan. I know of but one river in North America by the side of which
you will find no paper collar or other evidence of civilization. It is the
Nameless River. Not that trout will cease to be. They will be hatched by
machinery and raised in ponds, and fattened on chopped liver, and grow
flabby and lose their spots. The trout of the restaurant will not cease to be.
He is no more like the trout of the wild river than the fat and songless
reedbird is like the bobolink. Gross feeding and easy pond-life enervate and
deprave him. The trout that the children will know only by legend is the
gold-sprinkled, living arrow of the white water; able to zigzag up the
cataract; able to loiter in the rapids; whose dainty meat is the glancing
butterfly."
The brook-trout adapts itself readily to cultivation in artificial ponds. It has
been successfully transported to Europe, and it is already abundant in
certain streams in England, in California, and elsewhere.
In Dublin Pond, New Hampshire, is a gray variety without red spots, called
Salvelinus agassizi.
Page 151
Fig. 76.—Malma Trout, or "Dolly Varden," Salvelinus malma (Walbaum).
Cook Inlet, Alaska.
The "Dolly Varden" trout, or malma (Salvelinus malma), is very similar to
the brook-trout, closely resembling it in size, form, color, and habits. It is
found always to the westward of the Rocky Mountains, in the streams of
northern California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, Alaska,
and Kamchatka, as far as the Kurile Islands. It abounds in the sea in the
northward, and specimens of ten to twelve pounds weight are not
uncommon in Puget Sound and especially in Alaska. The Dolly Varden
trout is, in general, slenderer and less compressed than the Eastern brook-
trout. The red spots are found on the back of the fish as well as on the sides,
and the back and upper fins are without the blackish marblings and blotches
seen in Salvelinus fontinalis. In value as food, in beauty, and in gaminess
Salvelinus malma is very similar to its Eastern cousin.
Cook Inlet, Alaska.
The "Dolly Varden" trout, or malma (Salvelinus malma), is very similar to
the brook-trout, closely resembling it in size, form, color, and habits. It is
found always to the westward of the Rocky Mountains, in the streams of
northern California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, Alaska,
and Kamchatka, as far as the Kurile Islands. It abounds in the sea in the
northward, and specimens of ten to twelve pounds weight are not
uncommon in Puget Sound and especially in Alaska. The Dolly Varden
trout is, in general, slenderer and less compressed than the Eastern brook-
trout. The red spots are found on the back of the fish as well as on the sides,
and the back and upper fins are without the blackish marblings and blotches
seen in Salvelinus fontinalis. In value as food, in beauty, and in gaminess
Salvelinus malma is very similar to its Eastern cousin.
Page 152
Fig. 77.—The Dolly Varden Trout, Salvelinus malma (Walbaum). Lake
Pend d'Oreille, Idaho. (After Evermann.)
In Alaska the Dolly Varden, locally known as salmon-trout, is very
destructive to the eggs of the salmon, and countless numbers are taken in
the salmon-nets of Alaska and thrown away as useless by the canners. In
every coastwise stream of Alaska the water fairly "boils" with these trout.
They are, however, not found in the Yukon. In northern Japan occurs
Salvelinus pluvius, the iwana, a species very similar to the Dolly Varden,
but not so large or so brightly colored. In the Kurile region and Kamchatka
is another large charr, Salvelinus kundscha, with the spots large and cream-
color instead of crimson.
Fig. 78.—Great Lake Trout, Cristivomer namaycush (Walbaum). Lake
Michigan.
Pend d'Oreille, Idaho. (After Evermann.)
In Alaska the Dolly Varden, locally known as salmon-trout, is very
destructive to the eggs of the salmon, and countless numbers are taken in
the salmon-nets of Alaska and thrown away as useless by the canners. In
every coastwise stream of Alaska the water fairly "boils" with these trout.
They are, however, not found in the Yukon. In northern Japan occurs
Salvelinus pluvius, the iwana, a species very similar to the Dolly Varden,
but not so large or so brightly colored. In the Kurile region and Kamchatka
is another large charr, Salvelinus kundscha, with the spots large and cream-
color instead of crimson.
Fig. 78.—Great Lake Trout, Cristivomer namaycush (Walbaum). Lake
Michigan.
Page 153
Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.—Allied to the true charrs, but now
placed by us in a different genus, Cristivomer, is the Great Lake trout,
otherwise known as Mackinaw trout, longe, or togue (Cristivomer
namaycush). Technically this fish differs from the true charrs in having on
its vomer a raised crest behind the chevron and free from the shaft. This
crest is armed with strong teeth. There are also large hooked teeth on the
hyoid bone, and the teeth generally are proportionately stronger than in
most of the other species. The Great Lake trout is grayish in color, light or
dark according to its surroundings; and the body is covered with round
paler spots, which are gray instead of red. The dorsal and caudal fins are
marked with darker reticulations, somewhat as in the brook-trout. This
noble species is found in all the larger lakes from New England and New
York to Wisconsin, Montana, the Mackenzie River, and in all the lakes
tributary to the Yukon in Alaska. We have taken examples from Lake
Bennett, Lake Tagish, Summit Lake (White Pass), and have seen specimens
from Lake La Hache in British Columbia. It reaches a much larger size than
any Salvelinus, specimens of from fifteen to twenty pounds weight being
not uncommon, while it occasionally attains a weight of fifty to eighty
pounds. As a food-fish it ranks high, although it may be regarded as
somewhat inferior to the brook-trout or the whitefish. Compared with other
salmonoids, the Great Lake trout is a sluggish, heavy, and ravenous fish. It
has been known to eat raw potato, liver, and corn-cobs,—refuse thrown
from passing steamers. According to Herbert, "a coarse, heavy, stiff rod,
and a powerful oiled hempen or flaxen line, on a winch, with a heavy
sinker; a cod-hook, baited with any kind of flesh, fish, or fowl,—is the most
successful, if not the most orthodox or scientific, mode of capturing him.
His great size and immense strength alone give him value as a fish of game;
but when hooked he pulls strongly and fights hard, though he is a boring,
deep fighter, and seldom if ever leaps out of the water, like the true salmon
or brook-trout."
In the depths of Lake Superior is a variety of the Great Lake trout known as
the Siscowet (Cristivomer namaycush siskawitz), remarkable for its
extraordinary fatness of flesh. The cause of this difference lies probably in
some peculiarity of food as yet unascertained.
The Ayu, or Sweetfish.—The ayu, or sweetfish, of Japan, Plecoglossus
altivelis, resembles a small trout in form, habits, and scaling. Its teeth are,
placed by us in a different genus, Cristivomer, is the Great Lake trout,
otherwise known as Mackinaw trout, longe, or togue (Cristivomer
namaycush). Technically this fish differs from the true charrs in having on
its vomer a raised crest behind the chevron and free from the shaft. This
crest is armed with strong teeth. There are also large hooked teeth on the
hyoid bone, and the teeth generally are proportionately stronger than in
most of the other species. The Great Lake trout is grayish in color, light or
dark according to its surroundings; and the body is covered with round
paler spots, which are gray instead of red. The dorsal and caudal fins are
marked with darker reticulations, somewhat as in the brook-trout. This
noble species is found in all the larger lakes from New England and New
York to Wisconsin, Montana, the Mackenzie River, and in all the lakes
tributary to the Yukon in Alaska. We have taken examples from Lake
Bennett, Lake Tagish, Summit Lake (White Pass), and have seen specimens
from Lake La Hache in British Columbia. It reaches a much larger size than
any Salvelinus, specimens of from fifteen to twenty pounds weight being
not uncommon, while it occasionally attains a weight of fifty to eighty
pounds. As a food-fish it ranks high, although it may be regarded as
somewhat inferior to the brook-trout or the whitefish. Compared with other
salmonoids, the Great Lake trout is a sluggish, heavy, and ravenous fish. It
has been known to eat raw potato, liver, and corn-cobs,—refuse thrown
from passing steamers. According to Herbert, "a coarse, heavy, stiff rod,
and a powerful oiled hempen or flaxen line, on a winch, with a heavy
sinker; a cod-hook, baited with any kind of flesh, fish, or fowl,—is the most
successful, if not the most orthodox or scientific, mode of capturing him.
His great size and immense strength alone give him value as a fish of game;
but when hooked he pulls strongly and fights hard, though he is a boring,
deep fighter, and seldom if ever leaps out of the water, like the true salmon
or brook-trout."
In the depths of Lake Superior is a variety of the Great Lake trout known as
the Siscowet (Cristivomer namaycush siskawitz), remarkable for its
extraordinary fatness of flesh. The cause of this difference lies probably in
some peculiarity of food as yet unascertained.
The Ayu, or Sweetfish.—The ayu, or sweetfish, of Japan, Plecoglossus
altivelis, resembles a small trout in form, habits, and scaling. Its teeth are,
Page 154
however, totally different, being arranged on serrated plates on the sides of
the jaws, and the tongue marked with similar folds. The ayu abounds in all
clear streams of Japan and Formosa. It runs up from the sea like a salmon. It
reaches the length of about a foot. The flesh is very fine and delicate,
scarcely surpassed by that of any other fish whatsoever. It should be
introduced into clear short streams throughout the temperate zones.
Fig. 79.—Ayu, or Japanese Samlet, Plecoglossus altivelis Schlegel.
Tamagawa, Tokyo, Japan.
In the river at Gifu in Japan and in some other streams the ayu is fished for
on a large scale by means of tamed cormorants. This is usually done from
boats in the night by the light of torches.
Cormorant-fishing.—The following account of cormorant-fishing is taken,
by the kind permission of Mr. Caspar W. Whitney, from an article
contributed by the writer to Outing, April, 1902:
Tamagawa means Jewel River, and no water could be clearer. It rises
somewhere up in the delectable mountains to the eastward of Musashi,
among the mysterious pines and green-brown fir-trees, and it flows across
the plains bordered by rice-fields and mulberry orchards to the misty bay of
Tokyo. It is, therefore, a river of Japan, and along its shores are quaint old
the jaws, and the tongue marked with similar folds. The ayu abounds in all
clear streams of Japan and Formosa. It runs up from the sea like a salmon. It
reaches the length of about a foot. The flesh is very fine and delicate,
scarcely surpassed by that of any other fish whatsoever. It should be
introduced into clear short streams throughout the temperate zones.
Fig. 79.—Ayu, or Japanese Samlet, Plecoglossus altivelis Schlegel.
Tamagawa, Tokyo, Japan.
In the river at Gifu in Japan and in some other streams the ayu is fished for
on a large scale by means of tamed cormorants. This is usually done from
boats in the night by the light of torches.
Cormorant-fishing.—The following account of cormorant-fishing is taken,
by the kind permission of Mr. Caspar W. Whitney, from an article
contributed by the writer to Outing, April, 1902:
Tamagawa means Jewel River, and no water could be clearer. It rises
somewhere up in the delectable mountains to the eastward of Musashi,
among the mysterious pines and green-brown fir-trees, and it flows across
the plains bordered by rice-fields and mulberry orchards to the misty bay of
Tokyo. It is, therefore, a river of Japan, and along its shores are quaint old
Page 155
temples, each guarding its section of primitive forest, picturesque bridges,
huddling villages, and torii, or gates through which the gods may pass.
The stream itself is none too large—a boy may wade it—but it runs on a
wide bed, which it will need in flood-time, when the snow melts in the
mountains. And this broad flood-bed is filled with gravel, with straggling
willows, showy day-lilies, orange amaryllis, and the little sky-blue spider-
flower, which the Japanese call chocho, or butterfly-weed.
In the Tamagawa are many fishes: shining minnows in the white ripples,
dark catfishes in the pools and eddies, and little sculpins and gobies lurking
under the stones. Trout dart through its upper waters, and at times salmon
run up from the sea.
But the one fish of all its fishes is the ayu. This is a sort of dwarf salmon,
running in the spring and spawning in the rivers just as a salmon does. But
it is smaller than any salmon, not larger than a smelt, and its flesh is white
and tender, and so very delicate in its taste and odor that one who tastes it
crisply fried or broiled feels that he has never tasted real fish before. In all
its anatomy the ayu is a salmon, a dwarf of its kind, one which our
ancestors in England would have called a "samlet." Its scientific name is
Plecoglossus altivelis. Plecoglossus means plaited tongue, and altivelis,
having a high sail; for the skin of the tongue is plaited or folded in a curious
way, and the dorsal fin is higher than that of the salmon, and one poetically
inclined might, if he likes, call it a sail. The teeth of the ayu are very
peculiar, for they constitute a series of saw-edged folds or plaits along the
sides of the jaws, quite different from those of any other fish whatsoever.
In size the ayu is not more than a foot to fifteen inches long. It is like a trout
in build, and its scales are just as small. It is light yellowish or olive in
color, growing silvery below. Behind its gills is a bar of bright shining
yellow, and its adipose fin is edged with scarlet. The fins are yellow, and the
dorsal fin shaded with black, while the anal fin is dashed with pale red.
So much for the river and the ayu. It is time for us to go afishing. It is easy
enough to find the place, for it is not more than ten miles out of Tokyo, on a
fine old farm just by the ancient Temple of Tachikawa, with its famous
inscribed stone, given by the emperor of China.
huddling villages, and torii, or gates through which the gods may pass.
The stream itself is none too large—a boy may wade it—but it runs on a
wide bed, which it will need in flood-time, when the snow melts in the
mountains. And this broad flood-bed is filled with gravel, with straggling
willows, showy day-lilies, orange amaryllis, and the little sky-blue spider-
flower, which the Japanese call chocho, or butterfly-weed.
In the Tamagawa are many fishes: shining minnows in the white ripples,
dark catfishes in the pools and eddies, and little sculpins and gobies lurking
under the stones. Trout dart through its upper waters, and at times salmon
run up from the sea.
But the one fish of all its fishes is the ayu. This is a sort of dwarf salmon,
running in the spring and spawning in the rivers just as a salmon does. But
it is smaller than any salmon, not larger than a smelt, and its flesh is white
and tender, and so very delicate in its taste and odor that one who tastes it
crisply fried or broiled feels that he has never tasted real fish before. In all
its anatomy the ayu is a salmon, a dwarf of its kind, one which our
ancestors in England would have called a "samlet." Its scientific name is
Plecoglossus altivelis. Plecoglossus means plaited tongue, and altivelis,
having a high sail; for the skin of the tongue is plaited or folded in a curious
way, and the dorsal fin is higher than that of the salmon, and one poetically
inclined might, if he likes, call it a sail. The teeth of the ayu are very
peculiar, for they constitute a series of saw-edged folds or plaits along the
sides of the jaws, quite different from those of any other fish whatsoever.
In size the ayu is not more than a foot to fifteen inches long. It is like a trout
in build, and its scales are just as small. It is light yellowish or olive in
color, growing silvery below. Behind its gills is a bar of bright shining
yellow, and its adipose fin is edged with scarlet. The fins are yellow, and the
dorsal fin shaded with black, while the anal fin is dashed with pale red.
So much for the river and the ayu. It is time for us to go afishing. It is easy
enough to find the place, for it is not more than ten miles out of Tokyo, on a
fine old farm just by the ancient Temple of Tachikawa, with its famous
inscribed stone, given by the emperor of China.
Page 156
At the farmhouse, commodious and hospitable, likewise clean and
charming after the fashion of Japan, we send for the boy who brings our
fishing-tackle.
They come waddling into the yard, the three birds with which we are to do
our fishing. Black cormorants they are, each with a white spot behind its
eye, and a hoarse voice, come of standing in the water, with which it says y-
eugh whenever a stranger makes a friendly overture. The cormorants
answer to the name of Ou, which in Japanese is something like the only
word the cormorants can say. The boy puts them in a box together and we
set off across the drifted gravel to the Tamagawa. Arrived at the stream, the
boy takes the three cormorants out of the box and adjusts their fishing-
harness. This consists of a tight ring about the bottom of the neck, of a loop
under each wing, and a directing line.
Two other boys take a low net. They drag it down the stream, driving the
little fishes—ayu, zakko, haë, and all the rest—before it. The boy with the
cormorants goes in advance. The three birds are eager as pointer dogs, and
apparently full of perfect enjoyment. To the right and left they plunge with
lightning strokes, each dip bringing up a shining fish. When the bird's neck
is full of fishes down to the level of the shoulders, the boy draws him in,
grabs him by the leg, and shakes him unceremoniously over a basket until
all the fishes have flopped out.
The cormorants watch the sorting of the fish with eager eyes and much
repeating of y-eugh, the only word they know. The ayu are not for them,
and some of the kajikas and hazés were prizes of science. But zakko (the
dace) and haë (the minnow) were made for the cormorant. The boy picks
out the chubs and minnows and throws them to one bird and then another.
Each catches his share on the fly, swallows it at one gulp, for the ring is off
his neck by this time, and then says y-eugh, which means that he likes the
fun, and when we are ready will be glad to try again. And no doubt they
have tried it many times since, for there are plenty of fishes in the Jewel
River, zakko and haë as well as ayu.
Fossil Salmonidæ.—Fossil salmonidæ are rare and known chiefly from
detached scales, the bones in this family being very brittle and easily
destroyed. Nothing is added to our knowledge of the origin of these fishes
from such fossils.
charming after the fashion of Japan, we send for the boy who brings our
fishing-tackle.
They come waddling into the yard, the three birds with which we are to do
our fishing. Black cormorants they are, each with a white spot behind its
eye, and a hoarse voice, come of standing in the water, with which it says y-
eugh whenever a stranger makes a friendly overture. The cormorants
answer to the name of Ou, which in Japanese is something like the only
word the cormorants can say. The boy puts them in a box together and we
set off across the drifted gravel to the Tamagawa. Arrived at the stream, the
boy takes the three cormorants out of the box and adjusts their fishing-
harness. This consists of a tight ring about the bottom of the neck, of a loop
under each wing, and a directing line.
Two other boys take a low net. They drag it down the stream, driving the
little fishes—ayu, zakko, haë, and all the rest—before it. The boy with the
cormorants goes in advance. The three birds are eager as pointer dogs, and
apparently full of perfect enjoyment. To the right and left they plunge with
lightning strokes, each dip bringing up a shining fish. When the bird's neck
is full of fishes down to the level of the shoulders, the boy draws him in,
grabs him by the leg, and shakes him unceremoniously over a basket until
all the fishes have flopped out.
The cormorants watch the sorting of the fish with eager eyes and much
repeating of y-eugh, the only word they know. The ayu are not for them,
and some of the kajikas and hazés were prizes of science. But zakko (the
dace) and haë (the minnow) were made for the cormorant. The boy picks
out the chubs and minnows and throws them to one bird and then another.
Each catches his share on the fly, swallows it at one gulp, for the ring is off
his neck by this time, and then says y-eugh, which means that he likes the
fun, and when we are ready will be glad to try again. And no doubt they
have tried it many times since, for there are plenty of fishes in the Jewel
River, zakko and haë as well as ayu.
Fossil Salmonidæ.—Fossil salmonidæ are rare and known chiefly from
detached scales, the bones in this family being very brittle and easily
destroyed. Nothing is added to our knowledge of the origin of these fishes
from such fossils.
Page 157
A large fossil trout or salmon, called Rhabdofario lacustris, has been
brought from the Pliocene at Catherine's Creek, Idaho. It is known from the
skull only. Thaumaturus luxatus, from the Miocene of Bohemia, shows the
print of the adipose fin. As already stated (p. 62), fragments of the hooked
jaws of salmon, from pleistocene deposits in Idaho, are in the museum of
the University of California.
brought from the Pliocene at Catherine's Creek, Idaho. It is known from the
skull only. Thaumaturus luxatus, from the Miocene of Bohemia, shows the
print of the adipose fin. As already stated (p. 62), fragments of the hooked
jaws of salmon, from pleistocene deposits in Idaho, are in the museum of
the University of California.
Page 158
CHAPTER VI
THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT
he Grayling, or Thymallidæ.—The small family of
Thymallidæ, or grayling, is composed of finely organized
fishes allied to the trout, but differing in having the frontal
bones meeting on the middle line of the skull, thus excluding
the frontals from contact with the supraoccipital. The anterior
half of the very high dorsal is made up of unbranched simple rays. There is
but one genus, Thymallus, comprising very noble game-fishes characteristic
of subarctic streams.
Fig. 80.—Alaska Grayling, Thymallus signifer Richardson. Nulato,
Alaska.
THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT
he Grayling, or Thymallidæ.—The small family of
Thymallidæ, or grayling, is composed of finely organized
fishes allied to the trout, but differing in having the frontal
bones meeting on the middle line of the skull, thus excluding
the frontals from contact with the supraoccipital. The anterior
half of the very high dorsal is made up of unbranched simple rays. There is
but one genus, Thymallus, comprising very noble game-fishes characteristic
of subarctic streams.
Fig. 80.—Alaska Grayling, Thymallus signifer Richardson. Nulato,
Alaska.
Page 159
The grayling, Thymallus, of Europe, is termed by Saint Ambrose "the
flower of fishes." The teeth on the tongue, found in all the trout and salmon,
are obsolete in the grayling. The chief distinctive peculiarity of the genus
Thymallus is the great development of the dorsal fin, which has more rays
(20 to 24) than are found in any of the Salmonidæ, and the fin is also higher.
All the species are gaily colored, the dorsal fin especially being marked
with purplish or greenish bands and bright rose-colored spots; while the
body is mostly purplish gray, often with spots of black. Most of the species
rarely exceed a foot in length, but northward they grow larger. Grayling
weighing five pounds have been taken in England; and according to Dr.
Day they are said in Lapland to reach a weight of eight or nine pounds. The
grayling in all countries frequent clear, cold brooks, and rarely, if ever, enter
the sea, or even the larger lakes. They congregate in small shoals in the
streams, and prefer those which have a succession of pools and shallows,
with a sandy or gravelly rather than rocky bottom. The grayling spawns on
the shallows in April or May (in England). It is non-migratory in its habits,
depositing its ova in the neighborhood of its usual haunts. The ova are far
more delicate and easily killed than those of the trout or charr. The grayling
and the trout often inhabit the same waters, but not altogether in harmony. It
is said that the grayling devours the eggs of the trout. It is certain that the
trout feed on the young grayling. As a food-fish, the grayling of course
ranks high; and it is beloved by the sportsman. They are considered gamy
fishes, although less strong than the brook-trout, and perhaps less wary. The
five or six known species of grayling are very closely related, and are
doubtless comparatively recent offshoots from a common stock, which has
now spread itself widely through the northern regions.
The common grayling of Europe (Thymallus thymallus) is found throughout
northern Europe, and as far south as the mountains of Hungary and northern
Italy. The name Thymallus was given by the ancients, because the fish,
when fresh, was said to have the odor of water-thyme. Grayling belonging
to this or other species are found in the waters of Russia and Siberia.
The American grayling (Thymallus signifer) is widely distributed in British
America and Alaska. In the Yukon it is very abundant, rising readily to the
fly. In several streams in northern Michigan, Au Sable River, and Jordan
River in the southern peninsula, and Otter Creek near Keweenaw in the
northern peninsula, occurs a dwarfish variety or species with shorter and
flower of fishes." The teeth on the tongue, found in all the trout and salmon,
are obsolete in the grayling. The chief distinctive peculiarity of the genus
Thymallus is the great development of the dorsal fin, which has more rays
(20 to 24) than are found in any of the Salmonidæ, and the fin is also higher.
All the species are gaily colored, the dorsal fin especially being marked
with purplish or greenish bands and bright rose-colored spots; while the
body is mostly purplish gray, often with spots of black. Most of the species
rarely exceed a foot in length, but northward they grow larger. Grayling
weighing five pounds have been taken in England; and according to Dr.
Day they are said in Lapland to reach a weight of eight or nine pounds. The
grayling in all countries frequent clear, cold brooks, and rarely, if ever, enter
the sea, or even the larger lakes. They congregate in small shoals in the
streams, and prefer those which have a succession of pools and shallows,
with a sandy or gravelly rather than rocky bottom. The grayling spawns on
the shallows in April or May (in England). It is non-migratory in its habits,
depositing its ova in the neighborhood of its usual haunts. The ova are far
more delicate and easily killed than those of the trout or charr. The grayling
and the trout often inhabit the same waters, but not altogether in harmony. It
is said that the grayling devours the eggs of the trout. It is certain that the
trout feed on the young grayling. As a food-fish, the grayling of course
ranks high; and it is beloved by the sportsman. They are considered gamy
fishes, although less strong than the brook-trout, and perhaps less wary. The
five or six known species of grayling are very closely related, and are
doubtless comparatively recent offshoots from a common stock, which has
now spread itself widely through the northern regions.
The common grayling of Europe (Thymallus thymallus) is found throughout
northern Europe, and as far south as the mountains of Hungary and northern
Italy. The name Thymallus was given by the ancients, because the fish,
when fresh, was said to have the odor of water-thyme. Grayling belonging
to this or other species are found in the waters of Russia and Siberia.
The American grayling (Thymallus signifer) is widely distributed in British
America and Alaska. In the Yukon it is very abundant, rising readily to the
fly. In several streams in northern Michigan, Au Sable River, and Jordan
River in the southern peninsula, and Otter Creek near Keweenaw in the
northern peninsula, occurs a dwarfish variety or species with shorter and
Page 160
lower dorsal fins, known to anglers as the Michigan grayling (Thymallus
tricolor). This form has a longer head, rather smaller scales, and the dorsal
fin rather lower than in the northern form (signifer); but the constancy of
these characters in specimens from intermediate localities is yet to be
proved. Another very similar form, called Thymallus montanus, occurs in
the Gallatin, Madison, and other rivers of Western Montana tributary to the
Missouri. It is locally still abundant and one of the finest of game-fishes. It
is probable that the grayling once had a wider range to the southward than
now, and that so far as the waters of the United States are concerned it is
tending toward extinction. This tendency is, of course, being accelerated in
Michigan by lumbermen and anglers. The colonies of grayling in Michigan
and Montana are probably remains of a post-glacial fauna.
Fig. 81.—Michigan Grayling, Thymallus tricolor Cope. Au Sable River,
Mich.
The Argentinidæ.—The family of Argentinidæ, or smelt, is very closely
related to the Salmonidæ, representing a dwarf series of similar type. The
chief essential difference lies in the form of the stomach, which is a blind
sac, the two openings near together, and about the second or pyloric
opening there are few if any pyloric cæca. In all the Salmonidæ the stomach
has the form of a siphon, and about the pylorus there are very many pyloric
cæca. The smelt have the adipose fin and the general structure of the
salmon. All the species are small in size, and most of them are strictly
marine, though some of them ascend the rivers to spawn, just as salmon do,
tricolor). This form has a longer head, rather smaller scales, and the dorsal
fin rather lower than in the northern form (signifer); but the constancy of
these characters in specimens from intermediate localities is yet to be
proved. Another very similar form, called Thymallus montanus, occurs in
the Gallatin, Madison, and other rivers of Western Montana tributary to the
Missouri. It is locally still abundant and one of the finest of game-fishes. It
is probable that the grayling once had a wider range to the southward than
now, and that so far as the waters of the United States are concerned it is
tending toward extinction. This tendency is, of course, being accelerated in
Michigan by lumbermen and anglers. The colonies of grayling in Michigan
and Montana are probably remains of a post-glacial fauna.
Fig. 81.—Michigan Grayling, Thymallus tricolor Cope. Au Sable River,
Mich.
The Argentinidæ.—The family of Argentinidæ, or smelt, is very closely
related to the Salmonidæ, representing a dwarf series of similar type. The
chief essential difference lies in the form of the stomach, which is a blind
sac, the two openings near together, and about the second or pyloric
opening there are few if any pyloric cæca. In all the Salmonidæ the stomach
has the form of a siphon, and about the pylorus there are very many pyloric
cæca. The smelt have the adipose fin and the general structure of the
salmon. All the species are small in size, and most of them are strictly
marine, though some of them ascend the rivers to spawn, just as salmon do,
Page 161
but not going very far. A few kinds become landlocked in ponds. Most of
the species are confined to the north temperate zone, and a few sink into the
deep seas. All that are sufficiently abundant furnish excellent food, the flesh
being extremely delicate and often charged with a fragrant oil easy of
digestion.
Fig. 82.—Smelt, Osmerus mordux (Mitchill). Wood's Hole, Mass.
The best-known genus, Osmerus, includes the smelt, or spirling (éperlan),
of Europe, and its relatives, all excellent food-fishes, although quickly
spoiling in warm weather. Osmerus eperlanus is the European species;
Osmerus mordax of our eastern coast is very much like it, as is also the
rainbow-smelt, Osmerus dentex of Japan and Alaska. A larger smelt,
Osmerus albatrossis, occurs on the coast of Alaska, and a small and feeble
one, Osmerus thaleichthys, mixed with other small or delicate fishes, is the
whitebait of the San Francisco restaurants. The whitebait of the London
epicure is made up of the young of herrings and sprats of different species.
The still more delicate whitebait of the Hong Kong hotels is the icefish,
Salanx chinensis. Retropinna retropinna, so called from the backward
insertion of its dorsal, is the excellent smelt of the rivers of New Zealand.
All the other species belong to northern waters. Mesopus, the surf-smelt,
has a smaller mouth than Osmerus and inhabits the North Pacific. The
California species, Mesopus pretiosus, of Neah Bay has, according to James
G. Swan, "the belly covered with a coating of yellow fat which imparts an
oily appearance to the water where the fish has been cleansed or washed
and makes them the very perfection of pan-fish." This species spawns in
the species are confined to the north temperate zone, and a few sink into the
deep seas. All that are sufficiently abundant furnish excellent food, the flesh
being extremely delicate and often charged with a fragrant oil easy of
digestion.
Fig. 82.—Smelt, Osmerus mordux (Mitchill). Wood's Hole, Mass.
The best-known genus, Osmerus, includes the smelt, or spirling (éperlan),
of Europe, and its relatives, all excellent food-fishes, although quickly
spoiling in warm weather. Osmerus eperlanus is the European species;
Osmerus mordax of our eastern coast is very much like it, as is also the
rainbow-smelt, Osmerus dentex of Japan and Alaska. A larger smelt,
Osmerus albatrossis, occurs on the coast of Alaska, and a small and feeble
one, Osmerus thaleichthys, mixed with other small or delicate fishes, is the
whitebait of the San Francisco restaurants. The whitebait of the London
epicure is made up of the young of herrings and sprats of different species.
The still more delicate whitebait of the Hong Kong hotels is the icefish,
Salanx chinensis. Retropinna retropinna, so called from the backward
insertion of its dorsal, is the excellent smelt of the rivers of New Zealand.
All the other species belong to northern waters. Mesopus, the surf-smelt,
has a smaller mouth than Osmerus and inhabits the North Pacific. The
California species, Mesopus pretiosus, of Neah Bay has, according to James
G. Swan, "the belly covered with a coating of yellow fat which imparts an
oily appearance to the water where the fish has been cleansed or washed
and makes them the very perfection of pan-fish." This species spawns in
Page 162
late summer along the surf-line. According to Mr. Swan the water seems to
be filled with them. "They come in with the flood-tide, and when a wave
breaks upon the beach they crowd up into the very foam, and as the surf
recedes many will be seen flapping on the sand and shingle, but invariably
returning with the undertow to deeper water." The Quilliute Indians of
Washington believe that "the first surf-smelts that appear must not be sold
or given away to be taken to another place, nor must they be cut
transversely, but split open with a mussel-shell."
The surf-smelt is marine, as is also a similar species, Mesopus japonicus, in
Japan. Mesopus olidus, the pond-smelt of Alaska, Kamchatka, and Northern
Japan, spawns in fresh-water ponds.
Fig. 83.—Eulachon, or Ulchen. Thaleichthys pretiosus Girard. Columbia
River. Family Argentinidæ.
Still more excellent as a food-fish than even these exquisite species is the
famous eulachon, or candle-fish (Thaleichthys pacificus). The Chinook
name, usually written eulachon, is perhaps more accurately represented as
ulchen. This little fish has the form of a smelt and reaches the length of
nearly a foot. In the spring it ascends in enormous numbers all the rivers
north of the Columbia, as far as Skaguay, for a short distance for the
purpose of spawning. These runs take place usually in advance of the
salmon-runs. Various predatory fishes and sea-birds persecute the eulachon
during its runs, and even the stomachs of the sturgeons are often found full
of the little fishes, which they have taken in by their sucker-like mouths. At
the time of the runs the eulachon are extremely fat, so much so that it is said
be filled with them. "They come in with the flood-tide, and when a wave
breaks upon the beach they crowd up into the very foam, and as the surf
recedes many will be seen flapping on the sand and shingle, but invariably
returning with the undertow to deeper water." The Quilliute Indians of
Washington believe that "the first surf-smelts that appear must not be sold
or given away to be taken to another place, nor must they be cut
transversely, but split open with a mussel-shell."
The surf-smelt is marine, as is also a similar species, Mesopus japonicus, in
Japan. Mesopus olidus, the pond-smelt of Alaska, Kamchatka, and Northern
Japan, spawns in fresh-water ponds.
Fig. 83.—Eulachon, or Ulchen. Thaleichthys pretiosus Girard. Columbia
River. Family Argentinidæ.
Still more excellent as a food-fish than even these exquisite species is the
famous eulachon, or candle-fish (Thaleichthys pacificus). The Chinook
name, usually written eulachon, is perhaps more accurately represented as
ulchen. This little fish has the form of a smelt and reaches the length of
nearly a foot. In the spring it ascends in enormous numbers all the rivers
north of the Columbia, as far as Skaguay, for a short distance for the
purpose of spawning. These runs take place usually in advance of the
salmon-runs. Various predatory fishes and sea-birds persecute the eulachon
during its runs, and even the stomachs of the sturgeons are often found full
of the little fishes, which they have taken in by their sucker-like mouths. At
the time of the runs the eulachon are extremely fat, so much so that it is said
Page 163
that when dried and a wick drawn through the body they may be used as
candles. On Nass River, in British Columbia, a stream in which their run is
greatest, there is a factory for the manufacture of eulachon-oil from them.
This delicate oil is proposed as a substitute for cod-liver oil in medicine.
Whatever may be its merits in this regard, it has the disadvantage in respect
to salability of being semi-solid or lard-like at ordinary temperatures,
requiring melting to make it flow as oil. The eulachon is a favorite pan-fish
in British Columbia. The writer has had considerable experience with it,
broiled and fried, in its native region, and has no hesitation in declaring it to
be the best-flavored food-fish in American waters. It is fat, tender, juicy,
and richly flavored, with comparatively few troublesome bones. It does not,
however, bear transportation well. The Indians in Alaska bury the eulachon
in the ground in great masses. After the fish are well decayed they are taken
out and the oil pressed from them. The odor of the fish and the oil is then
very offensive, less so, however, than that of some forms of cheese eaten by
civilized people.
candles. On Nass River, in British Columbia, a stream in which their run is
greatest, there is a factory for the manufacture of eulachon-oil from them.
This delicate oil is proposed as a substitute for cod-liver oil in medicine.
Whatever may be its merits in this regard, it has the disadvantage in respect
to salability of being semi-solid or lard-like at ordinary temperatures,
requiring melting to make it flow as oil. The eulachon is a favorite pan-fish
in British Columbia. The writer has had considerable experience with it,
broiled and fried, in its native region, and has no hesitation in declaring it to
be the best-flavored food-fish in American waters. It is fat, tender, juicy,
and richly flavored, with comparatively few troublesome bones. It does not,
however, bear transportation well. The Indians in Alaska bury the eulachon
in the ground in great masses. After the fish are well decayed they are taken
out and the oil pressed from them. The odor of the fish and the oil is then
very offensive, less so, however, than that of some forms of cheese eaten by
civilized people.
Page 164
Fig. 84.—Page of William Clark's handwriting
with sketch of the Eulachon (Thaleichthys
pacificus), the first notice of the species.
Columbia River, 1805. (Expedition of Lewis &
Clark.) (Reproduced from the original in the
possession of his granddaughter Mrs. Julia
Clark Voorhis, through the courtesy of Messrs.
Dodd, Mead & Company, publishers of the
"Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark
Expedition.")
with sketch of the Eulachon (Thaleichthys
pacificus), the first notice of the species.
Columbia River, 1805. (Expedition of Lewis &
Clark.) (Reproduced from the original in the
possession of his granddaughter Mrs. Julia
Clark Voorhis, through the courtesy of Messrs.
Dodd, Mead & Company, publishers of the
"Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark
Expedition.")
Page 165
The capelin (Mallotus villosus) closely resembles the eulachon, differing
mainly in its broader pectorals and in the peculiar scales of the males. In the
male fish a band of scales above the lateral line and along each side of the
belly become elongate, closely imbricated, with the free points projecting,
giving the body a villous appearance. It is very abundant on the coasts of
Arctic America, both in the Atlantic and the Pacific, and is an important
source of food for the natives of those regions.
Fig. 85.—Capelin, Mallotus villosus L. Crosswater Bay.
This species spawns in the surf, and the writer has seen them in August cast
on the shores of the Alaskan islands (as at Metlakahtla in 1897), living and
dead, in numbers which seem incredible. The males are then distorted, and
it seems likely that all of them perish after spawning. The young are
abundant in all the northern fiords. Even more inordinate numbers are
reported from the shores of Greenland.
The capelin seems to be inferior to the eulachon as a food-fish, but to the
natives of arctic regions in both hemispheres it is a very important article of
food. Fossil capelin are found in abundance in recent shales in Greenland
enveloped in nodules of clay. In the open waters about the Aleutian Islands
a small smelt, Therobromus callorhini, occurs in very great abundance and
forms the chief part of the summer food of the fur-seal. Strangely enough,
no complete specimen of this fish has yet been seen by man, although
thousands of fragments have been taken from seals' stomachs. From these
fragments Mr. Frederick A. Lucas has reconstructed the fish, which must be
an ally of the surf-smelt, probably spawning in the open ocean of the north.
mainly in its broader pectorals and in the peculiar scales of the males. In the
male fish a band of scales above the lateral line and along each side of the
belly become elongate, closely imbricated, with the free points projecting,
giving the body a villous appearance. It is very abundant on the coasts of
Arctic America, both in the Atlantic and the Pacific, and is an important
source of food for the natives of those regions.
Fig. 85.—Capelin, Mallotus villosus L. Crosswater Bay.
This species spawns in the surf, and the writer has seen them in August cast
on the shores of the Alaskan islands (as at Metlakahtla in 1897), living and
dead, in numbers which seem incredible. The males are then distorted, and
it seems likely that all of them perish after spawning. The young are
abundant in all the northern fiords. Even more inordinate numbers are
reported from the shores of Greenland.
The capelin seems to be inferior to the eulachon as a food-fish, but to the
natives of arctic regions in both hemispheres it is a very important article of
food. Fossil capelin are found in abundance in recent shales in Greenland
enveloped in nodules of clay. In the open waters about the Aleutian Islands
a small smelt, Therobromus callorhini, occurs in very great abundance and
forms the chief part of the summer food of the fur-seal. Strangely enough,
no complete specimen of this fish has yet been seen by man, although
thousands of fragments have been taken from seals' stomachs. From these
fragments Mr. Frederick A. Lucas has reconstructed the fish, which must be
an ally of the surf-smelt, probably spawning in the open ocean of the north.
Page 166
The silvery species called Argentina live in deeper water and have no
commercial importance. Argentina silus, with prickly scales, occurs in the
North Sea. Several fossils have been doubtfully referred to Osmerus.
The Microstomidæ.—The small family of Microstomidæ consists of a few
degraded smelt, slender in form, with feeble mouth and but three or four
branchiostegals, rarely taken in the deep seas. Nansenia grœnlandica was
found by Reinhardt off the coast of Greenland, and six or eight other
species of Microstoma and Bathylagus have been brought in by the deep-
sea explorations.
The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.—Still more feeble and insignificant are the
species of Salangidæ, icefishes, or Chinese whitebait, which may be
described as Salmonidæ reduced to the lowest terms. The body is long and
slender, perfectly translucent, almost naked, and with the skeleton scarcely
ossified. The fins are like those of the salmon, the head is depressed, the
jaws long and broad, somewhat like the bill of a duck, and within there are
a few disproportionately strong canine teeth, those of the lower jaw
somewhat piercing the upper. The alimentary canal is straight for its whole
length, without pyloric cæca. These little fishes, two to five inches long,
live in the sea in enormous numbers and ascend the rivers of eastern Asia
for the purpose of spawning. It is thought by some that they are annual
fishes, all dying in the fall after reproduction, the species living through the
winter only within its eggs. But this is only suspected, not proved, and the
species will repay the careful study which some of the excellent naturalists
of Japan are sure before long to give to it. The species of Salanx are known
as whitebait, in Japan as Shiro-uwo, which means exactly the same thing.
They are also sometimes called icefish (Hingio), which, being used for no
other fish, may be adopted as a group name for Salanx.
The species are Salanx chinensis from Canton, Salanx hyalo cranius from
Korea and northern China, Salanx microdon from northern Japan, and
Salanx ariakensis from the southern island of Kiusiu. The Japanese fishes
are species still smaller and feebler than their relatives from the mainland.
The Haplochitonidæ.—The Haplochitonidæ are trout-like fishes of the
south temperate zone, differing from the Salmonidæ mainly in the extension
of the premaxillary until, as in the perch-like fishes, it forms the outer
border of the upper jaw. The adipose fin is present as in all the salmon and
commercial importance. Argentina silus, with prickly scales, occurs in the
North Sea. Several fossils have been doubtfully referred to Osmerus.
The Microstomidæ.—The small family of Microstomidæ consists of a few
degraded smelt, slender in form, with feeble mouth and but three or four
branchiostegals, rarely taken in the deep seas. Nansenia grœnlandica was
found by Reinhardt off the coast of Greenland, and six or eight other
species of Microstoma and Bathylagus have been brought in by the deep-
sea explorations.
The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.—Still more feeble and insignificant are the
species of Salangidæ, icefishes, or Chinese whitebait, which may be
described as Salmonidæ reduced to the lowest terms. The body is long and
slender, perfectly translucent, almost naked, and with the skeleton scarcely
ossified. The fins are like those of the salmon, the head is depressed, the
jaws long and broad, somewhat like the bill of a duck, and within there are
a few disproportionately strong canine teeth, those of the lower jaw
somewhat piercing the upper. The alimentary canal is straight for its whole
length, without pyloric cæca. These little fishes, two to five inches long,
live in the sea in enormous numbers and ascend the rivers of eastern Asia
for the purpose of spawning. It is thought by some that they are annual
fishes, all dying in the fall after reproduction, the species living through the
winter only within its eggs. But this is only suspected, not proved, and the
species will repay the careful study which some of the excellent naturalists
of Japan are sure before long to give to it. The species of Salanx are known
as whitebait, in Japan as Shiro-uwo, which means exactly the same thing.
They are also sometimes called icefish (Hingio), which, being used for no
other fish, may be adopted as a group name for Salanx.
The species are Salanx chinensis from Canton, Salanx hyalo cranius from
Korea and northern China, Salanx microdon from northern Japan, and
Salanx ariakensis from the southern island of Kiusiu. The Japanese fishes
are species still smaller and feebler than their relatives from the mainland.
The Haplochitonidæ.—The Haplochitonidæ are trout-like fishes of the
south temperate zone, differing from the Salmonidæ mainly in the extension
of the premaxillary until, as in the perch-like fishes, it forms the outer
border of the upper jaw. The adipose fin is present as in all the salmon and
Page 167
smelt. Haplochiton of Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands is naked,
while in Prototroctes of Australia and New Zealand the body, as in all
salmon, trout, and smelt, is covered with scales. Prototroctes maræna is the
yarra herring of Australia. The closely related family of Galaxiidæ, also
Australian, but lacking the adipose fin, is mentioned in a later chapter.
Fig. 86.—Icefish, Salanx hyalocranius Abbott. Family Salangidæ.
Tientsin, China.
Stomiatidæ.—The Stomiatidæ, with elongate bodies, have the mouth
enormous, with fang-like teeth, usually barbed. Of the several species
Stomias ferox is best known. According to Dr. Boulenger, these fishes are
true Isospondyli.
Fig. 87.—Stomias ferox Reinhardt. Banquereau.
Astronesthidæ is another small group of small fishes naked and black, with
long canines, found in the deep sea.
The Malacosteidæ is a related group with extremely distensible mouth, the
species capable of swallowing fishes much larger than themselves.
The viper-fishes (Chauliodontidæ) are very feeble and very voracious little
fishes occasionally brought up from the depths. Chauliodus sloanei is
while in Prototroctes of Australia and New Zealand the body, as in all
salmon, trout, and smelt, is covered with scales. Prototroctes maræna is the
yarra herring of Australia. The closely related family of Galaxiidæ, also
Australian, but lacking the adipose fin, is mentioned in a later chapter.
Fig. 86.—Icefish, Salanx hyalocranius Abbott. Family Salangidæ.
Tientsin, China.
Stomiatidæ.—The Stomiatidæ, with elongate bodies, have the mouth
enormous, with fang-like teeth, usually barbed. Of the several species
Stomias ferox is best known. According to Dr. Boulenger, these fishes are
true Isospondyli.
Fig. 87.—Stomias ferox Reinhardt. Banquereau.
Astronesthidæ is another small group of small fishes naked and black, with
long canines, found in the deep sea.
The Malacosteidæ is a related group with extremely distensible mouth, the
species capable of swallowing fishes much larger than themselves.
The viper-fishes (Chauliodontidæ) are very feeble and very voracious little
fishes occasionally brought up from the depths. Chauliodus sloanei is
Page 168
notable for the length of the fangs.
Much smaller and feebler are the species of the closely related family of
Gonostomidæ. Gonostoma and Cyclothone dwell in oceanic abysses. One
species, Cyclothone elongata, occurs at the depth of from half a mile to
nearly four miles almost everywhere throughout the oceans. It is probably
the most widely distributed, as well as one of the feeblest and most fragile,
of all bassalian or deep-sea fishes.
Fig. 88.—Chauliodus sloanei Schneider. Grand Banks.
Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.—The suborder Iniomi (ἰνίον, nape;
ὤμος, shoulder) comprises soft-rayed fishes, in which the shoulder-girdle
has more or less lost its completeness of structure as part of the degradation
consequent on life in the abysses of the sea. These features distinguish these
forms from the true Isospondyli, but only in a very few of the species have
these characters been verified by actual examination of the skeleton. The
mesocoracoid arch is wanting or atrophied in all of the species examined,
and the orbitosphenoid is lacking, so far as known. The group thus agrees in
most technical characters with the Haplomi, in which group they are placed
by Dr. Boulenger. On the other hand the relationships to the Isospondyli are
very close, and the Iniomi have many traits suggesting degenerate
Isospondyli. The post-temporal has lost its usual hold on the skull and may
touch the occiput on the sides of the cranium. Nearly all the species are soft
in body, black or silvery over black in color, and all that live in the deep sea
are provided with luminous spots or glands giving light in the abysmal
depths. These spots are wanting in the few shore species, as also in those
which approach most nearly to the Salmonidæ, these being presumably the
Much smaller and feebler are the species of the closely related family of
Gonostomidæ. Gonostoma and Cyclothone dwell in oceanic abysses. One
species, Cyclothone elongata, occurs at the depth of from half a mile to
nearly four miles almost everywhere throughout the oceans. It is probably
the most widely distributed, as well as one of the feeblest and most fragile,
of all bassalian or deep-sea fishes.
Fig. 88.—Chauliodus sloanei Schneider. Grand Banks.
Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.—The suborder Iniomi (ἰνίον, nape;
ὤμος, shoulder) comprises soft-rayed fishes, in which the shoulder-girdle
has more or less lost its completeness of structure as part of the degradation
consequent on life in the abysses of the sea. These features distinguish these
forms from the true Isospondyli, but only in a very few of the species have
these characters been verified by actual examination of the skeleton. The
mesocoracoid arch is wanting or atrophied in all of the species examined,
and the orbitosphenoid is lacking, so far as known. The group thus agrees in
most technical characters with the Haplomi, in which group they are placed
by Dr. Boulenger. On the other hand the relationships to the Isospondyli are
very close, and the Iniomi have many traits suggesting degenerate
Isospondyli. The post-temporal has lost its usual hold on the skull and may
touch the occiput on the sides of the cranium. Nearly all the species are soft
in body, black or silvery over black in color, and all that live in the deep sea
are provided with luminous spots or glands giving light in the abysmal
depths. These spots are wanting in the few shore species, as also in those
which approach most nearly to the Salmonidæ, these being presumably the
Page 169
most primitive of the group. In these also the post-temporal touches the
back of the cranium near the side. In the majority of the Iniomi the adipose
fin of the Salmonidæ is retained. From the phosphorescent spots is derived
the general name of lantern-fishes applied of late years to many of the
species. Most of these are of recent discovery, results of the remarkable
work in deep-sea dredging begun by the Albatross and the Challenger. All
of the species are carnivorous, and some, in spite of their feeble muscles,
are exceedingly voracious, the mouth being armed with veritable daggers
and spears.
Aulopidæ.—Most primitive of the Iniomi is the family of Aulopidæ, having
an adipose fin, a normal maxillary, and no luminous spots. The rough firm
scales suggest those of the berycoid fishes. The few species of Aulopus and
Chlorophthalmus are found in moderate depths. Aulopus purpurissatus is
the "Sergeant Baker" of the Australian fishermen.
Fig. 89.—Lizard-fish, Synodus fætens L. Charleston, S. C.
The Lizard-fishes.—The Synodontidæ, or lizard-fishes, have lizard-like
heads with very large mouth. The head is scaly, a character rare among the
soft-rayed fishes. The slender maxillary is grown fast to the premaxillary,
and the color is not black. Most of the species are shore-fishes and some are
brightly colored. Synodus fætens is the common lizard-fish, or galliwasp, of
our Atlantic coast. Synodus varius of the Pacific is brightly colored, olive-
green and orange-red types of coloration existing at different depths. Most
of the species lie close to the bottom and are mottled gray like coral sand. A
few occur in oceanic depths. The "Bombay duck" of the fishermen of India
back of the cranium near the side. In the majority of the Iniomi the adipose
fin of the Salmonidæ is retained. From the phosphorescent spots is derived
the general name of lantern-fishes applied of late years to many of the
species. Most of these are of recent discovery, results of the remarkable
work in deep-sea dredging begun by the Albatross and the Challenger. All
of the species are carnivorous, and some, in spite of their feeble muscles,
are exceedingly voracious, the mouth being armed with veritable daggers
and spears.
Aulopidæ.—Most primitive of the Iniomi is the family of Aulopidæ, having
an adipose fin, a normal maxillary, and no luminous spots. The rough firm
scales suggest those of the berycoid fishes. The few species of Aulopus and
Chlorophthalmus are found in moderate depths. Aulopus purpurissatus is
the "Sergeant Baker" of the Australian fishermen.
Fig. 89.—Lizard-fish, Synodus fætens L. Charleston, S. C.
The Lizard-fishes.—The Synodontidæ, or lizard-fishes, have lizard-like
heads with very large mouth. The head is scaly, a character rare among the
soft-rayed fishes. The slender maxillary is grown fast to the premaxillary,
and the color is not black. Most of the species are shore-fishes and some are
brightly colored. Synodus fætens is the common lizard-fish, or galliwasp, of
our Atlantic coast. Synodus varius of the Pacific is brightly colored, olive-
green and orange-red types of coloration existing at different depths. Most
of the species lie close to the bottom and are mottled gray like coral sand. A
few occur in oceanic depths. The "Bombay duck" of the fishermen of India
Page 170
is a species of Harpodon, H. nehereus, with large mouth and arrow-shaped
teeth. The dried fish is used as a relish.
The Benthosauridæ are deep-sea fishes of similar type, but with distinct
maxillaries. The Bathypteroidæ, of the deep seas, resemble Aulopus, but
have the upper and lower pectoral rays filiform, developed as organs of
touch in the depths in which the small eyes become practically useless.
Ipnopidæ.—In the Ipnopidæ the head is depressed above and the two eyes
are flattened and widened so as to occupy most of its upper surface. These
structures were at first supposed to be luminous organs, but Professor
Moseley has shown them to be eyes. "They show a flattened cornea
extending along the median line of the snout, with a large retina composed
of peculiar rods which form a complicated apparatus destined undoubtedly
to produce an image and to receive especial luminous rays." The single
species, Ipnops murrayi, is black in color and found at the depth of 2½
miles in various seas.
Fig. 90.—Ipnops murrayi Günther.
The existence of well-developed eyes among fishes destined to live in the
dark abysses of the ocean seems at first contradictory, but we must
remember that these singular forms are descendants of immigrants from the
shore and from the surface. "In some cases the eyes have not been specially
modified, but in others there have been modifications of a luminous mucous
membrane leading on the one hand to phosphorescent organs more or less
specialized, or on the other to such remarkable structures as the eyes of
Ipnops, intermediate between true eyes and phosphorescent plates. In fishes
which cannot see, and which retain for their guidance only the general
sensibility of the integuments and the lateral line, these parts soon acquire a
teeth. The dried fish is used as a relish.
The Benthosauridæ are deep-sea fishes of similar type, but with distinct
maxillaries. The Bathypteroidæ, of the deep seas, resemble Aulopus, but
have the upper and lower pectoral rays filiform, developed as organs of
touch in the depths in which the small eyes become practically useless.
Ipnopidæ.—In the Ipnopidæ the head is depressed above and the two eyes
are flattened and widened so as to occupy most of its upper surface. These
structures were at first supposed to be luminous organs, but Professor
Moseley has shown them to be eyes. "They show a flattened cornea
extending along the median line of the snout, with a large retina composed
of peculiar rods which form a complicated apparatus destined undoubtedly
to produce an image and to receive especial luminous rays." The single
species, Ipnops murrayi, is black in color and found at the depth of 2½
miles in various seas.
Fig. 90.—Ipnops murrayi Günther.
The existence of well-developed eyes among fishes destined to live in the
dark abysses of the ocean seems at first contradictory, but we must
remember that these singular forms are descendants of immigrants from the
shore and from the surface. "In some cases the eyes have not been specially
modified, but in others there have been modifications of a luminous mucous
membrane leading on the one hand to phosphorescent organs more or less
specialized, or on the other to such remarkable structures as the eyes of
Ipnops, intermediate between true eyes and phosphorescent plates. In fishes
which cannot see, and which retain for their guidance only the general
sensibility of the integuments and the lateral line, these parts soon acquire a
Page 171
very great delicacy. The same is the case with tactile organs (as in
Bathypterois and Benthosaurus), and experiments show that barbels may
become organs of touch adapted to aquatic life, sensitive to the faintest
movements or the slightest displacement, with power to give the blinded
fishes full cognizance of the medium in which they live."
Rondeletiidæ.—The Rondeletiidæ are naked black fishes with small eyes,
without adipose fin and without luminous spots, taken at great depths in the
Atlantic. The relationship of these fishes is wholly uncertain.
Fig. 91.—Cetomimus gillii Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
The Cetomimidæ are near allies of the Rondeletiidæ, having the mouth
excessively large, with the peculiar form seen in the right whales, which
these little fishes curiously resemble.
Bathypterois and Benthosaurus), and experiments show that barbels may
become organs of touch adapted to aquatic life, sensitive to the faintest
movements or the slightest displacement, with power to give the blinded
fishes full cognizance of the medium in which they live."
Rondeletiidæ.—The Rondeletiidæ are naked black fishes with small eyes,
without adipose fin and without luminous spots, taken at great depths in the
Atlantic. The relationship of these fishes is wholly uncertain.
Fig. 91.—Cetomimus gillii Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
The Cetomimidæ are near allies of the Rondeletiidæ, having the mouth
excessively large, with the peculiar form seen in the right whales, which
these little fishes curiously resemble.
Page 172
Fig. 92.—Headlight Fish, Diaphus lucidus Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream.
Myctophidæ.—The large family of Myctophidæ, or lantern-fishes, is made
up of small fishes allied to the Aulopidæ, but with the body covered with
luminous dots, highly specialized and symmetrically arranged. Most of
them belong to the deep sea, but others come to the surface in the night or
during storms when the sunlight is absent. Through this habit they are often
thrown by the waves on the decks of small vessels. Largely from Danish
merchant-vessels, Dr. Lütken has obtained the unrivaled collection of these
sea-waifs preserved in the Museum of the University of Copenhagen. The
species are all small in size and feeble in structure, the prey of the larger
fishes of the depths, from which their lantern-like spots and large eyes help
them to escape. The numerous species are now ranged in about fifteen
genera, although earlier writers placed them all in a single genus
Myctophum (Scopelus).
Fig. 93.—Lantern-fish, Myctophum opalinum Goode & Bean. Gulf
Stream.
In the genus Diaphus (Æthoprora) there is a large luminous gland on the
end of the short snout, like the headlight of an engine. In Dasyscopelus the
scales are spinescent, but in most of the genera, as in Myctophum, the scales
are cycloid and caducous, falling at the touch. In Diaphus the luminous
Myctophidæ.—The large family of Myctophidæ, or lantern-fishes, is made
up of small fishes allied to the Aulopidæ, but with the body covered with
luminous dots, highly specialized and symmetrically arranged. Most of
them belong to the deep sea, but others come to the surface in the night or
during storms when the sunlight is absent. Through this habit they are often
thrown by the waves on the decks of small vessels. Largely from Danish
merchant-vessels, Dr. Lütken has obtained the unrivaled collection of these
sea-waifs preserved in the Museum of the University of Copenhagen. The
species are all small in size and feeble in structure, the prey of the larger
fishes of the depths, from which their lantern-like spots and large eyes help
them to escape. The numerous species are now ranged in about fifteen
genera, although earlier writers placed them all in a single genus
Myctophum (Scopelus).
Fig. 93.—Lantern-fish, Myctophum opalinum Goode & Bean. Gulf
Stream.
In the genus Diaphus (Æthoprora) there is a large luminous gland on the
end of the short snout, like the headlight of an engine. In Dasyscopelus the
scales are spinescent, but in most of the genera, as in Myctophum, the scales
are cycloid and caducous, falling at the touch. In Diaphus the luminous
Page 173
spots are crossed by a septum giving them the form of the Greek letter θ
(theta). One of the commonest species is Myctophum humboldti.
Fig. 94.—Lantern-fish, Ceratoscopelus madeirensis (Lowe). Gulf Stream.
Chirothricidæ.—The remarkable extinct family of Chirothricidæ may be
related to the Synodontidæ, or Myctophidæ. In this group the teeth are
feeble, the paired fins much enlarged, and the ventrals are well forward. The
dorsal fin, inserted well forward, has stout basal bones. Chirothrix libanicus
of the Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon is remarkable for its excessively large
ventral fins. Telepholis is a related genus. Exocœtoides with rounded caudal
fin is probably the type of a distinct family, Exocœtoididæ, the caudal fin
being strongly forked in Chirothrix. The small extinct group of Rhinellidæ
is usually placed near the Myctophidæ. They are distinguished by the very
long gar-like jaws; whether they possessed adipose fins or luminous spots
cannot be determined. Rhinellus furcatus and other species occur in the
Cretaceous of Europe and Asia. Fossil forms more or less distinctly related
to the Myctophidæ are numerous. Osmeroides monasterii (wrongly called
Sardinioides), from the German Cretaceous, seems allied to Myctophum,
although, of course, luminous spots leave no trace among fossils.
Acrognathus boops is remarkable for the large size of the eyes.
(theta). One of the commonest species is Myctophum humboldti.
Fig. 94.—Lantern-fish, Ceratoscopelus madeirensis (Lowe). Gulf Stream.
Chirothricidæ.—The remarkable extinct family of Chirothricidæ may be
related to the Synodontidæ, or Myctophidæ. In this group the teeth are
feeble, the paired fins much enlarged, and the ventrals are well forward. The
dorsal fin, inserted well forward, has stout basal bones. Chirothrix libanicus
of the Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon is remarkable for its excessively large
ventral fins. Telepholis is a related genus. Exocœtoides with rounded caudal
fin is probably the type of a distinct family, Exocœtoididæ, the caudal fin
being strongly forked in Chirothrix. The small extinct group of Rhinellidæ
is usually placed near the Myctophidæ. They are distinguished by the very
long gar-like jaws; whether they possessed adipose fins or luminous spots
cannot be determined. Rhinellus furcatus and other species occur in the
Cretaceous of Europe and Asia. Fossil forms more or less distinctly related
to the Myctophidæ are numerous. Osmeroides monasterii (wrongly called
Sardinioides), from the German Cretaceous, seems allied to Myctophum,
although, of course, luminous spots leave no trace among fossils.
Acrognathus boops is remarkable for the large size of the eyes.
Page 174
Fig. 95.—Rhinellus furcatus Agassiz. Upper Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon.
(After Woodward.)
Maurolicidæ.—The Maurolicidæ are similar in form and habit, but
scaleless, and with luminous spots more highly specialized. Maurolicus
pennanti, the "Sleppy Argentine," is occasionally taken on either side of the
Atlantic. Other genera are Zalarges, Vinciguerria, and Valenciennellus.
The Lancet-fishes.—The Plagyodontidæ (Alepisauridæ) contains the
lancet-fishes, large, swift, scaleless fishes of the ocean depths with very
high dorsal fin, and the mouth filled with knife-like teeth. These large fish
are occasionally cast up by storms or are driven to the shores by the
torments of a parasite, Tetrarhynchus, found imbedded in the flesh.
It is probable that they are sometimes killed by being forced above their
level by fishes which they have swallowed. In such cases they are destroyed
through the reduction of pressure.
Every part of the body is so fragile that perfect specimens are rare. The
dorsal fin is readily torn, the bones are very feebly ossified, and the
ligaments connecting the vertebræ are very loose and extensible, so that the
body can be considerably stretched. "This loose connection of the parts of
the body is found in numerous deep-sea fishes, and is merely the
consequence of their withdrawal from the pressure of the water to which
they are exposed in the depths inhabited by them. When within the limits of
their natural haunts, the osseous, muscular, and fibrous parts of the body
will have that solidity which is required for the rapid and powerful
movements of a predatory fish. That the fishes of this genus (Plagyodus)
belong to the most ferocious of the class is proved by their dentition and the
contents of their stomach." (Günther.) Dr. Günther elsewhere observes:
"From the stomach of one example have been taken several octopods,
crustaceans, ascidians, a young Brama, twelve young boarfishes (Capros), a
horse-mackerel, and one young of its own species."
(After Woodward.)
Maurolicidæ.—The Maurolicidæ are similar in form and habit, but
scaleless, and with luminous spots more highly specialized. Maurolicus
pennanti, the "Sleppy Argentine," is occasionally taken on either side of the
Atlantic. Other genera are Zalarges, Vinciguerria, and Valenciennellus.
The Lancet-fishes.—The Plagyodontidæ (Alepisauridæ) contains the
lancet-fishes, large, swift, scaleless fishes of the ocean depths with very
high dorsal fin, and the mouth filled with knife-like teeth. These large fish
are occasionally cast up by storms or are driven to the shores by the
torments of a parasite, Tetrarhynchus, found imbedded in the flesh.
It is probable that they are sometimes killed by being forced above their
level by fishes which they have swallowed. In such cases they are destroyed
through the reduction of pressure.
Every part of the body is so fragile that perfect specimens are rare. The
dorsal fin is readily torn, the bones are very feebly ossified, and the
ligaments connecting the vertebræ are very loose and extensible, so that the
body can be considerably stretched. "This loose connection of the parts of
the body is found in numerous deep-sea fishes, and is merely the
consequence of their withdrawal from the pressure of the water to which
they are exposed in the depths inhabited by them. When within the limits of
their natural haunts, the osseous, muscular, and fibrous parts of the body
will have that solidity which is required for the rapid and powerful
movements of a predatory fish. That the fishes of this genus (Plagyodus)
belong to the most ferocious of the class is proved by their dentition and the
contents of their stomach." (Günther.) Dr. Günther elsewhere observes:
"From the stomach of one example have been taken several octopods,
crustaceans, ascidians, a young Brama, twelve young boarfishes (Capros), a
horse-mackerel, and one young of its own species."
Page 175
Fig. 96.—Lancet-fish, Plagyodus ferox (Lowe). New York.
The lancet-fish, Plagyodus ferox, is occasionally taken on either side of the
Atlantic and in Japan. The handsaw-fish, called Plagyodus æsculapius, has
been taken at Unalaska, off San Luis Obispo, and in Humboldt Bay. It does
not seem to differ at all from Plagyodus ferox. The original type from
Unalaska had in its stomach twenty-one lumpfishes (Eumicrotremus
spinosus). This is the species described from Steller's manuscripts by Pallas
under the name of Plagyodus. Another species, Plagyodus borcalis, is
occasionally taken in the North Pacific.
The Evermannellidæ is a small family of small deep-sea fishes with large
teeth, distensible muscles, and an extraordinary power of swallowing other
fishes, scarcely surpassed by Chiasmodon or Saccopharynx. Evermannella
(Odontostomus, the latter name preoccupied) and Omosudis are the
principal genera.
The Paralepidæ are reduced allies of Plagyodus, slender, silvery, with small
fins and fang-like jaws. As in Plagyodus, the adipose fin is developed and
there are small luminous dots. The species are few and mostly northern; one
of them, Sudis ringens, is known only from a single specimen taken by the
present writer from the stomach of a hake (Merluccius productus), the hake
in turn swallowed whole by an albacore in the Santa Barbara Channel. The
Sudis had been devoured by the hake, the hake by the albacore, and the
albacore taken on the hook before the feeble Sudis had been digested.
The lancet-fish, Plagyodus ferox, is occasionally taken on either side of the
Atlantic and in Japan. The handsaw-fish, called Plagyodus æsculapius, has
been taken at Unalaska, off San Luis Obispo, and in Humboldt Bay. It does
not seem to differ at all from Plagyodus ferox. The original type from
Unalaska had in its stomach twenty-one lumpfishes (Eumicrotremus
spinosus). This is the species described from Steller's manuscripts by Pallas
under the name of Plagyodus. Another species, Plagyodus borcalis, is
occasionally taken in the North Pacific.
The Evermannellidæ is a small family of small deep-sea fishes with large
teeth, distensible muscles, and an extraordinary power of swallowing other
fishes, scarcely surpassed by Chiasmodon or Saccopharynx. Evermannella
(Odontostomus, the latter name preoccupied) and Omosudis are the
principal genera.
The Paralepidæ are reduced allies of Plagyodus, slender, silvery, with small
fins and fang-like jaws. As in Plagyodus, the adipose fin is developed and
there are small luminous dots. The species are few and mostly northern; one
of them, Sudis ringens, is known only from a single specimen taken by the
present writer from the stomach of a hake (Merluccius productus), the hake
in turn swallowed whole by an albacore in the Santa Barbara Channel. The
Sudis had been devoured by the hake, the hake by the albacore, and the
albacore taken on the hook before the feeble Sudis had been digested.
Page 176
Fig. 97.—Eurypholis sulcidens Pictet, restored. Family Enchodontidæ.
Upper Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. (After Woodward, as E. boissieri.)
Perhaps allied to the Plagyodontidæ is also the large family of
Enchodontidæ, widely represented in the Cretaceous rocks of Syria,
Europe, and Kansas. The body in this group is elongate, the teeth very
strong, and the dorsal fin short. Enchodus lewesiensis is found in Mount
Lebanon, Halec sternbergi in the German Cretaceous, and many species of
Enchodus in Kansas; Cimolichthys dirus in North Dakota.
Remotely allied to these groups is the extinct family of Dercetidæ from the
Cretaceous of Germany and Syria. These are elongate fishes, the scales
small or wanting, but with two or more series of bony scutes along the
flanks. In Dercetis scutatus the scutes are large and the dorsal fin is very
long. Other genera are Leptotrachelus and Pelargorhynchus. Dr. Boulenger
places the Dercetidæ in the order Heteromi. This is an expression of the fact
that their relations are still unknown. Probably related to the Dercetidæ is
the American family of Stratodontidæ with its two genera, Stradodus and
Empo from the Cretaceous (Niobrara) deposits of Kansas. Empo nepaholica
is one of the best-known species.
Upper Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. (After Woodward, as E. boissieri.)
Perhaps allied to the Plagyodontidæ is also the large family of
Enchodontidæ, widely represented in the Cretaceous rocks of Syria,
Europe, and Kansas. The body in this group is elongate, the teeth very
strong, and the dorsal fin short. Enchodus lewesiensis is found in Mount
Lebanon, Halec sternbergi in the German Cretaceous, and many species of
Enchodus in Kansas; Cimolichthys dirus in North Dakota.
Remotely allied to these groups is the extinct family of Dercetidæ from the
Cretaceous of Germany and Syria. These are elongate fishes, the scales
small or wanting, but with two or more series of bony scutes along the
flanks. In Dercetis scutatus the scutes are large and the dorsal fin is very
long. Other genera are Leptotrachelus and Pelargorhynchus. Dr. Boulenger
places the Dercetidæ in the order Heteromi. This is an expression of the fact
that their relations are still unknown. Probably related to the Dercetidæ is
the American family of Stratodontidæ with its two genera, Stradodus and
Empo from the Cretaceous (Niobrara) deposits of Kansas. Empo nepaholica
is one of the best-known species.
Page 177
Fig. 98.—Eurypholis freyeri Heckel. Family Enchodontidæ. Cretaceous.
(After Heckel; the restoration of the jaws incorrect.)
Fig. 99.—Argyropelecus olfersi Cuvier. Gulf Stream.
The Sternoptychidæ.—The Sternoptychidæ differ materially from all these
forms in the short, compressed, deep body and distorted form. The teeth are
small, the body bright silvery, with luminous spots. The species live in the
deep seas, rising in dark or stormy weather. Sternoptyx diaphana is found in
almost all seas, and species of Argyropelecus are almost as widely
distributed. After the earthquakes in 1896, which engulfed the fishing
villages of Rikuzen, in northern Japan, numerous specimens of this species
were found dead, floating on the water, by the steamer Albatross.
The Idiacanthidæ are small deep-sea fishes, eel-shaped and without
pectorals, related to the Iniomi.
(After Heckel; the restoration of the jaws incorrect.)
Fig. 99.—Argyropelecus olfersi Cuvier. Gulf Stream.
The Sternoptychidæ.—The Sternoptychidæ differ materially from all these
forms in the short, compressed, deep body and distorted form. The teeth are
small, the body bright silvery, with luminous spots. The species live in the
deep seas, rising in dark or stormy weather. Sternoptyx diaphana is found in
almost all seas, and species of Argyropelecus are almost as widely
distributed. After the earthquakes in 1896, which engulfed the fishing
villages of Rikuzen, in northern Japan, numerous specimens of this species
were found dead, floating on the water, by the steamer Albatross.
The Idiacanthidæ are small deep-sea fishes, eel-shaped and without
pectorals, related to the Iniomi.
Page 178
Order Lyopomi.—Other deep-sea fishes constitute the order or suborder
Lyopomi (λυός, loose; πῶμα, opercle). These are elongate fishes having no
mesocoracoid, and the preopercle rudimentary and connected only with the
lower jaw, the large subopercle usurping its place. The group, which is
perhaps to be regarded as a degenerate type of Isospondyli, contains the
single family of Halosauridæ, with several species, black in color, soft in
substance, with small teeth and long tapering tail, found in all seas. The
principal genera are Halosaurus and Aldrovandia (Halosauropsis).
Aldrovandia macrochira is the commonest species on our Atlantic coast.
Fig. 100.—Aldrovandia gracilis (Goode & Bean). Guadaloupe Island,
West Indies. Family Halosauridæ.
Several fossil Halosauridæ are described from the Cretaceous of Europe
and Syria, referred to the genera Echidnocephalus and Enchelurus.
Boulenger refers the Lyopomi to the suborder Heteromi.
Lyopomi (λυός, loose; πῶμα, opercle). These are elongate fishes having no
mesocoracoid, and the preopercle rudimentary and connected only with the
lower jaw, the large subopercle usurping its place. The group, which is
perhaps to be regarded as a degenerate type of Isospondyli, contains the
single family of Halosauridæ, with several species, black in color, soft in
substance, with small teeth and long tapering tail, found in all seas. The
principal genera are Halosaurus and Aldrovandia (Halosauropsis).
Aldrovandia macrochira is the commonest species on our Atlantic coast.
Fig. 100.—Aldrovandia gracilis (Goode & Bean). Guadaloupe Island,
West Indies. Family Halosauridæ.
Several fossil Halosauridæ are described from the Cretaceous of Europe
and Syria, referred to the genera Echidnocephalus and Enchelurus.
Boulenger refers the Lyopomi to the suborder Heteromi.
Page 179
CHAPTER VII
THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES
he Eels.—We may here break the sequence from the
Isospondyli to the other soft-rayed fishes, to interpolate a large
group of uncertain origin, the series or subclass of eels.
The mass of apodal or eel-like fishes has been usually
regarded as constituting a single order, the Apodes (ἄ, without; ποῦς, foot).
The group as a whole is characterized by the almost universal separation of
the shoulder-girdle from the skull, by the absence of the mesocoracoid arch
on the shoulder-girdle, by the presence of more than five pectoral actinosts,
as in the Ganoid fishes, by the presence of great numbers of
undifferentiated vertebræ, giving the body a snake-like form, by the absence
in all living forms of the ventral fins, and, in all living forms, by the
absence of a separate caudal fin. These structures indicate a low
organization. Some of them are certainly results of degeneration, and others
are perhaps indications of primitive simplicity. Within the limits of the
group are seen other features of degeneration, notably shown in the
progressive loss of the bones of the upper jaw and the membrane-bones of
the head and the degradation of the various fins. The symplectic bone is
wanting, the notochord is more or less persistent, the vertebral centra
always complete constricted cylinders, none coalesced. But,
notwithstanding great differences in these regards, the forms have been
usually left in a single order, the more degraded forms being regarded as
descended from the types which approach nearest to the ordinary fishes.
From this view Professor Cope dissents. He recognizes several orders of
eels, claiming that we should not unite all these various fishes into a single
order on account of the eel-like form. If we do so, we should place in
another order those with the fish-like form. It is probable, though not
THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES
he Eels.—We may here break the sequence from the
Isospondyli to the other soft-rayed fishes, to interpolate a large
group of uncertain origin, the series or subclass of eels.
The mass of apodal or eel-like fishes has been usually
regarded as constituting a single order, the Apodes (ἄ, without; ποῦς, foot).
The group as a whole is characterized by the almost universal separation of
the shoulder-girdle from the skull, by the absence of the mesocoracoid arch
on the shoulder-girdle, by the presence of more than five pectoral actinosts,
as in the Ganoid fishes, by the presence of great numbers of
undifferentiated vertebræ, giving the body a snake-like form, by the absence
in all living forms of the ventral fins, and, in all living forms, by the
absence of a separate caudal fin. These structures indicate a low
organization. Some of them are certainly results of degeneration, and others
are perhaps indications of primitive simplicity. Within the limits of the
group are seen other features of degeneration, notably shown in the
progressive loss of the bones of the upper jaw and the membrane-bones of
the head and the degradation of the various fins. The symplectic bone is
wanting, the notochord is more or less persistent, the vertebral centra
always complete constricted cylinders, none coalesced. But,
notwithstanding great differences in these regards, the forms have been
usually left in a single order, the more degraded forms being regarded as
descended from the types which approach nearest to the ordinary fishes.
From this view Professor Cope dissents. He recognizes several orders of
eels, claiming that we should not unite all these various fishes into a single
order on account of the eel-like form. If we do so, we should place in
another order those with the fish-like form. It is probable, though not
Page 180
absolutely certain, that the Apodes are related to each other. The loss among
them, first, of the connection of the post-temporal with the skull; second, of
the separate caudal fin and its hypural support; third, of the distinct
maxillary and premaxillary; and fourth, of the pectoral fins, must be
regarded as successive phases of a general line of degradation. The large
number of actinosts, the persistence of the notochord, the absence of spines,
and the large numbers of vertebræ seem to be traits of primitive simplicity.
Special lines of degeneration are further shown by deep-sea forms. What
the origin of the Apodes may have been is not known with any certainty.
They are soft-rayed fishes, with the air-bladder connected by a tube with the
œsophagus, and with the anterior vertebræ not modified. In so far they
agree with the Isospondyli. In some other respects they resemble the lower
Ostariophysi, especially the electric eel and the eel-like catfishes. But these
resemblances, mainly superficial, may be wholly deceptive; we have no
links which certainly connect the most fish-like Apodes with any of the
other orders. Probably Woodward's suggestion that they may form a series
parallel with the Isospondyli and independently descended from Tertiary
Ganoids deserves serious consideration. Perhaps the most satisfactory
arrangement of these fishes will be to regard them as constituting four
distinct orders for which we may use the names Symbranchia (including
Ichthyocephali and Holostomi), Apodes (including Enchelycephali and
Colocephali), Carencheli, and Lyomeri.
Order Symbranchia.—The Symbranchia are distinguished by the
development of the ordinary fish mouth, the maxillary and premaxillary
being well developed. The gill-openings are very small, and usually
confluent below. These fresh-water forms of the tropics, however eel-like in
form, may have no real affinity with the true eels. In any event, they should
not be placed in the same order with the latter.
The eels of the suborder Ichthyocephali (ιχθύς, fish; κεφαλή, head) have the
head distinctly fish-like. The maxillary, premaxillary, and palatines are well
developed, and the shoulder-girdle is joined by a post-temporal to the skull.
The body is distinctly eel-like, the tail being very short and the fins
inconspicuous. The number of vertebræ is unusually large. The order
contains the single family Monopteridæ, the rice-field eels, one species,
Monopterus albus, being excessively common in pools and ditches from
China and southern Japan to India.
them, first, of the connection of the post-temporal with the skull; second, of
the separate caudal fin and its hypural support; third, of the distinct
maxillary and premaxillary; and fourth, of the pectoral fins, must be
regarded as successive phases of a general line of degradation. The large
number of actinosts, the persistence of the notochord, the absence of spines,
and the large numbers of vertebræ seem to be traits of primitive simplicity.
Special lines of degeneration are further shown by deep-sea forms. What
the origin of the Apodes may have been is not known with any certainty.
They are soft-rayed fishes, with the air-bladder connected by a tube with the
œsophagus, and with the anterior vertebræ not modified. In so far they
agree with the Isospondyli. In some other respects they resemble the lower
Ostariophysi, especially the electric eel and the eel-like catfishes. But these
resemblances, mainly superficial, may be wholly deceptive; we have no
links which certainly connect the most fish-like Apodes with any of the
other orders. Probably Woodward's suggestion that they may form a series
parallel with the Isospondyli and independently descended from Tertiary
Ganoids deserves serious consideration. Perhaps the most satisfactory
arrangement of these fishes will be to regard them as constituting four
distinct orders for which we may use the names Symbranchia (including
Ichthyocephali and Holostomi), Apodes (including Enchelycephali and
Colocephali), Carencheli, and Lyomeri.
Order Symbranchia.—The Symbranchia are distinguished by the
development of the ordinary fish mouth, the maxillary and premaxillary
being well developed. The gill-openings are very small, and usually
confluent below. These fresh-water forms of the tropics, however eel-like in
form, may have no real affinity with the true eels. In any event, they should
not be placed in the same order with the latter.
The eels of the suborder Ichthyocephali (ιχθύς, fish; κεφαλή, head) have the
head distinctly fish-like. The maxillary, premaxillary, and palatines are well
developed, and the shoulder-girdle is joined by a post-temporal to the skull.
The body is distinctly eel-like, the tail being very short and the fins
inconspicuous. The number of vertebræ is unusually large. The order
contains the single family Monopteridæ, the rice-field eels, one species,
Monopterus albus, being excessively common in pools and ditches from
China and southern Japan to India.
Page 181
The eels of the suborder Holostomi (ὀλός, complete; στόμα, mouth) differ
from these mainly in the separation of the shoulder-girdle from the skull, a
step in the direction of the true eels. The Symbranchidæ are very close to
the Monopteridæ in external appearance, small, dusky, eel-like inhabitants
of sluggish ponds and rivers of tropical America and the East Indies. The
gill-openings are confluent under the throat. Symbranchus marmoratus
ranges northward as far as Vera Cruz, having much the habit of the rice-
field eel of Japan and China. The Amphipnoidæ, with peculiar respiratory
structures, abound in India. Amphipnous cuchia, according to Günther, has
but three gill-arches, with rudimentary lamina and very narrow slits. To
supplement this insufficient branchial apparatus, a lung-like sac is
developed on each side of the body behind the head, opening between the
hyoid and the first branchial arch. The interior of the sac is abundantly
provided with blood-vessels, the arterial coming from the branchial arch,
whilst those issuing from it unite to form the aorta. Amphipnous has
rudimentary scales. The other Holostomi and Ichthyocephali are naked and
all lack the pectoral fin.
The Chilobranchidæ are small sea-fishes from Australia, with the tail longer
than the rest of the body, instead of much shorter as in the others.
No forms allied to Symbranchus or Monopterus are recorded as fossils.
Order Apodes, or True Eels.—In this group the shoulder-girdle is free
from the skull, and the bones of the jaws are reduced in number, through
coalescence of the parts.
Three well-marked suborders may be recognized, groups perhaps worthy of
still higher rank: Archencheli, Enchelycephali, and Colocephali.
Suborder Archencheli.—The Archencheli, now entirely extinct, are
apparently the parents of the eels, having, however, certain traits
characteristic of the Isospondyli. They retain the separate caudal fin, with
the ordinary hypural plate, and Professor Hay has recently found, in an
example from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, remains of distinct ventral
fins. These traits seem to indicate an almost perfect transition from the
Isospondyli to the Archencheli.
One family may be recognized at present, Urenchelyidæ.
from these mainly in the separation of the shoulder-girdle from the skull, a
step in the direction of the true eels. The Symbranchidæ are very close to
the Monopteridæ in external appearance, small, dusky, eel-like inhabitants
of sluggish ponds and rivers of tropical America and the East Indies. The
gill-openings are confluent under the throat. Symbranchus marmoratus
ranges northward as far as Vera Cruz, having much the habit of the rice-
field eel of Japan and China. The Amphipnoidæ, with peculiar respiratory
structures, abound in India. Amphipnous cuchia, according to Günther, has
but three gill-arches, with rudimentary lamina and very narrow slits. To
supplement this insufficient branchial apparatus, a lung-like sac is
developed on each side of the body behind the head, opening between the
hyoid and the first branchial arch. The interior of the sac is abundantly
provided with blood-vessels, the arterial coming from the branchial arch,
whilst those issuing from it unite to form the aorta. Amphipnous has
rudimentary scales. The other Holostomi and Ichthyocephali are naked and
all lack the pectoral fin.
The Chilobranchidæ are small sea-fishes from Australia, with the tail longer
than the rest of the body, instead of much shorter as in the others.
No forms allied to Symbranchus or Monopterus are recorded as fossils.
Order Apodes, or True Eels.—In this group the shoulder-girdle is free
from the skull, and the bones of the jaws are reduced in number, through
coalescence of the parts.
Three well-marked suborders may be recognized, groups perhaps worthy of
still higher rank: Archencheli, Enchelycephali, and Colocephali.
Suborder Archencheli.—The Archencheli, now entirely extinct, are
apparently the parents of the eels, having, however, certain traits
characteristic of the Isospondyli. They retain the separate caudal fin, with
the ordinary hypural plate, and Professor Hay has recently found, in an
example from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, remains of distinct ventral
fins. These traits seem to indicate an almost perfect transition from the
Isospondyli to the Archencheli.
One family may be recognized at present, Urenchelyidæ.
Page 182
The earliest known eel, Urenchelys avus, occurs in the upper Cretaceous at
Mount Lebanon. It represents the family Urenchelyidæ, apparently allied to
the Anguillidæ, but having a separate caudal fin. Its teeth are small, conical,
blunt, in many series. There are more than 100 vertebræ, the last expanded
in a hypural. Pectorals present. Scales rudimentary; dorsal arising at the
occiput. Branchiostegals slender, not curved around the opercle. Urenchelys
anglicus is another species, found in the chalk of England.
Suborder Enchelycephali.—The suborder Enchelycephali (ἔγχελυς, eel;
κεφαλή, head) contains the typical eels, in which the shoulder-girdle is free
from the skull, the palatopterygoid arch relatively complete, the
premaxillaries wanting or rudimentary, the ethmoid and vomer coalesced,
forming the front of the upper jaw, the maxillaries lateral, and the cranium
with a single condyle. In most of the species pectoral fins are present, and
the cranium lacks the combined degradation and specialization shown by
the morays (Colocephali).
Family Anguillidæ.—The most primitive existing family is that of the
typical eels, Anguillidæ, which have rudimentary scales oblong in form, and
set separately in groups at right angles with one another. These fishes are
found in the fresh and brackish waters of all parts of the world, excepting
the Pacific coast of North America and the islands of the Pacific. In the
upper Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi they are also absent unless
introduced. The species usually spawn in the sea and ascend the rivers to
feed. But some individuals certainly spawn in fresh water, and none go far
into the sea, or where the water is entirely salt. The young eels sometimes
ascend the brooks near the sea in incredible numbers, constituting what is
known in England as "eel-fairs." They will pass through wet grass to
surmount ordinary obstacles. Niagara Falls they cannot pass, and according
to Professor Baird "in the spring and summer the visitor who enters under
the sheet of water at the foot of the falls will be astonished at the enormous
numbers of young eels crawling over the slippery rocks and squirming in
the seething whirlpools. An estimate of hundreds of wagon-loads, as seen in
the course of the perilous journey referred to, would hardly be considered
excessive by those who have visited the spot at a suitable season of the
year." "At other times large eels may be seen on their way down-stream,
although naturally they are not as conspicuous then as are the hosts of the
young on their way upstream. Nevertheless it is now a well-assured fact that
Mount Lebanon. It represents the family Urenchelyidæ, apparently allied to
the Anguillidæ, but having a separate caudal fin. Its teeth are small, conical,
blunt, in many series. There are more than 100 vertebræ, the last expanded
in a hypural. Pectorals present. Scales rudimentary; dorsal arising at the
occiput. Branchiostegals slender, not curved around the opercle. Urenchelys
anglicus is another species, found in the chalk of England.
Suborder Enchelycephali.—The suborder Enchelycephali (ἔγχελυς, eel;
κεφαλή, head) contains the typical eels, in which the shoulder-girdle is free
from the skull, the palatopterygoid arch relatively complete, the
premaxillaries wanting or rudimentary, the ethmoid and vomer coalesced,
forming the front of the upper jaw, the maxillaries lateral, and the cranium
with a single condyle. In most of the species pectoral fins are present, and
the cranium lacks the combined degradation and specialization shown by
the morays (Colocephali).
Family Anguillidæ.—The most primitive existing family is that of the
typical eels, Anguillidæ, which have rudimentary scales oblong in form, and
set separately in groups at right angles with one another. These fishes are
found in the fresh and brackish waters of all parts of the world, excepting
the Pacific coast of North America and the islands of the Pacific. In the
upper Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi they are also absent unless
introduced. The species usually spawn in the sea and ascend the rivers to
feed. But some individuals certainly spawn in fresh water, and none go far
into the sea, or where the water is entirely salt. The young eels sometimes
ascend the brooks near the sea in incredible numbers, constituting what is
known in England as "eel-fairs." They will pass through wet grass to
surmount ordinary obstacles. Niagara Falls they cannot pass, and according
to Professor Baird "in the spring and summer the visitor who enters under
the sheet of water at the foot of the falls will be astonished at the enormous
numbers of young eels crawling over the slippery rocks and squirming in
the seething whirlpools. An estimate of hundreds of wagon-loads, as seen in
the course of the perilous journey referred to, would hardly be considered
excessive by those who have visited the spot at a suitable season of the
year." "At other times large eels may be seen on their way down-stream,
although naturally they are not as conspicuous then as are the hosts of the
young on their way upstream. Nevertheless it is now a well-assured fact that
Page 183
the eels are catadromous, that is, that the old descend the watercourses to
the salt water to spawn, and the young, at least of the female sex, ascend
them to enjoy life in the fresh water."
Fig. 101.—Common Eel, Anguilla chrisypa Rafinesque. Holyoke, Mass.
Reproduction of the Eel.—Dr. Gill ("Riverside Natural History," p. 103)
gives the following account of the reproduction of Anguilla:
"The generation of the eel was long involved in great mystery, and the
knowledge thereof is one of the recent acquisitions of scientific
investigation. So late, indeed, as 1880 it was declared that 'their mode of
propagation is still unknown.' In want of positive knowledge the rein has
been given to loose hypothesis and conjecture. It has been variously
asserted that eels were generated from slime, from dew, and from the skins
of old eels or of snakes. The statement that they come from horse-hairs is
familiar to many country boys, and the origin of this belief is due simply to
the fact that there are certain aquatic worms, known under the generic name
Gordius, which are elongated and apparently smooth like the eel, and which
may be found in the same waters. It was one of the ideas of the Greek to
attribute their paternity, as of many other doubtful offspring, to the
convenient Jupiter. The statement that they are viviparous has arisen from
two causes: one the existence of intestinal worms, and the other from the
confusion of the eel with an elongated and consequently eel-like but
otherwise very different form, the Zoarces viviparus. The Zoarces is indeed,
in Germany as well as in the Scandinavian countries, generally known as
the salt water to spawn, and the young, at least of the female sex, ascend
them to enjoy life in the fresh water."
Fig. 101.—Common Eel, Anguilla chrisypa Rafinesque. Holyoke, Mass.
Reproduction of the Eel.—Dr. Gill ("Riverside Natural History," p. 103)
gives the following account of the reproduction of Anguilla:
"The generation of the eel was long involved in great mystery, and the
knowledge thereof is one of the recent acquisitions of scientific
investigation. So late, indeed, as 1880 it was declared that 'their mode of
propagation is still unknown.' In want of positive knowledge the rein has
been given to loose hypothesis and conjecture. It has been variously
asserted that eels were generated from slime, from dew, and from the skins
of old eels or of snakes. The statement that they come from horse-hairs is
familiar to many country boys, and the origin of this belief is due simply to
the fact that there are certain aquatic worms, known under the generic name
Gordius, which are elongated and apparently smooth like the eel, and which
may be found in the same waters. It was one of the ideas of the Greek to
attribute their paternity, as of many other doubtful offspring, to the
convenient Jupiter. The statement that they are viviparous has arisen from
two causes: one the existence of intestinal worms, and the other from the
confusion of the eel with an elongated and consequently eel-like but
otherwise very different form, the Zoarces viviparus. The Zoarces is indeed,
in Germany as well as in the Scandinavian countries, generally known as
Page 184
the Aal-mutter, or eel-mother, and thus in its name perpetuates the fancy.
Even where eels are to be found in extreme abundance, and where they are
the objects of a special culture, like erroneous opinions prevail. Thus,
according to Jacoby, about the lagoon of Comacchio there is an
'ineradicable belief among the fishermen that the eel is born of other fishes;
they point to special differences in color and especially in the common
mullet, Mugil cephalus, as the causes of variation in color and form among
eels. It is a very ancient belief, widely prevalent to the present day, that eels
pair with water-snakes. In Sardinia the fishermen cling to the belief that a
certain beetle, the so-called water-beetle, Dytiscus ræselii, is the progenitor
of eels, and they therefore call this "mother of eels."' The assignment of
such maternity to the water-beetle is doubtless due to the detection of the
hair-worm, or Gordius, in the insect by sharp-sighted but unscientific
observers, and, inasmuch as the beetle inhabits the same waters as the eel, a
very illogical deduction has led to connect the two together.
"All such beliefs as have been thus recounted are due to the inconspicuous
nature of the generative organs in eels found in fresh waters and at most
seasons—a characteristic which is in strong contrast to the development of
corresponding parts in fishes generally. Nevertheless the ovaries of the eel
were discovered, as long ago as 1707, by Dr. Sancassini of Comacchio, and
described by the celebrated Valisneri (after whom the plant Valisneria was
named) in 1710, again by Mondini in 1777, and almost contemporaneously
by O. J. Müller of Denmark. Later the illustrious Rathke (in 1824, 1838,
and 1850) and also Hornbaum-Hornschuch published the results of special
investigations, and figured the eggs. But it was only in 1873 (after several
futile endeavors by others) that the male organ of the eel was recognized,
also by an Italian naturalist, Dr. Syrski, in small individuals of the species,
and a previous idea that the eel was hermaphroditic thereby dispelled. The
sexual differences are correlated with external ones, and generally the males
and females, when adult, can be told apart. Jacoby testifies that he
examined large numbers with a view to solve this question. The most
important differences relate to (1) size; (2) form of the snout; (3) color; (4)
dorsal fin; and (5) size of the eyes. (1) The males rarely attain a length of
more than seventeen to nineteen inches, while adult females are generally
much larger; (2) the snout in the male is attenuated and rather pointed,
while in the female it is comparatively broad and blunt; (3) the male is of a
deep darkish green, or often a deep black with a shining luster and a whitish
Even where eels are to be found in extreme abundance, and where they are
the objects of a special culture, like erroneous opinions prevail. Thus,
according to Jacoby, about the lagoon of Comacchio there is an
'ineradicable belief among the fishermen that the eel is born of other fishes;
they point to special differences in color and especially in the common
mullet, Mugil cephalus, as the causes of variation in color and form among
eels. It is a very ancient belief, widely prevalent to the present day, that eels
pair with water-snakes. In Sardinia the fishermen cling to the belief that a
certain beetle, the so-called water-beetle, Dytiscus ræselii, is the progenitor
of eels, and they therefore call this "mother of eels."' The assignment of
such maternity to the water-beetle is doubtless due to the detection of the
hair-worm, or Gordius, in the insect by sharp-sighted but unscientific
observers, and, inasmuch as the beetle inhabits the same waters as the eel, a
very illogical deduction has led to connect the two together.
"All such beliefs as have been thus recounted are due to the inconspicuous
nature of the generative organs in eels found in fresh waters and at most
seasons—a characteristic which is in strong contrast to the development of
corresponding parts in fishes generally. Nevertheless the ovaries of the eel
were discovered, as long ago as 1707, by Dr. Sancassini of Comacchio, and
described by the celebrated Valisneri (after whom the plant Valisneria was
named) in 1710, again by Mondini in 1777, and almost contemporaneously
by O. J. Müller of Denmark. Later the illustrious Rathke (in 1824, 1838,
and 1850) and also Hornbaum-Hornschuch published the results of special
investigations, and figured the eggs. But it was only in 1873 (after several
futile endeavors by others) that the male organ of the eel was recognized,
also by an Italian naturalist, Dr. Syrski, in small individuals of the species,
and a previous idea that the eel was hermaphroditic thereby dispelled. The
sexual differences are correlated with external ones, and generally the males
and females, when adult, can be told apart. Jacoby testifies that he
examined large numbers with a view to solve this question. The most
important differences relate to (1) size; (2) form of the snout; (3) color; (4)
dorsal fin; and (5) size of the eyes. (1) The males rarely attain a length of
more than seventeen to nineteen inches, while adult females are generally
much larger; (2) the snout in the male is attenuated and rather pointed,
while in the female it is comparatively broad and blunt; (3) the male is of a
deep darkish green, or often a deep black with a shining luster and a whitish
Page 185
belly, while the female has a clearer color, usually of a greenish hue on the
back and yellowish on the belly; (4) the dorsal fin is lower and less
developed in the male than in the female; and (5) the eye of the male is
large and that of the female, as a rule, comparatively small. These
characters, however, do not always hold good. Jacoby remarked that
'special reference having been paid to the height and narrowness of the
dorsal fin, much success has been met with in picking out, in the fish-
market of Trieste, the eels which possessed the organ of Syrski (that is, the
male organ); absolute certainty, however, in recognizing them cannot be
guaranteed. If one is searching among living eels with no characters in
mind,—with the exception of the first, that of length,—he will find in every
ten eels, on an average, eight females and two with the supposed male
organ; but if the selection is made with a careful reference to all these marks
of difference, the proportion changes, and out of every ten examples about
eight will be found with the supposed male organ.'
"According to Herr Benecke, 'it may be assumed with the greatest safety
that the eel lays its eggs like most other fish, and that, like the lamprey, it
spawns only once and then dies. All the eggs of a female show the same
degree of maturity, while in the fish which spawn every year, besides the
large eggs which are ready to be deposited at the next spawning period,
there exist very many of much smaller size, which are destined to mature
hereafter and be deposited in other years. It is very hard to understand how
young eels could find room in the body of their mother if they were retained
until they had gained any considerable size. The eel embryo can live and
grow for a long time supported by the little yolk, but, when this is done, it
can only obtain food outside of the body of its mother. The following
circumstances lead us to believe that the spawning of the eel takes place
only in the sea: (1) that the male eel is found only in the sea or brackish
water, while female eels yearly undertake a pilgrimage from the inland
waters to the sea, a circumstance which has been known since the time of
Aristotle, and upon the knowledge of which the principal capture of eels by
the use of fixed apparatus is dependent; (2) that the young eels, with the
greatest regularity, ascend from the sea into the rivers and lakes.'"
All statements in opposition to this theory are untenable, since the young
eels never find their way into landlocked ponds in the course of their
wanderings, while eels planted in such isolated bodies of water thrive and
back and yellowish on the belly; (4) the dorsal fin is lower and less
developed in the male than in the female; and (5) the eye of the male is
large and that of the female, as a rule, comparatively small. These
characters, however, do not always hold good. Jacoby remarked that
'special reference having been paid to the height and narrowness of the
dorsal fin, much success has been met with in picking out, in the fish-
market of Trieste, the eels which possessed the organ of Syrski (that is, the
male organ); absolute certainty, however, in recognizing them cannot be
guaranteed. If one is searching among living eels with no characters in
mind,—with the exception of the first, that of length,—he will find in every
ten eels, on an average, eight females and two with the supposed male
organ; but if the selection is made with a careful reference to all these marks
of difference, the proportion changes, and out of every ten examples about
eight will be found with the supposed male organ.'
"According to Herr Benecke, 'it may be assumed with the greatest safety
that the eel lays its eggs like most other fish, and that, like the lamprey, it
spawns only once and then dies. All the eggs of a female show the same
degree of maturity, while in the fish which spawn every year, besides the
large eggs which are ready to be deposited at the next spawning period,
there exist very many of much smaller size, which are destined to mature
hereafter and be deposited in other years. It is very hard to understand how
young eels could find room in the body of their mother if they were retained
until they had gained any considerable size. The eel embryo can live and
grow for a long time supported by the little yolk, but, when this is done, it
can only obtain food outside of the body of its mother. The following
circumstances lead us to believe that the spawning of the eel takes place
only in the sea: (1) that the male eel is found only in the sea or brackish
water, while female eels yearly undertake a pilgrimage from the inland
waters to the sea, a circumstance which has been known since the time of
Aristotle, and upon the knowledge of which the principal capture of eels by
the use of fixed apparatus is dependent; (2) that the young eels, with the
greatest regularity, ascend from the sea into the rivers and lakes.'"
All statements in opposition to this theory are untenable, since the young
eels never find their way into landlocked ponds in the course of their
wanderings, while eels planted in such isolated bodies of water thrive and
Page 186
grow rapidly, but never increase in numbers. Another still more convincing
argument is the fact that in lakes which formerly contained many eels, but
which, by the erection of impassable weirs, have been cut off from the sea,
the supply of eels has diminished, and after a time only scattering
individuals, old and of great size, are taken in them. An instance of this sort
occurred in Lake Muskengorf in West Prussia. If an instance of the
reproduction of the eel in fresh water could be found, such occurrences as
these would be quite inexplicable.
In the upper stretches of long rivers the migration of the eels begins in April
or in May; in their lower stretches and shorter streams, later in the season.
In all running waters the eel-fishery depends upon the downward
migrations; the eels press up the streams with occasional halts, remaining
here and there for short periods, but always make their way above. They
appear to make the most progress during dark nights, when the water is
troubled and stormy, for at this time they are captured in the greatest
numbers. It is probable that after the eels have once returned to the sea and
there deposited their spawn, they never can return into fresh water, but
remain there to die. A great migration of grown eels in spring or summer
has never been reported, and it appears certain that all the female eels which
have once found their way to the sea are lost to the fisherman.
Food of the Eel.—Eels, in the words of Mr. W. H. Ballou, are "among the
most voracious of carnivorous fishes. They eat most inland fishes, except
the garfish and the chub. Investigation of six hundred stomachs by Oswego
fishermen showed that the latter bony fish never had a place in their bill of
fare. They are particularly fond of game-fishes, and show the delicate taste
of a connoisseur in their selection from choice trout, bass, pickerel, and
shad. They fear not to attack any object when disposed, and their bite in
human flesh shows even a vicious attitude towards man. On their hunting
excursions they overturn huge and small stones alike, working for hours if
necessary, beneath which they find species of shrimp and crayfish, of which
they are exceedingly fond. Of shrimps they devour vast numbers. Their
noses are poked into every imaginable hole in their search for food, to the
terror of innumerable small fishes."
In the opinion of Mr. Ballou, too, "eels are to the water what the fishhawk is
to the air. They are, perhaps, the most powerful and rapid of natatorians.
Again, they hide in the mud beneath some log or overhanging rock, and dart
argument is the fact that in lakes which formerly contained many eels, but
which, by the erection of impassable weirs, have been cut off from the sea,
the supply of eels has diminished, and after a time only scattering
individuals, old and of great size, are taken in them. An instance of this sort
occurred in Lake Muskengorf in West Prussia. If an instance of the
reproduction of the eel in fresh water could be found, such occurrences as
these would be quite inexplicable.
In the upper stretches of long rivers the migration of the eels begins in April
or in May; in their lower stretches and shorter streams, later in the season.
In all running waters the eel-fishery depends upon the downward
migrations; the eels press up the streams with occasional halts, remaining
here and there for short periods, but always make their way above. They
appear to make the most progress during dark nights, when the water is
troubled and stormy, for at this time they are captured in the greatest
numbers. It is probable that after the eels have once returned to the sea and
there deposited their spawn, they never can return into fresh water, but
remain there to die. A great migration of grown eels in spring or summer
has never been reported, and it appears certain that all the female eels which
have once found their way to the sea are lost to the fisherman.
Food of the Eel.—Eels, in the words of Mr. W. H. Ballou, are "among the
most voracious of carnivorous fishes. They eat most inland fishes, except
the garfish and the chub. Investigation of six hundred stomachs by Oswego
fishermen showed that the latter bony fish never had a place in their bill of
fare. They are particularly fond of game-fishes, and show the delicate taste
of a connoisseur in their selection from choice trout, bass, pickerel, and
shad. They fear not to attack any object when disposed, and their bite in
human flesh shows even a vicious attitude towards man. On their hunting
excursions they overturn huge and small stones alike, working for hours if
necessary, beneath which they find species of shrimp and crayfish, of which
they are exceedingly fond. Of shrimps they devour vast numbers. Their
noses are poked into every imaginable hole in their search for food, to the
terror of innumerable small fishes."
In the opinion of Mr. Ballou, too, "eels are to the water what the fishhawk is
to the air. They are, perhaps, the most powerful and rapid of natatorians.
Again, they hide in the mud beneath some log or overhanging rock, and dart
Page 187
out with tremendous fury at the unsuspecting prey. They attack the spawn
of other fishes open-mouthed, and are even said to suck the eggs from an
impaled female. They fearlessly and rapidly dive head-foremost in the mud,
disappearing from view in the twinkling of a star. They are owl-like in their
habits, committing many of their depredations at night.
"No fish is yet reported to utilize a full-grown eel as food. Pickerel, garfish,
and bass, which are particularly numerous in these lakes, are supposed to
literally devour the young fry. Mr. Sawyer describes the operation of the
pickerel darting through a long column of young eels open-mouthed and
devouring vast numbers of them."
Larva of the Eel.—The translucent band-shaped larva of the common eel
has been very recently identified and described by Dr. Eigenmann. It is
probable that all true eels, Enchelycephali, pass through a band-shaped or
leptocephalous stage, as is the case with Albula and other Isospondyli. In
the continued growth the body becomes firmer, and at the same time much
shorter and thicker, gradually assuming the normal form of the species in
question.
Fig. 102.—Larva of Common Eel, Anguilla chrisypa (Rafinesque), called
Leptocephalus grassii. (After Eigenmann.)
In a recent paper Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann has very fully reviewed the life-
history of the eel. The common species live in fresh waters, migrating to the
sea in the winter. They deposit in deep water minute eggs that float at the
surface. The next year they develop into the band-shaped larva. The young
eels enter the streams two years after their parents drop down to the sea. It
is doubtful whether eels breed in fresh water. The male eel is much smaller
than the female.
of other fishes open-mouthed, and are even said to suck the eggs from an
impaled female. They fearlessly and rapidly dive head-foremost in the mud,
disappearing from view in the twinkling of a star. They are owl-like in their
habits, committing many of their depredations at night.
"No fish is yet reported to utilize a full-grown eel as food. Pickerel, garfish,
and bass, which are particularly numerous in these lakes, are supposed to
literally devour the young fry. Mr. Sawyer describes the operation of the
pickerel darting through a long column of young eels open-mouthed and
devouring vast numbers of them."
Larva of the Eel.—The translucent band-shaped larva of the common eel
has been very recently identified and described by Dr. Eigenmann. It is
probable that all true eels, Enchelycephali, pass through a band-shaped or
leptocephalous stage, as is the case with Albula and other Isospondyli. In
the continued growth the body becomes firmer, and at the same time much
shorter and thicker, gradually assuming the normal form of the species in
question.
Fig. 102.—Larva of Common Eel, Anguilla chrisypa (Rafinesque), called
Leptocephalus grassii. (After Eigenmann.)
In a recent paper Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann has very fully reviewed the life-
history of the eel. The common species live in fresh waters, migrating to the
sea in the winter. They deposit in deep water minute eggs that float at the
surface. The next year they develop into the band-shaped larva. The young
eels enter the streams two years after their parents drop down to the sea. It
is doubtful whether eels breed in fresh water. The male eel is much smaller
than the female.
Page 188
The eel is an excellent food-fish, the flesh being tender and oily, of
agreeable flavor, better than that of any of its relatives. Eels often reach a
large size, old individuals of five or six feet in length being sometimes
taken.
Species of Eels.—The different species are very closely related. Not more
than four or five of them are sharply defined, and these mostly in the South
Seas and in the East Indies. The three abundant species of the north
temperate zone, Anguilla anguilla of Europe, Anguilla chrisypa of the
eastern United States, and Anguilla japonica of Japan, are scarcely
distinguishable. In color, size, form, and value as food they are all alike.
Fossil species referred to the Anguillidæ are known from the early Tertiary.
Anguilla leptoptera occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolea, and Anguilla
elegans in the Miocene of Œningen in Baden. Other fossil eels seem to
belong to the Nettastomidæ and Myridæ.
Pug-nosed Eels.—Allied to the true eel is the pug-nosed eel, Simenchelys
parasiticus, constituting the family of Simenchelyidæ. This species is scaled
like a true eel, has a short, blunt nose, and burrows its way into the bodies
of halibut and other large fishes. It has been found in Newfoundland and
Madeira. Another family possessing rudimentary scales is that of the
Synaphobranchidæ, slender eels of the ocean depths, widely distributed. In
these forms the gill-openings are confluent. Synaphobranchus pinnatus is
the best-known species.
Fig. 103.—Pug-nosed Eel, Simenchelys parasiticus Gill. Sable Island
Bank.
agreeable flavor, better than that of any of its relatives. Eels often reach a
large size, old individuals of five or six feet in length being sometimes
taken.
Species of Eels.—The different species are very closely related. Not more
than four or five of them are sharply defined, and these mostly in the South
Seas and in the East Indies. The three abundant species of the north
temperate zone, Anguilla anguilla of Europe, Anguilla chrisypa of the
eastern United States, and Anguilla japonica of Japan, are scarcely
distinguishable. In color, size, form, and value as food they are all alike.
Fossil species referred to the Anguillidæ are known from the early Tertiary.
Anguilla leptoptera occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolea, and Anguilla
elegans in the Miocene of Œningen in Baden. Other fossil eels seem to
belong to the Nettastomidæ and Myridæ.
Pug-nosed Eels.—Allied to the true eel is the pug-nosed eel, Simenchelys
parasiticus, constituting the family of Simenchelyidæ. This species is scaled
like a true eel, has a short, blunt nose, and burrows its way into the bodies
of halibut and other large fishes. It has been found in Newfoundland and
Madeira. Another family possessing rudimentary scales is that of the
Synaphobranchidæ, slender eels of the ocean depths, widely distributed. In
these forms the gill-openings are confluent. Synaphobranchus pinnatus is
the best-known species.
Fig. 103.—Pug-nosed Eel, Simenchelys parasiticus Gill. Sable Island
Bank.
Page 189
Fig. 104.—Synaphobranchus pinnatus (Gronow). Le Have Bank.
Conger-eels.—The Leptocephalidæ, or conger-eels, are very similar to the
fresh-water eels, but are without scales and with a somewhat different
mouth, the dorsal beginning nearer to the head.
The principal genus is Leptocephalus, including the common conger-eel
(Leptocephalus conger) of eastern America and Europe and numerous very
similar species in the tropics of both continents. These fishes are strictly
marine and, reaching the length of five or six feet, are much valued as food.
The eggs are much larger than those of the eel and are produced in great
numbers, so that the female almost bursts with their numbers. Dr. Hermes
calculated that 3,300,000 were laid by one female in an aquarium.
These eggs hatch out into transparent band-like larva, with very small heads
formerly known as Leptocephalus, an ancient name which is now taken for
the genus of congers, having been first used for the larva of the common
conger-eel. The loose watery tissues of these "ghost-fishes" grow more and
more compact and they are finally transformed into young congers.
Conger-eels.—The Leptocephalidæ, or conger-eels, are very similar to the
fresh-water eels, but are without scales and with a somewhat different
mouth, the dorsal beginning nearer to the head.
The principal genus is Leptocephalus, including the common conger-eel
(Leptocephalus conger) of eastern America and Europe and numerous very
similar species in the tropics of both continents. These fishes are strictly
marine and, reaching the length of five or six feet, are much valued as food.
The eggs are much larger than those of the eel and are produced in great
numbers, so that the female almost bursts with their numbers. Dr. Hermes
calculated that 3,300,000 were laid by one female in an aquarium.
These eggs hatch out into transparent band-like larva, with very small heads
formerly known as Leptocephalus, an ancient name which is now taken for
the genus of congers, having been first used for the larva of the common
conger-eel. The loose watery tissues of these "ghost-fishes" grow more and
more compact and they are finally transformed into young congers.
Page 190
Fig. 105.—Conger-eel, Leptocephalus conger (L.). Noank, Conn.
The Murænesocidæ are large eels remarkable for their strong knife-like
teeth. Murænesox savanna occurs in the West Indies and in the
Mediterranean, Murænesox cinereus in Japan, and Murænesox coniceps on
the west coast of Mexico, all large and fierce, with teeth like shears. The
Myridæ are small and worm-like eels closely allied to the congers, having
the tail surrounded by a fin, but the nostrils labial. Myrus myrus is found in
the Mediterranean. Species of Eomyrus, Rhynchorhinus, and Paranguilla
apparently allied to Myrus occur in the Eocene. Other related families,
mostly rare or living in the deep seas, are the Ilyophidæ, Heterocongridæ,
and Dysommidæ.
Fig. 106.—Larva of Conger-eel (Leptocephalus conger), called
Leptocephalus morrissi. (After Eigenmann.)
The Snake-eels.—Most varied of the families of eels is the Ophichthyidæ,
snake-like eels recognizable by the form of the tail, which protrudes beyond
the fins. Of the many genera found in tropical waters several are remarkable
for the sharply defined coloration, suggesting that of the snake.
Characteristic species are Chlevastes colubrinus and Leiuranus semicinctus,
two beautifully banded species of Polynesia, living in the same holes in the
reefs and colored in the same fashion. Another is Callechelys melanotænia.
The commonest species on the Atlantic coast is the plainly colored
Ophichthus gomesi.
The Murænesocidæ are large eels remarkable for their strong knife-like
teeth. Murænesox savanna occurs in the West Indies and in the
Mediterranean, Murænesox cinereus in Japan, and Murænesox coniceps on
the west coast of Mexico, all large and fierce, with teeth like shears. The
Myridæ are small and worm-like eels closely allied to the congers, having
the tail surrounded by a fin, but the nostrils labial. Myrus myrus is found in
the Mediterranean. Species of Eomyrus, Rhynchorhinus, and Paranguilla
apparently allied to Myrus occur in the Eocene. Other related families,
mostly rare or living in the deep seas, are the Ilyophidæ, Heterocongridæ,
and Dysommidæ.
Fig. 106.—Larva of Conger-eel (Leptocephalus conger), called
Leptocephalus morrissi. (After Eigenmann.)
The Snake-eels.—Most varied of the families of eels is the Ophichthyidæ,
snake-like eels recognizable by the form of the tail, which protrudes beyond
the fins. Of the many genera found in tropical waters several are remarkable
for the sharply defined coloration, suggesting that of the snake.
Characteristic species are Chlevastes colubrinus and Leiuranus semicinctus,
two beautifully banded species of Polynesia, living in the same holes in the
reefs and colored in the same fashion. Another is Callechelys melanotænia.
The commonest species on the Atlantic coast is the plainly colored
Ophichthus gomesi.
Page 191
Fig 107.—Xyrias revulsus Jordan & Snyder. Family Ophichthyidæ.
Misaki, Japan.
In the genus Sphagebranchus, very slender eels of the reefs, the fins are
almost wanting.
Fig. 108.—Myrichthys pantostigmius Jordan & McGregor. Clarion Island.
Fig. 109.—Ophichthus ocellatus (Le Sueur). Pensacola.
Allied to the Congers is the small family of duck-billed eels (Nettastomidæ)
inhabiting moderate depths of the sea. Nettastoma bolcense occurs in the
Misaki, Japan.
In the genus Sphagebranchus, very slender eels of the reefs, the fins are
almost wanting.
Fig. 108.—Myrichthys pantostigmius Jordan & McGregor. Clarion Island.
Fig. 109.—Ophichthus ocellatus (Le Sueur). Pensacola.
Allied to the Congers is the small family of duck-billed eels (Nettastomidæ)
inhabiting moderate depths of the sea. Nettastoma bolcense occurs in the
Page 192
Eocene of Monte Bolca. The produced snout forms a transition to the really
extraordinary type of thread-eels or snipe-eels (Nemichthyidæ), of which
numerous genera and species live in the oceanic depths. In Nemichthys the
long, very slender, needle-like jaws are each curved backward so that the
mouth cannot by any possibility be shut. The body is excessively slender
and the fish swims with swift undulations, often near the surface, and when
seen is usually taken for a snake. The best-known species is Nemichthys
scolopaceus of the Atlantic and Pacific. Nemichthys avocetta, very much
like it, has been twice taken in Puget Sound.
Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.—In the suborder Colocephali
(κολός, deficient; κεφαλή, head) the palatopterygoid arch and the
membrane-bones generally are very rudimentary. The skull is thus
very narrow, the gill-structures are not well developed, and in the
chief family there are no pectoral fins. This group is very closely
related to the Enchelycephali, from which it is probably derived.
In the great family of morays
(Murænidæ) the teeth are often very
highly developed. The muscles are
always very strong and the spines bite Fig. 111.—Jaws of
savagely, a live moray being often able Nemichthys avocetta
to drive men out of a boat. The skin is Jordan & Gilbert.
thick and leathery, and the coloration is
highly specialized, the pattern of color
being often elaborate and brilliant. In Echidna zebra for example
the body is wine-brown, with cross-stripes of golden yellow. In
Muræna each nostril has a barbel. Muræna helena, the oldest moray
known, is found in Europe. In Gymnothorax, the largest genus, only
the anterior nostrils are thus provided. Gymnothorax mordax of
California is a large food-fish, as are also the brown Gymnothorax
funebris and the spotted Gymnothorax moringa in the West Indies.
These and many other species may coil themselves in crevices in
the reefs, whence they strike out at their prey like snakes, taking
perhaps the head of a duck or the finger of a man.
In many of the morays the jaws are so curved and the mouth so
filled with knife-like teeth that the jaws cannot be closed. This fact,
extraordinary type of thread-eels or snipe-eels (Nemichthyidæ), of which
numerous genera and species live in the oceanic depths. In Nemichthys the
long, very slender, needle-like jaws are each curved backward so that the
mouth cannot by any possibility be shut. The body is excessively slender
and the fish swims with swift undulations, often near the surface, and when
seen is usually taken for a snake. The best-known species is Nemichthys
scolopaceus of the Atlantic and Pacific. Nemichthys avocetta, very much
like it, has been twice taken in Puget Sound.
Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.—In the suborder Colocephali
(κολός, deficient; κεφαλή, head) the palatopterygoid arch and the
membrane-bones generally are very rudimentary. The skull is thus
very narrow, the gill-structures are not well developed, and in the
chief family there are no pectoral fins. This group is very closely
related to the Enchelycephali, from which it is probably derived.
In the great family of morays
(Murænidæ) the teeth are often very
highly developed. The muscles are
always very strong and the spines bite Fig. 111.—Jaws of
savagely, a live moray being often able Nemichthys avocetta
to drive men out of a boat. The skin is Jordan & Gilbert.
thick and leathery, and the coloration is
highly specialized, the pattern of color
being often elaborate and brilliant. In Echidna zebra for example
the body is wine-brown, with cross-stripes of golden yellow. In
Muræna each nostril has a barbel. Muræna helena, the oldest moray
known, is found in Europe. In Gymnothorax, the largest genus, only
the anterior nostrils are thus provided. Gymnothorax mordax of
California is a large food-fish, as are also the brown Gymnothorax
funebris and the spotted Gymnothorax moringa in the West Indies.
These and many other species may coil themselves in crevices in
the reefs, whence they strike out at their prey like snakes, taking
perhaps the head of a duck or the finger of a man.
In many of the morays the jaws are so curved and the mouth so
filled with knife-like teeth that the jaws cannot be closed. This fact,
Page 193
Fig. however, renders no assistance to their prey, as the teeth are adapted
110. for holding as well as for cutting.
— In Enchelynassa bleekeri, a huge wine-colored eel of the South
Thre Seas, the teeth are larger than in any other species. Evenchelys
ad- (macrurus) is remarkable for its extraordinary length of tail,
eel, Echidna for its blunt teeth, and Scuticaria, Uropterygius, and
Nemi Channomuræna for the almost complete absence of fins. In
chthy Anarchias (allardicei; knighti), the anal fin is absent. The flesh of
s the morays is rather agreeable in taste, but usually oily and not
avoc readily digestible, less wholesome than that of the true eels.
etta
Jorda
n&
Gilb
ert.
Vanc
ouve
r
Islan
d.
Fig. 112.—Muræna retifera Garman. Charleston, S. C.
The Myrocongridæ are small morays with developed pectoral fins. The
species are few and little known.
110. for holding as well as for cutting.
— In Enchelynassa bleekeri, a huge wine-colored eel of the South
Thre Seas, the teeth are larger than in any other species. Evenchelys
ad- (macrurus) is remarkable for its extraordinary length of tail,
eel, Echidna for its blunt teeth, and Scuticaria, Uropterygius, and
Nemi Channomuræna for the almost complete absence of fins. In
chthy Anarchias (allardicei; knighti), the anal fin is absent. The flesh of
s the morays is rather agreeable in taste, but usually oily and not
avoc readily digestible, less wholesome than that of the true eels.
etta
Jorda
n&
Gilb
ert.
Vanc
ouve
r
Islan
d.
Fig. 112.—Muræna retifera Garman. Charleston, S. C.
The Myrocongridæ are small morays with developed pectoral fins. The
species are few and little known.
Page 194
Family Moringuidæ.—Structurally one of the most peculiar of the groups
of eels is the small family of Moringuidæ of the East and West Indies. In
these very slender, almost worm-like fishes the heart is placed very far
behind the gills and the tail is very short. The fins are very little developed,
and some forms, as Gordiichthys irretitus of the Gulf of Mexico, the body
as slender as a whiplash, possess a very great number of vertebræ.
Moringua hawaiiensis occurs in Hawaii, M. edwardsi in the Bahamas. This
family probably belongs with the morays to the group of Colocephali,
although its real relationships are not wholly certain.
Order Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.—Certain offshoots from the
Apodes so widely diverging in structure that they must apparently be
considered as distinct orders occur sparingly in the deep seas. One of these,
Derichthys serpentinus, the long-necked eel, constitutes the sole known
species of the suborder Carencheli (καρά, head; ἔγχελυς, eel). In this group
the premaxillaries and maxillaries are present as in ordinary fishes, but
united by suture and soldered to the cranium. As in true eels, the shoulder-
girdle is remote from the skull. The head is set on a snake-like neck. The
single species representing the family Derichthyidæ was found in the
abysmal depths of the Gulf Stream.
Fig. 113.—Gymnothorax berndti Snyder. Hawaii. Family Murænidæ.
of eels is the small family of Moringuidæ of the East and West Indies. In
these very slender, almost worm-like fishes the heart is placed very far
behind the gills and the tail is very short. The fins are very little developed,
and some forms, as Gordiichthys irretitus of the Gulf of Mexico, the body
as slender as a whiplash, possess a very great number of vertebræ.
Moringua hawaiiensis occurs in Hawaii, M. edwardsi in the Bahamas. This
family probably belongs with the morays to the group of Colocephali,
although its real relationships are not wholly certain.
Order Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.—Certain offshoots from the
Apodes so widely diverging in structure that they must apparently be
considered as distinct orders occur sparingly in the deep seas. One of these,
Derichthys serpentinus, the long-necked eel, constitutes the sole known
species of the suborder Carencheli (καρά, head; ἔγχελυς, eel). In this group
the premaxillaries and maxillaries are present as in ordinary fishes, but
united by suture and soldered to the cranium. As in true eels, the shoulder-
girdle is remote from the skull. The head is set on a snake-like neck. The
single species representing the family Derichthyidæ was found in the
abysmal depths of the Gulf Stream.
Fig. 113.—Gymnothorax berndti Snyder. Hawaii. Family Murænidæ.
Page 195
Fig. 114.—Gymnothorax jordani (Evermann & Marsh). Family
Murænidæ. Puerto Rico.
Fig. 115.—Moray, Gymnothorax moringa Bloch. Family Murænidæ.
Tortugas.
Murænidæ. Puerto Rico.
Fig. 115.—Moray, Gymnothorax moringa Bloch. Family Murænidæ.
Tortugas.
Page 196
Fig. 116.—Derichthys serpentinus Gill. Gulf Stream.
Fig. 117.—Gulper-eel, Gastrostomus bairdi Gill & Ryder. Gulf Stream.
Order Lyomeri, or Gulpers.—Still more aberrent and in many respects
extraordinary are the eels of the order or suborder Lyomeri (λυός, loose;
μέρος, part), known as "Gulpers." These are degenerate forms, possibly
degraded from some conger-like type, but characterized by an extreme
looseness of structure unique among fishes. The gill-arches are reduced to
five small bars of bone, not attached to the skull, the palatopterygoid arch is
wholly wanting, the premaxillaries are wanting, as in all true eels, and the
maxillaries loosely joined to the skull. The symplectic bone is wanting, and
the lower jaw is so hinged to the skull that it swings freely in various
directions. In place of the lateral line are singular appendages. Dr. Gill says
of these fishes: "The entire organization is peculiar to the extent of anomaly,
and our old conceptions of the characteristics of a fish require to be
modified in the light of our knowledge of such strange beings." Special
features are the extraordinary size of the mouth, which has a cavity larger
than that of the rest of the body, the insertion of the very small eye at the tip
of the snout, and the relative length of the tail. The whole substance is
Fig. 117.—Gulper-eel, Gastrostomus bairdi Gill & Ryder. Gulf Stream.
Order Lyomeri, or Gulpers.—Still more aberrent and in many respects
extraordinary are the eels of the order or suborder Lyomeri (λυός, loose;
μέρος, part), known as "Gulpers." These are degenerate forms, possibly
degraded from some conger-like type, but characterized by an extreme
looseness of structure unique among fishes. The gill-arches are reduced to
five small bars of bone, not attached to the skull, the palatopterygoid arch is
wholly wanting, the premaxillaries are wanting, as in all true eels, and the
maxillaries loosely joined to the skull. The symplectic bone is wanting, and
the lower jaw is so hinged to the skull that it swings freely in various
directions. In place of the lateral line are singular appendages. Dr. Gill says
of these fishes: "The entire organization is peculiar to the extent of anomaly,
and our old conceptions of the characteristics of a fish require to be
modified in the light of our knowledge of such strange beings." Special
features are the extraordinary size of the mouth, which has a cavity larger
than that of the rest of the body, the insertion of the very small eye at the tip
of the snout, and the relative length of the tail. The whole substance is
Page 197
excessively fragile as usual with animals living in great depths and the color
is jet black. Three species have been described, and these have been placed
in two families, Saccopharyngidæ, with the trunk (gill-opening to the vent)
much longer than the head, and Eurypharyngidæ, with the trunk very short,
much shorter than the head. The best-known species is the pelican eel
(Eurypharynx pelacanoides), of the coast of Morocco, described by Vaillant
in 1882. Gastrostomus bairdi, very much like it, occurs in the great depths
under the Gulf Stream. So fragile and so easily distorted are these fishes
that it is possible that all three are really the same species, for which the
oldest name would be Saccopharynx ampullaceus. Of this form four
specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, one of them six feet long, carried
to the surface through having swallowed fishes too large to be controlled.
To be carried above its depth in a struggle with its prey is one of the greatest
dangers to which the abysmal fishes are subject.
Order Heteromi.—The order of Heteromi (ἑτερός, different; ὤμος,
shoulder), or spiny eels, may be here noticed for want of a better place, as
its affinities are very uncertain. Some writers have regarded it as allied to
the eels; some have placed it among the Ganoids. Others have found
affinities with the sticklebacks, and still others with the singular fresh-water
fishes called Mastacembelus. The Heteromi agree with the eels, as well as
with Mastacembelus, in having the scapular arch separate from the cranium.
Unlike all the true eels, most of the species have true dorsal and anal spines,
as in the Percesoces and Hemibranchii. The ventral fins, when present, are
abdominal and each with several spines in front, a character not found
among the Acanthopteri. There is no mesocoracoid.
The air-bladder has a duct, and the coracoids, much as in the Xenomi, are
reduced to a single lamellar imperforate plate. The two groups have little
else in common, however, and this trait is possibly primitive in both cases,
more likely to have arisen through independent degeneration. The
separation of the shoulder-girdle doubtless indicates no affinity with the
eels, as the bones of the jaws are quite normal. Two families are known,
both from the deep sea, besides an extinct family in which spines are not
developed.
The Notacanthidæ are elongate, compressed, ending in a band-shaped,
tapering tail; the back has numerous free spines and few or no soft rays, and
the mouth is normal, provided with teeth. The species of Notacanthus are
is jet black. Three species have been described, and these have been placed
in two families, Saccopharyngidæ, with the trunk (gill-opening to the vent)
much longer than the head, and Eurypharyngidæ, with the trunk very short,
much shorter than the head. The best-known species is the pelican eel
(Eurypharynx pelacanoides), of the coast of Morocco, described by Vaillant
in 1882. Gastrostomus bairdi, very much like it, occurs in the great depths
under the Gulf Stream. So fragile and so easily distorted are these fishes
that it is possible that all three are really the same species, for which the
oldest name would be Saccopharynx ampullaceus. Of this form four
specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, one of them six feet long, carried
to the surface through having swallowed fishes too large to be controlled.
To be carried above its depth in a struggle with its prey is one of the greatest
dangers to which the abysmal fishes are subject.
Order Heteromi.—The order of Heteromi (ἑτερός, different; ὤμος,
shoulder), or spiny eels, may be here noticed for want of a better place, as
its affinities are very uncertain. Some writers have regarded it as allied to
the eels; some have placed it among the Ganoids. Others have found
affinities with the sticklebacks, and still others with the singular fresh-water
fishes called Mastacembelus. The Heteromi agree with the eels, as well as
with Mastacembelus, in having the scapular arch separate from the cranium.
Unlike all the true eels, most of the species have true dorsal and anal spines,
as in the Percesoces and Hemibranchii. The ventral fins, when present, are
abdominal and each with several spines in front, a character not found
among the Acanthopteri. There is no mesocoracoid.
The air-bladder has a duct, and the coracoids, much as in the Xenomi, are
reduced to a single lamellar imperforate plate. The two groups have little
else in common, however, and this trait is possibly primitive in both cases,
more likely to have arisen through independent degeneration. The
separation of the shoulder-girdle doubtless indicates no affinity with the
eels, as the bones of the jaws are quite normal. Two families are known,
both from the deep sea, besides an extinct family in which spines are not
developed.
The Notacanthidæ are elongate, compressed, ending in a band-shaped,
tapering tail; the back has numerous free spines and few or no soft rays, and
the mouth is normal, provided with teeth. The species of Notacanthus are
Page 198
few and scantily preserved. Those of Macdonaldia are more abundant.
Macdonaldia challengeri is from the North Pacific, being once taken off
Tokio. The extinct family of Protonotacanthidæ differs in the total absence
of dorsal spines and fin-rays; the single species, Pronotocanthus sahel-
almæ, originally described as a primitive eel, occurs in the Cretaceous of
Mount Lebanon.
The Lipogenyidæ have a round, sucker-like mouth, with imperfect lower
jaw, but are otherwise similar. Lipogenys gilli was dredged in the Gulf
Stream.
Fig. 118.—Notacanthus phasganorus Goode & Bean. Grand Banks.
Dr. Boulenger has recently extended the group of Heteromi by the addition
of the Dercetidæ, Halosauridæ (Lyopomi), and the Fierasferidæ. We can
hardly suppose that all these forms are really allied to Notacanthus.
Macdonaldia challengeri is from the North Pacific, being once taken off
Tokio. The extinct family of Protonotacanthidæ differs in the total absence
of dorsal spines and fin-rays; the single species, Pronotocanthus sahel-
almæ, originally described as a primitive eel, occurs in the Cretaceous of
Mount Lebanon.
The Lipogenyidæ have a round, sucker-like mouth, with imperfect lower
jaw, but are otherwise similar. Lipogenys gilli was dredged in the Gulf
Stream.
Fig. 118.—Notacanthus phasganorus Goode & Bean. Grand Banks.
Dr. Boulenger has recently extended the group of Heteromi by the addition
of the Dercetidæ, Halosauridæ (Lyopomi), and the Fierasferidæ. We can
hardly suppose that all these forms are really allied to Notacanthus.
Page 199
CHAPTER VIII
SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI
stariophysi.—A large group of orders, certainly of common
descent, may be brought together under the general name of
Ostariophysi (ὀσταρίον, a small bone; θυσός, inflated). These
are in many ways allied to the Isospondyli, but they have
undergone great changes of structure, some of the species
being highly specialized, others variously degenerate. A chief character is
shared by all the species. The anterior vertebræ are enlarged, interlocked,
considerably modified, and through them a series of small bones connect
the air-bladder with the ear. The air-bladder thus becomes apparently an
organ of hearing through a form of connection which is lost in all the higher
fishes.
In all the members of this group excepting perhaps the degraded eel-like
forms called Gymnonoti, the mesocoracoid arch persists, a trait found in all
the living types of Ganoids, as well as in the Teleost order of Isospondyli.
Other traits of the Ostariophysan fishes are shared by the Isospondyli
(herring, salmon) and other soft-rayed fishes. The air-bladder is large, but
not cellular. It leads through life by an open duct to the œsophagus. The
ventral fins are abdominal in position. The pectorals are inserted low. A
mesocoracoid arch is developed on the inner side of the shoulder-girdle.
(See Fig. 119.) There are no spines on the fins, except in many cases a
single one, a modified soft ray at front of dorsal or pectoral. The scales, if
present, are cycloid or replaced by bony plates.
Many of the species have an armature much like that of the sturgeon, but
here the resemblance ends, the bony plates in the two cases being without
doubt independently evolved. According to Cope, the affinities of the
SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI
stariophysi.—A large group of orders, certainly of common
descent, may be brought together under the general name of
Ostariophysi (ὀσταρίον, a small bone; θυσός, inflated). These
are in many ways allied to the Isospondyli, but they have
undergone great changes of structure, some of the species
being highly specialized, others variously degenerate. A chief character is
shared by all the species. The anterior vertebræ are enlarged, interlocked,
considerably modified, and through them a series of small bones connect
the air-bladder with the ear. The air-bladder thus becomes apparently an
organ of hearing through a form of connection which is lost in all the higher
fishes.
In all the members of this group excepting perhaps the degraded eel-like
forms called Gymnonoti, the mesocoracoid arch persists, a trait found in all
the living types of Ganoids, as well as in the Teleost order of Isospondyli.
Other traits of the Ostariophysan fishes are shared by the Isospondyli
(herring, salmon) and other soft-rayed fishes. The air-bladder is large, but
not cellular. It leads through life by an open duct to the œsophagus. The
ventral fins are abdominal in position. The pectorals are inserted low. A
mesocoracoid arch is developed on the inner side of the shoulder-girdle.
(See Fig. 119.) There are no spines on the fins, except in many cases a
single one, a modified soft ray at front of dorsal or pectoral. The scales, if
present, are cycloid or replaced by bony plates.
Many of the species have an armature much like that of the sturgeon, but
here the resemblance ends, the bony plates in the two cases being without
doubt independently evolved. According to Cope, the affinities of the
Page 200
catfishes to the sturgeon are "seen in the absence of symplectic, the
rudimentary maxillary bone, and, as observed by Parker, in the
interclavicles. There is also a superficial resemblance in the dermal bones."
But it is not likely that any real affinity exists.
The sturgeons lack
the characteristic
auditory ossicles, or
"Weberian
apparatus," which
the catfishes possess
in common with the
carp family, the
Characins, and the
Gymnonoti. These
orders must at least
have a common
origin, although this
origin is obscure,
and fossil remains
give little help to the
solution of the
problem. Probably
the ancestors of the
Ostariophysi are to
be found among the
allies of the
Osteoglossidæ. Gill
has called attention
to the resemblance
of Erythrinus to
Amia. In any event,
Fig. 119.—Inner view of shoulder-girdle of the all the Ostariophysi
Buffalo-fish. Ictiobus bubalus Rafinesque, showing must be considered
the mesocoracoid (59). (After Starks.) together, as it is not
conceivable that so
complex a structure
as the Weberian apparatus should have been more than once independently
rudimentary maxillary bone, and, as observed by Parker, in the
interclavicles. There is also a superficial resemblance in the dermal bones."
But it is not likely that any real affinity exists.
The sturgeons lack
the characteristic
auditory ossicles, or
"Weberian
apparatus," which
the catfishes possess
in common with the
carp family, the
Characins, and the
Gymnonoti. These
orders must at least
have a common
origin, although this
origin is obscure,
and fossil remains
give little help to the
solution of the
problem. Probably
the ancestors of the
Ostariophysi are to
be found among the
allies of the
Osteoglossidæ. Gill
has called attention
to the resemblance
of Erythrinus to
Amia. In any event,
Fig. 119.—Inner view of shoulder-girdle of the all the Ostariophysi
Buffalo-fish. Ictiobus bubalus Rafinesque, showing must be considered
the mesocoracoid (59). (After Starks.) together, as it is not
conceivable that so
complex a structure
as the Weberian apparatus should have been more than once independently
Page 201
evolved. The branchiostegals, numerous among the Isospondyli, are mostly
few among the Ostariophysi.
Fig. 120.—Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp. (From Günther,
after Weber.)
To the Ostariophysi belong the vast majority of the fresh-water fishes of the
world. Their primitive structure is shown in many ways; among others by
the large number of vertebræ instead of the usual twenty-four among the
more highly specialized families of fishes. We may group the Ostariophysi
under four orders: Heterognathi, Eventognathi (Plectospondyli),
Nematognathi, and Gymnonoti.
The Heterognathi.—Of these the order of Heterognathi seems to be the
most primitive, but in some ways the most highly developed, showing
fewer traits of degeneration than any of the others. The presence of the
adipose fin in this group and in the catfishes seems to indicate some sort of
real affinity with the salmon-like forms, although there has been great
change in other regards.
The order Heterognathi, or Characini (ἕτερος, different; γνάθος, jaw),
contains those Ostariophysi which retain the mesocoracoid and are not eel-
like, and which have the lower pharyngeals developed as in ordinary fishes.
In most cases an adipose fin is present and there are strong teeth in the jaws.
There are no pseudobranchiæ, and, as in the Cyprinidæ, usually but three
few among the Ostariophysi.
Fig. 120.—Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp. (From Günther,
after Weber.)
To the Ostariophysi belong the vast majority of the fresh-water fishes of the
world. Their primitive structure is shown in many ways; among others by
the large number of vertebræ instead of the usual twenty-four among the
more highly specialized families of fishes. We may group the Ostariophysi
under four orders: Heterognathi, Eventognathi (Plectospondyli),
Nematognathi, and Gymnonoti.
The Heterognathi.—Of these the order of Heterognathi seems to be the
most primitive, but in some ways the most highly developed, showing
fewer traits of degeneration than any of the others. The presence of the
adipose fin in this group and in the catfishes seems to indicate some sort of
real affinity with the salmon-like forms, although there has been great
change in other regards.
The order Heterognathi, or Characini (ἕτερος, different; γνάθος, jaw),
contains those Ostariophysi which retain the mesocoracoid and are not eel-
like, and which have the lower pharyngeals developed as in ordinary fishes.
In most cases an adipose fin is present and there are strong teeth in the jaws.
There are no pseudobranchiæ, and, as in the Cyprinidæ, usually but three
Page 202
branchiostegals. The Characidæ constitute the majority of the fresh-water
fishes in those regions which have neither Cyprinidæ nor Salmonidæ.
Nearly four hundred species are known from the rivers of South America
and Africa. A single species, Tetragonopterus argentatus, extends its range
northward to the Rio Grande in Texas. None are found in Asia, Europe, or,
with this single exception, in the United States. Most of them are small
fishes with deep bodies and very sharp, serrated, incisor-like teeth. Some
are as innocuous as minnows, which they very much resemble, but others
are extremely voracious and destructive in the highest degree. Of the caribe,
belonging to the genus Serrasalmo, known by its serrated belly, Dr. Günther
observes:
"Their voracity, fearlessness and number render them a perfect pest in many
rivers of tropical America. In all the teeth are strong, short, sharp,
sometimes lobed incisors, arranged in one or more series; by means of them
they cut off a mouthful of flesh as with a pair of scissors; and any animal
falling into the water where these fish abound is immediately attacked and
cut to pieces in an incredibly short time. They assail persons entering the
water, inflicting dangerous wounds before the victims are able to make their
escape. In some localities it is scarcely possible to catch fishes with the
hook and line, as the fish hooked is immediately attacked by the 'caribe' (as
these fish are called), and torn to pieces before it can be withdrawn from the
water. The caribes themselves are rarely hooked, as they snap the hook or
cut the line. The smell of blood is said to attract at once thousands of these
fishes to the spot."
Two families of Heterognathi are recognized: the Erythrinidæ, which lack
the adipose fin, and the Characidæ, in which this fin is developed. The
Erythrinidæ are large pike-like fishes of the South American rivers, robust
and tenacious of life, with large mouths armed with strong unequal teeth.
The best-known species is the Trahira (Hoplias malabaricus).
fishes in those regions which have neither Cyprinidæ nor Salmonidæ.
Nearly four hundred species are known from the rivers of South America
and Africa. A single species, Tetragonopterus argentatus, extends its range
northward to the Rio Grande in Texas. None are found in Asia, Europe, or,
with this single exception, in the United States. Most of them are small
fishes with deep bodies and very sharp, serrated, incisor-like teeth. Some
are as innocuous as minnows, which they very much resemble, but others
are extremely voracious and destructive in the highest degree. Of the caribe,
belonging to the genus Serrasalmo, known by its serrated belly, Dr. Günther
observes:
"Their voracity, fearlessness and number render them a perfect pest in many
rivers of tropical America. In all the teeth are strong, short, sharp,
sometimes lobed incisors, arranged in one or more series; by means of them
they cut off a mouthful of flesh as with a pair of scissors; and any animal
falling into the water where these fish abound is immediately attacked and
cut to pieces in an incredibly short time. They assail persons entering the
water, inflicting dangerous wounds before the victims are able to make their
escape. In some localities it is scarcely possible to catch fishes with the
hook and line, as the fish hooked is immediately attacked by the 'caribe' (as
these fish are called), and torn to pieces before it can be withdrawn from the
water. The caribes themselves are rarely hooked, as they snap the hook or
cut the line. The smell of blood is said to attract at once thousands of these
fishes to the spot."
Two families of Heterognathi are recognized: the Erythrinidæ, which lack
the adipose fin, and the Characidæ, in which this fin is developed. The
Erythrinidæ are large pike-like fishes of the South American rivers, robust
and tenacious of life, with large mouths armed with strong unequal teeth.
The best-known species is the Trahira (Hoplias malabaricus).
Page 203
Fig. 121.—Brycon dentex Günther. Family Characidæ. Nicaragua.
Among the Characidæ, Serrasalmo has been already noticed. Citharinus in
Africa has very few teeth, and Curimatus in South America none at all.
Nannocharax in Africa is composed of very diminutive fishes, Hydrocyon
exceedingly voracious ones, reaching a length of four feet, with savage
teeth. Many of the species are allies of Tetragonopterus, small, silvery,
bream-like fishes with flat bodies and serrated incisor teeth. Most of these
are American. A related genus is Brycon, found in the streams about the
Isthmus of Panama.
Extinct Characins are very rare. Two species from the Tertiary lignite of
São Paulo, Brazil, have been referred to Tetragonopterus—T. avus and T.
ligniticus.
The Eventognathi.—The Eventognathi (ἔυ, well; ἔν, within; γνάθος, jaw)
are characterized by the absence of teeth in the jaws and by the high degree
of specialization of the lower pharyngeals, which are scythe-shaped and in
typical forms are armed with a relatively small number of highly
specialized teeth of peculiar shape and arranged in one, two, or three rows.
In all the species the gill-openings are restricted to the sides; there is no
adipose fin, and the broad, flat branchiostegals are but three in number. In
all the species the scales, if present, are cycloid, and the ventral fins, of
course, abdominal. The modification of the four anterior vertebræ and their
connection with the air bladder are essentially as seen in the catfishes.
Among the Characidæ, Serrasalmo has been already noticed. Citharinus in
Africa has very few teeth, and Curimatus in South America none at all.
Nannocharax in Africa is composed of very diminutive fishes, Hydrocyon
exceedingly voracious ones, reaching a length of four feet, with savage
teeth. Many of the species are allies of Tetragonopterus, small, silvery,
bream-like fishes with flat bodies and serrated incisor teeth. Most of these
are American. A related genus is Brycon, found in the streams about the
Isthmus of Panama.
Extinct Characins are very rare. Two species from the Tertiary lignite of
São Paulo, Brazil, have been referred to Tetragonopterus—T. avus and T.
ligniticus.
The Eventognathi.—The Eventognathi (ἔυ, well; ἔν, within; γνάθος, jaw)
are characterized by the absence of teeth in the jaws and by the high degree
of specialization of the lower pharyngeals, which are scythe-shaped and in
typical forms are armed with a relatively small number of highly
specialized teeth of peculiar shape and arranged in one, two, or three rows.
In all the species the gill-openings are restricted to the sides; there is no
adipose fin, and the broad, flat branchiostegals are but three in number. In
all the species the scales, if present, are cycloid, and the ventral fins, of
course, abdominal. The modification of the four anterior vertebræ and their
connection with the air bladder are essentially as seen in the catfishes.
Page 204
The name Plectospondyli is often used for this group (πλεκτός, interwoven;
σπόνδυλος, vertebra), but that term originally included the Characins as
well.
Fig. 122.—Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, Leuciscus
cephalus (Linnæus). (After Seelye.)
The Cyprinidæ.—The chief family of the Eventognathi and the largest of
all the families of fishes is that of Cyprinidæ, comprising 200 genera and
over 2000 species, found throughout the north temperate zone but not
extending to the Arctic Circle on the north, nor much beyond the Tropic of
Cancer on the south. In this family belong all the fishes known as carp,
dace, chub, roach, bleak, minnow, bream, and shiner. The essential
character of the family lies in the presence of one, two, or three rows of
highly specialized teeth on the lower pharyngeals, the main row containing
4, 5, 6, or 7 teeth, the others 1 to 3. The teeth of the main row differ in form
according to the food of the fish. They may be coarse and blunt, molar-like
in those which feed on shells; they may be hooked at tip in those which eat
smaller fishes; they may be serrated or not; they may have an excavated
"grinding surface," which is most developed in the species which feed on
mud and have long intestines. In the Cyprinidæ, or carp family, the barbels
are small or wanting, the head is naked, the caudal fin forked, the mouth is
σπόνδυλος, vertebra), but that term originally included the Characins as
well.
Fig. 122.—Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, Leuciscus
cephalus (Linnæus). (After Seelye.)
The Cyprinidæ.—The chief family of the Eventognathi and the largest of
all the families of fishes is that of Cyprinidæ, comprising 200 genera and
over 2000 species, found throughout the north temperate zone but not
extending to the Arctic Circle on the north, nor much beyond the Tropic of
Cancer on the south. In this family belong all the fishes known as carp,
dace, chub, roach, bleak, minnow, bream, and shiner. The essential
character of the family lies in the presence of one, two, or three rows of
highly specialized teeth on the lower pharyngeals, the main row containing
4, 5, 6, or 7 teeth, the others 1 to 3. The teeth of the main row differ in form
according to the food of the fish. They may be coarse and blunt, molar-like
in those which feed on shells; they may be hooked at tip in those which eat
smaller fishes; they may be serrated or not; they may have an excavated
"grinding surface," which is most developed in the species which feed on
mud and have long intestines. In the Cyprinidæ, or carp family, the barbels
are small or wanting, the head is naked, the caudal fin forked, the mouth is
Page 205
toothless and without sucking lips, and the premaxillaries form its entire
margin. With a few exceptions the Cyprinidæ are small and feeble fishes.
They form most of the food of the predatory river fishes, and their great
abundance in competition with these is due to their fecundity and their
insignificance. They spawn profusely and find everywhere an abundance of
food. Often they check the increase of predatory fish by the destruction of
their eggs.
In many of the genera the breeding color of the males is very brilliant,
rendering these little creatures for a time the most beautifully colored of
fishes. In spring and early summer the fins, sides, and head in the males are
often charged with pigment, the prevailing color of which is rosy, though
often satin-white, orange, crimson, yellow, greenish, or jet black. Among
American genera Chrosomus, Notropis, and Rhinichthys are most highly
colored. Rhodeus, Rutilus, and Zacco in the Old World are also often very
brilliant.
Fig. 123.—Black-nosed Dace, Rhinichthys dulcis Girard. Yellowstone
River.
In very many species, especially in America, the male in the breeding
season is often more or less covered with small, grayish tubercles or pearly
bodies, outgrowths of the epidermis. These are most numerous on the head
and fall off after the breeding season. They are most developed in
Campostoma.
margin. With a few exceptions the Cyprinidæ are small and feeble fishes.
They form most of the food of the predatory river fishes, and their great
abundance in competition with these is due to their fecundity and their
insignificance. They spawn profusely and find everywhere an abundance of
food. Often they check the increase of predatory fish by the destruction of
their eggs.
In many of the genera the breeding color of the males is very brilliant,
rendering these little creatures for a time the most beautifully colored of
fishes. In spring and early summer the fins, sides, and head in the males are
often charged with pigment, the prevailing color of which is rosy, though
often satin-white, orange, crimson, yellow, greenish, or jet black. Among
American genera Chrosomus, Notropis, and Rhinichthys are most highly
colored. Rhodeus, Rutilus, and Zacco in the Old World are also often very
brilliant.
Fig. 123.—Black-nosed Dace, Rhinichthys dulcis Girard. Yellowstone
River.
In very many species, especially in America, the male in the breeding
season is often more or less covered with small, grayish tubercles or pearly
bodies, outgrowths of the epidermis. These are most numerous on the head
and fall off after the breeding season. They are most developed in
Campostoma.
Page 206
The Cyprinidæ are little valued as food-fishes. The carp, largely
domesticated in small ponds for food, is coarse and tasteless. Most of the
others are flavorless and full of small bones. One species, Opsariichthys
uncirostris, of Japan is an exception in this regard, being a fish of very
delicate flavor.
Fig. 124.—White Chub, Notropis hudsonius (Clinton). Kilpatrick Lake,
Minn.
Fig. 125.—Silver-jaw Minnow, Ericymba buccata Cope. Defiance, Ohio.
domesticated in small ponds for food, is coarse and tasteless. Most of the
others are flavorless and full of small bones. One species, Opsariichthys
uncirostris, of Japan is an exception in this regard, being a fish of very
delicate flavor.
Fig. 124.—White Chub, Notropis hudsonius (Clinton). Kilpatrick Lake,
Minn.
Fig. 125.—Silver-jaw Minnow, Ericymba buccata Cope. Defiance, Ohio.
Page 207
In America 225 species of Cyprinidæ are known. One hundred of these are
now usually held to form the single genus Notropis. This includes the
smaller and weaker species, from two to seven inches in length,
characterized by the loss, mostly through degeneration, of special
peculiarities of mouth, fins, and teeth. These have no barbels and never
more than four teeth in the main row. Few, if any, Asiatic species have so
small a number, and in most of these the maxillary still retains its
rudimentary barbel. But one American genus (Orthodon) has more than five
teeth in the main row and none have more than two rows or more than two
teeth in the lower row. By these and other peculiarities it would seem that
the American species are at once less primitive and less complex than the
Old World forms. There is some evidence that the group is derived from
Asia through western America, the Pacific Coast forms being much nearer
the Old World types than the forms inhabiting the Mississippi Valley. Not
many Cyprinidæ are found in Mexico, none in Cuba, South America,
Australia, Africa, or the islands to the eastward of Borneo. Many species are
very widely distributed, many others extremely local. In the genus Notropis,
each river basin in the Southern States has its series of different and mostly
highly colored species. The presence of Notropis niveus in the Neuse,
Notropis pyrrhomelas in the Santee, Notropis zonistius in the
Chattahoochee, Notropis callistius, trichroistius, and stigmaturus in the
Alabama, Notropis whipplei in the Mississippi, Notropis galacturus in the
Tennessee, and Notropis cercostigma in the Sabine forms an instructive
series in this regard. These fishes and the darters (Etheostominæ) are,
among American fishes, the groups best suited for the study of local
problems in distribution.
now usually held to form the single genus Notropis. This includes the
smaller and weaker species, from two to seven inches in length,
characterized by the loss, mostly through degeneration, of special
peculiarities of mouth, fins, and teeth. These have no barbels and never
more than four teeth in the main row. Few, if any, Asiatic species have so
small a number, and in most of these the maxillary still retains its
rudimentary barbel. But one American genus (Orthodon) has more than five
teeth in the main row and none have more than two rows or more than two
teeth in the lower row. By these and other peculiarities it would seem that
the American species are at once less primitive and less complex than the
Old World forms. There is some evidence that the group is derived from
Asia through western America, the Pacific Coast forms being much nearer
the Old World types than the forms inhabiting the Mississippi Valley. Not
many Cyprinidæ are found in Mexico, none in Cuba, South America,
Australia, Africa, or the islands to the eastward of Borneo. Many species are
very widely distributed, many others extremely local. In the genus Notropis,
each river basin in the Southern States has its series of different and mostly
highly colored species. The presence of Notropis niveus in the Neuse,
Notropis pyrrhomelas in the Santee, Notropis zonistius in the
Chattahoochee, Notropis callistius, trichroistius, and stigmaturus in the
Alabama, Notropis whipplei in the Mississippi, Notropis galacturus in the
Tennessee, and Notropis cercostigma in the Sabine forms an instructive
series in this regard. These fishes and the darters (Etheostominæ) are,
among American fishes, the groups best suited for the study of local
problems in distribution.
Page 208
Fig. 126.—Silverfin, Notropis whipplei (Girard). White River, Indiana.
Family Cyprinidæ.
Species of Dace and Shiner.—Noteworthy species in other genera are the
following:
Largest and best known of the species of Notropis is the familiar shiner or
redfin, Notropis cornutus, found in almost every brook throughout the
region east of the Missouri River.
Campostoma anomalum, the stone-roller, has the very long intestines six
times the length of its body, arranged in fifteen coils around the air-bladder.
This species feeds on mud and spawns in little brooks, swarming in early
spring throughout the Mississippi Valley, and is notable for its nuptial
tubercles and the black and orange fins.
Family Cyprinidæ.
Species of Dace and Shiner.—Noteworthy species in other genera are the
following:
Largest and best known of the species of Notropis is the familiar shiner or
redfin, Notropis cornutus, found in almost every brook throughout the
region east of the Missouri River.
Campostoma anomalum, the stone-roller, has the very long intestines six
times the length of its body, arranged in fifteen coils around the air-bladder.
This species feeds on mud and spawns in little brooks, swarming in early
spring throughout the Mississippi Valley, and is notable for its nuptial
tubercles and the black and orange fins.
Page 209
Fig. 127.—Stone-roller, Campostoma anomalum (Rafinesque). Family
Cyprinidæ. Showing nuptial tubercles and intestines coiled about the air-
bladder.
In the negro-chub, Exoglossum maxillingua of the Pennsylvanian district,
the rami of the lower jaw are united for their whole length, looking like a
projecting tongue.
The fallfish, Semotilus corporalis, is the largest
chub of the Eastern rivers, 18 inches long, living
in swift, clear rivers. It is a soft fish, and
according to Thoreau "it tastes like brown paper
salted" when it is cooked. Close to this is the
horned dace, Semotilus atromaculatus, and the
horny head, Hybopsis kentuckiensis, both
among the most widely distributed of our river
fishes. These are all allied to the gudgeon Fig. 128.—Head of Day-
(Gobio gobio), a common boys' fish of the chub, Exoglossum
rivers of Europe, and much sought by anglers maxillingua (Le Sueur).
who can get nothing better. The bream, Shenandoah River.
Abramis, represented by numerous species in
Europe, has a deep compressed body and a very
long anal fin. It is also well represented in America, the golden shiner,
common in Eastern and Southern streams, being Abramis chrysoleucus. The
bleak of Europe (Alburnus alburnus) is a "shiner" close to some of our
species of Notropis, while the minnow of Europe, Phoxinus phoxinus,
Cyprinidæ. Showing nuptial tubercles and intestines coiled about the air-
bladder.
In the negro-chub, Exoglossum maxillingua of the Pennsylvanian district,
the rami of the lower jaw are united for their whole length, looking like a
projecting tongue.
The fallfish, Semotilus corporalis, is the largest
chub of the Eastern rivers, 18 inches long, living
in swift, clear rivers. It is a soft fish, and
according to Thoreau "it tastes like brown paper
salted" when it is cooked. Close to this is the
horned dace, Semotilus atromaculatus, and the
horny head, Hybopsis kentuckiensis, both
among the most widely distributed of our river
fishes. These are all allied to the gudgeon Fig. 128.—Head of Day-
(Gobio gobio), a common boys' fish of the chub, Exoglossum
rivers of Europe, and much sought by anglers maxillingua (Le Sueur).
who can get nothing better. The bream, Shenandoah River.
Abramis, represented by numerous species in
Europe, has a deep compressed body and a very
long anal fin. It is also well represented in America, the golden shiner,
common in Eastern and Southern streams, being Abramis chrysoleucus. The
bleak of Europe (Alburnus alburnus) is a "shiner" close to some of our
species of Notropis, while the minnow of Europe, Phoxinus phoxinus,
Page 210
resembles our gorgeously colored Chrosomus erythrogaster. Other
European forms are the roach (Rutilus rutilus), the chub (Leuciscus
cephalus), the dace (Leuciscus leuciscus), the id (Idus idus), the redeye
(Scardinius erythropthalmus), and the tench (Tinca tinca). The tench is the
largest of the European species, and its virtues with those of its more or less
insignificant allies are set forth in the pages of Izaak Walton. All of these
receive more attention from anglers in England than their relatives receive
in America. All the American Cyprinidæ are ranked as "boys' fish," and
those who seek the trout or black bass or even the perch or crappie will not
notice them. Thoreau speaks of the boy who treasures the yellow perch as a
real fish: "So many unquestionable fish he counts, then so many chubs
which he counts, then throws away."
Fig. 129.—Horned Dace, Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill). Aux Plaines
River, Ill. Family Cyprinidæ.
European forms are the roach (Rutilus rutilus), the chub (Leuciscus
cephalus), the dace (Leuciscus leuciscus), the id (Idus idus), the redeye
(Scardinius erythropthalmus), and the tench (Tinca tinca). The tench is the
largest of the European species, and its virtues with those of its more or less
insignificant allies are set forth in the pages of Izaak Walton. All of these
receive more attention from anglers in England than their relatives receive
in America. All the American Cyprinidæ are ranked as "boys' fish," and
those who seek the trout or black bass or even the perch or crappie will not
notice them. Thoreau speaks of the boy who treasures the yellow perch as a
real fish: "So many unquestionable fish he counts, then so many chubs
which he counts, then throws away."
Fig. 129.—Horned Dace, Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill). Aux Plaines
River, Ill. Family Cyprinidæ.
Page 211
Fig. 130.—Shiner, Abramis chrysoleucus (Mitchill). Hackensack River, N.
J.
Fig. 131.—The Squawfish, Ptychocheilus grandis Agassiz. (Photograph
by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Chubs of the Pacific Slope.—In the Western waters are numerous genera,
some of the species reaching a large size. The species of squawfish
(Ptychocheilus lucius in the Colorado, Ptychocheilus grandis in the
Sacramento, and Ptychocheilus oregonensis in the Columbia) reach a length
of 4 or 5 feet or even more. These fishes are long and slender, with large
toothless mouths and the aspect of a pike.
J.
Fig. 131.—The Squawfish, Ptychocheilus grandis Agassiz. (Photograph
by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Chubs of the Pacific Slope.—In the Western waters are numerous genera,
some of the species reaching a large size. The species of squawfish
(Ptychocheilus lucius in the Colorado, Ptychocheilus grandis in the
Sacramento, and Ptychocheilus oregonensis in the Columbia) reach a length
of 4 or 5 feet or even more. These fishes are long and slender, with large
toothless mouths and the aspect of a pike.
Page 212
Allied to these are the "hard tails" (Gila elegans and Gila robusta) of the
Colorado Basin, strange-looking fishes scarcely eatable, with lean bodies,
flat heads, and expanded tails. The split-tail, Pogonichthys macrolepidotus,
is found in the Sacramento.
Fig. 132.—Chub of the Great Basin, Leuciscus lineatus (Girard). Heart
Lake, Yellowstone Park. Family Cyprinidæ.
In the chisel-mouth, Acrocheilus alutaceus, of the Columbia the lips have a
hard cutting edge. In Meda, very small fishes of the Colorado Basin, the
dorsal has a compound spine of peculiar structure. Many of the species of
Western waters belong to the genus Leuciscus, which includes also many
species of Asia and Europe. The common Japanese dace (Leuciscus
hakuensis) is often found out in the sea, but, in general, Cyprinidæ are only
found in fresh waters. The genus of barbels (Barbus) contains many large
species in Europe and Asia. In these the barbel is better developed than in
most other genera, a character which seems to indicate a primitive
organization. Barbus mosal of the mountains of India is said to reach a
length of more than six feet and to have "scales as large as the palm of the
hand."
The Carp and Goldfish.—In the American and European Cyprinidæ the
dorsal fin is few-rayed, but in many Asiatic species it is longer, having 15 to
20 rays and is often preceded by a serrated spine like that of a catfish. Of
the species with long dorsal the one most celebrated is the carp (Cyprinus
carpio). This fish is a native of the rivers of China, where it has been
Colorado Basin, strange-looking fishes scarcely eatable, with lean bodies,
flat heads, and expanded tails. The split-tail, Pogonichthys macrolepidotus,
is found in the Sacramento.
Fig. 132.—Chub of the Great Basin, Leuciscus lineatus (Girard). Heart
Lake, Yellowstone Park. Family Cyprinidæ.
In the chisel-mouth, Acrocheilus alutaceus, of the Columbia the lips have a
hard cutting edge. In Meda, very small fishes of the Colorado Basin, the
dorsal has a compound spine of peculiar structure. Many of the species of
Western waters belong to the genus Leuciscus, which includes also many
species of Asia and Europe. The common Japanese dace (Leuciscus
hakuensis) is often found out in the sea, but, in general, Cyprinidæ are only
found in fresh waters. The genus of barbels (Barbus) contains many large
species in Europe and Asia. In these the barbel is better developed than in
most other genera, a character which seems to indicate a primitive
organization. Barbus mosal of the mountains of India is said to reach a
length of more than six feet and to have "scales as large as the palm of the
hand."
The Carp and Goldfish.—In the American and European Cyprinidæ the
dorsal fin is few-rayed, but in many Asiatic species it is longer, having 15 to
20 rays and is often preceded by a serrated spine like that of a catfish. Of
the species with long dorsal the one most celebrated is the carp (Cyprinus
carpio). This fish is a native of the rivers of China, where it has been
Page 213
domesticated for centuries. Nearly three hundred years ago it was brought
to northern Europe, where it has multiplied in domestication and become
naturalized in many streams and ponds. Of late years the cultivation of the
carp has attracted much attention in America. It has been generally
satisfactory where the nature of the fish is understood and where
expectations have not been too high.
The carp is a dull and sluggish fish, preferring shaded, tranquil, and weedy
waters with muddy bottoms. Its food consists of water insects and other
small animals, and vegetable matter, such as the leaves of aquatic plants.
They can be fed on much the same things as pigs and chickens, and they
bear much the same relation to trout and bass that pigs and chickens do to
wild game and game-birds. The carp is a very hardy fish, grows rapidly, and
has immense fecundity, 700,000 eggs having been found in the ovaries of a
single individual. It reaches sometimes a weight of 30 to 40 pounds. As a
food-fish the carp cannot be said to hold a high place. It is tolerated in the
absence of better fish.
The carp, either native or in domestication, has many enemies. In America,
catfish, sunfish, and pike prey upon its eggs or its young, as well as water-
snakes, turtles, kingfishes, crayfishes, and many other creatures which live
about our ponds and in sluggish streams. In domestication numerous
varieties of carp have been formed, the "leather-carp" (Lederkarpfen) being
scaleless, others, "mirror-carp" (Spiegelkarpfen), having rows of large
scales only along the lateral line or the bases of the fins.
Closely allied to the carp is the goldfish (Carassius auratus). This is also a
common Chinese fish introduced in domestication into Europe and
America. The golden-yellow color is found only in domesticated
specimens, and is retained by artificial selection. The native goldfish is
olivaceous in color, and where the species has become naturalized (as in the
Potomac River, where it has escaped from fountains in Washington) it
reverts to its natural greenish hue. The same change occurs in the rivers of
Japan. The goldfish is valued solely for its bright colors as an ornamental
fish. It has no beauty of form nor any interesting habits, and many of our
native fishes (Percidæ, Cyprinidæ) far excel it in attractiveness as aquarium
fishes. Unfortunately they are less hardy. Many varieties and monstrosities
of the goldfish have been produced by domestication.
to northern Europe, where it has multiplied in domestication and become
naturalized in many streams and ponds. Of late years the cultivation of the
carp has attracted much attention in America. It has been generally
satisfactory where the nature of the fish is understood and where
expectations have not been too high.
The carp is a dull and sluggish fish, preferring shaded, tranquil, and weedy
waters with muddy bottoms. Its food consists of water insects and other
small animals, and vegetable matter, such as the leaves of aquatic plants.
They can be fed on much the same things as pigs and chickens, and they
bear much the same relation to trout and bass that pigs and chickens do to
wild game and game-birds. The carp is a very hardy fish, grows rapidly, and
has immense fecundity, 700,000 eggs having been found in the ovaries of a
single individual. It reaches sometimes a weight of 30 to 40 pounds. As a
food-fish the carp cannot be said to hold a high place. It is tolerated in the
absence of better fish.
The carp, either native or in domestication, has many enemies. In America,
catfish, sunfish, and pike prey upon its eggs or its young, as well as water-
snakes, turtles, kingfishes, crayfishes, and many other creatures which live
about our ponds and in sluggish streams. In domestication numerous
varieties of carp have been formed, the "leather-carp" (Lederkarpfen) being
scaleless, others, "mirror-carp" (Spiegelkarpfen), having rows of large
scales only along the lateral line or the bases of the fins.
Closely allied to the carp is the goldfish (Carassius auratus). This is also a
common Chinese fish introduced in domestication into Europe and
America. The golden-yellow color is found only in domesticated
specimens, and is retained by artificial selection. The native goldfish is
olivaceous in color, and where the species has become naturalized (as in the
Potomac River, where it has escaped from fountains in Washington) it
reverts to its natural greenish hue. The same change occurs in the rivers of
Japan. The goldfish is valued solely for its bright colors as an ornamental
fish. It has no beauty of form nor any interesting habits, and many of our
native fishes (Percidæ, Cyprinidæ) far excel it in attractiveness as aquarium
fishes. Unfortunately they are less hardy. Many varieties and monstrosities
of the goldfish have been produced by domestication.
Page 214
The Catostomidæ.—The suckers,
or Catostomidæ, are an offshoot
from the Cyprinidæ, differing
chiefly in the structure of the
mouth and of the lower
pharyngeal bones. The border of
the mouth above is formed
mesially by the small
premaxillaries and laterally by the
maxillaries. The teeth of the lower
pharyngeals are small and very
numerous, arranged in one series
like the teeth of a comb. The lips
are usually thick and fleshy, and
the dorsal fin is more or less
elongate (its rays eleven to fifty in
number), characters which
distinguish the suckers from the
American Cyprinidæ generally,
but not from those of the Old
World.
About sixty species of suckers are
known, all of them found in the
rivers of North America except
two, which have been recorded on
rather uncertain authority from
Siberia and China. Only two or
three of the species extend their Fig. 133.—Lower pharyngeal of
range south of the Tropic of Placopharynx duquesnii (Le Sueur).
Cancer into Mexico or Central
America, and none occur in Cuba nor in any of the neighboring islands. The
majority of the genera are restricted to the region east of the Rocky
Mountains, although species of Catostomus, Chasmistes, Deltistes,
Xyrauchen, and Pantosteus are found in abundance in the Great Basin and
the Pacific slope.
or Catostomidæ, are an offshoot
from the Cyprinidæ, differing
chiefly in the structure of the
mouth and of the lower
pharyngeal bones. The border of
the mouth above is formed
mesially by the small
premaxillaries and laterally by the
maxillaries. The teeth of the lower
pharyngeals are small and very
numerous, arranged in one series
like the teeth of a comb. The lips
are usually thick and fleshy, and
the dorsal fin is more or less
elongate (its rays eleven to fifty in
number), characters which
distinguish the suckers from the
American Cyprinidæ generally,
but not from those of the Old
World.
About sixty species of suckers are
known, all of them found in the
rivers of North America except
two, which have been recorded on
rather uncertain authority from
Siberia and China. Only two or
three of the species extend their Fig. 133.—Lower pharyngeal of
range south of the Tropic of Placopharynx duquesnii (Le Sueur).
Cancer into Mexico or Central
America, and none occur in Cuba nor in any of the neighboring islands. The
majority of the genera are restricted to the region east of the Rocky
Mountains, although species of Catostomus, Chasmistes, Deltistes,
Xyrauchen, and Pantosteus are found in abundance in the Great Basin and
the Pacific slope.
Page 215
Fig. 134.—Creekfish or Chub-sucker, Erimyzon sucetta (Lacépède).
Nipisink Lake, Illinois. Family Catostomidæ.
In size the suckers range from six inches in length to about three feet. As
food-fishes they are held in low esteem, the flesh of all being flavorless and
excessively full of small bones. Most of them are sluggish fishes; they
inhabit all sorts of streams, lakes, and ponds, but even when in mountain
brooks they gather in the eddies and places of greatest depth and least
current. They feed on insects and small aquatic animals, and also on mud,
taking in their food by suction. They are not very tenacious of life. Most of
the species swarm in the spring in shallow waters. In the spawning season
they migrate up smaller streams than those otherwise inhabited by them.
The large species move from the large rivers into smaller ones; the small
brook species go into smaller brooks. In some cases the males in spring
develop black or red pigment on the body or fins, and in many cases
tubercles similar to those found in the Cyprinidæ appear on the head, body,
and anal and caudal fins.
Nipisink Lake, Illinois. Family Catostomidæ.
In size the suckers range from six inches in length to about three feet. As
food-fishes they are held in low esteem, the flesh of all being flavorless and
excessively full of small bones. Most of them are sluggish fishes; they
inhabit all sorts of streams, lakes, and ponds, but even when in mountain
brooks they gather in the eddies and places of greatest depth and least
current. They feed on insects and small aquatic animals, and also on mud,
taking in their food by suction. They are not very tenacious of life. Most of
the species swarm in the spring in shallow waters. In the spawning season
they migrate up smaller streams than those otherwise inhabited by them.
The large species move from the large rivers into smaller ones; the small
brook species go into smaller brooks. In some cases the males in spring
develop black or red pigment on the body or fins, and in many cases
tubercles similar to those found in the Cyprinidæ appear on the head, body,
and anal and caudal fins.
Page 216
Fig. 135.—Buffalo-fish, Ictiobus cyprinella (Cuv. & Val.). Normal, Ill.
Fig. 136.—Carp-sucker, Carpiodes cyprinus (Le Sueur). Havre de Grace.
The buffalo-fishes and carp-suckers, constituting the genera Ictiobus and
Carpiodes, are the largest of the Catostomidæ, and bear a considerable
resemblance to the carp. They have the dorsal fin many rayed and the scales
large and coarse. They abound in the large rivers and lakes between the
Fig. 136.—Carp-sucker, Carpiodes cyprinus (Le Sueur). Havre de Grace.
The buffalo-fishes and carp-suckers, constituting the genera Ictiobus and
Carpiodes, are the largest of the Catostomidæ, and bear a considerable
resemblance to the carp. They have the dorsal fin many rayed and the scales
large and coarse. They abound in the large rivers and lakes between the
Page 217
Rocky Mountains and the Alleghanies, one species being found in Central
America and a species of a closely related genus (Myxocyprinus asiaticus)
being reported from eastern Asia. They rarely ascend the smaller rivers
except for the purpose of spawning. Although so abundant in the
Mississippi Valley as to be of importance commercially, they are very
inferior as food-fishes, being coarse and bony. The genus Cycleptus
contains the black-horse, or Missouri sucker, a peculiar species with a small
head, elongate body, and jet-black coloration, which comes up the smaller
rivers tributary to the Mississippi and Ohio in large numbers in the spring.
Most of the other suckers belong to the genera Catostomus and Moxostoma,
the latter with the large-toothed Placopharynx being known, from the red
color of the fins, as red-horse, the former as sucker. Some of the species are
very widely distributed, two of them (Catostomus commersoni, Erimyzon
sucetta) being found in almost every stream east of the Rocky Mountains
and Catostomus catostomus throughout Canada to the Arctic Sea. The most
peculiar of the suckers in appearance is the harelip sucker (Quassilabia
lacera) of the Western rivers. Very singular in form is the humpback or
razor-back sucker of the Colorado, Xyrauchen cypho.
Fig. 137.—Common Sucker, Catostomus commersoni (Le Sueur). Ecorse,
Mich.
America and a species of a closely related genus (Myxocyprinus asiaticus)
being reported from eastern Asia. They rarely ascend the smaller rivers
except for the purpose of spawning. Although so abundant in the
Mississippi Valley as to be of importance commercially, they are very
inferior as food-fishes, being coarse and bony. The genus Cycleptus
contains the black-horse, or Missouri sucker, a peculiar species with a small
head, elongate body, and jet-black coloration, which comes up the smaller
rivers tributary to the Mississippi and Ohio in large numbers in the spring.
Most of the other suckers belong to the genera Catostomus and Moxostoma,
the latter with the large-toothed Placopharynx being known, from the red
color of the fins, as red-horse, the former as sucker. Some of the species are
very widely distributed, two of them (Catostomus commersoni, Erimyzon
sucetta) being found in almost every stream east of the Rocky Mountains
and Catostomus catostomus throughout Canada to the Arctic Sea. The most
peculiar of the suckers in appearance is the harelip sucker (Quassilabia
lacera) of the Western rivers. Very singular in form is the humpback or
razor-back sucker of the Colorado, Xyrauchen cypho.
Fig. 137.—Common Sucker, Catostomus commersoni (Le Sueur). Ecorse,
Mich.
Page 218
Fig. 138.—California Sucker, Catostomus occidentalis Agassiz.
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Fossil Cyprinidæ.—Fossil Cyprinidæ, closely related to existing forms, are
found in abundance in fresh-water deposits of the Tertiary, but rarely if ever
earlier than the Miocene. Cyprinus priscus occurs in the Miocene of
Germany, perhaps showing that Germany was the original home of the so-
called "German carp," afterwards actually imported to Germany from
China. Some specimens referred to Barbus, Tinca, Rhodeus, Aspius, and
Gobio are found in regions now inhabited by these genera, and many
species are referred to the great genus Leuciscus, Leuciscus œningensis
from the Miocene of Germany being perhaps the best known. Several
species of Leuciscus or related genera are found in the Rocky Mountain
region. Among these is the recently described Leuciscus turneri.
Fossil Catostomidæ are very few and chiefly referred to the genus Amyzon,
supposed to be allied to Erimyzon, but with a longer dorsal. Amyzon
commune and other species are found in the Rocky Mountains, especially in
the Miocene of the South Park in Colorado and the Eocene of Wyoming.
Two or three species of Catostomus, known by their skulls, are found in the
Pliocene of Idaho.
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Fossil Cyprinidæ.—Fossil Cyprinidæ, closely related to existing forms, are
found in abundance in fresh-water deposits of the Tertiary, but rarely if ever
earlier than the Miocene. Cyprinus priscus occurs in the Miocene of
Germany, perhaps showing that Germany was the original home of the so-
called "German carp," afterwards actually imported to Germany from
China. Some specimens referred to Barbus, Tinca, Rhodeus, Aspius, and
Gobio are found in regions now inhabited by these genera, and many
species are referred to the great genus Leuciscus, Leuciscus œningensis
from the Miocene of Germany being perhaps the best known. Several
species of Leuciscus or related genera are found in the Rocky Mountain
region. Among these is the recently described Leuciscus turneri.
Fossil Catostomidæ are very few and chiefly referred to the genus Amyzon,
supposed to be allied to Erimyzon, but with a longer dorsal. Amyzon
commune and other species are found in the Rocky Mountains, especially in
the Miocene of the South Park in Colorado and the Eocene of Wyoming.
Two or three species of Catostomus, known by their skulls, are found in the
Pliocene of Idaho.
Page 219
Fig. 139.—Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon
Sucker, Catostomus macrocheilus.
Sucker, Catostomus macrocheilus.
Page 220
Fig. 140.—Razor-back Sucker, Xyrauchen cypho (Lockington). Green
River, Utah.
The Loaches.—The Cobitidæ, or loaches, are small fishes, all less than a
foot in length, inhabiting streams and ponds of Europe and Asia. In
structure they are not very different from minnows, but they are rather eel-
like in form, and the numerous long barbels about the mouth strongly
suggest affinity with the catfishes. The scales are small, the pharyngeal
teeth few, and the air-bladder, as in most small catfishes, enclosed in a
capsule. The loaches are all bottom fishes of dark colors, tenacious of life,
feeding on insects and worms. The species often bury themselves in mud
and sand. They lie quiet on the bottom and move very quickly when
disturbed much after the manner of darters and gobies. Species of Cobitis
and Misgurnus are widely distributed from England to Japan. Nemachilus
barbatulus is the commonest European species. Cobitis tænia is found,
almost unchanged, from England to the streams of Japan.
Remains of fossil loaches, mostly indistinguishable from Cobitis, occur in
the Miocene and more recent rocks.
From ancestors of loaches or other degraded Cyprinidæ we may trace the
descent of the catfishes.
The Homalopteridæ are small loaches in the mountain streams of the East
Indies. They have no air-bladder and the number of pharyngeal teeth (10 to
16) is greater than in the loaches, carp, or minnows.
River, Utah.
The Loaches.—The Cobitidæ, or loaches, are small fishes, all less than a
foot in length, inhabiting streams and ponds of Europe and Asia. In
structure they are not very different from minnows, but they are rather eel-
like in form, and the numerous long barbels about the mouth strongly
suggest affinity with the catfishes. The scales are small, the pharyngeal
teeth few, and the air-bladder, as in most small catfishes, enclosed in a
capsule. The loaches are all bottom fishes of dark colors, tenacious of life,
feeding on insects and worms. The species often bury themselves in mud
and sand. They lie quiet on the bottom and move very quickly when
disturbed much after the manner of darters and gobies. Species of Cobitis
and Misgurnus are widely distributed from England to Japan. Nemachilus
barbatulus is the commonest European species. Cobitis tænia is found,
almost unchanged, from England to the streams of Japan.
Remains of fossil loaches, mostly indistinguishable from Cobitis, occur in
the Miocene and more recent rocks.
From ancestors of loaches or other degraded Cyprinidæ we may trace the
descent of the catfishes.
The Homalopteridæ are small loaches in the mountain streams of the East
Indies. They have no air-bladder and the number of pharyngeal teeth (10 to
16) is greater than in the loaches, carp, or minnows.
Page 221
CHAPTER IX
THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES
he Nematognathi.—The Nematognathi (νῆμα, thread; γνάθος,
jaw), known collectively as catfishes, are recognized at once
by the fact that the rudimentary and usually toothless
maxillary is developed as the bony base of a long barbel or
feeler. Usually other feelers are found around the head,
suggesting the "smellers" of a cat. The body is never scaly, being either
naked and smooth or else more or less completely mailed with bony plates
which often resemble superficially those of a sturgeon. Other distinctive
characters are found in the skeleton, notably the absence of the subopercle,
but the peculiar development of the maxillary and its barbel with the
absence of scales is always distinctive. The symplectic is usually absent,
and in some the air-bladder is reduced to a rudiment inclosed in a bony
capsule. In almost all cases a stout spine exists in the front of the dorsal fin
and in the front of each pectoral fin. This spine, made of modified or
coalescent soft rays, is often a strong weapon with serrated edges and
capable of inflicting a severe wound. When the fish is alarmed, it sets this
spine by a rotary motion in its socket joint. It can then be depressed only by
breaking it. By a rotary motion upward and toward the body the spine is
again lowered. The wounds made by this spine are often painful, but this
fact is due not to a specific poison but to the irregular cut and to the slime of
the spine.
In two genera, Noturus and Schilbeodes, a poison-gland exists at the base of
the pectoral spine, and the wound gives a sharp pain like the sting of a
hornet and almost exactly like the sting of a scorpion-fish. Most of the
Nematognathi possess a fleshy or adipose fin behind the dorsal, exactly as
THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES
he Nematognathi.—The Nematognathi (νῆμα, thread; γνάθος,
jaw), known collectively as catfishes, are recognized at once
by the fact that the rudimentary and usually toothless
maxillary is developed as the bony base of a long barbel or
feeler. Usually other feelers are found around the head,
suggesting the "smellers" of a cat. The body is never scaly, being either
naked and smooth or else more or less completely mailed with bony plates
which often resemble superficially those of a sturgeon. Other distinctive
characters are found in the skeleton, notably the absence of the subopercle,
but the peculiar development of the maxillary and its barbel with the
absence of scales is always distinctive. The symplectic is usually absent,
and in some the air-bladder is reduced to a rudiment inclosed in a bony
capsule. In almost all cases a stout spine exists in the front of the dorsal fin
and in the front of each pectoral fin. This spine, made of modified or
coalescent soft rays, is often a strong weapon with serrated edges and
capable of inflicting a severe wound. When the fish is alarmed, it sets this
spine by a rotary motion in its socket joint. It can then be depressed only by
breaking it. By a rotary motion upward and toward the body the spine is
again lowered. The wounds made by this spine are often painful, but this
fact is due not to a specific poison but to the irregular cut and to the slime of
the spine.
In two genera, Noturus and Schilbeodes, a poison-gland exists at the base of
the pectoral spine, and the wound gives a sharp pain like the sting of a
hornet and almost exactly like the sting of a scorpion-fish. Most of the
Nematognathi possess a fleshy or adipose fin behind the dorsal, exactly as
Page 222
in the salmon. In a few cases the adipose fin develops an anterior spine and
occasionally supporting rays.
All the Nematognathi are carnivorous bottom feeders, devouring any prey
they can swallow. Only a few enter the sea, and they occur in the greatest
abundance in the Amazon region. Upward of 1200 species, arranged in 150
genera, are recorded. They vary greatly in size, from two inches to six feet
in length. All are regarded as food-fishes, but the species in the sea have
very tough and flavorless flesh. Some of the others are extremely delicate,
with finely flavored flesh and a grateful absence of small bones.
Families of Nematognathi.—According to Dr. Eigenmann's scheme of
classification,[11] the most primitive family of Nematognathi is that of
Diplomystidæ, characterized by the presence of a well-developed maxillary,
as in other soft-rayed fishes. The single species, Diplomystes papillosus, is
found in the waters of Chile.
11. A Revision of the South American Nematognathi, 1890, p. 7.
Similar to the Diplomystidæ in all other respects is the great central family
of Siluridæ, by far the most numerous and important of all the divisions of
Nematognathi.
The Siluridæ.—This group has the skin naked or imperfectly mailed, the
barbels on the head well developed, the dorsal short, inserted forward, the
adipose fin without spine, and the lower pharyngeals separate. All the
marine catfishes and most of the fresh-water species belong to this group,
and its members, some 700 species, abound in all parts of the world where
catfishes are known—"a bloodthirsty and bullying race of rangers
inhabiting the river bottoms with ever a lance at rest and ready to do battle
with their nearest neighbor."
The Sea Catfish.—In the tropical seas are numerous species of catfishes
belonging to Tachysurus, Arius, Galeichthys, Felichthys, and other related
genera. These are sleek, silvery fishes covered with smooth skin, the head
usually with a coat of mail, pierced by a central fontanelle. Some of them
reach a considerable size, swarming in sandy bays. None are valued as
food, being always tough and coarsely flavored. Sea birds, as the pelican,
which devour these catfishes are often destroyed by the sudden erection of
the pectoral spines. None of these are found in Europe or in Japan. Of the
very many American species the gaff-topsail catfish (Felichthys felis), noted
occasionally supporting rays.
All the Nematognathi are carnivorous bottom feeders, devouring any prey
they can swallow. Only a few enter the sea, and they occur in the greatest
abundance in the Amazon region. Upward of 1200 species, arranged in 150
genera, are recorded. They vary greatly in size, from two inches to six feet
in length. All are regarded as food-fishes, but the species in the sea have
very tough and flavorless flesh. Some of the others are extremely delicate,
with finely flavored flesh and a grateful absence of small bones.
Families of Nematognathi.—According to Dr. Eigenmann's scheme of
classification,[11] the most primitive family of Nematognathi is that of
Diplomystidæ, characterized by the presence of a well-developed maxillary,
as in other soft-rayed fishes. The single species, Diplomystes papillosus, is
found in the waters of Chile.
11. A Revision of the South American Nematognathi, 1890, p. 7.
Similar to the Diplomystidæ in all other respects is the great central family
of Siluridæ, by far the most numerous and important of all the divisions of
Nematognathi.
The Siluridæ.—This group has the skin naked or imperfectly mailed, the
barbels on the head well developed, the dorsal short, inserted forward, the
adipose fin without spine, and the lower pharyngeals separate. All the
marine catfishes and most of the fresh-water species belong to this group,
and its members, some 700 species, abound in all parts of the world where
catfishes are known—"a bloodthirsty and bullying race of rangers
inhabiting the river bottoms with ever a lance at rest and ready to do battle
with their nearest neighbor."
The Sea Catfish.—In the tropical seas are numerous species of catfishes
belonging to Tachysurus, Arius, Galeichthys, Felichthys, and other related
genera. These are sleek, silvery fishes covered with smooth skin, the head
usually with a coat of mail, pierced by a central fontanelle. Some of them
reach a considerable size, swarming in sandy bays. None are valued as
food, being always tough and coarsely flavored. Sea birds, as the pelican,
which devour these catfishes are often destroyed by the sudden erection of
the pectoral spines. None of these are found in Europe or in Japan. Of the
very many American species the gaff-topsail catfish (Felichthys felis), noted
Page 223
for its very high spines, extends farthest north and is one of the very largest
species. This genus has two barbels at the chin. Most others have four. The
commonest sea catfish of the Carolina coast is Galeichthys milberti. In
Tachysurus the teeth on the palate are rounded, in most of the others they
are in villiform bands.
Fig. 141.—Gaff-topsail Cat, Felichthys felis (L.). Wood's Hole.
Fig. 142.—Sea Catfish, Galeichthys milberti (Cuv. & Val.). Pensacola.
In most or all of the sea catfish the eggs, as large as small peas, are taken
into the mouth of the male and there cared for until hatched.
species. This genus has two barbels at the chin. Most others have four. The
commonest sea catfish of the Carolina coast is Galeichthys milberti. In
Tachysurus the teeth on the palate are rounded, in most of the others they
are in villiform bands.
Fig. 141.—Gaff-topsail Cat, Felichthys felis (L.). Wood's Hole.
Fig. 142.—Sea Catfish, Galeichthys milberti (Cuv. & Val.). Pensacola.
In most or all of the sea catfish the eggs, as large as small peas, are taken
into the mouth of the male and there cared for until hatched.
Page 224
The Channel Cats.—In all the rivers of North America east of the Rocky
Mountains are found catfishes in great variety. The channel cats, Ictalurus,
known most readily by the forked tails, are the largest in size and most
valued as food. The technical character of the genus is the backward
continuation of the supraoccipital, forming a bony bridge to the base of the
dorsal. The great blue cat, Ictalurus furcatus, abounds throughout the large
rivers of the Southern States and reaches a weight of 150 pounds or more. It
is an excellent food and its firm flesh is readily cut into steaks. In the Great
Lakes and northward is a very similar species, also of large size, which has
been called Ictalurus lacustris. Another similar species is the willow cat,
Ictalurus anguilla. The white channel-cat, Ictalurus punctatus, reaches a
much smaller size and abounds on the ripples in clear swift streams of the
Southwest, such as the Cumberland, the Alabama, and the Gasconade. It is
a very delicate food-fish, with tender white flesh of excellent flavor.
Fig. 143.—Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque). Illinois
River. Family Siluridæ.
Horned Pout.—The genus Ameiurus includes the smaller brown catfish,
horned pout, or bullhead. The body is more plump and the caudal fin is
usually but not always rounded. The many species are widely diffused,
abounding in brooks, lakes, and ponds. Ameiurus nebulosus is the best-
known species, ranging from New England to Texas, known in the East as
horned pout. It has been successfully introduced into the Sacramento, where
it abounds, as well as its congener, Ameiurus catus (see Fig. 229, Vol. I), the
Mountains are found catfishes in great variety. The channel cats, Ictalurus,
known most readily by the forked tails, are the largest in size and most
valued as food. The technical character of the genus is the backward
continuation of the supraoccipital, forming a bony bridge to the base of the
dorsal. The great blue cat, Ictalurus furcatus, abounds throughout the large
rivers of the Southern States and reaches a weight of 150 pounds or more. It
is an excellent food and its firm flesh is readily cut into steaks. In the Great
Lakes and northward is a very similar species, also of large size, which has
been called Ictalurus lacustris. Another similar species is the willow cat,
Ictalurus anguilla. The white channel-cat, Ictalurus punctatus, reaches a
much smaller size and abounds on the ripples in clear swift streams of the
Southwest, such as the Cumberland, the Alabama, and the Gasconade. It is
a very delicate food-fish, with tender white flesh of excellent flavor.
Fig. 143.—Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque). Illinois
River. Family Siluridæ.
Horned Pout.—The genus Ameiurus includes the smaller brown catfish,
horned pout, or bullhead. The body is more plump and the caudal fin is
usually but not always rounded. The many species are widely diffused,
abounding in brooks, lakes, and ponds. Ameiurus nebulosus is the best-
known species, ranging from New England to Texas, known in the East as
horned pout. It has been successfully introduced into the Sacramento, where
it abounds, as well as its congener, Ameiurus catus (see Fig. 229, Vol. I), the
Page 225
white bullhead, brought with it from the Potomac. The latter species has a
broader head and concave or notched tail. All the species are good food-
fishes. All are extremely tenacious of life, and all are alike valued by the
urchin, for they will bite vigorously at any sort of bait. All must be handled
with care, for the sharp pectoral spines make an ugly cut, a species of
wound from which few boys' hands in the catfish region are often free.
Fig. 144.—Horned pout, Ameiurus nebulosus (Le Sueur). (From life by
Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
In the caves about Conestoga River in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, is a
partly blind catfish, evidently derived from local species outside the cave. It
has been named Gronias nigrilabris.
A few species are found in Mexico, one of them, Ictalurus meridionalis, as
far south as Rio Usamacinta on the boundary of Guatemala.
Besides these, a large channel-cat of peculiar dentition, known as Istlarius
balsanus, abounds in the basin of Rio Balsas. In Mexico all catfishes are
known as Bagre, this species as Bagre de Rio.
broader head and concave or notched tail. All the species are good food-
fishes. All are extremely tenacious of life, and all are alike valued by the
urchin, for they will bite vigorously at any sort of bait. All must be handled
with care, for the sharp pectoral spines make an ugly cut, a species of
wound from which few boys' hands in the catfish region are often free.
Fig. 144.—Horned pout, Ameiurus nebulosus (Le Sueur). (From life by
Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
In the caves about Conestoga River in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, is a
partly blind catfish, evidently derived from local species outside the cave. It
has been named Gronias nigrilabris.
A few species are found in Mexico, one of them, Ictalurus meridionalis, as
far south as Rio Usamacinta on the boundary of Guatemala.
Besides these, a large channel-cat of peculiar dentition, known as Istlarius
balsanus, abounds in the basin of Rio Balsas. In Mexico all catfishes are
known as Bagre, this species as Bagre de Rio.
Page 226
The genus Leptops includes the great yellow catfish, or goujon, known at
once by the projecting lower jaw. It is a mottled olive and yellow fish of
repulsive exterior, and it reaches a very great size. It is, however, a good
food-fish.
The Mad-toms.—The genera Noturus and Schilbeodes are composed of
diminutive catfishes, having the pectoral spine armed at base, with a poison
sac which renders its sting extremely painful though not dangerous. The
numerous species of this genus, known as "mad-toms" and "stone cats," live
among weeds in brooks and sluggish streams. Most of them rarely exceed
three inches in length, and their varied colors make them attractive in the
aquarium.
Fig. 145.—Mad-tom, Schilbeodes furiosus Jordan & Meek. Showing the
poisoned pectoral spine. Family Siluridæ. Neuse River.
The Old World Catfishes.—In the catfishes of the Old World and their
relatives, the adipose fin is rudimentary or wanting. The chief species found
in Europe is the huge sheatfish, or wels, Silurus glanis. This, next to the
sturgeon, is the largest river fish in Europe, weighing 300 to 400 pounds. It
is not found in England, France, or Italy, but abounds in the Danube. It is a
lazy fish, hiding in the mud and thus escaping from nets. It is very
voracious, and many stories are told of the contents of its stomach. A small
child swallowed whole is recorded from Thorn, and there are still more
remarkable stories, but not properly vouched for. The sheatfish is brown in
color, naked, sleek, and much like an American Ameiurus save that its tail is
once by the projecting lower jaw. It is a mottled olive and yellow fish of
repulsive exterior, and it reaches a very great size. It is, however, a good
food-fish.
The Mad-toms.—The genera Noturus and Schilbeodes are composed of
diminutive catfishes, having the pectoral spine armed at base, with a poison
sac which renders its sting extremely painful though not dangerous. The
numerous species of this genus, known as "mad-toms" and "stone cats," live
among weeds in brooks and sluggish streams. Most of them rarely exceed
three inches in length, and their varied colors make them attractive in the
aquarium.
Fig. 145.—Mad-tom, Schilbeodes furiosus Jordan & Meek. Showing the
poisoned pectoral spine. Family Siluridæ. Neuse River.
The Old World Catfishes.—In the catfishes of the Old World and their
relatives, the adipose fin is rudimentary or wanting. The chief species found
in Europe is the huge sheatfish, or wels, Silurus glanis. This, next to the
sturgeon, is the largest river fish in Europe, weighing 300 to 400 pounds. It
is not found in England, France, or Italy, but abounds in the Danube. It is a
lazy fish, hiding in the mud and thus escaping from nets. It is very
voracious, and many stories are told of the contents of its stomach. A small
child swallowed whole is recorded from Thorn, and there are still more
remarkable stories, but not properly vouched for. The sheatfish is brown in
color, naked, sleek, and much like an American Ameiurus save that its tail is
Page 227
much longer and more eel-like. Another large catfish, known to the
ancients, but only recently rediscovered by Agassiz and Garman, is
Parasilurus aristotelis of the rivers of Greece. In China and Japan is the
very similar Namazu, or Japanese catfish, Parasilurus asotus, often found
in ponds and used as food. Numerous smaller related catfishes, Porcus
(Bagrus), Pseudobagrus, and related genera swarm in the brooks and ponds
of the Orient.
Fig. 146.—Electric Catfish, Torpedo electricus (Gmelin). Congo River.
(After Boulenger.)
In the genus Torpedo (Malapterurus) the dorsal fin is wanting. Torpedo
electricus, the electric catfish of the Nile, is a species of much interest to
anatomists. The shock is like that of a Leyden jar. The structures concerned
are noticed on p. 186, Vol. I. The generic name Torpedo was applied to the
electric catfish before its use for the electric ray.
In South America a multitude of genera and species cluster around the
genus Pimelodus. Some of them have the snout very long and spatulate.
Most of them possess a very long adipose fin. The species are generally
small in size and with smooth skin like the North American catfishes. Still
other species in great numbers are grouped around the genus Doras. In this
group the snout projects, bearing the small mouth at its end, and the lateral
line is armed behind with spinous shields. All but one of the genera belong
to the Amazon district, Synodontis being found in Africa.
Concerning Doras, Dr. Günther observes: "These fishes have excited
attention by their habit of traveling during the dry season from a piece of
water about to dry up in quest of a pond of greater capacity. These journeys
ancients, but only recently rediscovered by Agassiz and Garman, is
Parasilurus aristotelis of the rivers of Greece. In China and Japan is the
very similar Namazu, or Japanese catfish, Parasilurus asotus, often found
in ponds and used as food. Numerous smaller related catfishes, Porcus
(Bagrus), Pseudobagrus, and related genera swarm in the brooks and ponds
of the Orient.
Fig. 146.—Electric Catfish, Torpedo electricus (Gmelin). Congo River.
(After Boulenger.)
In the genus Torpedo (Malapterurus) the dorsal fin is wanting. Torpedo
electricus, the electric catfish of the Nile, is a species of much interest to
anatomists. The shock is like that of a Leyden jar. The structures concerned
are noticed on p. 186, Vol. I. The generic name Torpedo was applied to the
electric catfish before its use for the electric ray.
In South America a multitude of genera and species cluster around the
genus Pimelodus. Some of them have the snout very long and spatulate.
Most of them possess a very long adipose fin. The species are generally
small in size and with smooth skin like the North American catfishes. Still
other species in great numbers are grouped around the genus Doras. In this
group the snout projects, bearing the small mouth at its end, and the lateral
line is armed behind with spinous shields. All but one of the genera belong
to the Amazon district, Synodontis being found in Africa.
Concerning Doras, Dr. Günther observes: "These fishes have excited
attention by their habit of traveling during the dry season from a piece of
water about to dry up in quest of a pond of greater capacity. These journeys
Page 228
are occasionally of such a length that the fish spends whole nights on the
way, and the bands of scaly travelers are sometimes so large that the Indians
who happen to meet them fill many baskets of the prey thus placed in their
hands. The Indians suppose that the fish carry a supply of water with them,
but they have no special organs and can only do so by closing the gill-
openings or by retaining a little water between the plates of their bodies, as
Hancock supposes. The same naturalist adds that they make regular nests,
in which they cover up their eggs with care and defend them, male and
female uniting in this parental duty until the eggs are hatched. The nest is
constructed, at the beginning of the rainy season, of leaves and is
sometimes placed in a hole scooped out of the beach."
The Sisoridæ.—The Sisoridæ are small catfishes found in swift mountain
streams of northern India. In some of the genera (Pseudecheneis) in swift
streams a sucking-disk formed of longitudinal plates of skin is formed on
the breast. This enables these fishes to resist the force of the water. In one
genus, Exostoma, plates of skin about the mouth serve the same purpose.
The Bunocephalidæ are South American catfishes with the dorsal fin
undeveloped and the top of the head rough. In Platystacus (Aspredo), the
eggs are carried on the belly of the female, which is provided with spongy
tentacles to which the eggs are attached. After the breeding season the
ventral surface becomes again smooth.
The Plotosidæ.—The Plotosidæ are naked catfishes, largely marine, found
along the coasts of Asia. In these fishes the second dorsal is very long.
Plotosus anguillaris, the sea catfish of Japan, is a small species striped with
yellow and armed with sharp pectoral spines which render it a very
disagreeable object to the fishermen. In sandy bays like that of Nagasaki it
is very abundant. Allied to this is the small Asiatic family of Chacidæ.
The Chlariidæ.—The Chlariidæ are eel-like, with a soft skeleton and a
peculiar accessory gill. These abound in the swamps and muddy streams of
India, where some species reach a length of six feet. One species, Chlarias
magur, has been brought by the Chinese to Hawaii, where it flourishes in
the same waters as Ameiurus nebulosus, brought from the Potomac and by
Chinese carried from San Francisco.
The Hypophthalmidæ and Pygidiidæ.—The Hypophthalmidæ have the
minute air-bladder inclosed in a long bony capsule. The eyes are placed
way, and the bands of scaly travelers are sometimes so large that the Indians
who happen to meet them fill many baskets of the prey thus placed in their
hands. The Indians suppose that the fish carry a supply of water with them,
but they have no special organs and can only do so by closing the gill-
openings or by retaining a little water between the plates of their bodies, as
Hancock supposes. The same naturalist adds that they make regular nests,
in which they cover up their eggs with care and defend them, male and
female uniting in this parental duty until the eggs are hatched. The nest is
constructed, at the beginning of the rainy season, of leaves and is
sometimes placed in a hole scooped out of the beach."
The Sisoridæ.—The Sisoridæ are small catfishes found in swift mountain
streams of northern India. In some of the genera (Pseudecheneis) in swift
streams a sucking-disk formed of longitudinal plates of skin is formed on
the breast. This enables these fishes to resist the force of the water. In one
genus, Exostoma, plates of skin about the mouth serve the same purpose.
The Bunocephalidæ are South American catfishes with the dorsal fin
undeveloped and the top of the head rough. In Platystacus (Aspredo), the
eggs are carried on the belly of the female, which is provided with spongy
tentacles to which the eggs are attached. After the breeding season the
ventral surface becomes again smooth.
The Plotosidæ.—The Plotosidæ are naked catfishes, largely marine, found
along the coasts of Asia. In these fishes the second dorsal is very long.
Plotosus anguillaris, the sea catfish of Japan, is a small species striped with
yellow and armed with sharp pectoral spines which render it a very
disagreeable object to the fishermen. In sandy bays like that of Nagasaki it
is very abundant. Allied to this is the small Asiatic family of Chacidæ.
The Chlariidæ.—The Chlariidæ are eel-like, with a soft skeleton and a
peculiar accessory gill. These abound in the swamps and muddy streams of
India, where some species reach a length of six feet. One species, Chlarias
magur, has been brought by the Chinese to Hawaii, where it flourishes in
the same waters as Ameiurus nebulosus, brought from the Potomac and by
Chinese carried from San Francisco.
The Hypophthalmidæ and Pygidiidæ.—The Hypophthalmidæ have the
minute air-bladder inclosed in a long bony capsule. The eyes are placed
Page 229
very low and the skin is smooth. The statement that this family lacks the
auditory apparatus is not correct. The few species belong to northern South
America.
Fig. 147.—An African Catfish, Chlarias breviceps Boulenger. Congo
River. Family Chlariidæ. (After Boulenger.)
Allied to this group is the family Pygidiidæ with a differently formed bony
capsule and no adipose fin. The numerous species are all South American,
mostly of mountain streams of high altitude. Some are very small. Certain
species are said to flee for protection into the gill-cavity of larger catfishes.
Some are reported to enter the urethra of bathers, causing severe injuries.
The resemblance of certain species to the loaches, or Cobitidæ, is very
striking. This similarity is due to the results of similar environment and
necessarily parallel habits. The Argidæ have the capsule of the air-bladder
formed in a still different fashion. The few species are very small,
inhabitants of the streams of the high Andes.
The Loricariidæ.—In the family of Loricariidæ the sides and back are
armed with rough bony plates. The small air-bladder is still in a bony
capsule, and the mouth is small with thick fringed lips. The numerous
species are all small fishes of the South American waters, bearing a strong
external resemblance to Agonidæ, but wholly different in anatomy.
The Callichthyidæ.—The Callichthyidæ are also small fishes armed with a
bony interlocking coat of mail. They are closely allied to the Pygidiidæ. The
body is more robust than in the Callichthyidæ and the coat of mail is
differently formed. The species swarm in the rivers of northern South
America, where with the mailed Loricariidæ they form a conspicuous part
of the fish fauna.
auditory apparatus is not correct. The few species belong to northern South
America.
Fig. 147.—An African Catfish, Chlarias breviceps Boulenger. Congo
River. Family Chlariidæ. (After Boulenger.)
Allied to this group is the family Pygidiidæ with a differently formed bony
capsule and no adipose fin. The numerous species are all South American,
mostly of mountain streams of high altitude. Some are very small. Certain
species are said to flee for protection into the gill-cavity of larger catfishes.
Some are reported to enter the urethra of bathers, causing severe injuries.
The resemblance of certain species to the loaches, or Cobitidæ, is very
striking. This similarity is due to the results of similar environment and
necessarily parallel habits. The Argidæ have the capsule of the air-bladder
formed in a still different fashion. The few species are very small,
inhabitants of the streams of the high Andes.
The Loricariidæ.—In the family of Loricariidæ the sides and back are
armed with rough bony plates. The small air-bladder is still in a bony
capsule, and the mouth is small with thick fringed lips. The numerous
species are all small fishes of the South American waters, bearing a strong
external resemblance to Agonidæ, but wholly different in anatomy.
The Callichthyidæ.—The Callichthyidæ are also small fishes armed with a
bony interlocking coat of mail. They are closely allied to the Pygidiidæ. The
body is more robust than in the Callichthyidæ and the coat of mail is
differently formed. The species swarm in the rivers of northern South
America, where with the mailed Loricariidæ they form a conspicuous part
of the fish fauna.
Page 230
Fossil Catfishes.—Fossil catfishes are very few in
number. Siluridæ, allied to Chlarias, Bagarius,
Heterobranchus, and other fresh-water forms of
India, are found in the late Tertiary rocks of Sumatra,
and catfish spines exist in the Tertiary rocks of the
United States. Vertebræ in the Canadian Oligocene
have been referred by Cope to species of Ameiurus
(A. cancellatus and A. maconnelli). Rhineastes
peltatus and six other species, perhaps allied to
Pimelodus, have been described by Cope from
Eocene of Wyoming and Colorado. Bucklandium
diluvii is found in the Eocene London clays, and
several species apparently marine, referred to the
neighborhood of Tachysurus or Arius, are found in
Eocene rocks of England.
There is no evidence that the group of catfishes has
any great antiquity, or that its members were ever so
numerous and varied as at the present time. The
group is evidently derived from scaly ancestors, and
its peculiarities are due to specialization of certain
parts and degeneration of others.
There is not the slightest reason for regarding the
catfishes as direct descendants of the sturgeon or
other Ganoid type. They should rather be looked
upon as a degenerate and highly modified offshoot
from the primitive Characins.
Order Gymnonoti.—At the end of the series of Fig. 148.—
Ostariophysans we may place the Gymnonoti Loricaria aurea
(γυμνός, bare; νῶτος, back). This group contains Steindachner, a
about thirty species of fishes from the rivers of South mailed Catfish from
America and Central America. All are eel-like in Rio Meta,
form, though the skeleton with the shoulder-girdle Venezuela. Family
suspended from the cranium is quite unlike that of a Loricariidæ. (After
true eel. There is no dorsal fin. The vent is at the Steindachner.)
throat and the anal is excessively long. The gill-
opening is small as in the eel, and as in most
number. Siluridæ, allied to Chlarias, Bagarius,
Heterobranchus, and other fresh-water forms of
India, are found in the late Tertiary rocks of Sumatra,
and catfish spines exist in the Tertiary rocks of the
United States. Vertebræ in the Canadian Oligocene
have been referred by Cope to species of Ameiurus
(A. cancellatus and A. maconnelli). Rhineastes
peltatus and six other species, perhaps allied to
Pimelodus, have been described by Cope from
Eocene of Wyoming and Colorado. Bucklandium
diluvii is found in the Eocene London clays, and
several species apparently marine, referred to the
neighborhood of Tachysurus or Arius, are found in
Eocene rocks of England.
There is no evidence that the group of catfishes has
any great antiquity, or that its members were ever so
numerous and varied as at the present time. The
group is evidently derived from scaly ancestors, and
its peculiarities are due to specialization of certain
parts and degeneration of others.
There is not the slightest reason for regarding the
catfishes as direct descendants of the sturgeon or
other Ganoid type. They should rather be looked
upon as a degenerate and highly modified offshoot
from the primitive Characins.
Order Gymnonoti.—At the end of the series of Fig. 148.—
Ostariophysans we may place the Gymnonoti Loricaria aurea
(γυμνός, bare; νῶτος, back). This group contains Steindachner, a
about thirty species of fishes from the rivers of South mailed Catfish from
America and Central America. All are eel-like in Rio Meta,
form, though the skeleton with the shoulder-girdle Venezuela. Family
suspended from the cranium is quite unlike that of a Loricariidæ. (After
true eel. There is no dorsal fin. The vent is at the Steindachner.)
throat and the anal is excessively long. The gill-
opening is small as in the eel, and as in most
Page 231
elongate fishes, the ventral fins are undeveloped. The body is naked or
covered with small scales.
Two families are recognized, differing widely in appearance. The
Electrophoridæ constitutes by itself Cope's order of Glanencheli (γλανίς,
catfish; ἔγχελυς, eel). This group he regards as intermediate between the
eel-like catfishes (Chlarias) and the true eels. It is naked and eel-shaped,
with a short head and projecting lower jaw like that of the true eel. The
single species, Electrophorus electricus, inhabits the rivers of Brazil,
reaching a length of six feet, and is the most powerful of all electric fishes.
Its electric organs on the tail are derived from modified muscular tissue.
They are described on p. 170, Vol. I.
The Gymnotidæ are much smaller in size, with compressed scaly bodies and
the mouth at the end of a long snout. The numerous species are all fishes
without electric organs. Eigenmannia humboldti of the Panama region is a
characteristic species. No fossil Gymnonoti are recorded.
covered with small scales.
Two families are recognized, differing widely in appearance. The
Electrophoridæ constitutes by itself Cope's order of Glanencheli (γλανίς,
catfish; ἔγχελυς, eel). This group he regards as intermediate between the
eel-like catfishes (Chlarias) and the true eels. It is naked and eel-shaped,
with a short head and projecting lower jaw like that of the true eel. The
single species, Electrophorus electricus, inhabits the rivers of Brazil,
reaching a length of six feet, and is the most powerful of all electric fishes.
Its electric organs on the tail are derived from modified muscular tissue.
They are described on p. 170, Vol. I.
The Gymnotidæ are much smaller in size, with compressed scaly bodies and
the mouth at the end of a long snout. The numerous species are all fishes
without electric organs. Eigenmannia humboldti of the Panama region is a
characteristic species. No fossil Gymnonoti are recorded.
Page 232
CHAPTER X
THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND
XENOMI
rder Scyphophori.—The Scyphophori (σκύφος, cup; φορέω,
to bear) constitutes a small order which lies apparently
between the Gymnonoti and the Isospondyli. Boulenger unites
it with the Isospondyli. The species, about seventy-five in
number, inhabit the rivers of Africa, where they are important
as food-fishes. In all there is a deep cavity on each side of the cranium
covered by a thin bony plate, the supertemporal bone. There is no
symplectic bone, and the subopercle is very small or concealed. The gill-
openings are narrow and there are no pharyngeal teeth. The air-bladder
connects with the ear, but not apparently in the same way as with the
Ostariophysan fishes, to which, however, the Scyphophori are most nearly
related. In all the Scyphophori the body is oblong, covered with cycloid
scales, the head is naked, there are no barbels, and the small mouth is at the
end of a long snout. All the species possess a peculiar organ on the tail,
which with reference to a similar structure in Torpedo and Electrophorus is
held to be a degenerate electric organ. According to Günther, "it is without
electric functions, but evidently representing a transitional condition from
muscular substance to an electric organ. It is an oblong capsule divided into
numerous compartments by vertical transverse septa and containing a
gelatinous substance."
The Mormyridæ.—There are two families of Scyphophori. The
Mormyridæ have the ordinary fins and tail of fishes and the Gymnarchidæ
are eel-like, with ventrals, anal and caudal wanting. Gymnarchus miloticus
of the Nile reaches a length of six feet, and it is remarkable as retaining the
THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND
XENOMI
rder Scyphophori.—The Scyphophori (σκύφος, cup; φορέω,
to bear) constitutes a small order which lies apparently
between the Gymnonoti and the Isospondyli. Boulenger unites
it with the Isospondyli. The species, about seventy-five in
number, inhabit the rivers of Africa, where they are important
as food-fishes. In all there is a deep cavity on each side of the cranium
covered by a thin bony plate, the supertemporal bone. There is no
symplectic bone, and the subopercle is very small or concealed. The gill-
openings are narrow and there are no pharyngeal teeth. The air-bladder
connects with the ear, but not apparently in the same way as with the
Ostariophysan fishes, to which, however, the Scyphophori are most nearly
related. In all the Scyphophori the body is oblong, covered with cycloid
scales, the head is naked, there are no barbels, and the small mouth is at the
end of a long snout. All the species possess a peculiar organ on the tail,
which with reference to a similar structure in Torpedo and Electrophorus is
held to be a degenerate electric organ. According to Günther, "it is without
electric functions, but evidently representing a transitional condition from
muscular substance to an electric organ. It is an oblong capsule divided into
numerous compartments by vertical transverse septa and containing a
gelatinous substance."
The Mormyridæ.—There are two families of Scyphophori. The
Mormyridæ have the ordinary fins and tail of fishes and the Gymnarchidæ
are eel-like, with ventrals, anal and caudal wanting. Gymnarchus miloticus
of the Nile reaches a length of six feet, and it is remarkable as retaining the
Page 233
cellular structure of the air-bladder as seen in the garpike and bowfin. It
doubtless serves as an imperfect lung.
The best-known genus of Scyphophori is Mormyrus. Species of this genus
found in the Nile were worshiped as sacred by the ancient Egyptians and
pictures of Mormyrus are often seen among the emblematic inscriptions.
The Egyptians did not eat the Mormyrus because with two other fishes it
was accused of having devoured a limb from the body of Osiris, so that Isis
was unable to recover it when she gathered the scattered remains of her
husband.
In Mormyrus the bones of the head are covered by skin, the snout is more or
less elongated, and the tail is generally short and insignificant. One of the
most characteristically eccentric species is Gnathonemus curvirostris, lately
discovered by Dr. Boulenger from the Congo. Fossil Mormyridæ are
unknown.
Fig. 149.—Gnathonemus curvirostris Boulenger. Family Mormyridæ.
Congo River. (After Boulenger.)
The Haplomi.—In the groups called Iniomi and Lyopomi, the
mesocoracoid arch is imperfect or wanting, a condition which in some cases
may be due to the degeneration produced by deep-sea life. In the eels a
similar condition obtains. In the group called Haplomi (ἁπλοός, simple;
ὤμος, shoulder), as in all the groups of fishes yet to be discussed, this arch
is wholly wanting at all stages of development. In common with the
doubtless serves as an imperfect lung.
The best-known genus of Scyphophori is Mormyrus. Species of this genus
found in the Nile were worshiped as sacred by the ancient Egyptians and
pictures of Mormyrus are often seen among the emblematic inscriptions.
The Egyptians did not eat the Mormyrus because with two other fishes it
was accused of having devoured a limb from the body of Osiris, so that Isis
was unable to recover it when she gathered the scattered remains of her
husband.
In Mormyrus the bones of the head are covered by skin, the snout is more or
less elongated, and the tail is generally short and insignificant. One of the
most characteristically eccentric species is Gnathonemus curvirostris, lately
discovered by Dr. Boulenger from the Congo. Fossil Mormyridæ are
unknown.
Fig. 149.—Gnathonemus curvirostris Boulenger. Family Mormyridæ.
Congo River. (After Boulenger.)
The Haplomi.—In the groups called Iniomi and Lyopomi, the
mesocoracoid arch is imperfect or wanting, a condition which in some cases
may be due to the degeneration produced by deep-sea life. In the eels a
similar condition obtains. In the group called Haplomi (ἁπλοός, simple;
ὤμος, shoulder), as in all the groups of fishes yet to be discussed, this arch
is wholly wanting at all stages of development. In common with the
Page 234
Isospondyli and with soft-rayed fishes in general the air-bladder has a
persistent air-duct, all the fins are without true spines, the ventral fins are
abdominal, and the scales are cycloid. The group is a transitional one, lying
almost equidistant between the Isospondyli and the Acanthopterygii. Gill
unites it with the latter and Woodward with the former. We may regard it for
the present as a distinct order, although no character of high importance
separates it from either. Hay unites the Haplomi with the Synentognathi to
form the order of Mesichthyes, or transitional fishes, but the affinities of
either with other groups are quite as well marked as their relation to each
other. Boulenger unites the Iniomi with the Haplomi, an arrangement which
apparently has merit, for the most primitive and non-degenerate Iniomi, as
Aulopus and Synodus, lack both mesocoracoid and orbitosphenoid. These
bones are characteristic of the Isospondyli, but are wanting in Haplomi.
There is no adipose dorsal in the typical Haplomi, the dorsal is inserted far
back, and the head is generally scaly. Most but not all of the species are of
small size, living in fresh or brackish water, and they are found in almost all
warm regions, though scantily represented in California, Japan, and
Polynesia. The four families of typical Haplomi differ considerably from
one another and are easily distinguished, although obviously related.
Several other families are provisionally added to this group on account of
agreement in technical characters, but their actual relationships are
uncertain.
The Pikes.—The Esocidæ have the body long and slender and the mouth
large, its bones armed with very strong, sharp teeth of different sizes, some
of them being movable. The upper jaw is not projectile, and its margin, as
in the Salmonidæ, is formed by the maxillary. The scales are small, and the
dorsal fin far back and opposite the anal, and the stomach is without pyloric
cæca. There is but a single genus, Esox (Lucius of Rafinesque), with about
five or six living species. Four of these are North American, the other one
being found in Europe, Asia, and North America.
All the pikes are greedy and voracious fishes, very destructive to other
species which may happen to be their neighbors; "mere machines for the
assimilation of other organisms." Thoreau describes the pike as "the
swiftest, wariest, and most ravenous of fishes, which Josselyn calls the
river-wolf. It is a solemn, stately, ruminant fish, lurking under the shadow
of a lily-pad at noon, with still, circumspect, voracious eye; motionless as a
persistent air-duct, all the fins are without true spines, the ventral fins are
abdominal, and the scales are cycloid. The group is a transitional one, lying
almost equidistant between the Isospondyli and the Acanthopterygii. Gill
unites it with the latter and Woodward with the former. We may regard it for
the present as a distinct order, although no character of high importance
separates it from either. Hay unites the Haplomi with the Synentognathi to
form the order of Mesichthyes, or transitional fishes, but the affinities of
either with other groups are quite as well marked as their relation to each
other. Boulenger unites the Iniomi with the Haplomi, an arrangement which
apparently has merit, for the most primitive and non-degenerate Iniomi, as
Aulopus and Synodus, lack both mesocoracoid and orbitosphenoid. These
bones are characteristic of the Isospondyli, but are wanting in Haplomi.
There is no adipose dorsal in the typical Haplomi, the dorsal is inserted far
back, and the head is generally scaly. Most but not all of the species are of
small size, living in fresh or brackish water, and they are found in almost all
warm regions, though scantily represented in California, Japan, and
Polynesia. The four families of typical Haplomi differ considerably from
one another and are easily distinguished, although obviously related.
Several other families are provisionally added to this group on account of
agreement in technical characters, but their actual relationships are
uncertain.
The Pikes.—The Esocidæ have the body long and slender and the mouth
large, its bones armed with very strong, sharp teeth of different sizes, some
of them being movable. The upper jaw is not projectile, and its margin, as
in the Salmonidæ, is formed by the maxillary. The scales are small, and the
dorsal fin far back and opposite the anal, and the stomach is without pyloric
cæca. There is but a single genus, Esox (Lucius of Rafinesque), with about
five or six living species. Four of these are North American, the other one
being found in Europe, Asia, and North America.
All the pikes are greedy and voracious fishes, very destructive to other
species which may happen to be their neighbors; "mere machines for the
assimilation of other organisms." Thoreau describes the pike as "the
swiftest, wariest, and most ravenous of fishes, which Josselyn calls the
river-wolf. It is a solemn, stately, ruminant fish, lurking under the shadow
of a lily-pad at noon, with still, circumspect, voracious eye; motionless as a
Page 235
jewel set in water, or moving slowly along to take up its position; darting
from time to time at such unlucky fish or frog or insect as comes within its
range, and swallowing it at one gulp. Sometimes a striped snake, bound for
greener meadows across the stream, ends its undulatory progress in the
same receptacle."
Fig. 150.—The Pike, Esox-lucius L. (From life by R. W. Shufeldt.)
As food-fishes, all the Esocidæ rank high. Their flesh is white, fine-grained,
disposed in flakes, and of excellent flavor.
The finest of the Esocidæ, a species to be compared, as a grand game fish,
with the salmon, is the muskallunge (Esox masquinongy). Technically this
species may be known by the fact that its cheeks and opercles are both
naked on the lower half. It may be known also by its great size and by its
color, young and old being spotted with black on a golden-olive ground.
from time to time at such unlucky fish or frog or insect as comes within its
range, and swallowing it at one gulp. Sometimes a striped snake, bound for
greener meadows across the stream, ends its undulatory progress in the
same receptacle."
Fig. 150.—The Pike, Esox-lucius L. (From life by R. W. Shufeldt.)
As food-fishes, all the Esocidæ rank high. Their flesh is white, fine-grained,
disposed in flakes, and of excellent flavor.
The finest of the Esocidæ, a species to be compared, as a grand game fish,
with the salmon, is the muskallunge (Esox masquinongy). Technically this
species may be known by the fact that its cheeks and opercles are both
naked on the lower half. It may be known also by its great size and by its
color, young and old being spotted with black on a golden-olive ground.
Page 236
Fig. 151.—Muskallunge, Esox masquinongy Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich.
The muskallunge is found only in the Great Lake region, where it inhabits
the deeper waters, except for a short time in the spring, when it enters the
streams to spawn. It often reaches a length of six feet and a weight of sixty
to eighty pounds. It is necessarily somewhat rare, for no small locality
would furnish food for more than one such giant. It is, says Hallock, "a
long, slim, strong, and swift fish, in every way formed for the life it leads,
that of a dauntless marauder."
A second species of muskallunge, Esox ohiensis, unspotted but vaguely
cross-barred, occurs sparingly in the Ohio River and the upper Mississippi
Valley. It is especially abundant in Chautauqua Lake.
The pike (Esox lucius) is smaller than the muskallunge, and is technically
best distinguished by the fact that the opercles are naked below, while the
cheeks are entirely scaly. The spots and cross-bars in the pike are whitish or
yellowish, and always paler than the olive-gray ground color. It is the most
widely distributed of all fresh-water fishes, being found from the upper
Mississippi Valley, the Great Lakes, and New England to Alaska and
throughout northern Asia and Europe. It reaches a weight of ten to twenty
pounds or more, being a large strong fish in its way, inferior only to the
muskallunge. In England Esox lucius is known as the pike, while its young
are called by the diminutive term pickerel. In America the name pickerel is
usually given to the smaller species, and sometimes even to Esox lucius
itself, the word being with us a synonym for pike, not a diminutive.
Of the small pike or pickerel we have three species in the eastern United
States. They are greenish in color and banded or reticulated, rather than
spotted, and, in all, the opercles as well as the cheeks are fully covered with
The muskallunge is found only in the Great Lake region, where it inhabits
the deeper waters, except for a short time in the spring, when it enters the
streams to spawn. It often reaches a length of six feet and a weight of sixty
to eighty pounds. It is necessarily somewhat rare, for no small locality
would furnish food for more than one such giant. It is, says Hallock, "a
long, slim, strong, and swift fish, in every way formed for the life it leads,
that of a dauntless marauder."
A second species of muskallunge, Esox ohiensis, unspotted but vaguely
cross-barred, occurs sparingly in the Ohio River and the upper Mississippi
Valley. It is especially abundant in Chautauqua Lake.
The pike (Esox lucius) is smaller than the muskallunge, and is technically
best distinguished by the fact that the opercles are naked below, while the
cheeks are entirely scaly. The spots and cross-bars in the pike are whitish or
yellowish, and always paler than the olive-gray ground color. It is the most
widely distributed of all fresh-water fishes, being found from the upper
Mississippi Valley, the Great Lakes, and New England to Alaska and
throughout northern Asia and Europe. It reaches a weight of ten to twenty
pounds or more, being a large strong fish in its way, inferior only to the
muskallunge. In England Esox lucius is known as the pike, while its young
are called by the diminutive term pickerel. In America the name pickerel is
usually given to the smaller species, and sometimes even to Esox lucius
itself, the word being with us a synonym for pike, not a diminutive.
Of the small pike or pickerel we have three species in the eastern United
States. They are greenish in color and banded or reticulated, rather than
spotted, and, in all, the opercles as well as the cheeks are fully covered with
Page 237
scales. One of these (Esox reticulatus) is the common pickerel of the
Eastern States, which reaches a respectable size and is excellent as food.
The others, Esox americanus along the Atlantic seaboard and Esox
vermiculatus in the middle West, seldom exceed a foot in length and are of
no economic importance.
Numerous fossil species are found in the Tertiary of Europe, Esox lepidotus
from the Miocene of Baden being one of the earliest and the best known; in
this species the scales are much larger than in the recent species. The fossil
remains would seem to indicate that the origin of the family was in southern
Europe, although most of the living species are American.
Fig. 152.—Mud-minnow, Umbra pygmæa (De Kay). New Jersey.
The Mud-minnows.—Close to the pike is the family of Umbridæ, or mud-
minnows, which technically differ from the pikes only in the short snout,
small mouth, and weak dentition. The mud-minnows are small, sluggish,
carnivorous fishes living in the mud at the bottom of cold, clear streams and
ponds. They are extremely tenacious of life, though soon suffocated in
warm waters. The barred mud-minnow of the prairies of the middle West
(Umbra limi) often remains in dried sloughs and bog-holes, and has been
sometimes plowed up alive. Umbra pygmæa, a striped species, is found in
the Eastern States and Umbra crameri in bogs and brooks along the
Danube. This wide break in distribution seems to indicate a former wide
extension of the range of Umbridæ, perhaps coextensive with Esox. Fossil
Umbridæ are, however, not yet recognized.
Eastern States, which reaches a respectable size and is excellent as food.
The others, Esox americanus along the Atlantic seaboard and Esox
vermiculatus in the middle West, seldom exceed a foot in length and are of
no economic importance.
Numerous fossil species are found in the Tertiary of Europe, Esox lepidotus
from the Miocene of Baden being one of the earliest and the best known; in
this species the scales are much larger than in the recent species. The fossil
remains would seem to indicate that the origin of the family was in southern
Europe, although most of the living species are American.
Fig. 152.—Mud-minnow, Umbra pygmæa (De Kay). New Jersey.
The Mud-minnows.—Close to the pike is the family of Umbridæ, or mud-
minnows, which technically differ from the pikes only in the short snout,
small mouth, and weak dentition. The mud-minnows are small, sluggish,
carnivorous fishes living in the mud at the bottom of cold, clear streams and
ponds. They are extremely tenacious of life, though soon suffocated in
warm waters. The barred mud-minnow of the prairies of the middle West
(Umbra limi) often remains in dried sloughs and bog-holes, and has been
sometimes plowed up alive. Umbra pygmæa, a striped species, is found in
the Eastern States and Umbra crameri in bogs and brooks along the
Danube. This wide break in distribution seems to indicate a former wide
extension of the range of Umbridæ, perhaps coextensive with Esox. Fossil
Umbridæ are, however, not yet recognized.
Page 238
The Killifishes.—Most of the recent Haplomi belong to the family of
Pœciliidæ (killifishes, or Cyprinodonts). In this group the small mouth is
extremely protractile, its margin formed by the premaxillaries alone much
as in the spiny-rayed fishes. The teeth are small and of various forms
according to the food. In most of the herbivorous forms they are incisor-
like, serrate, and loosely inserted in the lips. In the species that eat insects or
worms they are more firmly fixed. The head is scaly, the stomach without
cæca, and the intestines are long in the plant-eating species and short in the
others. There are nearly 200 species, very abundant from New England and
California southward to Argentina, and in Asia and Africa also. In regions
where rice is produced, they swarm in the rice swamps and ditches. Some
of them enter the sea, but none of them go far from shore. Some are
brilliantly colored, and in many species the males are quite unlike the
females, being smaller and more showy. The largest species (Fundulus,
Anableps) rarely reach the length of a foot, while Heterandria formosa, a
diminutive inhabitant of the Florida rivers, scarcely reaches an inch. Some
species are oviparous, but in most of the herbivorous forms, and some of
the others, the eggs are hatched within the body, and the anal in the male is
modified into a long sword-shaped intromittent organ, placed farther
forward than the anal in the female. The young when born closely resemble
the parent. Most of the insectivorous species swim at the surface, moving
slowly with the eyes partly out of water. This habit in the genus Anableps
(four-eyed fish, or Cuatro ojos) is associated with an extraordinary structure
of the eye. This organ is prominent and is divided by a horizontal partition
into two parts, the upper, less convex, adopted for sight in the air, the lower
in the water. The few species of Anableps are found in tropical America.
The species of some genera swim near the bottom, but always in very
shallow waters. All are very tenacious of life, and none have any
commercial value although the flesh is good.
Pœciliidæ (killifishes, or Cyprinodonts). In this group the small mouth is
extremely protractile, its margin formed by the premaxillaries alone much
as in the spiny-rayed fishes. The teeth are small and of various forms
according to the food. In most of the herbivorous forms they are incisor-
like, serrate, and loosely inserted in the lips. In the species that eat insects or
worms they are more firmly fixed. The head is scaly, the stomach without
cæca, and the intestines are long in the plant-eating species and short in the
others. There are nearly 200 species, very abundant from New England and
California southward to Argentina, and in Asia and Africa also. In regions
where rice is produced, they swarm in the rice swamps and ditches. Some
of them enter the sea, but none of them go far from shore. Some are
brilliantly colored, and in many species the males are quite unlike the
females, being smaller and more showy. The largest species (Fundulus,
Anableps) rarely reach the length of a foot, while Heterandria formosa, a
diminutive inhabitant of the Florida rivers, scarcely reaches an inch. Some
species are oviparous, but in most of the herbivorous forms, and some of
the others, the eggs are hatched within the body, and the anal in the male is
modified into a long sword-shaped intromittent organ, placed farther
forward than the anal in the female. The young when born closely resemble
the parent. Most of the insectivorous species swim at the surface, moving
slowly with the eyes partly out of water. This habit in the genus Anableps
(four-eyed fish, or Cuatro ojos) is associated with an extraordinary structure
of the eye. This organ is prominent and is divided by a horizontal partition
into two parts, the upper, less convex, adopted for sight in the air, the lower
in the water. The few species of Anableps are found in tropical America.
The species of some genera swim near the bottom, but always in very
shallow waters. All are very tenacious of life, and none have any
commercial value although the flesh is good.
Page 239
Fig. 152a.—Four-eyed Fish, Anableps dovii Gill. Tehuantepec, Mexico.
The unique structure of the eye of this curious fish has been carefully
studied by Mr. M. C. Marsh, pathologist of the U. S. Fish Commission, who
furnishes the following notes published by Evermann & Goldsborough:
"The eye is crossed by a bar, like the diameter of a circle, and parallel with
the length of the body. This bar is darker than the other external portions of
the eyeball and has its edges darker still. Dividing the external aspect of the
eye equally, it has its lower edge on the same level as the back of the fish,
which is flat and straight from snout to dorsal, or nearly the whole length of
the fish; so that when the body of the fish is just submerged the level of the
water reaches to this bar, and the lower half of the eye is in water, the upper
half in the air. Upon dissecting the eyeball from the orbit, it appears nearly
round. A membranous sheath covers the external part and invests most of
the ball. It may be peeled off, when the dark bar on the external portion of
the eye is seen to be upon this membrane, which may correspond to the
conjunctiva. The back portion of the eyeball being cut off, one lens is
found. The lining of the ball consists, in front, of one black layer, evidently
choroid. Behind there is a retinal layer. The choroid layer turns up
anteriorly, making a free edge comparable to an iris. The free edge is
chiefly evident in the lower part of the eye. A large pupil is left, but is
divided by two flaps, continuations of the choroid coat, projecting from
either side and overlapping. There are properly then two pupils, an upper
and lower, separated by a band consisting of the two flaps, which may
probably, by moving upward and downward, increase or diminish the size
of either pupil; an upward motion of the flaps increasing the lower pupil at
the expense of the other, and vice versa."
This division of the pupil into two parts permits the fish, when swimming at
the surface of the water, as is its usual custom, to see in the air with the
upper portion and in the water with the lower. It is thus able to see not only
such insects as are upon the surface of the water or flying in the air above,
but also any that may be swimming beneath the surface.
The unique structure of the eye of this curious fish has been carefully
studied by Mr. M. C. Marsh, pathologist of the U. S. Fish Commission, who
furnishes the following notes published by Evermann & Goldsborough:
"The eye is crossed by a bar, like the diameter of a circle, and parallel with
the length of the body. This bar is darker than the other external portions of
the eyeball and has its edges darker still. Dividing the external aspect of the
eye equally, it has its lower edge on the same level as the back of the fish,
which is flat and straight from snout to dorsal, or nearly the whole length of
the fish; so that when the body of the fish is just submerged the level of the
water reaches to this bar, and the lower half of the eye is in water, the upper
half in the air. Upon dissecting the eyeball from the orbit, it appears nearly
round. A membranous sheath covers the external part and invests most of
the ball. It may be peeled off, when the dark bar on the external portion of
the eye is seen to be upon this membrane, which may correspond to the
conjunctiva. The back portion of the eyeball being cut off, one lens is
found. The lining of the ball consists, in front, of one black layer, evidently
choroid. Behind there is a retinal layer. The choroid layer turns up
anteriorly, making a free edge comparable to an iris. The free edge is
chiefly evident in the lower part of the eye. A large pupil is left, but is
divided by two flaps, continuations of the choroid coat, projecting from
either side and overlapping. There are properly then two pupils, an upper
and lower, separated by a band consisting of the two flaps, which may
probably, by moving upward and downward, increase or diminish the size
of either pupil; an upward motion of the flaps increasing the lower pupil at
the expense of the other, and vice versa."
This division of the pupil into two parts permits the fish, when swimming at
the surface of the water, as is its usual custom, to see in the air with the
upper portion and in the water with the lower. It is thus able to see not only
such insects as are upon the surface of the water or flying in the air above,
but also any that may be swimming beneath the surface.
Page 240
Fig. 153.—Round Minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus Lacépède. St. George
Island, Maryland.
According to Mr. E. W. Nelson, "the individuals of this species swim
always at the surface and in little schools arranged in platoons or abreast.
They always swim headed upstream against the current, and feed upon
floating matter which the current brings them. A platoon may be seen in
regular formation breasting the current, either making slight headway
upstream or merely maintaining their station, and on the qui vive for any
suitable food the current may bring. Now and then one may be seen to dart
forward, seize a floating food particle, and then resume its place in the
platoon. And thus they may be observed feeding for long periods. They are
almost invariably found in running water well out in the stream, or at least
where the current is strongest and where floating matter is most abundant,
for it is upon floating matter that they seem chiefly to depend. They are not
known to jump out of the water to catch insects flying in the air or resting
upon vegetation above the water surface, nor do they seem to feed to any
extent upon all small crustaceans or other portions of the plankton beneath
the surface.
Island, Maryland.
According to Mr. E. W. Nelson, "the individuals of this species swim
always at the surface and in little schools arranged in platoons or abreast.
They always swim headed upstream against the current, and feed upon
floating matter which the current brings them. A platoon may be seen in
regular formation breasting the current, either making slight headway
upstream or merely maintaining their station, and on the qui vive for any
suitable food the current may bring. Now and then one may be seen to dart
forward, seize a floating food particle, and then resume its place in the
platoon. And thus they may be observed feeding for long periods. They are
almost invariably found in running water well out in the stream, or at least
where the current is strongest and where floating matter is most abundant,
for it is upon floating matter that they seem chiefly to depend. They are not
known to jump out of the water to catch insects flying in the air or resting
upon vegetation above the water surface, nor do they seem to feed to any
extent upon all small crustaceans or other portions of the plankton beneath
the surface.
Page 241
Fig. 154.—Everglade Minnow, Jordanella floridæ Goode & Bean.
Everglades of Florida.
"When alarmed—and they are wary and very easily frightened—they
escape by skipping or jumping over the water, 2 or 3 feet at a skip. They
rise entirely out of the water, and at a considerable angle, the head pointing
upward. In descending the tail strikes the water first and apparently by a
sculling motion new impetus is acquired for another leap. This skipping
may continue until the school is widely scattered. When a school has
become scattered, and after the cause of their fright has disappeared, the
individuals soon rejoin each other. First two will join each other and one by
one the others will join them until the whole school is together again.
Rarely do they attempt to dive or get beneath the surface; when they do
they have great difficulty in keeping under and soon come to the surface
again."
Everglades of Florida.
"When alarmed—and they are wary and very easily frightened—they
escape by skipping or jumping over the water, 2 or 3 feet at a skip. They
rise entirely out of the water, and at a considerable angle, the head pointing
upward. In descending the tail strikes the water first and apparently by a
sculling motion new impetus is acquired for another leap. This skipping
may continue until the school is widely scattered. When a school has
become scattered, and after the cause of their fright has disappeared, the
individuals soon rejoin each other. First two will join each other and one by
one the others will join them until the whole school is together again.
Rarely do they attempt to dive or get beneath the surface; when they do
they have great difficulty in keeping under and soon come to the surface
again."
Page 242
Fig. 155.—Mayfish, Fundulus majalis (L.) (male). Wood's Hole.
Fig. 156.—Mayfish, Fundulus majalis (female). Wood's Hole.
Fig. 156.—Mayfish, Fundulus majalis (female). Wood's Hole.
Page 243
Fig. 157.—Top-minnow, Zygonectes notatus (Rafinesque). Eureka
Springs, Ark.
Fig. 158.—Death Valley Fish, Empetrichthys merriami Gilbert. Amargosa
Desert, Cal. Family Pœciliidæ. (After Gilbert.)
Fig. 159.—Sword-tail Minnow, male, Xiphophorus helleri Heckel. The
anal fin modified as an intromittent organ. Vera Cruz.
Of the many genera of Pœciliidæ, top-minnows, and killifishes we may
mention the following: Cyprinodon is made up of chubby little fishes of
eastern America with tricuspid, incisor teeth, oviparous and omnivorous.
Very similar to these but smaller are the species of Lebias in southern
Springs, Ark.
Fig. 158.—Death Valley Fish, Empetrichthys merriami Gilbert. Amargosa
Desert, Cal. Family Pœciliidæ. (After Gilbert.)
Fig. 159.—Sword-tail Minnow, male, Xiphophorus helleri Heckel. The
anal fin modified as an intromittent organ. Vera Cruz.
Of the many genera of Pœciliidæ, top-minnows, and killifishes we may
mention the following: Cyprinodon is made up of chubby little fishes of
eastern America with tricuspid, incisor teeth, oviparous and omnivorous.
Very similar to these but smaller are the species of Lebias in southern
Page 244
Europe. Jordanella floridæ of the Florida everglades is similar, but with the
dorsal fin long and its first ray enlarged and spine-like. It strongly
resembles a young sunfish. Most of the larger forms belong to Fundulus, a
genus widely distributed from Maine to Guatemala and north to Kansas and
southern California. Fundulus majalis, the Mayfish of the Atlantic Coast, is
the largest of the genus. Fundulus heteroclitus, the killifish, the most
abundant. Fundulus diaphanus inhabits sea and lake indiscriminately.
Fundulus stellifer of the Alabama is beautifully colored, as is Fundulus
zebrinus of the Rio Grande. The genus Zygonectes includes dwarf species
similar to Fundulus, and Adinia includes those with short, deep body.
Goodea atripinnis with tricuspid teeth lives in warm springs in Mexico, and
several species of Goodea, Gambusia, Pœcilia, and other genera inhabit hot
springs of Mexico, Central America, and Africa. The genus Gambusia, the
top-minnows, includes numerous species with dwarf males having the anal
modified. Gambusia affinis abounds in all kinds of sluggish water in the
southern lowlands, gutters and even sewers included. It brings forth its
brood in early spring. Viviparous and herbivorous with modified anal fin
are the species of Pœcilia, abundant throughout Mexico and southward to
Brazil; Mollienesia very similar, with a banner-like dorsal fin, showily
marked, occurs from Louisiana southward, and Xiphophorus, with a sword-
shaped lobe on the caudal, abounds in Mexico; Characodon and Goodea
(see Fig. 53, Vol. I) in Mexico have notched teeth, and finally, Heterandria
contains some of the least of fishes, the handsomely colored males barely
half an inch long.
dorsal fin long and its first ray enlarged and spine-like. It strongly
resembles a young sunfish. Most of the larger forms belong to Fundulus, a
genus widely distributed from Maine to Guatemala and north to Kansas and
southern California. Fundulus majalis, the Mayfish of the Atlantic Coast, is
the largest of the genus. Fundulus heteroclitus, the killifish, the most
abundant. Fundulus diaphanus inhabits sea and lake indiscriminately.
Fundulus stellifer of the Alabama is beautifully colored, as is Fundulus
zebrinus of the Rio Grande. The genus Zygonectes includes dwarf species
similar to Fundulus, and Adinia includes those with short, deep body.
Goodea atripinnis with tricuspid teeth lives in warm springs in Mexico, and
several species of Goodea, Gambusia, Pœcilia, and other genera inhabit hot
springs of Mexico, Central America, and Africa. The genus Gambusia, the
top-minnows, includes numerous species with dwarf males having the anal
modified. Gambusia affinis abounds in all kinds of sluggish water in the
southern lowlands, gutters and even sewers included. It brings forth its
brood in early spring. Viviparous and herbivorous with modified anal fin
are the species of Pœcilia, abundant throughout Mexico and southward to
Brazil; Mollienesia very similar, with a banner-like dorsal fin, showily
marked, occurs from Louisiana southward, and Xiphophorus, with a sword-
shaped lobe on the caudal, abounds in Mexico; Characodon and Goodea
(see Fig. 53, Vol. I) in Mexico have notched teeth, and finally, Heterandria
contains some of the least of fishes, the handsomely colored males barely
half an inch long.
Page 245
Fig. 160.—Goodea luitpoldi (Steindachner). A viviparous fish from Lake
Patzcuaro, Mexico. Family Pœciliidæ. (After Meek.)
In Lake Titicaca in the high Andes is a peculiar genus (Orestias) without
ventral fins. Still more peculiar is Empetrichthys merriami of the desert
springs of the hot and rainless Death Valley in California, similar to
Orestias, but with enormously enlarged pharyngeals and pharyngeal teeth,
an adaptation to some unknown purpose. Fossil Cyprinodonts are not rare
from the Miocene in southern Europe. The numerous species are allied to
Lebias and Cyprinodon, and are referred to Prolebias and Pachylebias.
None are American, although two American extinct genera, Gephyrura and
Proballostomus, are probably allied to this group.
Amblyopsidæ.—The cavefishes, Amblyopsidæ, are the most remarkable of
the haplomous fishes. In this family the vent is placed at the throat. The
form is that of the Pœciliidæ, but the mouth is larger and not protractile.
The species are viviparous, the young being born at about the length of a
quarter of an inch.
Fig. 161.—Dismal Swamp Fish, Chologaster cornutus Agassiz. Supposed
ancestor of Typhlichthys. Virginia.
In the primitive genus Chologaster, the fish of the Dismal Swamp, the eyes
are small but normally developed. Chologaster cornutus abounds in the
black waters of the Dismal Swamp of Virginia, thence southward through
swamps and rice-fields to Okefinokee Swamp in northern Florida. It is a
small fish, less than two inches long, striped with black, and with the habit
of a top-minnow. Other species of Chologaster, possessing eyes and color,
Patzcuaro, Mexico. Family Pœciliidæ. (After Meek.)
In Lake Titicaca in the high Andes is a peculiar genus (Orestias) without
ventral fins. Still more peculiar is Empetrichthys merriami of the desert
springs of the hot and rainless Death Valley in California, similar to
Orestias, but with enormously enlarged pharyngeals and pharyngeal teeth,
an adaptation to some unknown purpose. Fossil Cyprinodonts are not rare
from the Miocene in southern Europe. The numerous species are allied to
Lebias and Cyprinodon, and are referred to Prolebias and Pachylebias.
None are American, although two American extinct genera, Gephyrura and
Proballostomus, are probably allied to this group.
Amblyopsidæ.—The cavefishes, Amblyopsidæ, are the most remarkable of
the haplomous fishes. In this family the vent is placed at the throat. The
form is that of the Pœciliidæ, but the mouth is larger and not protractile.
The species are viviparous, the young being born at about the length of a
quarter of an inch.
Fig. 161.—Dismal Swamp Fish, Chologaster cornutus Agassiz. Supposed
ancestor of Typhlichthys. Virginia.
In the primitive genus Chologaster, the fish of the Dismal Swamp, the eyes
are small but normally developed. Chologaster cornutus abounds in the
black waters of the Dismal Swamp of Virginia, thence southward through
swamps and rice-fields to Okefinokee Swamp in northern Florida. It is a
small fish, less than two inches long, striped with black, and with the habit
of a top-minnow. Other species of Chologaster, possessing eyes and color,
Page 246
but provided also with tactile papillæ, are found in cave springs in
Tennessee and southern Illinois.
Fig. 162.—Blind Cave-fish, Typhlichthys subterraneus Girard. Mammoth
Cave, Kentucky.
From Chologaster is directly descended the small blindfish Typhlichthys
subterraneus of the caves of the Subcarboniferous limestone rocks of
southern Indiana and southward to northern Alabama. As in Chologaster,
the ventral fins are wanting. The eyes, present in the young, become
defective and useless in the adult, when they are almost hidden by other
tissues. The different parts of the eye are all more or less incomplete, being
without function. The structure of the eye has been described in much detail
in several papers by Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann. As to the cause of the loss of
eyesight two chief theories exist—the Lamarckian theory of the inheritance
in the species of the results of disuse in the individual and the
Weissmannian doctrine that the loss of sight is a result of panmixia or
cessation of selection. This may be extended to cover reversal of selection,
as in the depths of the great caves the fish without eyes would be at some
slight advantage. Dr. Eigenmann inclines to the Lamarckian doctrine, but
the evidence brought forward fails to convince the present writer that results
of individual use or disuse ever become hereditary or that they are ever
incorporated in the characters of a species. In the caves of southern
Missouri is an independent case of similar degradation. Troglichthys rosæ,
the blindfish of this region, has the eye in a different phase of degeneration.
It is thought to be separately descended from some other species of
Tennessee and southern Illinois.
Fig. 162.—Blind Cave-fish, Typhlichthys subterraneus Girard. Mammoth
Cave, Kentucky.
From Chologaster is directly descended the small blindfish Typhlichthys
subterraneus of the caves of the Subcarboniferous limestone rocks of
southern Indiana and southward to northern Alabama. As in Chologaster,
the ventral fins are wanting. The eyes, present in the young, become
defective and useless in the adult, when they are almost hidden by other
tissues. The different parts of the eye are all more or less incomplete, being
without function. The structure of the eye has been described in much detail
in several papers by Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann. As to the cause of the loss of
eyesight two chief theories exist—the Lamarckian theory of the inheritance
in the species of the results of disuse in the individual and the
Weissmannian doctrine that the loss of sight is a result of panmixia or
cessation of selection. This may be extended to cover reversal of selection,
as in the depths of the great caves the fish without eyes would be at some
slight advantage. Dr. Eigenmann inclines to the Lamarckian doctrine, but
the evidence brought forward fails to convince the present writer that results
of individual use or disuse ever become hereditary or that they are ever
incorporated in the characters of a species. In the caves of southern
Missouri is an independent case of similar degradation. Troglichthys rosæ,
the blindfish of this region, has the eye in a different phase of degeneration.
It is thought to be separately descended from some other species of
Page 247
Chologaster. Of this species Mr. Garman and Mr. Eigenmann have given
detailed accounts from somewhat different points of view.
Concerning the habits of the blindfish (Troglichthys rosæ), Mr. Garman
quotes the following from notes of Miss Ruth Hoppin, of Jasper County,
Missouri: "For about two weeks I have been watching a fish taken from a
well. I gave him considerable water, changed once a day, and kept him in an
uninhabited place subject to as few changes of temperature as possible. He
seems perfectly healthy and as lively as when first taken from the well. If
not capable of long fasts, he must live on small organisms my eye cannot
discern. He is hardly ever still, but moves about the sides of the vessel
constantly, down and up, as if needing the air. He never swims through the
body of the water away from the sides unless disturbed. Passing the finger
over the sides of the vessel under water I find it slippery. I am careful not to
disturb this slimy coating when the water is changed.... Numerous tests
convince me that it is through the sense of touch, and not through hearing,
that the fish is disturbed; I may scream or strike metal bodies together over
him as near as possible, yet he seems to take no notice whatever. If I strike
the vessel so that the water is set in motion, he darts away from that side
through the mass of water, instead of around in his usual way. If I stir the
water or touch the fish, no matter how lightly, his actions are the same."
Fig. 163.—Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, Amblyopsis spelæus (De
Kay). Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
The more famous blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, Amblyopsis spelæus,
reaches a length of five inches. It possesses ventral fins. From this fact we
detailed accounts from somewhat different points of view.
Concerning the habits of the blindfish (Troglichthys rosæ), Mr. Garman
quotes the following from notes of Miss Ruth Hoppin, of Jasper County,
Missouri: "For about two weeks I have been watching a fish taken from a
well. I gave him considerable water, changed once a day, and kept him in an
uninhabited place subject to as few changes of temperature as possible. He
seems perfectly healthy and as lively as when first taken from the well. If
not capable of long fasts, he must live on small organisms my eye cannot
discern. He is hardly ever still, but moves about the sides of the vessel
constantly, down and up, as if needing the air. He never swims through the
body of the water away from the sides unless disturbed. Passing the finger
over the sides of the vessel under water I find it slippery. I am careful not to
disturb this slimy coating when the water is changed.... Numerous tests
convince me that it is through the sense of touch, and not through hearing,
that the fish is disturbed; I may scream or strike metal bodies together over
him as near as possible, yet he seems to take no notice whatever. If I strike
the vessel so that the water is set in motion, he darts away from that side
through the mass of water, instead of around in his usual way. If I stir the
water or touch the fish, no matter how lightly, his actions are the same."
Fig. 163.—Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, Amblyopsis spelæus (De
Kay). Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
The more famous blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, Amblyopsis spelæus,
reaches a length of five inches. It possesses ventral fins. From this fact we
Page 248
may infer its descent from some extinct genus which, unlike Chologaster,
retains these fins. The translucent body, as in the other blindfishes, is
covered with very delicate tactile papillæ, which form a very delicate organ
of touch.
The anomalous position of the vent in Amblyopsidæ occurs again in an
equally singular fish, Aphredoderus sayanus, which is found in the same
waters throughout the same region in which Chologaster occurs. It would
seem as if these lowland fishes of the southern swamps were remains of a
once much more extensive fauna.
No fossil allies of Chologaster are known.
Kneriidæ, etc.—The members of the order of Haplomi, recorded above,
differ widely among themselves in various details of osteology. There are
other families, probably belonging here, which are still more aberrant.
Among these are the Kneriidæ, and perhaps the entire series of forms called
Iniomi, most of which possess the osteological traits of the Haplomi.
The family of Kneriidæ includes a few very small fishes of the rivers of
Africa.
The Galaxiidæ.—The Galaxiidæ are trout-like fishes of the southern
rivers, where they take the place of the trout of the northern zones. The
species lack the adipose fins and have the dorsal inserted well backward.
According to Boulenger these fishes, having no mesocoraoid, should be
placed among the Haplomi. Yet their relation to the Haplochitonidæ is very
close and both families may really belong to the Isospondyli. Galaxias
truttaceus is the kokopu, or "trout," of New Zealand. Galaxias ocellatus is
the yarra trout of Australia. Several other species are found in southern
Australia, Tasmania, Patagonia, and the Falkland Islands, and even in South
Africa. This very wide distribution in the rivers remote from each other has
given rise to the suggestion of a former land connection between Australia
and Patagonia. Other similar facts have led some geologists to believe in the
existence of a former great continent called Antarctica, now submerged
except that part which constitutes the present unknown land of the
Antarctic.
As intimated on p. 253, Vol. I, this distribution of Galaxias with similar
anomalies in other groups could not if unsupported by geological evidence
retains these fins. The translucent body, as in the other blindfishes, is
covered with very delicate tactile papillæ, which form a very delicate organ
of touch.
The anomalous position of the vent in Amblyopsidæ occurs again in an
equally singular fish, Aphredoderus sayanus, which is found in the same
waters throughout the same region in which Chologaster occurs. It would
seem as if these lowland fishes of the southern swamps were remains of a
once much more extensive fauna.
No fossil allies of Chologaster are known.
Kneriidæ, etc.—The members of the order of Haplomi, recorded above,
differ widely among themselves in various details of osteology. There are
other families, probably belonging here, which are still more aberrant.
Among these are the Kneriidæ, and perhaps the entire series of forms called
Iniomi, most of which possess the osteological traits of the Haplomi.
The family of Kneriidæ includes a few very small fishes of the rivers of
Africa.
The Galaxiidæ.—The Galaxiidæ are trout-like fishes of the southern
rivers, where they take the place of the trout of the northern zones. The
species lack the adipose fins and have the dorsal inserted well backward.
According to Boulenger these fishes, having no mesocoraoid, should be
placed among the Haplomi. Yet their relation to the Haplochitonidæ is very
close and both families may really belong to the Isospondyli. Galaxias
truttaceus is the kokopu, or "trout," of New Zealand. Galaxias ocellatus is
the yarra trout of Australia. Several other species are found in southern
Australia, Tasmania, Patagonia, and the Falkland Islands, and even in South
Africa. This very wide distribution in the rivers remote from each other has
given rise to the suggestion of a former land connection between Australia
and Patagonia. Other similar facts have led some geologists to believe in the
existence of a former great continent called Antarctica, now submerged
except that part which constitutes the present unknown land of the
Antarctic.
As intimated on p. 253, Vol. I, this distribution of Galaxias with similar
anomalies in other groups could not if unsupported by geological evidence
Page 249
be held to prove the former extension of the Antarctic continent. Dr.
Boulenger[12] has recently shown that Galaxias lives freely in salt water, a
fact sufficient to account for its wide distribution in the rivers of the
southern hemisphere.
12. Dr. Boulenger (Nature, Nov. 27, 1902) has the following note on Galaxias: "Most text-books
and papers discussing geographical distribution have made much of the range of a genus of
small fishes, somewhat resembling trout, the Galaxias, commonly described as true fresh-
water forms, which have long been known from the extreme south of South America, New
Zealand, Tasmania, and southern Australia. The discovery, within the last few years, of a
species of the same genus in fresh water near Cape Town, whence it had previously been
described as a loach by F. de Castelnau, has added to the interest, and has been adduced as a
further argument in support of the former existence of an Antarctic continent. In alluding to
this discovery when discussing the distribution of African fresh-water fishes in the introduction
to my work 'Les Poissons du Bassin du Congo,' in 1901, I observed that, contrary to the
prevailing notion, all species of Galaxias are not confined to fresh water, and that the fact of
some living both in the sea and in rivers suffices to explain the curious distribution of the
genus; pointing out that in all probability these fishes were formerly more widely distributed in
the seas south of the tropic of Capricorn, and that certain species, adapting themselves entirely
to fresh-water life, have become localized at the distant points where they are now known to
exist. Although as recently as October last the distinguished American ichthyologist D. S.
Jordan wrote (Science, xiv, p. 20): 'We know nothing of the power of Galaxias to survive
submergence in salt water, if carried in a marine current': it is an established fact, ascertained
some years ago by F. E. Clarke in New Zealand and by R. Vallentin in the Falkland Islands,
that Galaxias attenuatus lives also in the sea. In New Zealand it periodically descends to the
sea, where it spawns, from January to March, and returns from March to May. In accordance
with these marine habits, this species has a much wider range than any of the others, being
known from Chile, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, New Zealand, Tasmania,
and southern Australia.
"I now wish to draw attention to a communication made by Captain F. W. Hutton in the last
number of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute (xxxiv, p. 198), 'On a Marine
Galaxias from the Auckland Islands.' This fish, named Galaxias bollansi, was taken out of the
mouth of a specimen of Merganser australis during the collection excursion to the southern
islands of New Zealand made in January, 1901, by His Excellency the Earl of Ranfurly.
"It is hoped that by giving greater publicity to these discoveries the family Galaxiidæ will no
longer be included among those strictly confined to fresh waters, and that students of the
geographical distribution of animals will be furnished with a clue to a problem that has so often
been discussed on insufficient data. As observed by Jordan (l. c.), all anomalies in distribution
cease to be such when the facts necessary to understand them are at hand.'
"Of the fresh-water species of Galaxias, eight are known from New Zealand and the
neighboring islands, seven from New South Wales, three or four from south Australia, one
from west Australia, two from Tasmania, seven from South America, from Chile southwards,
and one from the Cape of Good Hope."
Neochanna is an ally of Galaxias living in burrows in the clay or mud like a
crayfish, often at a distance from water. As in various other mud-living
types, the ventral fins are obsolete.
Boulenger[12] has recently shown that Galaxias lives freely in salt water, a
fact sufficient to account for its wide distribution in the rivers of the
southern hemisphere.
12. Dr. Boulenger (Nature, Nov. 27, 1902) has the following note on Galaxias: "Most text-books
and papers discussing geographical distribution have made much of the range of a genus of
small fishes, somewhat resembling trout, the Galaxias, commonly described as true fresh-
water forms, which have long been known from the extreme south of South America, New
Zealand, Tasmania, and southern Australia. The discovery, within the last few years, of a
species of the same genus in fresh water near Cape Town, whence it had previously been
described as a loach by F. de Castelnau, has added to the interest, and has been adduced as a
further argument in support of the former existence of an Antarctic continent. In alluding to
this discovery when discussing the distribution of African fresh-water fishes in the introduction
to my work 'Les Poissons du Bassin du Congo,' in 1901, I observed that, contrary to the
prevailing notion, all species of Galaxias are not confined to fresh water, and that the fact of
some living both in the sea and in rivers suffices to explain the curious distribution of the
genus; pointing out that in all probability these fishes were formerly more widely distributed in
the seas south of the tropic of Capricorn, and that certain species, adapting themselves entirely
to fresh-water life, have become localized at the distant points where they are now known to
exist. Although as recently as October last the distinguished American ichthyologist D. S.
Jordan wrote (Science, xiv, p. 20): 'We know nothing of the power of Galaxias to survive
submergence in salt water, if carried in a marine current': it is an established fact, ascertained
some years ago by F. E. Clarke in New Zealand and by R. Vallentin in the Falkland Islands,
that Galaxias attenuatus lives also in the sea. In New Zealand it periodically descends to the
sea, where it spawns, from January to March, and returns from March to May. In accordance
with these marine habits, this species has a much wider range than any of the others, being
known from Chile, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, New Zealand, Tasmania,
and southern Australia.
"I now wish to draw attention to a communication made by Captain F. W. Hutton in the last
number of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute (xxxiv, p. 198), 'On a Marine
Galaxias from the Auckland Islands.' This fish, named Galaxias bollansi, was taken out of the
mouth of a specimen of Merganser australis during the collection excursion to the southern
islands of New Zealand made in January, 1901, by His Excellency the Earl of Ranfurly.
"It is hoped that by giving greater publicity to these discoveries the family Galaxiidæ will no
longer be included among those strictly confined to fresh waters, and that students of the
geographical distribution of animals will be furnished with a clue to a problem that has so often
been discussed on insufficient data. As observed by Jordan (l. c.), all anomalies in distribution
cease to be such when the facts necessary to understand them are at hand.'
"Of the fresh-water species of Galaxias, eight are known from New Zealand and the
neighboring islands, seven from New South Wales, three or four from south Australia, one
from west Australia, two from Tasmania, seven from South America, from Chile southwards,
and one from the Cape of Good Hope."
Neochanna is an ally of Galaxias living in burrows in the clay or mud like a
crayfish, often at a distance from water. As in various other mud-living
types, the ventral fins are obsolete.
Page 250
Order Xenomi.—We must place near the Haplomi the singular group of
Xenomi (ξενός, strange; ὤμος, shoulder), regarded by Dr. Gill as a distinct
order. Externally these fish much resemble the mud-minnows, differing
mainly in the very broad pectorals. But the skeleton is thin and papery, the
two coracoids forming a single cartilaginous plate imperfectly divided. The
pectorals are attached directly to this without the intervention of actinosts,
but in the distal third, according to Dr. Charles H. Gilbert, the coracoid plate
begins to break up into a fringe of narrow cartilaginous strips. These about
equal the very large number (33 to 36) of pectoral rays, the basal part of
each ray being slightly forked to receive the tip of the cartilaginous strip.
Fig. 164.—Alaska Blackfish, Dallia pectoralis (Bean). St. Michaels,
Alaska.
"In the deep-sea eels of the order Heteromi there is a somewhat similar
condition of the coracoid elements inasmuch as the hypercoracoid and
hypocoracoid though present are merely membranous elements surrounded
by cartilage and the actinosts are greatly reduced. It seems probable that we
are dealing in the two cases with independent degeneration of the shoulder-
girdle and that the two groups (Xenomi and Heteromi) are not really
related." (Gilbert.)
Of the single family Dalliidæ, one species is known, the Alaska blackfish,
Dallia pectoralis.
This animal, formed like a mud-minnow, reaches a length of eight inches
and swarms in the bogs and sphagnum swamps of northwestern Alaska and
Xenomi (ξενός, strange; ὤμος, shoulder), regarded by Dr. Gill as a distinct
order. Externally these fish much resemble the mud-minnows, differing
mainly in the very broad pectorals. But the skeleton is thin and papery, the
two coracoids forming a single cartilaginous plate imperfectly divided. The
pectorals are attached directly to this without the intervention of actinosts,
but in the distal third, according to Dr. Charles H. Gilbert, the coracoid plate
begins to break up into a fringe of narrow cartilaginous strips. These about
equal the very large number (33 to 36) of pectoral rays, the basal part of
each ray being slightly forked to receive the tip of the cartilaginous strip.
Fig. 164.—Alaska Blackfish, Dallia pectoralis (Bean). St. Michaels,
Alaska.
"In the deep-sea eels of the order Heteromi there is a somewhat similar
condition of the coracoid elements inasmuch as the hypercoracoid and
hypocoracoid though present are merely membranous elements surrounded
by cartilage and the actinosts are greatly reduced. It seems probable that we
are dealing in the two cases with independent degeneration of the shoulder-
girdle and that the two groups (Xenomi and Heteromi) are not really
related." (Gilbert.)
Of the single family Dalliidæ, one species is known, the Alaska blackfish,
Dallia pectoralis.
This animal, formed like a mud-minnow, reaches a length of eight inches
and swarms in the bogs and sphagnum swamps of northwestern Alaska and
Page 251
westward through Siberia. It is found in countless numbers according to its
discoverer, Mr. L. M. Turner, "wherever there is water enough to wet the
skin of a fish," and wherever it occurs it forms the chief food of the natives.
Its vitality is most extraordinary. Blackfishes will remain frozen in baskets
for weeks and when thawed out are as lively as ever. Turner gives an
account of a frozen individual swallowed by a dog which escaped in safety
after being thawed out by the heat of the dog's stomach.
discoverer, Mr. L. M. Turner, "wherever there is water enough to wet the
skin of a fish," and wherever it occurs it forms the chief food of the natives.
Its vitality is most extraordinary. Blackfishes will remain frozen in baskets
for weeks and when thawed out are as lively as ever. Turner gives an
account of a frozen individual swallowed by a dog which escaped in safety
after being thawed out by the heat of the dog's stomach.
Page 252
CHAPTER XI
ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI
rder Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—The most
of the remaining bony fishes constitute a natural group for
which the name Acanthopterygii (ἄκανθα, spine; πτερύξ,
πτερόν, fin or wing) may be used. This name is often written
Actinopteri, a form equally correct and more euphonious and
convenient. These fishes are characterized, with numerous exceptions, by
the presence of fin spines, by the connection of the ventral fins with the
shoulder-girdle, by the presence in general of more than one spine in the
anterior part of dorsal and anal fins, and as a rule of one spine and five rays
in the ventral fins, and by the absence in the adult of a duct to the air-
bladder. Minor characters are these: the pectoral fins are inserted high on
the shoulder-girdle, the scales are often ctenoid, and the edge of the upper
jaw is formed by the premaxillary alone, the maxillary being always
toothless.
But it is impossible to define or limit the group by any single character or
group of characters. It is connected with the Malacopterygii through the
Haplomi on the one hand by transitional groups of genera which may lack
any one of these characters. On the other hand, in the extreme forms, each
of these distinctive characters may be lost through degeneration. Thus fin
spines, ctenoid scales, and the homocercal tail are lost in the codfishes, the
connection of ventrals with shoulder-girdle fails in the Percesoces, etc., and
the development of the air-duct is subject to all sorts of variations. In one
family even the adipose fin remains through all the changes and
modifications the species have undergone.
ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI
rder Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—The most
of the remaining bony fishes constitute a natural group for
which the name Acanthopterygii (ἄκανθα, spine; πτερύξ,
πτερόν, fin or wing) may be used. This name is often written
Actinopteri, a form equally correct and more euphonious and
convenient. These fishes are characterized, with numerous exceptions, by
the presence of fin spines, by the connection of the ventral fins with the
shoulder-girdle, by the presence in general of more than one spine in the
anterior part of dorsal and anal fins, and as a rule of one spine and five rays
in the ventral fins, and by the absence in the adult of a duct to the air-
bladder. Minor characters are these: the pectoral fins are inserted high on
the shoulder-girdle, the scales are often ctenoid, and the edge of the upper
jaw is formed by the premaxillary alone, the maxillary being always
toothless.
But it is impossible to define or limit the group by any single character or
group of characters. It is connected with the Malacopterygii through the
Haplomi on the one hand by transitional groups of genera which may lack
any one of these characters. On the other hand, in the extreme forms, each
of these distinctive characters may be lost through degeneration. Thus fin
spines, ctenoid scales, and the homocercal tail are lost in the codfishes, the
connection of ventrals with shoulder-girdle fails in the Percesoces, etc., and
the development of the air-duct is subject to all sorts of variations. In one
family even the adipose fin remains through all the changes and
modifications the species have undergone.
Page 253
The various transitional forms between the Haplomi and the perch-like
fishes have been from time to time regarded as separate orders. Some of
them are more related to the perch, others rather to ancestors of salmon or
pike, while still others are degenerate offshoots, far enough from either.
On the whole, all these forms, medium, extreme and transitional, may well
be placed in one order, which would include the primitive flying-fishes and
mullets, the degraded globefishes, and the specialized flounders. As for the
most part these are spiny-rayed fishes, Cuvier's name Acanthopterygii, or
Acanthopteri, will serve us as well as any. The Physoclysti of Müller, the
Thoracices of older authors, and the Ctenoidei of Agassiz include
substantially the same series of forms. The order Teleocephali of Gill
(τελεός, perfect; κεφαλή, head) has been lately so restricted as to cover
nearly the same ground. In Gill's most recent catalogue of families, the
order Teleocephali includes the Haplomi and rejects the Hemibranchii,
Lophobranchii, Plectognathi, and Pediculati, all of these being groups
characterized by sharply defined but comparatively recent characters not of
the highest importance. As originally arranged, the order Teleocephali
included the soft-rayed fishes as well. From it the Ostariophysi were first
detached, and still later the Isospondyli were regarded by Dr. Gill as a
separate order.
We may first take up serially as suborders the principal groups which serve
to effect the transition from soft-rayed to spiny-rayed fishes.
Suborder Synentognathi.—Among the transitional forms between the
soft-rayed and the spiny-rayed fishes, one of the most important groups is
that known as Synentognathi (σύν, together; ἔν, within; γνάθος, jaw). These
have, in brief, the fins and shoulder-girdle of Haplomi, the ventral fins
abdominal, the dorsal and anal without spines. At the same time, as in the
spiny-rayed fishes, the air-bladder is without duct and the pectoral fins are
inserted high on the side of the body. With these traits are two others which
characterize the group as a suborder. The lower pharyngeal bones are
solidly united into one bone and the lateral line forms a raised ridge along
the lower side of the body. These forms are structurally allied to the pikes
(Haplomi), on the one hand, and to the mullets (Percesoces), on the other,
and this relationship accords with their general appearance. In this group as
in all the remaining families of fishes, there is no mesocoracoid, and in very
fishes have been from time to time regarded as separate orders. Some of
them are more related to the perch, others rather to ancestors of salmon or
pike, while still others are degenerate offshoots, far enough from either.
On the whole, all these forms, medium, extreme and transitional, may well
be placed in one order, which would include the primitive flying-fishes and
mullets, the degraded globefishes, and the specialized flounders. As for the
most part these are spiny-rayed fishes, Cuvier's name Acanthopterygii, or
Acanthopteri, will serve us as well as any. The Physoclysti of Müller, the
Thoracices of older authors, and the Ctenoidei of Agassiz include
substantially the same series of forms. The order Teleocephali of Gill
(τελεός, perfect; κεφαλή, head) has been lately so restricted as to cover
nearly the same ground. In Gill's most recent catalogue of families, the
order Teleocephali includes the Haplomi and rejects the Hemibranchii,
Lophobranchii, Plectognathi, and Pediculati, all of these being groups
characterized by sharply defined but comparatively recent characters not of
the highest importance. As originally arranged, the order Teleocephali
included the soft-rayed fishes as well. From it the Ostariophysi were first
detached, and still later the Isospondyli were regarded by Dr. Gill as a
separate order.
We may first take up serially as suborders the principal groups which serve
to effect the transition from soft-rayed to spiny-rayed fishes.
Suborder Synentognathi.—Among the transitional forms between the
soft-rayed and the spiny-rayed fishes, one of the most important groups is
that known as Synentognathi (σύν, together; ἔν, within; γνάθος, jaw). These
have, in brief, the fins and shoulder-girdle of Haplomi, the ventral fins
abdominal, the dorsal and anal without spines. At the same time, as in the
spiny-rayed fishes, the air-bladder is without duct and the pectoral fins are
inserted high on the side of the body. With these traits are two others which
characterize the group as a suborder. The lower pharyngeal bones are
solidly united into one bone and the lateral line forms a raised ridge along
the lower side of the body. These forms are structurally allied to the pikes
(Haplomi), on the one hand, and to the mullets (Percesoces), on the other,
and this relationship accords with their general appearance. In this group as
in all the remaining families of fishes, there is no mesocoracoid, and in very
Page 254
nearly all of these families the duct to the air-bladder disappears at an early
stage of development.
Fig. 165.—Needle-fish, Tylosurus acus (Lacépède). New York.
The Garfishes: Belonidæ.—There are two principal groups or families
among the Synentognathi, the Belonidæ, with strong jaws and teeth, and the
Exocœtidæ, in which these structures are feeble. Much more important
characters appear in the anatomy. In the Belonidæ the third upper
pharyngeal is small, with few teeth, and the maxillary is firmly soldered to
the premaxillary. The vertebræ are provided with zygapophyses. The
species of Belonidæ are known as garfishes, or needle-fishes. They
resemble the garpike in form, but have nothing else in common. The body
is long and slender, covered with small scales. Sharp, unequal teeth fill the
long jaws and the dorsal is opposite the anal, on the hinder part of the body.
These fishes are green in color, even the bones being often bright green,
while the scales on the sides have a silvery luster. The species are excellent
as food, the green color being associated with nothing deleterious. All are
very voracious and some of the larger species, 5 or 6 feet long, may be
dangerous even to man. Fishermen have been wounded or killed by the
thrust of the sharp snout of a fish springing into the air. The garfishes swim
near the surface of the water and often move with great swiftness,
frequently leaping from the water. The genus Belone is characterized by the
presence of gill-rakers. Belone belone is a small garfish common in
southern Europe. Belone platura occurs in Polynesia. The American species
stage of development.
Fig. 165.—Needle-fish, Tylosurus acus (Lacépède). New York.
The Garfishes: Belonidæ.—There are two principal groups or families
among the Synentognathi, the Belonidæ, with strong jaws and teeth, and the
Exocœtidæ, in which these structures are feeble. Much more important
characters appear in the anatomy. In the Belonidæ the third upper
pharyngeal is small, with few teeth, and the maxillary is firmly soldered to
the premaxillary. The vertebræ are provided with zygapophyses. The
species of Belonidæ are known as garfishes, or needle-fishes. They
resemble the garpike in form, but have nothing else in common. The body
is long and slender, covered with small scales. Sharp, unequal teeth fill the
long jaws and the dorsal is opposite the anal, on the hinder part of the body.
These fishes are green in color, even the bones being often bright green,
while the scales on the sides have a silvery luster. The species are excellent
as food, the green color being associated with nothing deleterious. All are
very voracious and some of the larger species, 5 or 6 feet long, may be
dangerous even to man. Fishermen have been wounded or killed by the
thrust of the sharp snout of a fish springing into the air. The garfishes swim
near the surface of the water and often move with great swiftness,
frequently leaping from the water. The genus Belone is characterized by the
presence of gill-rakers. Belone belone is a small garfish common in
southern Europe. Belone platura occurs in Polynesia. The American species
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(Tylosurus) lack gill-rakers. Tylosurus marinus, the common garfish of the
eastern United States, often ascends the rivers. Tylosurus raphidoma,
Tylosurus fodiator, Tylosurus acus, and other species are very robust, with
short strong jaws. Athlennes hians is a very large fish with the body
strongly compressed, almost ribbon-like. It is found in the West Indies and
across the Isthmus as far as Hawaii. Many other species, mostly belonging
to Tylosurus, abound in the warm seas of all regions. Tylosurus ferox is the
long tom of the Australian markets. Potamorrhaphis with the dorsal fin low
is found in Brazilian rivers. A few fossil species are referred to Belone,
Belone flava from the lower Eocene being the earliest.
The Flying-fishes: Exocœtidæ.—The family of Exocœtidæ includes the
flying-fishes and several related forms more or less intermediate between
these and the garfishes. In these fishes the teeth are small and nearly equal
and the maxillary is separate from the premaxillary. The third upper
pharyngeal is much enlarged and there are no zygapophyses to the vertebræ.
The skippers (Scombresox) have slender bodies, pointed jaws, and, like the
mackerel, a number of detached finlets behind dorsal and anal, although in
other respects they show no affinity to the mackerel. The common skipper,
or saury (Scombresox saurus), is found on both shores of the North Atlantic
swimming in large schools at the surface of the water, frequently leaping for
a little distance like the flying-fish. They are pursued by the mackerel-like
fishes, as the tunny or bonito, and sometimes by porpoises. According to
Mr. Couch, the skippers, when pursued, "mount to the surface in multitudes
and crowd on each other as they press forward. When still more closely
pursued, they spring to the height of several feet, leap over each other in
singular confusion, and again sink beneath. Still further urged, they mount
again and rush along the surface, by repeated starts, for more than one
hundred feet, without once dipping beneath or scarcely seeming to touch
the water. At last the pursuer springs after them, usually across their course,
and again they all disappear together. Amidst such multitudes—for more
than twenty thousand have been judged to be out of the water together—
some must fall a prey to the enemy; but so many hunting in company, it
must be long before the pursuers abandon. From inspection we could
scarcely judge the fish to be capable of such flights, for the fins, though
numerous, are small, and the pectoral far from large, though the angle of
eastern United States, often ascends the rivers. Tylosurus raphidoma,
Tylosurus fodiator, Tylosurus acus, and other species are very robust, with
short strong jaws. Athlennes hians is a very large fish with the body
strongly compressed, almost ribbon-like. It is found in the West Indies and
across the Isthmus as far as Hawaii. Many other species, mostly belonging
to Tylosurus, abound in the warm seas of all regions. Tylosurus ferox is the
long tom of the Australian markets. Potamorrhaphis with the dorsal fin low
is found in Brazilian rivers. A few fossil species are referred to Belone,
Belone flava from the lower Eocene being the earliest.
The Flying-fishes: Exocœtidæ.—The family of Exocœtidæ includes the
flying-fishes and several related forms more or less intermediate between
these and the garfishes. In these fishes the teeth are small and nearly equal
and the maxillary is separate from the premaxillary. The third upper
pharyngeal is much enlarged and there are no zygapophyses to the vertebræ.
The skippers (Scombresox) have slender bodies, pointed jaws, and, like the
mackerel, a number of detached finlets behind dorsal and anal, although in
other respects they show no affinity to the mackerel. The common skipper,
or saury (Scombresox saurus), is found on both shores of the North Atlantic
swimming in large schools at the surface of the water, frequently leaping for
a little distance like the flying-fish. They are pursued by the mackerel-like
fishes, as the tunny or bonito, and sometimes by porpoises. According to
Mr. Couch, the skippers, when pursued, "mount to the surface in multitudes
and crowd on each other as they press forward. When still more closely
pursued, they spring to the height of several feet, leap over each other in
singular confusion, and again sink beneath. Still further urged, they mount
again and rush along the surface, by repeated starts, for more than one
hundred feet, without once dipping beneath or scarcely seeming to touch
the water. At last the pursuer springs after them, usually across their course,
and again they all disappear together. Amidst such multitudes—for more
than twenty thousand have been judged to be out of the water together—
some must fall a prey to the enemy; but so many hunting in company, it
must be long before the pursuers abandon. From inspection we could
scarcely judge the fish to be capable of such flights, for the fins, though
numerous, are small, and the pectoral far from large, though the angle of
Page 256
their articulation is well adapted to raise the fish by the direction of their
motions to the surface."
A similar species, Cololabis saira, with the snout very much shorter than in
the Atlantic skipper, is the Samma of the fishermen of Japan.
The hard-head (Chriodorus atherinoides) has no beak at all and its tricuspid
incisor teeth are fitted to feed on plants. In this genus, as in the flying-
fishes, there are no finlets. The hard-head is an excellent food-fish abundant
about the Florida Keys but not yet seen elsewhere.
Fig. 166.—Saury, Scombresox saurus (L.). Wood's Hole.
Fig. 167.—Halfbeak, Hyporhamphus unifasciatus (Ranzani). Chesapeake
Bay.
Another group between the gars and the flying-fishes is that of the
halfbeaks, or balaos, Hemirhamphus, etc. These are also vegetable feeders,
but with much smaller teeth, and the lower jaw with a spear-like
prolongation to which a bright-red membrane is usually attached. Of the
halfbeaks there are several genera, all of the species swimming near the
surface in schools and sometimes very swiftly. Some of them leap into the
air and sail for a short distance like flying-fishes, with which group the
halfbeaks are connected by easy gradations. The commonest species along
our Atlantic coast is Hyporhamphus unifasciatus; a larger species,
motions to the surface."
A similar species, Cololabis saira, with the snout very much shorter than in
the Atlantic skipper, is the Samma of the fishermen of Japan.
The hard-head (Chriodorus atherinoides) has no beak at all and its tricuspid
incisor teeth are fitted to feed on plants. In this genus, as in the flying-
fishes, there are no finlets. The hard-head is an excellent food-fish abundant
about the Florida Keys but not yet seen elsewhere.
Fig. 166.—Saury, Scombresox saurus (L.). Wood's Hole.
Fig. 167.—Halfbeak, Hyporhamphus unifasciatus (Ranzani). Chesapeake
Bay.
Another group between the gars and the flying-fishes is that of the
halfbeaks, or balaos, Hemirhamphus, etc. These are also vegetable feeders,
but with much smaller teeth, and the lower jaw with a spear-like
prolongation to which a bright-red membrane is usually attached. Of the
halfbeaks there are several genera, all of the species swimming near the
surface in schools and sometimes very swiftly. Some of them leap into the
air and sail for a short distance like flying-fishes, with which group the
halfbeaks are connected by easy gradations. The commonest species along
our Atlantic coast is Hyporhamphus unifasciatus; a larger species,
Page 257
Hemirhamphus brasiliensis, abounds about the Florida Keys.
Euleptorhamphus longirostris, a ribbon-shaped elongate fish, with long jaw
and long pectorals, is taken in the open sea, both in the Atlantic and Pacific,
being common in Hawaii. The Asiatic genus Zenarchopterus is viviparous,
having the anal fin much modified in the male, forming an intromittent
organ, as in the Pœciliidæ. One species occurs in the river mouths in
Samoa.
The flying-fishes have both jaws short, and at least the pectoral fins much
enlarged, so that the fish may sail in the air for a longer or shorter distance.
Fig. 168.—Sharp-nosed Flying-fish, Fodiator acutus (Val.). Panama.
The smaller species have usually shorter fins and approach more nearly to
the halfbeaks. Fodiator acutus, with sharp jaws, and Hemiexocœtus, with a
short beak on the lower jaw, are especially intermediate. The flight of the
flying-fishes is described in detail on p. 157, Vol. I.
The Catalina flying-fish, Cypselurus californicus, of the shore of southern
California is perhaps the largest of the known species, reaching a length of
18 inches. To this genus, Cypselurus, having a long dorsal and short anal,
and with ventrals enlarged as well as pectorals, belong all the species
strongest in flight, Cypselurus heterurus and furcatus of the Atlantic,
Cypselurus simus of Hawaii and Cypselurus agoo in Japan. The very young
of most of these species have a long barbel at the chin which is lost with
age.
Euleptorhamphus longirostris, a ribbon-shaped elongate fish, with long jaw
and long pectorals, is taken in the open sea, both in the Atlantic and Pacific,
being common in Hawaii. The Asiatic genus Zenarchopterus is viviparous,
having the anal fin much modified in the male, forming an intromittent
organ, as in the Pœciliidæ. One species occurs in the river mouths in
Samoa.
The flying-fishes have both jaws short, and at least the pectoral fins much
enlarged, so that the fish may sail in the air for a longer or shorter distance.
Fig. 168.—Sharp-nosed Flying-fish, Fodiator acutus (Val.). Panama.
The smaller species have usually shorter fins and approach more nearly to
the halfbeaks. Fodiator acutus, with sharp jaws, and Hemiexocœtus, with a
short beak on the lower jaw, are especially intermediate. The flight of the
flying-fishes is described in detail on p. 157, Vol. I.
The Catalina flying-fish, Cypselurus californicus, of the shore of southern
California is perhaps the largest of the known species, reaching a length of
18 inches. To this genus, Cypselurus, having a long dorsal and short anal,
and with ventrals enlarged as well as pectorals, belong all the species
strongest in flight, Cypselurus heterurus and furcatus of the Atlantic,
Cypselurus simus of Hawaii and Cypselurus agoo in Japan. The very young
of most of these species have a long barbel at the chin which is lost with
age.
Page 258
In the genus Exonautes the base of anal fin is long, as long as that of the
dorsal. The species of this group, also strong in flight, are widely
distributed. Most of the European flying-fishes, as Exonautes rondeleti,
Exonautes speculiger, and Exonautes vinciguerræ, belong to this group,
while those of Cypselurus mostly inhabit the Pacific. The large Australian
species Exonautes unicolor, Fig. 226, Vol. I, belongs to this group. In the
restricted genus Exocœtus the ventral fins are short and not used in flight.
Exocœtus volitans (evolans) is a small flying-fish, with short ventral fins
not used for flight. It is perhaps the most widely distributed of all, ranging
through almost all warm seas. Parexocœtus brachypterus, still smaller, and
with shorter, grasshopper-like wings, is also very widely distributed. An
excellent account of the flying-fishes of the world has been given by Dr. C.
F. Lütken (1876), the University of Copenhagen, which institution has
received a remarkably fine series from trading-ships returning to that port.
Later accounts have been given by Jordan and Meek, and by Jordan and
Evermann.
Fig. 169.—Catalina Flying-fish, Cypselurus californicus (Cooper). Santa
Barbara.
dorsal. The species of this group, also strong in flight, are widely
distributed. Most of the European flying-fishes, as Exonautes rondeleti,
Exonautes speculiger, and Exonautes vinciguerræ, belong to this group,
while those of Cypselurus mostly inhabit the Pacific. The large Australian
species Exonautes unicolor, Fig. 226, Vol. I, belongs to this group. In the
restricted genus Exocœtus the ventral fins are short and not used in flight.
Exocœtus volitans (evolans) is a small flying-fish, with short ventral fins
not used for flight. It is perhaps the most widely distributed of all, ranging
through almost all warm seas. Parexocœtus brachypterus, still smaller, and
with shorter, grasshopper-like wings, is also very widely distributed. An
excellent account of the flying-fishes of the world has been given by Dr. C.
F. Lütken (1876), the University of Copenhagen, which institution has
received a remarkably fine series from trading-ships returning to that port.
Later accounts have been given by Jordan and Meek, and by Jordan and
Evermann.
Fig. 169.—Catalina Flying-fish, Cypselurus californicus (Cooper). Santa
Barbara.
Page 259
Very few fossil Exocœtidæ are found. Species of Scombresox and
Hemirhamphus are found in the Tertiary, the earliest being Hemirhamphus
edwardsi from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No fossil flying-fishes are
known, and the genera, Exocœtus, Exonautes, and Cypselurus are doubtless
all of very recent origin.
Hemirhamphus are found in the Tertiary, the earliest being Hemirhamphus
edwardsi from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No fossil flying-fishes are
known, and the genera, Exocœtus, Exonautes, and Cypselurus are doubtless
all of very recent origin.
Page 260
CHAPTER XII
PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI
uborder Percesoces.—In the line of direct ascending transition
from the Haplomi and Synentognathi, the pike and flying-fish,
towards the typical perch-like forms, we find a number of
families, perch-like in essential regards but having the ventral
fins abdominal.
These types, represented by the mullet, the silverside, and the barracuda,
have been segregated by Cope as an order called Percesoces (Perca, perch;
Esox, pike), a name which correctly describes their real affinities. In these
typical forms, mullet, silverside, and barracuda, the affinities are plain, but
in other transitional forms, as the threadfin and the stickleback, the
relationships are less clear. Cope adds to the series of Percesoces the
Ophiocephalidæ, which Gill leaves with the Anabantidæ among the spiny-
rayed forms. Boulenger adds also the sand-lances (Ammodytidæ) and the
threadfins (Polynemidæ), while Woodward places here the Crossognathidæ.
In the present work we define the Percesoces so as to include all spiny-
rayed fishes in which the ventral fins are naturally abdominal, excepting
those having a reduced number of gill-bones, or of actinosts, or other
peculiarities of the shoulder-girdle. The Ammodytidæ have no real affinities
with the Percesoces. The Crossognathidæ and other families with
abdominal ventrals and the dorsal spines wholly obsolete may belong with
the Haplomi. Boulenger places the Chiasmodontidæ, the Stromateidæ, and
the Tetragonuridæ among the Percesoces, an arrangement of very doubtful
validity. In most of the Percesoces the scales are cycloid, the spinous dorsal
forms a short separate fin, and in all the air-duct is wanting.
PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI
uborder Percesoces.—In the line of direct ascending transition
from the Haplomi and Synentognathi, the pike and flying-fish,
towards the typical perch-like forms, we find a number of
families, perch-like in essential regards but having the ventral
fins abdominal.
These types, represented by the mullet, the silverside, and the barracuda,
have been segregated by Cope as an order called Percesoces (Perca, perch;
Esox, pike), a name which correctly describes their real affinities. In these
typical forms, mullet, silverside, and barracuda, the affinities are plain, but
in other transitional forms, as the threadfin and the stickleback, the
relationships are less clear. Cope adds to the series of Percesoces the
Ophiocephalidæ, which Gill leaves with the Anabantidæ among the spiny-
rayed forms. Boulenger adds also the sand-lances (Ammodytidæ) and the
threadfins (Polynemidæ), while Woodward places here the Crossognathidæ.
In the present work we define the Percesoces so as to include all spiny-
rayed fishes in which the ventral fins are naturally abdominal, excepting
those having a reduced number of gill-bones, or of actinosts, or other
peculiarities of the shoulder-girdle. The Ammodytidæ have no real affinities
with the Percesoces. The Crossognathidæ and other families with
abdominal ventrals and the dorsal spines wholly obsolete may belong with
the Haplomi. Boulenger places the Chiasmodontidæ, the Stromateidæ, and
the Tetragonuridæ among the Percesoces, an arrangement of very doubtful
validity. In most of the Percesoces the scales are cycloid, the spinous dorsal
forms a short separate fin, and in all the air-duct is wanting.
Page 261
The Silversides: Atherinidæ.—The most primitive of living Percesoces
constitute the large family of silversides (Atherinidæ), known as "fishes of
the King," Pescados del Rey, Pesce Rey, or Peixe Re, wherever the Spanish
or Portuguese languages are spoken. The species are, in general, small and
slender fishes of dry and delicate flesh, feeding on small animals. The
mouth is small, with feeble teeth. There is no lateral line, the color is
translucent green, with usually a broad lateral band of silver. Sometimes
this is wanting, and sometimes it is replaced by burnished black. Some of
the species live in lakes or rivers, others in bays or arms of the sea, but
never at a distance from the shore or in water of more than a few feet in
depth. The larger species are much valued as food, the smaller ones, equally
delicate, are fried in numbers as "whitebait," but the bones are firmer and
more troublesome than in the smelts and young herring. The species of the
genus Atherina, known as "friars," or "brit," are chiefly European, although
some occur in almost all warm or temperate seas. These are small fishes,
with the mouth relatively large and oblique and the scales rather large and
firm. Atherina hepsetus and A. presbyter are common in Europe, Atherina
stipes in the West Indies, Atherina bleekeri in Japan, and Atherina
insularum and A. lacunosa in Polynesia. The genus Chirostoma contains
larger species, with projecting lower jaw, abounding in the lakes of Mexico.
Chirostoma humboldtianum is very abundant about Mexico City. Like all
the other species of this genus it is remarkably excellent as food, the
different species constituting the famous "Pescados Blancos" of the great
lakes of Chapala and Patzcuaro of the western slope of Mexico. A very
unusual circumstance is this: that numerous very closely related species
occupy the same waters and are taken in the same nets. In zoology,
generally, it is an almost universal rule that very closely related species
occupy different geographical areas, their separation being due to barriers
which prevent interbreeding. But in the lake of Chapala, near Guadalajara,
Prof. John O. Snyder and the present writer, and subsequently Dr. S. E.
Meek, found ten distinct species of Chirostoma, all living together, taken in
the same nets and scarcely distinguishable except on careful examination.
Most of these species are very abundant throughout the lake, and all reach a
length of twelve to fifteen inches. These species are Chirostoma estor, Ch.
lucius, Ch. sphyræna, Ch. ocotlane, Ch. lermæ, Ch. chapalæ, Ch.
grandocule, Ch. labarcæ, Ch. promelas, and Ch. bartoni. A similar
assemblage of species nearly all different from these was obtained by Dr.
constitute the large family of silversides (Atherinidæ), known as "fishes of
the King," Pescados del Rey, Pesce Rey, or Peixe Re, wherever the Spanish
or Portuguese languages are spoken. The species are, in general, small and
slender fishes of dry and delicate flesh, feeding on small animals. The
mouth is small, with feeble teeth. There is no lateral line, the color is
translucent green, with usually a broad lateral band of silver. Sometimes
this is wanting, and sometimes it is replaced by burnished black. Some of
the species live in lakes or rivers, others in bays or arms of the sea, but
never at a distance from the shore or in water of more than a few feet in
depth. The larger species are much valued as food, the smaller ones, equally
delicate, are fried in numbers as "whitebait," but the bones are firmer and
more troublesome than in the smelts and young herring. The species of the
genus Atherina, known as "friars," or "brit," are chiefly European, although
some occur in almost all warm or temperate seas. These are small fishes,
with the mouth relatively large and oblique and the scales rather large and
firm. Atherina hepsetus and A. presbyter are common in Europe, Atherina
stipes in the West Indies, Atherina bleekeri in Japan, and Atherina
insularum and A. lacunosa in Polynesia. The genus Chirostoma contains
larger species, with projecting lower jaw, abounding in the lakes of Mexico.
Chirostoma humboldtianum is very abundant about Mexico City. Like all
the other species of this genus it is remarkably excellent as food, the
different species constituting the famous "Pescados Blancos" of the great
lakes of Chapala and Patzcuaro of the western slope of Mexico. A very
unusual circumstance is this: that numerous very closely related species
occupy the same waters and are taken in the same nets. In zoology,
generally, it is an almost universal rule that very closely related species
occupy different geographical areas, their separation being due to barriers
which prevent interbreeding. But in the lake of Chapala, near Guadalajara,
Prof. John O. Snyder and the present writer, and subsequently Dr. S. E.
Meek, found ten distinct species of Chirostoma, all living together, taken in
the same nets and scarcely distinguishable except on careful examination.
Most of these species are very abundant throughout the lake, and all reach a
length of twelve to fifteen inches. These species are Chirostoma estor, Ch.
lucius, Ch. sphyræna, Ch. ocotlane, Ch. lermæ, Ch. chapalæ, Ch.
grandocule, Ch. labarcæ, Ch. promelas, and Ch. bartoni. A similar
assemblage of species nearly all different from these was obtained by Dr.
Page 262
Seth E. Meek in the lake of Patzcuaro, farther south. In this lake were found
Ch. attenuatum, Ch. patzcuaro, Ch. humboldtianum, Ch. grandocule, and
Ch. estor. The lake of Zirahuen, near Chapala, contains Ch. estor and Ch.
zirahuen.
Fig. 170.—Pescado blanco, Chirostoma humboldtianum (Val.). Lake
Chalco, City of Mexico.
Fig. 171.—Silverside or Brit, Kirtlandia vagrans (Goode & Bean).
Pensacola.
Still another species, Ch. jordani, is found about the city of Mexico, where
it is sold baked in corn-husks. Along the coasts of Peru, Chile, and
Argentina is found still another assemblage of fishes of the king, with very
small scales, constituting the genera Basilichthys and Gastropterus
(Pisciregia). Basilichthys microlepidotus is the common Pesca del Rey of
Chile. The small silversides, or "brit," of our Atlantic coast belong to
Ch. attenuatum, Ch. patzcuaro, Ch. humboldtianum, Ch. grandocule, and
Ch. estor. The lake of Zirahuen, near Chapala, contains Ch. estor and Ch.
zirahuen.
Fig. 170.—Pescado blanco, Chirostoma humboldtianum (Val.). Lake
Chalco, City of Mexico.
Fig. 171.—Silverside or Brit, Kirtlandia vagrans (Goode & Bean).
Pensacola.
Still another species, Ch. jordani, is found about the city of Mexico, where
it is sold baked in corn-husks. Along the coasts of Peru, Chile, and
Argentina is found still another assemblage of fishes of the king, with very
small scales, constituting the genera Basilichthys and Gastropterus
(Pisciregia). Basilichthys microlepidotus is the common Pesca del Rey of
Chile. The small silversides, or "brit," of our Atlantic coast belong to
Page 263
numerous species of Menidia, Menidia notata to the northward and Menidia
menidia to the southward being most abundant. Kirtlandia laciniata, with
ragged scales, is common along the Virginia coast, and K. vagrans farther
south. Another small species, very slender and very graceful, is the brook
silverside Labidesthes sicculus, which swarms in clear streams from Lake
Ontario to Texas. This species, three to four inches long, has the snout
produced and a very bright silvery stripe along the side. Large and small
species of silversides occur in the sea along the California coast, where they
are known familiarly as "blue smelt" or "Peixe Re." The most important of
these and the largest member of the family, reaching a length of eighteen
inches, is Atherinopsis californiensis, an important food-fish throughout
California, everywhere wrongly known as smelt. Atherinops affinis is much
like it, but has Y-shaped teeth. Iso flos-maris, called Nami-no-hana, or
flower of the surf, is a shining little fish with belly shape like that of a
herring. It lives in the surf on the coast of Japan. Melanotænia nigrans of
Australia (family Melanotæniidæ) has the lateral band jet-black, as has also
Melaniris balsanus of the rivers of southern Mexico. Atherinosoma vorax
of Australia has strong teeth like those of a barracuda.
Fig. 172.—Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey, Atherinopsis californiensis Girard.
San Diego.
menidia to the southward being most abundant. Kirtlandia laciniata, with
ragged scales, is common along the Virginia coast, and K. vagrans farther
south. Another small species, very slender and very graceful, is the brook
silverside Labidesthes sicculus, which swarms in clear streams from Lake
Ontario to Texas. This species, three to four inches long, has the snout
produced and a very bright silvery stripe along the side. Large and small
species of silversides occur in the sea along the California coast, where they
are known familiarly as "blue smelt" or "Peixe Re." The most important of
these and the largest member of the family, reaching a length of eighteen
inches, is Atherinopsis californiensis, an important food-fish throughout
California, everywhere wrongly known as smelt. Atherinops affinis is much
like it, but has Y-shaped teeth. Iso flos-maris, called Nami-no-hana, or
flower of the surf, is a shining little fish with belly shape like that of a
herring. It lives in the surf on the coast of Japan. Melanotænia nigrans of
Australia (family Melanotæniidæ) has the lateral band jet-black, as has also
Melaniris balsanus of the rivers of southern Mexico. Atherinosoma vorax
of Australia has strong teeth like those of a barracuda.
Fig. 172.—Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey, Atherinopsis californiensis Girard.
San Diego.
Page 264
Fig. 173.—Flower of the waves, Iso flos-maxis, Jordan & Starks.
Enoshima, Japan.
Fossil species of Atherina occur in the Italian Eocene, the best known being
Atherina macrocephala. Another species, Rhamphognathus paralepoides,
allied to Menidia, occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
The Mullets: Mugilidæ.—The mullets (Mugilidæ) are more clumsy in
form than the silversides, robust, with broad heads and stouter fin-spines.
The ventral fins are abdominal but well forward, the pelvis barely touching
the clavicle, a condition to be defined as "subabdominal." The small mouth
is armed with very feeble teeth, often reduced to mere fringes. The stomach
is muscular like the gizzard of a fowl and the species feed largely on the
vegetation contained in mud. There are numerous species, mostly living in
shallow bays and estuaries, but some of them are confined to fresh waters.
All are valued as food and some of them under favorable conditions are
especially excellent.
Most of the species belong to the genera Mugil, the mullet of all English-
speaking people, although not at all related to the red mullet or surmullet of
the ancient Romans, Mullus barbatus.
The mullets are stoutish fish from one to two feet long, with blunt heads,
small mouths almost toothless, large scales, and a general bluish-silvery
color often varied by faint blue stripes. The most important species is Mugil
cephalus, the common striped mullet. This is found throughout southern
Europe and from Cape Cod to Brazil, from Monterey, California, to Chile,
and across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan, and the Red Sea. Among specimens
from all these regions we can detect no difference.
Professor Goode gives the following account of its habits:
Enoshima, Japan.
Fossil species of Atherina occur in the Italian Eocene, the best known being
Atherina macrocephala. Another species, Rhamphognathus paralepoides,
allied to Menidia, occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
The Mullets: Mugilidæ.—The mullets (Mugilidæ) are more clumsy in
form than the silversides, robust, with broad heads and stouter fin-spines.
The ventral fins are abdominal but well forward, the pelvis barely touching
the clavicle, a condition to be defined as "subabdominal." The small mouth
is armed with very feeble teeth, often reduced to mere fringes. The stomach
is muscular like the gizzard of a fowl and the species feed largely on the
vegetation contained in mud. There are numerous species, mostly living in
shallow bays and estuaries, but some of them are confined to fresh waters.
All are valued as food and some of them under favorable conditions are
especially excellent.
Most of the species belong to the genera Mugil, the mullet of all English-
speaking people, although not at all related to the red mullet or surmullet of
the ancient Romans, Mullus barbatus.
The mullets are stoutish fish from one to two feet long, with blunt heads,
small mouths almost toothless, large scales, and a general bluish-silvery
color often varied by faint blue stripes. The most important species is Mugil
cephalus, the common striped mullet. This is found throughout southern
Europe and from Cape Cod to Brazil, from Monterey, California, to Chile,
and across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan, and the Red Sea. Among specimens
from all these regions we can detect no difference.
Professor Goode gives the following account of its habits:
Page 265
"The large mullets begin to assemble along the Florida coast in schools in
the height of summer, probably preparatory to spawning, and at this time
the eggs commence to mature. In this season they swim at the surface, and
are then pursued by enemies in the water and the air, and also fall an easy
prey to the fishermen. They appear to prefer to swim against the wind, and
school best with a northeast wind. They also run against the tide. In Florida
the spawning season seems to extend from the middle of November to the
middle of January. Some of the fishermen say that they go on the mud-flats
and oyster-beds at the mouth of the river to deposit their eggs. What
becomes of them after this no one seems to know, but it is probable that
they spread themselves over the whole surface of water-covered country in
such a manner as not to be perceptible to the fisherman, who makes no
effort at this time to secure the spent, lean fish. Many of them probably find
their way to the lakes and others remain wherever they find good feeding-
ground, gathering flesh and recruiting strength for the great strain of the
next spawning season."
Professor Goode informs us that the fishermen recognize "three distinct
periods of schooling and separate runs of mullet. To what extent these are
founded on tradition, or upon the necessity of change in the size of the mesh
of their nets, it is impossible to say. The 'June mullet' average about five to
the pound; the 'fat mullet,' which are taken from August 20 to October 1,
weigh about two pounds; these have, the fishermen say, a 'roe of fat' on
each side as thick as a man's thumb. The 'roe mullet' weigh about two and a
half pounds and are caught in November and until Christmas. Between the
seasons of 'fat mullet' and 'roe mullet' there is an intermission of two or
three weeks in the fishing." Professor Goode hazards the suggestion that
"the 'fat mullet' of September are the breeding fish of November, with roes
in an immature state, the ova not having become fully differentiated."
The mullet feed on the bottom in quiet water, swimming head downward.
The food is sifted over in the mouth, the mud rejected, and the plants,
chiefly microscopic, retained. Mr. Silas Stearns compares a school of
mullets to barnyard fowls feeding together. When a fish finds a rich spot the
others flock about it as chickens do. The pharyngeals form a sort of filter,
stopping the sand and mud, the coarse parts being ejected through the
mouth. Dr. Günther thus describes this apparatus:
the height of summer, probably preparatory to spawning, and at this time
the eggs commence to mature. In this season they swim at the surface, and
are then pursued by enemies in the water and the air, and also fall an easy
prey to the fishermen. They appear to prefer to swim against the wind, and
school best with a northeast wind. They also run against the tide. In Florida
the spawning season seems to extend from the middle of November to the
middle of January. Some of the fishermen say that they go on the mud-flats
and oyster-beds at the mouth of the river to deposit their eggs. What
becomes of them after this no one seems to know, but it is probable that
they spread themselves over the whole surface of water-covered country in
such a manner as not to be perceptible to the fisherman, who makes no
effort at this time to secure the spent, lean fish. Many of them probably find
their way to the lakes and others remain wherever they find good feeding-
ground, gathering flesh and recruiting strength for the great strain of the
next spawning season."
Professor Goode informs us that the fishermen recognize "three distinct
periods of schooling and separate runs of mullet. To what extent these are
founded on tradition, or upon the necessity of change in the size of the mesh
of their nets, it is impossible to say. The 'June mullet' average about five to
the pound; the 'fat mullet,' which are taken from August 20 to October 1,
weigh about two pounds; these have, the fishermen say, a 'roe of fat' on
each side as thick as a man's thumb. The 'roe mullet' weigh about two and a
half pounds and are caught in November and until Christmas. Between the
seasons of 'fat mullet' and 'roe mullet' there is an intermission of two or
three weeks in the fishing." Professor Goode hazards the suggestion that
"the 'fat mullet' of September are the breeding fish of November, with roes
in an immature state, the ova not having become fully differentiated."
The mullet feed on the bottom in quiet water, swimming head downward.
The food is sifted over in the mouth, the mud rejected, and the plants,
chiefly microscopic, retained. Mr. Silas Stearns compares a school of
mullets to barnyard fowls feeding together. When a fish finds a rich spot the
others flock about it as chickens do. The pharyngeals form a sort of filter,
stopping the sand and mud, the coarse parts being ejected through the
mouth. Dr. Günther thus describes this apparatus:
Page 266
"The upper pharyngeals have a rather irregular form: they are slightly
arched, the convexity being directed toward the pharyngeal cavity, tapering
anteriorly and broad posteriorly. They are coated with a thick, soft
membrane, which reaches far beyond the margin of the bone and is studded
all over with minute horny cilia. Each branchial arch is provided with a
series of long gill-rakers, which are laterally bent downward, each series
closely fitting to the sides of the adjoining arch; they constitute together a
sieve admirably adapted to permit a transit for the water, retaining at the
same time every solid substance in the cavity of the pharynx."
The young mullet feed in schools and often swim with the head at the
surface of the water.
Fig. 174.—Striped Mullet, Mugil cephalus (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
We are not able to distinguish from the common striped mullet of Europe
and America the mullet of Hawaii, the famous Ama-ama, the most valued
of Hawaiian fishes. This species is reared in mullet ponds, made by
extending a stone wall across an arm of the sea. Through openings in the
wall the young mullet enter, and in its protection they grow very fat on the
abundant algæ and other vegetation. They thus become the most plentiful
and most esteemed of the market fishes of Honolulu. The Awa (Chanos)
and the Awa-awa (Elops) also enter these ponds and are reared with the
mullet, being similarly but less valued. Unfortunately the kaku, or small
barracuda (Sphyræna helleri), also enters with these helpless fishes and
arched, the convexity being directed toward the pharyngeal cavity, tapering
anteriorly and broad posteriorly. They are coated with a thick, soft
membrane, which reaches far beyond the margin of the bone and is studded
all over with minute horny cilia. Each branchial arch is provided with a
series of long gill-rakers, which are laterally bent downward, each series
closely fitting to the sides of the adjoining arch; they constitute together a
sieve admirably adapted to permit a transit for the water, retaining at the
same time every solid substance in the cavity of the pharynx."
The young mullet feed in schools and often swim with the head at the
surface of the water.
Fig. 174.—Striped Mullet, Mugil cephalus (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
We are not able to distinguish from the common striped mullet of Europe
and America the mullet of Hawaii, the famous Ama-ama, the most valued
of Hawaiian fishes. This species is reared in mullet ponds, made by
extending a stone wall across an arm of the sea. Through openings in the
wall the young mullet enter, and in its protection they grow very fat on the
abundant algæ and other vegetation. They thus become the most plentiful
and most esteemed of the market fishes of Honolulu. The Awa (Chanos)
and the Awa-awa (Elops) also enter these ponds and are reared with the
mullet, being similarly but less valued. Unfortunately the kaku, or small
barracuda (Sphyræna helleri), also enters with these helpless fishes and
Page 267
destroys many of the smaller individuals. Another striped species, also very
similar to Mugil cephalus in appearance and value, in fact indistinguishable
from the Hawaiian mullet, abounds in Japan and India.
The white or unstriped mullets are generally smaller, but otherwise differ
little. Mugil curema is the white mullet of tropical America, ranging
occasionally northward, and several other species occur in the West Indies
and the Mediterranean. The genus Mugil has the eye covered by thick
transparent tissue called the adipose eyelid. In Liza the adipose eyelid is
wanting. Liza capito, the big-headed mullet of the Mediterranean, is a well-
known species. Most of the mullets of the south seas belong to the genus
Liza. Liza melinoptera and Liza cæruleomaculata are common in Samoa.
The genus Querimana includes dwarf-mullets, two or three inches long,
known as whirligig-mullets. These little fishes gather in small schools and
swim round and round on the surface like the whirligig-beetles, or
Gyrinidæ, their habits being like those of the young mullets; some young
mullets having been, in fact, described as species of Querimana. The genus
Agonostomus includes fresh-water mullets of the mountain rivers of the
East and West Indies and Mexico, locally known as trucha, or trout.
Agonostomus nasutus of Mexico is the best-known species.
Fig. 175.—Joturo or Bobo, Joturus pichardi Poey. Rio Bayano, Panama.
similar to Mugil cephalus in appearance and value, in fact indistinguishable
from the Hawaiian mullet, abounds in Japan and India.
The white or unstriped mullets are generally smaller, but otherwise differ
little. Mugil curema is the white mullet of tropical America, ranging
occasionally northward, and several other species occur in the West Indies
and the Mediterranean. The genus Mugil has the eye covered by thick
transparent tissue called the adipose eyelid. In Liza the adipose eyelid is
wanting. Liza capito, the big-headed mullet of the Mediterranean, is a well-
known species. Most of the mullets of the south seas belong to the genus
Liza. Liza melinoptera and Liza cæruleomaculata are common in Samoa.
The genus Querimana includes dwarf-mullets, two or three inches long,
known as whirligig-mullets. These little fishes gather in small schools and
swim round and round on the surface like the whirligig-beetles, or
Gyrinidæ, their habits being like those of the young mullets; some young
mullets having been, in fact, described as species of Querimana. The genus
Agonostomus includes fresh-water mullets of the mountain rivers of the
East and West Indies and Mexico, locally known as trucha, or trout.
Agonostomus nasutus of Mexico is the best-known species.
Fig. 175.—Joturo or Bobo, Joturus pichardi Poey. Rio Bayano, Panama.
Page 268
The Joturo, or Bobo, Joturus pichardi, is a very large robust and vigorous
mullet which abounds at the foot of waterfalls in the mountain torrents of
Cuba, eastern Mexico, and Central America. It is a good food-fish,
frequently taken about Jalapa, Havana, and on the Isthmus of Panama. Its
lips are very thick and its teeth are broad, serrated, loosely inserted incisors.
Fossil mullets are few. Mugil radobojanus is the earliest from the Miocene
of Croatia.
The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.—The Sphyrænidæ, or barracudas, differ
from the mullets in the presence of very strong teeth in the bones of the
large mouth. The lateral line is also developed, there is no gizzard, and there
are numerous minor modifications connected with the food and habits. The
species are long, slender swift fishes, powerful in swimming and voracious
to the last degree. Some of the species reach a length of six feet or more,
and these are almost as dangerous to bathers as sharks would be. The long,
knife-like teeth render them very destructive to nets. The numerous species
are placed in the single genus Sphyræna, and some of them are found in all
warm seas, where they feed freely on all smaller fishes, their habits in the
sea being much like those of the pike in the lakes. The flesh is firm,
delicate, and excellent in flavor. In the larger species, especially in the West
Indies, it may be difficult of digestion and sometimes causes serious illness,
or "ichthyosism."
Fig. 176.—Barracuda, Sphyræna barracuda Walbaum. Florida.
Sphyræna sphyræna is the spet, or sennet, a rather small barracuda common
in southern Europe. Sphyræna borealis of our eastern coast is a similar but
still feebler species rarely exceeding a foot in length. These and other small
species are feeble folk as compared with the great barracuda (Sphyræna
mullet which abounds at the foot of waterfalls in the mountain torrents of
Cuba, eastern Mexico, and Central America. It is a good food-fish,
frequently taken about Jalapa, Havana, and on the Isthmus of Panama. Its
lips are very thick and its teeth are broad, serrated, loosely inserted incisors.
Fossil mullets are few. Mugil radobojanus is the earliest from the Miocene
of Croatia.
The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.—The Sphyrænidæ, or barracudas, differ
from the mullets in the presence of very strong teeth in the bones of the
large mouth. The lateral line is also developed, there is no gizzard, and there
are numerous minor modifications connected with the food and habits. The
species are long, slender swift fishes, powerful in swimming and voracious
to the last degree. Some of the species reach a length of six feet or more,
and these are almost as dangerous to bathers as sharks would be. The long,
knife-like teeth render them very destructive to nets. The numerous species
are placed in the single genus Sphyræna, and some of them are found in all
warm seas, where they feed freely on all smaller fishes, their habits in the
sea being much like those of the pike in the lakes. The flesh is firm,
delicate, and excellent in flavor. In the larger species, especially in the West
Indies, it may be difficult of digestion and sometimes causes serious illness,
or "ichthyosism."
Fig. 176.—Barracuda, Sphyræna barracuda Walbaum. Florida.
Sphyræna sphyræna is the spet, or sennet, a rather small barracuda common
in southern Europe. Sphyræna borealis of our eastern coast is a similar but
still feebler species rarely exceeding a foot in length. These and other small
species are feeble folk as compared with the great barracuda (Sphyræna
Page 269
barracuda) of the West Indies, a robust savage fish, also known as picuda
or becuna. Sphyræna commersoni of Polynesia is a similar large species,
while numerous lesser ones occur through the tropical seas. On the
California coast Sphyræna argentea is an excellent food-fish, slenderer than
the great barracuda but reaching a length of five feet.
Several species of fossil barracuda occur in the Italian Eocene, Sphyræna
bolcensis being the earliest.
Stephanoberycidæ.—We may append to the Percesoces, for want of a
better place, a small family of the deep sea, its affinities at present
unknown. The Stephanoberycidæ have the ventrals I, 5, subabdominal, a
single dorsal without spine, and the scales cycloid, scarcely imbricated,
each with one or two central spines. The mouth is large, with small teeth,
the skull cavernous, as in the berycoids, from which group the normally
formed ventrals abdominal in position would seem to exclude it.
Stephanoberyx monæ and S. gilli are found at the depth of a mile and a half
below the Gulf Stream. Boulenger first placed them with the Percesoces,
but more recently suggests their relationship with the Haplomi. Perhaps, as
supposed by Gill, they may prove to be degenerate berycoids in which the
ventral fins have lost their normal connection.
Crossognathidæ.—A peculiar primitive group referred by Woodward to
the Percesoces is the family of Crossognathidæ of the Cretaceous period.
As in these fishes there are no fin-spines, they may be perhaps better placed
with the Haplomi. The dorsal fin is long, without distinct spines, and the
abdominal ventrals have six to eight rays. The mouth is small, with feeble
teeth, and the body is elongate and compressed. Crossognathus
sabandianum occurs in the Cretaceous of Switzerland and Germany,
Syllæmus latifrons and other species in the Colorado Cretaceous, and
Syllæmus anglicus in England. The Crossognathidæ have probably the
lower pharyngeals separate, else they would be placed among the
Synentognathi, a group attached by Woodward, not without reason, to the
Percesoces.
Cobitopsidæ.—Near the Crossognathidæ may be placed the extinct
Cobitopsidæ, Cobitopsis acuta being recorded from the Oligocene of Puy-
de-Dôme in France. In this species there is a short dorsal fin of about
seventeen rays, no teeth, and the well-developed ventral fins are not far in
or becuna. Sphyræna commersoni of Polynesia is a similar large species,
while numerous lesser ones occur through the tropical seas. On the
California coast Sphyræna argentea is an excellent food-fish, slenderer than
the great barracuda but reaching a length of five feet.
Several species of fossil barracuda occur in the Italian Eocene, Sphyræna
bolcensis being the earliest.
Stephanoberycidæ.—We may append to the Percesoces, for want of a
better place, a small family of the deep sea, its affinities at present
unknown. The Stephanoberycidæ have the ventrals I, 5, subabdominal, a
single dorsal without spine, and the scales cycloid, scarcely imbricated,
each with one or two central spines. The mouth is large, with small teeth,
the skull cavernous, as in the berycoids, from which group the normally
formed ventrals abdominal in position would seem to exclude it.
Stephanoberyx monæ and S. gilli are found at the depth of a mile and a half
below the Gulf Stream. Boulenger first placed them with the Percesoces,
but more recently suggests their relationship with the Haplomi. Perhaps, as
supposed by Gill, they may prove to be degenerate berycoids in which the
ventral fins have lost their normal connection.
Crossognathidæ.—A peculiar primitive group referred by Woodward to
the Percesoces is the family of Crossognathidæ of the Cretaceous period.
As in these fishes there are no fin-spines, they may be perhaps better placed
with the Haplomi. The dorsal fin is long, without distinct spines, and the
abdominal ventrals have six to eight rays. The mouth is small, with feeble
teeth, and the body is elongate and compressed. Crossognathus
sabandianum occurs in the Cretaceous of Switzerland and Germany,
Syllæmus latifrons and other species in the Colorado Cretaceous, and
Syllæmus anglicus in England. The Crossognathidæ have probably the
lower pharyngeals separate, else they would be placed among the
Synentognathi, a group attached by Woodward, not without reason, to the
Percesoces.
Cobitopsidæ.—Near the Crossognathidæ may be placed the extinct
Cobitopsidæ, Cobitopsis acuta being recorded from the Oligocene of Puy-
de-Dôme in France. In this species there is a short dorsal fin of about
seventeen rays, no teeth, and the well-developed ventral fins are not far in
Page 270
front of the anal. This little fish bears a strong resemblance to Ammodytes,
but the affinities of the latter genus are certainly with the ophidioid fishes,
while the real relationship of Cobitopsis is uncertain.
Fig. 177.—Cobitopsis acuta Gervais, restored. Oligocene of Puy-de-
Dôme. (After Woodward.)
Suborder Rhegnopteri.—The threadfins (Polynemidæ) are allied to the
mullets, but differ from them and from all other fishes in the structure of the
pectoral fin and its basal bones, or actinosts.
but the affinities of the latter genus are certainly with the ophidioid fishes,
while the real relationship of Cobitopsis is uncertain.
Fig. 177.—Cobitopsis acuta Gervais, restored. Oligocene of Puy-de-
Dôme. (After Woodward.)
Suborder Rhegnopteri.—The threadfins (Polynemidæ) are allied to the
mullets, but differ from them and from all other fishes in the structure of the
pectoral fin and its basal bones, or actinosts.
Page 271
Fig. 178.—Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, Polydactylus approximans (Lay
& Bennett).
Fig. 179.—Threadfin, Polydactylus octonemus (Girard). Pensacola.
The pectoral fin is divided into two parts, the lower composed of free or
separate rays very slender and thread-like, sometimes longer than the body.
Two of the actinosts of the pectoral support the fin, one is slender and has
no rays, while the fourth is plate-like and attached to the coracoids,
supporting the pectoral filaments. The body is rather robust, covered with
large scales, formed much as in the mullet. The lateral line extends on the
caudal fin as in the Sciænidæ which group these fishes resemble in many
ways. The mouth is large, inferior, with small teeth. The species are
carnivorous fishes of excellent flesh, abounding on sandy shores in the
warm seas. They are not very active and not at all voracious. The coloration
is bluish and silvery, sometimes striped with black. Most of the species
belong to the genus Polydactylus. Polydactylus virginicus, the barbudo,
with seven filaments, is common in the West Indies and Florida.
Polydactylus octonemus with eight filaments is more rare, but ranges
further north. Polydactylus approximans, the raton of western Mexico, with
six filaments, reaches San Diego. Polydactylus plebejus is common in
Japan and other species range through Polynesia. In India isinglass is made
& Bennett).
Fig. 179.—Threadfin, Polydactylus octonemus (Girard). Pensacola.
The pectoral fin is divided into two parts, the lower composed of free or
separate rays very slender and thread-like, sometimes longer than the body.
Two of the actinosts of the pectoral support the fin, one is slender and has
no rays, while the fourth is plate-like and attached to the coracoids,
supporting the pectoral filaments. The body is rather robust, covered with
large scales, formed much as in the mullet. The lateral line extends on the
caudal fin as in the Sciænidæ which group these fishes resemble in many
ways. The mouth is large, inferior, with small teeth. The species are
carnivorous fishes of excellent flesh, abounding on sandy shores in the
warm seas. They are not very active and not at all voracious. The coloration
is bluish and silvery, sometimes striped with black. Most of the species
belong to the genus Polydactylus. Polydactylus virginicus, the barbudo,
with seven filaments, is common in the West Indies and Florida.
Polydactylus octonemus with eight filaments is more rare, but ranges
further north. Polydactylus approximans, the raton of western Mexico, with
six filaments, reaches San Diego. Polydactylus plebejus is common in
Japan and other species range through Polynesia. In India isinglass is made
Page 272
from the large air-bladder of species of Polydactylus. The rare Polynemus
quinquarius of the West Indies have five pectoral filaments, these being
greatly elongate, much longer than the body.
No extinct Polynemidæ are recorded.
quinquarius of the West Indies have five pectoral filaments, these being
greatly elongate, much longer than the body.
No extinct Polynemidæ are recorded.
Page 273
CHAPTER XIII
PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII,
LOPHOBRANCHII,
AND HYPOSTOMIDES
uborde
r
Hemi
branc Fig. 181.—Shoulder-
hii.— girdle of Fistularia
Still another petimba Lacépède,
transitional group, showing greatly
the Hemibranchii, is extended interclavicle,
composed of spiny- the surface ossified.
rayed fishes with
Fig. 180.—Shoulder- abdominal ventrals.
girdle of a Stickleback, In this suborder there are other points of
Gasterosteus aculeatus divergence, though none of high importance. In
Linnæus. (After Parker.) these fishes the bones of the shoulder-girdle are
somewhat distorted, the supraclavicle reduced
or wanting, and the gill structures somewhat
degenerate. The presence of bones called interclavicles or infraclavicles,
below and behind the clavicle, has been supposed to characterize the order
of Hemibranchii. But this character has very slight importance. In two
families, Macrorhamphosidæ and Centriscidæ, the interclavicles are absent
altogether. In the Fistulariidæ they are very large. According to the studies
of Mr. Edwin C. Starks, the bone in question is not a true infraclavicle. It is
not identical with the infraclavicle of the Ganoids, but it is only a backward
PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII,
LOPHOBRANCHII,
AND HYPOSTOMIDES
uborde
r
Hemi
branc Fig. 181.—Shoulder-
hii.— girdle of Fistularia
Still another petimba Lacépède,
transitional group, showing greatly
the Hemibranchii, is extended interclavicle,
composed of spiny- the surface ossified.
rayed fishes with
Fig. 180.—Shoulder- abdominal ventrals.
girdle of a Stickleback, In this suborder there are other points of
Gasterosteus aculeatus divergence, though none of high importance. In
Linnæus. (After Parker.) these fishes the bones of the shoulder-girdle are
somewhat distorted, the supraclavicle reduced
or wanting, and the gill structures somewhat
degenerate. The presence of bones called interclavicles or infraclavicles,
below and behind the clavicle, has been supposed to characterize the order
of Hemibranchii. But this character has very slight importance. In two
families, Macrorhamphosidæ and Centriscidæ, the interclavicles are absent
altogether. In the Fistulariidæ they are very large. According to the studies
of Mr. Edwin C. Starks, the bone in question is not a true infraclavicle. It is
not identical with the infraclavicle of the Ganoids, but it is only a backward
Page 274
extension of the hypocoracoid, there being no suture between the two
bones. In those species which have bony plates instead of scales, this bone
has a deposit of bony substance or ganoid enamel at the surface. This gives
it an apparent prominence as compared with other bones of the skeleton, but
it has no great taxonomic importance. Dr. Hay unites the suborders
Hemibranchii, Lophobranchii, and Hypostomides to form the order
Phthinobranchii (φθινάς, waning; βράγχος, gill), characterized by the
reduction of the gill-arches. These forms are really nearly related, but their
affinities with the Percesoces are so close that it may not be necessary to
form a distinct order of the combined group. Boulenger unites the
Hemibranchii with Lampris to form a group, Catosteomi, characterized by
the development of infraclavicles; but we cannot see that Lampris bears any
affinity to the sticklebacks, or that the presence of infraclavicle has any high
significance, nor is it the supposed infraclavicle of Lampris homologous
with that of the Hemibranchii. The dorsal fin in the Hemibranchii has more
or less developed spines; spines are also present in the ventral fins. The
lower pharyngeals are separated; there is no air-duct. The mouth is small
and the bones of the snout are often much produced. The preopercle and
symplectic are distinct. The group is doubtless derived from some
transitional spiny-rayed type allied to the Percesoces. The Lophobranchs,
another supposed order, represent simply a still further phase of degradation
of gills and ventral fins. Dr. Gill separates these two groups as distinct
orders and places them, as aberrant offshoots, near the end of his series of
bony fishes. We prefer to leave them with the other transitional forms, not
regarding their traits of divergence as of any great importance in the
systematic arrangement of families.
The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.—The sticklebacks (Gasterosteidæ) are
small, scaleless fishes, closely related to the Fistulariidæ so far as anatomy
is concerned, but with very different appearance and habits. The body often
mailed, the dorsal is preceded by free spines and the ventrals are each
reduced to a sharp spine with a rudimentary ray. The jaws are short,
bristling with sharp teeth, and these little creatures are among the most
active, voracious, and persistent of all fishes. They attack the fins of larger
fishes, biting off pieces, and at the same time they devour the eggs of all
species accessible to them. In almost all fresh and brackish waters of the
north temperate zone these little fishes abound. "It is scarcely to be
conceived," Dr. Günther observes, "what damage these little fishes do, and
bones. In those species which have bony plates instead of scales, this bone
has a deposit of bony substance or ganoid enamel at the surface. This gives
it an apparent prominence as compared with other bones of the skeleton, but
it has no great taxonomic importance. Dr. Hay unites the suborders
Hemibranchii, Lophobranchii, and Hypostomides to form the order
Phthinobranchii (φθινάς, waning; βράγχος, gill), characterized by the
reduction of the gill-arches. These forms are really nearly related, but their
affinities with the Percesoces are so close that it may not be necessary to
form a distinct order of the combined group. Boulenger unites the
Hemibranchii with Lampris to form a group, Catosteomi, characterized by
the development of infraclavicles; but we cannot see that Lampris bears any
affinity to the sticklebacks, or that the presence of infraclavicle has any high
significance, nor is it the supposed infraclavicle of Lampris homologous
with that of the Hemibranchii. The dorsal fin in the Hemibranchii has more
or less developed spines; spines are also present in the ventral fins. The
lower pharyngeals are separated; there is no air-duct. The mouth is small
and the bones of the snout are often much produced. The preopercle and
symplectic are distinct. The group is doubtless derived from some
transitional spiny-rayed type allied to the Percesoces. The Lophobranchs,
another supposed order, represent simply a still further phase of degradation
of gills and ventral fins. Dr. Gill separates these two groups as distinct
orders and places them, as aberrant offshoots, near the end of his series of
bony fishes. We prefer to leave them with the other transitional forms, not
regarding their traits of divergence as of any great importance in the
systematic arrangement of families.
The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.—The sticklebacks (Gasterosteidæ) are
small, scaleless fishes, closely related to the Fistulariidæ so far as anatomy
is concerned, but with very different appearance and habits. The body often
mailed, the dorsal is preceded by free spines and the ventrals are each
reduced to a sharp spine with a rudimentary ray. The jaws are short,
bristling with sharp teeth, and these little creatures are among the most
active, voracious, and persistent of all fishes. They attack the fins of larger
fishes, biting off pieces, and at the same time they devour the eggs of all
species accessible to them. In almost all fresh and brackish waters of the
north temperate zone these little fishes abound. "It is scarcely to be
conceived," Dr. Günther observes, "what damage these little fishes do, and
Page 275
how greatly detrimental they are to the increase of all the fishes among
which they live, for it is with the utmost industry, sagacity, and greediness
that they seek out and destroy all the young fry that come their way."
The sticklebacks inhabit brackish and fresh waters of the northern
hemisphere, species essentially alike being found throughout northern
Europe, Asia, and America. The same species is subject to great variation.
The degree of development of spines and bony plates is greatest in
individuals living in the sea and least in clear streams of the interior. Each
of the mailed species has its series of half-mailed or even naked varieties
found in the fresh waters. This is true in Europe, New England, California,
and Japan. The farther the individuals are from the sea, the less perfect is
their armature. Thus, Gasterosteus cataphractus, which in the sea has a full
armature of bony plates on the side, about 30 in number, will have in river
mouths from 6 to 20 plates and in strictly fresh water only 2 or 3 or even
none at all.
The sticklebacks have been noted for their nest-building habits. The male
performs this operation, and he is provided with a special gland for
secretion of the necessary cement. Dr. Gill quotes from Dr. John A. Ryder
an account of this process. The secretory gland is a "large vesicle filled with
a clear secretion which coagulates into threads upon contact with water. It
appears to open directly in front of the vent. As soon as it is ruptured, it
loses its transparency, and whatever secretion escapes becomes whitish after
being in contact with water for a short time. This has the same tough, elastic
qualities as when spun by the animal itself, and is also composed of
numerous fibers, as when a portion is taken that has been recently spun
upon the nest. Thus provided, when the nuptial season has arrived the male
stickleback prepares to build his nest, wherein his mate may deposit her
eggs. How this nest is built, and the subsequent proceedings of the
sticklebacks, have been told us in a graphic manner by Mr. John K. Lord,
from observations on Gasterosteus cataphractus on Vancouver Island,
although the source of his secretion was misunderstood:
"The site is generally amongst the stems of aquatic plants, where the water
always flows but not too swiftly. He first begins by carrying small bits of
green material which he nips off the stalks and tugs from out the bottom and
sides of the bank; these he attaches by some glutinous material, that he
clearly has the power of secreting, to the different stems destined as pillars
which they live, for it is with the utmost industry, sagacity, and greediness
that they seek out and destroy all the young fry that come their way."
The sticklebacks inhabit brackish and fresh waters of the northern
hemisphere, species essentially alike being found throughout northern
Europe, Asia, and America. The same species is subject to great variation.
The degree of development of spines and bony plates is greatest in
individuals living in the sea and least in clear streams of the interior. Each
of the mailed species has its series of half-mailed or even naked varieties
found in the fresh waters. This is true in Europe, New England, California,
and Japan. The farther the individuals are from the sea, the less perfect is
their armature. Thus, Gasterosteus cataphractus, which in the sea has a full
armature of bony plates on the side, about 30 in number, will have in river
mouths from 6 to 20 plates and in strictly fresh water only 2 or 3 or even
none at all.
The sticklebacks have been noted for their nest-building habits. The male
performs this operation, and he is provided with a special gland for
secretion of the necessary cement. Dr. Gill quotes from Dr. John A. Ryder
an account of this process. The secretory gland is a "large vesicle filled with
a clear secretion which coagulates into threads upon contact with water. It
appears to open directly in front of the vent. As soon as it is ruptured, it
loses its transparency, and whatever secretion escapes becomes whitish after
being in contact with water for a short time. This has the same tough, elastic
qualities as when spun by the animal itself, and is also composed of
numerous fibers, as when a portion is taken that has been recently spun
upon the nest. Thus provided, when the nuptial season has arrived the male
stickleback prepares to build his nest, wherein his mate may deposit her
eggs. How this nest is built, and the subsequent proceedings of the
sticklebacks, have been told us in a graphic manner by Mr. John K. Lord,
from observations on Gasterosteus cataphractus on Vancouver Island,
although the source of his secretion was misunderstood:
"The site is generally amongst the stems of aquatic plants, where the water
always flows but not too swiftly. He first begins by carrying small bits of
green material which he nips off the stalks and tugs from out the bottom and
sides of the bank; these he attaches by some glutinous material, that he
clearly has the power of secreting, to the different stems destined as pillars
Page 276
for his building. During this operation he swims against the work already
done, splashes about, and seems to test its durability and strength; rubs
himself against the tiny kind of platform, scrapes the slimy mucus from his
sides to mix with and act as mortar for his vegetable bricks. Then he thrusts
his nose into the sand at the bottom, and, bringing a mouthful, scatters it
over the foundation; this is repeated until enough has been thrown on to
weight the slender fabric down and give it substance and stability. Then
more twists, turns, and splashings to test the firm adherence of all the
materials that are intended to constitute the foundation of the house that has
yet to be erected on it. The nest, or nursery, when completed is a hollow,
somewhat rounded, barrel-shaped structure worked together much in the
same way as the platform fastened to the water-plants; the whole firmly
glued together by the viscous secretion scraped from off the body. The
inside is made as smooth as possible by a kind of plastering system; the
little architect continually goes in, then, turning round and round, works the
mucus from his body on to the inner sides of the nest, where it hardens like
tough varnish. There are two apertures, smooth and symmetrical as the hole
leading into a wren's nest, and not unlike it.
"All this laborious work is done entirely by the male fish, and when
completed he goes a-wooing. Watch him as he swims towards a group of
the fair sex enjoying themselves amidst the water-plants arrayed in his best
and brightest livery, all smiles and amiability; steadily and in the most
approved style of stickleback love-making this young and wealthy bachelor
approaches the object of his affections, most likely tells her all about his
house and its comforts, hints delicately at his readiness and ability to defend
her children against every enemy, vows unfailing fidelity, and in lover
fashion promises as much in a few minutes as would take a lifetime to
fulfill. Of course she listens to his suit; personal beauty, indomitable
courage, backed by the substantial recommendations of a house ready built
and fitted for immediate occupation, are gifts not to be lightly regarded.
"Throwing herself on her side the captive lady shows her appreciation, and
by sundry queer contortions declares herself his true and devoted spouse.
Then the twain return to the nest, into which the female at once betakes
herself and therein deposits her eggs, emerging, when the operation is
completed, by the opposite hole. During the time she is in the nest (about
six minutes) the male swims round and round, butts and rubs his nose
done, splashes about, and seems to test its durability and strength; rubs
himself against the tiny kind of platform, scrapes the slimy mucus from his
sides to mix with and act as mortar for his vegetable bricks. Then he thrusts
his nose into the sand at the bottom, and, bringing a mouthful, scatters it
over the foundation; this is repeated until enough has been thrown on to
weight the slender fabric down and give it substance and stability. Then
more twists, turns, and splashings to test the firm adherence of all the
materials that are intended to constitute the foundation of the house that has
yet to be erected on it. The nest, or nursery, when completed is a hollow,
somewhat rounded, barrel-shaped structure worked together much in the
same way as the platform fastened to the water-plants; the whole firmly
glued together by the viscous secretion scraped from off the body. The
inside is made as smooth as possible by a kind of plastering system; the
little architect continually goes in, then, turning round and round, works the
mucus from his body on to the inner sides of the nest, where it hardens like
tough varnish. There are two apertures, smooth and symmetrical as the hole
leading into a wren's nest, and not unlike it.
"All this laborious work is done entirely by the male fish, and when
completed he goes a-wooing. Watch him as he swims towards a group of
the fair sex enjoying themselves amidst the water-plants arrayed in his best
and brightest livery, all smiles and amiability; steadily and in the most
approved style of stickleback love-making this young and wealthy bachelor
approaches the object of his affections, most likely tells her all about his
house and its comforts, hints delicately at his readiness and ability to defend
her children against every enemy, vows unfailing fidelity, and in lover
fashion promises as much in a few minutes as would take a lifetime to
fulfill. Of course she listens to his suit; personal beauty, indomitable
courage, backed by the substantial recommendations of a house ready built
and fitted for immediate occupation, are gifts not to be lightly regarded.
"Throwing herself on her side the captive lady shows her appreciation, and
by sundry queer contortions declares herself his true and devoted spouse.
Then the twain return to the nest, into which the female at once betakes
herself and therein deposits her eggs, emerging, when the operation is
completed, by the opposite hole. During the time she is in the nest (about
six minutes) the male swims round and round, butts and rubs his nose
Page 277
against it, and altogether appears to be in a state of defiant excitement. On
the female leaving, he immediately enters, deposits the milt on the eggs,
taking his departure through the back door. So far his conduct is strictly
pure; but I am afraid morality in stickleback society is of rather a lax order.
No sooner has this lady, his first love, taken her departure, than he at once
seeks another, introduces her as he did the first, and so on, wife after wife,
until the nest is filled with eggs, layer upon layer, milt being carefully
deposited betwixt each stratum of ova. As it is necessary there should be
two holes, by which ingress and egress can be readily accomplished, so it is
equally essential in another point of view. To fertilize fish-eggs, running
water is the first necessity; and, as the holes are invariably placed in the
direction of the current, a steady stream of water is thus directed over
them."
To the genus Gasterosteus the largest species belong, those having three
dorsal spines, and the body typically fully covered with bony plates.
Gasterosteus aculeatus inhabits both shores of the Atlantic and the scarcely
different Gasterosteus cataphractus swarms in the inlets from southern
California to Alaska, Siberia, and northern Japan. Half-naked forms have
been called by various names and one entirely naked in streams of southern
California is named Gasterosteus williamsoni. Its traits are, however,
clearly related to its life in fresh waters.
In Pygosteus pungitius, a type of almost equally wide range, there are nine
or ten dorsal spines and the body is more slender. All kinds of waters of the
north on both continents may yield this species or its allies and variations,
mailed or naked. The naked, Apeltes quadracus, is found in the sea only,
along the New England coast.
the female leaving, he immediately enters, deposits the milt on the eggs,
taking his departure through the back door. So far his conduct is strictly
pure; but I am afraid morality in stickleback society is of rather a lax order.
No sooner has this lady, his first love, taken her departure, than he at once
seeks another, introduces her as he did the first, and so on, wife after wife,
until the nest is filled with eggs, layer upon layer, milt being carefully
deposited betwixt each stratum of ova. As it is necessary there should be
two holes, by which ingress and egress can be readily accomplished, so it is
equally essential in another point of view. To fertilize fish-eggs, running
water is the first necessity; and, as the holes are invariably placed in the
direction of the current, a steady stream of water is thus directed over
them."
To the genus Gasterosteus the largest species belong, those having three
dorsal spines, and the body typically fully covered with bony plates.
Gasterosteus aculeatus inhabits both shores of the Atlantic and the scarcely
different Gasterosteus cataphractus swarms in the inlets from southern
California to Alaska, Siberia, and northern Japan. Half-naked forms have
been called by various names and one entirely naked in streams of southern
California is named Gasterosteus williamsoni. Its traits are, however,
clearly related to its life in fresh waters.
In Pygosteus pungitius, a type of almost equally wide range, there are nine
or ten dorsal spines and the body is more slender. All kinds of waters of the
north on both continents may yield this species or its allies and variations,
mailed or naked. The naked, Apeltes quadracus, is found in the sea only,
along the New England coast.
Page 278
Fig. 182.—Three-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus L. Wood's
Hole, Mass.
Fig. 183.—Four-spined Stickleback, Apeltes quadracus Mitchill. Wood's
Hole, Mass.
Eucalia inconstans is the stickleback of the clear brook from New York to
Indiana and Minnesota. The male is jet black in spring with the sheen of
burnished copper and he is intensely active in his work of protecting the
eggs of his own species and destroying the eggs and fry of others.
Spinachia spinachia is a large sea stickleback of Europe with many dorsal
spines.
No fossil Gasterosteidæ are recorded, and the family, while the least
specialized in most regards, is certainly not the most primitive of the
suborder.
Hole, Mass.
Fig. 183.—Four-spined Stickleback, Apeltes quadracus Mitchill. Wood's
Hole, Mass.
Eucalia inconstans is the stickleback of the clear brook from New York to
Indiana and Minnesota. The male is jet black in spring with the sheen of
burnished copper and he is intensely active in his work of protecting the
eggs of his own species and destroying the eggs and fry of others.
Spinachia spinachia is a large sea stickleback of Europe with many dorsal
spines.
No fossil Gasterosteidæ are recorded, and the family, while the least
specialized in most regards, is certainly not the most primitive of the
suborder.
Page 279
The Aulorhynchidæ.—Closely related to the sticklebacks is the small
family of Aulorhynchidæ, with four soft rays in the ventral fins.
Aulorhynchus, like Spinachia, has many dorsal spines and an elongate snout
approaching that of a trumpet-fish. Aulorhynchus flavidus lives on the coast
of California and Aulichthys japonicus in Japan. The extinct family of
Protosyngnathidæ is near Aulorhynchus, with the snout tubular, the ribs
free, not anchylosed as in Aulorhynchus, and with the first vertebræ fused,
forming one large one as in Aulostomus. Protosyngnathus sumatrensis
occurs in Sumatra. Protaulopsis bolcensis of the Eocene of Italy has the
ventral fins farther back, and is probably more primitive than the
sticklebacks.
Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.—Closely related to the sticklebacks so far as
structure is concerned is a family of very different habit, the cornet-fishes,
or cornetas (Fistulariidæ). In these fishes the body is very long and slender,
like that of a garfish. The snout is produced into a very long tube, which
bears the short jaws at the end. The teeth are very small. There are no
scales, but bony plates are sunk in the skin. The ventrals are abdominal,
each with a spine and four rays. The four anterior vertebræ are very much
elongate. There are no spines in the dorsal and the back-bone extends
through the forked caudal, ending in a long filament. The cornet-fishes are
dull red or dull green in color. They reach a length of two or three feet, and
the four or five known species are widely distributed through the warm
seas, where they swim in shallow water near the surface. Fistularia
tabaccaria, the tobacco-pipe fish, is common in the West Indies, Fistularia
petimba, F. serrata, and others in the Pacific. A fossil cornet-fish of very
small size, Fistularia longirostris, is known from the Eocene of Monte
Bolca, near Verona. Fistularia kœnigi is recorded from the Oligocene of
Glarus.
The Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomidæ.—The Aulostomidæ, or trumpet-fishes
are in structure entirely similar to the Fistulariidæ, but the body is band-
shaped, compressed, and scaly, the long snout bearing the feeble jaws at the
end. There are numerous dorsal spines and no filament on the tail.
Aulostomus chinensis (maculatus) is common in the West Indies,
Aulostomus valentini abounds in Polynesia and Asia, where it is a food-fish
of moderate importance. A species of Aulostomus (bolcensis) is found in the
Italian Eocene. Allied to it is the extinct family Urosphenidæ, scaleless, but
family of Aulorhynchidæ, with four soft rays in the ventral fins.
Aulorhynchus, like Spinachia, has many dorsal spines and an elongate snout
approaching that of a trumpet-fish. Aulorhynchus flavidus lives on the coast
of California and Aulichthys japonicus in Japan. The extinct family of
Protosyngnathidæ is near Aulorhynchus, with the snout tubular, the ribs
free, not anchylosed as in Aulorhynchus, and with the first vertebræ fused,
forming one large one as in Aulostomus. Protosyngnathus sumatrensis
occurs in Sumatra. Protaulopsis bolcensis of the Eocene of Italy has the
ventral fins farther back, and is probably more primitive than the
sticklebacks.
Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.—Closely related to the sticklebacks so far as
structure is concerned is a family of very different habit, the cornet-fishes,
or cornetas (Fistulariidæ). In these fishes the body is very long and slender,
like that of a garfish. The snout is produced into a very long tube, which
bears the short jaws at the end. The teeth are very small. There are no
scales, but bony plates are sunk in the skin. The ventrals are abdominal,
each with a spine and four rays. The four anterior vertebræ are very much
elongate. There are no spines in the dorsal and the back-bone extends
through the forked caudal, ending in a long filament. The cornet-fishes are
dull red or dull green in color. They reach a length of two or three feet, and
the four or five known species are widely distributed through the warm
seas, where they swim in shallow water near the surface. Fistularia
tabaccaria, the tobacco-pipe fish, is common in the West Indies, Fistularia
petimba, F. serrata, and others in the Pacific. A fossil cornet-fish of very
small size, Fistularia longirostris, is known from the Eocene of Monte
Bolca, near Verona. Fistularia kœnigi is recorded from the Oligocene of
Glarus.
The Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomidæ.—The Aulostomidæ, or trumpet-fishes
are in structure entirely similar to the Fistulariidæ, but the body is band-
shaped, compressed, and scaly, the long snout bearing the feeble jaws at the
end. There are numerous dorsal spines and no filament on the tail.
Aulostomus chinensis (maculatus) is common in the West Indies,
Aulostomus valentini abounds in Polynesia and Asia, where it is a food-fish
of moderate importance. A species of Aulostomus (bolcensis) is found in the
Italian Eocene. Allied to it is the extinct family Urosphenidæ, scaleless, but
Page 280
otherwise similar. Urosphen dubia occurs in the Eocene at Monte Bolca.
Urosphen is perhaps the most primitive genus of the whole suborder of
Hemibranchii.
Fig. 184.—Trumpet-fish, Aulostomus chinensis (L.) Virginia.
The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.—Very remarkable fishes are the
snipefishes, or Macrorhamphosidæ. In these forms the snout is still tubular,
with the short jaws at the end. The body is short and deep, partly covered
with bony plates. The dorsal has a very long serrated spine, besides several
shorter ones, and the ventral fins have one spine and five rays.
Fig. 185.—Japanese Snipefish, Macrorhamphosus sagifue Jordan &
Starks. Misaki, Japan.
The snipefish, or woodcock-fish, Macrorhamphosus scolopax, is rather
common on the coasts of Europe, and a very similar species (M. sagifue)
occurs in Japan. The Rhamphosidæ, represented by Rhamphosus, an extinct
genus with the ventrals further forward, are found in the Eocene rocks of
Urosphen is perhaps the most primitive genus of the whole suborder of
Hemibranchii.
Fig. 184.—Trumpet-fish, Aulostomus chinensis (L.) Virginia.
The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.—Very remarkable fishes are the
snipefishes, or Macrorhamphosidæ. In these forms the snout is still tubular,
with the short jaws at the end. The body is short and deep, partly covered
with bony plates. The dorsal has a very long serrated spine, besides several
shorter ones, and the ventral fins have one spine and five rays.
Fig. 185.—Japanese Snipefish, Macrorhamphosus sagifue Jordan &
Starks. Misaki, Japan.
The snipefish, or woodcock-fish, Macrorhamphosus scolopax, is rather
common on the coasts of Europe, and a very similar species (M. sagifue)
occurs in Japan. The Rhamphosidæ, represented by Rhamphosus, an extinct
genus with the ventrals further forward, are found in the Eocene rocks of
Page 281
Monte Bolca. Rhamphosus vastrum has minute scales, short dorsal, and the
snout greatly attenuate.
The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.—One of the most extraordinary types of
fishes is the small family of Centriscidæ, found in the East Indies. The back
is covered by a transparent bony cuirass which extends far beyond the short
tail, on which the two dorsal fins are crowded. Anteriorly this cuirass is
composed of plates which are soldered to the ribs. The small toothless
mouth is at the end of a long snout.
Fig. 186.—Shrimp-fish, Æoliscus strigatus (Günther). Riu Kiu Islands,
Japan.
These little fishes with the transparent carapace look very much like
shrimps. Centriscus scutatus (Amphisile) with the terminal spine fixed is
found in the East Indies, and Æoliscus strigatus with the terminal spine
movable is found in southern Japan and southwards.
Fig. 187.—Æoliscus heinrichi Heckel. Eocene of Carpathia. Family
Centriscidæ. (After Heckel.)
A fossil species, Æoliscus heinrichi, is found in the Oligocene of various
parts of Europe, and Centriscus longirostris occurs in the Eocene of Monte
Bolca.
snout greatly attenuate.
The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.—One of the most extraordinary types of
fishes is the small family of Centriscidæ, found in the East Indies. The back
is covered by a transparent bony cuirass which extends far beyond the short
tail, on which the two dorsal fins are crowded. Anteriorly this cuirass is
composed of plates which are soldered to the ribs. The small toothless
mouth is at the end of a long snout.
Fig. 186.—Shrimp-fish, Æoliscus strigatus (Günther). Riu Kiu Islands,
Japan.
These little fishes with the transparent carapace look very much like
shrimps. Centriscus scutatus (Amphisile) with the terminal spine fixed is
found in the East Indies, and Æoliscus strigatus with the terminal spine
movable is found in southern Japan and southwards.
Fig. 187.—Æoliscus heinrichi Heckel. Eocene of Carpathia. Family
Centriscidæ. (After Heckel.)
A fossil species, Æoliscus heinrichi, is found in the Oligocene of various
parts of Europe, and Centriscus longirostris occurs in the Eocene of Monte
Bolca.
Page 282
In the Centriscidæ and Macrorhamphosidæ the expansions of the
hypocoracoid called infraclavicles are not developed.
The Lophobranchs.—The suborder Lophobranchii (λοφός, tuft; βραγχός,
gill) is certainly an offshoot from the Hemibranchii and belongs likewise
among the forms transitional from soft to spiny-rayed fishes. At the same
time it is a degenerate group, and in its modifications it turns directly away
from the general line of specialization.
The chief characters are found in the reduction of the gills to small lobate
tufts attached to rudimentary gill-arches. The so-called infraclavicles are
present, as in most of the Hemibranchii. Bony plates united to form rings
take the place of scales. The long tubular snout bears the short toothless
jaws at the end. The preopercle is absent, and the ventrals are seven-rayed
or wanting. The species known as pipefishes and sea-horses are all very
small and none have any economic value. They are numerous in all warm
seas, mostly living in shallow bays among seaweed and eel-grass. The
muscular system is little developed and all the species have the curious
habit of carrying the eggs until hatched in a pouch of skin under the belly or
tail; this structure is usually found in the male.
The Solenostomidæ.—The Solenostomidæ of the East Indies are the most
primitive of these fishes. They have the body rather short and provided with
spinous dorsal, and ventral fins. The pretty species are occasionally swept
northward to Japan in the Black Current. Solenostomus cyanopterus is a
characteristic species. Solenorhynchus elegans, now extinct (with the trunk
more elongate), preceded Solenostomus in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.—The Syngnathidæ are very long and
slender fishes, with neither spinous dorsal, nor ventral fins, the body
covered by bony rings. Of the pipefish, Syngnathus, there are very many
species on all northern coasts. Syngnathus acus is common in Europe,
Syngnathus fuscum along the New England coast, Syngnathus californiense
in California, and Syngnathus schlegeli in Japan. Numerous other species of
Syngnathus and other genera are found further south in the same regions.
Corythroichthys is characteristic of coral reefs and Microphis of the streams
of the islands of Polynesia. In general, the more northerly species have the
greater number of vertebræ and of bony rings. Tiphle tiphle is a large
pipefish of the Mediterranean. This species was preceded by Tiphle albyi
hypocoracoid called infraclavicles are not developed.
The Lophobranchs.—The suborder Lophobranchii (λοφός, tuft; βραγχός,
gill) is certainly an offshoot from the Hemibranchii and belongs likewise
among the forms transitional from soft to spiny-rayed fishes. At the same
time it is a degenerate group, and in its modifications it turns directly away
from the general line of specialization.
The chief characters are found in the reduction of the gills to small lobate
tufts attached to rudimentary gill-arches. The so-called infraclavicles are
present, as in most of the Hemibranchii. Bony plates united to form rings
take the place of scales. The long tubular snout bears the short toothless
jaws at the end. The preopercle is absent, and the ventrals are seven-rayed
or wanting. The species known as pipefishes and sea-horses are all very
small and none have any economic value. They are numerous in all warm
seas, mostly living in shallow bays among seaweed and eel-grass. The
muscular system is little developed and all the species have the curious
habit of carrying the eggs until hatched in a pouch of skin under the belly or
tail; this structure is usually found in the male.
The Solenostomidæ.—The Solenostomidæ of the East Indies are the most
primitive of these fishes. They have the body rather short and provided with
spinous dorsal, and ventral fins. The pretty species are occasionally swept
northward to Japan in the Black Current. Solenostomus cyanopterus is a
characteristic species. Solenorhynchus elegans, now extinct (with the trunk
more elongate), preceded Solenostomus in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.—The Syngnathidæ are very long and
slender fishes, with neither spinous dorsal, nor ventral fins, the body
covered by bony rings. Of the pipefish, Syngnathus, there are very many
species on all northern coasts. Syngnathus acus is common in Europe,
Syngnathus fuscum along the New England coast, Syngnathus californiense
in California, and Syngnathus schlegeli in Japan. Numerous other species of
Syngnathus and other genera are found further south in the same regions.
Corythroichthys is characteristic of coral reefs and Microphis of the streams
of the islands of Polynesia. In general, the more northerly species have the
greater number of vertebræ and of bony rings. Tiphle tiphle is a large
pipefish of the Mediterranean. This species was preceded by Tiphle albyi
Page 283
(Siphonostoma) in the Miocene of Sicily. Other pipefishes, referred to as
Syngnathus and Calamostoma, are found as fossils in Tertiary rocks.
The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.—Both fossil and recent forms constitute a
direct line of connection from the pipefishes to the sea-horses. In the latter
the head has the form of the head of a horse. It is bent at right angles to the
body like the head of a knight at chess. There is no caudal fin, and the tail in
typical species is coiled and can hardly be straightened out. Calamostoma
of the Eocene, Gasterotokeus of Polynesia, and Acentronura of Japan are
forms which connect the true sea-horses with the pipefish. Gasterotokeus
has the long head and slender body of the pipefish, with the prehensile
finless tail of a sea-horse. Most of the living species of the sea-horse belong
to the genus Hippocampus. These little creatures have the egg-sac of the
male under the abdomen. They range from two inches to a foot in length
and some of the many species may be found in abundance in every warm
sea. Some cling by the tails to floating seaweed and are swept to great
distances; others cling to eel-grass and live very near the shore. The
commonest European species is Hippocampus hippocampus. Most
abundant on our Atlantic coast is Hippocampus hudsonius. Hippocampus
coronatus is most common in Japan. The largest species are Hippocampus
ingens of Lower California and Hippocampus kelloggi in Japan. Many
species, especially of the smaller ones, have the spines of the bony plates of
the body ending in fleshy flaps. These are sometimes so enlarged as to
simulate leaves of seaweed, thus serving for the efficient protection of the
species. These flaps are developed to an extreme degree in Phyllopteryx
eques, a pipefish of the East Indies.
Syngnathus and Calamostoma, are found as fossils in Tertiary rocks.
The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.—Both fossil and recent forms constitute a
direct line of connection from the pipefishes to the sea-horses. In the latter
the head has the form of the head of a horse. It is bent at right angles to the
body like the head of a knight at chess. There is no caudal fin, and the tail in
typical species is coiled and can hardly be straightened out. Calamostoma
of the Eocene, Gasterotokeus of Polynesia, and Acentronura of Japan are
forms which connect the true sea-horses with the pipefish. Gasterotokeus
has the long head and slender body of the pipefish, with the prehensile
finless tail of a sea-horse. Most of the living species of the sea-horse belong
to the genus Hippocampus. These little creatures have the egg-sac of the
male under the abdomen. They range from two inches to a foot in length
and some of the many species may be found in abundance in every warm
sea. Some cling by the tails to floating seaweed and are swept to great
distances; others cling to eel-grass and live very near the shore. The
commonest European species is Hippocampus hippocampus. Most
abundant on our Atlantic coast is Hippocampus hudsonius. Hippocampus
coronatus is most common in Japan. The largest species are Hippocampus
ingens of Lower California and Hippocampus kelloggi in Japan. Many
species, especially of the smaller ones, have the spines of the bony plates of
the body ending in fleshy flaps. These are sometimes so enlarged as to
simulate leaves of seaweed, thus serving for the efficient protection of the
species. These flaps are developed to an extreme degree in Phyllopteryx
eques, a pipefish of the East Indies.
Page 284
Fig. 188.—Solenostomus cyanopterus Bleeker. Misaki, Japan.
No fossil sea-horses are known.
The following account of the
breeding-habits of our smallest sea-
horse (Hippocampus zosteræ) was
prepared by the writer for a book of
children's stories:
"He was a little bit of a sea-horse and
his name was Hippocampus. He was
not more than an inch long, and he
had a red stripe on the fin on his back,
and his head was made of bone and it
had a shape just like a horse's head,
but he ran out to a point at his tail, and
his head and his tail were all covered
with bone. He lived in the Grand
Lagoon at Pensacola in Florida, where
the water is shallow and warm and
there are lots of seaweeds. So he
wound his tail around a stem of
seaweed and hung with his head
down, waiting to see what would
happen next, and then he saw another
little sea-horse hanging on another
seaweed. And the other sea-horse put
out a lot of little eggs, and the little
eggs all lay on the bottom of the sea at
Fig. 189.—Sea-horse, the foot of the seaweed. So
Hippocampus hudsonius Dekay. Hippocampus crawled down from the
Virginia. seaweed where he was and gathered
up all those little eggs, and down on
the under side of his tail where the
skin is soft he made a long slit for a pocket, and then he stuffed all the eggs
No fossil sea-horses are known.
The following account of the
breeding-habits of our smallest sea-
horse (Hippocampus zosteræ) was
prepared by the writer for a book of
children's stories:
"He was a little bit of a sea-horse and
his name was Hippocampus. He was
not more than an inch long, and he
had a red stripe on the fin on his back,
and his head was made of bone and it
had a shape just like a horse's head,
but he ran out to a point at his tail, and
his head and his tail were all covered
with bone. He lived in the Grand
Lagoon at Pensacola in Florida, where
the water is shallow and warm and
there are lots of seaweeds. So he
wound his tail around a stem of
seaweed and hung with his head
down, waiting to see what would
happen next, and then he saw another
little sea-horse hanging on another
seaweed. And the other sea-horse put
out a lot of little eggs, and the little
eggs all lay on the bottom of the sea at
Fig. 189.—Sea-horse, the foot of the seaweed. So
Hippocampus hudsonius Dekay. Hippocampus crawled down from the
Virginia. seaweed where he was and gathered
up all those little eggs, and down on
the under side of his tail where the
skin is soft he made a long slit for a pocket, and then he stuffed all the eggs
Page 285
into this pocket and fastened it together and stuck it with some slime. So he
had all the other sea-horse's eggs in his own pocket.
"Then he went up on the seawrack again and twisted his tail around it, and
hung there with his head down to see what would happen next. The sun
shone down on him, and by and by all the little eggs began to hatch out, and
each one of the eggs was a little sea-pony, shaped just like a sea-horse. And
when he hung there with his head down he could feel all the little sea-
ponies squirming inside his pocket, and by and by they squirmed so much
that they pushed the pocket open, and then every one crawled away from
him, and he couldn't get them back, and so he went along with them and
watched to see that nothing should hurt them. And by and by they hung
themselves all up on the seaweeds, and they are hanging there yet. And so
he crawled back to his own piece of seaweed and twisted his tail around it,
and waited to see what would happen next. And what happened next was
just the same thing over again."
Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.—The small suborder
of Hypostomides (ὑπό, below; στόμα, mouth) consists of the family of
Pegasidæ. These "sea-moths" are fantastic little fishes, probably allied to
the sticklebacks, but wholly unique in form. The slender body is covered
with bony plates, the gill-covers are reduced to a single plate. The small
mouth underneath a long snout has no teeth. The preopercle and the
symplectic are both wanting. The ventrals are abdominal, formed of two
rays, and the very large pectoral fin is placed horizontally like a great wing.
had all the other sea-horse's eggs in his own pocket.
"Then he went up on the seawrack again and twisted his tail around it, and
hung there with his head down to see what would happen next. The sun
shone down on him, and by and by all the little eggs began to hatch out, and
each one of the eggs was a little sea-pony, shaped just like a sea-horse. And
when he hung there with his head down he could feel all the little sea-
ponies squirming inside his pocket, and by and by they squirmed so much
that they pushed the pocket open, and then every one crawled away from
him, and he couldn't get them back, and so he went along with them and
watched to see that nothing should hurt them. And by and by they hung
themselves all up on the seaweeds, and they are hanging there yet. And so
he crawled back to his own piece of seaweed and twisted his tail around it,
and waited to see what would happen next. And what happened next was
just the same thing over again."
Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.—The small suborder
of Hypostomides (ὑπό, below; στόμα, mouth) consists of the family of
Pegasidæ. These "sea-moths" are fantastic little fishes, probably allied to
the sticklebacks, but wholly unique in form. The slender body is covered
with bony plates, the gill-covers are reduced to a single plate. The small
mouth underneath a long snout has no teeth. The preopercle and the
symplectic are both wanting. The ventrals are abdominal, formed of two
rays, and the very large pectoral fin is placed horizontally like a great wing.
Page 286
Fig 190.—Sea-moth, Zalises umitengu Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
(View from below.)
The species, few in number, known as sea-moths and sea-dragons, rarely
exceed four inches in length. They are found in the East Indies and drift
with the currents northward to Japan. The genera are Pegasus,
Parapegasus, and Zalises. The best-known species are Zalises draconis and
Pegasus volitans.
No fossil species of Pegasidæ are known.
(View from below.)
The species, few in number, known as sea-moths and sea-dragons, rarely
exceed four inches in length. They are found in the East Indies and drift
with the currents northward to Japan. The genera are Pegasus,
Parapegasus, and Zalises. The best-known species are Zalises draconis and
Pegasus volitans.
No fossil species of Pegasidæ are known.
Page 287
CHAPTER XIV
SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER
TRANSITIONAL
GROUPS
uborder Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.—
More ancient than the Hemibranchii, and still more distinctly
in the line of transition from soft-rayed to spiny-rayed fishes,
is the small suborder of Salmopercæ. This is characterized by
the presence of the adipose fin of the salmon, in connection
with the mouth, scales, and fin-spines of a perch. The premaxillary forms
the entire edge of the upper jaw, the maxillary being without teeth. The air-
bladder retains a rudimentary duct. The bones of the head are full of
mucous cavities, as in the European perch called Gymnocephalus and
Acerina. There are two spines in the dorsal and one or two in the anal, while
the abdominal ventrals have each a spine and eight rays. Two species only
are known among living fishes, these emphasizing more perfectly than any
other known forms the close relation really existing between spinous and
soft-rayed forms. The single family of Percopsidæ would seem to find its
place in Cretaceous rocks rather than in the waters of to-day.
SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER
TRANSITIONAL
GROUPS
uborder Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.—
More ancient than the Hemibranchii, and still more distinctly
in the line of transition from soft-rayed to spiny-rayed fishes,
is the small suborder of Salmopercæ. This is characterized by
the presence of the adipose fin of the salmon, in connection
with the mouth, scales, and fin-spines of a perch. The premaxillary forms
the entire edge of the upper jaw, the maxillary being without teeth. The air-
bladder retains a rudimentary duct. The bones of the head are full of
mucous cavities, as in the European perch called Gymnocephalus and
Acerina. There are two spines in the dorsal and one or two in the anal, while
the abdominal ventrals have each a spine and eight rays. Two species only
are known among living fishes, these emphasizing more perfectly than any
other known forms the close relation really existing between spinous and
soft-rayed forms. The single family of Percopsidæ would seem to find its
place in Cretaceous rocks rather than in the waters of to-day.
Page 288
Fig. 191.—Sand-roller, Pecropsis guttatus Agassiz. Okoboji Lake, Ia.
Percopsis guttata, the trout-perch or sand-roller of the Great Lakes, is a pale
translucent fish with dark spots, reaching a length of six inches. It abounds
in the Great Lakes and their tributaries and is occasionally found in the
Delaware, Ohio, Kansas, and other rivers and northwestward as far as
Medicine Hat on the Saskatchewan. It is easily taken with a hook from the
piers at Chicago.
Percopsis guttata, the trout-perch or sand-roller of the Great Lakes, is a pale
translucent fish with dark spots, reaching a length of six inches. It abounds
in the Great Lakes and their tributaries and is occasionally found in the
Delaware, Ohio, Kansas, and other rivers and northwestward as far as
Medicine Hat on the Saskatchewan. It is easily taken with a hook from the
piers at Chicago.
Page 289
Fig. 192.—Oregon Trout-perch, Columbia transmontana Eigenmann.
Umatilla River, Oregon.
Columbia transmontana is another little fish of similar type, but rougher
and more distinctly perch-like. It is found in sandy or weedy lagoons
throughout the lower basin of the Columbia, where it was first noticed by
Dr. Eigenmann in 1892. From the point of view of structure and
classification, this left-over form is one of the most remarkable of American
fishes.
Fig. 193.—Erismatopterus endlicheri Cope. Green River Eocene. (After
Cope.)
Erismatopteridæ.—Here should perhaps be placed the family of
Erismatopteridæ, represented by Erismatopterus levatus and other species
of the Green River Eocene shales. In Erismatopterus the short dorsal has
two or three spines, there are two or three spines in the anal, and the
abdominal ventrals are opposite the dorsal. Allied to Erismatopterus is
Amphiplaga of the same deposits.
We cannot, however, feel sure that these extinct fragments, however well
preserved, belonged to fishes having an adipose fin. Among spiny-rayed
fishes the Percopsidæ alone retain this character, and the real affinities of
Erismatopterus may be with Aphredoderidæ and other percoid forms.
The relations of the extinct family of Asineopidæ are also still uncertain.
This group comprises fresh-water fishes said to be allied to the
Umatilla River, Oregon.
Columbia transmontana is another little fish of similar type, but rougher
and more distinctly perch-like. It is found in sandy or weedy lagoons
throughout the lower basin of the Columbia, where it was first noticed by
Dr. Eigenmann in 1892. From the point of view of structure and
classification, this left-over form is one of the most remarkable of American
fishes.
Fig. 193.—Erismatopterus endlicheri Cope. Green River Eocene. (After
Cope.)
Erismatopteridæ.—Here should perhaps be placed the family of
Erismatopteridæ, represented by Erismatopterus levatus and other species
of the Green River Eocene shales. In Erismatopterus the short dorsal has
two or three spines, there are two or three spines in the anal, and the
abdominal ventrals are opposite the dorsal. Allied to Erismatopterus is
Amphiplaga of the same deposits.
We cannot, however, feel sure that these extinct fragments, however well
preserved, belonged to fishes having an adipose fin. Among spiny-rayed
fishes the Percopsidæ alone retain this character, and the real affinities of
Erismatopterus may be with Aphredoderidæ and other percoid forms.
The relations of the extinct family of Asineopidæ are also still uncertain.
This group comprises fresh-water fishes said to be allied to the
Page 290
Aphredoderidæ, but with the pelvic bones not forked. Asineops
pauciradiata, squamifrons and viridensis are described from the Green
River shales. With Erismatopterus all these fishes may belong to the
suborder of Salmopercæ, but, as above stated, the possession of the adipose
fin, the most characteristic trait of the Salmopercæ, cannot be verified in the
fossil remains.
Suborder Selenichthyes, the
Opahs: Lamprididæ.—We may
bring together as constituting
another suborder certain forms of
uncertain relationship, but which
seem to be transitional between
deep-bodied extinct Ganoids and
the forms allied to Platax, Zeus,
and Antigonia. The name of
Selenichthyes (σηλήνη, moon;
ἰχθύς, fish) is suggested by
Boulenger for the group of opahs,
or moonfishes. These are
characterized by the highly
compressed body, the great
development of a large
hypocoracoid, and especially by
the structure of the ventral fins,
which are composed of about
fifteen rays instead of the one
spine and five rays characteristic
of the specialized perch-like
fishes. The living forms of this
type are further characterized by
the partial or total absence of the
spinous dorsal, by the small
oblique mouth, and the
prominence of the ventral curve of Fig. 194.—Shoulder-girdle of the
the body. A thorough study of the Opah, Lampris guttatus (Brünnich),
osteology of these forms living
and fossil will be necessary before
pauciradiata, squamifrons and viridensis are described from the Green
River shales. With Erismatopterus all these fishes may belong to the
suborder of Salmopercæ, but, as above stated, the possession of the adipose
fin, the most characteristic trait of the Salmopercæ, cannot be verified in the
fossil remains.
Suborder Selenichthyes, the
Opahs: Lamprididæ.—We may
bring together as constituting
another suborder certain forms of
uncertain relationship, but which
seem to be transitional between
deep-bodied extinct Ganoids and
the forms allied to Platax, Zeus,
and Antigonia. The name of
Selenichthyes (σηλήνη, moon;
ἰχθύς, fish) is suggested by
Boulenger for the group of opahs,
or moonfishes. These are
characterized by the highly
compressed body, the great
development of a large
hypocoracoid, and especially by
the structure of the ventral fins,
which are composed of about
fifteen rays instead of the one
spine and five rays characteristic
of the specialized perch-like
fishes. The living forms of this
type are further characterized by
the partial or total absence of the
spinous dorsal, by the small
oblique mouth, and the
prominence of the ventral curve of Fig. 194.—Shoulder-girdle of the
the body. A thorough study of the Opah, Lampris guttatus (Brünnich),
osteology of these forms living
and fossil will be necessary before
Page 291
the group can be properly defined. showing the enlarged infraclavicle.
The large bone above mentioned (After Boulenger.)
was at first considered by
Boulenger as the interclavicle or infraclavicle, the hypocoracoid being
regarded by him as displaced, lying with the actinosts. But it is certain,
from the studies of Mr. Starks, that this bone is the real hypocoracoid,
which in this case is simply exaggerated in size, but placed as in ordinary
fishes.
The single living family, Lamprididæ, contains but one species, Lampris
guttatus, known as opah, moonfish, mariposa, cravo, Jerusalem haddock, or
San Pedro fish. This species reaches a length of six feet and a weight of 500
to 600 pounds. Fig. 199 (Vol. I) is taken from a photograph of an example
weighing 317½ pounds taken near Honolulu by Mr. E. L. Berndt. The body
is almost as deep as long, plump and smooth, without scales or bony plates.
The vertebræ are forty-five in number, and the large ventrals contain about
fifteen rays. The dorsal is without spines, the small mouth without teeth.
The color is a "rich brocade of silver and lilac, rosy on the belly,
everywhere with round silvery spots." The head and back have ultramarine
tints, the jaws and fins are vermilion. On a drawing of this fish made at
Sable Island in 1856, Mr. James Farquhar wrote (to Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin):
"Just imagine the body, a beautiful silver interspersed with spots of a lighter
color about the size of sixpence, the eyes very large and brilliant, with a
golden ring around them. You will then have some idea of the splendid
appearance of the fish when fresh. If Caligula had seen them I might have
realized a fortune."
The skeleton of the opah is very firm and heavy. The flesh is of varying
shades of salmon-red, tender, oily, and of a rich, exquisite flavor scarcely
surpassed by any other fish whatsoever.
The opah is a rare fish, swimming slowly near the surface and ranging very
widely in all the warm seas. It was first noticed in Norway by Gunner, the
good bishop of Throndhjem, about 1780. It was soon after recorded from
Elsinore, Torbay, and Madeira, and is occasionally taken in various places
in Europe. It is also recorded from Newfoundland, Sable Island, Cuba,
Monterey, San Pedro Point (near San Francisco), Santa Catalina, Honolulu,
and Japan.
The large bone above mentioned (After Boulenger.)
was at first considered by
Boulenger as the interclavicle or infraclavicle, the hypocoracoid being
regarded by him as displaced, lying with the actinosts. But it is certain,
from the studies of Mr. Starks, that this bone is the real hypocoracoid,
which in this case is simply exaggerated in size, but placed as in ordinary
fishes.
The single living family, Lamprididæ, contains but one species, Lampris
guttatus, known as opah, moonfish, mariposa, cravo, Jerusalem haddock, or
San Pedro fish. This species reaches a length of six feet and a weight of 500
to 600 pounds. Fig. 199 (Vol. I) is taken from a photograph of an example
weighing 317½ pounds taken near Honolulu by Mr. E. L. Berndt. The body
is almost as deep as long, plump and smooth, without scales or bony plates.
The vertebræ are forty-five in number, and the large ventrals contain about
fifteen rays. The dorsal is without spines, the small mouth without teeth.
The color is a "rich brocade of silver and lilac, rosy on the belly,
everywhere with round silvery spots." The head and back have ultramarine
tints, the jaws and fins are vermilion. On a drawing of this fish made at
Sable Island in 1856, Mr. James Farquhar wrote (to Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin):
"Just imagine the body, a beautiful silver interspersed with spots of a lighter
color about the size of sixpence, the eyes very large and brilliant, with a
golden ring around them. You will then have some idea of the splendid
appearance of the fish when fresh. If Caligula had seen them I might have
realized a fortune."
The skeleton of the opah is very firm and heavy. The flesh is of varying
shades of salmon-red, tender, oily, and of a rich, exquisite flavor scarcely
surpassed by any other fish whatsoever.
The opah is a rare fish, swimming slowly near the surface and ranging very
widely in all the warm seas. It was first noticed in Norway by Gunner, the
good bishop of Throndhjem, about 1780. It was soon after recorded from
Elsinore, Torbay, and Madeira, and is occasionally taken in various places
in Europe. It is also recorded from Newfoundland, Sable Island, Cuba,
Monterey, San Pedro Point (near San Francisco), Santa Catalina, Honolulu,
and Japan.
Page 292
The specimen studied by the writer came ashore at Monterey in an injured
condition, having been worsted in a struggle with some better-armed fish.
Allied to Lampris is the imposing extinct species known as Semiophorus
velifer from the Eocene of Monte Bolca near Verona, the type of the extinct
family of Semiophoridæ. This is a deep compressed fish, with very high
spinous dorsal and very long, many-rayed ventrals. Other related species
are known also from the Eocene. There is no evidence of any close relation
between these fishes with Caranx or Platax, with which Woodward
associates Semiophorus.
The Semiophoridæ differ from the Lamprididæ chiefly in the development
of the spinous dorsal fin, which is composed of many slender rays.
Suborder Zeoidea.—Not far from the Selenichthyes and the Berycoidei we
may place the singular group of John Dories, or zeoid fishes. These have
the ventral fins thoracic and many-rayed, the dorsal fin provided with
spines, and the post-temporal, as in the Chætodontidæ, fused with the skull.
Dr. Boulenger calls attention to the close relation of these fishes to the
flounders, and suggests the possible derivation of both from a synthetic
type, the Amphistiidæ, found in the European Eocene. The Amphistiidæ,
Zeidæ, and flounders are united by him to form the group or suborder
Zeorhombi, characterized by the thoracic ventrals, which have the rays not
I, 5 in number, by the progressive degeneration of the fin-spines and the
progressive twisting of the cranium, bringing the two eyes to the same side
of the head. It is not certain that the flounders are really derived from Zeus-
like fishes, but no other guess as to their origin has more elements of
probability.
condition, having been worsted in a struggle with some better-armed fish.
Allied to Lampris is the imposing extinct species known as Semiophorus
velifer from the Eocene of Monte Bolca near Verona, the type of the extinct
family of Semiophoridæ. This is a deep compressed fish, with very high
spinous dorsal and very long, many-rayed ventrals. Other related species
are known also from the Eocene. There is no evidence of any close relation
between these fishes with Caranx or Platax, with which Woodward
associates Semiophorus.
The Semiophoridæ differ from the Lamprididæ chiefly in the development
of the spinous dorsal fin, which is composed of many slender rays.
Suborder Zeoidea.—Not far from the Selenichthyes and the Berycoidei we
may place the singular group of John Dories, or zeoid fishes. These have
the ventral fins thoracic and many-rayed, the dorsal fin provided with
spines, and the post-temporal, as in the Chætodontidæ, fused with the skull.
Dr. Boulenger calls attention to the close relation of these fishes to the
flounders, and suggests the possible derivation of both from a synthetic
type, the Amphistiidæ, found in the European Eocene. The Amphistiidæ,
Zeidæ, and flounders are united by him to form the group or suborder
Zeorhombi, characterized by the thoracic ventrals, which have the rays not
I, 5 in number, by the progressive degeneration of the fin-spines and the
progressive twisting of the cranium, bringing the two eyes to the same side
of the head. It is not certain that the flounders are really derived from Zeus-
like fishes, but no other guess as to their origin has more elements of
probability.
Page 293
Fig. 195.—Semiophorus velifer Volta. Eocene.
(After Agassiz, per Zittel.)
We may, however, regard the Zeoidea on the one hand and the
Heterosomata on the other as distinct suborders. This is certain, that the
flounders are descended from spiny-rayed forms and that they have no
affinities with the codfishes.
(After Agassiz, per Zittel.)
We may, however, regard the Zeoidea on the one hand and the
Heterosomata on the other as distinct suborders. This is certain, that the
flounders are descended from spiny-rayed forms and that they have no
affinities with the codfishes.
Page 294
Fig. 196.—Amphistium paradoxum Agassiz. Upper Eocene. (Supposed
ancestor of the flounders). (After Boulenger.)
Amphistiidæ.—The Amphistiidæ, now extinct, are deep-bodied,
compressed fishes, with long, continuous dorsal and anal fins in which a
few of the anterior rays are simple, slender spines scarcely differentiated
from the soft rays. The form of body and the structure of the fins are
essentially as in the flounders, from which they differ chiefly by the
symmetry of the head, the eyes being normally placed. Amphistium
paradoxum is described by Agassiz from the upper Eocene. It occurs in
Italy and France. In its dorsal and anal fins there are about twenty-two rays,
the first three or four undivided. The teeth are minute or absent and there is
a high supraoccipital crest.
The John Dories: Zeidæ.—The singular family of Zeidæ, or John Dories,
agrees with Chætodonts in the single character of the fusion of the post-
temporal with the skull. The species, however, diverge widely in other
regards, and their ventral fins are essentially those of the Berycoids. In all
the species there are seven to nine soft rays in the ventral fins, as in the
Berycoid fishes. Probably the character of the fused post-temporal has been
ancestor of the flounders). (After Boulenger.)
Amphistiidæ.—The Amphistiidæ, now extinct, are deep-bodied,
compressed fishes, with long, continuous dorsal and anal fins in which a
few of the anterior rays are simple, slender spines scarcely differentiated
from the soft rays. The form of body and the structure of the fins are
essentially as in the flounders, from which they differ chiefly by the
symmetry of the head, the eyes being normally placed. Amphistium
paradoxum is described by Agassiz from the upper Eocene. It occurs in
Italy and France. In its dorsal and anal fins there are about twenty-two rays,
the first three or four undivided. The teeth are minute or absent and there is
a high supraoccipital crest.
The John Dories: Zeidæ.—The singular family of Zeidæ, or John Dories,
agrees with Chætodonts in the single character of the fusion of the post-
temporal with the skull. The species, however, diverge widely in other
regards, and their ventral fins are essentially those of the Berycoids. In all
the species there are seven to nine soft rays in the ventral fins, as in the
Berycoid fishes. Probably the character of the fused post-temporal has been
Page 295
independently derived. The anterior vertebræ in Zeus, as in Chætodon, are
closely crowded together. In the Zeidæ the spinous dorsal is well developed,
the body naked or with very thin scales, and provided with bony warts at
least around the bases of dorsal and anal fins. The species are mostly of
small size, silvery in color, living in moderate depths in warm seas. The
best-known genus is Zeus, which is a group of shore-fishes of the waters of
Asia and Europe. The common John Dory (called in Germany Härings-
König, or king of the herrings), Zeus faber, abounds in shallow bays on the
coasts of Europe. It reaches a length of nearly a foot, and is a striking
feature of the markets of southern Europe. The dorsal spines are high, the
mouth large, and on the sides is a black ring, said by some to be the mark of
the thumb of St. Peter, who is reported to have taken a coin from the mouth
of this species. A black spot on several other species is associated with the
same legend.
closely crowded together. In the Zeidæ the spinous dorsal is well developed,
the body naked or with very thin scales, and provided with bony warts at
least around the bases of dorsal and anal fins. The species are mostly of
small size, silvery in color, living in moderate depths in warm seas. The
best-known genus is Zeus, which is a group of shore-fishes of the waters of
Asia and Europe. The common John Dory (called in Germany Härings-
König, or king of the herrings), Zeus faber, abounds in shallow bays on the
coasts of Europe. It reaches a length of nearly a foot, and is a striking
feature of the markets of southern Europe. The dorsal spines are high, the
mouth large, and on the sides is a black ring, said by some to be the mark of
the thumb of St. Peter, who is reported to have taken a coin from the mouth
of this species. A black spot on several other species is associated with the
same legend.
Page 296
Fig. 197.—The John Dory, Zeus faber. Linnæus. Devon, England.
On the coasts of Japan abounds the Matao, or target-fish (Zeus japonicus),
very similar to the European species and like it in form and color. Zenopsis
nebulosa and Zen itea also occur on the coasts of Japan. The remaining
Zeidæ (Cyttus, Zenopsis, Zenion, etc.) are all rare species occasionally
dredged especially in the Australian region. Zeus priscus is recorded from
the Tertiary, and Cyttoides glaronensis from the upper Eocene of Glavus.
Grammicolepidæ.—The Grammicolepidæ, represented by a single species,
Grammicolepis brachiusculus, rarely taken off the coast of Cuba, is related
to the Zeidæ. It has rough, ridged, parchment-like scales deeper than long.
The ventrals are thoracic, with the rays in increased number, as in Zeus and
Beryx, with each of which it suggests affinity.
On the coasts of Japan abounds the Matao, or target-fish (Zeus japonicus),
very similar to the European species and like it in form and color. Zenopsis
nebulosa and Zen itea also occur on the coasts of Japan. The remaining
Zeidæ (Cyttus, Zenopsis, Zenion, etc.) are all rare species occasionally
dredged especially in the Australian region. Zeus priscus is recorded from
the Tertiary, and Cyttoides glaronensis from the upper Eocene of Glavus.
Grammicolepidæ.—The Grammicolepidæ, represented by a single species,
Grammicolepis brachiusculus, rarely taken off the coast of Cuba, is related
to the Zeidæ. It has rough, ridged, parchment-like scales deeper than long.
The ventrals are thoracic, with the rays in increased number, as in Zeus and
Beryx, with each of which it suggests affinity.
Page 297
CHAPTER XV
BERYCOIDEI
he Berycoid Fishes.—We may place in a separate order a
group of fishes, mostly spiny-rayed, which appeared earlier in
geological time than any other of the spinous forms, and
which in several ways represent the transition from the
isospondylous fishes to those of the type of the mackerel and
perch. In the berycoid fishes the ventral fins are always thoracic, the
number of rays almost always greater than I, 5, and in all cases an
orbitosphenoid bone is developed in connection with the septum between
the orbits above. This bone is found in the Isospondyli and other primitive
fishes, but according to the investigations of Mr. E. C. Starks it is wanting
in all percoid and scombroid forms, as well as in the Haplomi and in all the
higher fishes. This trait may therefore, among thoracic fishes, be held to
define the section or suborder of Berycoidei.
These fishes, most primitive of the thoracic
types, were more abundant in Cretaceous and
Eocene times than now. The possession of an
increased number of soft rays in the ventral fins
is archaic, although in one family, the
Monocentridæ, the number is reduced to three.
Most of the living Berycoidei retain through life
Fig. 198.—Skull of a
the archaic duct to the air-bladder characteristic
Berycoid fish, Beryx
of most abdominal or soft-rayed fishes. In some
splendens Cuv. & Val.,
however, the duct is lost. For the first time in the
showing the
fish series the number of twenty-four vertebræ
orbitosphenoid (OS),
appears. In most spiny-rayed fishes of the
BERYCOIDEI
he Berycoid Fishes.—We may place in a separate order a
group of fishes, mostly spiny-rayed, which appeared earlier in
geological time than any other of the spinous forms, and
which in several ways represent the transition from the
isospondylous fishes to those of the type of the mackerel and
perch. In the berycoid fishes the ventral fins are always thoracic, the
number of rays almost always greater than I, 5, and in all cases an
orbitosphenoid bone is developed in connection with the septum between
the orbits above. This bone is found in the Isospondyli and other primitive
fishes, but according to the investigations of Mr. E. C. Starks it is wanting
in all percoid and scombroid forms, as well as in the Haplomi and in all the
higher fishes. This trait may therefore, among thoracic fishes, be held to
define the section or suborder of Berycoidei.
These fishes, most primitive of the thoracic
types, were more abundant in Cretaceous and
Eocene times than now. The possession of an
increased number of soft rays in the ventral fins
is archaic, although in one family, the
Monocentridæ, the number is reduced to three.
Most of the living Berycoidei retain through life
Fig. 198.—Skull of a
the archaic duct to the air-bladder characteristic
Berycoid fish, Beryx
of most abdominal or soft-rayed fishes. In some
splendens Cuv. & Val.,
however, the duct is lost. For the first time in the
showing the
fish series the number of twenty-four vertebræ
orbitosphenoid (OS),
appears. In most spiny-rayed fishes of the
Page 298
characteristic of all tropics, of whatever family, this number is
Berycoid fishes. retained.
In every case spines are present in the dorsal fin,
and in certain cases the development of the spinous dorsal surpasses that of
the most extreme perch-like forms. In geological times the Berycoids
preceded all other perch-like fishes. They are probably ancestral to all the
latter. All the recent species, in spite of high specialization, retain some
archaic characters.
The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.—The typical family, Berycidæ, is composed of
fishes of rather deep water, bright scarlet or black in color, with the body
short and compressed, the scales varying in the different genera. The single
dorsal fin has a few spines in front, and there are no barbels. The suborbitals
are not greatly developed.
Fig. 199.—Beryx splendens Lowe. Gulf Stream.
The species of Beryx, called in Spanish Alfonsino, Beryx elegans and Beryx
decadactylus, are widely distributed at moderate depths, the same species
being recorded from Portugal, Madeira, Cuba, the Gulf Stream, and Japan.
The colors are very handsome, being scarlet with streaks of white or
golden. These fishes reach the length of a foot or more and are valued as
food where sufficiently common.
Berycoid fishes. retained.
In every case spines are present in the dorsal fin,
and in certain cases the development of the spinous dorsal surpasses that of
the most extreme perch-like forms. In geological times the Berycoids
preceded all other perch-like fishes. They are probably ancestral to all the
latter. All the recent species, in spite of high specialization, retain some
archaic characters.
The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.—The typical family, Berycidæ, is composed of
fishes of rather deep water, bright scarlet or black in color, with the body
short and compressed, the scales varying in the different genera. The single
dorsal fin has a few spines in front, and there are no barbels. The suborbitals
are not greatly developed.
Fig. 199.—Beryx splendens Lowe. Gulf Stream.
The species of Beryx, called in Spanish Alfonsino, Beryx elegans and Beryx
decadactylus, are widely distributed at moderate depths, the same species
being recorded from Portugal, Madeira, Cuba, the Gulf Stream, and Japan.
The colors are very handsome, being scarlet with streaks of white or
golden. These fishes reach the length of a foot or more and are valued as
food where sufficiently common.
Page 299
Numerous species of Beryx and closely allied genera are found in all rocks
since Cretaceous times; Beryx dalmaticus, from the Cretaceous of Dalmatia,
is perhaps the earliest. Beryx insculptus is found in New Jersey, but no other
Berycoids are yet known as fossils from North America. Sphenocephalus,
with four anal spines, is found in the chalk, as are also species of
Acrogaster and Pycnosterinx, these being the earliest of fishes with
distinctly spiny fins.
Fig. 200.—Hoplopteryx lewesiensis (Mantell), restored. English
Cretaceous Family Berycidæ. (After Woodward.)
The Trachichthyidæ are deep-sea fishes with short bodies, cavernous skulls,
and rough scales. The dorsal is short, with a few spines in front. The
suborbitals are very broad, often covering the cheeks, and the anal fin is
shorter than the dorsal, a character which separates these fishes from the
Berycidæ, in which group the anal fin is very long. The belly has often a
serrated edge, and the coloration is red or black, the black species being
softer in body and living in deeper water. Species of Hoplostethus, notably
Hoplostethus mediterraneus, are found in most seas at a considerable depth.
Trachichthys, a genus scarcely distinguishable from Hoplostethus, is found
in various seas. The genus Paratrachichthys is remarkable for the anterior
since Cretaceous times; Beryx dalmaticus, from the Cretaceous of Dalmatia,
is perhaps the earliest. Beryx insculptus is found in New Jersey, but no other
Berycoids are yet known as fossils from North America. Sphenocephalus,
with four anal spines, is found in the chalk, as are also species of
Acrogaster and Pycnosterinx, these being the earliest of fishes with
distinctly spiny fins.
Fig. 200.—Hoplopteryx lewesiensis (Mantell), restored. English
Cretaceous Family Berycidæ. (After Woodward.)
The Trachichthyidæ are deep-sea fishes with short bodies, cavernous skulls,
and rough scales. The dorsal is short, with a few spines in front. The
suborbitals are very broad, often covering the cheeks, and the anal fin is
shorter than the dorsal, a character which separates these fishes from the
Berycidæ, in which group the anal fin is very long. The belly has often a
serrated edge, and the coloration is red or black, the black species being
softer in body and living in deeper water. Species of Hoplostethus, notably
Hoplostethus mediterraneus, are found in most seas at a considerable depth.
Trachichthys, a genus scarcely distinguishable from Hoplostethus, is found
in various seas. The genus Paratrachichthys is remarkable for the anterior
Page 300
position of the vent, much as in Aphredoderus. Species occur in Japan and
Australia. Gephyroberyx, with the dorsal fin notched, is known from Japan
(G. japonicus) and Madeira (G. darwini).
We may also refer to the Trachichthyidæ certain species of still deeper
waters, black in color and still softer in texture, with smaller scales which
are often peculiar in form. These constitute the genera Caulolepis,
Anoplogaster, Melamphaës, and Plectromus. In Caulolepis the jaws are
armed with very strong canines.
Allied to the Trachichthyidæ are also the fossil genera Hoplopteryx and
Homonotus. Hoplopteryx lewesiensis, from the English chalk, is one of the
earliest of the spiny-rayed fishes.
Fig. 201.—Paratrachichthys prosthemius Jordan & Fowler, Misaki, Japan.
Family Trachichthyidæ.
The Soldier-fishes: Holocentridæ.—The soldier-fishes (Holocentridæ),
also known as squirrel-fishes, Welshmen, soldados, matajuelos, malau,
alehi, etc., are shore fishes very characteristic of rocky banks in the tropical
seas. In this family the flesh is firm and the large scales very hard and with
very rough edges. There are eleven spines in the dorsal and four in the anal,
Australia. Gephyroberyx, with the dorsal fin notched, is known from Japan
(G. japonicus) and Madeira (G. darwini).
We may also refer to the Trachichthyidæ certain species of still deeper
waters, black in color and still softer in texture, with smaller scales which
are often peculiar in form. These constitute the genera Caulolepis,
Anoplogaster, Melamphaës, and Plectromus. In Caulolepis the jaws are
armed with very strong canines.
Allied to the Trachichthyidæ are also the fossil genera Hoplopteryx and
Homonotus. Hoplopteryx lewesiensis, from the English chalk, is one of the
earliest of the spiny-rayed fishes.
Fig. 201.—Paratrachichthys prosthemius Jordan & Fowler, Misaki, Japan.
Family Trachichthyidæ.
The Soldier-fishes: Holocentridæ.—The soldier-fishes (Holocentridæ),
also known as squirrel-fishes, Welshmen, soldados, matajuelos, malau,
alehi, etc., are shore fishes very characteristic of rocky banks in the tropical
seas. In this family the flesh is firm and the large scales very hard and with
very rough edges. There are eleven spines in the dorsal and four in the anal,
Page 301
the third being usually very long. The ventral fins have one spine and seven
soft rays. The whole head and body are rough with prickles. The coloration
is always brilliant, the ground hue being scarlet or crimson, often with lines
or stripes of white, black, or golden. The fishes are valued as food, and they
furnish a large part of the beauty of coloration so characteristic of the fishes
of the coral reefs. The species are active, pugnacious, carnivorous, but not
especially voracious, the mouth being usually small.
Fig. 202.—Soldier-fish, Holocentrus ascenscionis (Osbeck).
soft rays. The whole head and body are rough with prickles. The coloration
is always brilliant, the ground hue being scarlet or crimson, often with lines
or stripes of white, black, or golden. The fishes are valued as food, and they
furnish a large part of the beauty of coloration so characteristic of the fishes
of the coral reefs. The species are active, pugnacious, carnivorous, but not
especially voracious, the mouth being usually small.
Fig. 202.—Soldier-fish, Holocentrus ascenscionis (Osbeck).
Page 302
Fig. 203.—Soldier-fish, Holocentrus ittodai Jordan & Fowler. Riu Kiu
Islands, Japan.
The genus Holocentrus is characterized by the presence of a large spine on
the angle of the preopercle. Its species are especially numerous,
Holocentrus ascenscionis, abundant in Cuba, ranges northward in the Gulf
Stream. Holocentrus suborbitalis, the mojarra cardenal, is a small,
relatively dull species swarming about the rocks of western Mexico.
Holocentrus spinosissimus is a characteristic fish of Japan. Many other
species abound throughout Polynesia and the East Indies, as well as in
tropical America. Holocentrus ruber and Holocentrus diadema are common
species of Polynesia and the East Indies. Other abundant species are H.
spinifer, H. microstomus, and H. violascens.
Holocentrus marianus is the marian of the French West Indies. Holocentrus
sammara, and related large-mouthed species occur in Polynesia.
Islands, Japan.
The genus Holocentrus is characterized by the presence of a large spine on
the angle of the preopercle. Its species are especially numerous,
Holocentrus ascenscionis, abundant in Cuba, ranges northward in the Gulf
Stream. Holocentrus suborbitalis, the mojarra cardenal, is a small,
relatively dull species swarming about the rocks of western Mexico.
Holocentrus spinosissimus is a characteristic fish of Japan. Many other
species abound throughout Polynesia and the East Indies, as well as in
tropical America. Holocentrus ruber and Holocentrus diadema are common
species of Polynesia and the East Indies. Other abundant species are H.
spinifer, H. microstomus, and H. violascens.
Holocentrus marianus is the marian of the French West Indies. Holocentrus
sammara, and related large-mouthed species occur in Polynesia.
Page 303
Fig. 204.—Ostichthys japonicus (Cuv. & Val.). Giran, Formosa.
In Myripristis the preopercular spine is wanting and the air-bladder is
divided into two parts, the anterior extending to the ear. Myripristis jacobus
is the brilliantly colored candil, or "Frère Jacques," of the West Indies.
Species of Myripristis are known in Hawaii as u-u. A curious method of
catching Myripristis murdjan is pursued on the Island of Hawaii. A living
fish is suspended by a cord in front of a reef inhabited by this species. It
remains with scarlet fins spread and glistening red scales. Its presence is a
challenge to other individuals, who rush out to attack it. These are then
drawn out by a concealed scoop-net, and a fresh specimen is taken as a
decoy. Myripristis pralinius, M. multiradiatus, and other species occur in
Polynesia. Ostichthys is allied to Myripristis but with very large rough
scales. Ostichthys japonicus is a large and showy fish of the waters of
Japan. Ostichthys pillwaxi occurs at Honolulu. Holotrachys lima is a small,
brick-red fish with small very rough scales found throughout Polynesia.
Fossil species of Holocentrus, Myripristis, and related extinct genera occur
in the Eocene and Miocene. Holocentrus macrocephalus, from Monte
In Myripristis the preopercular spine is wanting and the air-bladder is
divided into two parts, the anterior extending to the ear. Myripristis jacobus
is the brilliantly colored candil, or "Frère Jacques," of the West Indies.
Species of Myripristis are known in Hawaii as u-u. A curious method of
catching Myripristis murdjan is pursued on the Island of Hawaii. A living
fish is suspended by a cord in front of a reef inhabited by this species. It
remains with scarlet fins spread and glistening red scales. Its presence is a
challenge to other individuals, who rush out to attack it. These are then
drawn out by a concealed scoop-net, and a fresh specimen is taken as a
decoy. Myripristis pralinius, M. multiradiatus, and other species occur in
Polynesia. Ostichthys is allied to Myripristis but with very large rough
scales. Ostichthys japonicus is a large and showy fish of the waters of
Japan. Ostichthys pillwaxi occurs at Honolulu. Holotrachys lima is a small,
brick-red fish with small very rough scales found throughout Polynesia.
Fossil species of Holocentrus, Myripristis, and related extinct genera occur
in the Eocene and Miocene. Holocentrus macrocephalus, from Monte
Page 304
Bolca Eocene, is one of the best known. Myricanthus leptacanthus from the
same region, has very slender spines in the fins.
Fig. 205.—Pine-cone Fish, Monocentris japonicus (Houttuyn). Waka,
Japan.
The Polymixiidæ.—The family of Polymixiidæ, or barbudos, is one of the
most interesting in Ichthyology from its bewildering combination of
characters belonging to different groups. With the general aspect of a
Berycoid, the ventral rays I, 7, and the single dorsal fin with a few spines,
Polymixia has the scales rather smooth and at the chin are two long barbels
which look remarkably like those of the family of Mullidæ or Surmullets.
As in the Mullidæ, there are but four branchiostegals. In other regards the
two groups seem to have little in common. According to Starks, the
specialized feelers at the chin are different in structure and must have been
independently developed in the two groups. In Polymixia, each barbel is
suspended from the hypohyal; three rudimentary branchiostegals forming
its thickened base. In Mullus, each barbel is suspended from the trip of a
same region, has very slender spines in the fins.
Fig. 205.—Pine-cone Fish, Monocentris japonicus (Houttuyn). Waka,
Japan.
The Polymixiidæ.—The family of Polymixiidæ, or barbudos, is one of the
most interesting in Ichthyology from its bewildering combination of
characters belonging to different groups. With the general aspect of a
Berycoid, the ventral rays I, 7, and the single dorsal fin with a few spines,
Polymixia has the scales rather smooth and at the chin are two long barbels
which look remarkably like those of the family of Mullidæ or Surmullets.
As in the Mullidæ, there are but four branchiostegals. In other regards the
two groups seem to have little in common. According to Starks, the
specialized feelers at the chin are different in structure and must have been
independently developed in the two groups. In Polymixia, each barbel is
suspended from the hypohyal; three rudimentary branchiostegals forming
its thickened base. In Mullus, each barbel is suspended from the trip of a
Page 305
slender projection of the ceratohyal, having no connection with the
branchiostegals. Polymixia possesses the orbitosphenoid bone and is a true
berycoid, while the Mullidæ are genuine percoid fishes.
Four species of Polymixia are recorded from rather deep water: Polymixia
nobilis from Madeira, Polymixia lowei from the West Indies, Polymixia
berndti from Hawaii, and Polymixia japonica from Japan. All are plainly
colored, without red.
The Pine-cone Fishes: Monocentridæ.—Among the most extraordinary of
all fishes is the little family of Monocentridæ, or pine-cone fishes.
Monocentris japonicus, the best-known species, is common on the coasts of
Japan. It reaches the length of five inches. The body is covered with a coat
of mail, made of rough plates which look as though carelessly put together.
The dorsal spines are very strong, and each ventral fin is replaced by a very
strong rough spine. The animal fully justifies the remark of its discoverer,
Houttuyn (1782), that it is "the most remarkable fish which exists." It is dull
golden brown in color, and in movement as sluggish as a trunkfish. A
similar species, called knightfish, Monocentris gloriæ-maris, is found in
Australia. No fossils allied to Monocentris are known.
branchiostegals. Polymixia possesses the orbitosphenoid bone and is a true
berycoid, while the Mullidæ are genuine percoid fishes.
Four species of Polymixia are recorded from rather deep water: Polymixia
nobilis from Madeira, Polymixia lowei from the West Indies, Polymixia
berndti from Hawaii, and Polymixia japonica from Japan. All are plainly
colored, without red.
The Pine-cone Fishes: Monocentridæ.—Among the most extraordinary of
all fishes is the little family of Monocentridæ, or pine-cone fishes.
Monocentris japonicus, the best-known species, is common on the coasts of
Japan. It reaches the length of five inches. The body is covered with a coat
of mail, made of rough plates which look as though carelessly put together.
The dorsal spines are very strong, and each ventral fin is replaced by a very
strong rough spine. The animal fully justifies the remark of its discoverer,
Houttuyn (1782), that it is "the most remarkable fish which exists." It is dull
golden brown in color, and in movement as sluggish as a trunkfish. A
similar species, called knightfish, Monocentris gloriæ-maris, is found in
Australia. No fossils allied to Monocentris are known.
Page 306
CHAPTER XVI
PERCOMORPHI
uborder Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.—We
may place in a single suborder the various groups of fishes
which cluster about the perches, and the mackerels. The group
is not easily definable and may contain heterogeneous
elements. We may, however, arrange in it, for our present
purposes, those spiny-rayed fishes having the ventral fins thoracic, of one
spine and five rays (the ventral fin occasionally wanting or defective,
having a reduced number of rays), the lower pharyngeal bones separate, the
suborbital chain without backward extension or bony stay, the post-
temporal normally developed and separate from the cranium, the
premaxillary and maxillary distinct, the cranium itself without
orbitosphenoid bone, having a structure not greatly unlike that of perch or
mackerel, and the back-bone primitively of twenty-four vertebræ, the
number increased in arctic, pelagic, or fresh-water offshoots.
The species, comprising the great body of the spiny-rayed forms, group
themselves chiefly about two central families, the Scombridæ, or mackerels,
and the Serranidæ, the sea-bass, with their fresh-water allies, the Percidæ,
or perch.
The Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea.—The two groups of Percomorphi, the
mackerel-like and the perch-like, admit of no exact definition, as the one
fully grades into the other. The mackerel-like forms, or Scombroidea, as a
whole are defined by their adaptation for swift movement. The profile is
sharp anteriorly, the tail slender, with widely forked caudal; the scales are
usually small, thin, and smooth, of such a character as not to produce
friction in the water.
PERCOMORPHI
uborder Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.—We
may place in a single suborder the various groups of fishes
which cluster about the perches, and the mackerels. The group
is not easily definable and may contain heterogeneous
elements. We may, however, arrange in it, for our present
purposes, those spiny-rayed fishes having the ventral fins thoracic, of one
spine and five rays (the ventral fin occasionally wanting or defective,
having a reduced number of rays), the lower pharyngeal bones separate, the
suborbital chain without backward extension or bony stay, the post-
temporal normally developed and separate from the cranium, the
premaxillary and maxillary distinct, the cranium itself without
orbitosphenoid bone, having a structure not greatly unlike that of perch or
mackerel, and the back-bone primitively of twenty-four vertebræ, the
number increased in arctic, pelagic, or fresh-water offshoots.
The species, comprising the great body of the spiny-rayed forms, group
themselves chiefly about two central families, the Scombridæ, or mackerels,
and the Serranidæ, the sea-bass, with their fresh-water allies, the Percidæ,
or perch.
The Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea.—The two groups of Percomorphi, the
mackerel-like and the perch-like, admit of no exact definition, as the one
fully grades into the other. The mackerel-like forms, or Scombroidea, as a
whole are defined by their adaptation for swift movement. The profile is
sharp anteriorly, the tail slender, with widely forked caudal; the scales are
usually small, thin, and smooth, of such a character as not to produce
friction in the water.
Page 307
In general the external surface is smooth, the skeleton light and strong, the
muscles firm, and the species are carnivorous and predaceous. But among
the multitude of forms are many variations, and some of these will seem to
be exceptions to any definition of mackerel-like fishes which could possibly
be framed.
The mackerels, or Scombroidea, have usually the tail very slender,
composed of very strong bones, with widely forked fin. In the perch and
bass the tail is stout, composed largely of flesh, the supporting vertebræ
relatively small and spread out fan-fashion behind. Neither mackerels nor
perch nor any of their near allies ever have more than five soft rays in the
ventral fins, and the persistence of this number throughout the
Percomorphi, Squamipinnes, Pharyngognathi, and spiny fishes generally
must be attributed to inheritance from the primitive perch-like or mackerel-
like forms. In almost all the groups to be considered in this work, after the
Berycoidea the ventral rays are I, 5, or else fewer through degeneration,
never more. In the central or primitive members of most of these groups
there are twenty-four vertebræ, the number increased in certain forms,
probably through repetitive degeneration.
The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.—We may first consider the great
central family of Scombridæ, or true mackerels, distinguished among
related families by their swift forms, smooth scales, metallic coloration, and
technically by the presence of a number of detached finlets behind the
dorsal and anal fins. The cut of the mouth is peculiar, the spines in the fins
are feeble, the muscular system is extremely strong, the flesh oily, and the
air-bladder reduced in size or altogether wanting. As in most swift-
swimming fishes and fishes of pelagic habit, the vertebræ are numerous and
relatively small, an arrangement which promotes flexibility of body. It is
not likely that this group is the most primitive of the scombroid fishes. In
some respects the Stromateidæ stand nearer the primitive stock. The true
mackerels, however, furnish the most convenient point of departure in
reviewing the great group.
In the genus of true mackerels, Scomber, the dorsal fins are well separated,
the first being rather short, and the scales of the shoulders are not modified
to form a corselet. There are numerous species, two of them of general
interest. The common mackerel, Scomber scombrus, is one of the best
known of food-fishes. It is probably confined to the Atlantic, where on both
muscles firm, and the species are carnivorous and predaceous. But among
the multitude of forms are many variations, and some of these will seem to
be exceptions to any definition of mackerel-like fishes which could possibly
be framed.
The mackerels, or Scombroidea, have usually the tail very slender,
composed of very strong bones, with widely forked fin. In the perch and
bass the tail is stout, composed largely of flesh, the supporting vertebræ
relatively small and spread out fan-fashion behind. Neither mackerels nor
perch nor any of their near allies ever have more than five soft rays in the
ventral fins, and the persistence of this number throughout the
Percomorphi, Squamipinnes, Pharyngognathi, and spiny fishes generally
must be attributed to inheritance from the primitive perch-like or mackerel-
like forms. In almost all the groups to be considered in this work, after the
Berycoidea the ventral rays are I, 5, or else fewer through degeneration,
never more. In the central or primitive members of most of these groups
there are twenty-four vertebræ, the number increased in certain forms,
probably through repetitive degeneration.
The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.—We may first consider the great
central family of Scombridæ, or true mackerels, distinguished among
related families by their swift forms, smooth scales, metallic coloration, and
technically by the presence of a number of detached finlets behind the
dorsal and anal fins. The cut of the mouth is peculiar, the spines in the fins
are feeble, the muscular system is extremely strong, the flesh oily, and the
air-bladder reduced in size or altogether wanting. As in most swift-
swimming fishes and fishes of pelagic habit, the vertebræ are numerous and
relatively small, an arrangement which promotes flexibility of body. It is
not likely that this group is the most primitive of the scombroid fishes. In
some respects the Stromateidæ stand nearer the primitive stock. The true
mackerels, however, furnish the most convenient point of departure in
reviewing the great group.
In the genus of true mackerels, Scomber, the dorsal fins are well separated,
the first being rather short, and the scales of the shoulders are not modified
to form a corselet. There are numerous species, two of them of general
interest. The common mackerel, Scomber scombrus, is one of the best
known of food-fishes. It is probably confined to the Atlantic, where on both
Page 308
shores it runs in vast schools, the movements varying greatly from season to
season, the preference being for cool waters. The female mackerel produces
about 500,000 eggs each year, according to Professor Goode. These are
very minute and each is provided with an oil-globule, which causes it to
float on the surface. About 400,000 barrels of mackerel are salted yearly by
the mackerel fleet of Massachusetts. Single schools of mackerel, estimated
to contain a million barrels, have been recorded. Captain Harding describes
such a school as "a windrow of fish half a mile wide and twenty miles
long."
Fig. 206.—Mackerel, Scomber scombrus L. New York.
Professor Goode writes:
"Upon the abundance of mackerel depends the welfare of many thousands
of the citizens of Massachusetts and Maine. The success of the mackerel-
fishery is much more uncertain than that of the cod-fishery, for instance, for
the supply of cod is quite uniform from year to year. The prospects of each
season are eagerly discussed from week to week in thousands of little
circles along the coast, and are chronicled by the local press. The story of
each successful trip is passed from mouth to mouth, and is a matter of
general congratulation in each fishing community. A review of the results of
the American mackerel-fishery, and of the movements of the fish in each
part of the season, would be an important contribution to the literature of
the American fisheries.
season, the preference being for cool waters. The female mackerel produces
about 500,000 eggs each year, according to Professor Goode. These are
very minute and each is provided with an oil-globule, which causes it to
float on the surface. About 400,000 barrels of mackerel are salted yearly by
the mackerel fleet of Massachusetts. Single schools of mackerel, estimated
to contain a million barrels, have been recorded. Captain Harding describes
such a school as "a windrow of fish half a mile wide and twenty miles
long."
Fig. 206.—Mackerel, Scomber scombrus L. New York.
Professor Goode writes:
"Upon the abundance of mackerel depends the welfare of many thousands
of the citizens of Massachusetts and Maine. The success of the mackerel-
fishery is much more uncertain than that of the cod-fishery, for instance, for
the supply of cod is quite uniform from year to year. The prospects of each
season are eagerly discussed from week to week in thousands of little
circles along the coast, and are chronicled by the local press. The story of
each successful trip is passed from mouth to mouth, and is a matter of
general congratulation in each fishing community. A review of the results of
the American mackerel-fishery, and of the movements of the fish in each
part of the season, would be an important contribution to the literature of
the American fisheries.
Page 309
"The mackerel-fishery is peculiarly American, and its history is full of
romance. There are no finer vessels afloat than the American mackerel-
schooners—yachts of great speed and unsurpassed for seaworthiness. The
modern instruments of capture are marvels of inventive skill, and require
the highest degree of energy and intelligence on the part of the fishermen.
The crews of the mackerel-schooners are still for the most part Americans
of the old colonial stock, although the cod and halibut fisheries are to a
great extent given up to foreigners.
"When the mackerel is caught, trout, bass, and sheepshead cannot vanquish
him in a gastronomic tournament. In Holland, to be sure, the mackerel is
not prized, and is accused of tasting like rancid fish-oil, and in England,
even, they are usually lean and dry, like the wretched skeletons which are
brought to market in April and May by the southern fleet, which goes forth
in the early spring from Massachusetts to intercept the schools as they
approach the coasts of Carolina and Virginia. They are not worthy of the
name of mackerel. Scomber Scombrus is not properly in season until the
spawning time is over, when the schools begin to feed at the surface in the
Gulf of Maine and the 'North Bay.'
"Just from the water, fat enough to broil in its own drippings, or slightly
corned in strong brine, caught at night and eaten in the morning, a mackerel
or a bluefish is unsurpassable. A well-cured autumn mackerel is perhaps the
finest of all salted fish, but in these days of wholesale capture by the purse-
seine, hasty dressing and careless handling, it is very difficult to obtain a
sweet and sound salt mackerel. Salt mackerel may be boiled as well as
broiled, and a fresh mackerel may be cooked in the same manner.
Americans will usually prefer to do without the sauce of fennel and
gooseberry which transatlantic cooks recommend. Fresh and salt, fat and
lean, new or stale, mackerel are consumed by Americans in immense
quantities, as the statistics show, and whatever their state, always find ready
sale."
Smaller, less important, less useful, but far more widely distributed is the
chub-mackerel, or thimble-eyed mackerel, Scomber japonicus (Houttuyn,
1782), usually known by the later name of Scomber colias (Gmelin, 1788).
In this species the air-bladder (absent in the common mackerel) is
moderately developed. It very much resembles the true mackerel, but is of
smaller size, less excellence as a food-fish, and keeps nearer to the shore. It
romance. There are no finer vessels afloat than the American mackerel-
schooners—yachts of great speed and unsurpassed for seaworthiness. The
modern instruments of capture are marvels of inventive skill, and require
the highest degree of energy and intelligence on the part of the fishermen.
The crews of the mackerel-schooners are still for the most part Americans
of the old colonial stock, although the cod and halibut fisheries are to a
great extent given up to foreigners.
"When the mackerel is caught, trout, bass, and sheepshead cannot vanquish
him in a gastronomic tournament. In Holland, to be sure, the mackerel is
not prized, and is accused of tasting like rancid fish-oil, and in England,
even, they are usually lean and dry, like the wretched skeletons which are
brought to market in April and May by the southern fleet, which goes forth
in the early spring from Massachusetts to intercept the schools as they
approach the coasts of Carolina and Virginia. They are not worthy of the
name of mackerel. Scomber Scombrus is not properly in season until the
spawning time is over, when the schools begin to feed at the surface in the
Gulf of Maine and the 'North Bay.'
"Just from the water, fat enough to broil in its own drippings, or slightly
corned in strong brine, caught at night and eaten in the morning, a mackerel
or a bluefish is unsurpassable. A well-cured autumn mackerel is perhaps the
finest of all salted fish, but in these days of wholesale capture by the purse-
seine, hasty dressing and careless handling, it is very difficult to obtain a
sweet and sound salt mackerel. Salt mackerel may be boiled as well as
broiled, and a fresh mackerel may be cooked in the same manner.
Americans will usually prefer to do without the sauce of fennel and
gooseberry which transatlantic cooks recommend. Fresh and salt, fat and
lean, new or stale, mackerel are consumed by Americans in immense
quantities, as the statistics show, and whatever their state, always find ready
sale."
Smaller, less important, less useful, but far more widely distributed is the
chub-mackerel, or thimble-eyed mackerel, Scomber japonicus (Houttuyn,
1782), usually known by the later name of Scomber colias (Gmelin, 1788).
In this species the air-bladder (absent in the common mackerel) is
moderately developed. It very much resembles the true mackerel, but is of
smaller size, less excellence as a food-fish, and keeps nearer to the shore. It
Page 310
may be usually distinguished by the presence of vague, dull-gray spots on
the sides, where the true mackerel is lustrous silvery.
This fish is common in the Mediterranean, along our Atlantic coast, on the
coast of California, and everywhere in Japan.
Scomber antarcticus is the familiar mackerel of Australia. Scomber loo,
silvery, with round black spots, is the common mackerel of the South Seas,
locally known as Ga.
Scomber priscus is a fossil mackerel from the Eocene.
Auxis thazard, the frigate mackerel, has the scales of the shoulders enlarged
and somewhat coalescent, forming what is called a corselet. The species
ranges widely through the seas of the world in great numbers, but very
erratic, sometimes myriads reaching our Eastern coast, then none seen for
years. It is more constant in its visits to Japan and Hawaii. Fossil species of
Auxis are found in the Miocene.
The genus Gymnosarda has the corselet as in Auxis, but the first dorsal fin
is long, extending backward to the base of the second. Its two species,
Gymnosarda pelamis, the Oceanic bonito, and Gymnosarda alleterata, the
little tunny, are found in all warm seas, being especially abundant in the
Mediterranean, about Hawaii and Japan. These are plump fish of moderate
size, with very red and very oily flesh.
Closely related to these is the great tunny, or Tuna (Thunnus thynnus) found
in all warm seas and reaching at times a weight of 1500 pounds. These
enormous fishes are much valued by anglers, a popular "Tuna Club"
devoted to the sport of catching them with a hook having its headquarters at
Avalon, on Santa Catalina Island, in California. They are good food,
although the flesh of the large ones is very oily. The name horse-mackerel is
often given to these monsters on the New England coast. In California, the
Spanish name of tuna has become current among fisherman.
Very similar to the tuna, but much smaller, is the Albacore (Germo
alalonga). This reaches a weight of fifteen to thirty pounds, and is known
by its very long, almost ribbon-like pectoral fins. This species is common in
the Mediterranean, and about the Santa Barbara Islands, where it runs in
great schools in March. The flesh of the albacore is of little value, unless, as
the sides, where the true mackerel is lustrous silvery.
This fish is common in the Mediterranean, along our Atlantic coast, on the
coast of California, and everywhere in Japan.
Scomber antarcticus is the familiar mackerel of Australia. Scomber loo,
silvery, with round black spots, is the common mackerel of the South Seas,
locally known as Ga.
Scomber priscus is a fossil mackerel from the Eocene.
Auxis thazard, the frigate mackerel, has the scales of the shoulders enlarged
and somewhat coalescent, forming what is called a corselet. The species
ranges widely through the seas of the world in great numbers, but very
erratic, sometimes myriads reaching our Eastern coast, then none seen for
years. It is more constant in its visits to Japan and Hawaii. Fossil species of
Auxis are found in the Miocene.
The genus Gymnosarda has the corselet as in Auxis, but the first dorsal fin
is long, extending backward to the base of the second. Its two species,
Gymnosarda pelamis, the Oceanic bonito, and Gymnosarda alleterata, the
little tunny, are found in all warm seas, being especially abundant in the
Mediterranean, about Hawaii and Japan. These are plump fish of moderate
size, with very red and very oily flesh.
Closely related to these is the great tunny, or Tuna (Thunnus thynnus) found
in all warm seas and reaching at times a weight of 1500 pounds. These
enormous fishes are much valued by anglers, a popular "Tuna Club"
devoted to the sport of catching them with a hook having its headquarters at
Avalon, on Santa Catalina Island, in California. They are good food,
although the flesh of the large ones is very oily. The name horse-mackerel is
often given to these monsters on the New England coast. In California, the
Spanish name of tuna has become current among fisherman.
Very similar to the tuna, but much smaller, is the Albacore (Germo
alalonga). This reaches a weight of fifteen to thirty pounds, and is known
by its very long, almost ribbon-like pectoral fins. This species is common in
the Mediterranean, and about the Santa Barbara Islands, where it runs in
great schools in March. The flesh of the albacore is of little value, unless, as
Page 311
in Japan, it is eaten raw. The Japanese shibi (Germo germo) is another large
albacore, having the finlets bright yellow. It is found also at Hawaii.
The bonito (Sarda sarda) wanders far throughout the Atlantic, abounding
on our Atlantic coast as in the Mediterranean, coming inshore in summer to
spawn or feed. Its flesh is red and not very delicate, though it may be
reckoned as a fair food-fish. It is often served under the name of "Spanish
mackerel" to the injury of the reputation of the better fish.
Fig. 207.—The Long-fin Albacore, Germo alalunga (Gmelin). Gulf
Stream.
Professor Goode writes:
"One of these fishes is a marvel of beauty and strength. Every line in its
contour is suggestive of swift motion. The head is shaped like a minie
bullet, the jaws fit together so tightly that a knife-edge could scarcely pass
between, the eyes are hard, smooth, their surfaces on a perfect level with
the adjoining surfaces. The shoulders are heavy and strong, the contours of
the powerful masses of muscle gently and evenly merging into the
straighter lines in which the contour of the body slopes back to the tail. The
dorsal fin is placed in a groove into which it is received, like the blade of a
clasp-knife in its handle. The pectoral and ventral fins also fit into
depressions in the sides of the fish. Above and below, on the posterior third
of the body, are placed the little finlets, each a little rudder with independent
motions of its own, by which the course of the fish may be readily steered.
albacore, having the finlets bright yellow. It is found also at Hawaii.
The bonito (Sarda sarda) wanders far throughout the Atlantic, abounding
on our Atlantic coast as in the Mediterranean, coming inshore in summer to
spawn or feed. Its flesh is red and not very delicate, though it may be
reckoned as a fair food-fish. It is often served under the name of "Spanish
mackerel" to the injury of the reputation of the better fish.
Fig. 207.—The Long-fin Albacore, Germo alalunga (Gmelin). Gulf
Stream.
Professor Goode writes:
"One of these fishes is a marvel of beauty and strength. Every line in its
contour is suggestive of swift motion. The head is shaped like a minie
bullet, the jaws fit together so tightly that a knife-edge could scarcely pass
between, the eyes are hard, smooth, their surfaces on a perfect level with
the adjoining surfaces. The shoulders are heavy and strong, the contours of
the powerful masses of muscle gently and evenly merging into the
straighter lines in which the contour of the body slopes back to the tail. The
dorsal fin is placed in a groove into which it is received, like the blade of a
clasp-knife in its handle. The pectoral and ventral fins also fit into
depressions in the sides of the fish. Above and below, on the posterior third
of the body, are placed the little finlets, each a little rudder with independent
motions of its own, by which the course of the fish may be readily steered.
Page 312
The tail itself is a crescent-shaped oar, without flesh, almost without scales,
composed of bundles of rays flexible, yet almost as hard as ivory. A single
sweep of this powerful oar doubtless suffices to propel the bonito a hundred
yards, for the polished surfaces of its body can offer little resistance to the
water. I have seen a common dolphin swimming round and round a
steamship, advancing at the rate of twelve knots an hour, the effort being
hardly perceptible. The wild duck is said to fly seventy miles in an hour.
Who can calculate the speed of the bonito? It might be done by the aid of
the electrical contrivances by which is calculated the initial velocity of a
projectile. The bonitoes in our sounds to-day may have been passing Cape
Colony or the Land of Fire day before yesterday."
Another bonito, Sarda chilensis, is common in California; in Chile, and in
Japan. This species has fewer dorsal spines than the bonito of the Atlantic,
but the same size, coloration, and flesh. Both are blue, with undulating
black stripes along the side of the back.
The genus Scomberomorus includes mackerels slenderer in form, with
larger teeth, no corselet, and the flesh comparatively pale and free from oil.
Fig. 208.—The Spanish Mackerel, Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitchill).
New York.
Scomberomorus maculatus, the Spanish mackerel of the West Indies, is one
of the noblest of food-fishes. Its biography was written by Mitchill almost a
century ago in these words:
"A fine and beautiful fish; comes in July."
composed of bundles of rays flexible, yet almost as hard as ivory. A single
sweep of this powerful oar doubtless suffices to propel the bonito a hundred
yards, for the polished surfaces of its body can offer little resistance to the
water. I have seen a common dolphin swimming round and round a
steamship, advancing at the rate of twelve knots an hour, the effort being
hardly perceptible. The wild duck is said to fly seventy miles in an hour.
Who can calculate the speed of the bonito? It might be done by the aid of
the electrical contrivances by which is calculated the initial velocity of a
projectile. The bonitoes in our sounds to-day may have been passing Cape
Colony or the Land of Fire day before yesterday."
Another bonito, Sarda chilensis, is common in California; in Chile, and in
Japan. This species has fewer dorsal spines than the bonito of the Atlantic,
but the same size, coloration, and flesh. Both are blue, with undulating
black stripes along the side of the back.
The genus Scomberomorus includes mackerels slenderer in form, with
larger teeth, no corselet, and the flesh comparatively pale and free from oil.
Fig. 208.—The Spanish Mackerel, Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitchill).
New York.
Scomberomorus maculatus, the Spanish mackerel of the West Indies, is one
of the noblest of food-fishes. Its biography was written by Mitchill almost a
century ago in these words:
"A fine and beautiful fish; comes in July."
Page 313
Goode thus writes of it:
"The Spanish mackerel is surely one of the most graceful of fishes. It
appeals as scarcely any other can to our love of beauty, when we look upon
it, as shown in Kilbourn's well-known painting, darting like an arrow just
shot from the bow, its burnished sides, silver flecked with gold, thrown into
bold relief by the cool green background of the rippled sea; the transparent
grays, opalescent whites, and glossy blacks of its trembling fins enhance the
metallic splendor of its body, until it seems to rival the most brilliant of
tropical birds. Kilbourn made copies of his large painting on the pearly
linings of seashells and produced some wonderful effects by allowing the
natural luster of the mother-of-pearl to show through his transparent
pigments and simulate the brilliancy of the life-inspired hues of the
quivering, darting sea-sprite, whose charms even his potent brush could not
properly depict.
"It is a lover of the sun, a fish of tropical nature, which comes to us only in
midsummer, and which disappears with the approach of cold, to some
region not yet explored by ichthyologists. It is doubtless very familiar in
winter to the inhabitants of some region adjacent to the waters of the
Caribbean or the tropical Atlantic, but until this place shall have been
discovered it is more satisfactory to suppose that with the bluefish and the
mackerel it inhabits that hypothetical winter resort to which we send the
migratory fishes whose habits we do not understand—the middle strata of
the ocean, the floating beds of Sargassum, which drift hither and thither
under the alternate promptings of the Gulf-stream currents and the winter
winds."
The Spanish mackerel swims at the surface in moderate schools and is
caught in abundance from Cape May southward. Its white flesh is most
delicious, when properly grilled, and Spanish mackerel, like pampano,
should be cooked in no other way.
A very similar species, Scomberomorus sierra, occurs on the west coast of
Mexico. For some reason it is little valued as food by the Mexicans. In
California, the Monterey Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus concolor) is
equally excellent as a food-fish. This fish lacks the spots characteristic of
most of its relatives. It was first found in the Bay of Monterey, especially at
Santa Cruz and Soquel, in abundance in the autumn of 1879 and 1880. It
"The Spanish mackerel is surely one of the most graceful of fishes. It
appeals as scarcely any other can to our love of beauty, when we look upon
it, as shown in Kilbourn's well-known painting, darting like an arrow just
shot from the bow, its burnished sides, silver flecked with gold, thrown into
bold relief by the cool green background of the rippled sea; the transparent
grays, opalescent whites, and glossy blacks of its trembling fins enhance the
metallic splendor of its body, until it seems to rival the most brilliant of
tropical birds. Kilbourn made copies of his large painting on the pearly
linings of seashells and produced some wonderful effects by allowing the
natural luster of the mother-of-pearl to show through his transparent
pigments and simulate the brilliancy of the life-inspired hues of the
quivering, darting sea-sprite, whose charms even his potent brush could not
properly depict.
"It is a lover of the sun, a fish of tropical nature, which comes to us only in
midsummer, and which disappears with the approach of cold, to some
region not yet explored by ichthyologists. It is doubtless very familiar in
winter to the inhabitants of some region adjacent to the waters of the
Caribbean or the tropical Atlantic, but until this place shall have been
discovered it is more satisfactory to suppose that with the bluefish and the
mackerel it inhabits that hypothetical winter resort to which we send the
migratory fishes whose habits we do not understand—the middle strata of
the ocean, the floating beds of Sargassum, which drift hither and thither
under the alternate promptings of the Gulf-stream currents and the winter
winds."
The Spanish mackerel swims at the surface in moderate schools and is
caught in abundance from Cape May southward. Its white flesh is most
delicious, when properly grilled, and Spanish mackerel, like pampano,
should be cooked in no other way.
A very similar species, Scomberomorus sierra, occurs on the west coast of
Mexico. For some reason it is little valued as food by the Mexicans. In
California, the Monterey Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus concolor) is
equally excellent as a food-fish. This fish lacks the spots characteristic of
most of its relatives. It was first found in the Bay of Monterey, especially at
Santa Cruz and Soquel, in abundance in the autumn of 1879 and 1880. It
Page 314
has not, so far as is known, been seen since, nor is the species recorded
from any other coast.
The true Spanish mackerel has round, bronze-black spots upon its sides.
Almost exactly like it in appearance is the pintado, or sierra
(Scomberomorus regalis), but in this species the spots are oblong in form.
The pintado abounds in the West Indies. Its flesh is less delicate than that of
the more true Spanish mackerel. The name sierra, saw, commonly applied
to these fishes by Spanish-speaking people, has been corrupted into cero in
some books on angling.
Still other Spanish mackerel of several species occur on the coasts of India,
Chile, and Japan.
The great kingfish, or cavalla (Scomberomorus cavalla), is a huge Spanish
mackerel of Cuba and the West Indies, reaching a weight of 100 pounds. It
is dark iron-gray in color, one of the best of food-fishes, and is unspotted,
and its firm, rich flesh resembles that of the barracuda.
Still larger is the great guahu, or peto, an immense sharp-nosed, swift-
swimming mackerel found in the East and West Indies, as well as in
Polynesia, reaching a length of six feet and a weight of more than a hundred
pounds. Its large knife-like teeth are serrated on the edge and the color is
almost black. Acanthocybium solandri is the species found in Hawaii and
Japan. The American Acanthocybium petus, occasionally also taken in the
Mediterranean, may be the same species.
Fossil Spanish mackerels, tunnies, and albacores, as well as representatives
of related genera now extinct, abound in the Eocene and Miocene,
especially in northern Italy. Among them are Scomber antiquus from the
Miocene, Scombrinus macropomus from the Eocene London clays, much
like Scomber, but with stronger teeth, Sphyrænodus priscus from the same
deposits, the teeth still larger, Scombramphodon crossidens, from the same
deposits, also with strong teeth, like those of Scomberomorus.
Scomberomorus is the best represented of all the genera as fossil,
Scomberomorus speciosus and numerous other species occurring in the
Eocene. A fossil species of Germo, G. lanceolatus, occurs at Monte Bolca
in Eocene rocks. Another tunny, with very small teeth is Eothynnus
salmonens, from the lower Eocene near London. Several other tunny-like
fishes occur in the lower Tertiary.
from any other coast.
The true Spanish mackerel has round, bronze-black spots upon its sides.
Almost exactly like it in appearance is the pintado, or sierra
(Scomberomorus regalis), but in this species the spots are oblong in form.
The pintado abounds in the West Indies. Its flesh is less delicate than that of
the more true Spanish mackerel. The name sierra, saw, commonly applied
to these fishes by Spanish-speaking people, has been corrupted into cero in
some books on angling.
Still other Spanish mackerel of several species occur on the coasts of India,
Chile, and Japan.
The great kingfish, or cavalla (Scomberomorus cavalla), is a huge Spanish
mackerel of Cuba and the West Indies, reaching a weight of 100 pounds. It
is dark iron-gray in color, one of the best of food-fishes, and is unspotted,
and its firm, rich flesh resembles that of the barracuda.
Still larger is the great guahu, or peto, an immense sharp-nosed, swift-
swimming mackerel found in the East and West Indies, as well as in
Polynesia, reaching a length of six feet and a weight of more than a hundred
pounds. Its large knife-like teeth are serrated on the edge and the color is
almost black. Acanthocybium solandri is the species found in Hawaii and
Japan. The American Acanthocybium petus, occasionally also taken in the
Mediterranean, may be the same species.
Fossil Spanish mackerels, tunnies, and albacores, as well as representatives
of related genera now extinct, abound in the Eocene and Miocene,
especially in northern Italy. Among them are Scomber antiquus from the
Miocene, Scombrinus macropomus from the Eocene London clays, much
like Scomber, but with stronger teeth, Sphyrænodus priscus from the same
deposits, the teeth still larger, Scombramphodon crossidens, from the same
deposits, also with strong teeth, like those of Scomberomorus.
Scomberomorus is the best represented of all the genera as fossil,
Scomberomorus speciosus and numerous other species occurring in the
Eocene. A fossil species of Germo, G. lanceolatus, occurs at Monte Bolca
in Eocene rocks. Another tunny, with very small teeth is Eothynnus
salmonens, from the lower Eocene near London. Several other tunny-like
fishes occur in the lower Tertiary.
Page 315
The Escolars: Gempylidæ.—More predaceous than the mackerels and
tunnies are the pelagic mackerels, Gempylidæ, known as escolars
("scholars"), with the body almost band-shaped and the teeth very large and
sharp. Some of these, from the ocean depths, are violet-black in color, those
near the surface being silvery. Escolar violaceus lives in the abysses of the
Gulf Stream. Ruvettus pretiosus, the black escolar, lives in more moderate
depths and is often taken in Cuba, Madeira, Hawaii, and Japan. It is a very
large fish, black, with very rough scales. The flesh is white, soft, and full of
oil; sometimes rated very high, and at other times too rank to be edible. The
name escolar means scholar in Spanish, but its root meaning, as applied to
this fish, comes from a word meaning to scour, in allusion to the very rough
scales.
Promethichthys prometheus, the rabbit-fish, or conejo, so-called from its
wariness, is caught in the same regions, being especially common about
Madeira and Hawaii. Gempylus serpens, the snake-mackerel, is a still
slenderer and more voracious fish of the open seas. Thyrsites atun is the
Australian "barracuda," a valued food-fish, voracious and predaceous.
Scabbard-and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and Trichiuridæ.—The
family of Lepidopidæ, or scabbard-fishes, includes degenerate mackerels,
band-shaped, with continuous dorsal fin, and the long jaws armed with very
small teeth. These are found in the open sea, Lepidopus candatus being the
most common. This species reaches a length of five or six feet and comes to
different coasts occasionally to deposit its spawn. It lives in warm water and
is at once chilled by the least cold; hence the name of frostfish occasionally
applied to it. Several species of Lepidopus are fossil in the later Tertiary.
Lepidopus glarisianus occurs in the Swiss Oligocene, and with it
Thyrsitocephalus alpinus, which approaches more nearly to the Gempylidæ.
Still more degenerate are the Trichiuridæ, or cutlass-fishes, in which the
caudal fin is wanting, the tail ending in a hair-like filament. The species are
bright silvery in color, very slender, and very voracious, reaching a length
of three to five feet. Trichiurus lepturus is rather common on our Atlantic
coast. The names hairfish and silver-eel, among others, are often given to it.
Trichiurus japonicas, a very similar species, is common in Japan, and other
species inhabit the tropical seas. Trichiurichthys, a fossil genus with well-
developed scales, precedes Trichiurus in the Miocene.
tunnies are the pelagic mackerels, Gempylidæ, known as escolars
("scholars"), with the body almost band-shaped and the teeth very large and
sharp. Some of these, from the ocean depths, are violet-black in color, those
near the surface being silvery. Escolar violaceus lives in the abysses of the
Gulf Stream. Ruvettus pretiosus, the black escolar, lives in more moderate
depths and is often taken in Cuba, Madeira, Hawaii, and Japan. It is a very
large fish, black, with very rough scales. The flesh is white, soft, and full of
oil; sometimes rated very high, and at other times too rank to be edible. The
name escolar means scholar in Spanish, but its root meaning, as applied to
this fish, comes from a word meaning to scour, in allusion to the very rough
scales.
Promethichthys prometheus, the rabbit-fish, or conejo, so-called from its
wariness, is caught in the same regions, being especially common about
Madeira and Hawaii. Gempylus serpens, the snake-mackerel, is a still
slenderer and more voracious fish of the open seas. Thyrsites atun is the
Australian "barracuda," a valued food-fish, voracious and predaceous.
Scabbard-and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and Trichiuridæ.—The
family of Lepidopidæ, or scabbard-fishes, includes degenerate mackerels,
band-shaped, with continuous dorsal fin, and the long jaws armed with very
small teeth. These are found in the open sea, Lepidopus candatus being the
most common. This species reaches a length of five or six feet and comes to
different coasts occasionally to deposit its spawn. It lives in warm water and
is at once chilled by the least cold; hence the name of frostfish occasionally
applied to it. Several species of Lepidopus are fossil in the later Tertiary.
Lepidopus glarisianus occurs in the Swiss Oligocene, and with it
Thyrsitocephalus alpinus, which approaches more nearly to the Gempylidæ.
Still more degenerate are the Trichiuridæ, or cutlass-fishes, in which the
caudal fin is wanting, the tail ending in a hair-like filament. The species are
bright silvery in color, very slender, and very voracious, reaching a length
of three to five feet. Trichiurus lepturus is rather common on our Atlantic
coast. The names hairfish and silver-eel, among others, are often given to it.
Trichiurus japonicas, a very similar species, is common in Japan, and other
species inhabit the tropical seas. Trichiurichthys, a fossil genus with well-
developed scales, precedes Trichiurus in the Miocene.
Page 316
Fig. 209.—Cutlass-fish, Trichiurus lepturus Linnæus. St. Augustine, Fla.
The Palæorhynchidæ.—The extinct family of Palæorhynchidæ is found
from the Eocene to the Oligocene. It contains very long and slender fishes,
with long jaws and small teeth, the dorsal fin long and continuous. The
species resembles the Escolar on the one hand and the sailfishes on the
other, and they may prove to be ancestral to the Istiophoridæ.
Hemirhynchus deshayesi with the upper jaw twice as long as the lower,
sword-like, occurs in the Eocene at Paris; Palæorhynchum glarisianum,
with the jaws both elongate, the lower longest, is in the Oligocene of
Glarus. Several other species of both genera are recorded.
Fig. 210.—Palæorhynchus glarisianus Blainville. Oligocene. (After
Woodward.)
The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.—Remotely allied to the cutlass-fishes and
still nearer to the Palæorhynchidæ is the family of sailfishes, Istiophoridæ,
having the upper jaw prolonged into a sword made of consolidated bones.
The Palæorhynchidæ.—The extinct family of Palæorhynchidæ is found
from the Eocene to the Oligocene. It contains very long and slender fishes,
with long jaws and small teeth, the dorsal fin long and continuous. The
species resembles the Escolar on the one hand and the sailfishes on the
other, and they may prove to be ancestral to the Istiophoridæ.
Hemirhynchus deshayesi with the upper jaw twice as long as the lower,
sword-like, occurs in the Eocene at Paris; Palæorhynchum glarisianum,
with the jaws both elongate, the lower longest, is in the Oligocene of
Glarus. Several other species of both genera are recorded.
Fig. 210.—Palæorhynchus glarisianus Blainville. Oligocene. (After
Woodward.)
The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.—Remotely allied to the cutlass-fishes and
still nearer to the Palæorhynchidæ is the family of sailfishes, Istiophoridæ,
having the upper jaw prolonged into a sword made of consolidated bones.
Page 317
The teeth are very feeble and the ventral fins reduced to two or three rays.
The species are few in number, of large size, and very brilliant metallic
coloration, inhabiting the warm seas, moving northward in summer. They
are excellent as food, similar to the swordfish in this as in many other
respects. The species are not well known, being too large for museum
purposes, and no one having critically studied them in the field. Istiophorus
has the dorsal fin very high, like a great sail, and undivided; Istiophorus
nigricans is rather common about the Florida Keys, where it reaches a
length of six feet. Its great sail, blue with black spots, is a very striking
object. Closely related to this is Istiophorus orientalis of Japan and other
less known species of the East Indies.
Tetrapturus, the spearfish, has the dorsal fin low and divided into two parts.
Its species are taken in most warm seas, Tetrapturus imperator throughout
the Atlantic, Tetrapturus amplus in Cuba, Tetrapturus mitsukurii and
Tetrapturus mazara in Japan. These much resemble swordfish in form and
habits, and they have been known to strike boats in the same way.
Fossil Istiophoridæ are known only from fragments of the snout, in Europe
and America, referred provisionally to Istiophorus. The genus
Xiphiorhynchus, fossil swordfishes from the Eocene, known from the skull
only, may be referred to this family, as minute teeth are present in the jaws.
Xiphiorhynchus priscus is found in the London Eocene.
The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.—The family of swordfishes, Xiphiidæ,
consists of a single species, Xiphias gladius, of worldwide distribution in
the warm seas. The snout in the swordfish is still longer, more perfectly
consolidated, and a still more effective weapon of attack. The teeth are
wholly wanting, and there are no ventral fins, while the second of the two
fins on the back is reduced to a slight finlet.
Fig. 211.—Young Swordfish, Xiphias gladius (Linnæus). (After Lütken.)
The species are few in number, of large size, and very brilliant metallic
coloration, inhabiting the warm seas, moving northward in summer. They
are excellent as food, similar to the swordfish in this as in many other
respects. The species are not well known, being too large for museum
purposes, and no one having critically studied them in the field. Istiophorus
has the dorsal fin very high, like a great sail, and undivided; Istiophorus
nigricans is rather common about the Florida Keys, where it reaches a
length of six feet. Its great sail, blue with black spots, is a very striking
object. Closely related to this is Istiophorus orientalis of Japan and other
less known species of the East Indies.
Tetrapturus, the spearfish, has the dorsal fin low and divided into two parts.
Its species are taken in most warm seas, Tetrapturus imperator throughout
the Atlantic, Tetrapturus amplus in Cuba, Tetrapturus mitsukurii and
Tetrapturus mazara in Japan. These much resemble swordfish in form and
habits, and they have been known to strike boats in the same way.
Fossil Istiophoridæ are known only from fragments of the snout, in Europe
and America, referred provisionally to Istiophorus. The genus
Xiphiorhynchus, fossil swordfishes from the Eocene, known from the skull
only, may be referred to this family, as minute teeth are present in the jaws.
Xiphiorhynchus priscus is found in the London Eocene.
The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.—The family of swordfishes, Xiphiidæ,
consists of a single species, Xiphias gladius, of worldwide distribution in
the warm seas. The snout in the swordfish is still longer, more perfectly
consolidated, and a still more effective weapon of attack. The teeth are
wholly wanting, and there are no ventral fins, while the second of the two
fins on the back is reduced to a slight finlet.
Fig. 211.—Young Swordfish, Xiphias gladius (Linnæus). (After Lütken.)
Page 318
The swordfish follows the schools of mackerel to the New England coasts.
"Where you see swordfish, you may know that mackerel are about," Goode
quotes from an old fisherman. The swordfish swims near the surface,
allowing its dorsal fin to appear, as also the upper lobe of the caudal. It
often leaps out of the water, and none of all the fishes of the sea can swim
more swiftly.
Fig. 212.—Swordfish, Xiphias gladius (Linnæus). (After Day.)
"The pointed head," says Goode, "the fins of the back and abdomen snugly
fitting into grooves, the absence of ventrals, the long, lithe, muscular body,
sloping slowly to the tail, fit it for the most rapid and forcible movement
through the water. Prof. Richard Owen, testifying in an England court in
regard to its power, said:
"'It strikes with the accumulated force of fifteen double-handed hammers.
Its velocity is equal to that of a swivel-shot, and is as dangerous in its
effects as a heavy artillery projectile.'
"Many very curious instances are on record of the encounters of this fish
with other fishes, or of their attacks upon ships. What can be the
inducement for it to attack objects so much larger than itself it is hard to
surmise.
"It surely seems as if a temporary insanity sometimes takes possession of
the fish. It is not strange that, when harpooned, it should retaliate by
attacking its assailant. An old swordfish fisherman told Mr. Blackford that
his vessel had been struck twenty times. There are, however, many
"Where you see swordfish, you may know that mackerel are about," Goode
quotes from an old fisherman. The swordfish swims near the surface,
allowing its dorsal fin to appear, as also the upper lobe of the caudal. It
often leaps out of the water, and none of all the fishes of the sea can swim
more swiftly.
Fig. 212.—Swordfish, Xiphias gladius (Linnæus). (After Day.)
"The pointed head," says Goode, "the fins of the back and abdomen snugly
fitting into grooves, the absence of ventrals, the long, lithe, muscular body,
sloping slowly to the tail, fit it for the most rapid and forcible movement
through the water. Prof. Richard Owen, testifying in an England court in
regard to its power, said:
"'It strikes with the accumulated force of fifteen double-handed hammers.
Its velocity is equal to that of a swivel-shot, and is as dangerous in its
effects as a heavy artillery projectile.'
"Many very curious instances are on record of the encounters of this fish
with other fishes, or of their attacks upon ships. What can be the
inducement for it to attack objects so much larger than itself it is hard to
surmise.
"It surely seems as if a temporary insanity sometimes takes possession of
the fish. It is not strange that, when harpooned, it should retaliate by
attacking its assailant. An old swordfish fisherman told Mr. Blackford that
his vessel had been struck twenty times. There are, however, many
Page 319
instances of entirely unprovoked assault on vessels at sea. Many of these
are recounted in a later portion of this memoir. Their movements when
feeding are discussed below, as well as their alleged peculiarities of
movement during the breeding season.
"It is the universal testimony of our fishermen that two are never seen
swimming close together. Capt. Ashby says that they are always distant
from each other at least thirty or forty feet.
"The pugnacity of the swordfish has become a byword. Without any special
effort on my part numerous instances of their attacks upon vessels have in
the last ten years found their way into the pigeon-hole labeled 'Swordfish.'"
Swordfishes are common on both shores of the Atlantic wherever mackerel
run. They do not breed on our shores, but probably do so in the
Mediterranean and other warm seas. They are rare off the California coast,
but five records existing (Anacapa, Santa Barbara, Santa Catalina, San
Diego, off Cerros Island). The writer has seen two large individuals in the
market of Yokohama, but it is scarcely known in Japan. As a food-fish, the
swordfish is one of the best, its dark-colored oily flesh, though a little
coarse, making most excellent steaks. Its average weight on our coast is
about 300 pounds, the maximum 625.
The swordfish undergoes great change in the process of development, the
very young having the head armed with rough spines and in nowise
resembling the adult.
Fossil swordfishes are unknown, or perhaps cannot be distinguished from
remains of Istiophoridæ.
are recounted in a later portion of this memoir. Their movements when
feeding are discussed below, as well as their alleged peculiarities of
movement during the breeding season.
"It is the universal testimony of our fishermen that two are never seen
swimming close together. Capt. Ashby says that they are always distant
from each other at least thirty or forty feet.
"The pugnacity of the swordfish has become a byword. Without any special
effort on my part numerous instances of their attacks upon vessels have in
the last ten years found their way into the pigeon-hole labeled 'Swordfish.'"
Swordfishes are common on both shores of the Atlantic wherever mackerel
run. They do not breed on our shores, but probably do so in the
Mediterranean and other warm seas. They are rare off the California coast,
but five records existing (Anacapa, Santa Barbara, Santa Catalina, San
Diego, off Cerros Island). The writer has seen two large individuals in the
market of Yokohama, but it is scarcely known in Japan. As a food-fish, the
swordfish is one of the best, its dark-colored oily flesh, though a little
coarse, making most excellent steaks. Its average weight on our coast is
about 300 pounds, the maximum 625.
The swordfish undergoes great change in the process of development, the
very young having the head armed with rough spines and in nowise
resembling the adult.
Fossil swordfishes are unknown, or perhaps cannot be distinguished from
remains of Istiophoridæ.
Page 320
CHAPTER XVII
CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS
he Pampanos: Carangidæ.—We next take up the great family
of Pampanos, Carangidæ, distinguished from the Scombridæ
as a whole by the shorter, deeper body, the fewer and larger
vertebræ, and by the loss of the provision for swift movement
in the open sea characteristic of the mackerels and their
immediate allies. A simple mark of the Carangidæ is the presence of two
separate spines in front of the anal fin. These spines are joined to the fin in
the young. All of the species undergo considerable changes with age, and
almost all are silvery in color with metallic blue on the back.
Most like the true mackerel are the "leather-jackets," or "runners," forming
the genera Scomberoides and Oligoplites. Scomberoides of the Old World
has the body scaly, long, slender, and fitted for swift motion; Scomberoides
sancti-petri is a widely diffused species, and others are found in Polynesia.
In the New World genus Oligoplites the scales are reduced to linear ridges
imbedded in the skin at different angles. Oligoplites saurus is a common
dry and bony fish abounding in the West Indies and ranging north in
summer to Cape Cod.
Naucrates ductor, the pilot-fish, or romero, inhabits the open sea, being
taken—everywhere rarely—in Europe, the West Indies, Hawaii, and Japan.
It is marked by six black cross-bands. Its tail has a keel, and it reaches a
length of about two feet. In its development it undergoes considerable
change, its first dorsal fin being finally reduced to disconnected spines.
The amber-fishes, forming the genus Seriola, are rather robust fishes, with
the anal fin much shorter than the soft dorsal. The sides of the tail have a
low, smooth keel. From a yellow streak obliquely across the head in some
CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS
he Pampanos: Carangidæ.—We next take up the great family
of Pampanos, Carangidæ, distinguished from the Scombridæ
as a whole by the shorter, deeper body, the fewer and larger
vertebræ, and by the loss of the provision for swift movement
in the open sea characteristic of the mackerels and their
immediate allies. A simple mark of the Carangidæ is the presence of two
separate spines in front of the anal fin. These spines are joined to the fin in
the young. All of the species undergo considerable changes with age, and
almost all are silvery in color with metallic blue on the back.
Most like the true mackerel are the "leather-jackets," or "runners," forming
the genera Scomberoides and Oligoplites. Scomberoides of the Old World
has the body scaly, long, slender, and fitted for swift motion; Scomberoides
sancti-petri is a widely diffused species, and others are found in Polynesia.
In the New World genus Oligoplites the scales are reduced to linear ridges
imbedded in the skin at different angles. Oligoplites saurus is a common
dry and bony fish abounding in the West Indies and ranging north in
summer to Cape Cod.
Naucrates ductor, the pilot-fish, or romero, inhabits the open sea, being
taken—everywhere rarely—in Europe, the West Indies, Hawaii, and Japan.
It is marked by six black cross-bands. Its tail has a keel, and it reaches a
length of about two feet. In its development it undergoes considerable
change, its first dorsal fin being finally reduced to disconnected spines.
The amber-fishes, forming the genus Seriola, are rather robust fishes, with
the anal fin much shorter than the soft dorsal. The sides of the tail have a
low, smooth keel. From a yellow streak obliquely across the head in some
Page 321
species they receive their Spanish name of coronado. The species are
numerous, found in all warm seas, of fair quality as food, and range in
length from two to six feet.
Fig. 213.—Pilot-fish, Naucrates ductor (Linnæus). New Bedford, Mass.
Fig. 214.—Amber-fish, Seriola lalandi (Cuv. & Val.). Family Carangidæ.
Wood's Hole.
Seriola dorsalis is the noted yellow-tail of California, valued by anglers for
its game qualities. It comes to the Santa Barbara Islands in early summer.
Seriola zonata is the rudder-fish, or shark's pilot, common on our New
England coast. The banded young, abundant off Cape Cod, lose their marks
numerous, found in all warm seas, of fair quality as food, and range in
length from two to six feet.
Fig. 213.—Pilot-fish, Naucrates ductor (Linnæus). New Bedford, Mass.
Fig. 214.—Amber-fish, Seriola lalandi (Cuv. & Val.). Family Carangidæ.
Wood's Hole.
Seriola dorsalis is the noted yellow-tail of California, valued by anglers for
its game qualities. It comes to the Santa Barbara Islands in early summer.
Seriola zonata is the rudder-fish, or shark's pilot, common on our New
England coast. The banded young, abundant off Cape Cod, lose their marks
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with age. Seriola hippos is the "samson-fish" of Australia. Seriola lalandi is
the great amber-fish of the West Indies, occasionally venturing farther
northward, and Seriola dumerili the amber-jack, or coronado, of the
Mediterranean. The deep-bodied medregal (Seriola fasciata) is also taken in
the West Indies, as is also the high-finned Seriola rivoliana. Species very
similar to these occur in Hawaii and Japan, where they are known as Ao, or
bluefishes. Seriola lata is fossil in the mountains of Tuscany.
The runner, Elegatis bipinnulatus, differs from Seriola in having a finlet
behind dorsal and anal. It is found in almost all warm seas, ranging north
once in a while to Long Island.
The mackerel scads (Decapterus) have also a finlet, and on the posterior
part of the body the lateral line is shielded with bony plates. In size and
form these little fishes much resemble small mackerel, and they are much
valued as food wherever abundant. Decapterus punclatus, known also as
cigar-fish and round-robin, frequently visits our Atlantic coasts from the
West Indies, where it is abundant. Decapterus russelli is the Maruaji, highly
valued in Japan for its abundance, while Decapterus muroadsi is the
Japanese muroaji.
Fig. 215.—The Saurel, Trachurus trachurus (Linnæus). Newport, R. I.
Megalaspis cordyla abounds in the East Indies and Polynesia. It has many
finlets, and the bony plates on the lateral line are developed to an
the great amber-fish of the West Indies, occasionally venturing farther
northward, and Seriola dumerili the amber-jack, or coronado, of the
Mediterranean. The deep-bodied medregal (Seriola fasciata) is also taken in
the West Indies, as is also the high-finned Seriola rivoliana. Species very
similar to these occur in Hawaii and Japan, where they are known as Ao, or
bluefishes. Seriola lata is fossil in the mountains of Tuscany.
The runner, Elegatis bipinnulatus, differs from Seriola in having a finlet
behind dorsal and anal. It is found in almost all warm seas, ranging north
once in a while to Long Island.
The mackerel scads (Decapterus) have also a finlet, and on the posterior
part of the body the lateral line is shielded with bony plates. In size and
form these little fishes much resemble small mackerel, and they are much
valued as food wherever abundant. Decapterus punclatus, known also as
cigar-fish and round-robin, frequently visits our Atlantic coasts from the
West Indies, where it is abundant. Decapterus russelli is the Maruaji, highly
valued in Japan for its abundance, while Decapterus muroadsi is the
Japanese muroaji.
Fig. 215.—The Saurel, Trachurus trachurus (Linnæus). Newport, R. I.
Megalaspis cordyla abounds in the East Indies and Polynesia. It has many
finlets, and the bony plates on the lateral line are developed to an
Page 323
extraordinary degree.
In Trachurus the finlets are lost and the bony plates extend the whole length
of the lateral line. The species known as saurel and wrongly called horse-
mackerel are closely related and some of them very widely distributed.
Trachurus trachurus common in Europe, extends to Japan where it is the
abundant maaji. Trachurus mediterraneus is common in southern Europe
and Trachurus symmetricus in California. Trachurus picturatus of Madeira
is much the same as the last named, and there is much question as to the
right names and proper limits of all these species.
In Trachurops the bony plates are lacking on the anterior half of the body,
and there is a peculiar nick and projection on the lower part of the anterior
edge of the shoulder-girdle. Trachurops crumenophthalma, the goggler, or
big-eyed scad, ranges widely in the open sea and at Hawaii, as the Akule, is
the most highly valued because most abundant of the migratory fishes. At
Samoa it is equally abundant, the name being here Atule. Trachurops torva
is the meaji, or big-eyed scad, of the Japanese, always abundant.
Fig. 216.—Yellow Mackerel, Carangus chrysos (Mitchill). Wood's Hole.
To Caranx, Carangus, and a number of related genera, characterized by the
bony armature on the narrow caudal peduncle, a host of species may be
referred. These fishes, known as cavallas, hard-tails, jacks, etc., are broad-
In Trachurus the finlets are lost and the bony plates extend the whole length
of the lateral line. The species known as saurel and wrongly called horse-
mackerel are closely related and some of them very widely distributed.
Trachurus trachurus common in Europe, extends to Japan where it is the
abundant maaji. Trachurus mediterraneus is common in southern Europe
and Trachurus symmetricus in California. Trachurus picturatus of Madeira
is much the same as the last named, and there is much question as to the
right names and proper limits of all these species.
In Trachurops the bony plates are lacking on the anterior half of the body,
and there is a peculiar nick and projection on the lower part of the anterior
edge of the shoulder-girdle. Trachurops crumenophthalma, the goggler, or
big-eyed scad, ranges widely in the open sea and at Hawaii, as the Akule, is
the most highly valued because most abundant of the migratory fishes. At
Samoa it is equally abundant, the name being here Atule. Trachurops torva
is the meaji, or big-eyed scad, of the Japanese, always abundant.
Fig. 216.—Yellow Mackerel, Carangus chrysos (Mitchill). Wood's Hole.
To Caranx, Carangus, and a number of related genera, characterized by the
bony armature on the narrow caudal peduncle, a host of species may be
referred. These fishes, known as cavallas, hard-tails, jacks, etc., are broad-
Page 324
bodied, silvery or metallic black in color, and are found in all warm seas.
They usually move from the tropics northward in the fall in search of food
and are especially abundant on our Atlantic coast, in Polynesia, and in
Japan. About the Oceanic Islands they are resident, these being their chosen
spawning-grounds. In Hawaii and Samoa they form a large part of the food-
supply, the ulua (Carangus forsteri) and the malauli (Carangus
melampygus) being among the most valuable food-fishes, large in size and
excellent in flesh, unsurpassed in fish chowders. Of the American species
Carangus chrysos, called yellow mackerel, is the most abundant, ranging
from Cape Cod southward. This is an elongate species of moderate size.
The cavalla, or jiguagua, Carangus hippos, known by the black spot on the
opercle, with another on the pectoral fin, is a widely distributed species and
one of the largest of the tribe. Another important food-fish is the horse-eye-
jack, or jurel, Carangus latus, which is very similar to the species called
ulua in the Pacific. The black jack, or tiñosa, of Cuba, Carangus funebris, is
said to be often poisonous. This is a very large species, black in color, the
sale of which has been long forbidden in the markets of Havana. The young
of different species of Carangus are often found taking refuge under the
disk of jelly-fishes protected by the stinging feelers. The species of the
genus Carangus have well-developed teeth. In the restricted genus of
Caranx proper, the jaws are toothless. Caranx speciosus, golden with dark
cross-bands, is a large food-fish of the Pacific. Citula armata is another
widely distributed species, with some of the dorsal rays produced in long
filaments.
In Alectis ciliaris, the cobbler-fish, or threadfish, the armature of the tail is
very slight and each fin has some of its rays drawn out into long threads. In
the young these are very much longer than the body, but with age they wear
off and grow shorter, while the body becomes more elongate. In Vomer,
Selene, and Chloroscombrus the bony armature of the tail, feeble in Alectis,
by degrees entirely disappears.
Vomer setipinnis, the so-called moonfish, or jorobado, has the body greatly
elevated, compressed, and distorted, while the fins, growing shorter with
age, become finally very low. Selene vomer, the horse-head-fish, or look-
down (see Fig. 113, Vol. I), is similarly but even more distorted. The fins,
filamentous in the young, grow shorter with age, as in Vomer and Alectis.
The skeleton in these fishes is essentially like that of Carangus, the only
They usually move from the tropics northward in the fall in search of food
and are especially abundant on our Atlantic coast, in Polynesia, and in
Japan. About the Oceanic Islands they are resident, these being their chosen
spawning-grounds. In Hawaii and Samoa they form a large part of the food-
supply, the ulua (Carangus forsteri) and the malauli (Carangus
melampygus) being among the most valuable food-fishes, large in size and
excellent in flesh, unsurpassed in fish chowders. Of the American species
Carangus chrysos, called yellow mackerel, is the most abundant, ranging
from Cape Cod southward. This is an elongate species of moderate size.
The cavalla, or jiguagua, Carangus hippos, known by the black spot on the
opercle, with another on the pectoral fin, is a widely distributed species and
one of the largest of the tribe. Another important food-fish is the horse-eye-
jack, or jurel, Carangus latus, which is very similar to the species called
ulua in the Pacific. The black jack, or tiñosa, of Cuba, Carangus funebris, is
said to be often poisonous. This is a very large species, black in color, the
sale of which has been long forbidden in the markets of Havana. The young
of different species of Carangus are often found taking refuge under the
disk of jelly-fishes protected by the stinging feelers. The species of the
genus Carangus have well-developed teeth. In the restricted genus of
Caranx proper, the jaws are toothless. Caranx speciosus, golden with dark
cross-bands, is a large food-fish of the Pacific. Citula armata is another
widely distributed species, with some of the dorsal rays produced in long
filaments.
In Alectis ciliaris, the cobbler-fish, or threadfish, the armature of the tail is
very slight and each fin has some of its rays drawn out into long threads. In
the young these are very much longer than the body, but with age they wear
off and grow shorter, while the body becomes more elongate. In Vomer,
Selene, and Chloroscombrus the bony armature of the tail, feeble in Alectis,
by degrees entirely disappears.
Vomer setipinnis, the so-called moonfish, or jorobado, has the body greatly
elevated, compressed, and distorted, while the fins, growing shorter with
age, become finally very low. Selene vomer, the horse-head-fish, or look-
down (see Fig. 113, Vol. I), is similarly but even more distorted. The fins,
filamentous in the young, grow shorter with age, as in Vomer and Alectis.
The skeleton in these fishes is essentially like that of Carangus, the only
Page 325
difference lying in the compression and distortion of the bones.
Chloroscombrus contains the casabes, or bumpers, thin, dry, compressed
fish, of little value as food, the bony armature of the tail being wholly lost.
To the genus Trachinotus belong the pampanos, broad-bodied, silvery
fishes, toothless when adult, the bodies covered with small scales and with
no bony plates.
The true pampano, Trachinotus carolinus, is one of the finest of all food-
fishes, ranking with the Spanish mackerel and to be cooked in the same
way, only by broiling. The flesh is white, firm, and flaky, with a moderate
amount of delicate oil. It has no especial interest to the angler and it is not
abundant enough to be of great commercial importance, yet few fish bring
or deserve to bring higher prices in the markets of the epicures. The species
is most common along our Gulf coast, ranging northward along the
Carolinas as far as Cape Cod.
Fig. 217.—The Pampano, Trachinotus carolinus (Linnæus). Wood's Hole.
Pampano in Spanish means the leaf of the grape, from the broad body of the
fish. The spelling "pompano" should therefore be discouraged.
Chloroscombrus contains the casabes, or bumpers, thin, dry, compressed
fish, of little value as food, the bony armature of the tail being wholly lost.
To the genus Trachinotus belong the pampanos, broad-bodied, silvery
fishes, toothless when adult, the bodies covered with small scales and with
no bony plates.
The true pampano, Trachinotus carolinus, is one of the finest of all food-
fishes, ranking with the Spanish mackerel and to be cooked in the same
way, only by broiling. The flesh is white, firm, and flaky, with a moderate
amount of delicate oil. It has no especial interest to the angler and it is not
abundant enough to be of great commercial importance, yet few fish bring
or deserve to bring higher prices in the markets of the epicures. The species
is most common along our Gulf coast, ranging northward along the
Carolinas as far as Cape Cod.
Fig. 217.—The Pampano, Trachinotus carolinus (Linnæus). Wood's Hole.
Pampano in Spanish means the leaf of the grape, from the broad body of the
fish. The spelling "pompano" should therefore be discouraged.
Page 326
The other pampanos, of which there are several in tropical America and
Asia, are little esteemed, the flesh being dry and relatively flavorless.
Trachinotus palometa, the gaff-topsail pampano, has very high fins and its
sides have four black bands like the marks of a grill. The round pampano,
Trachinotus falcatus, is common southward, as is also the great pampano,
Trachinotus goodei, which reaches a length of three feet. Trachinotus
ovatus, a large deep-bodied pampano, is common in Polynesia and the East
Indies. No pampanos are found in Europe, but a related genus, Lichia,
contains species which much resemble them, but in which the body is more
elongate and the mouth larger.
Numerous fossils are referred to the Carangidæ with more or less certainty.
Aipichthys pretiosus and other species occur in the Cretaceous. These are
deep-bodied fishes resembling Seriola, having the falcate dorsal twice as
long as the anal and the ventral ridge with thickened scales. Vomeropsis
(longispina elongata, etc.), also from the Eocene, with rounded caudal, the
anterior dorsal rays greatly elongate, and the supraoccipital crest highly
developed, probably constitutes with it a distinct family, Vomeropsidæ.
Several species referable to Carangus are found in the Miocene. Archæus
glarisianus, resembling Carangus, but without scales so far as known, is
found in the Oligocene of Glarus; Seriola prisca and other species of
Seriola occur in the Eocene; Carangopsis brevis, etc., allied to Caranx, but
with the lateral line unarmed, is recorded from the Eocene of France and
Italy.
Ductor leptosomus from the Eocene of Monte Bolca resembles Naucrates;
Trachinotus tenuiceps is recorded from Monte Bolca, and a species of
uncertain relationship, called Pseudovomer minutus, with sixteen caudal
vertebræ is taken from the Miocene of Licata.
The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.—Very close to the Carangidæ, and
especially to the genus Seriola, is the small family of Nematistiidæ,
containing the papagallo, Nematistius pectoralis of the west coast of
Mexico. This large and beautiful fish has the general appearance of an
amber-fish, but the dorsal spines are produced in long filaments. The chief
character of the family is found in the excessive division of the rays of the
pectoral fins.
Asia, are little esteemed, the flesh being dry and relatively flavorless.
Trachinotus palometa, the gaff-topsail pampano, has very high fins and its
sides have four black bands like the marks of a grill. The round pampano,
Trachinotus falcatus, is common southward, as is also the great pampano,
Trachinotus goodei, which reaches a length of three feet. Trachinotus
ovatus, a large deep-bodied pampano, is common in Polynesia and the East
Indies. No pampanos are found in Europe, but a related genus, Lichia,
contains species which much resemble them, but in which the body is more
elongate and the mouth larger.
Numerous fossils are referred to the Carangidæ with more or less certainty.
Aipichthys pretiosus and other species occur in the Cretaceous. These are
deep-bodied fishes resembling Seriola, having the falcate dorsal twice as
long as the anal and the ventral ridge with thickened scales. Vomeropsis
(longispina elongata, etc.), also from the Eocene, with rounded caudal, the
anterior dorsal rays greatly elongate, and the supraoccipital crest highly
developed, probably constitutes with it a distinct family, Vomeropsidæ.
Several species referable to Carangus are found in the Miocene. Archæus
glarisianus, resembling Carangus, but without scales so far as known, is
found in the Oligocene of Glarus; Seriola prisca and other species of
Seriola occur in the Eocene; Carangopsis brevis, etc., allied to Caranx, but
with the lateral line unarmed, is recorded from the Eocene of France and
Italy.
Ductor leptosomus from the Eocene of Monte Bolca resembles Naucrates;
Trachinotus tenuiceps is recorded from Monte Bolca, and a species of
uncertain relationship, called Pseudovomer minutus, with sixteen caudal
vertebræ is taken from the Miocene of Licata.
The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.—Very close to the Carangidæ, and
especially to the genus Seriola, is the small family of Nematistiidæ,
containing the papagallo, Nematistius pectoralis of the west coast of
Mexico. This large and beautiful fish has the general appearance of an
amber-fish, but the dorsal spines are produced in long filaments. The chief
character of the family is found in the excessive division of the rays of the
pectoral fins.
Page 327
The Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.—Allied to the Carangidæ is the family
of bluefishes (Cheilodipteridæ, or Pomatomidæ). The single species
Cheilodipterus saltatrix, or Pomatomus saltatrix, known as the bluefish, is a
large, swift, extremely voracious fish, common throughout most of the
warmer parts of the Atlantic, but very irregularly distributed on the various
coasts. Its distribution is doubtless related to its food. It is more abundant on
our Eastern coast than anywhere else, and its chief food here is the
menhaden. The bluefish differs from the Carangidæ mainly in its larger
scales, and in a slight serration of the bones of the head. Its flesh is tender
and easily torn. As a food-fish, rich, juicy, and delicate, it has few superiors.
Its maximum weight is from twelve to twenty pounds, but most of those
taken are much smaller. It is one of the most voracious of all fish.
Concerning this, Professor Baird observes:
Fig. 218.—Bluefish, Cheilodipterus saltatrix (L.). New York.
"There is no parallel in point of destructiveness to the bluefish among the
marine species on our coast, whatever may be the case among some of the
carnivorous fish of the South American waters. The bluefish has been well
likened to an animated chopping-machine the business of which is to cut to
pieces and otherwise destroy as many fish as possible in a given space of
time. All writers are unanimous in regard to the destructiveness of the
bluefish. Going in large schools in pursuit of fish not much inferior to
themselves in size, they move along like a pack of hungry wolves,
destroying everything before them. Their trail is marked by fragments of
fish and by the stain of blood in the sea, as, where the fish is too large to be
of bluefishes (Cheilodipteridæ, or Pomatomidæ). The single species
Cheilodipterus saltatrix, or Pomatomus saltatrix, known as the bluefish, is a
large, swift, extremely voracious fish, common throughout most of the
warmer parts of the Atlantic, but very irregularly distributed on the various
coasts. Its distribution is doubtless related to its food. It is more abundant on
our Eastern coast than anywhere else, and its chief food here is the
menhaden. The bluefish differs from the Carangidæ mainly in its larger
scales, and in a slight serration of the bones of the head. Its flesh is tender
and easily torn. As a food-fish, rich, juicy, and delicate, it has few superiors.
Its maximum weight is from twelve to twenty pounds, but most of those
taken are much smaller. It is one of the most voracious of all fish.
Concerning this, Professor Baird observes:
Fig. 218.—Bluefish, Cheilodipterus saltatrix (L.). New York.
"There is no parallel in point of destructiveness to the bluefish among the
marine species on our coast, whatever may be the case among some of the
carnivorous fish of the South American waters. The bluefish has been well
likened to an animated chopping-machine the business of which is to cut to
pieces and otherwise destroy as many fish as possible in a given space of
time. All writers are unanimous in regard to the destructiveness of the
bluefish. Going in large schools in pursuit of fish not much inferior to
themselves in size, they move along like a pack of hungry wolves,
destroying everything before them. Their trail is marked by fragments of
fish and by the stain of blood in the sea, as, where the fish is too large to be
Page 328
swallowed entire, the hinder portion will be bitten off and the anterior part
allowed to float away or sink. It is even maintained with great earnestness
that such is the gluttony of the fish, that when the stomach becomes full the
contents are disgorged and then again filled. It is certain that it kills many
more fish than it requires for its own support.
"The youngest fish, equally with the older, perform this function of
destruction, and although they occasionally devour crabs, worms, etc., the
bulk of their sustenance throughout the greater part of the year is derived
from other fish. Nothing is more common than to find a small bluefish of
six or eight inches in length under a school of minnows making continual
dashes and captures among them. The stomachs of the bluefish of all sizes,
with rare exceptions, are found loaded with the other fish, sometimes to the
number of thirty or forty, either entire or in fragments.
"As already referred to, it must also be borne in mind that it is not merely
the small fry that are thus devoured, and which it is expected will fall a prey
to other animals, but that the food of the bluefish consists very largely of
individuals which have already passed a large percentage of the chances
against their reaching maturity, many of them, indeed, having arrived at the
period of spawning. To make the case more clear, let us realize for a
moment the number of bluefish that exist on our coast in the summer
season. As far as I can ascertain by the statistics obtained at the fishing-
stations on the New England coast, as also from the records of the New
York markets, kindly furnished by Middleton & Carman, of the Fulton
Market, the capture of bluefish from New Jersey to Monomoy during the
season amounts to no less than one million individuals, averaging five or
six pounds each. Those, however, who have seen the bluefish in his native
waters and realized the immense numbers there existing will be quite
willing to admit that probably not one fish in a thousand is ever taken by
man. If, therefore, we have an actual capture of one million, we may allow
one thousand millions as occurring in the extent of our coasts referred to,
even neglecting the smaller ones, which, perhaps, should also be taken into
account.
"An allowance of ten fish per day to each bluefish is not excessive,
according to the testimony elicited from the fishermen and substantiated by
the stomachs of those examined; this gives ten thousand millions of fish
destroyed per day. And as the period of the stay of the bluefish on the New
allowed to float away or sink. It is even maintained with great earnestness
that such is the gluttony of the fish, that when the stomach becomes full the
contents are disgorged and then again filled. It is certain that it kills many
more fish than it requires for its own support.
"The youngest fish, equally with the older, perform this function of
destruction, and although they occasionally devour crabs, worms, etc., the
bulk of their sustenance throughout the greater part of the year is derived
from other fish. Nothing is more common than to find a small bluefish of
six or eight inches in length under a school of minnows making continual
dashes and captures among them. The stomachs of the bluefish of all sizes,
with rare exceptions, are found loaded with the other fish, sometimes to the
number of thirty or forty, either entire or in fragments.
"As already referred to, it must also be borne in mind that it is not merely
the small fry that are thus devoured, and which it is expected will fall a prey
to other animals, but that the food of the bluefish consists very largely of
individuals which have already passed a large percentage of the chances
against their reaching maturity, many of them, indeed, having arrived at the
period of spawning. To make the case more clear, let us realize for a
moment the number of bluefish that exist on our coast in the summer
season. As far as I can ascertain by the statistics obtained at the fishing-
stations on the New England coast, as also from the records of the New
York markets, kindly furnished by Middleton & Carman, of the Fulton
Market, the capture of bluefish from New Jersey to Monomoy during the
season amounts to no less than one million individuals, averaging five or
six pounds each. Those, however, who have seen the bluefish in his native
waters and realized the immense numbers there existing will be quite
willing to admit that probably not one fish in a thousand is ever taken by
man. If, therefore, we have an actual capture of one million, we may allow
one thousand millions as occurring in the extent of our coasts referred to,
even neglecting the smaller ones, which, perhaps, should also be taken into
account.
"An allowance of ten fish per day to each bluefish is not excessive,
according to the testimony elicited from the fishermen and substantiated by
the stomachs of those examined; this gives ten thousand millions of fish
destroyed per day. And as the period of the stay of the bluefish on the New
Page 329
England coast is at least one hundred and twenty days, we have in round
numbers twelve hundred million millions of fish devoured in the course of a
season. Again, if each bluefish, averaging five pounds, devours or destroys
even half its own weight of other fish per day (and I am not sure that the
estimate of some witnesses of twice this weight is not more nearly correct),
we will have, during the same period, a daily loss of twenty-five hundred
million pounds, equal to three hundred thousand millions for the season.
"This estimate applies to three or four year old fish of at least three to five
pounds in weight. We must, however, allow for those of smaller size, and a
hundred-fold or more in number, all engaged simultaneously in the butchery
referred to.
"We can scarcely conceive of a number so vast; and however much we may
diminish, within reason, the estimate of the number of bluefish and the
average of their capture, there still remains an appalling aggregate of
destruction. While the smallest bluefish feed upon the diminutive fry, those
of which we have taken account capture fish of large size, many of them, if
not capable of reproduction, being within at least one or two years of that
period.
"It is estimated by very good authority that of the spawn deposited by any
fish at a given time not more than 30 per cent. are hatched, and that less
than 10 per cent. attain an age when they are able to take care of
themselves. As their age increases the chances of reaching maturity become
greater and greater. It is among the small residuum of this class that the
agency of the bluefish is exercised and whatever reasonable reduction may
be made in our estimate, we cannot doubt that they exert a material
influence.
"The rate of growth of the bluefish is also an evidence of the immense
amount of food they must consume. The young fish which first appear
along the shores of Vineyard Sound, about the middle of August, are about
five inches in length. By the beginning of September, however, they have
reached six or seven inches, and on their reappearance in the second year
they measure about twelve or fifteen inches. After this they increase in a
still more rapid ratio. A fish which passes eastward from Vineyard Sound in
the spring weighing five pounds is represented, according to the general
impression, by the ten to fifteen-pound fish of the autumn. If this be the
numbers twelve hundred million millions of fish devoured in the course of a
season. Again, if each bluefish, averaging five pounds, devours or destroys
even half its own weight of other fish per day (and I am not sure that the
estimate of some witnesses of twice this weight is not more nearly correct),
we will have, during the same period, a daily loss of twenty-five hundred
million pounds, equal to three hundred thousand millions for the season.
"This estimate applies to three or four year old fish of at least three to five
pounds in weight. We must, however, allow for those of smaller size, and a
hundred-fold or more in number, all engaged simultaneously in the butchery
referred to.
"We can scarcely conceive of a number so vast; and however much we may
diminish, within reason, the estimate of the number of bluefish and the
average of their capture, there still remains an appalling aggregate of
destruction. While the smallest bluefish feed upon the diminutive fry, those
of which we have taken account capture fish of large size, many of them, if
not capable of reproduction, being within at least one or two years of that
period.
"It is estimated by very good authority that of the spawn deposited by any
fish at a given time not more than 30 per cent. are hatched, and that less
than 10 per cent. attain an age when they are able to take care of
themselves. As their age increases the chances of reaching maturity become
greater and greater. It is among the small residuum of this class that the
agency of the bluefish is exercised and whatever reasonable reduction may
be made in our estimate, we cannot doubt that they exert a material
influence.
"The rate of growth of the bluefish is also an evidence of the immense
amount of food they must consume. The young fish which first appear
along the shores of Vineyard Sound, about the middle of August, are about
five inches in length. By the beginning of September, however, they have
reached six or seven inches, and on their reappearance in the second year
they measure about twelve or fifteen inches. After this they increase in a
still more rapid ratio. A fish which passes eastward from Vineyard Sound in
the spring weighing five pounds is represented, according to the general
impression, by the ten to fifteen-pound fish of the autumn. If this be the
Page 330
fact, the fish of three or four pounds which pass along the coast of North
Carolina in March return to it in October weighing ten to fifteen pounds.
"As already explained, the relationship of these fish to the other inhabitants
of the sea is that of an unmitigated butcher; and it is able to contend
successfully with any other species not superior to itself in size. It is not
known whether an entire school ever unite in an attack upon a particular
object of prey, as is said to be the case with the ferocious fishes of the South
American rivers; should they do so, no animal, however large, could
withstand their onslaught.
"They appear to eat anything that swims of suitable size—fish of all kinds,
but perhaps more especially the menhaden, which they seem to follow
along the coast, and which they attack with such ferocity as to drive them
on the shore, where they are sometimes piled up in windrows to the depth
of a foot or more."
The Sergeant-fishes: Rachycentridæ.—The Rachycentridæ, or sergeant-
fishes, are large, strong, swift, voracious shore fishes, with large mouths
and small teeth, ranging northward from the warm seas. The dorsal spines
are short and stout, separate from the fin, and the body is almost cylindrical,
somewhat like that of the pike.
Fig. 219.—Sergeant-fish, Rachycentron canadum (Linnæus). Virginia.
Rachycentron canadum, called cobia, crab-eater, snooks, or sergeant-fish,
reaches a length of about five feet. The last name is supposed to allude to
the black stripe along its side, like the stripe on a sergeant's trousers. It is
Carolina in March return to it in October weighing ten to fifteen pounds.
"As already explained, the relationship of these fish to the other inhabitants
of the sea is that of an unmitigated butcher; and it is able to contend
successfully with any other species not superior to itself in size. It is not
known whether an entire school ever unite in an attack upon a particular
object of prey, as is said to be the case with the ferocious fishes of the South
American rivers; should they do so, no animal, however large, could
withstand their onslaught.
"They appear to eat anything that swims of suitable size—fish of all kinds,
but perhaps more especially the menhaden, which they seem to follow
along the coast, and which they attack with such ferocity as to drive them
on the shore, where they are sometimes piled up in windrows to the depth
of a foot or more."
The Sergeant-fishes: Rachycentridæ.—The Rachycentridæ, or sergeant-
fishes, are large, strong, swift, voracious shore fishes, with large mouths
and small teeth, ranging northward from the warm seas. The dorsal spines
are short and stout, separate from the fin, and the body is almost cylindrical,
somewhat like that of the pike.
Fig. 219.—Sergeant-fish, Rachycentron canadum (Linnæus). Virginia.
Rachycentron canadum, called cobia, crab-eater, snooks, or sergeant-fish,
reaches a length of about five feet. The last name is supposed to allude to
the black stripe along its side, like the stripe on a sergeant's trousers. It is
Page 331
rather common in summer along our Atlantic coast as far as Cape Cod,
especially in Chesapeake Bay. Rachycentron pondicerrianum, equally
voracious, extends its summer depredations as far as Japan. The more
familiar name for these fishes, Elacate, is of later date than Rachycentron.
Mr. Prime thus speaks of the crab-eater as a game-fish:
"In shape he may be roughly likened to the great northern pike, with a
similar head, flattened on the forehead. He is dark green on the back,
growing lighter on the sides, but the distinguishing characteristic is a broad,
dark collar over the neck, from which two black stripes or straps, parting on
the shoulders, extend, one on each side, to the tail. He looks as if harnessed
with a pair of traces, and his behavior on a fly-rod is that of a wild horse.
The first one that I struck, in the brackish water of Hillsborough River at
Tampa, gave me a hitherto unknown sensation. The tremendous rush was
not unfamiliar, but when the fierce fellow took the top of the water and
went along lashing it with his tail, swift as a bullet, then descended, and
with a short, sharp, electric shock left the line to come home free, I was for
an instant confounded. It was all over in ten seconds. Nearly every fish that
I struck after this behaved in the same way, and after I had got 'the hang of
them' I took a great many."
The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.—The butter-fishes (Stromateidæ) form a
large group of small fishes with short, compressed bodies, smooth scales,
feeble spines, the vertebræ in increased number and especially
characterized by the presence of a series of tooth-like processes in the
œsophagus behind the pharyngeals. The ventral fins present in the young
are often lost in the process of development.
According to Mr. Regan, the pelvic bones are very loosely attached to the
shoulder-girdle as in the extinct genera Platycormus and Homosoma. This
is perhaps a primitive feature, indicating the line of descent of these fishes
from berycoid forms.
We unite with the Stromateidæ the groups or families of Centrolophidæ and
Nomeidæ, knowing no characters by which to separate them.
Stromateus fiatola, the fiatola of the Italian fishermen, is an excellent food-
fish of the Mediterranean. Poronotus triacanthus, the harvest-fish, or dollar-
fish, of our Atlantic coast, is a common little silvery fish six to ten inches,
especially in Chesapeake Bay. Rachycentron pondicerrianum, equally
voracious, extends its summer depredations as far as Japan. The more
familiar name for these fishes, Elacate, is of later date than Rachycentron.
Mr. Prime thus speaks of the crab-eater as a game-fish:
"In shape he may be roughly likened to the great northern pike, with a
similar head, flattened on the forehead. He is dark green on the back,
growing lighter on the sides, but the distinguishing characteristic is a broad,
dark collar over the neck, from which two black stripes or straps, parting on
the shoulders, extend, one on each side, to the tail. He looks as if harnessed
with a pair of traces, and his behavior on a fly-rod is that of a wild horse.
The first one that I struck, in the brackish water of Hillsborough River at
Tampa, gave me a hitherto unknown sensation. The tremendous rush was
not unfamiliar, but when the fierce fellow took the top of the water and
went along lashing it with his tail, swift as a bullet, then descended, and
with a short, sharp, electric shock left the line to come home free, I was for
an instant confounded. It was all over in ten seconds. Nearly every fish that
I struck after this behaved in the same way, and after I had got 'the hang of
them' I took a great many."
The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.—The butter-fishes (Stromateidæ) form a
large group of small fishes with short, compressed bodies, smooth scales,
feeble spines, the vertebræ in increased number and especially
characterized by the presence of a series of tooth-like processes in the
œsophagus behind the pharyngeals. The ventral fins present in the young
are often lost in the process of development.
According to Mr. Regan, the pelvic bones are very loosely attached to the
shoulder-girdle as in the extinct genera Platycormus and Homosoma. This
is perhaps a primitive feature, indicating the line of descent of these fishes
from berycoid forms.
We unite with the Stromateidæ the groups or families of Centrolophidæ and
Nomeidæ, knowing no characters by which to separate them.
Stromateus fiatola, the fiatola of the Italian fishermen, is an excellent food-
fish of the Mediterranean. Poronotus triacanthus, the harvest-fish, or dollar-
fish, of our Atlantic coast, is a common little silvery fish six to ten inches,
Page 332
as bright and almost as round as a dollar. Its tender oily flesh has an
excellent flavor. Very similar to it is the poppy-fish (Palometa simillima) of
the sandy shores of California, miscalled the "California pampano," valued
by the San Francisco epicure, who pays large prices for it supposing it to be
pampano, although admitting that the pampano in New Orleans has firmer
flesh and better flavor. The harvest-fish, Peprilus paru, frequently taken on
our Atlantic coast, is known by its very high fins. Stromateoides argenteus,
a much larger fish than any of these, is a very important species on the
coasts of China.
Fig. 220.—Harvest-fish, Peprilus paru (Linnæus). Virginia.
Psenopsis anomala takes the place of our butter-fishes in Japan, and much
resembles them in appearance as in flavor.
excellent flavor. Very similar to it is the poppy-fish (Palometa simillima) of
the sandy shores of California, miscalled the "California pampano," valued
by the San Francisco epicure, who pays large prices for it supposing it to be
pampano, although admitting that the pampano in New Orleans has firmer
flesh and better flavor. The harvest-fish, Peprilus paru, frequently taken on
our Atlantic coast, is known by its very high fins. Stromateoides argenteus,
a much larger fish than any of these, is a very important species on the
coasts of China.
Fig. 220.—Harvest-fish, Peprilus paru (Linnæus). Virginia.
Psenopsis anomala takes the place of our butter-fishes in Japan, and much
resembles them in appearance as in flavor.
Page 333
To the Stromateidæ we also refer the black ruff of Europe, Centrolophus
niger, an interesting deep-sea fish rarely straying to our coast. Allied to it is
the black rudder-fish, Palinurichthys perciformis, common on the
Massachusetts coast, where it is of some value as a food-fish. A specimen in
a live-box once drifted to the coast of Cornwall, where it was taken
uninjured, though doubtless hungry. Other species of ruff-and rudder-fish
are recorded from various coasts.
Allied to the Stromateidæ are numerous fossil forms. Omosoma sachelalmæ
and other species occur in the Cretaceous at Mount Lebanon. Platycormus
germanus, with ctenoid scales resembling a berycoid, but with the ventral
rays I, 5, occurs in the Upper Cretaceous. Closely related to this is
Berycopsis elegans, with smoother scales, from the English Chalk.
Gobiomorus gronovii (usually called Nomeus gronovii), the Portuguese
man-of-war-fish, is a neat little fish about three inches long, common in the
Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf Stream, where it hides from its enemies
among the poisoned tentacles of the Portuguese man-of-war. Under the
Portuguese man-of-war and also in or under large jelly-fishes several other
species are found, notably Carangus medusicola and Peprilus paru. Many
small species of Psenes, a related genus, also abound in the warm currents
from tropical seas.
The Rag-fishes: Icosteidæ.—Allied to the butter-fishes are the deep-water
Icosteidæ, fishes of soft, limp bodies as unresistant as a wet rag, Icosteus
ænigmaticus of the California coast being known as ragfish. Schedophilus
medusophagus feeds on medusæ and salpa, living on the surface in the deep
seas. Mr. Ogilby thus speaks of a specimen taken in Ireland:
"It was the most delicate adult fish I ever handled; within twenty-four hours
after its capture the skin of the belly and the intestines fell off when it was
lifted, and it felt in the hand quite soft and boneless." A related species (S.
heathi) has been lately taken by Dr. Charles H. Gilbert at Monterey in
California.
The family of Acrotidæ contains a single species of large size. Acrotus
willoughbyi, allied to Icosteus, but without ventral fins and with the
vertebræ very numerous. The type, five and one-quarter feet long, was
thrown by a storm on the coast of Washington, near the Quinnault agency.
niger, an interesting deep-sea fish rarely straying to our coast. Allied to it is
the black rudder-fish, Palinurichthys perciformis, common on the
Massachusetts coast, where it is of some value as a food-fish. A specimen in
a live-box once drifted to the coast of Cornwall, where it was taken
uninjured, though doubtless hungry. Other species of ruff-and rudder-fish
are recorded from various coasts.
Allied to the Stromateidæ are numerous fossil forms. Omosoma sachelalmæ
and other species occur in the Cretaceous at Mount Lebanon. Platycormus
germanus, with ctenoid scales resembling a berycoid, but with the ventral
rays I, 5, occurs in the Upper Cretaceous. Closely related to this is
Berycopsis elegans, with smoother scales, from the English Chalk.
Gobiomorus gronovii (usually called Nomeus gronovii), the Portuguese
man-of-war-fish, is a neat little fish about three inches long, common in the
Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf Stream, where it hides from its enemies
among the poisoned tentacles of the Portuguese man-of-war. Under the
Portuguese man-of-war and also in or under large jelly-fishes several other
species are found, notably Carangus medusicola and Peprilus paru. Many
small species of Psenes, a related genus, also abound in the warm currents
from tropical seas.
The Rag-fishes: Icosteidæ.—Allied to the butter-fishes are the deep-water
Icosteidæ, fishes of soft, limp bodies as unresistant as a wet rag, Icosteus
ænigmaticus of the California coast being known as ragfish. Schedophilus
medusophagus feeds on medusæ and salpa, living on the surface in the deep
seas. Mr. Ogilby thus speaks of a specimen taken in Ireland:
"It was the most delicate adult fish I ever handled; within twenty-four hours
after its capture the skin of the belly and the intestines fell off when it was
lifted, and it felt in the hand quite soft and boneless." A related species (S.
heathi) has been lately taken by Dr. Charles H. Gilbert at Monterey in
California.
The family of Acrotidæ contains a single species of large size. Acrotus
willoughbyi, allied to Icosteus, but without ventral fins and with the
vertebræ very numerous. The type, five and one-quarter feet long, was
thrown by a storm on the coast of Washington, near the Quinnault agency.
Page 334
The family of Zaproridæ contains
also a single large species,
Zaprora silenus, without ventrals,
but scaly and firm in substance.
One specimen 2½ feet long was
taken at Nanaimo on Vancouver
Island and a smaller one at
Victoria.
The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.—The
Bramidæ are broad-bodied fishes
of the open seas, covered with firm
adherent scales. The flesh is firm
and the skeleton heavy, the
hypercoracoid especially much
dilated. Of the various species the
pomfret, or black bream (Brama
raii), is the best known and most
widely diffused. It reaches a length
of two to four feet and is sooty
black in color. It is not rare in
Europe and has been occasionally
taken at Grand Bank off
Newfoundland, at the Bermudas,
off the coast of Washington, on
Santa Catalina Island, and in
Japan. It is an excellent food-fish,
but is seldom seen unless driven
ashore by storms. Fig. 221.—Portuguese Man-of-war
Fish, Gobiomorus gronovii. Family
Steinegeria rubescens of the Gulf Stromateidæ.
of Mexico is a little-known deep-
sea fish allied to Brama, but
placed by Jordan and Evermann in a distinct family, Steinegeriidæ.
Closely related to the Bramidæ is the small family of Pteraclidæ, silvery
fishes with large firm scales, living near the surface in the ocean currents. In
these fishes the ventral fins are placed well forward, fairly to be called
jugular, and the rays of the dorsal and anal, all inarticulate or spine-like, are
also a single large species,
Zaprora silenus, without ventrals,
but scaly and firm in substance.
One specimen 2½ feet long was
taken at Nanaimo on Vancouver
Island and a smaller one at
Victoria.
The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.—The
Bramidæ are broad-bodied fishes
of the open seas, covered with firm
adherent scales. The flesh is firm
and the skeleton heavy, the
hypercoracoid especially much
dilated. Of the various species the
pomfret, or black bream (Brama
raii), is the best known and most
widely diffused. It reaches a length
of two to four feet and is sooty
black in color. It is not rare in
Europe and has been occasionally
taken at Grand Bank off
Newfoundland, at the Bermudas,
off the coast of Washington, on
Santa Catalina Island, and in
Japan. It is an excellent food-fish,
but is seldom seen unless driven
ashore by storms. Fig. 221.—Portuguese Man-of-war
Fish, Gobiomorus gronovii. Family
Steinegeria rubescens of the Gulf Stromateidæ.
of Mexico is a little-known deep-
sea fish allied to Brama, but
placed by Jordan and Evermann in a distinct family, Steinegeriidæ.
Closely related to the Bramidæ is the small family of Pteraclidæ, silvery
fishes with large firm scales, living near the surface in the ocean currents. In
these fishes the ventral fins are placed well forward, fairly to be called
jugular, and the rays of the dorsal and anal, all inarticulate or spine-like, are
Page 335
excessively prolonged. The species, none of them well known, are referred
to four genera—Pteraclis, Bentenia, Centropholis, and Velifer. They are
occasionally taken in ocean currents, chiefly about Japan and Madeira.
Fossil forms more or less remotely allied to the Bramidæ are recorded from
the Eocene and Miocene. Among these are Acanthonemus, and perhaps
Pseudovomer.
The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.—The dolphins, or dorados (Coryphænidæ),
are large, swift sea-fishes, with elongate, compressed bodies, elevated
heads, sharp like the cut-water of a boat, and with the caudal fin very
strong. The long dorsal fin, elevated like a crest on the head, is without
spines. The high forehead characteristic of the dolphin is developed only in
the adult male. The flesh of the dolphin is valued as food. Its colors, golden-
blue with deep-blue spots, fade rapidly at death, though the extent of this
change has been much exaggerated. Similar changes of color occur at death
in most bright-colored fishes, especially in those with thin scales. The
common dolphin, or dorado (Coryphæna hippurus), is found in all warm
seas swimming near the surface, as usual in predatory fishes, and reaches a
length of about six feet. The small dolphin, Coryphæna equisetis, rarely
exceeds 2½ feet, and is much more rare than the preceding, from which the
smaller number of dorsal rays (53 instead of 60) best distinguishes it. Young
dolphins of both species are elongate in form, the crest of the head not
elevated, the physiognomy thus appearing very different from that of the
adult. Goniognathus coryphænoides is an extinct dolphin of the Eocene.
Fig. 222.—Dolphin or Dorado, Coryphæna hippurus Linnæus. New York.
to four genera—Pteraclis, Bentenia, Centropholis, and Velifer. They are
occasionally taken in ocean currents, chiefly about Japan and Madeira.
Fossil forms more or less remotely allied to the Bramidæ are recorded from
the Eocene and Miocene. Among these are Acanthonemus, and perhaps
Pseudovomer.
The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.—The dolphins, or dorados (Coryphænidæ),
are large, swift sea-fishes, with elongate, compressed bodies, elevated
heads, sharp like the cut-water of a boat, and with the caudal fin very
strong. The long dorsal fin, elevated like a crest on the head, is without
spines. The high forehead characteristic of the dolphin is developed only in
the adult male. The flesh of the dolphin is valued as food. Its colors, golden-
blue with deep-blue spots, fade rapidly at death, though the extent of this
change has been much exaggerated. Similar changes of color occur at death
in most bright-colored fishes, especially in those with thin scales. The
common dolphin, or dorado (Coryphæna hippurus), is found in all warm
seas swimming near the surface, as usual in predatory fishes, and reaches a
length of about six feet. The small dolphin, Coryphæna equisetis, rarely
exceeds 2½ feet, and is much more rare than the preceding, from which the
smaller number of dorsal rays (53 instead of 60) best distinguishes it. Young
dolphins of both species are elongate in form, the crest of the head not
elevated, the physiognomy thus appearing very different from that of the
adult. Goniognathus coryphænoides is an extinct dolphin of the Eocene.
Fig. 222.—Dolphin or Dorado, Coryphæna hippurus Linnæus. New York.
Page 336
The name dolphin, belonging properly to a group of small whales or
porpoises, the genus Delphinus, has been unfortunately used in connection
with this very different animal, which bears no resemblance to the mammal
of the same name.
Other mackerel-like families not closely related to these occur in the warm
seas. The Leiognathidæ are small, silvery fishes of the East Indies.
Leiognathus argentatus (Equula) is very common in the bays of Japan, a
small silvery fish of moderate value as food. Gazza minuta, similar, with
strong teeth, abounds farther south. Leiognathus fasciatum is common in
Polynesia. A fossil species called Parequula albyi occurs in the Miocene of
Licata.
The Kurtidæ are small, short-bodied fishes of the Indian seas, with some of
the ribs immovably fixed between rings formed by the ossified cover of the
air-bladder and with the hypocoracoid obsolete. Kurtus indicus is the
principal species.
The Menidæ.—Near the Kurtidæ we may perhaps place the family of
Menidæ, of one species, Mene maculata, the moonfish of the open seas of
the East Indies and Japan. This is a small fish, about a foot long, with the
body very closely compressed, the fins low and the belly, through the
extension of the pelvic bone, a good deal more prominent than the back.
The ventral fins have the usual number of one spine and five soft rays, a
character which separates Mene widely from Lampris, which in some ways
seems allied to it.
porpoises, the genus Delphinus, has been unfortunately used in connection
with this very different animal, which bears no resemblance to the mammal
of the same name.
Other mackerel-like families not closely related to these occur in the warm
seas. The Leiognathidæ are small, silvery fishes of the East Indies.
Leiognathus argentatus (Equula) is very common in the bays of Japan, a
small silvery fish of moderate value as food. Gazza minuta, similar, with
strong teeth, abounds farther south. Leiognathus fasciatum is common in
Polynesia. A fossil species called Parequula albyi occurs in the Miocene of
Licata.
The Kurtidæ are small, short-bodied fishes of the Indian seas, with some of
the ribs immovably fixed between rings formed by the ossified cover of the
air-bladder and with the hypocoracoid obsolete. Kurtus indicus is the
principal species.
The Menidæ.—Near the Kurtidæ we may perhaps place the family of
Menidæ, of one species, Mene maculata, the moonfish of the open seas of
the East Indies and Japan. This is a small fish, about a foot long, with the
body very closely compressed, the fins low and the belly, through the
extension of the pelvic bone, a good deal more prominent than the back.
The ventral fins have the usual number of one spine and five soft rays, a
character which separates Mene widely from Lampris, which in some ways
seems allied to it.
Page 337
Fig. 223.—Mene maculata (Bloch & Schneider). Family Menidæ. Japan.
Another species of Menidæ is the extinct Gasteronemus rhombeus of the
Eocene of Monte Bolca. It has much the same form, with long pubic bones.
The very long ventral fins are, however, made of one spine and one or two
rays. A second species, Gasteronemus oblongus, is recorded from the same
rocks.
The Pempheridæ.—The Pempheridæ, "deep-water catalufas," or "magifi,"
are rather small deep-bodied fishes, reddish in color, with very short dorsal,
containing a few graduated spines, and with a very long anal fin. These
inhabit tropical seas at moderate depths. Pempheris bears a superficial
resemblance to Beryx, but, according to Starks, this resemblance is not
borne out by the anatomy. Pempheris mulleri and P. poeyi are found in the
West Indies. Pempheris otaitensis and P. mangula range through Polynesia.
Another species of Menidæ is the extinct Gasteronemus rhombeus of the
Eocene of Monte Bolca. It has much the same form, with long pubic bones.
The very long ventral fins are, however, made of one spine and one or two
rays. A second species, Gasteronemus oblongus, is recorded from the same
rocks.
The Pempheridæ.—The Pempheridæ, "deep-water catalufas," or "magifi,"
are rather small deep-bodied fishes, reddish in color, with very short dorsal,
containing a few graduated spines, and with a very long anal fin. These
inhabit tropical seas at moderate depths. Pempheris bears a superficial
resemblance to Beryx, but, according to Starks, this resemblance is not
borne out by the anatomy. Pempheris mulleri and P. poeyi are found in the
West Indies. Pempheris otaitensis and P. mangula range through Polynesia.
Page 338
Fig. 224.—Gasteronemus rhombeus Agassiz. (After Woodward.) Menidæ.
Fig. 225.—Catalufa de lo Alto, Pempheris mulleri Poey. Havana.
Fig. 225.—Catalufa de lo Alto, Pempheris mulleri Poey. Havana.
Page 339
Fig. 226.—Pempheris nyctereutes Jordan & Evermann. Giran, Formosa.
Fig. 227.—The Louvar, Luvarus imperialis Rafinesque. Family Luvaridæ.
(After Day.)
Very close to the Pempheridæ is the small family of Bathyclupeidæ. These
are herring-like fishes, much compressed and with a duct to the air-bladder.
There are but one or two dorsal spines. The ventrals are of one spine and
five rays as in perch-like fishes, but placed behind the pectoral fins. This
Fig. 227.—The Louvar, Luvarus imperialis Rafinesque. Family Luvaridæ.
(After Day.)
Very close to the Pempheridæ is the small family of Bathyclupeidæ. These
are herring-like fishes, much compressed and with a duct to the air-bladder.
There are but one or two dorsal spines. The ventrals are of one spine and
five rays as in perch-like fishes, but placed behind the pectoral fins. This
Page 340
feature, due to the shortening of the belly, is regarded by Alcock, the
discoverer, as a result of degeneration, and the family was placed by him
among the herrings. The persistent air-duct excludes it from the Percesoces,
the normally formed ventrals from the Berycoidei. If we trust the
indications of the skeleton, we must place the family with Pempheris, near
the scombroid fishes.
Luvaridæ.—Another singular family is the group of Louvars, Luvaridæ.
Luvaris imperialis. The single known species is a large, plump, voracious
fish, with the dorsal and anal rays all unbranched, and the scales scurf-life
over the smooth skin. It is frequently taken in the Mediterranean, and was
found on the island of Santa Catalina, California, by Mr. C. F. Holden.
The Square-tails: Tetragonuridæ.—The Tetragonuridæ are long-bodied
fishes of a plump or almost squarish form, covered with hard, firm, very
adherent scales. Tetragonurus cuvieri, the single species, called square-tail,
or escolar de natura, is a curious fish, looking as if whittled out of wood,
covered with a compact armor of bony scales, and swimming very slowly in
deep water. It is known from the open Atlantic and Mediterranean and has
been once taken at Wood's Hole in Massachusetts. According to Mr. C. T.
Regan the relations of this eccentric fish are with the Stromateidæ and
Bramidæ, the skeleton being essentially that of Stromateus, and Boulenger
places both Tetragonurus and Stromateus among the Percesoces.
The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ.—The family of Lophotidæ consists
of a few species of deep-sea fishes, band-shaped, naked, with the dorsal of
flexible spines beginning as a high crest on the elevated occiput. The first
spine is very strong. The ventrals are thoracic with the normal number, I, 5,
of fin-rays. Lophotes cepedianus, the crested bandfish, is occasionally taken
in the Mediterranean in rather deep water. Lophotes capellei is rarely taken
in the deep waters of Japan.
It is thought that the Lophotidæ may be related to the ribbon-fishes,
Tæniosomi, but on the whole they seem nearer to the highly modified
Scombroidei, the Pteraclidæ for example.
In a natural arrangement, we should turn from the Bramidæ to the
Antigoniidæ and the Ilarchidæ, then passing over the series which leads
through Chætodontidæ and Teuthidæ to the Plectognaths. It is, however,
necessary to include here, alongside the mackerels, though not closely
discoverer, as a result of degeneration, and the family was placed by him
among the herrings. The persistent air-duct excludes it from the Percesoces,
the normally formed ventrals from the Berycoidei. If we trust the
indications of the skeleton, we must place the family with Pempheris, near
the scombroid fishes.
Luvaridæ.—Another singular family is the group of Louvars, Luvaridæ.
Luvaris imperialis. The single known species is a large, plump, voracious
fish, with the dorsal and anal rays all unbranched, and the scales scurf-life
over the smooth skin. It is frequently taken in the Mediterranean, and was
found on the island of Santa Catalina, California, by Mr. C. F. Holden.
The Square-tails: Tetragonuridæ.—The Tetragonuridæ are long-bodied
fishes of a plump or almost squarish form, covered with hard, firm, very
adherent scales. Tetragonurus cuvieri, the single species, called square-tail,
or escolar de natura, is a curious fish, looking as if whittled out of wood,
covered with a compact armor of bony scales, and swimming very slowly in
deep water. It is known from the open Atlantic and Mediterranean and has
been once taken at Wood's Hole in Massachusetts. According to Mr. C. T.
Regan the relations of this eccentric fish are with the Stromateidæ and
Bramidæ, the skeleton being essentially that of Stromateus, and Boulenger
places both Tetragonurus and Stromateus among the Percesoces.
The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ.—The family of Lophotidæ consists
of a few species of deep-sea fishes, band-shaped, naked, with the dorsal of
flexible spines beginning as a high crest on the elevated occiput. The first
spine is very strong. The ventrals are thoracic with the normal number, I, 5,
of fin-rays. Lophotes cepedianus, the crested bandfish, is occasionally taken
in the Mediterranean in rather deep water. Lophotes capellei is rarely taken
in the deep waters of Japan.
It is thought that the Lophotidæ may be related to the ribbon-fishes,
Tæniosomi, but on the whole they seem nearer to the highly modified
Scombroidei, the Pteraclidæ for example.
In a natural arrangement, we should turn from the Bramidæ to the
Antigoniidæ and the Ilarchidæ, then passing over the series which leads
through Chætodontidæ and Teuthidæ to the Plectognaths. It is, however,
necessary to include here, alongside the mackerels, though not closely
Page 341
related to them, the parallel series of perch-like fishes, which at the end
become also hopelessly entangled, through aberrant forms, with other series
of which the origin and relations are imperfectly understood. As the
relations of forms cannot be expressed in a linear series, many pages must
intervene before we can take up the supposed line of development from the
Scombroid fishes to those called Squamipinnes.
become also hopelessly entangled, through aberrant forms, with other series
of which the origin and relations are imperfectly understood. As the
relations of forms cannot be expressed in a linear series, many pages must
intervene before we can take up the supposed line of development from the
Scombroid fishes to those called Squamipinnes.
Page 342
CHAPTER XVIII
PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES
ercoid Fishes.—We may now take up the long series of the
Percoidea, the fishes built on the type of the perch or bass.
This is a group of fishes of diverse habits and forms, but on
the whole representing better than any other the typical
Acanthopterygian fish. The group is incapable of concise
definition, or, in general, of any definition at all; still, most of its members
are definitely related to each other and bear in one way or another a
resemblance to the typical form, the perch, or more strictly to its marine
relatives, the sea-bass, or Serranidæ. The following analysis gives most of
the common characters of the group:
Body usually oblong, covered with scales, which are typically ctenoid, not
smooth nor spinous, and of moderate size. Lateral line typically present and
concurrent with the back. Head usually compressed laterally and with the
cheeks and opercles scaly. Mouth various, usually terminal and with lateral
cleft; the teeth various, but typically pointed, arranged in bands on the jaws,
and in several families on the vomer and palatine bones also, as well as on
the pharyngeals; gill-rakers usually sharp, stoutish, armed with teeth, but
sometimes short or feeble; lower pharyngeals almost always separate,
usually armed with cardiform teeth; third upper pharyngeal moderately
enlarged, elongate, not articulated to the cranium, the fourth typically
present; gills four, a slit behind the fourth; gill membranes free from the
isthmus, and usually not connected with each other; pseudobranchiæ
typically well developed. Branchiostegals few, usually six or seven. No
bony stay connecting the suborbital chain to the preopercle. Opercular
bones all well developed, normal in position; the preopercle typically
serrate. No cranial spines. Dorsal fin variously developed, but always with
PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES
ercoid Fishes.—We may now take up the long series of the
Percoidea, the fishes built on the type of the perch or bass.
This is a group of fishes of diverse habits and forms, but on
the whole representing better than any other the typical
Acanthopterygian fish. The group is incapable of concise
definition, or, in general, of any definition at all; still, most of its members
are definitely related to each other and bear in one way or another a
resemblance to the typical form, the perch, or more strictly to its marine
relatives, the sea-bass, or Serranidæ. The following analysis gives most of
the common characters of the group:
Body usually oblong, covered with scales, which are typically ctenoid, not
smooth nor spinous, and of moderate size. Lateral line typically present and
concurrent with the back. Head usually compressed laterally and with the
cheeks and opercles scaly. Mouth various, usually terminal and with lateral
cleft; the teeth various, but typically pointed, arranged in bands on the jaws,
and in several families on the vomer and palatine bones also, as well as on
the pharyngeals; gill-rakers usually sharp, stoutish, armed with teeth, but
sometimes short or feeble; lower pharyngeals almost always separate,
usually armed with cardiform teeth; third upper pharyngeal moderately
enlarged, elongate, not articulated to the cranium, the fourth typically
present; gills four, a slit behind the fourth; gill membranes free from the
isthmus, and usually not connected with each other; pseudobranchiæ
typically well developed. Branchiostegals few, usually six or seven. No
bony stay connecting the suborbital chain to the preopercle. Opercular
bones all well developed, normal in position; the preopercle typically
serrate. No cranial spines. Dorsal fin variously developed, but always with
Page 343
some spines in front, these typically stiff and pungent; anal fin typically
short, usually with three spines, sometimes with a larger number, rarely
with none; caudal fin various, usually lunate; pectoral fins well developed,
inserted high; ventral fins always present, thoracic, separate, almost always
with one spine and five rays, the Aphredoderidæ having more, a few
Serranidæ having fewer. Air-bladder usually present, without air-duct in
adult; simple and generally adherent to the walls of the abdomen. Stomach
cæcal, with pyloric appendages, the intestines short in most species, long in
the herbivorous forms. Vertebral column well developed, none of the
vertebræ especially modified, the number 10 + 14 = 24, except in certain
extratropical and fresh-water forms, which retain primitive higher numbers.
Shoulder-girdle normally developed, the post-temporal bifurcate attached to
the skull, but not coossified with it; none of the epipleural bones attached to
the center of the vertebræ; coracoids normal, the hypercoracoid always with
a median foramen, the basal bones of the pectoral (actinosts or pterygials)
normally developed, three or four in number, hour-glass-shaped, longer
than broad; premaxillary forming the border of the mouth usually
protractile; bones of the mandible distinct. Orbitosphenoid wanting.
The most archaic of the perch-like types are apparently some of those of the
fresh waters. Among these the process of evolution has been less rapid. In
some groups, as the Percidæ, the great variability of species is doubtless
due to the recent origin, the characters not being well fixed.
The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.—Among the most remarkable of
the living percoid fishes and probably the most primitive of all, showing
affinities with the Salmopercæ, is the pirate-perch, Aphredoderus sayanus, a
little fish of the lowland streams of the Mississippi Valley. The family of
Aphredoderidæ agrees with the berycoid fishes in scales and structure of the
fins, and Boulenger places it with the Berycidæ. Starks has shown,
however, that it lacks the orbitosphenoid, and the general osteology is that
of the perch-like fishes. The dorsal and anal have a few spines. The thoracic
ventrals have one spine and eight rays. There is no adipose fin and probably
no duct to the air-bladder. A singular trait is found in the position of the
vent. In the adult this is in front of the ventral fins, at the throat. In the
young it is behind the ventral fins as in ordinary fishes. With age it moves
forward by the prolongation of the horizontal part of the intestine or rectum.
short, usually with three spines, sometimes with a larger number, rarely
with none; caudal fin various, usually lunate; pectoral fins well developed,
inserted high; ventral fins always present, thoracic, separate, almost always
with one spine and five rays, the Aphredoderidæ having more, a few
Serranidæ having fewer. Air-bladder usually present, without air-duct in
adult; simple and generally adherent to the walls of the abdomen. Stomach
cæcal, with pyloric appendages, the intestines short in most species, long in
the herbivorous forms. Vertebral column well developed, none of the
vertebræ especially modified, the number 10 + 14 = 24, except in certain
extratropical and fresh-water forms, which retain primitive higher numbers.
Shoulder-girdle normally developed, the post-temporal bifurcate attached to
the skull, but not coossified with it; none of the epipleural bones attached to
the center of the vertebræ; coracoids normal, the hypercoracoid always with
a median foramen, the basal bones of the pectoral (actinosts or pterygials)
normally developed, three or four in number, hour-glass-shaped, longer
than broad; premaxillary forming the border of the mouth usually
protractile; bones of the mandible distinct. Orbitosphenoid wanting.
The most archaic of the perch-like types are apparently some of those of the
fresh waters. Among these the process of evolution has been less rapid. In
some groups, as the Percidæ, the great variability of species is doubtless
due to the recent origin, the characters not being well fixed.
The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.—Among the most remarkable of
the living percoid fishes and probably the most primitive of all, showing
affinities with the Salmopercæ, is the pirate-perch, Aphredoderus sayanus, a
little fish of the lowland streams of the Mississippi Valley. The family of
Aphredoderidæ agrees with the berycoid fishes in scales and structure of the
fins, and Boulenger places it with the Berycidæ. Starks has shown,
however, that it lacks the orbitosphenoid, and the general osteology is that
of the perch-like fishes. The dorsal and anal have a few spines. The thoracic
ventrals have one spine and eight rays. There is no adipose fin and probably
no duct to the air-bladder. A singular trait is found in the position of the
vent. In the adult this is in front of the ventral fins, at the throat. In the
young it is behind the ventral fins as in ordinary fishes. With age it moves
forward by the prolongation of the horizontal part of the intestine or rectum.
Page 344
The same peculiar position of the vent is found in the berycoid genus
Paratrachichthys.
Fig. 228.—Pirate Perch, Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams). Illinois River.
Fig. 229.—Everglade Pigmy Perch, Elassoma evergladei Jordan.
Everglades of Florida.
Paratrachichthys.
Fig. 228.—Pirate Perch, Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams). Illinois River.
Fig. 229.—Everglade Pigmy Perch, Elassoma evergladei Jordan.
Everglades of Florida.
Page 345
In the family Aphredoderidæ but one species is known, Aphredoderus
sayanus, the pirate-perch. It reaches a length of five inches and lives in
sluggish lowland streams with muddy bottom from New Jersey and
Minnesota to Louisiana. It is dull green in color and feeds on insects and
worms. It has no economic value, although extremely interesting in its
anatomy and relationship.
Whether the Asineopidæ, fresh-water fishes of the American Eocene, and
the Erismatopteridæ, of the same deposits (see page 235) are related to
Aphredoderus or to Percopsis is still uncertain.
sayanus, the pirate-perch. It reaches a length of five inches and lives in
sluggish lowland streams with muddy bottom from New Jersey and
Minnesota to Louisiana. It is dull green in color and feeds on insects and
worms. It has no economic value, although extremely interesting in its
anatomy and relationship.
Whether the Asineopidæ, fresh-water fishes of the American Eocene, and
the Erismatopteridæ, of the same deposits (see page 235) are related to
Aphredoderus or to Percopsis is still uncertain.
Page 346
Fig. 230.—Skull of the Rock Bass, Ambloplites rupestris.
The Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.—One of the most primitive groups is
that of Elassomidæ, or pigmy sunfishes. These are very small fishes, less
than two inches long, living in the swamps of the South, resembling the
sunfishes, but with the number of dorsal spines reduced to from three to
five. Elassoma zonatum occurs from southern Illinois to Louisiana.
Elassoma evergladei abounds in the Everglades of Florida. In both the body
is oblong and compressed, the color is dull green crossed by black bars or
blotches.
The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.—The large family of Centrarchidæ, or
sunfishes, is especially characteristic of the rivers of the eastern United
States, where the various species are inordinately abundant. The body is
relatively short and deep, and the axis passes through the middle so that the
back has much the same outline as the belly. The pseudobranchiæ are
imperfect, as in many fresh-water fishes, and the head is feebly armed, the
bones being usually without spines or serratures. The colors are often
brilliant, the sexes alike, and all are carnivorous, voracious, and gamy,
being excellent as food. The origin of the group is probably Asiatic, the
fresh-water serranoid of Japan, Bryttosus, resembling in many ways an
American sunfish, and the genus Kuhlia of the Pacific showing many
homologies with the black bass, Micropterus.
The Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.—One of the most primitive groups is
that of Elassomidæ, or pigmy sunfishes. These are very small fishes, less
than two inches long, living in the swamps of the South, resembling the
sunfishes, but with the number of dorsal spines reduced to from three to
five. Elassoma zonatum occurs from southern Illinois to Louisiana.
Elassoma evergladei abounds in the Everglades of Florida. In both the body
is oblong and compressed, the color is dull green crossed by black bars or
blotches.
The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.—The large family of Centrarchidæ, or
sunfishes, is especially characteristic of the rivers of the eastern United
States, where the various species are inordinately abundant. The body is
relatively short and deep, and the axis passes through the middle so that the
back has much the same outline as the belly. The pseudobranchiæ are
imperfect, as in many fresh-water fishes, and the head is feebly armed, the
bones being usually without spines or serratures. The colors are often
brilliant, the sexes alike, and all are carnivorous, voracious, and gamy,
being excellent as food. The origin of the group is probably Asiatic, the
fresh-water serranoid of Japan, Bryttosus, resembling in many ways an
American sunfish, and the genus Kuhlia of the Pacific showing many
homologies with the black bass, Micropterus.
Page 347
Fig. 231.—Crappie, Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque. Ohio River.
Fig. 232.—Crappie, Pomoxis annularis (Raf.). (From life by Dr. R. W.
Shufeldt.)
Fig. 232.—Crappie, Pomoxis annularis (Raf.). (From life by Dr. R. W.
Shufeldt.)
Page 348
Fig. 233.—Rock Bass, Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque.) Ecorse, Mich.
Page 349
Fig. 234.—Banded Sunfish, Mesogonistius chætodon (Baird). Delaware
River.
Crappies and Rock Bass.—Pomoxis annularis, the crappie, and Pomoxis
sparoides, the calico-bass, are handsome fishes, valued by the angler. These
are perhaps the most primitive of the family, and in these species the anal
fin is larger than the dorsal. The flier, or round bass, Centrarchus
macropterus, with eight anal spines, is abundant in swamps and lowland
ponds of the Southern States. It is a pretty fish, attractive in the aquarium.
Acantharchus pomotis is the mud-bass of the Delaware, and Archoplites
interruptus, the "perch" of the Sacramento. The latter is a large and gamy
fish, valued as food and interesting as being the only fresh-water fish of the
nature of perch or bass native to the west of the Rocky Mountains. The
numbers of this species, according to Mr. Will S. Green of Colusa,
California, have been greatly reduced by the introduction of the catfish
(Ameiurus nebulosus) into the Sacramento. The perch eats the young
catfish, and its stomach is torn by their sharp pectoral spines. Another
species of this type is the warmouth (Chænobryttus gulosus) of the ponds of
the South, and still more familiar rock-bass or redeye (Ambloplites
rupestris) of the more northern lakes and rivers valued as a game-and food-
fish. A very pretty aquarium fish is the black-banded sunfish, Mesogonistius
chætodon, of the Delaware, as also the nine-spined sunfish, Enneacanthus
gloriosus, of the coast streams southward. Apomotis cyanellus, the blue-
green sunfish or little redeye, is very widely distributed from Ohio
westward, living in every brook. The dissection of this species is given on
page 26, Vol. I. To Lepomis belong numerous species having the opercle
prolonged in a long flap which is always black in color, often with a border
of scarlet or blue. The yellowbelly of the South (Lepomis auritus), ear-like
the showily colored long-eared sunfish (Lepomis megalotis) of the
southwest, figured on page 2, Vol. I, the bluegill (Lepomis pallidus),
abundant everywhere south and west of New York, are members of this
genus. The genus Eupomotis differs in its larger pharyngeals, which are
armed with blunt teeth. The common sunfish, or pumpkinseed, Eupomotis
gibbosus, is the most familiar representative of the family, abounding
everywhere from Minnesota to New England, then south to Carolina on the
River.
Crappies and Rock Bass.—Pomoxis annularis, the crappie, and Pomoxis
sparoides, the calico-bass, are handsome fishes, valued by the angler. These
are perhaps the most primitive of the family, and in these species the anal
fin is larger than the dorsal. The flier, or round bass, Centrarchus
macropterus, with eight anal spines, is abundant in swamps and lowland
ponds of the Southern States. It is a pretty fish, attractive in the aquarium.
Acantharchus pomotis is the mud-bass of the Delaware, and Archoplites
interruptus, the "perch" of the Sacramento. The latter is a large and gamy
fish, valued as food and interesting as being the only fresh-water fish of the
nature of perch or bass native to the west of the Rocky Mountains. The
numbers of this species, according to Mr. Will S. Green of Colusa,
California, have been greatly reduced by the introduction of the catfish
(Ameiurus nebulosus) into the Sacramento. The perch eats the young
catfish, and its stomach is torn by their sharp pectoral spines. Another
species of this type is the warmouth (Chænobryttus gulosus) of the ponds of
the South, and still more familiar rock-bass or redeye (Ambloplites
rupestris) of the more northern lakes and rivers valued as a game-and food-
fish. A very pretty aquarium fish is the black-banded sunfish, Mesogonistius
chætodon, of the Delaware, as also the nine-spined sunfish, Enneacanthus
gloriosus, of the coast streams southward. Apomotis cyanellus, the blue-
green sunfish or little redeye, is very widely distributed from Ohio
westward, living in every brook. The dissection of this species is given on
page 26, Vol. I. To Lepomis belong numerous species having the opercle
prolonged in a long flap which is always black in color, often with a border
of scarlet or blue. The yellowbelly of the South (Lepomis auritus), ear-like
the showily colored long-eared sunfish (Lepomis megalotis) of the
southwest, figured on page 2, Vol. I, the bluegill (Lepomis pallidus),
abundant everywhere south and west of New York, are members of this
genus. The genus Eupomotis differs in its larger pharyngeals, which are
armed with blunt teeth. The common sunfish, or pumpkinseed, Eupomotis
gibbosus, is the most familiar representative of the family, abounding
everywhere from Minnesota to New England, then south to Carolina on the
Page 350
east slope of the Alleghanies, breeding everywhere in ponds and in the
eddies of the clear brooks.
Fig. 235.—Blue-Gill, Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill). Potomac River.
eddies of the clear brooks.
Fig. 235.—Blue-Gill, Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill). Potomac River.
Page 351
Fig. 236.—Long-eared Sunfish, Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque). From
Clear Creek, Bloomington, Indiana. Family Centrarchidæ.
Clear Creek, Bloomington, Indiana. Family Centrarchidæ.
Page 352
Fig. 237.—Common Sunfish, Eupomotis gibbosus (Linnæus). Root River,
Wis.
The Black Bass.—The black bass (Micropterus) belong to the same family
as the sunfish, differing in the larger size, more elongate form, and more
voracious habit. The two species are among the most important of American
game-fishes, abounding in all clear waters east of the Alleghanies and
resisting the evils of civilization far better than the trout.
The small-mouthed black bass, Micropterus dolomieu, is the most valuable
of the species. Its mouth, although large, is relatively small, the cleft not
extending beyond the eye. The green coloration is broken in the young by
bronze cross-bands. The species frequents only running streams, preferring
clear and cold waters, and it extends its range from Canada as far to the
southward as such streams can be found. Dr. James A. Henshall, an
accomplished angler, author of the "Book of the Black Bass," says: "The
black bass is eminently an American fish; he has the faculty of asserting
himself and of making himself completely at home wherever placed. He is
plucky, game, brave, unyielding to the last when hooked. He has the arrowy
rush and vigor of a trout, the untiring strength and bold leap of a salmon,
Wis.
The Black Bass.—The black bass (Micropterus) belong to the same family
as the sunfish, differing in the larger size, more elongate form, and more
voracious habit. The two species are among the most important of American
game-fishes, abounding in all clear waters east of the Alleghanies and
resisting the evils of civilization far better than the trout.
The small-mouthed black bass, Micropterus dolomieu, is the most valuable
of the species. Its mouth, although large, is relatively small, the cleft not
extending beyond the eye. The green coloration is broken in the young by
bronze cross-bands. The species frequents only running streams, preferring
clear and cold waters, and it extends its range from Canada as far to the
southward as such streams can be found. Dr. James A. Henshall, an
accomplished angler, author of the "Book of the Black Bass," says: "The
black bass is eminently an American fish; he has the faculty of asserting
himself and of making himself completely at home wherever placed. He is
plucky, game, brave, unyielding to the last when hooked. He has the arrowy
rush and vigor of a trout, the untiring strength and bold leap of a salmon,
Page 353
while he has a system of fighting tactics peculiarly his own. I consider him
inch for inch and pound for pound the gamest fish that swims."
In the same vein Charles Hallock writes: "No doubt the bass is the
appointed successor of the trout; not through heritage, nor selection, nor by
interloping, but by foreordination. Truly, it is sad to contemplate, in the not
distant future, the extinction of a beautiful race of creatures, whose
attributes have been sung by all the poets; but we regard the inevitable with
the same calm philosophy with which the astronomer watches the burning
out of a world, knowing that it will be succeeded by a new creation. As we
mark the soft varitinted flush of the trout disappear in the eventide, behold
the sparkle of the coming bass, as he leaps in the morning of his glory! We
hardly know which to admire the most—the velvet livery and the charming
graces of the departing courtier, or the flash of the armor-plates of the
advancing warrior. The bass will unquestionably prove himself a worthy
substitute for his predecessor and a candidate for a full legacy of honors.
"No doubt, when every one of the older states shall become as densely
settled as Great Britain itself, and all the rural aspects of the crowded
domain resemble the suburban surroundings of our Boston; when every
feature of the pastoral landscape shall wear the finished appearance of
European lands, and every verdant field be closely cropped by lawn-
mowers and guarded by hedges, and every purling stream which meanders
through it has its water-bailiff, we shall still have speckled trout from which
the radiant spots have faded, and tasteless fish, to catch at a dollar a pound
(as we already have on Long Island), and all the appurtenances and
appointments of a genuine English trouting privilege and a genuine English
'outing.'
inch for inch and pound for pound the gamest fish that swims."
In the same vein Charles Hallock writes: "No doubt the bass is the
appointed successor of the trout; not through heritage, nor selection, nor by
interloping, but by foreordination. Truly, it is sad to contemplate, in the not
distant future, the extinction of a beautiful race of creatures, whose
attributes have been sung by all the poets; but we regard the inevitable with
the same calm philosophy with which the astronomer watches the burning
out of a world, knowing that it will be succeeded by a new creation. As we
mark the soft varitinted flush of the trout disappear in the eventide, behold
the sparkle of the coming bass, as he leaps in the morning of his glory! We
hardly know which to admire the most—the velvet livery and the charming
graces of the departing courtier, or the flash of the armor-plates of the
advancing warrior. The bass will unquestionably prove himself a worthy
substitute for his predecessor and a candidate for a full legacy of honors.
"No doubt, when every one of the older states shall become as densely
settled as Great Britain itself, and all the rural aspects of the crowded
domain resemble the suburban surroundings of our Boston; when every
feature of the pastoral landscape shall wear the finished appearance of
European lands, and every verdant field be closely cropped by lawn-
mowers and guarded by hedges, and every purling stream which meanders
through it has its water-bailiff, we shall still have speckled trout from which
the radiant spots have faded, and tasteless fish, to catch at a dollar a pound
(as we already have on Long Island), and all the appurtenances and
appointments of a genuine English trouting privilege and a genuine English
'outing.'
Page 354
Fig. 238.—Small Mouth Black Bass, Micropterus dolomieu Lacépède.
"In those future days, not long hence to come, some venerable piscator, in
whose memory still lingers the joy of fishing, the brawling stream which
tumbled over the rocks in the tangled wildwood, and moistened the arbutus
and the bunchberries which garnished its banks, will totter forth to the
velvet edge of some peacefully flowing stream, and having seated himself
on a convenient point in a revolving easy-chair, placed there by his careful
attendant, cast right and left for the semblance of sport long dead.
"Hosts of liver-fed fish rush to the signal for their early morning meal, and
from the center of the boil which follows the fall of the handfuls thrown in
my piscator of the ancient days will hook a two-pound trout, and play him
hither and yon, from surface to bottom, without disturbing the pampered
gourmands which are gorging themselves upon the disgusting viands; and
when he has leisurely brought him to land at last, and the gillie has scooped
him with his landing-net, he will feel in his capacious pocket for his last
trade dollar, and giving his friend the tip, shuffle back to his house, and lay
aside his rod forever."
The black bass is now introduced into the streams of Europe and California.
There is little danger that it will work injury to the trout, for the black bass
prefers limestone streams, and the trout rarely does well in waters which do
not flow over granite rock or else glacial gravel.
"In those future days, not long hence to come, some venerable piscator, in
whose memory still lingers the joy of fishing, the brawling stream which
tumbled over the rocks in the tangled wildwood, and moistened the arbutus
and the bunchberries which garnished its banks, will totter forth to the
velvet edge of some peacefully flowing stream, and having seated himself
on a convenient point in a revolving easy-chair, placed there by his careful
attendant, cast right and left for the semblance of sport long dead.
"Hosts of liver-fed fish rush to the signal for their early morning meal, and
from the center of the boil which follows the fall of the handfuls thrown in
my piscator of the ancient days will hook a two-pound trout, and play him
hither and yon, from surface to bottom, without disturbing the pampered
gourmands which are gorging themselves upon the disgusting viands; and
when he has leisurely brought him to land at last, and the gillie has scooped
him with his landing-net, he will feel in his capacious pocket for his last
trade dollar, and giving his friend the tip, shuffle back to his house, and lay
aside his rod forever."
The black bass is now introduced into the streams of Europe and California.
There is little danger that it will work injury to the trout, for the black bass
prefers limestone streams, and the trout rarely does well in waters which do
not flow over granite rock or else glacial gravel.
Page 355
The large-mouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides) is very much like the
other in appearance. The mouth is larger, in the adult cleft beyond the eye;
the scales are larger, and in the young there is always a broad black stripe
along the sides and no cross-bands. The two are found in the same region,
but almost never in the same waters, for the large-mouth bass is a fish of the
lakes, ponds, and bayous, always avoiding the swift currents. The young
like to hide among weeds or beneath lily-pads. From its preference for
sluggish waters, its range extends farther to the southward, as far as the
Mexican State of Tamaulipas.
Plioplarchus is a genus of fossil sunfishes from the Eocene of South Dakota
and Oregon. Plioplarchus sexspinosus, septemspinosus, and whitei are
imperfectly known species.
The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.—Much like the sunfishes in anatomy, though more
like the white perch in appearance and habit, are the members of the little
family of Kuhliidæ. These are active silvery perches of the tropical seas,
ponds, and river-mouths, especially abundant in Polynesia. Kuhlia malo is
the aholehole of the Hawaiians, a silvery fish living in great numbers in
brackish waters. Kuhlia rupestris, the salele of the Samoan rivers, is a large
swift fish of the rock pools, in form, color, and habits remarkably like the
black bass. It is silvery bronze in hue, everywhere mottled with olive-green.
The sesele, Kuhlia marginata, lives with it in the rivers, but is less
abundant. The saboti, Kuhlia tæniura, a large silvery fish with cross-bands
on the caudal fin, lives about lava-rooks in Polynesia from the Galapagos to
Samoa and the East Indies, never entering rivers. Still other species are
found in the rock pools and streams of Japan and southward.
The skeleton in Kuhlia is essentially like that of the black bass, and Dr.
Boulenger places the genus with the Centrarchidæ.
The True Perches: Percidæ.—The great family of Percidæ includes fresh-
water fishes of the northern hemisphere, elongate in body, with the vertebræ
in increased number and with only two spines in the anal fin. About ninety
species are recorded, the vast majority being American. The dwarf perches,
called darters (Etheostominæ), are especially characteristic of the clear
streams to the eastward of the plains of the Missouri. These constitute one
of the greatest attractions of our American river fauna. They differ from the
perch and its European allies in their small size, bright colors, and large
other in appearance. The mouth is larger, in the adult cleft beyond the eye;
the scales are larger, and in the young there is always a broad black stripe
along the sides and no cross-bands. The two are found in the same region,
but almost never in the same waters, for the large-mouth bass is a fish of the
lakes, ponds, and bayous, always avoiding the swift currents. The young
like to hide among weeds or beneath lily-pads. From its preference for
sluggish waters, its range extends farther to the southward, as far as the
Mexican State of Tamaulipas.
Plioplarchus is a genus of fossil sunfishes from the Eocene of South Dakota
and Oregon. Plioplarchus sexspinosus, septemspinosus, and whitei are
imperfectly known species.
The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.—Much like the sunfishes in anatomy, though more
like the white perch in appearance and habit, are the members of the little
family of Kuhliidæ. These are active silvery perches of the tropical seas,
ponds, and river-mouths, especially abundant in Polynesia. Kuhlia malo is
the aholehole of the Hawaiians, a silvery fish living in great numbers in
brackish waters. Kuhlia rupestris, the salele of the Samoan rivers, is a large
swift fish of the rock pools, in form, color, and habits remarkably like the
black bass. It is silvery bronze in hue, everywhere mottled with olive-green.
The sesele, Kuhlia marginata, lives with it in the rivers, but is less
abundant. The saboti, Kuhlia tæniura, a large silvery fish with cross-bands
on the caudal fin, lives about lava-rooks in Polynesia from the Galapagos to
Samoa and the East Indies, never entering rivers. Still other species are
found in the rock pools and streams of Japan and southward.
The skeleton in Kuhlia is essentially like that of the black bass, and Dr.
Boulenger places the genus with the Centrarchidæ.
The True Perches: Percidæ.—The great family of Percidæ includes fresh-
water fishes of the northern hemisphere, elongate in body, with the vertebræ
in increased number and with only two spines in the anal fin. About ninety
species are recorded, the vast majority being American. The dwarf perches,
called darters (Etheostominæ), are especially characteristic of the clear
streams to the eastward of the plains of the Missouri. These constitute one
of the greatest attractions of our American river fauna. They differ from the
perch and its European allies in their small size, bright colors, and large
Page 356
fins, and more technically in the rudimentary condition of the
pseudobranchiæ and the air-bladder, both of which organs are almost
inappreciable. The preopercle is unarmed, and the number of the
branchiostegals is six. The anal papilla is likewise developed, as in the
Gobiidæ, to which group the darters bear a considerable superficial
resemblance, which, however, indicates no real affinity.
Fig. 239.—Large-mouthed Black Bass, Micropterus salmoides (Lac.).
(From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
Relations of Darters to Perches.—The colors of the Etheostominæ, or
darters, are usually very brilliant, species of Etheostoma especially being
among the most brilliantly colored fishes known; the sexual differences are
often great, the females being, as a rule, dull in color and more speckled or
barred than the males. Most of them prefer clear running water, where they
lie on the bottom concealed under stones, darting, when frightened or
pseudobranchiæ and the air-bladder, both of which organs are almost
inappreciable. The preopercle is unarmed, and the number of the
branchiostegals is six. The anal papilla is likewise developed, as in the
Gobiidæ, to which group the darters bear a considerable superficial
resemblance, which, however, indicates no real affinity.
Fig. 239.—Large-mouthed Black Bass, Micropterus salmoides (Lac.).
(From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
Relations of Darters to Perches.—The colors of the Etheostominæ, or
darters, are usually very brilliant, species of Etheostoma especially being
among the most brilliantly colored fishes known; the sexual differences are
often great, the females being, as a rule, dull in color and more speckled or
barred than the males. Most of them prefer clear running water, where they
lie on the bottom concealed under stones, darting, when frightened or
Page 357
hungry, with great velocity for a short distance, by a powerful movement of
the fan-shaped pectorals, then stopping as suddenly. They rarely use the
caudal fin in swimming, and they are seldom seen floating or moving freely
in the water like most fishes. When at rest they support themselves on their
expanded ventrals and anal fin. All of them can turn the head from side to
side, and they frequently lie with the head in a curved position or partly on
one side of the body. The species of Ammocrypta, and perhaps some of the
others, prefer a sandy bottom, where, by a sudden plunge, the fish buries
itself in the sand, and remains quiescent for hours at a time with only its
eyes and snout visible. The others lurk in stony places, under rocks and
weeds. Although more than usually tenacious of vitality, the darters, from
their bottom life, are the first to be disturbed by impurities in the water. All
the darters are carnivorous, feeding chiefly on the larvæ of Diptera, and in
their way voracious. All are of small size; the largest (Percina rex) reaches a
length of ten inches, while the smallest (Microperca punctulata) is, one of
the smallest spiny-rayed fishes known, barely attaining the length of an inch
and a half. In Europe no Etheostominæ are found, their place being filled by
the genera Zingel and Aspro, which bear a strong resemblance to the
American forms, a resemblance which may be a clue to the origin of the
latter.
The Perches.—The European perch, Perca fluviatilis, is placed by Cuvier
at the head of the fish series, as representing in a high degree the traits of a
fish without sign of incomplete development on the one hand or of
degradation on the other. Doubtless the increased number of the vertebræ is
the chief character which would lead us to call in question this time-
honored arrangement. Because, however, the perch has a relatively
degenerate vertebral column, we have used an allied form, the striped bass,
as a fairer type of the perfected spiny-rayed fish. Certainly the bass
represents this type better than the perch.
But though we may regard the perch as nearest the typically perfect fish, it
is far from being one of the most highly specialized, for, as we have seen in
several cases, a high degree of specialization of a particular structure is a
first step toward its degradation.
The perch of Europe is a common game-fish of the rivers. The yellow perch
of America (Perca flavescens) is very much like it, a little brighter in color,
olive and golden with dusky cross-bands. It frequents quiet streams and
the fan-shaped pectorals, then stopping as suddenly. They rarely use the
caudal fin in swimming, and they are seldom seen floating or moving freely
in the water like most fishes. When at rest they support themselves on their
expanded ventrals and anal fin. All of them can turn the head from side to
side, and they frequently lie with the head in a curved position or partly on
one side of the body. The species of Ammocrypta, and perhaps some of the
others, prefer a sandy bottom, where, by a sudden plunge, the fish buries
itself in the sand, and remains quiescent for hours at a time with only its
eyes and snout visible. The others lurk in stony places, under rocks and
weeds. Although more than usually tenacious of vitality, the darters, from
their bottom life, are the first to be disturbed by impurities in the water. All
the darters are carnivorous, feeding chiefly on the larvæ of Diptera, and in
their way voracious. All are of small size; the largest (Percina rex) reaches a
length of ten inches, while the smallest (Microperca punctulata) is, one of
the smallest spiny-rayed fishes known, barely attaining the length of an inch
and a half. In Europe no Etheostominæ are found, their place being filled by
the genera Zingel and Aspro, which bear a strong resemblance to the
American forms, a resemblance which may be a clue to the origin of the
latter.
The Perches.—The European perch, Perca fluviatilis, is placed by Cuvier
at the head of the fish series, as representing in a high degree the traits of a
fish without sign of incomplete development on the one hand or of
degradation on the other. Doubtless the increased number of the vertebræ is
the chief character which would lead us to call in question this time-
honored arrangement. Because, however, the perch has a relatively
degenerate vertebral column, we have used an allied form, the striped bass,
as a fairer type of the perfected spiny-rayed fish. Certainly the bass
represents this type better than the perch.
But though we may regard the perch as nearest the typically perfect fish, it
is far from being one of the most highly specialized, for, as we have seen in
several cases, a high degree of specialization of a particular structure is a
first step toward its degradation.
The perch of Europe is a common game-fish of the rivers. The yellow perch
of America (Perca flavescens) is very much like it, a little brighter in color,
olive and golden with dusky cross-bands. It frequents quiet streams and
Page 358
ponds from Minnesota eastward, then southward east of the Alleghanies.
"As a still-pond fish," says Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott, "if there is a fair
supply of spring-water, they thrive excellently; but the largest specimens
come either from the river or from the inflowing creeks. Deep water of the
temperature of ordinary spring-water, with some current and the bed of the
stream at least partly covered with vegetation, best suits this fish." The
perch is a food-fish of moderate quality. In spite of its beauty and gaminess,
it is little sought for by our anglers, and is much less valued with us than is
the European perch in England. But Dr. Goode ventures to prophesy that
"before many years the perch will have as many followers as the black bass
among those who fish for pleasure" in the region it inhabits. "A fish for the
people it is, we will grant, and it is the anglers from among the people who
have neither time nor patience for long trips nor complicated tackle who
will prove its steadfast friends." The boy values it, according to Thoreau.
When he returns from the mill-pond, he numbers his perch as "real fishes."
"So many unquestionable fish he counts, and so many chubs, which he
counts, then throws away."
Fig. 240.—Yellow Perch, Perca flavescens Mitchill. Potomac River.
In the perch, the oral valves, characteristic of all bony fishes, are well
developed. These structures recently investigated by Evelyn G. Mitchill,
"As a still-pond fish," says Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott, "if there is a fair
supply of spring-water, they thrive excellently; but the largest specimens
come either from the river or from the inflowing creeks. Deep water of the
temperature of ordinary spring-water, with some current and the bed of the
stream at least partly covered with vegetation, best suits this fish." The
perch is a food-fish of moderate quality. In spite of its beauty and gaminess,
it is little sought for by our anglers, and is much less valued with us than is
the European perch in England. But Dr. Goode ventures to prophesy that
"before many years the perch will have as many followers as the black bass
among those who fish for pleasure" in the region it inhabits. "A fish for the
people it is, we will grant, and it is the anglers from among the people who
have neither time nor patience for long trips nor complicated tackle who
will prove its steadfast friends." The boy values it, according to Thoreau.
When he returns from the mill-pond, he numbers his perch as "real fishes."
"So many unquestionable fish he counts, and so many chubs, which he
counts, then throws away."
Fig. 240.—Yellow Perch, Perca flavescens Mitchill. Potomac River.
In the perch, the oral valves, characteristic of all bony fishes, are well
developed. These structures recently investigated by Evelyn G. Mitchill,
Page 359
form a fold of connective tissue just behind the premaxillary and before the
vomer. They are used in respiration, preventing the forward flow of water as
the mouth closes.
Several perch-like fishes are recorded as fossils from the Miocene.
Allied to the perch, but long, slender, big-mouthed, and voracious, is the
group of pike perches, found in eastern America and Europe. The wall-eye,
or glass-eye (Stizostedion vitreum), is the largest of this tribe, reaching a
weight of ten to twenty pounds. It is found throughout the region east of the
Missouri in the large streams and ponds, an excellent food-fish, with white,
flaky flesh and in the north a game fish of high rank. The common names
refer to the large glassy eye, concerning which Dr. Goode quotes from some
"ardent admirer" these words: "Look at this beautiful fish, as symmetrical in
form as the salmon. Not a fault in his make-up, not a scale disturbed, every
fin perfect, tail clean-cut, and his great, big wall-eyes stand out with that
life-like glare so characteristic of the fish."
Fig. 241.—Sauger, Stizostedion canadense (Smith). Ecorse, Mich.
Similar to the wall-eye, but much smaller and more translucent in color, is
the sauger, or sand-pike, of the Great Lakes and Northern rivers,
Stizostedion canadense. This fish rarely exceeds fifteen inches in length,
and as a food-fish it is of correspondingly less importance.
vomer. They are used in respiration, preventing the forward flow of water as
the mouth closes.
Several perch-like fishes are recorded as fossils from the Miocene.
Allied to the perch, but long, slender, big-mouthed, and voracious, is the
group of pike perches, found in eastern America and Europe. The wall-eye,
or glass-eye (Stizostedion vitreum), is the largest of this tribe, reaching a
weight of ten to twenty pounds. It is found throughout the region east of the
Missouri in the large streams and ponds, an excellent food-fish, with white,
flaky flesh and in the north a game fish of high rank. The common names
refer to the large glassy eye, concerning which Dr. Goode quotes from some
"ardent admirer" these words: "Look at this beautiful fish, as symmetrical in
form as the salmon. Not a fault in his make-up, not a scale disturbed, every
fin perfect, tail clean-cut, and his great, big wall-eyes stand out with that
life-like glare so characteristic of the fish."
Fig. 241.—Sauger, Stizostedion canadense (Smith). Ecorse, Mich.
Similar to the wall-eye, but much smaller and more translucent in color, is
the sauger, or sand-pike, of the Great Lakes and Northern rivers,
Stizostedion canadense. This fish rarely exceeds fifteen inches in length,
and as a food-fish it is of correspondingly less importance.
Page 360
Fig. 242.—The Aspron, Aspro asper (Linnæus). Rhone River. Family
Percidæ. (After Seelye.)
The pike-perch, or zander, of central Europe, Centropomus (or Sandrus)
lucioperca, is an excellent game-fish, similar to the sauger, but larger,
characterized technically by having the ventral fins closer together. Another
species, Centropomus volgensis, in Russia, looks more like a perch than the
other species do. Sandroserrus, a fossil pike-perch, occurs in the Pliocene.
Another European fish related to the perch is the river ruff, or pope, Acerina
cernua, which is a small fish with the form of a perch and with conspicuous
mucous cavities in the skull. It is common throughout the north of Europe
and especially abundant at the confluence of rivers. Gymnocephalus
schrætzer of the Danube has the head still more cavernous. Percarina
demidoffi of southern Russia is another dainty little fish of the general type
of the perch. A fossil genus of this type called Smerdis is numerously
represented in the Miocene and later rocks. The aspron, Aspro asper, is a
species like a darter found lying on the bottoms of swift rivers, especially
the Rhone. The body is elongate, with the paired fins highly developed.
Zingel zingel is found in the Danube, as is also a third species called Aspro
streber. In form and coloration these species greatly resemble the American
darters, and the genus Zingel is, perhaps, the ancestor of the entire group.
Zingel differs from Percina mainly in having seven instead of six
branchiostegals and the pseudobranchiæ better developed. The differences
in these and other regards which distinguish the darters are features of
degradation, and they are also no doubt of relatively recent acquisition. To
this fact we may ascribe the difficulty in finding good generic characters
within the group. Sharply defined genera occur where the intervening types
Percidæ. (After Seelye.)
The pike-perch, or zander, of central Europe, Centropomus (or Sandrus)
lucioperca, is an excellent game-fish, similar to the sauger, but larger,
characterized technically by having the ventral fins closer together. Another
species, Centropomus volgensis, in Russia, looks more like a perch than the
other species do. Sandroserrus, a fossil pike-perch, occurs in the Pliocene.
Another European fish related to the perch is the river ruff, or pope, Acerina
cernua, which is a small fish with the form of a perch and with conspicuous
mucous cavities in the skull. It is common throughout the north of Europe
and especially abundant at the confluence of rivers. Gymnocephalus
schrætzer of the Danube has the head still more cavernous. Percarina
demidoffi of southern Russia is another dainty little fish of the general type
of the perch. A fossil genus of this type called Smerdis is numerously
represented in the Miocene and later rocks. The aspron, Aspro asper, is a
species like a darter found lying on the bottoms of swift rivers, especially
the Rhone. The body is elongate, with the paired fins highly developed.
Zingel zingel is found in the Danube, as is also a third species called Aspro
streber. In form and coloration these species greatly resemble the American
darters, and the genus Zingel is, perhaps, the ancestor of the entire group.
Zingel differs from Percina mainly in having seven instead of six
branchiostegals and the pseudobranchiæ better developed. The differences
in these and other regards which distinguish the darters are features of
degradation, and they are also no doubt of relatively recent acquisition. To
this fact we may ascribe the difficulty in finding good generic characters
within the group. Sharply defined genera occur where the intervening types
Page 361
are lost. The darter is one of the very latest products in the evolution of
fishes.
Fig. 243.—The Zingel, Zingel zingel (Linnæus). Danube River. (After
Seelye.)
The Darters: Etheostominæ.—Of the darters, or etheostomine perches,
over fifty species are known, all confined to the streams of the region
bounded by Quebec, Assiniboia, Colorado, and Nuevo Leon. All are small
fishes and some of them minute, and some are the most brilliantly colored
of all fresh-water fishes of any region, the most ornate belonging to the
large genus called Etheostoma. The largest species, the most primitive
because most like the perch, belong to the genus Percina.
First among the darters because largest in size, most perch-like in structure,
and least degenerate, we place the king darter, Percina rex of the Roanoke
River in Virginia. This species reaches a length of six inches, is handsomely
colored, and looks like a young wall-eye.
fishes.
Fig. 243.—The Zingel, Zingel zingel (Linnæus). Danube River. (After
Seelye.)
The Darters: Etheostominæ.—Of the darters, or etheostomine perches,
over fifty species are known, all confined to the streams of the region
bounded by Quebec, Assiniboia, Colorado, and Nuevo Leon. All are small
fishes and some of them minute, and some are the most brilliantly colored
of all fresh-water fishes of any region, the most ornate belonging to the
large genus called Etheostoma. The largest species, the most primitive
because most like the perch, belong to the genus Percina.
First among the darters because largest in size, most perch-like in structure,
and least degenerate, we place the king darter, Percina rex of the Roanoke
River in Virginia. This species reaches a length of six inches, is handsomely
colored, and looks like a young wall-eye.
Page 362
Fig. 244.—Log-perch, Percina caprodes (Rafinesque). Licking Co., Ohio.
The log-perch, Percina caprodes, is near to this, but a little smaller, with the
body surrounded by black rings alternately large and small. In this widely
distributed species, large enough to take the hook, the air-bladder is present
although small. In the smaller species it vanishes by degrees, and in
proportion as in their habits they cling to the bottom of the stream. The air-
bladder is least developed in those species which cling closest to the bottom
of the stream.
Fig. 245.—Black-sided Darter, Hadropterus aspro (Cope & Jordan).
Chickamauga River.
The genus Hadropterus includes many handsome species, most of them
with a black lateral band widened at intervals. The black-sided darter,
The log-perch, Percina caprodes, is near to this, but a little smaller, with the
body surrounded by black rings alternately large and small. In this widely
distributed species, large enough to take the hook, the air-bladder is present
although small. In the smaller species it vanishes by degrees, and in
proportion as in their habits they cling to the bottom of the stream. The air-
bladder is least developed in those species which cling closest to the bottom
of the stream.
Fig. 245.—Black-sided Darter, Hadropterus aspro (Cope & Jordan).
Chickamauga River.
The genus Hadropterus includes many handsome species, most of them
with a black lateral band widened at intervals. The black-sided darter,
Page 363
Hadropterus aspro, is the best-known species and one of the most elegant
of all fishes, abounding in the clear gravelly streams of the Ohio basin and
northwestward.
Hadropterus evides of the Ohio region is still more brilliant, with alternate
bands of dark blue-green and orange-red, most exquisite in their
arrangement. In the South, Hadropterus nigrofasciatus, the crawl-a-bottom
of the Georgia rivers, is a heavily built darter, which Vaillant has considered
the ancestral species of the group. Still more swift in movement and bright
in color are the species of Hypohomus, which flash their showy hues in the
sparkling brooks of the Ozark and the Great Smoky Mountains. Hypohomus
aurantiacus is the best-known species.
Fig. 246.—Green-sided Darter, Diplesion blennioides Rafinesque. Clinch
River. Family Percidæ.
Diplesion blennioides, the green-sided darter, is the type of numerous
species with short heads, large fins, and coloration of speckled green and
golden. It abounds in the streams of the Ohio Valley.
of all fishes, abounding in the clear gravelly streams of the Ohio basin and
northwestward.
Hadropterus evides of the Ohio region is still more brilliant, with alternate
bands of dark blue-green and orange-red, most exquisite in their
arrangement. In the South, Hadropterus nigrofasciatus, the crawl-a-bottom
of the Georgia rivers, is a heavily built darter, which Vaillant has considered
the ancestral species of the group. Still more swift in movement and bright
in color are the species of Hypohomus, which flash their showy hues in the
sparkling brooks of the Ozark and the Great Smoky Mountains. Hypohomus
aurantiacus is the best-known species.
Fig. 246.—Green-sided Darter, Diplesion blennioides Rafinesque. Clinch
River. Family Percidæ.
Diplesion blennioides, the green-sided darter, is the type of numerous
species with short heads, large fins, and coloration of speckled green and
golden. It abounds in the streams of the Ohio Valley.
Page 364
Fig. 247.—Tessellated Darter, Boleosoma olmstedi (Storer). Potomac
River.
The tessellated darters, Boleosoma, are the most plainly colored of the
group and among the smallest; yet in the delicacy, wariness, and quaintness
of motion they are among the most interesting, especially in the aquarium.
Boleosoma nigrum, the Johnny darter in the West, and Boleosoma olmstedi
in the East are among the commonest species, found half hidden in the
weeds of small brooks, and showing no bright colors, although the male in
the spring has the head, and often the whole body, jet black.
Fig. 248.—Crystal Darter, Crystallaria asprella (Jordan). Wabash River.
Crystallaria asprella, a large species almost transparent, is occasionally
taken in swift currents along the limestone banks of the Mississippi. Still
River.
The tessellated darters, Boleosoma, are the most plainly colored of the
group and among the smallest; yet in the delicacy, wariness, and quaintness
of motion they are among the most interesting, especially in the aquarium.
Boleosoma nigrum, the Johnny darter in the West, and Boleosoma olmstedi
in the East are among the commonest species, found half hidden in the
weeds of small brooks, and showing no bright colors, although the male in
the spring has the head, and often the whole body, jet black.
Fig. 248.—Crystal Darter, Crystallaria asprella (Jordan). Wabash River.
Crystallaria asprella, a large species almost transparent, is occasionally
taken in swift currents along the limestone banks of the Mississippi. Still
Page 365
more transparent is the small sand-darter, Ammocrypta pellucida, which
lives in the clearest of waters, concealing itself by plunging into the sand.
Its scales are scantily developed, as befits a fish that chooses this method of
protection, and in the related Ammocrypta beani of the streams of the
Louisiana pine-woods, the body is almost naked, as also in Ioa vitrea, the
glassy darter of the pine-woods of North Carolina.
Fig. 249.—Sand-darter, Ammocrypta clara (Jordan & Meek). Des Moines
River.
In the other darters the body is more compressed, the movements less
active, the coloration even more brilliant in the males, which are far more
showy than their dull olivaceous mates.
To Etheostoma nearly half of the species belong, and they form indeed a
royal series of little fishes. Only a few can be noticed here, but all of them
are described in detail and many are figured by Jordan and Evermann
("Fishes of North and Middle America," Vol. I).
lives in the clearest of waters, concealing itself by plunging into the sand.
Its scales are scantily developed, as befits a fish that chooses this method of
protection, and in the related Ammocrypta beani of the streams of the
Louisiana pine-woods, the body is almost naked, as also in Ioa vitrea, the
glassy darter of the pine-woods of North Carolina.
Fig. 249.—Sand-darter, Ammocrypta clara (Jordan & Meek). Des Moines
River.
In the other darters the body is more compressed, the movements less
active, the coloration even more brilliant in the males, which are far more
showy than their dull olivaceous mates.
To Etheostoma nearly half of the species belong, and they form indeed a
royal series of little fishes. Only a few can be noticed here, but all of them
are described in detail and many are figured by Jordan and Evermann
("Fishes of North and Middle America," Vol. I).
Page 366
Fig. 250.—Etheostoma jordani Gilbert. Chestnut Creek, Verbena, Ala.
Fig. 251.—Blue-breasted Darter, Etheostoma camurum (Cope), the most
brilliantly colored of American river fishes. Cumberland Gap, Tenn.
Most beautiful of all fresh-water fishes is the blue-breasted darter,
Etheostoma camurum, red-blue and olive, with red spots, like a trout. This
species lives in clear streams of the Ohio valley, a region perhaps to be
regarded as the center of abundance of these fishes.
Very similar is the trout-spotted darter, Etheostoma maculatum, dusky and
red, with round crimson spots. Etheostoma rufilineatum of the French
Broad is one of the most gaudy of fishes. Etheostoma australe of
Chihuahua ranges farthest south of all the darters, and Etheostoma boreale
of Quebec perhaps farthest north, though Etheostoma iowæ, found from
Fig. 251.—Blue-breasted Darter, Etheostoma camurum (Cope), the most
brilliantly colored of American river fishes. Cumberland Gap, Tenn.
Most beautiful of all fresh-water fishes is the blue-breasted darter,
Etheostoma camurum, red-blue and olive, with red spots, like a trout. This
species lives in clear streams of the Ohio valley, a region perhaps to be
regarded as the center of abundance of these fishes.
Very similar is the trout-spotted darter, Etheostoma maculatum, dusky and
red, with round crimson spots. Etheostoma rufilineatum of the French
Broad is one of the most gaudy of fishes. Etheostoma australe of
Chihuahua ranges farthest south of all the darters, and Etheostoma boreale
of Quebec perhaps farthest north, though Etheostoma iowæ, found from
Page 367
Iowa to the Saskatchewan, may dispute this honor. Etheostoma cæruleum,
the rainbow darter or soldier-fish, with alternate oblique bands of blue and
scarlet, is doubtless the most familiar of the brilliantly colored species, as it
is the most abundant throughout the Ohio valley.
Etheostoma flabellare, the fan-tailed darter, discovered by Rafinesque in
Kentucky in 1817, was the first species of the series made known to
science. It has no bright colors, but its movements in water are more active
than any of the others, and it is the most hardy in the aquarium.
Psychromaster tuscumbia abounds in the great limestone springs of
northern Alabama, while Copelandellus quiescens swarms in the black-
water brooks which flow into the Dismal Swamp and thence southward to
the Suwanee. It is a little fish not very active, its range going farther into the
southern lowlands than any other. Finally, Microperca punctulata, the least
darter, is the smallest of all, with fewest spines and dullest colors, most
specialized in the sense of being least primitive, but at the same time the
most degraded of all the darters.
No fossil forms nearly allied to the darters are on record. The nearest is
perhaps Mioplosus labracoides from the Eocene at Green River, Wyoming.
This elongate fish, a foot long, has the dorsal rays IX-1, 13, and the anal
rays II, 13, its scales finely serrated, and the preopercle coarsely serrated on
the lower limb only. This species, with its numerous congeners from the
Rocky Mountain Eocene, is nearer the true perch than the darters. Several
species related to Perca are also recorded from the Eocene of England and
Germany. A species called Lucioperca skorpili, allied to Centropomus, is
described from the Oligocene of Bulgaria, besides several other forms
imperfectly preserved, of still more doubtful affinities.
the rainbow darter or soldier-fish, with alternate oblique bands of blue and
scarlet, is doubtless the most familiar of the brilliantly colored species, as it
is the most abundant throughout the Ohio valley.
Etheostoma flabellare, the fan-tailed darter, discovered by Rafinesque in
Kentucky in 1817, was the first species of the series made known to
science. It has no bright colors, but its movements in water are more active
than any of the others, and it is the most hardy in the aquarium.
Psychromaster tuscumbia abounds in the great limestone springs of
northern Alabama, while Copelandellus quiescens swarms in the black-
water brooks which flow into the Dismal Swamp and thence southward to
the Suwanee. It is a little fish not very active, its range going farther into the
southern lowlands than any other. Finally, Microperca punctulata, the least
darter, is the smallest of all, with fewest spines and dullest colors, most
specialized in the sense of being least primitive, but at the same time the
most degraded of all the darters.
No fossil forms nearly allied to the darters are on record. The nearest is
perhaps Mioplosus labracoides from the Eocene at Green River, Wyoming.
This elongate fish, a foot long, has the dorsal rays IX-1, 13, and the anal
rays II, 13, its scales finely serrated, and the preopercle coarsely serrated on
the lower limb only. This species, with its numerous congeners from the
Rocky Mountain Eocene, is nearer the true perch than the darters. Several
species related to Perca are also recorded from the Eocene of England and
Germany. A species called Lucioperca skorpili, allied to Centropomus, is
described from the Oligocene of Bulgaria, besides several other forms
imperfectly preserved, of still more doubtful affinities.
Page 368
CHAPTER XIX
THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES
he Cardinal-fishes. Apogonidæ.—The Apogonidæ or
cardinal-fishes are perch-like fishes, mostly of small size,
with two distinct short dorsal fins. They are found in the warm
seas, and many of them enter rivers, some even inhabiting hot
springs. Many of the shore species are bright red in color,
usually with black stripes, bands, or spots. Still others, however, are olive or
silvery, and a few in deeper water are violet-black.
Fig. 252.—Cardinal-fish, Apogon retrosella Gill. Mazatlan.
THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES
he Cardinal-fishes. Apogonidæ.—The Apogonidæ or
cardinal-fishes are perch-like fishes, mostly of small size,
with two distinct short dorsal fins. They are found in the warm
seas, and many of them enter rivers, some even inhabiting hot
springs. Many of the shore species are bright red in color,
usually with black stripes, bands, or spots. Still others, however, are olive or
silvery, and a few in deeper water are violet-black.
Fig. 252.—Cardinal-fish, Apogon retrosella Gill. Mazatlan.
Page 369
The species of Apogon are especially numerous, and in regions where they
are abundant, as in Japan, they are much valued as food. Apogon imberbis,
the "king of the mullet," is a common red species of southern Europe.
Apogon maculatus is found in the West Indies. Apogon retrosella is the
pretty "cardenal" of the west coast of Mexico. Apogon lineatus,
semilineatus and other species abound in Japan, and many species occur
about the islands of Polynesia. Epigonus telescopium is a deep-sea fish of
the Mediterranean and Telescopias and Synagrops are genera of the depths
of the Pacific. Paramia with strong canines is allied to Apogon, and similar
in color and habit.
Allied to Apogon are several small groups often taken as distinct families.
The species of Ambassis (Ambassidæ) are little fishes of the rivers and bays
of India and Polynesia, resembling small silvery perch or bass. All these
have three anal spines instead of two as in Apogon. Some of these enter
rivers and several are recorded from hot springs. Scombrops boops, the
mutsu of Japan, is a valued food-fish found in rather deep water. It is
remarkable for its very strong teeth, although its flesh is feeble and easily
torn. A still larger species in Cuba, Scombrops oculata, known as Escolar
chino, resembles a barracuda. These fishes with fragile bodies and very
strong teeth are placed by Gill in a separate family (Scombropidæ).
Acropoma japonicum is a neat little fish of the Japanese coast, with the vent
placed farther forward than in Apogon. It is the type of the Acropomidæ, a
small family of the Pacific. Enoplosus armatus is an Australian fish with
high back and fins, with a rather stately appearance, type of the Enoplosidæ.
In his last catalogue of families of fishes Dr. Gill recognizes Scombropidæ
and Acropomidæ as distinct families, but their relationships with Apogon
are certainly very close. Many genera allied to Apogon and Ambassis occur
in Australian rivers. Several fossils referred to Apogon (Apogon spinosus,
etc.) occur in the Eocene of Italy and Germany.
The Anomalopidæ.—The family of Anomalopidæ is a small group of
deep-sea fishes of uncertain relationship, but perhaps remotely related to
Apogon. Anomalops palpebrata is found in Polynesia and has beneath the
eye a large luminous organ unlike anything seen elsewhere among fishes.
The Asineopidæ.—Another family of doubtful relationship is that of
Asineopidæ, elsewhere noticed. It is composed of extinct fresh-water fishes
found in the Green River shales. In Asineops squamifrons the opercles are
are abundant, as in Japan, they are much valued as food. Apogon imberbis,
the "king of the mullet," is a common red species of southern Europe.
Apogon maculatus is found in the West Indies. Apogon retrosella is the
pretty "cardenal" of the west coast of Mexico. Apogon lineatus,
semilineatus and other species abound in Japan, and many species occur
about the islands of Polynesia. Epigonus telescopium is a deep-sea fish of
the Mediterranean and Telescopias and Synagrops are genera of the depths
of the Pacific. Paramia with strong canines is allied to Apogon, and similar
in color and habit.
Allied to Apogon are several small groups often taken as distinct families.
The species of Ambassis (Ambassidæ) are little fishes of the rivers and bays
of India and Polynesia, resembling small silvery perch or bass. All these
have three anal spines instead of two as in Apogon. Some of these enter
rivers and several are recorded from hot springs. Scombrops boops, the
mutsu of Japan, is a valued food-fish found in rather deep water. It is
remarkable for its very strong teeth, although its flesh is feeble and easily
torn. A still larger species in Cuba, Scombrops oculata, known as Escolar
chino, resembles a barracuda. These fishes with fragile bodies and very
strong teeth are placed by Gill in a separate family (Scombropidæ).
Acropoma japonicum is a neat little fish of the Japanese coast, with the vent
placed farther forward than in Apogon. It is the type of the Acropomidæ, a
small family of the Pacific. Enoplosus armatus is an Australian fish with
high back and fins, with a rather stately appearance, type of the Enoplosidæ.
In his last catalogue of families of fishes Dr. Gill recognizes Scombropidæ
and Acropomidæ as distinct families, but their relationships with Apogon
are certainly very close. Many genera allied to Apogon and Ambassis occur
in Australian rivers. Several fossils referred to Apogon (Apogon spinosus,
etc.) occur in the Eocene of Italy and Germany.
The Anomalopidæ.—The family of Anomalopidæ is a small group of
deep-sea fishes of uncertain relationship, but perhaps remotely related to
Apogon. Anomalops palpebrata is found in Polynesia and has beneath the
eye a large luminous organ unlike anything seen elsewhere among fishes.
The Asineopidæ.—Another family of doubtful relationship is that of
Asineopidæ, elsewhere noticed. It is composed of extinct fresh-water fishes
found in the Green River shales. In Asineops squamifrons the opercles are
Page 370
unarmed, the teeth villiform, and the dorsal fin undivided, composed of
eight or nine spines and twelve to fourteen soft rays. The anal spines, as in
Apogon, are two only, and the scales are cycloid.
Fig. 253.—Kuromutsu, Telescopias gilberti Jordan & Snyder. Misaki,
Japan.
Fig. 254.—Apogon semilineatus Schlegel. Misaki, Japan.
eight or nine spines and twelve to fourteen soft rays. The anal spines, as in
Apogon, are two only, and the scales are cycloid.
Fig. 253.—Kuromutsu, Telescopias gilberti Jordan & Snyder. Misaki,
Japan.
Fig. 254.—Apogon semilineatus Schlegel. Misaki, Japan.
Page 371
Fig. 255.—Robalo, Oxylabrax undecimalis (Bloch). Florida.
The Robalos:[13] Oxylabracidæ.—The family of Robalos (Oxylabracidæ
or Centropomidæ) is closely related to the Serranidæ, differing among other
things in having the conspicuous lateral line extended on the caudal fin.
These are silvery fishes with elongate bodies, large scales, a pike-like
appearance, the first dorsal composed of strong spines and the second spine
of the anal especially large. They are found in tropical America only, where
they are highly valued as food, the flesh being like that of the striped bass,
white, flaky, and of fine flavor. The common robalo, or snook, Oxylabrax
(or Centropomus) undecimalis, reaches a weight of fifteen to twenty
pounds. It ranges north as far as Texas. In this species the lateral line is
black. The smaller species, of which several are described, are known as
Robalito or Constantino.
13. The European zander is the type of Lacépède's genus Centropomus. The name Centropomus
has been wrongly transferred to the robalo by most authors.
The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.—The central family of the percoid fishes is that
of the Serranidæ, or sea-bass. Of these about 400 species are recorded,
carnivorous fishes found in all warm seas, a few ascending the fresh waters.
In general, the species are characterized by the presence of twenty-four
vertebræ and three anal spines, never more than three. The fresh-water
species are all more or less archaic and show traits suggesting the
Oxylabracidæ, Percidæ, or Centrarchidæ, all of which are doubtless
derived from ancestors of Serranidæ. Among the connecting forms are the
The Robalos:[13] Oxylabracidæ.—The family of Robalos (Oxylabracidæ
or Centropomidæ) is closely related to the Serranidæ, differing among other
things in having the conspicuous lateral line extended on the caudal fin.
These are silvery fishes with elongate bodies, large scales, a pike-like
appearance, the first dorsal composed of strong spines and the second spine
of the anal especially large. They are found in tropical America only, where
they are highly valued as food, the flesh being like that of the striped bass,
white, flaky, and of fine flavor. The common robalo, or snook, Oxylabrax
(or Centropomus) undecimalis, reaches a weight of fifteen to twenty
pounds. It ranges north as far as Texas. In this species the lateral line is
black. The smaller species, of which several are described, are known as
Robalito or Constantino.
13. The European zander is the type of Lacépède's genus Centropomus. The name Centropomus
has been wrongly transferred to the robalo by most authors.
The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.—The central family of the percoid fishes is that
of the Serranidæ, or sea-bass. Of these about 400 species are recorded,
carnivorous fishes found in all warm seas, a few ascending the fresh waters.
In general, the species are characterized by the presence of twenty-four
vertebræ and three anal spines, never more than three. The fresh-water
species are all more or less archaic and show traits suggesting the
Oxylabracidæ, Percidæ, or Centrarchidæ, all of which are doubtless
derived from ancestors of Serranidæ. Among the connecting forms are the
Page 372
perch-like genera Percichthys and Percilia of the rivers of Chile. These
species look much like perch, but have three anal spines, the number of
vertebræ being thirty-five. Percichthys trucha is the common trucha, or
trout, of Chilean waters.
Lateolabrax japonicus, the susuki, or bass, of Japan, is one of the most
valued food-fishes of the Orient, similar in quality to the robalo, which it
much resembles. This genus and the East Indian Centrogenys waigiensis
approach Oxylabrax in appearance and structure. Niphon spinosus, the ara
of Japan, is a very large sea-bass, also of this type. Close to these bass,
marine and fresh water, are the Chinese genus Siniperca and the Korean
genus Coreoperca, several species of which abound in Oriental rivers. In
southern Japan is the rare Bryttosus kawamebari, a bass in structure, but
very closely resembling the American sunfish, even to the presence of the
bright-edged black ear-spot. There is reason to believe that from some such
form the Centrarchidæ were derived.
Other bass-like fishes occur in Egypt (Lates), Australia (Percalates, etc.),
and southern Africa. Oligorus macquariensis is the great cod of the
Australian rivers and Ctenolates ambiguus is the yellow belly, while
Percalates colonorum is everywhere the "perch" in Australian rivers. The
most important member of these transitional types between perch and sea-
bass is the striped bass, or rockfish (Roccus lineatus), of the Atlantic coast
of the United States. This large fish, reaching in extreme cases a weight of
112 pounds, lives in shallow waters in the sea and ascends the rivers in
spring to spawn. It is olivaceous in color, the sides golden silvery, with
narrow black stripes. About 1880 it was introduced by the United States
Fish Commission into the Sacramento, where it is now very abundant and a
fish of large commercial importance. To the angler the striped bass is
always "a gallant fish and a bold biter," and Genio Scott places it first
among the game-fishes of America.
The white bass (Roccus chrysops) is very similar to it, but shorter and more
compressed, reaching a smaller size. This fish is abundant in the Great
Lakes and the upper Mississippi as far south as Arkansas.
The yellow bass (Morone interrupta), a coarser and more brassy fish,
replaces it farther south. It is seldom seen above Cincinnati and St. Louis.
The white perch (Morone americana) is a little fish of the Atlantic
species look much like perch, but have three anal spines, the number of
vertebræ being thirty-five. Percichthys trucha is the common trucha, or
trout, of Chilean waters.
Lateolabrax japonicus, the susuki, or bass, of Japan, is one of the most
valued food-fishes of the Orient, similar in quality to the robalo, which it
much resembles. This genus and the East Indian Centrogenys waigiensis
approach Oxylabrax in appearance and structure. Niphon spinosus, the ara
of Japan, is a very large sea-bass, also of this type. Close to these bass,
marine and fresh water, are the Chinese genus Siniperca and the Korean
genus Coreoperca, several species of which abound in Oriental rivers. In
southern Japan is the rare Bryttosus kawamebari, a bass in structure, but
very closely resembling the American sunfish, even to the presence of the
bright-edged black ear-spot. There is reason to believe that from some such
form the Centrarchidæ were derived.
Other bass-like fishes occur in Egypt (Lates), Australia (Percalates, etc.),
and southern Africa. Oligorus macquariensis is the great cod of the
Australian rivers and Ctenolates ambiguus is the yellow belly, while
Percalates colonorum is everywhere the "perch" in Australian rivers. The
most important member of these transitional types between perch and sea-
bass is the striped bass, or rockfish (Roccus lineatus), of the Atlantic coast
of the United States. This large fish, reaching in extreme cases a weight of
112 pounds, lives in shallow waters in the sea and ascends the rivers in
spring to spawn. It is olivaceous in color, the sides golden silvery, with
narrow black stripes. About 1880 it was introduced by the United States
Fish Commission into the Sacramento, where it is now very abundant and a
fish of large commercial importance. To the angler the striped bass is
always "a gallant fish and a bold biter," and Genio Scott places it first
among the game-fishes of America.
The white bass (Roccus chrysops) is very similar to it, but shorter and more
compressed, reaching a smaller size. This fish is abundant in the Great
Lakes and the upper Mississippi as far south as Arkansas.
The yellow bass (Morone interrupta), a coarser and more brassy fish,
replaces it farther south. It is seldom seen above Cincinnati and St. Louis.
The white perch (Morone americana) is a little fish of the Atlantic
Page 373
seaboard, entering the sea, but running up all the rivers, remaining
contentedly landlocked in ponds. It is one of the most characteristic fishes
of the coast from Nova Scotia to Virginia. It is a good pan fish, takes the
hook vigorously, and in a modest way deserves the good-will of the angler
who cannot stray far into the mountains. Very close to these American bass
is the bass, bars, or robalo, of southern Europe, Dicentrarchus labrax, a
large olive-colored fish, excellent as food, living in the sea about the
mouths of rivers.
The Jewfishes.—In the warm seas are certain bass of immense size,
reaching a length of six feet or more, and being robust in form, a weight of
500 or 600 pounds. These are dusky green in color, thick-headed, rough-
scaled, with low fins, voracious disposition, and sluggish movements. In
almost all parts of the world these great bass are called jewfish, but no
reason for this name has ever been suggested. In habit and value the species
are much alike, and the jewfish of California, Stereolepis gigas, the prize of
the Santa Catalina anglers, may be taken as the type of them all. Closely
related to this is the Japanese ishinagi, Megaperca ischinagi, the jewfish, or
stone-bass, of Japan. Another Japanese jewfish is the Abura bodzu, or "fat
priest," Ebisus sagamius. In the West Indies, as also on the west coast of
Mexico, the jewfish, or guasa, is Promicrops itaiara. The black grouper,
Garrupa nigrita, is the jewfish of Florida. The European jewfish, more
often called wreckfish, or stone-bass, is Polyprion americanus, and the
equally large Polyprion oxygeneios is found in Australia, as is also another
jewfish, Glaucosoma hebraicum, the last belonging to the Lutianidæ.
Largest of all these jewfishes is Promicrops lanceolata of the South Pacific.
This huge bass, according to Dr. Boulenger, sometimes reaches a length of
twelve feet.
contentedly landlocked in ponds. It is one of the most characteristic fishes
of the coast from Nova Scotia to Virginia. It is a good pan fish, takes the
hook vigorously, and in a modest way deserves the good-will of the angler
who cannot stray far into the mountains. Very close to these American bass
is the bass, bars, or robalo, of southern Europe, Dicentrarchus labrax, a
large olive-colored fish, excellent as food, living in the sea about the
mouths of rivers.
The Jewfishes.—In the warm seas are certain bass of immense size,
reaching a length of six feet or more, and being robust in form, a weight of
500 or 600 pounds. These are dusky green in color, thick-headed, rough-
scaled, with low fins, voracious disposition, and sluggish movements. In
almost all parts of the world these great bass are called jewfish, but no
reason for this name has ever been suggested. In habit and value the species
are much alike, and the jewfish of California, Stereolepis gigas, the prize of
the Santa Catalina anglers, may be taken as the type of them all. Closely
related to this is the Japanese ishinagi, Megaperca ischinagi, the jewfish, or
stone-bass, of Japan. Another Japanese jewfish is the Abura bodzu, or "fat
priest," Ebisus sagamius. In the West Indies, as also on the west coast of
Mexico, the jewfish, or guasa, is Promicrops itaiara. The black grouper,
Garrupa nigrita, is the jewfish of Florida. The European jewfish, more
often called wreckfish, or stone-bass, is Polyprion americanus, and the
equally large Polyprion oxygeneios is found in Australia, as is also another
jewfish, Glaucosoma hebraicum, the last belonging to the Lutianidæ.
Largest of all these jewfishes is Promicrops lanceolata of the South Pacific.
This huge bass, according to Dr. Boulenger, sometimes reaches a length of
twelve feet.
Page 374
Fig. 256.—White Perch, Morone americana Gmelin. (From life by Dr. R.
W. Shufeldt; one half natural size.)
Fig. 257.—Florida Jewfish, Promicrops itaiara (Lichtenstein). St. John's
River, Fla.
W. Shufeldt; one half natural size.)
Fig. 257.—Florida Jewfish, Promicrops itaiara (Lichtenstein). St. John's
River, Fla.
Page 375
Related to the jewfishes are numerous smaller fishes. One of these, the
Spanish-flag of Cuba, Gonioplectrus hispanus, is rose-colored, with golden
bands like the flag of Spain itself. Other species referred to Acanthistius and
Plectropoma have, like this, hooked spines on the lower border of the
preopercle.
Fig. 258.—Epinephelus striatus (Bloch), Nassau Grouper: Cherna criolla.
Family Serranidæ.
Spanish-flag of Cuba, Gonioplectrus hispanus, is rose-colored, with golden
bands like the flag of Spain itself. Other species referred to Acanthistius and
Plectropoma have, like this, hooked spines on the lower border of the
preopercle.
Fig. 258.—Epinephelus striatus (Bloch), Nassau Grouper: Cherna criolla.
Family Serranidæ.
Page 376
Fig. 259.—John Paw or Speckled Hind, Epinephelus drummond-hayi
Goode Pensacola.
Fig. 260.—Epinephelus morio (Cuvier & Valenciennes), Red Grouper, or
Mero. Family Serranidæ.
The Groupers.—In all warm seas abound species of Epinephelus and
related genera, known as sea-bass, groupers, or merous. They are mostly
Goode Pensacola.
Fig. 260.—Epinephelus morio (Cuvier & Valenciennes), Red Grouper, or
Mero. Family Serranidæ.
The Groupers.—In all warm seas abound species of Epinephelus and
related genera, known as sea-bass, groupers, or merous. They are mostly
Page 377
large voracious fishes with small scales, pale flesh of fair quality, and from
their abundance they are of large commercial importance. To English-
speaking people these fishes are usually known as grouper, a corruption of
the Portuguese name garrupa. In the West Indies and about Panama there
are very many species, and still others abound in the Mediterranean, in
southern Japan, and throughout Polynesia and the West Indies. They have
very much in common, but differ in size and color, some being bright red,
some gaudily spotted with red or blue, but most of them are merely mottled
green or brown. In many cases individuals living near shore are olivaceous,
and those of the same species in the depths are bright crimson or scarlet. We
name below a few of the most prominent species. Even a bare list of all of
them would take many pages. Cephalopholis cruentatus, the red hind of the
Florida Keys, is one of the smallest and brightest of all of them.
Cephalopholis fulvus, the blue-spotted guativere of the Cubans, is called
negro-fish, butter-fish, yellow-fish, or redfish, according to its color, which
varies with the depth. It is red, yellow, or olive, with many round blue spots.
Epinephelus adscenscionis, the rock-hind, is spotted everywhere with
orange. Epinephelus guaza is the merou, or giant-bass, of Europe, a large
food-fish of value, rather dull in color. Epinephelus striatus is the Nassau
grouper, or Cherna criolla, common in the West Indies. Epinephelus
maculosus is the cabrilla of Cuba. Epinephelus drummond-hayi, the
speckled hind, umber brown, spotted with lavender, is one of the
handsomest of all the groupers. Epinephelus morio, the red grouper, is the
commonest of all these fishes in the American markets. In Asia the species
are equally numerous, Epinephelus quernus of Hawaii and the red
Epinephelus fasciatus of Japan and southward being food-fishes of
importance. Epinephelus merra, Epinephelus gilberti, and Epinephelus
tauvina are among the more common species of Polynesia. Epinephelus
corallicola, a species profusely spotted, abounds in the crevices of coral
reefs, while Cepholopholis argus and C. leopardus are showy fishes of the
deeper channels. Mycteroperca venenosa, the yellow-finned grouper, is a
large and handsome fish of the coast of Cuba, the flesh sometimes
poisonous; when red in deep water it is known as the bonaci cardenal.
Mycteroperca bonaci; the bonaci arará sells in our markets as black grouper.
Mycteroperca microlepis is commonest along our South Atlantic coast, not
reaching the West Indies, and Mycteroperca rubra, which is never red,
enters the Mediterranean. Mycteroperca falcata is known in the markets as
their abundance they are of large commercial importance. To English-
speaking people these fishes are usually known as grouper, a corruption of
the Portuguese name garrupa. In the West Indies and about Panama there
are very many species, and still others abound in the Mediterranean, in
southern Japan, and throughout Polynesia and the West Indies. They have
very much in common, but differ in size and color, some being bright red,
some gaudily spotted with red or blue, but most of them are merely mottled
green or brown. In many cases individuals living near shore are olivaceous,
and those of the same species in the depths are bright crimson or scarlet. We
name below a few of the most prominent species. Even a bare list of all of
them would take many pages. Cephalopholis cruentatus, the red hind of the
Florida Keys, is one of the smallest and brightest of all of them.
Cephalopholis fulvus, the blue-spotted guativere of the Cubans, is called
negro-fish, butter-fish, yellow-fish, or redfish, according to its color, which
varies with the depth. It is red, yellow, or olive, with many round blue spots.
Epinephelus adscenscionis, the rock-hind, is spotted everywhere with
orange. Epinephelus guaza is the merou, or giant-bass, of Europe, a large
food-fish of value, rather dull in color. Epinephelus striatus is the Nassau
grouper, or Cherna criolla, common in the West Indies. Epinephelus
maculosus is the cabrilla of Cuba. Epinephelus drummond-hayi, the
speckled hind, umber brown, spotted with lavender, is one of the
handsomest of all the groupers. Epinephelus morio, the red grouper, is the
commonest of all these fishes in the American markets. In Asia the species
are equally numerous, Epinephelus quernus of Hawaii and the red
Epinephelus fasciatus of Japan and southward being food-fishes of
importance. Epinephelus merra, Epinephelus gilberti, and Epinephelus
tauvina are among the more common species of Polynesia. Epinephelus
corallicola, a species profusely spotted, abounds in the crevices of coral
reefs, while Cepholopholis argus and C. leopardus are showy fishes of the
deeper channels. Mycteroperca venenosa, the yellow-finned grouper, is a
large and handsome fish of the coast of Cuba, the flesh sometimes
poisonous; when red in deep water it is known as the bonaci cardenal.
Mycteroperca bonaci; the bonaci arará sells in our markets as black grouper.
Mycteroperca microlepis is commonest along our South Atlantic coast, not
reaching the West Indies, and Mycteroperca rubra, which is never red,
enters the Mediterranean. Mycteroperca falcata is known in the markets as
Page 378
scamp, and Mycteroperca venadorum is a giant species from the Venados
Islands, near Mazatlan. Diploprion bifasciatus is a handsome grouper-like
fish with two black cross-bands, found in Japan and India. Variola louti,
red, with crimson spots and a forked caudal fin, is one of the most showy
fishes of the equatorial Pacific.
Fig. 261.—Red Hind, Epinephelus adscensionis (Osbeck). Puerto Rico.
(After Evermann.)
Islands, near Mazatlan. Diploprion bifasciatus is a handsome grouper-like
fish with two black cross-bands, found in Japan and India. Variola louti,
red, with crimson spots and a forked caudal fin, is one of the most showy
fishes of the equatorial Pacific.
Fig. 261.—Red Hind, Epinephelus adscensionis (Osbeck). Puerto Rico.
(After Evermann.)
Page 379
Fig. 262.—Yellow-fin Grouper, Mycteroperca venenosa (Linnæus).
Havana.
The small fishes called Vaca in Cuba belong to the genus Hypoplectrus.
Their extraordinary and unexplained variations in color have been noticed
on page 235, Vol. I. The common species—blue, orange, green, plain,
striated, checkered, or striped—bears the name of Hypoplectrus unicolor.
(Fig. 264).
The Serranos.—In all the species known as jewfish and grouper, as also in
the Oxylabracidæ and most Centrarchidæ, the maxillary bone is divided by
a lengthwise suture which sets off a distinct supplemental maxillary. This
bone is wanting in the remaining species of Serranidæ, as it is also in those
forms already noticed which are familiarly known as bass. The species
without the supplemental maxillary are in general smaller in size, the
canines are on the sides of the jaws instead of in front, and there are none of
the hinged depressible teeth which are conspicuous in the groupers. The
species are abundant in the Atlantic, but scarcely any are found in
Polynesia, and few in Japan or India.
Havana.
The small fishes called Vaca in Cuba belong to the genus Hypoplectrus.
Their extraordinary and unexplained variations in color have been noticed
on page 235, Vol. I. The common species—blue, orange, green, plain,
striated, checkered, or striped—bears the name of Hypoplectrus unicolor.
(Fig. 264).
The Serranos.—In all the species known as jewfish and grouper, as also in
the Oxylabracidæ and most Centrarchidæ, the maxillary bone is divided by
a lengthwise suture which sets off a distinct supplemental maxillary. This
bone is wanting in the remaining species of Serranidæ, as it is also in those
forms already noticed which are familiarly known as bass. The species
without the supplemental maxillary are in general smaller in size, the
canines are on the sides of the jaws instead of in front, and there are none of
the hinged depressible teeth which are conspicuous in the groupers. The
species are abundant in the Atlantic, but scarcely any are found in
Polynesia, and few in Japan or India.
Page 380
Fig. 263.—Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans (Poey). Tortugas, Fla.
Serranus cabrilla is the Cabrilla of the Mediterranean, a well-known and
excellent food-fish, the original type of the family of Serranidæ.
Serranellus scriba is the serran, a very pretty shore-fish of southern Europe,
longer known than any other of the tribe. On the coast of southern
California are also species called Cabrillas, fine, large, food-fish, bass-like
in form, Paralabrax clathratus, and other less common species. The
Cabrillas and their relatives are almost all American, a few straying across
to Europe. One of the most important in the number is the black sea-bass, or
black will, of our Atlantic coast, Centropristes striatus. This is a common
food-and game-fish, dusky in color, gamy, and of fine flesh. The squirrel-
fishes (Diplectrum) and the many serranos (Prionodes) of the tropics, small
bright-colored fishes of the rocks and reefs, must be passed with a word, as
also the small Paracentropristis of the Mediterranean and the fine red
creole-fish of the West Indies, Paranthias furcifer. In one species,
Anyperodon leucogrammicus of Polynesia, there are no teeth on the
palatines.
Serranus cabrilla is the Cabrilla of the Mediterranean, a well-known and
excellent food-fish, the original type of the family of Serranidæ.
Serranellus scriba is the serran, a very pretty shore-fish of southern Europe,
longer known than any other of the tribe. On the coast of southern
California are also species called Cabrillas, fine, large, food-fish, bass-like
in form, Paralabrax clathratus, and other less common species. The
Cabrillas and their relatives are almost all American, a few straying across
to Europe. One of the most important in the number is the black sea-bass, or
black will, of our Atlantic coast, Centropristes striatus. This is a common
food-and game-fish, dusky in color, gamy, and of fine flesh. The squirrel-
fishes (Diplectrum) and the many serranos (Prionodes) of the tropics, small
bright-colored fishes of the rocks and reefs, must be passed with a word, as
also the small Paracentropristis of the Mediterranean and the fine red
creole-fish of the West Indies, Paranthias furcifer. In one species,
Anyperodon leucogrammicus of Polynesia, there are no teeth on the
palatines.
Page 381
The barber-fish (Anthias anthias) of southern Europe, bright red and with
the lateral line running very high, is the type of a numerous group found at
the lowest fishing level in all warm seas. All the species of this group are
bright red, very handsome, and excellent as food. Hemianthias vivanus,
known only from the spewings of the red snapper (Lutianus aya) at
Pensacola, is one of the most brilliant species, red, with golden streaks. The
genus Plesiops consists of small fishes almost black in color, with blue
spots and other markings, abounding about the coral reefs. In this genus the
lateral line is interrupted and there is some indication of affinity with the
Opisthognathidæ.
Fig. 264.—Snowy Grouper, Epinephelus niveatus (Cuv. & Val.). Natural
size: young. (Photograph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
the lateral line running very high, is the type of a numerous group found at
the lowest fishing level in all warm seas. All the species of this group are
bright red, very handsome, and excellent as food. Hemianthias vivanus,
known only from the spewings of the red snapper (Lutianus aya) at
Pensacola, is one of the most brilliant species, red, with golden streaks. The
genus Plesiops consists of small fishes almost black in color, with blue
spots and other markings, abounding about the coral reefs. In this genus the
lateral line is interrupted and there is some indication of affinity with the
Opisthognathidæ.
Fig. 264.—Snowy Grouper, Epinephelus niveatus (Cuv. & Val.). Natural
size: young. (Photograph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
Page 382
Fig. 265.—Soapfish, Rypticus bistrispinus (Mitchill). Virginia.
In the soapfishes (Rypticus) the supplemental maxillary appears again, but
in these forms the dorsal fin is reduced to two or three spines and there are
none in the anal. Rypticus saponaceus, so called from the smooth or soapy
scales, is the best known of the numerous species, which all belong to
tropical America. Grammistes, with eight dorsal spines, is a related form in
Polynesia, bright yellow, with numerous black stripes. Numerous species
referred to the Serranidæ occur in the Eocene and Miocene rocks. Some are
related to Epinephelus, others to Roccus and Lates. In the Tertiary lignite of
Brazil is a species of Percichthys, Percichthys antiquus, with Properca
beaumonti, which seem to be a primitive form of the bass, allied to
Dicentrarchus. Prolates heberti of the Cretaceous, one of the earliest of the
series, has the caudal rounded and is apparently allied to Lates, as is also
the heavily armed Acanus regleysianus of the Oligocene. Smerdis minutus,
a small fish from the Oligocene, is also related to Lates, which genus with
Roccus and Dicentrarchus must represent the most primitive of existing
members of this family. Of both Smerdis and Dicentrarchus (Labrax)
numerous species are recorded, mostly from the Miocene of Europe.
In the soapfishes (Rypticus) the supplemental maxillary appears again, but
in these forms the dorsal fin is reduced to two or three spines and there are
none in the anal. Rypticus saponaceus, so called from the smooth or soapy
scales, is the best known of the numerous species, which all belong to
tropical America. Grammistes, with eight dorsal spines, is a related form in
Polynesia, bright yellow, with numerous black stripes. Numerous species
referred to the Serranidæ occur in the Eocene and Miocene rocks. Some are
related to Epinephelus, others to Roccus and Lates. In the Tertiary lignite of
Brazil is a species of Percichthys, Percichthys antiquus, with Properca
beaumonti, which seem to be a primitive form of the bass, allied to
Dicentrarchus. Prolates heberti of the Cretaceous, one of the earliest of the
series, has the caudal rounded and is apparently allied to Lates, as is also
the heavily armed Acanus regleysianus of the Oligocene. Smerdis minutus,
a small fish from the Oligocene, is also related to Lates, which genus with
Roccus and Dicentrarchus must represent the most primitive of existing
members of this family. Of both Smerdis and Dicentrarchus (Labrax)
numerous species are recorded, mostly from the Miocene of Europe.
Page 383
Fig. 266.—Flasher, Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch). Virginia.
Fig. 267.—Catalufa, Priacanthus arenatus Cuv. & Val. Wood's Hole,
Mass.
Fig. 267.—Catalufa, Priacanthus arenatus Cuv. & Val. Wood's Hole,
Mass.
Page 384
The Flashers: Lobotidæ.—The small family of Lobotidæ, flashers, or
triple-tails, closely resembles the Serranidæ, but there are no teeth on
vomer or palatines. The three species are robust fishes, of a large size, of a
dark-green color, the front part of the head very short. They reach a length
of about three feet and are good food-fishes. Lobotes surinamensis comes
northward from the West Indies as far as Cape Cod. Lobotes pacificus is
found about Panama. Lobotes erate, common in India, was taken by the
writer at Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 268.—Bigeye, Pseudopriacanthus altus Gill. Young specimen. (From
life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
The Bigeyes: Priacanthidæ.—The Catalufas or bigeyes (Priacanthidæ)
are handsome fishes of the tropics, with short, flattened bodies, rough
scales, large eyes, and bright-red coloration. The mouth is very oblique, and
the anal fin about as large as the dorsal. The commonest species is
Priacanthus cruentatus, widely diffused through the Pacific and also in the
West Indies. This is the noted Aweoweo of the Hawaiians, which used to
triple-tails, closely resembles the Serranidæ, but there are no teeth on
vomer or palatines. The three species are robust fishes, of a large size, of a
dark-green color, the front part of the head very short. They reach a length
of about three feet and are good food-fishes. Lobotes surinamensis comes
northward from the West Indies as far as Cape Cod. Lobotes pacificus is
found about Panama. Lobotes erate, common in India, was taken by the
writer at Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 268.—Bigeye, Pseudopriacanthus altus Gill. Young specimen. (From
life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
The Bigeyes: Priacanthidæ.—The Catalufas or bigeyes (Priacanthidæ)
are handsome fishes of the tropics, with short, flattened bodies, rough
scales, large eyes, and bright-red coloration. The mouth is very oblique, and
the anal fin about as large as the dorsal. The commonest species is
Priacanthus cruentatus, widely diffused through the Pacific and also in the
West Indies. This is the noted Aweoweo of the Hawaiians, which used to
Page 385
come into the bays in myriads at the period of death of royalty. It is still
abundant, even after Hawaiian royalty has passed away.
Pseudopriacanthus altus is a short, very deep-bodied, and very rough fish,
scarlet in color, occasionally taken along our coast, driven northward by the
Gulf Stream. The young fishes are quite unlike the adult in appearance.
Numerous other species of Priacanthus occur in the Indies and Polynesia.
The Pentacerotidæ.—Another family with strong spines and rough scales
is the group of Pentacerotidæ. Histiopterus typus, the Matodai, is found in
Japan, and is remarkable for its very deep body and very high spines.
Equally remarkable is the Tengudai, Histiopterus acutirostris, also
Japanese. Anoplus banjos is a third Japanese species, more common than
the others, and largely taken in the Inland Sea. All these are eccentric
variations from the perch-like type.
The Snappers: Lutianidæ.—Scarcely less numerous and varied than the
sea-bass is the great family of Lutianidæ, known in America as snappers or
pargos. In these fishes the maxillary slips along its edge into a sheath
formed by the broad preorbital. In the Serranidæ there is no such sheath. In
the Lutianidæ there is no supplemental maxillary, teeth are present on the
vomer and palatines, and in the jaws there are distinct canines. These fishes
of the warm seas are all carnivorous, voracious, gamy, excellent as food
though seldom of fine grain, the flesh being white and not flaky. About 250
species are known, and in all warm seas they are abundant.
abundant, even after Hawaiian royalty has passed away.
Pseudopriacanthus altus is a short, very deep-bodied, and very rough fish,
scarlet in color, occasionally taken along our coast, driven northward by the
Gulf Stream. The young fishes are quite unlike the adult in appearance.
Numerous other species of Priacanthus occur in the Indies and Polynesia.
The Pentacerotidæ.—Another family with strong spines and rough scales
is the group of Pentacerotidæ. Histiopterus typus, the Matodai, is found in
Japan, and is remarkable for its very deep body and very high spines.
Equally remarkable is the Tengudai, Histiopterus acutirostris, also
Japanese. Anoplus banjos is a third Japanese species, more common than
the others, and largely taken in the Inland Sea. All these are eccentric
variations from the perch-like type.
The Snappers: Lutianidæ.—Scarcely less numerous and varied than the
sea-bass is the great family of Lutianidæ, known in America as snappers or
pargos. In these fishes the maxillary slips along its edge into a sheath
formed by the broad preorbital. In the Serranidæ there is no such sheath. In
the Lutianidæ there is no supplemental maxillary, teeth are present on the
vomer and palatines, and in the jaws there are distinct canines. These fishes
of the warm seas are all carnivorous, voracious, gamy, excellent as food
though seldom of fine grain, the flesh being white and not flaky. About 250
species are known, and in all warm seas they are abundant.
Page 386
Fig. 269.—Gray Snapper, Lutianus griseus L. Puerto Rico. (After
Evermann.)
To the great genus Lutianus most of the species belong. These are the
snappers of our markets and the pargos of the Spanish-speaking fishermen.
The shore species are green in color, mostly banded, spotted, or streaked. In
deeper water bright-red species are found. One of these, Lutianus aya, the
red snapper or pargo guachinango of the Gulf of Mexico, is, economically
speaking, the most important of all these fishes in the United States. It is a
large, rather coarse fish, bright red in color, and it is taken on long lines on
rocky reefs chiefly about Pensacola and Tampa in Florida, although similar
fisheries exist on the shores of Yucatan and Brazil.
Evermann.)
To the great genus Lutianus most of the species belong. These are the
snappers of our markets and the pargos of the Spanish-speaking fishermen.
The shore species are green in color, mostly banded, spotted, or streaked. In
deeper water bright-red species are found. One of these, Lutianus aya, the
red snapper or pargo guachinango of the Gulf of Mexico, is, economically
speaking, the most important of all these fishes in the United States. It is a
large, rather coarse fish, bright red in color, and it is taken on long lines on
rocky reefs chiefly about Pensacola and Tampa in Florida, although similar
fisheries exist on the shores of Yucatan and Brazil.
Page 387
Fig. 270.—Lutianus apodus (Walbaum), Schoolmaster or Cají. Family
Lutianidæ.
Fig. 271.—Hoplopagrus guntheri Gill. Mazatlan.
Lutianidæ.
Fig. 271.—Hoplopagrus guntheri Gill. Mazatlan.
Page 388
Fig. 272.—Lane Snapper or Biajaiba, Lutianus synagris (Linnæus). Key
West.
A related species is the Lutianus analis, the mutton snapper or pargo criollo
of the West Indies. This is one of the staple fishes of the Havana market,
always in demand for banquets and festivals, because its flesh is never
unwholesome. The mangrove snapper, or gray-snapper, Lutianus griseus,
called in Cuba, Caballerote, is the commonest species on our coasts. The
common name arises from the fact that the young hide in the mangrove
bushes of Florida and Cuba, whence they sally out in pursuit of sardines
and other small fishes. It is a very wary fish, to be sought with care, hence
the name "lawyer," sometimes heard in Florida. The cubero (Lutianus
cyanopterus) is a very large snapper, often rejected as unwholesome, being
said to cause the disease known as ciguatera. Certain snappers in Polynesia
have a similar reputation. The large red mumea, Lutianus bohar, is regarded
as always poisonous in Samoa—the most dangerous fish of the islands. L.
leioglossus is also held under suspicion on Tutuila, though other fishes of
this type are regarded as always safe. Other common snappers of Florida
and Cuba are the dog snapper or jocu (Lutianus jocu), the schoolmaster or
cají (Lutianus apodus), the black-fin snapper or sese de lo alto (Lutianus
buccanella), the silk snapper or pargo de lo alto (Lutianus vivanus), the
abundant lane snapper or biajaiba (Lutianus synagris), and the mahogany
West.
A related species is the Lutianus analis, the mutton snapper or pargo criollo
of the West Indies. This is one of the staple fishes of the Havana market,
always in demand for banquets and festivals, because its flesh is never
unwholesome. The mangrove snapper, or gray-snapper, Lutianus griseus,
called in Cuba, Caballerote, is the commonest species on our coasts. The
common name arises from the fact that the young hide in the mangrove
bushes of Florida and Cuba, whence they sally out in pursuit of sardines
and other small fishes. It is a very wary fish, to be sought with care, hence
the name "lawyer," sometimes heard in Florida. The cubero (Lutianus
cyanopterus) is a very large snapper, often rejected as unwholesome, being
said to cause the disease known as ciguatera. Certain snappers in Polynesia
have a similar reputation. The large red mumea, Lutianus bohar, is regarded
as always poisonous in Samoa—the most dangerous fish of the islands. L.
leioglossus is also held under suspicion on Tutuila, though other fishes of
this type are regarded as always safe. Other common snappers of Florida
and Cuba are the dog snapper or jocu (Lutianus jocu), the schoolmaster or
cají (Lutianus apodus), the black-fin snapper or sese de lo alto (Lutianus
buccanella), the silk snapper or pargo de lo alto (Lutianus vivanus), the
abundant lane snapper or biajaiba (Lutianus synagris), and the mahogany
Page 389
snapper or ojanco (Lutianus mahogani). Numerous other species occur on
both coasts of tropical America, and a vastly larger assemblage is found in
the East Indies, some of them ranging northward to Japan.
Fig. 273.—Yellow-tail Snapper, Ocyurus chrysurus (Linnæus). Key West.
Fig. 274.—Cachucho, Etelis oculatus (Linnæus). Havana.
Hoplopagrus guntheri is a large snapper of the west coast of Mexico,
having very large molar teeth in its jaws besides slit-like nostrils and other
notable peculiarities. From the standpoint of structure this species, with its
both coasts of tropical America, and a vastly larger assemblage is found in
the East Indies, some of them ranging northward to Japan.
Fig. 273.—Yellow-tail Snapper, Ocyurus chrysurus (Linnæus). Key West.
Fig. 274.—Cachucho, Etelis oculatus (Linnæus). Havana.
Hoplopagrus guntheri is a large snapper of the west coast of Mexico,
having very large molar teeth in its jaws besides slit-like nostrils and other
notable peculiarities. From the standpoint of structure this species, with its
Page 390
eccentric characters—is especially interesting. The yellow-tail snapper or
rabirubia (Ocyurus chrysurus) is a handsome and common fish of the West
Indies, with long, deeply forked tail, which makes it a swifter fish than the
others. Another red species is the diamond snapper or cagon de lo alto,
Rhomboplites aurorubens. All these true snappers have the soft fins more or
less scaly. In certain species that swim more freely in deep waters, these
fins are naked. Among them is the Arnillo, Apsilus dentatus, a pretty brown
fish of the West Indies, and its analogue in Hawaii, Apsilus brighami, red,
with golden cross-bands. Aprion virescens, the Uku of Hawaii, is a large
fish of a greenish color and elongate body, widely diffused throughout
Polynesia and one of the best of food-fishes. A related species is the red
voraz (Aprion macrophthalmus) of the West Indies.
Most beautiful of all the group are the species of Etelis, with the dorsal fin
deeply divided and the head flattened above. These live in rather deep water
about rocky reefs and are fiery red in color. Best known is the Cuban
species, Etelis oculatus, the cachucho of the markets. Equally abundant and
equally beautiful is Etelis carbunculus of Polynesia, Etelis evurus of
Hawaii, and other species of the Pacific islands.
Fig. 275.—Xenocys jessiæ Jordan & Bollman. Family Lutianidæ.
Galapagos Islands.
rabirubia (Ocyurus chrysurus) is a handsome and common fish of the West
Indies, with long, deeply forked tail, which makes it a swifter fish than the
others. Another red species is the diamond snapper or cagon de lo alto,
Rhomboplites aurorubens. All these true snappers have the soft fins more or
less scaly. In certain species that swim more freely in deep waters, these
fins are naked. Among them is the Arnillo, Apsilus dentatus, a pretty brown
fish of the West Indies, and its analogue in Hawaii, Apsilus brighami, red,
with golden cross-bands. Aprion virescens, the Uku of Hawaii, is a large
fish of a greenish color and elongate body, widely diffused throughout
Polynesia and one of the best of food-fishes. A related species is the red
voraz (Aprion macrophthalmus) of the West Indies.
Most beautiful of all the group are the species of Etelis, with the dorsal fin
deeply divided and the head flattened above. These live in rather deep water
about rocky reefs and are fiery red in color. Best known is the Cuban
species, Etelis oculatus, the cachucho of the markets. Equally abundant and
equally beautiful is Etelis carbunculus of Polynesia, Etelis evurus of
Hawaii, and other species of the Pacific islands.
Fig. 275.—Xenocys jessiæ Jordan & Bollman. Family Lutianidæ.
Galapagos Islands.
Page 391
Verilus sordidus, the black escolar of Cuba, has the form of Etelis, but the
flesh is very soft and the color violet-black, indicating its life in very deep
water. Numerous small silvery snappers living near the shore along the
coast of western Mexico belong to the genera called Xenichthys, Xenistius,
and Xenocys. Xenistius californiensis is the commonest of these species,
Xenocys jessiæ, the largest in size, with black lines like a striped bass. To
the genus Dentex belongs a large snapper-like fish of the Mediterranean,
Dentex dentex. Very many related species occur in the old world, the
prettily colored Nemipterus virgatus, the Itoyori of Japan being one of the
best known. Another interesting fish is Aphareus furcatus, a handsome,
swift fish of the open seas occasionally taken in Japan and the East Indies.
Glaucosoma burgeri is a large snapper of Japan, and a related species,
Glaucosoma hebraicum, is one of the "jewfishes" of Australia. Numerous
fossil forms referred to Dentex occur in the Eocene of Monte Bolca, as also
a fish called Ctenodentex lackeniensis from the Eocene of Belgium.
Fig. 276.—Aphareus furcatus (Lacépède). Odawara, Japan. Family
Lutianidæ.
flesh is very soft and the color violet-black, indicating its life in very deep
water. Numerous small silvery snappers living near the shore along the
coast of western Mexico belong to the genera called Xenichthys, Xenistius,
and Xenocys. Xenistius californiensis is the commonest of these species,
Xenocys jessiæ, the largest in size, with black lines like a striped bass. To
the genus Dentex belongs a large snapper-like fish of the Mediterranean,
Dentex dentex. Very many related species occur in the old world, the
prettily colored Nemipterus virgatus, the Itoyori of Japan being one of the
best known. Another interesting fish is Aphareus furcatus, a handsome,
swift fish of the open seas occasionally taken in Japan and the East Indies.
Glaucosoma burgeri is a large snapper of Japan, and a related species,
Glaucosoma hebraicum, is one of the "jewfishes" of Australia. Numerous
fossil forms referred to Dentex occur in the Eocene of Monte Bolca, as also
a fish called Ctenodentex lackeniensis from the Eocene of Belgium.
Fig. 276.—Aphareus furcatus (Lacépède). Odawara, Japan. Family
Lutianidæ.
Page 392
Fig. 277.—Grunt, Hæmulon plumieri (Bloch). Charleston, S. C.
The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.—The large family of Hæmulidæ, known in
America as grunters or roncos, is represented with the snappers in all
tropical seas. The common names (Spanish, roncar, to grunt or snore) refer
to the noise made either with their large pharyngeal teeth or with the
complex air-bladder. These fishes differ from the Lutianidæ mainly in the
feebler detention, there being no canines and no teeth on the vomer. Most of
the American species belong to the genus Hæmulon or red-mouth grunts, so
called from the dash of scarlet at the corner of the mouth. Hæmulon
plumieri, the common grunt, or ronco arará, is the most abundant species,
known by the narrow blue stripes across the head. In the yellow grunt,
ronco amarillo (Hæmulon sciurus), these stripes cross the whole body. In
the margate-fish, or Jallao (Hæmulon album), the largest of the grunts, there
are no stripes at all. Another common grunt is the black spotted sailor's
choice, Ronco prieto (Hæmulon parra), very abundant from Florida
southward. Numerous other grunts and "Tom Tates" are found on both
shores of Mexico, all the species of Hæmulon being confined to America.
Anisotremus includes numerous deep-bodied species with smaller mouth,
also all American. Anisotremus surinamensis, the pompon, abundant from
Louisiana southward is the commonest species. Anisotremus virginicus, the
The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.—The large family of Hæmulidæ, known in
America as grunters or roncos, is represented with the snappers in all
tropical seas. The common names (Spanish, roncar, to grunt or snore) refer
to the noise made either with their large pharyngeal teeth or with the
complex air-bladder. These fishes differ from the Lutianidæ mainly in the
feebler detention, there being no canines and no teeth on the vomer. Most of
the American species belong to the genus Hæmulon or red-mouth grunts, so
called from the dash of scarlet at the corner of the mouth. Hæmulon
plumieri, the common grunt, or ronco arará, is the most abundant species,
known by the narrow blue stripes across the head. In the yellow grunt,
ronco amarillo (Hæmulon sciurus), these stripes cross the whole body. In
the margate-fish, or Jallao (Hæmulon album), the largest of the grunts, there
are no stripes at all. Another common grunt is the black spotted sailor's
choice, Ronco prieto (Hæmulon parra), very abundant from Florida
southward. Numerous other grunts and "Tom Tates" are found on both
shores of Mexico, all the species of Hæmulon being confined to America.
Anisotremus includes numerous deep-bodied species with smaller mouth,
also all American. Anisotremus surinamensis, the pompon, abundant from
Louisiana southward is the commonest species. Anisotremus virginicus, the
Page 393
porkfish or Catalineta, beautifully striped with black and golden, is very
common in the West Indies. Plectorhynchus of Polynesia and the coasts of
Asia contains numerous large species closely resembling Anisotremus, but
lacking the groove at the chin characteristic of Anisotremus and Hæmulon.
Some of these are striped or spotted with black in very gaudy fashion.
Pomadasis, a genus equally abundant in Asia and America, contains silvery
species of the sandy shores, with the body more elongate and the spines
generally stronger. Pomadasis crocro is the commonest West Indian
species, Pomadasis hasta the best known of the Asiatic forms.
Gnathodentex aurolineatus with golden stripes is common in Polynesia.
Fig. 278.—Porkfish, Anisotremus virginicus (Linnæus). Key West.
The pigfishes, Orthopristis, have the spines feebler and the anal fin more
elongate. Of the many species, American and Mediterranean, Orthopristis
chrysopterus is most familiar, ranging northward to Long Island, and
excellent as a pan fish. Parapristipoma trilineatum, the Isaki of Japan, is
equally abundant and very similar to it. Many related species belong to the
Asiatic genera, Terapon, Scolopsis, Cæsio, etc., sometimes placed in a
common in the West Indies. Plectorhynchus of Polynesia and the coasts of
Asia contains numerous large species closely resembling Anisotremus, but
lacking the groove at the chin characteristic of Anisotremus and Hæmulon.
Some of these are striped or spotted with black in very gaudy fashion.
Pomadasis, a genus equally abundant in Asia and America, contains silvery
species of the sandy shores, with the body more elongate and the spines
generally stronger. Pomadasis crocro is the commonest West Indian
species, Pomadasis hasta the best known of the Asiatic forms.
Gnathodentex aurolineatus with golden stripes is common in Polynesia.
Fig. 278.—Porkfish, Anisotremus virginicus (Linnæus). Key West.
The pigfishes, Orthopristis, have the spines feebler and the anal fin more
elongate. Of the many species, American and Mediterranean, Orthopristis
chrysopterus is most familiar, ranging northward to Long Island, and
excellent as a pan fish. Parapristipoma trilineatum, the Isaki of Japan, is
equally abundant and very similar to it. Many related species belong to the
Asiatic genera, Terapon, Scolopsis, Cæsio, etc., sometimes placed in a
Page 394
distinct family as Teraponidæ. Terapon servus enters the streams of
Polynesia, and is a very common fish of the river mouths, taken in Samoa
by the boys. Terapon theraps is found throughout the East Indies. Terapon
richardsoni is the Australian silver perch. Cæsio contains numerous small
species, elongate and brightly colored, largely blue and golden. Scolopsis,
having a spine on the preorbital, contains numerous species in the East
Indies and Polynesia. These are often handsomely colored. Among them is
the taiva, Scolopsis trilineatus of Samoa, gray with white streaks and
markings of delicate pattern. A fossil species in the Italian Eocene related to
Pomadasis is Pomadasis furcatus. Another, perhaps allied to Terapon, is
called Pelates quindecimalis.
Fig. 279.—The Red Tai of Japan, Pagrus major Schlegel. Family Sparidæ.
(After Kishinouye.)
The Porgies: Sparidæ.—The great family of Sparidæ or porgies is also
closely related to the Hæmulidæ. The most tangible difference rests in the
teeth, which are stronger, and some of those along the side of the jaw are
transformed into large blunt molars, fitted for grinding small crabs and
Polynesia, and is a very common fish of the river mouths, taken in Samoa
by the boys. Terapon theraps is found throughout the East Indies. Terapon
richardsoni is the Australian silver perch. Cæsio contains numerous small
species, elongate and brightly colored, largely blue and golden. Scolopsis,
having a spine on the preorbital, contains numerous species in the East
Indies and Polynesia. These are often handsomely colored. Among them is
the taiva, Scolopsis trilineatus of Samoa, gray with white streaks and
markings of delicate pattern. A fossil species in the Italian Eocene related to
Pomadasis is Pomadasis furcatus. Another, perhaps allied to Terapon, is
called Pelates quindecimalis.
Fig. 279.—The Red Tai of Japan, Pagrus major Schlegel. Family Sparidæ.
(After Kishinouye.)
The Porgies: Sparidæ.—The great family of Sparidæ or porgies is also
closely related to the Hæmulidæ. The most tangible difference rests in the
teeth, which are stronger, and some of those along the side of the jaw are
transformed into large blunt molars, fitted for grinding small crabs and
Page 395
shells. The name porgy, in Spanish pargo, comes from the Latin Pagrus and
Greek πάγρος, the name from time immemorial of the red porgy of the
Mediterranean, Pagrus pagrus. In this species the front teeth are canine-
like, the side teeth molar. It is a fine food-fish, very handsome, being
crimson with blue spots, and in the Mediterranean it is much esteemed. It
also breeds sparingly on our south Atlantic and Gulf coasts.
Fig. 280.—Ebisu, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai.
(Sketch by Kako Morita.)
Greek πάγρος, the name from time immemorial of the red porgy of the
Mediterranean, Pagrus pagrus. In this species the front teeth are canine-
like, the side teeth molar. It is a fine food-fish, very handsome, being
crimson with blue spots, and in the Mediterranean it is much esteemed. It
also breeds sparingly on our south Atlantic and Gulf coasts.
Fig. 280.—Ebisu, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai.
(Sketch by Kako Morita.)
Page 396
Fig. 281.—Scup, Stenotomus chrysops (Linnæus). Wood's Hole, Mass.
Page 397
Fig. 282.—Calamus bajonado (Bloch & Schneider), Jolt-head Porgy. Pez
de Pluma. Family Sparidæ.
Fig. 283.—Little-head Porgy, Calamus proridens Jordan & Gilbert. Key
West.
Very similar to the porgy is the famous red tai or akadai of Japan (Pagrus
major), a fish so highly esteemed as to be, with the rising sun and the
chrysanthemum, a sort of national emblem. In all prints and images the
fish-god Ebisu (Fig. 280), beloved of the Japanese people, appears with a
red tai under his arm. This species, everywhere abundant, is crimson in
color, and the flesh is always tender and excellent. A similar species is the
well-known and abundant "schnapper" of Australia, Pagrus unicolor.
Another but smaller tai or porgy, crimson, sprinkled with blue spots, Pagrus
cardinalis, occurs in Japan in great abundance, as also two species similar
in character but without red, known as Kurodai or black tai. These are
Sparus latus and Sparus berda. The gilt-head of the Mediterranean, Sparus
aurata, is very similar to these Japanese species. Sparus sarba in Australia
is the tarwhine, and Sparus australis the black bream. The numerous
de Pluma. Family Sparidæ.
Fig. 283.—Little-head Porgy, Calamus proridens Jordan & Gilbert. Key
West.
Very similar to the porgy is the famous red tai or akadai of Japan (Pagrus
major), a fish so highly esteemed as to be, with the rising sun and the
chrysanthemum, a sort of national emblem. In all prints and images the
fish-god Ebisu (Fig. 280), beloved of the Japanese people, appears with a
red tai under his arm. This species, everywhere abundant, is crimson in
color, and the flesh is always tender and excellent. A similar species is the
well-known and abundant "schnapper" of Australia, Pagrus unicolor.
Another but smaller tai or porgy, crimson, sprinkled with blue spots, Pagrus
cardinalis, occurs in Japan in great abundance, as also two species similar
in character but without red, known as Kurodai or black tai. These are
Sparus latus and Sparus berda. The gilt-head of the Mediterranean, Sparus
aurata, is very similar to these Japanese species. Sparus sarba in Australia
is the tarwhine, and Sparus australis the black bream. The numerous
Page 398
species of Pagellus abound in the Mediterranean. These are smaller in size
than the species of Pagrus, red in color and with feebler teeth. Monotaxis
grandoculis, known as the "mu," is a widely diffused and valuable food-fish
of the Pacific islands, greenish in color, with pale cross-bands. Very closely
related is also the American scup or fair maid (Stenotomus chrysops), one of
our commonest pan fishes. In this genus and in Calamus the second
interhæmal spine is very greatly enlarged, its concave end formed like a
quill-pen and including the posterior end of the large air-bladder. This
arrangement presumably assists in hearing. Of the penfishes, or pez de
pluma, numerous species abound in tropical America, where they are
valued as food. Of these the bajonado or jolt-head porgy (Calamus
bajonado) is largest, most common and dullest in color. Calamus calamus
is the saucer-eye porgy, and Calamus proridens, the little-head porgy.
Calamus leucosteus is called white-bone porgy, and the small Calamus
arctifrons the grass-porgy.
The Chopa spina, or pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides, is a little porgy with
notched incisors, exceedingly common on our South Atlantic coast.
In some of the porgies the front teeth instead of being canine-like are
compressed and truncate, almost exactly like human incisors. These species
are known as sheepshead, or sargos.
than the species of Pagrus, red in color and with feebler teeth. Monotaxis
grandoculis, known as the "mu," is a widely diffused and valuable food-fish
of the Pacific islands, greenish in color, with pale cross-bands. Very closely
related is also the American scup or fair maid (Stenotomus chrysops), one of
our commonest pan fishes. In this genus and in Calamus the second
interhæmal spine is very greatly enlarged, its concave end formed like a
quill-pen and including the posterior end of the large air-bladder. This
arrangement presumably assists in hearing. Of the penfishes, or pez de
pluma, numerous species abound in tropical America, where they are
valued as food. Of these the bajonado or jolt-head porgy (Calamus
bajonado) is largest, most common and dullest in color. Calamus calamus
is the saucer-eye porgy, and Calamus proridens, the little-head porgy.
Calamus leucosteus is called white-bone porgy, and the small Calamus
arctifrons the grass-porgy.
The Chopa spina, or pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides, is a little porgy with
notched incisors, exceedingly common on our South Atlantic coast.
In some of the porgies the front teeth instead of being canine-like are
compressed and truncate, almost exactly like human incisors. These species
are known as sheepshead, or sargos.
Page 399
Fig. 284.—Diplodus holbrooki Bean. Pensacola.
Diplodus sargus and Diplodus annularis are common sargos of the
Mediterranean, silvery, with a black blotch on the back of the tail. Diplodus
argenteus of the West Indies and Diplodus holbrooki of the Carolina coast
are very close to these.
The sheepshead, Archosargus probatocephalus, is much the most valuable
fish of this group. The broad body is crossed by about seven black cross-
bands. It is common from Cape Cod to Texas in sandy bays, reaching rarely
a weight of fifteen pounds. Its flesh is most excellent, rich and tender. The
sheepshead is a quiet bottom-fish, but takes the hook readily and with some
spirit. Close to the sheepshead is a smaller species known as Salema
(Archosargus unimaculatus), with blue and golden stripes and a black spot
at the shoulder. It abounds in the West Indies.
Diplodus sargus and Diplodus annularis are common sargos of the
Mediterranean, silvery, with a black blotch on the back of the tail. Diplodus
argenteus of the West Indies and Diplodus holbrooki of the Carolina coast
are very close to these.
The sheepshead, Archosargus probatocephalus, is much the most valuable
fish of this group. The broad body is crossed by about seven black cross-
bands. It is common from Cape Cod to Texas in sandy bays, reaching rarely
a weight of fifteen pounds. Its flesh is most excellent, rich and tender. The
sheepshead is a quiet bottom-fish, but takes the hook readily and with some
spirit. Close to the sheepshead is a smaller species known as Salema
(Archosargus unimaculatus), with blue and golden stripes and a black spot
at the shoulder. It abounds in the West Indies.
Page 400
Fig. 285.—Archosargus unimaculatus (Bloch), Salema, Striped
Sheepshead. Family Sparidæ.
On the coast of Japan and throughout Polynesia are numerous species of
Lethrinus and related genera, formed and colored like snappers, but with
molar teeth and the cheek without scales. A common species in Japan is
Lethrinus richardsoni.
Fossil species of Diplodus, Sparus, Pagrus, and Pagellus occur in the
Italian Eocene, as also certain extinct genera, Sparnodus and Trigonodon, of
similar type. Sparnodus macrophthalmus is abundant in the Eocene of
Monte Bolca.
The Picarels: Mænidæ.—The Mænidæ, or Picarels, are elongate,
gracefully formed fishes, remarkable for the extreme protractility of the
upper jaw. Spicara smaris and several other small species are found in the
Mediterranean. Emmelichthys contains species of larger size occurring in
the West Indies and various parts of the Pacific, chiefly red and very
graceful in form and color. Emmelichthys vittatus, the boga, is occasionally
taken in Cuba, Erythrichthys schlegeli is found in Japan and Hawaii.
Sheepshead. Family Sparidæ.
On the coast of Japan and throughout Polynesia are numerous species of
Lethrinus and related genera, formed and colored like snappers, but with
molar teeth and the cheek without scales. A common species in Japan is
Lethrinus richardsoni.
Fossil species of Diplodus, Sparus, Pagrus, and Pagellus occur in the
Italian Eocene, as also certain extinct genera, Sparnodus and Trigonodon, of
similar type. Sparnodus macrophthalmus is abundant in the Eocene of
Monte Bolca.
The Picarels: Mænidæ.—The Mænidæ, or Picarels, are elongate,
gracefully formed fishes, remarkable for the extreme protractility of the
upper jaw. Spicara smaris and several other small species are found in the
Mediterranean. Emmelichthys contains species of larger size occurring in
the West Indies and various parts of the Pacific, chiefly red and very
graceful in form and color. Emmelichthys vittatus, the boga, is occasionally
taken in Cuba, Erythrichthys schlegeli is found in Japan and Hawaii.
Page 401
Fig. 286.—Mojarra, Xystæma cinereum (Walbaum). Key West.
The Mojarras: Gerridæ.—The Gerridæ, or Mojarras, have the mouth
equally protractile, but the form of the body is different, being broad,
compressed, and covered with large silvery scales. In some species the
dorsal spines and the third anal spine are very strong, and in some the
second interhæmal is quill-shaped, including the end of the air-bladder, as
in Calamus. Most of the species, including all the peculiar ones, are
American. The smallest, Eucinostomus, have the quill-shaped interhæmal
and the dorsal and anal spines are very weak. The commonest species is the
silver jenny, or mojarra de Ley, Eucinostomus gula, which ranges from
Cape Cod to Rio Janeiro, in the surf along sandy shores. Equally common is
Eucinostomus californiensis of the Pacific Coast of Mexico, while
Eucinostomus harengulus of the West Indies is also very abundant. Ulæma
lefroyi has but two anal spines and the interhæmal very small. It is common
through the West Indies. Xystæma, with the interhæmal spear-shaped and
normally formed, is found in Asia and Polynesia more abundantly than in
America, although one species, Xystæma cinereum, the broad shad, or
Mojarra blanca, is common on both shores of tropical America. Xystæma
gigas is found in Polynesia, X. oyena in Japan, and X. filamentosum in
Formosa and India. Xystæma massalongoi is also fossil in the Miocene of
Austria. The species of Gerres have very strong dorsal and anal spines and
The Mojarras: Gerridæ.—The Gerridæ, or Mojarras, have the mouth
equally protractile, but the form of the body is different, being broad,
compressed, and covered with large silvery scales. In some species the
dorsal spines and the third anal spine are very strong, and in some the
second interhæmal is quill-shaped, including the end of the air-bladder, as
in Calamus. Most of the species, including all the peculiar ones, are
American. The smallest, Eucinostomus, have the quill-shaped interhæmal
and the dorsal and anal spines are very weak. The commonest species is the
silver jenny, or mojarra de Ley, Eucinostomus gula, which ranges from
Cape Cod to Rio Janeiro, in the surf along sandy shores. Equally common is
Eucinostomus californiensis of the Pacific Coast of Mexico, while
Eucinostomus harengulus of the West Indies is also very abundant. Ulæma
lefroyi has but two anal spines and the interhæmal very small. It is common
through the West Indies. Xystæma, with the interhæmal spear-shaped and
normally formed, is found in Asia and Polynesia more abundantly than in
America, although one species, Xystæma cinereum, the broad shad, or
Mojarra blanca, is common on both shores of tropical America. Xystæma
gigas is found in Polynesia, X. oyena in Japan, and X. filamentosum in
Formosa and India. Xystæma massalongoi is also fossil in the Miocene of
Austria. The species of Gerres have very strong dorsal and anal spines and
Page 402
the back much elevated. Gerres plumieri, the striped mojarra, Gerres
brasiliensis, the patao, Gerres olisthostomus, the Irish pampano, and Gerres
rhombeus are some of the numerous species found on the Florida coast and
in the West Indies. The family of Leiognathidæ, already noticed (page 287),
should stand next to the Gerridæ.
Fig. 287.—Irish Pampano, Gerres olisthostomus Goode & Bean. Indian
River, Fla.
The Rudder-fishes: Kyphosidæ.—The Kyphosidæ, called rudder-fishes,
have no molars, the front of the jaws being occupied by incisors, which are
often serrated, loosely attached, and movable. The numerous species are
found in the warm seas and are chiefly herbivorous.
brasiliensis, the patao, Gerres olisthostomus, the Irish pampano, and Gerres
rhombeus are some of the numerous species found on the Florida coast and
in the West Indies. The family of Leiognathidæ, already noticed (page 287),
should stand next to the Gerridæ.
Fig. 287.—Irish Pampano, Gerres olisthostomus Goode & Bean. Indian
River, Fla.
The Rudder-fishes: Kyphosidæ.—The Kyphosidæ, called rudder-fishes,
have no molars, the front of the jaws being occupied by incisors, which are
often serrated, loosely attached, and movable. The numerous species are
found in the warm seas and are chiefly herbivorous.
Page 403
Fig. 288.—Chopa or Rudder-fish, Kyphosus sectatrix (Linnæus). Wood's
Hole, Mass.
Boops boops and Boops salpa, known as boga and salpa, are elongate fishes
common in the Mediterranean. Other Mediterranean forms are
Spondyliosoma cantharus, Oblata melanura, etc. Girella nigricans is the
greenfish of California, everywhere abundant about rocks to the south of
San Francisco, and of considerable value as food. Almost exactly like it is
the Mejinadai (Girella punctata) of Japan. The best-known members of this
group belong to the genus Kyphosus. Kyphosus sectatrix is the rudder-fish,
or Chopa blanca, common in the West Indies and following ships to the
northward even as far as Cape Cod, once even taken at Palermo. It is
supposed that it is enticed by the waste thrown overboard. Kyphosus
elegans is found on the west coast of Mexico, Kyphosus tahmel in the East
Indies and Polynesia, and numerous other species occur in tropical America
and along the coasts of southern Asia. Sectator ocyurus is a more elongate
form of rudder-fish, striped with bright blue and yellow, found in the
Pacific. Medialuna californiensis is the half-moon fish, or medialuna, of
southern California, an excellent food-fish frequently taken on rocky
shores. Numerous related species occur in the Indian seas.
Hole, Mass.
Boops boops and Boops salpa, known as boga and salpa, are elongate fishes
common in the Mediterranean. Other Mediterranean forms are
Spondyliosoma cantharus, Oblata melanura, etc. Girella nigricans is the
greenfish of California, everywhere abundant about rocks to the south of
San Francisco, and of considerable value as food. Almost exactly like it is
the Mejinadai (Girella punctata) of Japan. The best-known members of this
group belong to the genus Kyphosus. Kyphosus sectatrix is the rudder-fish,
or Chopa blanca, common in the West Indies and following ships to the
northward even as far as Cape Cod, once even taken at Palermo. It is
supposed that it is enticed by the waste thrown overboard. Kyphosus
elegans is found on the west coast of Mexico, Kyphosus tahmel in the East
Indies and Polynesia, and numerous other species occur in tropical America
and along the coasts of southern Asia. Sectator ocyurus is a more elongate
form of rudder-fish, striped with bright blue and yellow, found in the
Pacific. Medialuna californiensis is the half-moon fish, or medialuna, of
southern California, an excellent food-fish frequently taken on rocky
shores. Numerous related species occur in the Indian seas.
Page 404
Fig. 288a.—Blue-green Sunfish, Apomotis cyanellus (Rafinesque). Kansas
River. (After Kellogg.)
Fossil fragments in Europe have been referred to Boops, Spondyliosoma,
and other genera.
River. (After Kellogg.)
Fossil fragments in Europe have been referred to Boops, Spondyliosoma,
and other genera.
Page 405
CHAPTER XX
THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND
THEIR
RELATIVES
Fig. 289.—Red Goatfish, or Salmonete, Pseudupeneus maculatus Bloch.
Family Mullidæ (Surmullets.)
he Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.—The Mullidæ
(Surmullets) are shore-fishes of the warm seas, of moderate
size, with small mouth, large scales, and possessing the
notable character of two long, unbranched barbels of firm
substance at the chin. The dorsal fins are short, well separated,
the first of six to eight firm spines. There are two anal spines and the ventral
fins, thoracic, are formed of one spine and five rays. The flesh is white and
THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND
THEIR
RELATIVES
Fig. 289.—Red Goatfish, or Salmonete, Pseudupeneus maculatus Bloch.
Family Mullidæ (Surmullets.)
he Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.—The Mullidæ
(Surmullets) are shore-fishes of the warm seas, of moderate
size, with small mouth, large scales, and possessing the
notable character of two long, unbranched barbels of firm
substance at the chin. The dorsal fins are short, well separated,
the first of six to eight firm spines. There are two anal spines and the ventral
fins, thoracic, are formed of one spine and five rays. The flesh is white and
Page 406
tender, often of very superior flavor. The species are carnivorous, feeding
chiefly on small animals. They are not voracious, and predaceous fishes
feed freely on them. The coloration is generally bright, largely red or
golden, in nearly all cases with an under layer, below the scales, of red,
which appears when the fish is scaled or placed in alcohol. The barbels are
often bright yellow, and when the fish swims along the bottom these are
carried in advance, feeling the way. Testing the bottom with their feelers,
these fishes creep over the floor of shallow waters, seeking their food.
The numerous species are all very much alike in form, and the current
genera are separated by details of the arrangement of the teeth. But few are
found outside the tropics.
The surmullet or red mullet of Europe, Mullus barbatus, is the most famous
species, placed by the Romans above all other fishes unless it be the scarus,
Sparisoma cretense. From the satirical poets we learn that "enormous prices
were paid for a fine fish, and it was the fashion to bring the fish into the
dining-room and exhibit it alive before the assembled guests, so that they
might gloat over the brilliant and changing colors during the death-
agonies." It is red in life, and when the scales are removed, the color is
much brighter.
It is an excellent fish, tender and rich, but nowhere so extravagantly valued
to-day as was formerly the case in Rome. Mullus surmuletus is a second
European species, scarcely different from Mullus barbatus.
chiefly on small animals. They are not voracious, and predaceous fishes
feed freely on them. The coloration is generally bright, largely red or
golden, in nearly all cases with an under layer, below the scales, of red,
which appears when the fish is scaled or placed in alcohol. The barbels are
often bright yellow, and when the fish swims along the bottom these are
carried in advance, feeling the way. Testing the bottom with their feelers,
these fishes creep over the floor of shallow waters, seeking their food.
The numerous species are all very much alike in form, and the current
genera are separated by details of the arrangement of the teeth. But few are
found outside the tropics.
The surmullet or red mullet of Europe, Mullus barbatus, is the most famous
species, placed by the Romans above all other fishes unless it be the scarus,
Sparisoma cretense. From the satirical poets we learn that "enormous prices
were paid for a fine fish, and it was the fashion to bring the fish into the
dining-room and exhibit it alive before the assembled guests, so that they
might gloat over the brilliant and changing colors during the death-
agonies." It is red in life, and when the scales are removed, the color is
much brighter.
It is an excellent fish, tender and rich, but nowhere so extravagantly valued
to-day as was formerly the case in Rome. Mullus surmuletus is a second
European species, scarcely different from Mullus barbatus.
Page 407
Fig. 290.—Golden Surmullet, Mullus auratus Jordan & Gilbert. Wood's
Hole, Mass.
Equally excellent as food and larger in size are two Polynesian species
known as kumu and munu (Pseudupeneus porphyreus and Pseudupeneus
bifasciatus). Mullus auratus is a small surmullet occasionally taken off our
Atlantic coast, but in deeper water than that frequented by the European
species. Pseudupeneus maculatus is the red goatfish or salmonete, common
from Florida to Brazil, as is also the yellow goatfish, Pseudupeneus
martinicus, equally valued. Many other species are found in tropical
America, Polynesia, and the Indies and Japan. Perhaps the most notable are
Upeneus vittatus, striped with yellow and with the caudal fin cross-barred
and the belly sulphur-yellow, and Upeneus arge, similar, the belly white.
The common red and black-banded "moana" or goatfish of Hawaii is
Pseudupeneus multifasciatus.
No fossil Mullidæ are recorded, so far as known to us.
The Croakers: Sciænidæ.—The family of Sciænidæ (croakers, roncadors)
is another of the great groups of food-fishes. The species are found on every
sandy shore in warm regions and all of them are large enough to have value
as food, while many have flesh of superior quality. None are brightly
colored, most of the species being nearly plain silvery.
Fig. 291.—Spotted Weakfish, Cynoscion nebulosus. Virginia.
Hole, Mass.
Equally excellent as food and larger in size are two Polynesian species
known as kumu and munu (Pseudupeneus porphyreus and Pseudupeneus
bifasciatus). Mullus auratus is a small surmullet occasionally taken off our
Atlantic coast, but in deeper water than that frequented by the European
species. Pseudupeneus maculatus is the red goatfish or salmonete, common
from Florida to Brazil, as is also the yellow goatfish, Pseudupeneus
martinicus, equally valued. Many other species are found in tropical
America, Polynesia, and the Indies and Japan. Perhaps the most notable are
Upeneus vittatus, striped with yellow and with the caudal fin cross-barred
and the belly sulphur-yellow, and Upeneus arge, similar, the belly white.
The common red and black-banded "moana" or goatfish of Hawaii is
Pseudupeneus multifasciatus.
No fossil Mullidæ are recorded, so far as known to us.
The Croakers: Sciænidæ.—The family of Sciænidæ (croakers, roncadors)
is another of the great groups of food-fishes. The species are found on every
sandy shore in warm regions and all of them are large enough to have value
as food, while many have flesh of superior quality. None are brightly
colored, most of the species being nearly plain silvery.
Fig. 291.—Spotted Weakfish, Cynoscion nebulosus. Virginia.
Page 408
Special characters are the cavernous structure of the bones of the head,
which are full of mucous tracts, the specialization (and occasional absence)
of the air-bladder, and the presence of never more than two anal spines, one
of these being sometimes very large. Most of the species are marine, all are
carnivorous; none inhabit rocky places and none descend to depths in the
sea. At the least specialized extreme of the family, the mouth is large with
strong canines and the species are slender, swift, and predaceous.
The weakfish or squeteague (Cynoscion regalis) is a type of a multitude of
species, large, swift, voracious, but with tender flesh, which is easily torn.
The common weakfish, abundant on our Atlantic coast, suffers much at the
hands of its enemy and associate, the bluefish. It is one of the best of all our
food-fishes. Farther south the spotted weakfish (Cynoscion nebulosus), very
incorrectly known as sea-trout, takes its place, and about New Orleans is
especially and justly prized.
The California "bluefish," Cynoscion parvipinnis, is very similar to these
Atlantic species, and there are many other species of Cynoscion on both
coasts of tropical America, forming a large part of the best fish-supply of
the various markets of the mainland. On the rocky islands, as Cuba, and
about coral reefs, Sciænidæ are practically unknown. In the Gulf of
California, the totuava, Cynoscion macdonaldi, reaches a weight of 172
pounds, and the stateliest of all, the great "white sea-bass" of California,
Cynoscion nobilis, reaches 100 pounds. In these large species the flesh is
much more firm than in the weakfish and thus bears shipment better.
Cynoscion has canines in the upper jaw only and its species are all
American. In the East Indies the genus Otolithes has strong canines in both
jaws. Its numerous species are very similar in form, habits, and value to
those of Cynoscion. The queenfish, Seriphus politus, of the California coast,
is much like the others of this series, but smaller and with no canines at all.
It is a very choice fish, as are also the species of Macrodon (Ancylodon)
known as pescadillo del red, voracious fishes of both shores of South
America.
Plagioscion squamosissimus and numerous species of Plagioscion and
other genera live in the rivers of South America. A single species, the river-
drum, gaspergou, river sheepshead, or thunder-pumper (Aplodinotus
grunniens), is found in streams in North America. This is a large fish
reaching a length of nearly three feet. It is very widely distributed, from the
which are full of mucous tracts, the specialization (and occasional absence)
of the air-bladder, and the presence of never more than two anal spines, one
of these being sometimes very large. Most of the species are marine, all are
carnivorous; none inhabit rocky places and none descend to depths in the
sea. At the least specialized extreme of the family, the mouth is large with
strong canines and the species are slender, swift, and predaceous.
The weakfish or squeteague (Cynoscion regalis) is a type of a multitude of
species, large, swift, voracious, but with tender flesh, which is easily torn.
The common weakfish, abundant on our Atlantic coast, suffers much at the
hands of its enemy and associate, the bluefish. It is one of the best of all our
food-fishes. Farther south the spotted weakfish (Cynoscion nebulosus), very
incorrectly known as sea-trout, takes its place, and about New Orleans is
especially and justly prized.
The California "bluefish," Cynoscion parvipinnis, is very similar to these
Atlantic species, and there are many other species of Cynoscion on both
coasts of tropical America, forming a large part of the best fish-supply of
the various markets of the mainland. On the rocky islands, as Cuba, and
about coral reefs, Sciænidæ are practically unknown. In the Gulf of
California, the totuava, Cynoscion macdonaldi, reaches a weight of 172
pounds, and the stateliest of all, the great "white sea-bass" of California,
Cynoscion nobilis, reaches 100 pounds. In these large species the flesh is
much more firm than in the weakfish and thus bears shipment better.
Cynoscion has canines in the upper jaw only and its species are all
American. In the East Indies the genus Otolithes has strong canines in both
jaws. Its numerous species are very similar in form, habits, and value to
those of Cynoscion. The queenfish, Seriphus politus, of the California coast,
is much like the others of this series, but smaller and with no canines at all.
It is a very choice fish, as are also the species of Macrodon (Ancylodon)
known as pescadillo del red, voracious fishes of both shores of South
America.
Plagioscion squamosissimus and numerous species of Plagioscion and
other genera live in the rivers of South America. A single species, the river-
drum, gaspergou, river sheepshead, or thunder-pumper (Aplodinotus
grunniens), is found in streams in North America. This is a large fish
reaching a length of nearly three feet. It is very widely distributed, from the
Page 409
Great Lakes to Rio Usumacinta in Guatemala, whence it has been lately
received by Dr. Evermann. This species abounds in lakes and sluggish
rivers. The flesh is coarse, and in the Great Lakes it is rarely eaten, having a
rank odor. In Louisiana and Texas it is, however, regarded as a good food-
fish. In this species the lower pharyngeals are very large and firmly united,
while, as in all other Sciænidæ, except the genus Pogonias, these bones are
separated. In all members of the family the ear-bones or otoliths are largely
developed, often finely sculptured. The otoliths of the river-drum are known
to Wisconsin boys as "lucky-stones," each having a rude impress of the
letter L. The names roncador, drum, thunder-pumper, croaker, and the like
refer to the grunting noise made by most Sciænidæ in the water, a noise at
least connected with the large and divided air-bladder.
Fig. 292.—Mademoiselle, Bairdiella chrysura (Linnæus). Virginia.
Numerous silvery species belong to Larimus, Corvula, Odontoscion, and
especially to Bairdiella, a genus in which the second anal spine is unusually
strong. The mademoiselle, Bairdiella chrysura is a pretty fish of our
Atlantic coast, excellent as a pan fish. In Bairdiella ensifera of Panama the
second anal spine is enormously large, much as in a robalo (Oxylabrax).
received by Dr. Evermann. This species abounds in lakes and sluggish
rivers. The flesh is coarse, and in the Great Lakes it is rarely eaten, having a
rank odor. In Louisiana and Texas it is, however, regarded as a good food-
fish. In this species the lower pharyngeals are very large and firmly united,
while, as in all other Sciænidæ, except the genus Pogonias, these bones are
separated. In all members of the family the ear-bones or otoliths are largely
developed, often finely sculptured. The otoliths of the river-drum are known
to Wisconsin boys as "lucky-stones," each having a rude impress of the
letter L. The names roncador, drum, thunder-pumper, croaker, and the like
refer to the grunting noise made by most Sciænidæ in the water, a noise at
least connected with the large and divided air-bladder.
Fig. 292.—Mademoiselle, Bairdiella chrysura (Linnæus). Virginia.
Numerous silvery species belong to Larimus, Corvula, Odontoscion, and
especially to Bairdiella, a genus in which the second anal spine is unusually
strong. The mademoiselle, Bairdiella chrysura is a pretty fish of our
Atlantic coast, excellent as a pan fish. In Bairdiella ensifera of Panama the
second anal spine is enormously large, much as in a robalo (Oxylabrax).
Page 410
In Stellifer and Nebris, the head is soft and spongy. Stellifer lanceolatus is
occasionally taken off South Carolina, and numerous other species of this
and related genera are found farther South.
Sciænops ocellata is the red-drum or channel bass of our South Atlantic
coast, a most important food-fish reaching a weight of seventy-five pounds.
It is well marked by a black ocellus on the base of the tail. On the coast of
Texas, this species, locally called redfish, exceeds in economic value all
other species found in that State.
Pseudosciæna aquila, the maigre of southern Europe, is another large fish,
similar in value to the red drum. Pseudosciæna antarctica is the kingfish of
Australia. To Sciæna belong many species, largely Asiatic, with the mouth
inferior, without barbels, the teeth small, and the convex snout marked with
mucous pores. Sciæna umbra, the ombre, is the common European species,
Sciæna saturna, the black roncador of California, is much like it. Sciæna
deliciosa is one of the most valued food-fishes of Peru, and Sciæna
argentata is valued in Japan. Species of Sciæna are especially numerous on
the coasts of India.
Fig. 293.—Red Drum, Sciænops ocellata Linnæus. Texas.
Roncador stearnsi, the California roncador, is a large fish with a black
ocellus at the base of the pectoral. It has some importance in the Los
occasionally taken off South Carolina, and numerous other species of this
and related genera are found farther South.
Sciænops ocellata is the red-drum or channel bass of our South Atlantic
coast, a most important food-fish reaching a weight of seventy-five pounds.
It is well marked by a black ocellus on the base of the tail. On the coast of
Texas, this species, locally called redfish, exceeds in economic value all
other species found in that State.
Pseudosciæna aquila, the maigre of southern Europe, is another large fish,
similar in value to the red drum. Pseudosciæna antarctica is the kingfish of
Australia. To Sciæna belong many species, largely Asiatic, with the mouth
inferior, without barbels, the teeth small, and the convex snout marked with
mucous pores. Sciæna umbra, the ombre, is the common European species,
Sciæna saturna, the black roncador of California, is much like it. Sciæna
deliciosa is one of the most valued food-fishes of Peru, and Sciæna
argentata is valued in Japan. Species of Sciæna are especially numerous on
the coasts of India.
Fig. 293.—Red Drum, Sciænops ocellata Linnæus. Texas.
Roncador stearnsi, the California roncador, is a large fish with a black
ocellus at the base of the pectoral. It has some importance in the Los
Page 411
Angeles market. The goody, spot, or lafayette (Leiostomus xanthurus) is a
small, finely flavored species abundant from Cape Cod to Texas. Similar to
it but inferior is the little roncador (Genyonemus lineatus) of California. The
common croaker, Micropogon undulatus, is very abundant on our Eastern
coast, and other species known as verrugatos or white-mouthed drummers
replace it farther South.
In Umbrina the chin has a short thick barbel. The species abound in the
tropics, Umbrina cirrosa in the Mediterranean; Umbrina coroides in
California, and the handsome Umbrina roncador, the yellow-tailed
roncador, in southern California. The kingfish, Menticirrhus, differs in
lacking the air-bladder, and lying on the bottom in shallow water the lower
fins are enlarged much as in the darters or gobies. All the species are
American. All are dull-colored and all excellent as food. Menticirrhus
saxatilis is the common kingfish or sea-mink, abundant from Cape Ann
southward, Menticirrhus americanus is the equally common sand-whiting
of Carolina, and Menticirrhus littoralis the surf-whiting. The California
whiting or sand-sucker is Menticirrhus undulatus.
Fig. 294.—Yellow-fin Roncador, Umbrina sinaloæ Scofield. Mazatlan.
small, finely flavored species abundant from Cape Cod to Texas. Similar to
it but inferior is the little roncador (Genyonemus lineatus) of California. The
common croaker, Micropogon undulatus, is very abundant on our Eastern
coast, and other species known as verrugatos or white-mouthed drummers
replace it farther South.
In Umbrina the chin has a short thick barbel. The species abound in the
tropics, Umbrina cirrosa in the Mediterranean; Umbrina coroides in
California, and the handsome Umbrina roncador, the yellow-tailed
roncador, in southern California. The kingfish, Menticirrhus, differs in
lacking the air-bladder, and lying on the bottom in shallow water the lower
fins are enlarged much as in the darters or gobies. All the species are
American. All are dull-colored and all excellent as food. Menticirrhus
saxatilis is the common kingfish or sea-mink, abundant from Cape Ann
southward, Menticirrhus americanus is the equally common sand-whiting
of Carolina, and Menticirrhus littoralis the surf-whiting. The California
whiting or sand-sucker is Menticirrhus undulatus.
Fig. 294.—Yellow-fin Roncador, Umbrina sinaloæ Scofield. Mazatlan.
Page 412
Fig. 295.—Kingfish, Menticirrhus americanus (Linnæus). Pensacola.
Pogonias chromis, the sea-drum, has barbels on the chin and the lower
pharyngeals are enlarged and united as in the river-drum, Aplodinotus. It is
a coarse fish common on our Atlantic coasts, a large specimen taken at St.
Augustine weighing 146 pounds. Other species of this family, belonging to
the genus Eques, are marked with ribbon-like stripes of black. Eques
lanceolatus, known in Cuba as serrana, is the most ornate of these species,
looking like a butterfly-fish or Chætodon.
Several fossil fragments have been doubtfully referred to Sciæna, Umbrina,
Pogonias, and other genera. Otoliths or ear-bones not clearly identifiable
are found from the Miocene on. These structures are more highly
specialized in this group than in any other.
Pogonias chromis, the sea-drum, has barbels on the chin and the lower
pharyngeals are enlarged and united as in the river-drum, Aplodinotus. It is
a coarse fish common on our Atlantic coasts, a large specimen taken at St.
Augustine weighing 146 pounds. Other species of this family, belonging to
the genus Eques, are marked with ribbon-like stripes of black. Eques
lanceolatus, known in Cuba as serrana, is the most ornate of these species,
looking like a butterfly-fish or Chætodon.
Several fossil fragments have been doubtfully referred to Sciæna, Umbrina,
Pogonias, and other genera. Otoliths or ear-bones not clearly identifiable
are found from the Miocene on. These structures are more highly
specialized in this group than in any other.
Page 413
Fig. 296.—Drum, Pogonias chromis (Linnæus). Matanzas, Fla.
The Sillaginidæ, etc.—Allied to the Sciænidæ is the small family of
Kisugos, Sillaginidæ, of the coasts of Asia. These are slender, cylindrical
fishes, silvery in color, with a general resemblance to small Sciænas.
Sillago japonicas, the kisugo of Japan, is a very abundant species, valued as
food. Sillago sihama ranges from Japan to Abyssinia.
A number of small families, mostly Asiatic, may be appended to the percoid
series, with which they agree in general characters, especially in the normal
structure of the shoulder-girdle and in the insertion of the pectoral and
ventral fins.
The Lactariidæ constitute a small family of the East Indies, allied to the
Sciænidæ, but with three anal spines. The mouth is armed with strong teeth.
Lactarius lactarius is a food-fish of India.
The Nandidæ are small spiny-rayed fishes of the East Indian streams,
without pseudobranchiæ.
The Polycentridæ are small fresh-water perch-like fishes of the streams of
South America, without lateral line and with many anal spines.
The Sillaginidæ, etc.—Allied to the Sciænidæ is the small family of
Kisugos, Sillaginidæ, of the coasts of Asia. These are slender, cylindrical
fishes, silvery in color, with a general resemblance to small Sciænas.
Sillago japonicas, the kisugo of Japan, is a very abundant species, valued as
food. Sillago sihama ranges from Japan to Abyssinia.
A number of small families, mostly Asiatic, may be appended to the percoid
series, with which they agree in general characters, especially in the normal
structure of the shoulder-girdle and in the insertion of the pectoral and
ventral fins.
The Lactariidæ constitute a small family of the East Indies, allied to the
Sciænidæ, but with three anal spines. The mouth is armed with strong teeth.
Lactarius lactarius is a food-fish of India.
The Nandidæ are small spiny-rayed fishes of the East Indian streams,
without pseudobranchiæ.
The Polycentridæ are small fresh-water perch-like fishes of the streams of
South America, without lateral line and with many anal spines.
Page 414
The Jawfishes: Opisthognathidæ, etc.—The Pseudochromipidæ are
marine-fishes of the tropics with the lateral line interrupted, and with a
single dorsal. They bear some resemblance to Plesiops and other aberrant
Serranidæ.
Fig. 297.—Gnathypops evermanni Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 298.—Jawfish, Opisthognathus macrognathus Poey. Tortugas, Fla.
Very close to these are the Opisthognathidæ or jawfishes with a single
lateral line and the mouth very large. In certain species of Opisthognathus,
the maxillary, long and curved, extends far behind the head. The few
marine-fishes of the tropics with the lateral line interrupted, and with a
single dorsal. They bear some resemblance to Plesiops and other aberrant
Serranidæ.
Fig. 297.—Gnathypops evermanni Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 298.—Jawfish, Opisthognathus macrognathus Poey. Tortugas, Fla.
Very close to these are the Opisthognathidæ or jawfishes with a single
lateral line and the mouth very large. In certain species of Opisthognathus,
the maxillary, long and curved, extends far behind the head. The few
Page 415
species are found in warm seas, but always very sparingly. Some of them
are handsomely colored.
The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.—A singular group evidently allied
to the Hæmulidæ is the family of Oplegnathidæ. In these fishes the teeth are
grown together to form a bony beak like the jaw of a turtle. Except for this
character, the species are very similar to ordinary grunts. While the mouth
resembles that of the parrot-fish, it is structurally different and must have
been independently developed. Oplegnathus punctatus, the "stonewall
perch" (ishigakidai), is common in Japan, as is also the banded Oplegnathus
fasciatus. Other species are found in Australia and Chile.
Fig. 299.—Opisthognathus nigromarginatus. India. (After Day.)
The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.—The family of swallowers
Chiasmodontidæ, is made up of a few deep-sea fishes of soft flesh and
feeble spines, the opercular apparatus much reduced. The ventrals are post-
thoracic, the rays I, 5, facts which point to some affinity with the
Opisthognathidæ, although Boulenger places these fishes among the
Percesoces. Chiasmodon niger, the black swallower of the mid-Atlantic,
has exceedingly long teeth and the whole body so distensible that it can
swallow fishes of many times its own size. According to Gill:
are handsomely colored.
The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.—A singular group evidently allied
to the Hæmulidæ is the family of Oplegnathidæ. In these fishes the teeth are
grown together to form a bony beak like the jaw of a turtle. Except for this
character, the species are very similar to ordinary grunts. While the mouth
resembles that of the parrot-fish, it is structurally different and must have
been independently developed. Oplegnathus punctatus, the "stonewall
perch" (ishigakidai), is common in Japan, as is also the banded Oplegnathus
fasciatus. Other species are found in Australia and Chile.
Fig. 299.—Opisthognathus nigromarginatus. India. (After Day.)
The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.—The family of swallowers
Chiasmodontidæ, is made up of a few deep-sea fishes of soft flesh and
feeble spines, the opercular apparatus much reduced. The ventrals are post-
thoracic, the rays I, 5, facts which point to some affinity with the
Opisthognathidæ, although Boulenger places these fishes among the
Percesoces. Chiasmodon niger, the black swallower of the mid-Atlantic,
has exceedingly long teeth and the whole body so distensible that it can
swallow fishes of many times its own size. According to Gill:
Page 416
Fig. 300.—Black Swallower, Chiasmodon niger Johnson, containing a fish
larger than itself. Le Have Bank.
"It espies a fish many times larger than itself, but which, nevertheless, may
be managed; it darts upon it, seizes it by the tail and gradually climbs over
it with its jaws, first using one and then the other; as the captive is taken in
the stomach and integuments stretch out, and at last the entire fish is passed
through the mouth and into the stomach, and the distended belly appears as
a great bag, projecting out far backwards and forwards, over which is the
swallower with the ventrals dislocated and far away from their normal
place. The walls of the stomach and belly have been so stretched that they
are transparent, and the species of the fish can be discerned within. But such
rapacity is more than the captor itself can stand. At length decomposition
sets in, the swallower is forced belly upwards, and the imprisoned gas, as in
a balloon, takes it upwards from the depths to the surface of the ocean, and
there, perchance, it may be found and picked up, to be taken home for a
wonder, as it is really. Thus have at least three specimens found their way
into museums—one being in the United States National Museum—and in
each the fish in the stomach has been about twice as long, and stouter in
proportion, than the swallower—six to twelve times bulkier! Its true habitat
seems to be at a depth of about 1,500 fathoms."
larger than itself. Le Have Bank.
"It espies a fish many times larger than itself, but which, nevertheless, may
be managed; it darts upon it, seizes it by the tail and gradually climbs over
it with its jaws, first using one and then the other; as the captive is taken in
the stomach and integuments stretch out, and at last the entire fish is passed
through the mouth and into the stomach, and the distended belly appears as
a great bag, projecting out far backwards and forwards, over which is the
swallower with the ventrals dislocated and far away from their normal
place. The walls of the stomach and belly have been so stretched that they
are transparent, and the species of the fish can be discerned within. But such
rapacity is more than the captor itself can stand. At length decomposition
sets in, the swallower is forced belly upwards, and the imprisoned gas, as in
a balloon, takes it upwards from the depths to the surface of the ocean, and
there, perchance, it may be found and picked up, to be taken home for a
wonder, as it is really. Thus have at least three specimens found their way
into museums—one being in the United States National Museum—and in
each the fish in the stomach has been about twice as long, and stouter in
proportion, than the swallower—six to twelve times bulkier! Its true habitat
seems to be at a depth of about 1,500 fathoms."
Page 417
Allied to this family is the little group of Champsodontidæ of Japan and the
East Indies. Champsodon vorax looks like a young Uranoscopus. The body
is covered with numerous lateral lines and cross-lines.
The Malacanthidæ.—The Malacanthidæ are elongate fishes, rather
handsomely colored, with a strong canine on the premaxillary behind.
Malacanthus plumieri, the matajuelo blanco, a slender fish of a creamy-
brown color, is common in the West Indies. Other species are found in
Polynesia, the most notable being Malacanthus (or Oceanops) lativittatus, a
large fish of a brilliant sky-blue, with a jet-black lateral band. In Samoa this
species is called gatasami, the "eye of the sea."
The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.—The Latilidæ, or blanquillos, have also an
enlarged posterior canine, but the body is deeper and the flesh more firm.
The species reach a considerable size and are valued as food. Lopholotilus
chamæleonticeps is the famous tilefish dredged in the depths under the Gulf
Stream. It is a fish of remarkable beauty, red and golden. This species,
Professor Gill writes, "was unknown until 1879, when specimens were
brought by fishermen to Boston from a previously unexplored bank about
eighty miles southeast of No Man's Land, Mass. In the fall of 1880 it was
found to be extremely abundant everywhere off the coast of southern New
England at a depth of from seventy-five to two hundred and fifty fathoms.
The form of the species is more compressed, and higher, than in most of the
family, and what especially distinguishes it is the development of a
compressed, 'fleshy, fin-like appendage over the back part of the head and
nape, reminding one of the adipose fin of the salmonids and catfishes.' It is
especially notable, too, for the brilliancy of its colors, as well as for its size,
being by far larger than any other member of its family. A weight of fifty
pounds or more is, or rather, one might say, was frequently attained by it,
although such was very far above the average, that being little over ten
pounds. In the reach of water referred to, it could once be found abundantly
at any time, and caught by hook and line. After a severe gale in March,
1882, millions of tilefish could be seen, or calculated for, on the surface of
the water for a distance of about three hundred miles from north to south,
and fifty miles from east to west. It has been calculated by Capt. Collins
that as many as one thousand four hundred and thirty-eight millions were
scattered over the surface. This would have allowed about two hundred and
twenty-eight pounds to every man, woman and child of the fifty million
East Indies. Champsodon vorax looks like a young Uranoscopus. The body
is covered with numerous lateral lines and cross-lines.
The Malacanthidæ.—The Malacanthidæ are elongate fishes, rather
handsomely colored, with a strong canine on the premaxillary behind.
Malacanthus plumieri, the matajuelo blanco, a slender fish of a creamy-
brown color, is common in the West Indies. Other species are found in
Polynesia, the most notable being Malacanthus (or Oceanops) lativittatus, a
large fish of a brilliant sky-blue, with a jet-black lateral band. In Samoa this
species is called gatasami, the "eye of the sea."
The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.—The Latilidæ, or blanquillos, have also an
enlarged posterior canine, but the body is deeper and the flesh more firm.
The species reach a considerable size and are valued as food. Lopholotilus
chamæleonticeps is the famous tilefish dredged in the depths under the Gulf
Stream. It is a fish of remarkable beauty, red and golden. This species,
Professor Gill writes, "was unknown until 1879, when specimens were
brought by fishermen to Boston from a previously unexplored bank about
eighty miles southeast of No Man's Land, Mass. In the fall of 1880 it was
found to be extremely abundant everywhere off the coast of southern New
England at a depth of from seventy-five to two hundred and fifty fathoms.
The form of the species is more compressed, and higher, than in most of the
family, and what especially distinguishes it is the development of a
compressed, 'fleshy, fin-like appendage over the back part of the head and
nape, reminding one of the adipose fin of the salmonids and catfishes.' It is
especially notable, too, for the brilliancy of its colors, as well as for its size,
being by far larger than any other member of its family. A weight of fifty
pounds or more is, or rather, one might say, was frequently attained by it,
although such was very far above the average, that being little over ten
pounds. In the reach of water referred to, it could once be found abundantly
at any time, and caught by hook and line. After a severe gale in March,
1882, millions of tilefish could be seen, or calculated for, on the surface of
the water for a distance of about three hundred miles from north to south,
and fifty miles from east to west. It has been calculated by Capt. Collins
that as many as one thousand four hundred and thirty-eight millions were
scattered over the surface. This would have allowed about two hundred and
twenty-eight pounds to every man, woman and child of the fifty million
Page 418
inhabitants of the United States! On trying at their former habitat the next
fall, as well as all successive years to the present time, not a single
specimen could be found where formerly it was so numerous. We have thus
a case of a catastrophe which, as far as has been observed, caused complete
annihilation of an abundant animal in a very limited period. Whether the
grounds it formerly held will be reoccupied subsequently by the progeny of
a protected colony remains to be seen, but it is scarcely probable that the
entire species has been exterminated." It is now certain that the species is
not extinct.
Caulolatilus princeps is the blanquillo or "whitefish" of southern
California, a large handsome fish formed like a dolphin, of purplish,
olivaceous color and excellent flesh. Other species of Caulolatilus are
found in the West Indies. Latilus japonicus is the amadai or sweet perch of
Japan, an excellent food-fish of a bright crimson color.
The Pinguipedidæ of Chile resemble the Latilidæ, having also the enlarged
premaxillary tooth. The ventrals are, however, thickened and placed farther
forward.
The Bandfishes: Cepolidæ.—The small family of Cepolidæ, or
bandfishes, resemble the Latilidæ somewhat and are probably related to
them. The head is normally formed, the ventral fins are thoracic, with a
spine and five rays, but the body is drawn out into a long eel-like form, the
many-rayed dorsal and anal fins meeting around the tail. The few species
are crimson in color with small scales. They are used as food, but the flesh
is dry and the bones are stiff and numerous. Cepola tænia is common in the
Mediterranean, and Acanthocepola krusensterni abounds in the bays of
southern Japan.
The Cirrhitidæ.—The species of the family Cirrhitidæ strongly resemble
the smaller Serranidæ and even Serranus itself, but the lower rays of the
pectoral fins are enlarged and are undivided, as in the sea-scorpions and
some sculpins. In these fishes, however, the bony stay, which characterizes
Scorpænidæ and Cottidæ, is wholly absent. It is, however, considered
possible that this interesting family represents the point of separation at
which the mail-cheeked fishes become differentiated from the typical
perch-like forms. Goniistius zonatus, the takanohadai, is a valuable food-
fish of Japan, marked by black cross-bands. Paracirrhites forsteri and other
fall, as well as all successive years to the present time, not a single
specimen could be found where formerly it was so numerous. We have thus
a case of a catastrophe which, as far as has been observed, caused complete
annihilation of an abundant animal in a very limited period. Whether the
grounds it formerly held will be reoccupied subsequently by the progeny of
a protected colony remains to be seen, but it is scarcely probable that the
entire species has been exterminated." It is now certain that the species is
not extinct.
Caulolatilus princeps is the blanquillo or "whitefish" of southern
California, a large handsome fish formed like a dolphin, of purplish,
olivaceous color and excellent flesh. Other species of Caulolatilus are
found in the West Indies. Latilus japonicus is the amadai or sweet perch of
Japan, an excellent food-fish of a bright crimson color.
The Pinguipedidæ of Chile resemble the Latilidæ, having also the enlarged
premaxillary tooth. The ventrals are, however, thickened and placed farther
forward.
The Bandfishes: Cepolidæ.—The small family of Cepolidæ, or
bandfishes, resemble the Latilidæ somewhat and are probably related to
them. The head is normally formed, the ventral fins are thoracic, with a
spine and five rays, but the body is drawn out into a long eel-like form, the
many-rayed dorsal and anal fins meeting around the tail. The few species
are crimson in color with small scales. They are used as food, but the flesh
is dry and the bones are stiff and numerous. Cepola tænia is common in the
Mediterranean, and Acanthocepola krusensterni abounds in the bays of
southern Japan.
The Cirrhitidæ.—The species of the family Cirrhitidæ strongly resemble
the smaller Serranidæ and even Serranus itself, but the lower rays of the
pectoral fins are enlarged and are undivided, as in the sea-scorpions and
some sculpins. In these fishes, however, the bony stay, which characterizes
Scorpænidæ and Cottidæ, is wholly absent. It is, however, considered
possible that this interesting family represents the point of separation at
which the mail-cheeked fishes become differentiated from the typical
perch-like forms. Goniistius zonatus, the takanohadai, is a valuable food-
fish of Japan, marked by black cross-bands. Paracirrhites forsteri and other
Page 419
species of Cirrhitus and Paracirrhites are very pretty fishes of the coral
reefs, abundant in the markets of Honolulu, the spotted Cirrhitus
marmoratus being the most widely diffused of these. Only one species of
this family, Cirrhitus rivulatus, a large fish, green, with blue markings, is
found in American waters. It frequents the rocky shores of the west coast of
Mexico.
Allied to the Cirrhitidæ is the small family of Latrididæ, with a long dorsal
fin deeply divided, and the lower rays of the pectoral similarly modified.
Latris hecateia is called the "trumpeter" in Australian waters. It is one of the
best food-fishes of Australia, reaching a weight of sixty to eighty pounds.
Another small family showing the same peculiar structure of the pectoral
fin is that of the Aplodactylidæ. The species of Aplodactylus live on the
coasts of Chile and Australia. They are herbivorous fishes, with flat,
tricuspid teeth, and except for their pectoral fins are very similar to the
Kyphosidæ.
Fig. 301.—Cirrhitus rivulatus Valenciennes. Mazatlan.
The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.—In the neighborhood of the Latrididæ,
Dr. Boulenger places the Trichodontidæ or sandfishes, small, scaleless,
silvery fishes of the northern Pacific. These are much compressed in body,
reefs, abundant in the markets of Honolulu, the spotted Cirrhitus
marmoratus being the most widely diffused of these. Only one species of
this family, Cirrhitus rivulatus, a large fish, green, with blue markings, is
found in American waters. It frequents the rocky shores of the west coast of
Mexico.
Allied to the Cirrhitidæ is the small family of Latrididæ, with a long dorsal
fin deeply divided, and the lower rays of the pectoral similarly modified.
Latris hecateia is called the "trumpeter" in Australian waters. It is one of the
best food-fishes of Australia, reaching a weight of sixty to eighty pounds.
Another small family showing the same peculiar structure of the pectoral
fin is that of the Aplodactylidæ. The species of Aplodactylus live on the
coasts of Chile and Australia. They are herbivorous fishes, with flat,
tricuspid teeth, and except for their pectoral fins are very similar to the
Kyphosidæ.
Fig. 301.—Cirrhitus rivulatus Valenciennes. Mazatlan.
The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.—In the neighborhood of the Latrididæ,
Dr. Boulenger places the Trichodontidæ or sandfishes, small, scaleless,
silvery fishes of the northern Pacific. These are much compressed in body,
Page 420
with very oblique mouths, with fringed lips and, as befits their northern
habitat, with a much increased number of vertebræ. They bury themselves
in sand under the surf, and the two species, Trichodon trichodon and
Arctoscopus japonicus, range very widely in the regions washed by the
Japan current. These species bear a strong resemblance to the star-gazers
(Uranoscopus), but this likeness seems to be superficial only.
Fig. 302.—Sandfish, Trichodon trichodon (Tilesius). Shumagin Islands,
Alaska.
habitat, with a much increased number of vertebræ. They bury themselves
in sand under the surf, and the two species, Trichodon trichodon and
Arctoscopus japonicus, range very widely in the regions washed by the
Japan current. These species bear a strong resemblance to the star-gazers
(Uranoscopus), but this likeness seems to be superficial only.
Fig. 302.—Sandfish, Trichodon trichodon (Tilesius). Shumagin Islands,
Alaska.
Page 421
CHAPTER XXI
LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI
he Labyrinthine Fishes.—An offshoot of the Percomorphi is
the group of Labyrinthici, composed of perch-like fishes
which have a very peculiar structure to the pharyngeal bones
and respiratory apparatus. This feature is thus described by
Dr. Gill:
"The upper elements of one of the pairs of gill-bearing arches are peculiarly
modified. The elements in question (called branchihyal) of each side,
instead of being straight and solid, as in most fishes, are excessively
developed and provided with several thin plates or folds, erect from the
surface of the bones and the roof of the skull, to which the bones are
attached. These plates, by their intersection, form chambers, and are lined
with a vascular membrane, which is supplied with large blood-vessels. It
was formerly supposed that the chambers referred to had the office of
receiving and retaining supplies of water which should trickle down and
keep the gills moist; such was supposed to be an adaptation for the
sustentation of life out of the water. The experiments of Surgeon Day,
however, throw doubt upon this alleged function, and tend to show: (1) that
these fishes died when deprived of access to atmospheric air, not from any
deleterious properties either in the water or in the apparatus used, but from
being unable to subsist on air obtained solely from the water, aerial
respiration being indispensable; (2) that they can live in moisture out of the
water for lengthened periods, and for a short, but variable period in water
only; and (3) that the cavity or receptacle does not contain water, but has a
moist secreting surface, in which air is retained for the purpose of
respiration. It seems probable that the air, after having been supplied for
aerial respiration, is ejected by the mouth, and not swallowed to be
LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI
he Labyrinthine Fishes.—An offshoot of the Percomorphi is
the group of Labyrinthici, composed of perch-like fishes
which have a very peculiar structure to the pharyngeal bones
and respiratory apparatus. This feature is thus described by
Dr. Gill:
"The upper elements of one of the pairs of gill-bearing arches are peculiarly
modified. The elements in question (called branchihyal) of each side,
instead of being straight and solid, as in most fishes, are excessively
developed and provided with several thin plates or folds, erect from the
surface of the bones and the roof of the skull, to which the bones are
attached. These plates, by their intersection, form chambers, and are lined
with a vascular membrane, which is supplied with large blood-vessels. It
was formerly supposed that the chambers referred to had the office of
receiving and retaining supplies of water which should trickle down and
keep the gills moist; such was supposed to be an adaptation for the
sustentation of life out of the water. The experiments of Surgeon Day,
however, throw doubt upon this alleged function, and tend to show: (1) that
these fishes died when deprived of access to atmospheric air, not from any
deleterious properties either in the water or in the apparatus used, but from
being unable to subsist on air obtained solely from the water, aerial
respiration being indispensable; (2) that they can live in moisture out of the
water for lengthened periods, and for a short, but variable period in water
only; and (3) that the cavity or receptacle does not contain water, but has a
moist secreting surface, in which air is retained for the purpose of
respiration. It seems probable that the air, after having been supplied for
aerial respiration, is ejected by the mouth, and not swallowed to be
Page 422
discharged per anum. In fine, the two respiratory factors of the branchial
apparatus have independent functions: (1) the labyrinthiform, or
branchihyal portion, being a special modification for the respiration of
atmospheric air, and (2) the gill filaments discharging their normal function.
If, however, the fish is kept in water and prevented from coming to the
surface to swallow the atmospheric air, the labyrinthiform apparatus
becomes filled with water which cannot be discharged, owing to its almost
non-contractile powers. There is thus no means of emptying it, and the
water probably becomes carbonized and unfit for oxygenizing the blood, so
that the whole of the respiration is thus thrown on the branchiæ. This will
account for the fact that when the fish is in a state of quiescence, it lives
much longer than when excited, whilst the sluggishness sometimes evinced
may be due to poisoned or carbonized blood."
Four families of labyrinth-gilled fishes are recognized by Professor Gill;
and to these we may append a fifth, which, however, lacks the elaborate
structures mentioned above and which shows other evidences of
degeneration.
The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.—The family of Anabantidæ,
according to Gill, "includes those species which have the mouth of
moderate size and teeth on the palate (either on the vomer alone, or on both
the vomer and palatine bones). To the family belongs the celebrated
climbing-fish.
apparatus have independent functions: (1) the labyrinthiform, or
branchihyal portion, being a special modification for the respiration of
atmospheric air, and (2) the gill filaments discharging their normal function.
If, however, the fish is kept in water and prevented from coming to the
surface to swallow the atmospheric air, the labyrinthiform apparatus
becomes filled with water which cannot be discharged, owing to its almost
non-contractile powers. There is thus no means of emptying it, and the
water probably becomes carbonized and unfit for oxygenizing the blood, so
that the whole of the respiration is thus thrown on the branchiæ. This will
account for the fact that when the fish is in a state of quiescence, it lives
much longer than when excited, whilst the sluggishness sometimes evinced
may be due to poisoned or carbonized blood."
Four families of labyrinth-gilled fishes are recognized by Professor Gill;
and to these we may append a fifth, which, however, lacks the elaborate
structures mentioned above and which shows other evidences of
degeneration.
The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.—The family of Anabantidæ,
according to Gill, "includes those species which have the mouth of
moderate size and teeth on the palate (either on the vomer alone, or on both
the vomer and palatine bones). To the family belongs the celebrated
climbing-fish.
Page 423
Fig. 303.—The Climbing Perch, Anabas scandens Linnæus. Opercle cut
away to show the gill-labyrinth.
"The climbing-fish (Anabas scandens) is especially noteworthy for the
movability of the suboperculum. The operculum is serrated. The color is
reddish olive, with a blackish spot at the base of the caudal fin; the head,
below the level of the eye, grayish, but relieved by an olive band running
from the angle of the mouth to the angle of the preoperculum, and with a
black spot on the membrane behind the hindermost spines of the
operculum.
"The climbing-fish was first made known in a memoir, printed in 1797, by
Daldorf, a lieutenant in the service of the Danish East India Company at
Tranquebar. Daldorf called it Perca scandens, and affirmed that he himself
had taken one of these fishes, clinging by the spine of its operculum in a slit
in the bark of a palm (Borassus flabelliformis) which grew near a pond. He
also described its mode of progression; and his observations were
substantially repeated by the Rev. Mr. John, a missionary resident in the
same country. His positive evidence was, however, called into question by
those who doubted on account of hypothetical considerations. Even in
popular works not generally prone to even a judicious skepticism, the
accounts were stigmatized as unworthy of belief. We have, however, in
answer to such doubts, too specific information to longer distrust the
reliability of the previous reports.
"Mr. Rungasawmy Moodeliar, a native assistant of Capt. Jesse Mitchell of
the Madras Government Central Museum, communicated to his superior the
statement that 'this fish inhabits tanks or pools of water, and is called Panai
feri, i.e., the fish that climbs palmyra-trees. When there are palmyra-trees
growing by the side of a tank or pool, when heavy rain falls and the water
runs profusely down their trunks, this fish, by means of its opercula, which
move unlike those of other fishes, crawls up the tree sideways (i.e.,
inclining to the sides considerably from the vertical) to a height of from five
to seven feet, and then drops down. Should this fish be thrown upon the
ground, it runs or proceeds rapidly along in the same manner (sideways) as
long as the mucus on it remains.'
away to show the gill-labyrinth.
"The climbing-fish (Anabas scandens) is especially noteworthy for the
movability of the suboperculum. The operculum is serrated. The color is
reddish olive, with a blackish spot at the base of the caudal fin; the head,
below the level of the eye, grayish, but relieved by an olive band running
from the angle of the mouth to the angle of the preoperculum, and with a
black spot on the membrane behind the hindermost spines of the
operculum.
"The climbing-fish was first made known in a memoir, printed in 1797, by
Daldorf, a lieutenant in the service of the Danish East India Company at
Tranquebar. Daldorf called it Perca scandens, and affirmed that he himself
had taken one of these fishes, clinging by the spine of its operculum in a slit
in the bark of a palm (Borassus flabelliformis) which grew near a pond. He
also described its mode of progression; and his observations were
substantially repeated by the Rev. Mr. John, a missionary resident in the
same country. His positive evidence was, however, called into question by
those who doubted on account of hypothetical considerations. Even in
popular works not generally prone to even a judicious skepticism, the
accounts were stigmatized as unworthy of belief. We have, however, in
answer to such doubts, too specific information to longer distrust the
reliability of the previous reports.
"Mr. Rungasawmy Moodeliar, a native assistant of Capt. Jesse Mitchell of
the Madras Government Central Museum, communicated to his superior the
statement that 'this fish inhabits tanks or pools of water, and is called Panai
feri, i.e., the fish that climbs palmyra-trees. When there are palmyra-trees
growing by the side of a tank or pool, when heavy rain falls and the water
runs profusely down their trunks, this fish, by means of its opercula, which
move unlike those of other fishes, crawls up the tree sideways (i.e.,
inclining to the sides considerably from the vertical) to a height of from five
to seven feet, and then drops down. Should this fish be thrown upon the
ground, it runs or proceeds rapidly along in the same manner (sideways) as
long as the mucus on it remains.'
Page 424
"These movements are effected by the opercula, which, it will be
remembered, are unusually mobile in this species; they can, according to
Captain Mitchell (and I have verified the statement), be raised or turned
outwards to nearly a right angle with the body, and when in that position,
the suboperculum distends a little, and it appears that it is chiefly by the
spines of this latter piece that the fish takes a purchase on the tree or
ground. 'I have,' says Captain Mitchell, 'ascertained by experiment that the
mere closing of the operculum, when the spines are in contact with any
surface, even common glass, pulls an ordinary-sized fish forwards about
half an inch,' but it is probable that additional force is supplied by the
caudal and anal fins, both of which, it is said, are put in use when climbing
or advancing on the ground; the motion, in fact, is described as a wriggling
one.
"The climbing-fish seems to manifest an inclination to ascend streams
against the current, and we can now understand how, during rain, the water
will flow down the trunk of a tree, and the climbing-fish, taking advantage
of this, will ascend against the down-flow by means of the mechanism
already described, and by which it is enabled to reach a considerable
distance up the trunk." (Gill.)
The Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.—"The Osphromenidæ are fishes with a
mouth of small size, and destitute of teeth on the palate. To this family
belongs the gourami, whose praises have been so often sung, and which has
been the subject of many efforts for acclimatization in France and
elsewhere by the French.
"The gourami (Osphromenus goramy) has an oblong, oval form, and, when
mature, the color is nearly uniform, but in the young there are black bands
across the body, and also a blackish spot at the base of the pectoral fin. The
gourami, if we can credit reports, occasionally reaches a gigantic size, for it
is claimed that it sometimes attains a length of 6 feet, and weighs 150
pounds, but if this is true, the size is at least exceptional, and one of 20
pounds is a very large fish; indeed, they are considered very large if they
weigh as much as 12 or 14 pounds, in which case they measure about 2 feet
in length.
"The countries in which the gourami is most at home lie in the intertropical
belt. The fish is assiduous in the care of its young, and prepares a nest for
remembered, are unusually mobile in this species; they can, according to
Captain Mitchell (and I have verified the statement), be raised or turned
outwards to nearly a right angle with the body, and when in that position,
the suboperculum distends a little, and it appears that it is chiefly by the
spines of this latter piece that the fish takes a purchase on the tree or
ground. 'I have,' says Captain Mitchell, 'ascertained by experiment that the
mere closing of the operculum, when the spines are in contact with any
surface, even common glass, pulls an ordinary-sized fish forwards about
half an inch,' but it is probable that additional force is supplied by the
caudal and anal fins, both of which, it is said, are put in use when climbing
or advancing on the ground; the motion, in fact, is described as a wriggling
one.
"The climbing-fish seems to manifest an inclination to ascend streams
against the current, and we can now understand how, during rain, the water
will flow down the trunk of a tree, and the climbing-fish, taking advantage
of this, will ascend against the down-flow by means of the mechanism
already described, and by which it is enabled to reach a considerable
distance up the trunk." (Gill.)
The Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.—"The Osphromenidæ are fishes with a
mouth of small size, and destitute of teeth on the palate. To this family
belongs the gourami, whose praises have been so often sung, and which has
been the subject of many efforts for acclimatization in France and
elsewhere by the French.
"The gourami (Osphromenus goramy) has an oblong, oval form, and, when
mature, the color is nearly uniform, but in the young there are black bands
across the body, and also a blackish spot at the base of the pectoral fin. The
gourami, if we can credit reports, occasionally reaches a gigantic size, for it
is claimed that it sometimes attains a length of 6 feet, and weighs 150
pounds, but if this is true, the size is at least exceptional, and one of 20
pounds is a very large fish; indeed, they are considered very large if they
weigh as much as 12 or 14 pounds, in which case they measure about 2 feet
in length.
"The countries in which the gourami is most at home lie in the intertropical
belt. The fish is assiduous in the care of its young, and prepares a nest for
Page 425
the reception of eggs. The bottom selected is muddy, the depth variable
within a narrow area, that is, in one place about a yard, and near by several
yards deep.
"They prefer to use, for the nests, tufts of a peculiar grass (Panicum
jumentorum) which grows on the surface of the water, and whose floating
roots, rising and falling with the movements of the water, form natural
galleries, under which the fish can conceal themselves. In one of the corners
of the pond, among the plants which grow there, the gouramis attach their
nest, which is of a nearly spherical form, and composed of plants and mud,
and considerably resembles in form those of some birds.
"The gourami is omnivorous, taking at times flesh, fish, frogs, insects,
worms, and many kinds of vegetables; and on account of its omnivorous
habit, it has been called by the French colonists of Mauritius porc des
rivières, or 'water-pig.' It is, however, essentially a vegetarian, and its
adaptation for this diet is indicated by the extremely elongated intestinal
canal, which is many times folded upon itself. It is said to be especially
fond of the leaves of several araceous plants. Its flesh is, according to
several authors, of a light-yellow straw-color, firm and easy of digestion.
They vary in quality with the nature of the waters inhabited, those taken
from a rocky river being much superior to those from muddy ponds; but
those dwelling at the mouth of rivers, where the water is to some extent
brackish, are the best of all. Again, they vary with age; and the large,
overgrown fishes are much less esteemed than the small ones. They are in
their prime when three years old. Dr. Vinson says the flavor is somewhat
like that of carp; and, if this is so, we may entertain some skepticism as to
its superiority; but the unanimous testimony in favor of its excellence
naturally leads to the belief that the comparison is unfair to the gourami.
"Numerous attempts have been made by the French to introduce the
gourami into their country, as well as into several of their provinces; and for
a number of years consignments of the eggs, or the young, or adult fish,
were made. Although at least partially successful, the fish has never been
domiciliated in the Republic, and, indeed, it could not be reasonably
expected that it would be, knowing, as we do, its sensitiveness to cold and
the climates under which it thrives.
within a narrow area, that is, in one place about a yard, and near by several
yards deep.
"They prefer to use, for the nests, tufts of a peculiar grass (Panicum
jumentorum) which grows on the surface of the water, and whose floating
roots, rising and falling with the movements of the water, form natural
galleries, under which the fish can conceal themselves. In one of the corners
of the pond, among the plants which grow there, the gouramis attach their
nest, which is of a nearly spherical form, and composed of plants and mud,
and considerably resembles in form those of some birds.
"The gourami is omnivorous, taking at times flesh, fish, frogs, insects,
worms, and many kinds of vegetables; and on account of its omnivorous
habit, it has been called by the French colonists of Mauritius porc des
rivières, or 'water-pig.' It is, however, essentially a vegetarian, and its
adaptation for this diet is indicated by the extremely elongated intestinal
canal, which is many times folded upon itself. It is said to be especially
fond of the leaves of several araceous plants. Its flesh is, according to
several authors, of a light-yellow straw-color, firm and easy of digestion.
They vary in quality with the nature of the waters inhabited, those taken
from a rocky river being much superior to those from muddy ponds; but
those dwelling at the mouth of rivers, where the water is to some extent
brackish, are the best of all. Again, they vary with age; and the large,
overgrown fishes are much less esteemed than the small ones. They are in
their prime when three years old. Dr. Vinson says the flavor is somewhat
like that of carp; and, if this is so, we may entertain some skepticism as to
its superiority; but the unanimous testimony in favor of its excellence
naturally leads to the belief that the comparison is unfair to the gourami.
"Numerous attempts have been made by the French to introduce the
gourami into their country, as well as into several of their provinces; and for
a number of years consignments of the eggs, or the young, or adult fish,
were made. Although at least partially successful, the fish has never been
domiciliated in the Republic, and, indeed, it could not be reasonably
expected that it would be, knowing, as we do, its sensitiveness to cold and
the climates under which it thrives.
Page 426
"The fish of paradise (Macropodus viridi-auratus) is a species remarkable
for its beauty and the extension of its fins, and especially of the ventrals,
which has obtained for it the generic name Macropodus. To some extent
this species has also been made the subject of fish-culture, but with
reference to its beauty and exhibition in aquaria and ponds, like the
goldfish, rather than for its food qualities.
"The only other fish of the family that needs mention is the fighting-fish
(Betta pugnax). It is cultivated by the natives of Siam, and a special race
seems to have been the result of such cultivation. The fishes are kept in
glasses of water and fed, among other things, with the larvæ of mosquitoes
or other aquatic insects. 'The Siamese are as infatuated with the combats of
these fishes as the Malays are with their cock-fights, and stake on the issue
considerable sums, and sometimes their own persons and families. The
license to exhibit fish-fights is farmed, and brings a considerable annual
revenue to the king of Siam. The species abounds in the rivulets at the foot
of the hills of Penang. The inhabitants name it 'pla-kat,' or the 'fighting-
fish.'"
The Helostomidæ are herbivorous, with movable teeth on the lips and with
long intestines. Helostoma temmincki lives in the rivers of Java, Borneo,
and Sumatra.
The Luciocephalidæ of East Indian rivers have the suprabranchial organ
small, formed of two gill-arches dilated by a membrane. In these species
there are no spines in the dorsal and anal, while in the Anabantidæ and
Osphromenidæ numerous spines are developed both in the dorsal and anal.
Luciocephalus pulcher indicates a transition toward the Ophicephalidæ.
The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.—The family of
Ophicephalidæ, snake-head mullets, or China-fishes, placed among the
Percesoces by Cope and Boulenger, seems to us nearer the Labyrinthine
fishes, of which it is perhaps a degenerate descendant. The body is long,
cylindrical, covered with firm scales which on the head are often larger and
shield-like. The mouth is large, the head pike-like, and the habit carnivorous
and voracious. There are no spines in any of the fins, but the thoracic
position of the ventrals indicates affinity with perch-like forms and the
absence of ventral spines seems rather a feature of degradation, the more so
as in one genus (Channa) the ventrals are wanting altogether. The numerous
for its beauty and the extension of its fins, and especially of the ventrals,
which has obtained for it the generic name Macropodus. To some extent
this species has also been made the subject of fish-culture, but with
reference to its beauty and exhibition in aquaria and ponds, like the
goldfish, rather than for its food qualities.
"The only other fish of the family that needs mention is the fighting-fish
(Betta pugnax). It is cultivated by the natives of Siam, and a special race
seems to have been the result of such cultivation. The fishes are kept in
glasses of water and fed, among other things, with the larvæ of mosquitoes
or other aquatic insects. 'The Siamese are as infatuated with the combats of
these fishes as the Malays are with their cock-fights, and stake on the issue
considerable sums, and sometimes their own persons and families. The
license to exhibit fish-fights is farmed, and brings a considerable annual
revenue to the king of Siam. The species abounds in the rivulets at the foot
of the hills of Penang. The inhabitants name it 'pla-kat,' or the 'fighting-
fish.'"
The Helostomidæ are herbivorous, with movable teeth on the lips and with
long intestines. Helostoma temmincki lives in the rivers of Java, Borneo,
and Sumatra.
The Luciocephalidæ of East Indian rivers have the suprabranchial organ
small, formed of two gill-arches dilated by a membrane. In these species
there are no spines in the dorsal and anal, while in the Anabantidæ and
Osphromenidæ numerous spines are developed both in the dorsal and anal.
Luciocephalus pulcher indicates a transition toward the Ophicephalidæ.
The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.—The family of
Ophicephalidæ, snake-head mullets, or China-fishes, placed among the
Percesoces by Cope and Boulenger, seems to us nearer the Labyrinthine
fishes, of which it is perhaps a degenerate descendant. The body is long,
cylindrical, covered with firm scales which on the head are often larger and
shield-like. The mouth is large, the head pike-like, and the habit carnivorous
and voracious. There are no spines in any of the fins, but the thoracic
position of the ventrals indicates affinity with perch-like forms and the
absence of ventral spines seems rather a feature of degradation, the more so
as in one genus (Channa) the ventrals are wanting altogether. The numerous
Page 427
species are found in the rivers of southern China and India, crossing to
Formosa and to Africa. They are extremely tenacious of life, and are carried
alive by the Chinese to San Francisco and to Hawaii, where they are now
naturalized, being known as "China-fishes."
Fig. 304.—Channa formosana Jordan & Evermann. Streams of Formosa.
Fig. 305.—Snake-headed China-fish, Ophicephalus barca. India. (After
Day.)
These fishes have no special organ for holding water on the gills, but the
gill space may be partly closed by a membrane. According to Dr. Günther,
these fishes are "able to survive drought living in semi-fluid mud or lying in
a torpid state below the hard-baked crusts of the bottom of a tank from
which every drop of water has disappeared. Respiration is probably entirely
suspended during the state of torpidity, but whilst the mud is still soft
enough to allow them to come to the surface, they rise at intervals to take in
a quantity of air, by means of which their blood is oxygenized. This habit
Formosa and to Africa. They are extremely tenacious of life, and are carried
alive by the Chinese to San Francisco and to Hawaii, where they are now
naturalized, being known as "China-fishes."
Fig. 304.—Channa formosana Jordan & Evermann. Streams of Formosa.
Fig. 305.—Snake-headed China-fish, Ophicephalus barca. India. (After
Day.)
These fishes have no special organ for holding water on the gills, but the
gill space may be partly closed by a membrane. According to Dr. Günther,
these fishes are "able to survive drought living in semi-fluid mud or lying in
a torpid state below the hard-baked crusts of the bottom of a tank from
which every drop of water has disappeared. Respiration is probably entirely
suspended during the state of torpidity, but whilst the mud is still soft
enough to allow them to come to the surface, they rise at intervals to take in
a quantity of air, by means of which their blood is oxygenized. This habit
Page 428
has been observed in some species to continue also to the period of the year
in which the fish lives in normal water, and individuals which are kept in a
basin and prevented from coming to the surface and renewing the air for
respiratory purposes are suffocated. The particular manner in which the
accessory branchial cavity participates in respiratory functions is not
known. It is a simple cavity, without an accessory branchial organ, the
opening of which is partly closed by a fold of the mucous membrane."
Ophicephalus striatus is the most widely diffused species in China, India,
and the Philippines, living in grassy swamps and biting at any bait from a
live frog to an artificial salmon-fly. It has been introduced into Hawaii.
Ophicephalus marulius is another very common species, as is also Channa
orientalis, known by the absence of ventral fins.
Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—Another offshoot from the perch-
like forms is the small suborder of Holconoti (ὅλκος, furrow; νῶτος, back).
It contains fishes percoid in appearance, with much in common with the
Gerridæ and Sparidæ, but with certain striking characteristics not possessed
by any perch or bass. All the species are viviparous, bringing forth their
young alive, these being in small number and born at an advanced stage of
development. The lower pharyngeals are solidly united, as in the Labridæ, a
group which these fishes resemble in scarcely any other respects. The soft
dorsal and anal are formed of many fine rays, the anal being peculiarly
modified in the male sex. The nostrils, ventral fins, and shoulder-girdle
have the structure normal among perch-like fishes, and the dorsal furrow,
which suggested to Agassiz the name of Holconoti, is also found among
various perch-like forms.
in which the fish lives in normal water, and individuals which are kept in a
basin and prevented from coming to the surface and renewing the air for
respiratory purposes are suffocated. The particular manner in which the
accessory branchial cavity participates in respiratory functions is not
known. It is a simple cavity, without an accessory branchial organ, the
opening of which is partly closed by a fold of the mucous membrane."
Ophicephalus striatus is the most widely diffused species in China, India,
and the Philippines, living in grassy swamps and biting at any bait from a
live frog to an artificial salmon-fly. It has been introduced into Hawaii.
Ophicephalus marulius is another very common species, as is also Channa
orientalis, known by the absence of ventral fins.
Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—Another offshoot from the perch-
like forms is the small suborder of Holconoti (ὅλκος, furrow; νῶτος, back).
It contains fishes percoid in appearance, with much in common with the
Gerridæ and Sparidæ, but with certain striking characteristics not possessed
by any perch or bass. All the species are viviparous, bringing forth their
young alive, these being in small number and born at an advanced stage of
development. The lower pharyngeals are solidly united, as in the Labridæ, a
group which these fishes resemble in scarcely any other respects. The soft
dorsal and anal are formed of many fine rays, the anal being peculiarly
modified in the male sex. The nostrils, ventral fins, and shoulder-girdle
have the structure normal among perch-like fishes, and the dorsal furrow,
which suggested to Agassiz the name of Holconoti, is also found among
various perch-like forms.
Page 429
Fig. 306.—White Surf-fish, viviparous, with young, Cymatogaster
aggregatus Gibbons. San Francisco.
Fig. 307.—Fresh-water Viviparous Perch, Hysterocarpus traski Gibbons.
Sacramento River.
aggregatus Gibbons. San Francisco.
Fig. 307.—Fresh-water Viviparous Perch, Hysterocarpus traski Gibbons.
Sacramento River.
Page 430
Fig. 308.—Hypsurus caryi (Agassiz). Monterey.
The Embiotocidæ.—The group contains a single family, the Embiotocidæ,
or surf-fishes. All but two of the species are confined to California, these
two living in Japan. The species are relatively small fishes, from five inches
to eighteen inches in length, with rather large, usually silvery scales, small
mouths and small teeth. They feed mainly on crustaceans, two or three
species being herbivorous. With two exceptions, they inhabit the shallow
waters on sandy beaches, where they bring forth their young. They can be
readily taken in nets in the surf. As food-fishes they are rather inferior, the
flesh being somewhat watery and with little flavor. Many are dried by the
Chinese. The two exceptions in distribution are Hysterocarpus traski, which
lives exclusively in fresh waters, being confined to the lowlands of the
Sacramento Basin, and Zalembius rosaceus, which descends to considerable
depths in the sea. In Hysterocarpus the spinous dorsal is very greatly
developed, seventeen stout spines being present, the others having but eight
to eleven and these very slender.
The Embiotocidæ.—The group contains a single family, the Embiotocidæ,
or surf-fishes. All but two of the species are confined to California, these
two living in Japan. The species are relatively small fishes, from five inches
to eighteen inches in length, with rather large, usually silvery scales, small
mouths and small teeth. They feed mainly on crustaceans, two or three
species being herbivorous. With two exceptions, they inhabit the shallow
waters on sandy beaches, where they bring forth their young. They can be
readily taken in nets in the surf. As food-fishes they are rather inferior, the
flesh being somewhat watery and with little flavor. Many are dried by the
Chinese. The two exceptions in distribution are Hysterocarpus traski, which
lives exclusively in fresh waters, being confined to the lowlands of the
Sacramento Basin, and Zalembius rosaceus, which descends to considerable
depths in the sea. In Hysterocarpus the spinous dorsal is very greatly
developed, seventeen stout spines being present, the others having but eight
to eleven and these very slender.
Page 431
Fig. 309.—White Surf-fish, Damalichthys argyrosomus (Girard). British
Columbia.
Fig. 310.—Thick-lipped Surf-fish, Rhacochilus toxotes Agassiz. Monterey,
Cal.
Columbia.
Fig. 310.—Thick-lipped Surf-fish, Rhacochilus toxotes Agassiz. Monterey,
Cal.
Page 432
Fig. 311.—Silver Surf-fish (viviparous), Hypocritichthys analis (Agassiz).
Monterey.
The details of structure vary greatly among the different species, for which
reason almost every species has been properly made the type of a distinct
genus. The two species found in Japan are Ditrema temmincki and
Neoditrema ransonneti. In the latter species the female is always toothless.
Close to Ditrema is the blue surf-fish of California, Embiotoca jacksoni, the
first discovered and perhaps the commonest species. Tæniotoca lateralis is
remarkable for its bright coloration, greenish, with orange stripes. Hypsurus
caryi, still brighter in color, orange, green and black, has the abdominal
region very long. Phanerodon furcatus and P. atripes are dull silvery in
color, as in Damalichthys argyrosomus, the white surf-fish, which ranges
northward to Vancouver Island, and is remarkable for the extraordinary size
of its lower pharyngeals. Holconotus rhodoterus is a large, rosy species, and
Amphistichus argenteus a large species with dull yellowish cross-bands.
Rhachochilus toxotes is the largest species in the family and the one most
valued as food. It is notable for its thick, drooping, ragged lips.
Hyperprosopon arcuatus, the wall-eye surf-fish, is brilliantly silvery, with
very large eyes. H. agassizi closely resembles it, as does also the dwarf
species, Hypocritichthys analis, to which the Japanese Neoditrema
ransonneti is very nearly related. The other species are all small. Abeona
minima and A. aurora feed on seaweed. Brachyistius frenatus is the
Monterey.
The details of structure vary greatly among the different species, for which
reason almost every species has been properly made the type of a distinct
genus. The two species found in Japan are Ditrema temmincki and
Neoditrema ransonneti. In the latter species the female is always toothless.
Close to Ditrema is the blue surf-fish of California, Embiotoca jacksoni, the
first discovered and perhaps the commonest species. Tæniotoca lateralis is
remarkable for its bright coloration, greenish, with orange stripes. Hypsurus
caryi, still brighter in color, orange, green and black, has the abdominal
region very long. Phanerodon furcatus and P. atripes are dull silvery in
color, as in Damalichthys argyrosomus, the white surf-fish, which ranges
northward to Vancouver Island, and is remarkable for the extraordinary size
of its lower pharyngeals. Holconotus rhodoterus is a large, rosy species, and
Amphistichus argenteus a large species with dull yellowish cross-bands.
Rhachochilus toxotes is the largest species in the family and the one most
valued as food. It is notable for its thick, drooping, ragged lips.
Hyperprosopon arcuatus, the wall-eye surf-fish, is brilliantly silvery, with
very large eyes. H. agassizi closely resembles it, as does also the dwarf
species, Hypocritichthys analis, to which the Japanese Neoditrema
ransonneti is very nearly related. The other species are all small. Abeona
minima and A. aurora feed on seaweed. Brachyistius frenatus is the
Page 433
smallest of all, orange-red in color, while its relative, Zalembius rosaceus, is
handsomest of all, rose-red with a black lateral spot. Cymatogaster
aggregatus, the surf-shiner, is a little fish, excessively common along the
California coast, and from its abundance it has been selected by Dr.
Eigenmann as the basis of his studies of these fishes. In this species the
male shows golden and black markings, which are wanting in the silvery
female, and the anterior rays of the anal are thickened or otherwise
modified.
No fossil embiotocoids are recorded.
The viviparity of the Embiotocidæ was first made known by Dr. A. C.
Jackson in 1863 in a letter to Professor Agassiz. From this letter we make
the following extracts:
"A few days, perhaps a week, after the four trials, and on the 7th of June, I
rose early in the morning for the purpose of taking a mess of fish for
breakfast, pulled to the usual place, baited with crabs, and commenced
fishing, the wind blowing too strong for profitable angling; nevertheless on
the first and second casts I fastened the two fishes, male and female, that I
write about, and such were their liveliness and strength that they
endangered my slight trout rod. I, however, succeeded in bagging both,
though in half an hour's subsequent work I got not even a nibble from either
this or any other species of fish. I determined to change the bait, to put upon
my hook a portion of the fish already caught, and cut for that purpose into
the larger of the two fish caught. I intended to take a piece from the thin
part of the belly, when what was my surprise to see coming from the
opening thus made a small live fish. This I at first supposed to be prey
which this fish had swallowed, but on further opening the fish I was vastly
astonished to find next to the back of the fish and slightly attached to it a
long very light violet bag, so clear and so transparent that I could already
distinguish through it the shape, color, and formation of a multitude of
small fish (all facsimiles of each other), with which it was well filled. I took
it on board (we were occupying a small vessel which we had purchased for
surveying purposes). When I opened the bag, I took therefrom eighteen
more of the young fish, precisely like in size, shape, and color the first I had
accidentally extracted. The mother was very large round her center and of a
very dark-brown color, approaching about the back and on the fins a black
color, and a remarkably vigorous fish. The young which I took from her
handsomest of all, rose-red with a black lateral spot. Cymatogaster
aggregatus, the surf-shiner, is a little fish, excessively common along the
California coast, and from its abundance it has been selected by Dr.
Eigenmann as the basis of his studies of these fishes. In this species the
male shows golden and black markings, which are wanting in the silvery
female, and the anterior rays of the anal are thickened or otherwise
modified.
No fossil embiotocoids are recorded.
The viviparity of the Embiotocidæ was first made known by Dr. A. C.
Jackson in 1863 in a letter to Professor Agassiz. From this letter we make
the following extracts:
"A few days, perhaps a week, after the four trials, and on the 7th of June, I
rose early in the morning for the purpose of taking a mess of fish for
breakfast, pulled to the usual place, baited with crabs, and commenced
fishing, the wind blowing too strong for profitable angling; nevertheless on
the first and second casts I fastened the two fishes, male and female, that I
write about, and such were their liveliness and strength that they
endangered my slight trout rod. I, however, succeeded in bagging both,
though in half an hour's subsequent work I got not even a nibble from either
this or any other species of fish. I determined to change the bait, to put upon
my hook a portion of the fish already caught, and cut for that purpose into
the larger of the two fish caught. I intended to take a piece from the thin
part of the belly, when what was my surprise to see coming from the
opening thus made a small live fish. This I at first supposed to be prey
which this fish had swallowed, but on further opening the fish I was vastly
astonished to find next to the back of the fish and slightly attached to it a
long very light violet bag, so clear and so transparent that I could already
distinguish through it the shape, color, and formation of a multitude of
small fish (all facsimiles of each other), with which it was well filled. I took
it on board (we were occupying a small vessel which we had purchased for
surveying purposes). When I opened the bag, I took therefrom eighteen
more of the young fish, precisely like in size, shape, and color the first I had
accidentally extracted. The mother was very large round her center and of a
very dark-brown color, approaching about the back and on the fins a black
color, and a remarkably vigorous fish. The young which I took from her
Page 434
were in shape, save as to rotundity, perfect miniatures of the mother, formed
like her, and of the same general proportions, except that the old one was
(probably owing to her pregnancy) much broader and wider between the top
of the dorsal and the ventral fins in proportion to her length than the young
were. As to color, they were in all respects like the mother, though the
shades were many degrees lighter. Indeed, they were in all respects like
their mother and like each other, the same peculiar mouth, the same position
and shape of the fins, and the same eyes and gills, and there cannot remain
in the mind of any one who sees the fish in the same state that I did a single
doubt that these young were the offspring of the fish from whose body I
took them, and that this species of fish gives birth to her young alive and
perfectly formed, and adapted to seeking its own livelihood in the water.
The number of young in the bag was nineteen (I fear I misstated the number
in my former letter), and every one as brisk and lively and as much at home
in a bucket of salt water as if they had been for months accustomed to the
water. The male fish that was caught was not quite as large as the female,
either in length or circumference, and altogether a more slim fish. I think
we may reasonably expect to receive the specimens by the first of
December. But I can hardly hope to get satisfactory specimens of the fish as
I found it, with young well grown, before the return of the same season,
viz., June. By that time I trust the facts will be fully decided, and the results,
as important as they may be, fully appreciated."
Dr. Jackson's specimens came from Sausalito Bay, near San Francisco.
Soon after the publication of this letter a similar discovery was made
independently by Dr. William P. Gibbons, of Alameda. Still other specimens
were made known in 1854 by Dr. Charles Girard, these having been
collected in connection with the United States Pacific Railroad Surveys.
The species first examined by Dr. Jackson was named by Agassiz
Embiotoca jacksoni.
In Professor Agassiz's comments on Dr. Jackson's discovery he makes the
following observations (Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 1854):
"The female genital apparatus in the state of pregnancy consists of a large
bag the appearance of which in the living animal has been described by Mr.
Jackson. Upon the surface of it large vascular ramifications are seen, and it
is subdivided internally into a number of distinct pouches, opening by wide
slits into the lower part of the sac. This sac seems to be nothing but the
like her, and of the same general proportions, except that the old one was
(probably owing to her pregnancy) much broader and wider between the top
of the dorsal and the ventral fins in proportion to her length than the young
were. As to color, they were in all respects like the mother, though the
shades were many degrees lighter. Indeed, they were in all respects like
their mother and like each other, the same peculiar mouth, the same position
and shape of the fins, and the same eyes and gills, and there cannot remain
in the mind of any one who sees the fish in the same state that I did a single
doubt that these young were the offspring of the fish from whose body I
took them, and that this species of fish gives birth to her young alive and
perfectly formed, and adapted to seeking its own livelihood in the water.
The number of young in the bag was nineteen (I fear I misstated the number
in my former letter), and every one as brisk and lively and as much at home
in a bucket of salt water as if they had been for months accustomed to the
water. The male fish that was caught was not quite as large as the female,
either in length or circumference, and altogether a more slim fish. I think
we may reasonably expect to receive the specimens by the first of
December. But I can hardly hope to get satisfactory specimens of the fish as
I found it, with young well grown, before the return of the same season,
viz., June. By that time I trust the facts will be fully decided, and the results,
as important as they may be, fully appreciated."
Dr. Jackson's specimens came from Sausalito Bay, near San Francisco.
Soon after the publication of this letter a similar discovery was made
independently by Dr. William P. Gibbons, of Alameda. Still other specimens
were made known in 1854 by Dr. Charles Girard, these having been
collected in connection with the United States Pacific Railroad Surveys.
The species first examined by Dr. Jackson was named by Agassiz
Embiotoca jacksoni.
In Professor Agassiz's comments on Dr. Jackson's discovery he makes the
following observations (Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 1854):
"The female genital apparatus in the state of pregnancy consists of a large
bag the appearance of which in the living animal has been described by Mr.
Jackson. Upon the surface of it large vascular ramifications are seen, and it
is subdivided internally into a number of distinct pouches, opening by wide
slits into the lower part of the sac. This sac seems to be nothing but the
Page 435
widened lower end of the ovary, and the pouches within it to be formed by
the folds of the ovary itself. In each of these pouches a young is wrapped up
as in a sheet, and all are packed in the most economical manner as far as
saving space is concerned, some having their head turned forwards and
others backwards. This is, therefore, a normal ovarian gestation. The
external genital opening is situated behind the anus, upon the summit and in
the center of a conical protuberance formed by a powerful sphincter, kept in
its place by two strong transverse muscles attached to the abdominal walls.
The number of young contained in this sac seems to vary. Mr. Jackson
counted nineteen; I have seen only eight or nine in the specimens sent by
Mr. Cary, but since these were open when received it is possible that some
had been taken out. However, their size is most remarkable in proportion to
the mother. In a specimen of Emb. jacksoni 10½ inches long and 4½ high
the young were nearly 3 inches long and 1 inch high; and in an Emb. caryi 8
inches long and 3¼ high the young were 2¾ inches long and ⅞ of an inch
high. Judging from their size, I suspected for some time that the young
could move in and out of this sac like young opossums, but on carefully
examining the position of the young in the pouches, and also the contracted
condition of the sphincter at the external orifice of the sexual organs, I
remained satisfied that this could not be the case, and that the young which
Mr. Jackson found so lively after putting them in a bucket of salt water had
then for the first time come into free contact with the element in which they
were soon to live; but at the same time it can hardly be doubted that the
water penetrates into the marsupial sac, since these young have fully
developed gills. The size of the young compared with that of the mother is
very remarkable, being full one-third its length in the one, and nearly so in
the other species. Indeed these young Embiotocæ, not yet hatched, are three
or four times larger than the young of a Pomotis (of the same size) a full
year old. In this respect these fishes differ from all the other viviparous
species known to us. There is another feature about them of considerable
interest, that while the two adults differ markedly in coloration, the young
have the same dress, light yellowish olive with deeper and brighter
transverse bands, something like the young trout and salmon in their parr
dress."
the folds of the ovary itself. In each of these pouches a young is wrapped up
as in a sheet, and all are packed in the most economical manner as far as
saving space is concerned, some having their head turned forwards and
others backwards. This is, therefore, a normal ovarian gestation. The
external genital opening is situated behind the anus, upon the summit and in
the center of a conical protuberance formed by a powerful sphincter, kept in
its place by two strong transverse muscles attached to the abdominal walls.
The number of young contained in this sac seems to vary. Mr. Jackson
counted nineteen; I have seen only eight or nine in the specimens sent by
Mr. Cary, but since these were open when received it is possible that some
had been taken out. However, their size is most remarkable in proportion to
the mother. In a specimen of Emb. jacksoni 10½ inches long and 4½ high
the young were nearly 3 inches long and 1 inch high; and in an Emb. caryi 8
inches long and 3¼ high the young were 2¾ inches long and ⅞ of an inch
high. Judging from their size, I suspected for some time that the young
could move in and out of this sac like young opossums, but on carefully
examining the position of the young in the pouches, and also the contracted
condition of the sphincter at the external orifice of the sexual organs, I
remained satisfied that this could not be the case, and that the young which
Mr. Jackson found so lively after putting them in a bucket of salt water had
then for the first time come into free contact with the element in which they
were soon to live; but at the same time it can hardly be doubted that the
water penetrates into the marsupial sac, since these young have fully
developed gills. The size of the young compared with that of the mother is
very remarkable, being full one-third its length in the one, and nearly so in
the other species. Indeed these young Embiotocæ, not yet hatched, are three
or four times larger than the young of a Pomotis (of the same size) a full
year old. In this respect these fishes differ from all the other viviparous
species known to us. There is another feature about them of considerable
interest, that while the two adults differ markedly in coloration, the young
have the same dress, light yellowish olive with deeper and brighter
transverse bands, something like the young trout and salmon in their parr
dress."
Page 436
Fig. 312.—Viviparous Perch (male), Hysterocarpus traski Gibbons. Battle
Creek, Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Creek, Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
Page 437
CHAPTER XXII
CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI
uborder Chromides.—The suborder Chromides contains
spiny-rayed fishes similar to the perch-like forms in most
regards, but strikingly distinguished by the complete union of
the lower pharyngeal bones, as in the Holconoti and
Pharyngognathi, and still more remarkably by the presence of
but one nasal opening on each side. In all the perch-like fishes and in nearly
all others there are two nasal openings or nostrils on each side, these two
entering into the same nasal sac. In all the Chromides the lateral line is
incomplete or interrupted, and the scales are usually large and ctenoid.
The Cichlidæ.—The suborder Chromides includes two families, Cichlidæ,
and Pomacentridæ. The Cichlidæ are fresh-water fishes of the tropics,
characterized by the presence of three to ten spines in the anal fin. In size,
color, appearance, habits, and food value they bear a striking resemblance
to the fresh-water sunfishes, or Centrarchidæ, of the eastern United States.
This resemblance is one of analogy only, for in structure the Cichlidæ have
no more in common with the Centrarchidæ than with other families of
perch or bass. The numerous species of Cichlidæ are confined to tropical
America and to corresponding districts in Africa and western Asia. Tilapia
nilotica abounds in the Nile. Tilapia galilæa is found in the river Jordan and
the Lake of Galilee. This species is supposed to form part of the great
draught of fishes recorded in the Gospels, and a black spot on the side is
held to commemorate the touch of Simon Peter. Numerous other species of
Cichlidæ, large and small, abound in central Africa, even in the salt ditches
of the Sahara.
CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI
uborder Chromides.—The suborder Chromides contains
spiny-rayed fishes similar to the perch-like forms in most
regards, but strikingly distinguished by the complete union of
the lower pharyngeal bones, as in the Holconoti and
Pharyngognathi, and still more remarkably by the presence of
but one nasal opening on each side. In all the perch-like fishes and in nearly
all others there are two nasal openings or nostrils on each side, these two
entering into the same nasal sac. In all the Chromides the lateral line is
incomplete or interrupted, and the scales are usually large and ctenoid.
The Cichlidæ.—The suborder Chromides includes two families, Cichlidæ,
and Pomacentridæ. The Cichlidæ are fresh-water fishes of the tropics,
characterized by the presence of three to ten spines in the anal fin. In size,
color, appearance, habits, and food value they bear a striking resemblance
to the fresh-water sunfishes, or Centrarchidæ, of the eastern United States.
This resemblance is one of analogy only, for in structure the Cichlidæ have
no more in common with the Centrarchidæ than with other families of
perch or bass. The numerous species of Cichlidæ are confined to tropical
America and to corresponding districts in Africa and western Asia. Tilapia
nilotica abounds in the Nile. Tilapia galilæa is found in the river Jordan and
the Lake of Galilee. This species is supposed to form part of the great
draught of fishes recorded in the Gospels, and a black spot on the side is
held to commemorate the touch of Simon Peter. Numerous other species of
Cichlidæ, large and small, abound in central Africa, even in the salt ditches
of the Sahara.
Page 438
The species of Cichla, especially Cichla ocellaris, of the rivers of South
America, elongate and large-mouthed, bear a strong analogy to the black
bass of farther north. A vast number of species belonging to Heros, Acara,
Cichlasoma, Geophagus, Chætobranchus, and related genera swarm in the
Amazon region. Each of the large rivers of Mexico has one or more species;
one of these, Heros cyanoguttatus, occurs in the Rio Grande and the rivers
of southern Texas, its range corresponding with that of Tetragonopterus
argentatus, just as the range of the whole family of Cichlidæ corresponds
with that of the Characinidæ. No other species of either family enters the
United States. A similar species, Heros tetracanthus, abounds in the rivers
of Cuba, and another, Heros beani, called the mojarra verde, in the streams
of Sinaloa. In the lakes and swamps of Central America Cichlidæ and
Characinidæ are very abundant. One fossil genus is known, called
Priscacara by Cope. Priscacara clivosa and other species occur in the
Eocene of Green River and the Great Basin of Utah. In this genus vomerine
teeth are said to be present, and there are three anal spines. None of the
living Cichlidæ have vomerine teeth.
America, elongate and large-mouthed, bear a strong analogy to the black
bass of farther north. A vast number of species belonging to Heros, Acara,
Cichlasoma, Geophagus, Chætobranchus, and related genera swarm in the
Amazon region. Each of the large rivers of Mexico has one or more species;
one of these, Heros cyanoguttatus, occurs in the Rio Grande and the rivers
of southern Texas, its range corresponding with that of Tetragonopterus
argentatus, just as the range of the whole family of Cichlidæ corresponds
with that of the Characinidæ. No other species of either family enters the
United States. A similar species, Heros tetracanthus, abounds in the rivers
of Cuba, and another, Heros beani, called the mojarra verde, in the streams
of Sinaloa. In the lakes and swamps of Central America Cichlidæ and
Characinidæ are very abundant. One fossil genus is known, called
Priscacara by Cope. Priscacara clivosa and other species occur in the
Eocene of Green River and the Great Basin of Utah. In this genus vomerine
teeth are said to be present, and there are three anal spines. None of the
living Cichlidæ have vomerine teeth.
Page 439
Fig. 313.—Garibaldi (scarlet in color), Hypsypops rubicunda (Girard). La
Jolla, San Diego, Cal.
Fig. 314.—Pomacentrus leucostictus (Müller & Troschel), Damsel-fish.
Family Pomacentridæ.
The Damsel-fishes: Pomacentridæ.—The Pomacentridæ, called rock-
pilots or damsel-fishes, are exclusively marine and have in all cases but two
anal spines. The species are often very brilliantly colored, lustrous metallic
blue and orange or scarlet being the prevailing shades among the bright-
colored species. Their habits in the reef pools correspond very closely with
those of the Chætodontidæ. With the rock-pilots, as with the butterfly-
fishes, the exceeding alertness and quickness of movement make up for
lack of protective colors. With both groups the choice of rocky basins,
crevices in the coral, and holes in coral reefs preserves them from attacks of
enemies large enough to destroy them. In Samoa the interstices in masses of
living coral are often filled with these gorgeous little fishes. The
Pomacentridæ are chiefly confined to the coral reefs, few ranging to the
northward of the Tropic of Cancer. Sometimes the young are colored
Jolla, San Diego, Cal.
Fig. 314.—Pomacentrus leucostictus (Müller & Troschel), Damsel-fish.
Family Pomacentridæ.
The Damsel-fishes: Pomacentridæ.—The Pomacentridæ, called rock-
pilots or damsel-fishes, are exclusively marine and have in all cases but two
anal spines. The species are often very brilliantly colored, lustrous metallic
blue and orange or scarlet being the prevailing shades among the bright-
colored species. Their habits in the reef pools correspond very closely with
those of the Chætodontidæ. With the rock-pilots, as with the butterfly-
fishes, the exceeding alertness and quickness of movement make up for
lack of protective colors. With both groups the choice of rocky basins,
crevices in the coral, and holes in coral reefs preserves them from attacks of
enemies large enough to destroy them. In Samoa the interstices in masses of
living coral are often filled with these gorgeous little fishes. The
Pomacentridæ are chiefly confined to the coral reefs, few ranging to the
northward of the Tropic of Cancer. Sometimes the young are colored
Page 440
differently from the adult, having sky-blue spots and often ocelli on the fins,
which disappear with age. But one species Chromis chromis, is found in the
Mediterranean. Chromis punctipinnis, the blacksmith, is found in southern
California, and Chromis notatus is the common dogoro of Japan. One of the
largest species, reaching the length of a foot, is the Garibaldi, Hypsypops
rubicundus, of the rocky shores of southern California. This fish, when full
grown, is of a pure bright scarlet. The young are greenish, marked with blue
spots. Species of Pomacentrus, locally known as pescado azul, abound in
the West Indies and on the west coast of Mexico. Pomacentrus fuscus is the
commonest West Indian species, and Pomacentrus rectifrenum the most
abundant on the west coast of Mexico, the young, of an exquisite sky-blue,
crowding the rock pools. Pomacentrus of many species, blue, scarlet, black,
and golden, abound in Polynesia, and no rock pool in the East Indies is
without several forms of this type. The type reaches its greatest
development in the south seas. About forty different species of
Pomacentrus and Glyphisodon occur in the corals of the harbor of Apia in
Samoa.
which disappear with age. But one species Chromis chromis, is found in the
Mediterranean. Chromis punctipinnis, the blacksmith, is found in southern
California, and Chromis notatus is the common dogoro of Japan. One of the
largest species, reaching the length of a foot, is the Garibaldi, Hypsypops
rubicundus, of the rocky shores of southern California. This fish, when full
grown, is of a pure bright scarlet. The young are greenish, marked with blue
spots. Species of Pomacentrus, locally known as pescado azul, abound in
the West Indies and on the west coast of Mexico. Pomacentrus fuscus is the
commonest West Indian species, and Pomacentrus rectifrenum the most
abundant on the west coast of Mexico, the young, of an exquisite sky-blue,
crowding the rock pools. Pomacentrus of many species, blue, scarlet, black,
and golden, abound in Polynesia, and no rock pool in the East Indies is
without several forms of this type. The type reaches its greatest
development in the south seas. About forty different species of
Pomacentrus and Glyphisodon occur in the corals of the harbor of Apia in
Samoa.
Page 441
Fig. 315.—Cockeye Pilot, Glyphisodon marginatus (Bloch). Cuba.
Almost equally abundant are the species of Glyphisodon. The "cockeye
pilot," or jaqueta, Glyphisodon marginatus, green with black bands, swarms
in the West Indies, occasionally ranging northward, and is equally common
on the west coast of Mexico. Glyphisodon abdominalis replaces it in
Hawaii, and the Asiatic Glyphisodon saxatilis is perhaps the parent of both.
Glyphisodon sordidus banded with pale and with a black ocellus below the
soft dorsal is very common from Hawaii to the Red Sea, and is a food-fish
of some importance. Glyphisodon cœlestinus blue, with black bands,
abounds in the south seas.
The many species of Amphiprion are always brilliant, red or orange, usually
marked by one or two cross-bands of creamy blue. Amphiprion melanopus
abounds in the south seas. Azurina hirundo is a slender species of lower
California of a brilliant metallic blue. All these species are carnivorous,
feeding on shrimps, worms, and the like.
Almost equally abundant are the species of Glyphisodon. The "cockeye
pilot," or jaqueta, Glyphisodon marginatus, green with black bands, swarms
in the West Indies, occasionally ranging northward, and is equally common
on the west coast of Mexico. Glyphisodon abdominalis replaces it in
Hawaii, and the Asiatic Glyphisodon saxatilis is perhaps the parent of both.
Glyphisodon sordidus banded with pale and with a black ocellus below the
soft dorsal is very common from Hawaii to the Red Sea, and is a food-fish
of some importance. Glyphisodon cœlestinus blue, with black bands,
abounds in the south seas.
The many species of Amphiprion are always brilliant, red or orange, usually
marked by one or two cross-bands of creamy blue. Amphiprion melanopus
abounds in the south seas. Azurina hirundo is a slender species of lower
California of a brilliant metallic blue. All these species are carnivorous,
feeding on shrimps, worms, and the like.
Page 442
Fig. 316.—Indigo Damsel fish, Microspathodon dorsalis (Gill). Mazatlan,
Mex.
Microspathodon is herbivorous, the serrated incisors being loosely
implanted in the jaws. Microspathodon dorsalis, of the west coast of
Mexico, is of a deep indigo-blue color, with streamer-like fins.
Microspathodon chrysurus, of the West Indian coral reefs, black with round
blue spots and the tail yellow. This family is probably of recent origin, as
few fossils are referred to it. Odonteus pygmæus of the Eocene perhaps
belongs to it.
Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The wrasses and parrot-fishes, constituting
the group called Pharyngognathi (φαρύγξ, gullet; γνάθος, jaw), by
Johannes Müller, have the lower pharyngeal bones much enlarged and
solidly united, their teeth being either rounded or else flat and paved. The
nostrils, ventral fins, pectoral fins and shoulder-girdle are of the ordinary
perch-like type. The teeth are, however, highly specialized, usually large
and canine-like, developed in the jaws only, and the gills are reduced in
number, 3½ instead of 4, with no slit behind the last half gill. The scales are
always cycloid and are usually large. In the tropical forms the vertebræ are
always twenty-four in number (10 + 14), but in northern forms the number
Mex.
Microspathodon is herbivorous, the serrated incisors being loosely
implanted in the jaws. Microspathodon dorsalis, of the west coast of
Mexico, is of a deep indigo-blue color, with streamer-like fins.
Microspathodon chrysurus, of the West Indian coral reefs, black with round
blue spots and the tail yellow. This family is probably of recent origin, as
few fossils are referred to it. Odonteus pygmæus of the Eocene perhaps
belongs to it.
Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The wrasses and parrot-fishes, constituting
the group called Pharyngognathi (φαρύγξ, gullet; γνάθος, jaw), by
Johannes Müller, have the lower pharyngeal bones much enlarged and
solidly united, their teeth being either rounded or else flat and paved. The
nostrils, ventral fins, pectoral fins and shoulder-girdle are of the ordinary
perch-like type. The teeth are, however, highly specialized, usually large
and canine-like, developed in the jaws only, and the gills are reduced in
number, 3½ instead of 4, with no slit behind the last half gill. The scales are
always cycloid and are usually large. In the tropical forms the vertebræ are
always twenty-four in number (10 + 14), but in northern forms the number
Page 443
is largely increased with a proportionate increase in the number and
strength of the dorsal spines. All the species are strictly marine, and the
coloration is often the most highly specialized and brilliant known among
fishes, the predominant shade being blue.
Fig. 317.—Tautog, Tautoga onitis (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
All are carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans and snails, which they
crush with their strong teeth, there being often a strong canine at the
posterior end of the premaxillary, which holds the snail while the lower jaw
acts upon it. The species are very numerous and form the most conspicuous
feature in the fish markets of every tropical port. They abound especially in
the pools and openings in the coral reefs. All are good for food, though all
are relatively flavorless, the flesh being rather soft and not oily.
The Wrasse Fishes: Labridæ.—The principal family is that of the
Labridæ, characterized by the presence of separate teeth in the front of the
jaws. Numerous fossil species are known from the Eocene and Miocene.
Most of these are known only from the lower pharyngeal bones. Labrodon
is the most widely diffused genus, probably allied to Labrus, but with a pile
of successional teeth beneath each functional tooth. The species are mostly
from the Miocene.
strength of the dorsal spines. All the species are strictly marine, and the
coloration is often the most highly specialized and brilliant known among
fishes, the predominant shade being blue.
Fig. 317.—Tautog, Tautoga onitis (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
All are carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans and snails, which they
crush with their strong teeth, there being often a strong canine at the
posterior end of the premaxillary, which holds the snail while the lower jaw
acts upon it. The species are very numerous and form the most conspicuous
feature in the fish markets of every tropical port. They abound especially in
the pools and openings in the coral reefs. All are good for food, though all
are relatively flavorless, the flesh being rather soft and not oily.
The Wrasse Fishes: Labridæ.—The principal family is that of the
Labridæ, characterized by the presence of separate teeth in the front of the
jaws. Numerous fossil species are known from the Eocene and Miocene.
Most of these are known only from the lower pharyngeal bones. Labrodon
is the most widely diffused genus, probably allied to Labrus, but with a pile
of successional teeth beneath each functional tooth. The species are mostly
from the Miocene.
Page 444
Fig. 318.—Tautog, Tautoga onitis (L.). (From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.)
The northern forms of Labridæ are known as wrasse on the coasts of
England. Among these are Labrus bergylta, the ballan wrasse; Labrus
viridis, the green wrasse; Labrus ossiphagus, the red wrasse; and Labrus
merula, the black wrasse. Acantholabrus palloni and Centrolabrus exoletus
have more than three anal spines. The latter species, known as rock cook, is
abundant in western Norway, as far north as Throndhjem, its range
extending to the northward beyond that of any other Labroid. Allied to
these, on the American coast, is the tautog or blackfish, Tautoga onitis, a
common food-fish, dusky in color with excellent white flesh, especially
abundant on the coast of New England. With this, and still more abundant,
is the cunner or chogset, Tautogolabrus adspersus, greenish-blue in color,
the flesh being also more or less blue. This fish is too small to have much
value as food, but it readily takes the hook set for better fishes.
The northern forms of Labridæ are known as wrasse on the coasts of
England. Among these are Labrus bergylta, the ballan wrasse; Labrus
viridis, the green wrasse; Labrus ossiphagus, the red wrasse; and Labrus
merula, the black wrasse. Acantholabrus palloni and Centrolabrus exoletus
have more than three anal spines. The latter species, known as rock cook, is
abundant in western Norway, as far north as Throndhjem, its range
extending to the northward beyond that of any other Labroid. Allied to
these, on the American coast, is the tautog or blackfish, Tautoga onitis, a
common food-fish, dusky in color with excellent white flesh, especially
abundant on the coast of New England. With this, and still more abundant,
is the cunner or chogset, Tautogolabrus adspersus, greenish-blue in color,
the flesh being also more or less blue. This fish is too small to have much
value as food, but it readily takes the hook set for better fishes.
Page 445
Fig. 319.—Capitaine or Hogfish, Lachnolaimus falcatus. Florida.
In the Mediterranean are found many species of Crenilabrus, gaily colored,
each species having its own peculiar pattern and its own arrangement of
inky spots. Among these are Crenilabrus mediterraneus, Crenilabrus pavo,
and Crenilabrus griseus. With these are the small species called
Ctenolabrus rupestris, the goldsinny, much like the American cunner, and
the long-nosed Symphodus scina.
Of the many West Indian species we may notice the Capitaine or hogfish,
Lachnolaimus maximus, a great fish, crimson in color, with its fin spines
ending in long streamers; Bodianus rufus, the Spanish ladyfish or pudiano,
half crimson, half golden. Halichæres radiatus, the pudding-wife (a
mysterious word derived from "oldwife" and the Portuguese name,
pudiano), a blue fish handsomely mottled and streaked. Of the smaller
species, Clepticus parræ, the janissary, with very small teeth, Halichœres
bivittatus, the slippery-dick, ranging northward to Cape Hatteras, and
Doratonotus megalepis, of an intense grass-green color, are among the most
notable. The razor-fish, Xyrichthys psittacus, red, with the forehead
compressed to a sharp edge, is found in the Mediterranean as well as
In the Mediterranean are found many species of Crenilabrus, gaily colored,
each species having its own peculiar pattern and its own arrangement of
inky spots. Among these are Crenilabrus mediterraneus, Crenilabrus pavo,
and Crenilabrus griseus. With these are the small species called
Ctenolabrus rupestris, the goldsinny, much like the American cunner, and
the long-nosed Symphodus scina.
Of the many West Indian species we may notice the Capitaine or hogfish,
Lachnolaimus maximus, a great fish, crimson in color, with its fin spines
ending in long streamers; Bodianus rufus, the Spanish ladyfish or pudiano,
half crimson, half golden. Halichæres radiatus, the pudding-wife (a
mysterious word derived from "oldwife" and the Portuguese name,
pudiano), a blue fish handsomely mottled and streaked. Of the smaller
species, Clepticus parræ, the janissary, with very small teeth, Halichœres
bivittatus, the slippery-dick, ranging northward to Cape Hatteras, and
Doratonotus megalepis, of an intense grass-green color, are among the most
notable. The razor-fish, Xyrichthys psittacus, red, with the forehead
compressed to a sharp edge, is found in the Mediterranean as well as
Page 446
throughout the West Indies, where several other species of razor-fish also
occur.
Fig. 320.—Razor-fish, Xyrichthys psittacus (Linnæus). Tortugas, Fla.
Fig. 321.—Redfish (male), Pimelometopon pulcher (Ayres). San Diego.
occur.
Fig. 320.—Razor-fish, Xyrichthys psittacus (Linnæus). Tortugas, Fla.
Fig. 321.—Redfish (male), Pimelometopon pulcher (Ayres). San Diego.
Page 447
Fig. 322.—Lepidaplois perditio (Quoy & Gaimard). Wakanoura, Japan.
Scarcely less numerous are the species of the Pacific Coast of America.
Pimelometopon pulcher, the redfish or fathead of southern California,
reaches a length of two feet or more. It abounds in the broad band of giant
kelp which lines the California coast and is a food-fish of much importance.
The female is dull crimson. In the male the head and tail are black and on
the top of the head is developed with age a great adipose hump. A similar
hump is found on the adult of several other large labroids. Similar species
on the coast of South America, differing in color and size of scales, are
Pimelometopon darwini, Trochocopus opercularis, and Bodianus
diplotænia. The señorita, Oxyjulis californica, is a dainty cream-colored
little fish of the California coast, Halichœres semicinctus, the kelpfish, light
olive, the male with a blue shoulder bar, is found in southern California. On
the west coast of Mexico are numerous species of Thalassoma, Halichœres,
Pseudojulis, Xyrichthys and Iniistius, all different from the corresponding
species in the West Indies, and equally different from the much greater
variety found in Hawaii and in Samoa. About the Polynesian and West
Indian islands abound a marvelous wealth of forms of every shade and
pattern of bright colors—blue, green, golden, scarlet, crimson, purple—as if
painted on with lavish hand and often in the most gaudy pattern, although at
times laid on with the greatest delicacy. The most brilliant species belong to
Thalassoma and Julis, the most delicately colored to Stethojulis and
Scarcely less numerous are the species of the Pacific Coast of America.
Pimelometopon pulcher, the redfish or fathead of southern California,
reaches a length of two feet or more. It abounds in the broad band of giant
kelp which lines the California coast and is a food-fish of much importance.
The female is dull crimson. In the male the head and tail are black and on
the top of the head is developed with age a great adipose hump. A similar
hump is found on the adult of several other large labroids. Similar species
on the coast of South America, differing in color and size of scales, are
Pimelometopon darwini, Trochocopus opercularis, and Bodianus
diplotænia. The señorita, Oxyjulis californica, is a dainty cream-colored
little fish of the California coast, Halichœres semicinctus, the kelpfish, light
olive, the male with a blue shoulder bar, is found in southern California. On
the west coast of Mexico are numerous species of Thalassoma, Halichœres,
Pseudojulis, Xyrichthys and Iniistius, all different from the corresponding
species in the West Indies, and equally different from the much greater
variety found in Hawaii and in Samoa. About the Polynesian and West
Indian islands abound a marvelous wealth of forms of every shade and
pattern of bright colors—blue, green, golden, scarlet, crimson, purple—as if
painted on with lavish hand and often in the most gaudy pattern, although at
times laid on with the greatest delicacy. The most brilliant species belong to
Thalassoma and Julis, the most delicately colored to Stethojulis and
Page 448
Cirrhilabrus. In Gomphosus the snout is prolonged on a long slender tube.
In Cheilio the whole body is elongate. In Iniistius the first two dorsal spines
form a separate fin, the forehead being sharp as in Xyrichthys. Other widely
distributed genera are Anampses, Lepidaplois, Semicossyphus, Duymæria,
Platyglossus, Pseudolabrus, Hologymnosus, Macropharyngodon, Coris,
Julis, Hemipteronotus, Novaculichthys, Cheilinus, Hemigymnus, and
Cymolutes. Halichœres is as abundant in the East Indies as in the West, one
of its species Halichœres pæcilopterus being common as far north as
Hakodate in Japan. In this species as in a few others the sexes are very
different in color, although in most species no external sexual differences of
any sort appear. In the East Indian genus, Pseudocheilinus, the eye is very
greatly modified. The cornea is thickened, forming two additional lens-like
structures.
The small family of Odacidæ differs from the Labridæ in having in each
jaw a sharp cutting edge without distinct teeth anteriorly, the pharyngeal
teeth being pavement-like. The scales are small, very much smaller than in
the Scaridæ, the body more elongate, and the structure of the teeth different.
The species are mostly Australian, Odax balteatus being the most abundant.
It is locally known as kelpfish.
In the Siphonognathidæ the teeth are much as in the Odacidæ, but the body
is very elongate, the snout produced as in the cornet-fishes (Fistularia), and
the upper jaw ends in a long skinny appendage. Siphonognathus
argyrophanes, from Australia, reaches a length of sixteen inches.
The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.—The parrot-fishes, or Scaridæ, are very
similar to the Labridæ in form, color, and scales, but differ in the more or
less complete fusion of the teeth, a character which varies in the different
genera.
Of these the most primitive is Calotomus, confined to the East Indies and
Polynesia. In this genus the teeth are united at base, their tips free and
imbricated over the surface of the jaw.
The species are dull in color, reddish or greenish. Calotomus japonicus is
the Budai or Igami of Japan. Calotomus sandwichensis and Calotomus
irradians are found in Hawaii, and Calotomus xenodon on the off-shore
islands of Mexico. In Calotomus the dorsal spines are slender. In Scaridea
In Cheilio the whole body is elongate. In Iniistius the first two dorsal spines
form a separate fin, the forehead being sharp as in Xyrichthys. Other widely
distributed genera are Anampses, Lepidaplois, Semicossyphus, Duymæria,
Platyglossus, Pseudolabrus, Hologymnosus, Macropharyngodon, Coris,
Julis, Hemipteronotus, Novaculichthys, Cheilinus, Hemigymnus, and
Cymolutes. Halichœres is as abundant in the East Indies as in the West, one
of its species Halichœres pæcilopterus being common as far north as
Hakodate in Japan. In this species as in a few others the sexes are very
different in color, although in most species no external sexual differences of
any sort appear. In the East Indian genus, Pseudocheilinus, the eye is very
greatly modified. The cornea is thickened, forming two additional lens-like
structures.
The small family of Odacidæ differs from the Labridæ in having in each
jaw a sharp cutting edge without distinct teeth anteriorly, the pharyngeal
teeth being pavement-like. The scales are small, very much smaller than in
the Scaridæ, the body more elongate, and the structure of the teeth different.
The species are mostly Australian, Odax balteatus being the most abundant.
It is locally known as kelpfish.
In the Siphonognathidæ the teeth are much as in the Odacidæ, but the body
is very elongate, the snout produced as in the cornet-fishes (Fistularia), and
the upper jaw ends in a long skinny appendage. Siphonognathus
argyrophanes, from Australia, reaches a length of sixteen inches.
The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.—The parrot-fishes, or Scaridæ, are very
similar to the Labridæ in form, color, and scales, but differ in the more or
less complete fusion of the teeth, a character which varies in the different
genera.
Of these the most primitive is Calotomus, confined to the East Indies and
Polynesia. In this genus the teeth are united at base, their tips free and
imbricated over the surface of the jaw.
The species are dull in color, reddish or greenish. Calotomus japonicus is
the Budai or Igami of Japan. Calotomus sandwichensis and Calotomus
irradians are found in Hawaii, and Calotomus xenodon on the off-shore
islands of Mexico. In Calotomus the dorsal spines are slender. In Scaridea
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(balia) of the Hawaiian Islands the first dorsal is formed of pungent spines
as in Sparisoma.
Fig. 324.—Jaws of a
Parrot-fish, Calotomus
Fig. 323.—Pharyngeals xenodon Gilbert.
of Italian Parrot-fish,
Sparisoma cretense (L.).
a, upper; b, lower.
Fig. 325.—Cryptotomus beryllinus Jordan & Swain. Key West, Florida.
as in Sparisoma.
Fig. 324.—Jaws of a
Parrot-fish, Calotomus
Fig. 323.—Pharyngeals xenodon Gilbert.
of Italian Parrot-fish,
Sparisoma cretense (L.).
a, upper; b, lower.
Fig. 325.—Cryptotomus beryllinus Jordan & Swain. Key West, Florida.
Page 450
Cryptotomus of the Atlantic is also a transitional group having the general
characters of Sparisoma, but the anterior teeth more separate. The several
species are all small and characteristic of the West Indian fauna, one
species, Cryptotomus beryllinus, ranging northward to Long Island.
Fig. 326.—Sparisoma hoplomystax (Cope). Key West.
In the large genus Sparisoma the teeth are more completely joined. In this
group, which is found only in the tropical Atlantic, the lower pharyngeals
are broader than long and hexagonal. The teeth of the jaws are not
completely united, the dorsal spines are pungent, the lateral line not
interrupted, and the gill membranes broadly united to the isthmus.
characters of Sparisoma, but the anterior teeth more separate. The several
species are all small and characteristic of the West Indian fauna, one
species, Cryptotomus beryllinus, ranging northward to Long Island.
Fig. 326.—Sparisoma hoplomystax (Cope). Key West.
In the large genus Sparisoma the teeth are more completely joined. In this
group, which is found only in the tropical Atlantic, the lower pharyngeals
are broader than long and hexagonal. The teeth of the jaws are not
completely united, the dorsal spines are pungent, the lateral line not
interrupted, and the gill membranes broadly united to the isthmus.
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Fig. 327.—Sparisoma abildgaardi (Bloch), Red Parrot-fish. Loro,
Colorado. Family Scaridæ.
Of the numerous species the dull-colored Sparisoma flavescens is most
abundant in the West Indies and ranges farther north than any other.
Sparisoma cretense, the Scarus of the ancients, is found in the
Mediterranean, being the only member of the family known in Europe and
the only Sparisoma known from outside the West Indian fauna.
Other West Indian species are the red parrot-fish, Sparisoma abildgaardi,
Sparisoma xystrodon, Sparisoma hoplomystax, the last two being small
species about the Florida Keys, and the handsome Sparisoma viride from
the West Indies.
Scarus is the great central genus of parrot-fishes. Its members are especially
abundant in Polynesia and the East Indies, the center of distribution of the
group, although some extend their range to western Mexico, Japan, the Red
Sea, and Australia, and a large number are found in the West Indies. Most of
them are fishes of large size, but a few, as the West Indian Scarus
croicensis, reach the length of less than a foot, and other still smaller
species (Scarus evermanni, Scarus bollmani) are found only in water of
considerable depth (200 fathoms).
Colorado. Family Scaridæ.
Of the numerous species the dull-colored Sparisoma flavescens is most
abundant in the West Indies and ranges farther north than any other.
Sparisoma cretense, the Scarus of the ancients, is found in the
Mediterranean, being the only member of the family known in Europe and
the only Sparisoma known from outside the West Indian fauna.
Other West Indian species are the red parrot-fish, Sparisoma abildgaardi,
Sparisoma xystrodon, Sparisoma hoplomystax, the last two being small
species about the Florida Keys, and the handsome Sparisoma viride from
the West Indies.
Scarus is the great central genus of parrot-fishes. Its members are especially
abundant in Polynesia and the East Indies, the center of distribution of the
group, although some extend their range to western Mexico, Japan, the Red
Sea, and Australia, and a large number are found in the West Indies. Most of
them are fishes of large size, but a few, as the West Indian Scarus
croicensis, reach the length of less than a foot, and other still smaller
species (Scarus evermanni, Scarus bollmani) are found only in water of
considerable depth (200 fathoms).
Page 452
Fig. 328.—Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, Scarus cæruleus (Bloch).
Page 453
Fig. 329.—Upper pharyngeals of an Indian Parrot-fish, Scarus
strongylocephalus.
Fig. 330.—Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, Scarus strongylocephalus
(Bleeker).
strongylocephalus.
Fig. 330.—Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, Scarus strongylocephalus
(Bleeker).
Page 454
Fig. 331.—Scarus emblematicus Jordan & Rutter. Jamaica.
Fig. 332.—Scarus cœruleus (Bloch). Blue Parrot-fish. Loro, Azul. Family
Scaridæ.
The genus Scarus is characterized by not only the almost complete fusion
of its teeth, but by numerous other characters. Its lower pharyngeals are
oblong and spoon-shaped, the teeth appearing as a mosaic on the concave
surface. The gill-membranes are scarcely united to the narrow isthmus, the
Fig. 332.—Scarus cœruleus (Bloch). Blue Parrot-fish. Loro, Azul. Family
Scaridæ.
The genus Scarus is characterized by not only the almost complete fusion
of its teeth, but by numerous other characters. Its lower pharyngeals are
oblong and spoon-shaped, the teeth appearing as a mosaic on the concave
surface. The gill-membranes are scarcely united to the narrow isthmus, the
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lateral line is interrupted, the dorsal spines are flexible, and there are but
few scales on the head. These, as well as the scales of the body, are always
large. The most highly specialized of its species have the teeth deep blue in
color, a character which marks the genus or subgenus Pseudoscarus. Of the
species of this type, the loro, Pseudoscarus cœlestinus, and the more
abundant guacamaia, Pseudoscarus guacamaia (fig. 215 vol. I) of the West
Indies, are characteristic forms. The perrico, Pseudoscarus perrico of the
west coast of Mexico, and the great blue parrot-fish, or galo, of Hawaii and
Samoa, Pseudoscarus jordani, belong to this type. Pseudoscarus jordani
was formerly tabu to the king in Hawaii, and its brilliant colors and
toothsome flesh (when eaten raw) made it the most highly valued fish at the
royal banquets of old Hawaii. It still sells readily at a dollar or more per
pound. To this type belong also the blue parrot-fish, Pseudoscarus ovifrons,
of Japan. In the restricted genus Scarus proper the teeth are pale. The great
blue parrot-fish, of the West Indies, Scarus cœruleus, belongs to this group.
This species, deep blue in color, reaches a large size, and the adult has a
large fleshy hump on the forehead. Lesser parrot-fish with pale teeth and
with showy coloration are the West Indian species Scarus tæniopterus,
Scarus vetula, Scarus croicensis, etc.
Fig. 333.—Scarus vetula Bloch & Schneider, Parrot-fish. Family Scaridæ.
few scales on the head. These, as well as the scales of the body, are always
large. The most highly specialized of its species have the teeth deep blue in
color, a character which marks the genus or subgenus Pseudoscarus. Of the
species of this type, the loro, Pseudoscarus cœlestinus, and the more
abundant guacamaia, Pseudoscarus guacamaia (fig. 215 vol. I) of the West
Indies, are characteristic forms. The perrico, Pseudoscarus perrico of the
west coast of Mexico, and the great blue parrot-fish, or galo, of Hawaii and
Samoa, Pseudoscarus jordani, belong to this type. Pseudoscarus jordani
was formerly tabu to the king in Hawaii, and its brilliant colors and
toothsome flesh (when eaten raw) made it the most highly valued fish at the
royal banquets of old Hawaii. It still sells readily at a dollar or more per
pound. To this type belong also the blue parrot-fish, Pseudoscarus ovifrons,
of Japan. In the restricted genus Scarus proper the teeth are pale. The great
blue parrot-fish, of the West Indies, Scarus cœruleus, belongs to this group.
This species, deep blue in color, reaches a large size, and the adult has a
large fleshy hump on the forehead. Lesser parrot-fish with pale teeth and
with showy coloration are the West Indian species Scarus tæniopterus,
Scarus vetula, Scarus croicensis, etc.
Fig. 333.—Scarus vetula Bloch & Schneider, Parrot-fish. Family Scaridæ.
Page 456
Fig. 334.—Slippery-dick or Doncella, Halichœres bivittatus (Bloch), a fish
of the coral reefs. Key West. Family Labridæ.
Very many species of both Scarus and Pseudoscarus, green, blue, red-
brown, or variegated, abound about the coral reefs of Polynesia. About
twenty-five species occur in Samoa. Pseudoscarus latax and P.
ultramarinus being large and showy species, chiefly blue. Pseudoscarus
prasiognathus is deep red with the jaws bright blue.
Fossil species referred to Scarus but belonging rather to Sparisoma are
found in the later Tertiary. The genera Phyllodus, Egertonia, and
Paraphyllodus of the Eocene perhaps form a transition from Labridæ to
Scaridæ. In Paraphyllodus medius the three median teeth of the lower
pharyngeals are greatly widened, extending across the surface of the bone.
of the coral reefs. Key West. Family Labridæ.
Very many species of both Scarus and Pseudoscarus, green, blue, red-
brown, or variegated, abound about the coral reefs of Polynesia. About
twenty-five species occur in Samoa. Pseudoscarus latax and P.
ultramarinus being large and showy species, chiefly blue. Pseudoscarus
prasiognathus is deep red with the jaws bright blue.
Fossil species referred to Scarus but belonging rather to Sparisoma are
found in the later Tertiary. The genera Phyllodus, Egertonia, and
Paraphyllodus of the Eocene perhaps form a transition from Labridæ to
Scaridæ. In Paraphyllodus medius the three median teeth of the lower
pharyngeals are greatly widened, extending across the surface of the bone.
Page 457
CHAPTER XXIII
THE SQUAMIPINNES
Fig. 335.—Monodactylus argenteus (Linnæus). From Apia, Samoa.
Family Scorpididæ.
he Squamipinnes.—Very closely allied to the Percomorphi is
the great group called Squamipinnes (squama, scale; pinna,
fin) by Cuvier and Epelasmia by Cope. With a general
agreement with the Percomorphi, it is distinguished by the
THE SQUAMIPINNES
Fig. 335.—Monodactylus argenteus (Linnæus). From Apia, Samoa.
Family Scorpididæ.
he Squamipinnes.—Very closely allied to the Percomorphi is
the great group called Squamipinnes (squama, scale; pinna,
fin) by Cuvier and Epelasmia by Cope. With a general
agreement with the Percomorphi, it is distinguished by the
Page 458
more or less complete soldering of the post-temporal with the cranium. In
the more specialized forms we find also a soldering of the elements of the
upper jaw, and a progressive reduction in the size of the gill-opening. The
ventral fin retains its thoracic insertion, and, as in the perch mackerel-like
forms, it has one spine and five rays, never any more. The ventral fins are
occasionally lost in the adult, as in the Stromateidæ, or they may lose part
of their rays. The name Squamipinnes refers to the scaly fins, the typical
species having the soft rays of dorsal, anal, and caudal, and sometimes of
other fins densely covered with small scales. In various aberrant forms
these scales are absent. The name Epelasmia (ἔπι, above; ἐλάσμος, plate)
refers to the thin upper pharyngeals characteristic of certain forms. The
transition from this group to the Sclerodermi is very clear and very gradual.
The Squamipinnes, Sclerodermi, Ostracodermi, and Gymnodontes form a
continuous degenerating series. On the other hand the less specialized
Squamipinnes approach very closely to forms already considered. The
Antigoniidæ are of uncertain affinities, possibly derived from such forms as
Histiopteridæ, while Platax show considerable resemblance to scaly-finned
fishes like the Kyphosidæ and Stromateidæ. The Scorpididæ seem
intermediate between Stromateidæ and Platacidæ. In such offshoots from
Scombroidei or Percoidei the group doubtless had its origin.
We may begin the series with some forms which are of doubtful affinity and
more or less intermediate between the Squamipinnes and the more primitive
Percomorphi.
The Scorpididæ.—This family has the general appearance of Platax and
Ilarches, but the teeth are not brush-like, and the post-temporal is free from
the skull as in perch-like fishes. The species inhabit the Pacific. Scorpis
georgianus is a food-fish of Australia, with the body oblong. Monodactylus
argenteus, the toto of Samoa, is almost orbicular in form, while Psettus
sebæ is twice as deep as long, the deepest-bodied of all fishes in proportion
to its length.
The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.—The boarfishes (Antigoniidæ) are
characterized by a very deep body covered with rough scales, the post-
temporal, as in the Chætodontidæ and the Zeidæ, being adnate to the skull.
the more specialized forms we find also a soldering of the elements of the
upper jaw, and a progressive reduction in the size of the gill-opening. The
ventral fin retains its thoracic insertion, and, as in the perch mackerel-like
forms, it has one spine and five rays, never any more. The ventral fins are
occasionally lost in the adult, as in the Stromateidæ, or they may lose part
of their rays. The name Squamipinnes refers to the scaly fins, the typical
species having the soft rays of dorsal, anal, and caudal, and sometimes of
other fins densely covered with small scales. In various aberrant forms
these scales are absent. The name Epelasmia (ἔπι, above; ἐλάσμος, plate)
refers to the thin upper pharyngeals characteristic of certain forms. The
transition from this group to the Sclerodermi is very clear and very gradual.
The Squamipinnes, Sclerodermi, Ostracodermi, and Gymnodontes form a
continuous degenerating series. On the other hand the less specialized
Squamipinnes approach very closely to forms already considered. The
Antigoniidæ are of uncertain affinities, possibly derived from such forms as
Histiopteridæ, while Platax show considerable resemblance to scaly-finned
fishes like the Kyphosidæ and Stromateidæ. The Scorpididæ seem
intermediate between Stromateidæ and Platacidæ. In such offshoots from
Scombroidei or Percoidei the group doubtless had its origin.
We may begin the series with some forms which are of doubtful affinity and
more or less intermediate between the Squamipinnes and the more primitive
Percomorphi.
The Scorpididæ.—This family has the general appearance of Platax and
Ilarches, but the teeth are not brush-like, and the post-temporal is free from
the skull as in perch-like fishes. The species inhabit the Pacific. Scorpis
georgianus is a food-fish of Australia, with the body oblong. Monodactylus
argenteus, the toto of Samoa, is almost orbicular in form, while Psettus
sebæ is twice as deep as long, the deepest-bodied of all fishes in proportion
to its length.
The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.—The boarfishes (Antigoniidæ) are
characterized by a very deep body covered with rough scales, the post-
temporal, as in the Chætodontidæ and the Zeidæ, being adnate to the skull.
Page 459
Fig. 336.—Psettus sebæ Cuv. & Val. East Indies.
These fishes bear some resemblance to Zeus, but there is no evidence of
close affinity nor is it clear that they are related to the Chætodontidæ.
Capros aper, the boarfish, is common in southern Europe, reaching a length
of less than a foot, the protractile mouth suggesting that of a pig. The
diamond-fishes, Antigonia, are deeper than long and strongly compressed,
the body being covered with roughish scales. The color is salmon-red and
the species live just below the depths ordinarily explored by fishermen.
Antigonia capros is found at Madeira and in the West Indies, Antigonia
These fishes bear some resemblance to Zeus, but there is no evidence of
close affinity nor is it clear that they are related to the Chætodontidæ.
Capros aper, the boarfish, is common in southern Europe, reaching a length
of less than a foot, the protractile mouth suggesting that of a pig. The
diamond-fishes, Antigonia, are deeper than long and strongly compressed,
the body being covered with roughish scales. The color is salmon-red and
the species live just below the depths ordinarily explored by fishermen.
Antigonia capros is found at Madeira and in the West Indies, Antigonia
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steindachneri about Hawaii and in Japan, while the smaller Antigonia
rubescens is abundant in the Japanese bays at a depth reached by the
dredge. An extinct genus, Proantigonia from the Miocene is said to connect
Antigonia with Capros.
The Arches: Toxotidæ.—The archers, Toxotidæ, have the body
compressed, the snout produced, and the dorsal fin with but five spines. The
skeleton differs widely from that of Chætodon and the family should
perhaps rather find its place among the percoids. Toxotes jaculatrix is found
in the East Indies. The name alludes to its supposed habit of catching
insects by shooting drops of water at them through its long mouth.
The Ephippidæ.—With the typical Squamipinnes, the teeth become very
slender, crowded in brush-like bands. The least specialized family is that of
Ephippidæ, characterized by the presence of four anal spines and a
recumbent spine before the dorsal. The principal genus, Ephippus
(Scatophagus), is represented by Ephippus argus, a small, bass-like fish,
spotted with black, found in the Indian seas, and ranging northward to
Formosa. Species referred to Ephippus (Scatophagus) are recorded from the
Italian Eocene of Monte Bolca, where a species of Toxotes has been also
found.
The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.—In the Ilarchidæ the dorsal is divided into
two fins, the spinous part being free from scales. In various regards the
species are intermediate between ordinary perch-like forms and the
chætodonts. In these fishes the body is very deep and, with the soft fins,
closely covered with roughish scales. In Ilarches (Ephippus), represented
by Ilarches orbis of the Indian seas, these scales are relatively large. This
species is a common food-fish from India to Formosa.
In the American genus, Chætodipterus, the scales are quite small. The
spadefish (Chætodipterus faber), sometimes called also moonfish or angel-
fish, is a large, deep-bodied fish, reaching a length of two feet. It is rather
common from Cape Cod to Cuba, and is an excellent pan fish, with finely
flavored white flesh. The young are marked by black cross-bands which
disappear with age, and in the adult the supraoccipital crest is greatly
thickened and the skull otherwise modified. A very similar species,
Chætodipterus zonatus, occurs on the west coast of Mexico. Species allied
to Chætodipterus are fossil in the Italian Eocene. The Drepanidæ of the
rubescens is abundant in the Japanese bays at a depth reached by the
dredge. An extinct genus, Proantigonia from the Miocene is said to connect
Antigonia with Capros.
The Arches: Toxotidæ.—The archers, Toxotidæ, have the body
compressed, the snout produced, and the dorsal fin with but five spines. The
skeleton differs widely from that of Chætodon and the family should
perhaps rather find its place among the percoids. Toxotes jaculatrix is found
in the East Indies. The name alludes to its supposed habit of catching
insects by shooting drops of water at them through its long mouth.
The Ephippidæ.—With the typical Squamipinnes, the teeth become very
slender, crowded in brush-like bands. The least specialized family is that of
Ephippidæ, characterized by the presence of four anal spines and a
recumbent spine before the dorsal. The principal genus, Ephippus
(Scatophagus), is represented by Ephippus argus, a small, bass-like fish,
spotted with black, found in the Indian seas, and ranging northward to
Formosa. Species referred to Ephippus (Scatophagus) are recorded from the
Italian Eocene of Monte Bolca, where a species of Toxotes has been also
found.
The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.—In the Ilarchidæ the dorsal is divided into
two fins, the spinous part being free from scales. In various regards the
species are intermediate between ordinary perch-like forms and the
chætodonts. In these fishes the body is very deep and, with the soft fins,
closely covered with roughish scales. In Ilarches (Ephippus), represented
by Ilarches orbis of the Indian seas, these scales are relatively large. This
species is a common food-fish from India to Formosa.
In the American genus, Chætodipterus, the scales are quite small. The
spadefish (Chætodipterus faber), sometimes called also moonfish or angel-
fish, is a large, deep-bodied fish, reaching a length of two feet. It is rather
common from Cape Cod to Cuba, and is an excellent pan fish, with finely
flavored white flesh. The young are marked by black cross-bands which
disappear with age, and in the adult the supraoccipital crest is greatly
thickened and the skull otherwise modified. A very similar species,
Chætodipterus zonatus, occurs on the west coast of Mexico. Species allied
to Chætodipterus are fossil in the Italian Eocene. The Drepanidæ of the
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East Indies are close to the Ilarchidæ. Drepane punctata is a large, deep-
bodied fish resembling the spadefish but with larger scales.
Fig. 337.—Spadefish, Chætodipterus faber (L.). Virginia.
The Platacidæ.—Closely related to the Ilarchidæ is also the East Indian
family of Platacidæ, remarkable for the very great depth and compression
of the body, which is much deeper than long, and the highly elevated dorsal
and anal still further emphasize this peculiarity of form. In this group the
few dorsal spines are closely attached to the soft rays and the general color
is dusky. In the young the body is deeper than in the adult and the ventral
fins much more produced. The best-known species is the tsuzume or batfish
bodied fish resembling the spadefish but with larger scales.
Fig. 337.—Spadefish, Chætodipterus faber (L.). Virginia.
The Platacidæ.—Closely related to the Ilarchidæ is also the East Indian
family of Platacidæ, remarkable for the very great depth and compression
of the body, which is much deeper than long, and the highly elevated dorsal
and anal still further emphasize this peculiarity of form. In this group the
few dorsal spines are closely attached to the soft rays and the general color
is dusky. In the young the body is deeper than in the adult and the ventral
fins much more produced. The best-known species is the tsuzume or batfish
Page 462
(Platax orbicularis), which ranges from India through the warm current to
northern Japan. Platax teira, farther south, is very similar. Platax altissimus,
with a very high dorsal, is a fossil in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
Fig. 338.—Butterfly-fish, Chætodon capistratus Linnæus. Jamaica.
The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.—The central family of
Squamipinnes is that of the butterfly-fishes or Chætodontidæ. In this group
the teeth are distinctly brush-like, the mouth small, the dorsal fin continuous
and closely scaly, and the ventral fins with one spine and five rays. The
species are mostly of small size and brilliant and varied coloration, yellow
and black being the leading colors. They vary considerably with age, the
young having the posterior free edges of the bones of the head produced,
forming a sort of collar. These forms have received the name of
northern Japan. Platax teira, farther south, is very similar. Platax altissimus,
with a very high dorsal, is a fossil in the Eocene of Monte Bolca.
Fig. 338.—Butterfly-fish, Chætodon capistratus Linnæus. Jamaica.
The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.—The central family of
Squamipinnes is that of the butterfly-fishes or Chætodontidæ. In this group
the teeth are distinctly brush-like, the mouth small, the dorsal fin continuous
and closely scaly, and the ventral fins with one spine and five rays. The
species are mostly of small size and brilliant and varied coloration, yellow
and black being the leading colors. They vary considerably with age, the
young having the posterior free edges of the bones of the head produced,
forming a sort of collar. These forms have received the name of
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Tholichthys, but that supposed genus is merely the young of Chætodon. The
species of Chætodontidæ abound in rock pools and about coral reefs in
clear water. They are among the most characteristic forms of these waters
and their excessive quickness of movement compensates for their
conspicuous coloration. In these confined localities they have, however, few
enemies. The broad bodies and spinous fins make them rather difficult for a
large fish to swallow. They feed on small crustaceans, worms, and the like.
The analogy to the butterfly is a striking one, giving rise to the English
name, butterfly-fish, the Spanish mariposa, and the Japanese chochouwo,
all having the same meaning. Fossil chætodonts are rather few, Chætodon
pseudorhombus of the Pliocene of France, Holocanthus microcephalus and
Pomacanthus subarcuatus of the Eocene, being the only species recorded
by Zittel.
species of Chætodontidæ abound in rock pools and about coral reefs in
clear water. They are among the most characteristic forms of these waters
and their excessive quickness of movement compensates for their
conspicuous coloration. In these confined localities they have, however, few
enemies. The broad bodies and spinous fins make them rather difficult for a
large fish to swallow. They feed on small crustaceans, worms, and the like.
The analogy to the butterfly is a striking one, giving rise to the English
name, butterfly-fish, the Spanish mariposa, and the Japanese chochouwo,
all having the same meaning. Fossil chætodonts are rather few, Chætodon
pseudorhombus of the Pliocene of France, Holocanthus microcephalus and
Pomacanthus subarcuatus of the Eocene, being the only species recorded
by Zittel.
Page 464
Fig. 339.—Black Angel-fish, Pomacanthus arcuatus (Linnæus). Barnegat,
New Jersey.
In the principal genus, Chætodon, the colors are especially bright. There is
almost always a black bar across the eye, and often black ocelli adorn the
fins. This genus is wanting in Europe. Chætodon capistratus, striatus, and
numerous other species are found in the West Indies; Chætodon humeralis
and nigrirostris are common on the coast of Mexico. The center of their
distribution is in Polynesia and the East Indian Archipelago. Chætodon
reticulatus, lineolatus, ulietensis, ornatissimus, ephippion, setifer, and
auriga are among the most showy species. Numerous closely related genera
are described. In some of these the snout is prolonged into a long tube,
bearing the jaws at its end. Of this type are Chelmo in India, Forcipiger in
Polynesia, and Prognathodes in the West Indies. Heniochus
(macrolepidotus) has one dorsal spine greatly elongated. Microcanthus
strigatus, one of the most widely distributed species, is known by its small
scales. Megaprotodon (triangularis) has four anal spines instead of three as
in the others.
New Jersey.
In the principal genus, Chætodon, the colors are especially bright. There is
almost always a black bar across the eye, and often black ocelli adorn the
fins. This genus is wanting in Europe. Chætodon capistratus, striatus, and
numerous other species are found in the West Indies; Chætodon humeralis
and nigrirostris are common on the coast of Mexico. The center of their
distribution is in Polynesia and the East Indian Archipelago. Chætodon
reticulatus, lineolatus, ulietensis, ornatissimus, ephippion, setifer, and
auriga are among the most showy species. Numerous closely related genera
are described. In some of these the snout is prolonged into a long tube,
bearing the jaws at its end. Of this type are Chelmo in India, Forcipiger in
Polynesia, and Prognathodes in the West Indies. Heniochus
(macrolepidotus) has one dorsal spine greatly elongated. Microcanthus
strigatus, one of the most widely distributed species, is known by its small
scales. Megaprotodon (triangularis) has four anal spines instead of three as
in the others.
Page 465
Fig. 340.—Angel-fish or Isabelita, Holacanthus ciliaris (Linnæus).
Jamaica. Family Chætodontidæ.
The species of Holacanthus, known as angel-fishes, are larger in size, and
their colors are still more showy, being often scarlet or blue. In this genus
the preopercle is armed with a strong spine, and there are fourteen or more
strong spines in the dorsal. This genus has also its center of distribution in
the East Indies, whence two species (septentrionalis and ronin) with
concentric stripes of blue range northward to Japan. Holacanthus tibicen,
jet-black with one yellow cross-band, is found from the Riu Kiu Islands
southward. The angel-fish or isabelita (Holacanthus ciliaris), orange-red,
sky-blue, and golden, as though gaudily painted, is the best-known species.
The vaqueta de dos colores or rock beauty (Holacanthus bicolor), half jet-
black, half golden, is scarcely less remarkable. Both are excellent food-
fishes of the West Indies. Holacanthus passer is a showy inhabitant of the
west coast of Mexico. Holacanthus diacanthus, orange, barred with blue, is
one of the gaudiest inhabitants of the coral reefs of Polynesia. Holacanthus
flavissimus, golden with some deep-blue markings, and Holacanthus
nicobariensis, blackish with white circles, are found with other species in
the same waters.
The genus Pomacanthus (Pomacanthodes) includes American species only,
still larger in size and differing from Holacanthus in having nine to eleven
spines only in the dorsal fin. The young of Pomacanthus are blackish,
crossed by many curved yellow cross-bands, which disappear entirely with
age. Three species are known, Pomacanthus arcuatus, the black angel,
chirivita or portugais, Pomacanthus paru, the Indian-fish or paru of the
West Indies, and Pomacanthus zonipectus, "Mojarra de las Piedras," of the
west coast of Mexico. All are good food-fishes, but lacking the brilliant
colors of Holacanthus and the fine pattern usual in Chætodon.
Jamaica. Family Chætodontidæ.
The species of Holacanthus, known as angel-fishes, are larger in size, and
their colors are still more showy, being often scarlet or blue. In this genus
the preopercle is armed with a strong spine, and there are fourteen or more
strong spines in the dorsal. This genus has also its center of distribution in
the East Indies, whence two species (septentrionalis and ronin) with
concentric stripes of blue range northward to Japan. Holacanthus tibicen,
jet-black with one yellow cross-band, is found from the Riu Kiu Islands
southward. The angel-fish or isabelita (Holacanthus ciliaris), orange-red,
sky-blue, and golden, as though gaudily painted, is the best-known species.
The vaqueta de dos colores or rock beauty (Holacanthus bicolor), half jet-
black, half golden, is scarcely less remarkable. Both are excellent food-
fishes of the West Indies. Holacanthus passer is a showy inhabitant of the
west coast of Mexico. Holacanthus diacanthus, orange, barred with blue, is
one of the gaudiest inhabitants of the coral reefs of Polynesia. Holacanthus
flavissimus, golden with some deep-blue markings, and Holacanthus
nicobariensis, blackish with white circles, are found with other species in
the same waters.
The genus Pomacanthus (Pomacanthodes) includes American species only,
still larger in size and differing from Holacanthus in having nine to eleven
spines only in the dorsal fin. The young of Pomacanthus are blackish,
crossed by many curved yellow cross-bands, which disappear entirely with
age. Three species are known, Pomacanthus arcuatus, the black angel,
chirivita or portugais, Pomacanthus paru, the Indian-fish or paru of the
West Indies, and Pomacanthus zonipectus, "Mojarra de las Piedras," of the
west coast of Mexico. All are good food-fishes, but lacking the brilliant
colors of Holacanthus and the fine pattern usual in Chætodon.
Page 466
Fig. 341.—Rock Beauty, Holacanthus tricolor (L.). Puerto Rico.
The Pygæidæ.—Between the Chætodontidæ and the Acanthuridæ we
would place the extinct family of Pygæidæ, of the Eocene. In Pygæus gigas
and other species the dorsal spines are strong and numerous; there are 5 to 8
species in the anal fin, the scales are shagreen-like, and the teeth seem
coarser than in the Chætodontidæ. The tail is apparently unarmed, and the
soft dorsal, as in Chætodon, is much shorter than the spinous. To this family
the Eocene genera, Aulorhamphus (bolceusis), with produced snout, and
Apostasis (croaticus), with long spinous dorsal, probably belong.
The Pygæidæ.—Between the Chætodontidæ and the Acanthuridæ we
would place the extinct family of Pygæidæ, of the Eocene. In Pygæus gigas
and other species the dorsal spines are strong and numerous; there are 5 to 8
species in the anal fin, the scales are shagreen-like, and the teeth seem
coarser than in the Chætodontidæ. The tail is apparently unarmed, and the
soft dorsal, as in Chætodon, is much shorter than the spinous. To this family
the Eocene genera, Aulorhamphus (bolceusis), with produced snout, and
Apostasis (croaticus), with long spinous dorsal, probably belong.
Page 467
Fig. 342.—The Moorish Idol, Zanclus canescens (Linnæus). From Hawaii.
Family Zanclidæ. (Painting by Mrs. E. G. Norris.)
The Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.—The family of Zanclidæ includes a single
species, the Moorish idol or kihi kihi, Zanclus canescens. In this family the
scales are reduced to a fine shagreen, and in the adult two bony horns grow
out over the eye. The dorsal spines are prolonged in filaments and the color
Family Zanclidæ. (Painting by Mrs. E. G. Norris.)
The Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.—The family of Zanclidæ includes a single
species, the Moorish idol or kihi kihi, Zanclus canescens. In this family the
scales are reduced to a fine shagreen, and in the adult two bony horns grow
out over the eye. The dorsal spines are prolonged in filaments and the color
Page 468
is yellow crossed by bars of black. Zanclus canescens is a very handsome
fish with the general appearance and habit of a Chætodon, but the form is
more exaggerated. It is found throughout Polynesia, from Japan to the off-
shore islands of Mexico, and is generally common, though rarely entering
rock pools.
Zanclus eocænus is recorded from the Italian Eocene.
The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.—In the next family, Acanthuridæ, the surgeon-
fishes or tangs, the scales remain small and shagreen-like, the body is more
elongate, the gill-openings still more restricted, and the teeth are flattened
and incisor-like. The pubic bone is more elongate, and in all the species
some sort of armature is developed on the side of the tail. The spinous
dorsal in all is less developed than the soft dorsal. The species abound in the
warm seas, especially about the tide pools, and are used as food. They
undergo considerable changes with age, the caudal armature being
developed by degrees. Nearly all are dull brown in color, but in some a
vivid ornamentation is added. Fossil forms are found from the Eocene and
later. Most of these are referable to Teuthis and Acanthurus.
fish with the general appearance and habit of a Chætodon, but the form is
more exaggerated. It is found throughout Polynesia, from Japan to the off-
shore islands of Mexico, and is generally common, though rarely entering
rock pools.
Zanclus eocænus is recorded from the Italian Eocene.
The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.—In the next family, Acanthuridæ, the surgeon-
fishes or tangs, the scales remain small and shagreen-like, the body is more
elongate, the gill-openings still more restricted, and the teeth are flattened
and incisor-like. The pubic bone is more elongate, and in all the species
some sort of armature is developed on the side of the tail. The spinous
dorsal in all is less developed than the soft dorsal. The species abound in the
warm seas, especially about the tide pools, and are used as food. They
undergo considerable changes with age, the caudal armature being
developed by degrees. Nearly all are dull brown in color, but in some a
vivid ornamentation is added. Fossil forms are found from the Eocene and
later. Most of these are referable to Teuthis and Acanthurus.
Page 469
Fig. 343.—Teuthis cœruleus (Bloch & Schneider), Blue Tang. Mexico.
Family Teuthididæ.
The principal genus is Teuthis, characterized by the presence on each side
of the tail of a sharp, knife-like, movable spine with the point turned
forwards and dropping into a sheath. This spine gives these fishes their
name of surgeon-fish, doctor-fish, lancet-fish, tang, barbero, etc., and it
forms a very effective weapon against fish or man who would seize one of
these creatures by the tail. The species have the center of distribution in the
East Indies and have not reached Europe. Three species are found in the
West Indies. The blue tang (Teuthis cœruleus) is chiefly bright blue. The
common tang, Teuthis chirurgus, is brown with bluish streaks, while a third
species, Teuthis bahianus, has a forked caudal fin. Very close to this species
is Teuthis crestonis, of the west coast of Mexico, and both are closely
related to Teuthis matoides, found from India to Hawaii.
Family Teuthididæ.
The principal genus is Teuthis, characterized by the presence on each side
of the tail of a sharp, knife-like, movable spine with the point turned
forwards and dropping into a sheath. This spine gives these fishes their
name of surgeon-fish, doctor-fish, lancet-fish, tang, barbero, etc., and it
forms a very effective weapon against fish or man who would seize one of
these creatures by the tail. The species have the center of distribution in the
East Indies and have not reached Europe. Three species are found in the
West Indies. The blue tang (Teuthis cœruleus) is chiefly bright blue. The
common tang, Teuthis chirurgus, is brown with bluish streaks, while a third
species, Teuthis bahianus, has a forked caudal fin. Very close to this species
is Teuthis crestonis, of the west coast of Mexico, and both are closely
related to Teuthis matoides, found from India to Hawaii.
Page 470
Fig. 344.—Brown Tang, Teuthis bahianus (Ranzani). Tortugas, Fla.
Teuthis triostegus, of Japan and Polynesia and the East Indies, is covered
with cross-bands alternately black and pale. In Hawaii this is replaced by
the very similar Teuthis sandwichensis. Many species are found about
Hawaii and the other Polynesian Islands. Teuthis achilles has a large blotch
of brilliant scarlet on the tail, and Teuthis olivaceus a bright-colored mark
on the shoulder. Teuthis lineatus, yellow with blue stripes, a showily
colored fish of the coral reefs, is often poisonous, its flesh producing
ciguatera.
Zebrasoma differs from Teuthis in having but 4 or 5 dorsal spines instead of
10 or 11. In this genus the soft dorsal fin is very high. Zebrasoma
flavescens, sometimes brown, sometimes bright yellow, is common in
Polynesia; Zebrasoma veliferum, cross-barred with black, is also common.
Ctenochætus (strigosus), unlike the others, is herbivorous and has its teeth
loosely implanted in the gums. This species, black with dull orange streaks,
was once tabu to the king of Hawaii, who ate it raw, and common people
who appropriated it were put to death.
In Xesurus the caudal lancelet is replaced by three or four bony tubercles
which have no sharp edge. Xesurus scalprum is common in Japan, and there
Teuthis triostegus, of Japan and Polynesia and the East Indies, is covered
with cross-bands alternately black and pale. In Hawaii this is replaced by
the very similar Teuthis sandwichensis. Many species are found about
Hawaii and the other Polynesian Islands. Teuthis achilles has a large blotch
of brilliant scarlet on the tail, and Teuthis olivaceus a bright-colored mark
on the shoulder. Teuthis lineatus, yellow with blue stripes, a showily
colored fish of the coral reefs, is often poisonous, its flesh producing
ciguatera.
Zebrasoma differs from Teuthis in having but 4 or 5 dorsal spines instead of
10 or 11. In this genus the soft dorsal fin is very high. Zebrasoma
flavescens, sometimes brown, sometimes bright yellow, is common in
Polynesia; Zebrasoma veliferum, cross-barred with black, is also common.
Ctenochætus (strigosus), unlike the others, is herbivorous and has its teeth
loosely implanted in the gums. This species, black with dull orange streaks,
was once tabu to the king of Hawaii, who ate it raw, and common people
who appropriated it were put to death.
In Xesurus the caudal lancelet is replaced by three or four bony tubercles
which have no sharp edge. Xesurus scalprum is common in Japan, and there
Page 471
are three species or more on the west coast of Mexico, Xesurus punctatus
and Xesurus laticlavius being most abundant.
In Prionurus (microlepidotus) of the tropical Pacific the armature is still
more degraded, about six small plates being developed.
In Acanthurus (Monoceros, Naseus), the unicorn-fish and its relatives, the
ventral fins are reduced, having but three soft rays, the caudal spines are
very large, blunt, immovable, one placed in front of the other. In most of the
species of Acanthurus a long, bony horn grows forward from the cranium
above the eye. This is wanting in the young and has various degrees of
development in the different species, in some of which it is wholly wanting.
The species of Acanthurus reach a large size, and in some the caudal spines
are bright scarlet, in others blue. Acanthurus unicornis, the unicorn-fish, is
the commonest species and the one with the longest horn. It is abundant in
Japan, in Hawaii, and in the East Indies.
Axinurus thynnoides of the East Indies has a long, slim body, with slender
tail like a mackerel.
Suborder Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.—The Amphacanthi (ἄμφϊ,
everywhere; ἄκανθα, spine) are spiny-rayed fishes certainly related to the
Teuthididæ, but differing from all other fishes in having the last ray of the
ventrals spinous as well as the first, the formula being I. 4, I. The anal fin
has also six or seven spines; and the maxillary is soldered to the
premaxillary. The skeleton is essentially like that of the Acanthuridæ.
The single family, Siganidæ, contains fishes of moderate size, valued as
food, and abounding about rocks in shallow water from the Red Sea to
Tahiti. The coloration is rather plain olive or brown, sometimes with white
spots, sometimes with bluish lines. The species are very much alike and all
belong to the single genus Siganus. One species, Siganus fuscescens, dusky
with small, pale dots, is a common food-fish of Japan. Others, as Siganus
oramin and Siganus vermiculatus, occur in India, and Siganus punctatus,
known as lo, abounds about the coral reefs of Samoa. Siganus vulpinus
differs from the others in the elongate snout.
A fossil genus, Archoteuthis (glaronensis), is found in the Tertiary of
Glarus. It differs from Siganus in the deeper body and in the presence of six
instead of seven spines in the anal fin.
and Xesurus laticlavius being most abundant.
In Prionurus (microlepidotus) of the tropical Pacific the armature is still
more degraded, about six small plates being developed.
In Acanthurus (Monoceros, Naseus), the unicorn-fish and its relatives, the
ventral fins are reduced, having but three soft rays, the caudal spines are
very large, blunt, immovable, one placed in front of the other. In most of the
species of Acanthurus a long, bony horn grows forward from the cranium
above the eye. This is wanting in the young and has various degrees of
development in the different species, in some of which it is wholly wanting.
The species of Acanthurus reach a large size, and in some the caudal spines
are bright scarlet, in others blue. Acanthurus unicornis, the unicorn-fish, is
the commonest species and the one with the longest horn. It is abundant in
Japan, in Hawaii, and in the East Indies.
Axinurus thynnoides of the East Indies has a long, slim body, with slender
tail like a mackerel.
Suborder Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.—The Amphacanthi (ἄμφϊ,
everywhere; ἄκανθα, spine) are spiny-rayed fishes certainly related to the
Teuthididæ, but differing from all other fishes in having the last ray of the
ventrals spinous as well as the first, the formula being I. 4, I. The anal fin
has also six or seven spines; and the maxillary is soldered to the
premaxillary. The skeleton is essentially like that of the Acanthuridæ.
The single family, Siganidæ, contains fishes of moderate size, valued as
food, and abounding about rocks in shallow water from the Red Sea to
Tahiti. The coloration is rather plain olive or brown, sometimes with white
spots, sometimes with bluish lines. The species are very much alike and all
belong to the single genus Siganus. One species, Siganus fuscescens, dusky
with small, pale dots, is a common food-fish of Japan. Others, as Siganus
oramin and Siganus vermiculatus, occur in India, and Siganus punctatus,
known as lo, abounds about the coral reefs of Samoa. Siganus vulpinus
differs from the others in the elongate snout.
A fossil genus, Archoteuthis (glaronensis), is found in the Tertiary of
Glarus. It differs from Siganus in the deeper body and in the presence of six
instead of seven spines in the anal fin.
Page 472
The real relationship of the Siganidæ is still uncertain, but the family is
probably most nearly allied to the Acanthuridæ, with which the species
were first combined by Linnæus, who included both in his genus Teuthis. In
the structure of the vertical fins the Siganidæ resemble the extinct genus
Pygæus.
probably most nearly allied to the Acanthuridæ, with which the species
were first combined by Linnæus, who included both in his genus Teuthis. In
the structure of the vertical fins the Siganidæ resemble the extinct genus
Pygæus.
Page 473
CHAPTER XXIV
SERIES PLECTOGNATHI
he Plectognaths.—Derived directly from the Acanthuridæ,
from which they differ by progressive steps of degeneration,
are the three suborders of Sclerodermi, Ostracodermi, and
Gymnodontes, forming together the series or suborder of
Plectognathi. As the members of this group differ from one
another more widely than the highest or most generalized forms differ from
the Acanthuridæ, we do not regard it as a distinct order. The forms included
in it differ from the Acanthuridæ much as the swordfishes differ from
ordinary mackerel. The Plectognathi (πλεϡτός, woven together; γνάθος,
jaw) agree in the union of the maxillary and premaxillary, in the union of
the post-temporal with the skull, in the great reduction of the gill-opening,
and in the elongation of the pelvic bones. All these characters in less degree
are shown in the Squamipinnes. We have also the reduction and final entire
loss of ventral fins, the reduction and loss of the spinous dorsal, the
compression and final partial or total fusion of the teeth of the upper jaw,
the specialization of the scales, which change from bony scutes into a solid
coat of mail on the one hand, and on the other are reduced to thorns or
prickles and are finally altogether lost. The number of vertebræ is also
progressively reduced until in the extreme forms the caudal fin seems
attached to the head, the body being apparently wanting. Throughout the
group poisonous alkaloids are developed in the flesh. These may produce
the violent disease known as ciguatera, directly attacking the nervous
system. See p. 182, vol. I.
The three suborders of plectognathous are easily recognized by external
characters. In the Sclerodermi (σκλερός, hard; δέρμα, skin) the spinous
dorsal is present and the body is more or less distinctly scaly. The teeth are
SERIES PLECTOGNATHI
he Plectognaths.—Derived directly from the Acanthuridæ,
from which they differ by progressive steps of degeneration,
are the three suborders of Sclerodermi, Ostracodermi, and
Gymnodontes, forming together the series or suborder of
Plectognathi. As the members of this group differ from one
another more widely than the highest or most generalized forms differ from
the Acanthuridæ, we do not regard it as a distinct order. The forms included
in it differ from the Acanthuridæ much as the swordfishes differ from
ordinary mackerel. The Plectognathi (πλεϡτός, woven together; γνάθος,
jaw) agree in the union of the maxillary and premaxillary, in the union of
the post-temporal with the skull, in the great reduction of the gill-opening,
and in the elongation of the pelvic bones. All these characters in less degree
are shown in the Squamipinnes. We have also the reduction and final entire
loss of ventral fins, the reduction and loss of the spinous dorsal, the
compression and final partial or total fusion of the teeth of the upper jaw,
the specialization of the scales, which change from bony scutes into a solid
coat of mail on the one hand, and on the other are reduced to thorns or
prickles and are finally altogether lost. The number of vertebræ is also
progressively reduced until in the extreme forms the caudal fin seems
attached to the head, the body being apparently wanting. Throughout the
group poisonous alkaloids are developed in the flesh. These may produce
the violent disease known as ciguatera, directly attacking the nervous
system. See p. 182, vol. I.
The three suborders of plectognathous are easily recognized by external
characters. In the Sclerodermi (σκλερός, hard; δέρμα, skin) the spinous
dorsal is present and the body is more or less distinctly scaly. The teeth are
Page 474
separate and incisor-like and the form is compressed. In the Ostracodermi
(ὀστράκος, a box; δέρμα, skin) there is no spinous dorsal, the teeth are
slender, and the body is inclosed in an immovable, bony box. In the
Gymnodontes (γυμνός, naked; ὀδούς, tooth) the teeth are fused into a beak
like that of a turtle, either continuous or divided by a median suture in each
jaw, the spinous dorsal is lost, and the body is covered with thorns or
prickles or else is naked.
The Scleroderms.—The Sclerodermi include three recent and one extinct
families. Of the recent forms, Triacanthidæ is the most primitive, having
the ventral fins each represented by a stout spine and the skin covered with
small, rough scales. The dorsal has from four to six stiff spines.
Triacanthodes anomalus is found in Japan, Hollardia hollardi in Cuba.
Triacanthus brevirostris, with the first spine very large, is the common
hornfish of the East Indies ranging northward to Japan.
Fig. 345.—The Trigger-fish, Balistes carolinensis Gmelin. New York.
The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.—The Balistidæ, or trigger-fishes, have the
body covered with large rough scales regularly arranged. The first dorsal fin
(ὀστράκος, a box; δέρμα, skin) there is no spinous dorsal, the teeth are
slender, and the body is inclosed in an immovable, bony box. In the
Gymnodontes (γυμνός, naked; ὀδούς, tooth) the teeth are fused into a beak
like that of a turtle, either continuous or divided by a median suture in each
jaw, the spinous dorsal is lost, and the body is covered with thorns or
prickles or else is naked.
The Scleroderms.—The Sclerodermi include three recent and one extinct
families. Of the recent forms, Triacanthidæ is the most primitive, having
the ventral fins each represented by a stout spine and the skin covered with
small, rough scales. The dorsal has from four to six stiff spines.
Triacanthodes anomalus is found in Japan, Hollardia hollardi in Cuba.
Triacanthus brevirostris, with the first spine very large, is the common
hornfish of the East Indies ranging northward to Japan.
Fig. 345.—The Trigger-fish, Balistes carolinensis Gmelin. New York.
The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.—The Balistidæ, or trigger-fishes, have the
body covered with large rough scales regularly arranged. The first dorsal fin
Page 475
is composed of a short stout rough spine, with a smaller one behind it and
usually a third so placed that by touching it the first spine may be set or
released. This peculiarity gives the name of trigger-fish as well as the older
name of Balistes, or cross-bow shooter. There are no ventral fins, the long
pelvis ending in a single blunt spine. The numerous species of trigger-fishes
are large coarse fishes of the tropical seas occasionally ranging northward.
The center of distribution is in the East Indies, where many of the species
are most fantastically marked. Balistes carolinensis, the leather-jacket, or
cucuyo, is found in the Mediterranean as also on the American coast.
Balistes vetula, the oldwife, oldwench, or cochino, marked with blue, is
common in the West Indies, as are several other species, as Canthidermis
sufflamen, the sobaco, and the jet-black Melichthys piceus, the black
oldwife, or galafata. Several species occur on the Pacific Coast of Mexico,
the Pez Puerco, Balistes verres, being commonest. Still others are abundant
about the Hawaiian Islands and Japan. The genus Balistapus, having
spinous plates on the tail, contains the largest number of species, these
being at the same time the smallest in size and the most oddly colored.
Balistapus aculeatus and Balistapus undulatus are common through
Polynesia to Japan. Most of the tropical species of Balistidæ are more or
less poisonous, causing ciguatera, the offensive alkaloids becoming weaker
in the northern species. Melichthys radula abounds in Polynesia. In this
species great changes take place at death, the colors changing from blue and
mottled golden green to jet black. Other abundant Polynesian species are
Xanthichthys lineopunctatus, Balistes vidua, Balistes bursa, and Balistes
flavomarginatus.
usually a third so placed that by touching it the first spine may be set or
released. This peculiarity gives the name of trigger-fish as well as the older
name of Balistes, or cross-bow shooter. There are no ventral fins, the long
pelvis ending in a single blunt spine. The numerous species of trigger-fishes
are large coarse fishes of the tropical seas occasionally ranging northward.
The center of distribution is in the East Indies, where many of the species
are most fantastically marked. Balistes carolinensis, the leather-jacket, or
cucuyo, is found in the Mediterranean as also on the American coast.
Balistes vetula, the oldwife, oldwench, or cochino, marked with blue, is
common in the West Indies, as are several other species, as Canthidermis
sufflamen, the sobaco, and the jet-black Melichthys piceus, the black
oldwife, or galafata. Several species occur on the Pacific Coast of Mexico,
the Pez Puerco, Balistes verres, being commonest. Still others are abundant
about the Hawaiian Islands and Japan. The genus Balistapus, having
spinous plates on the tail, contains the largest number of species, these
being at the same time the smallest in size and the most oddly colored.
Balistapus aculeatus and Balistapus undulatus are common through
Polynesia to Japan. Most of the tropical species of Balistidæ are more or
less poisonous, causing ciguatera, the offensive alkaloids becoming weaker
in the northern species. Melichthys radula abounds in Polynesia. In this
species great changes take place at death, the colors changing from blue and
mottled golden green to jet black. Other abundant Polynesian species are
Xanthichthys lineopunctatus, Balistes vidua, Balistes bursa, and Balistes
flavomarginatus.
Page 476
Fig. 346.—File-fish, Osbeckia lævis (scripta). Wood's Hole, Mass.
Fig. 347.—The Needle-bearing File-fish, Amanses scopas of Samoa.
Fig. 347.—The Needle-bearing File-fish, Amanses scopas of Samoa.
Page 477
The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.—Closely related to the Balistidæ are the
Monacanthidæ, known as filefishes, or foolfishes. In these the body is very
lean and meager, the scales being reduced to shagreen-like prickles. The
ventral fins are replaced by a single movable or immovable spine, which is
often absent, and the first dorsal fin is reduced to a single spine with
sometimes a rudiment behind it. The species are in general smaller than the
Balistidæ and usually but not always dull in color. They have no economic
value and are rarely used as food, the dry flesh being bitter and offensive.
The species are numerous in tropical and temperate seas, although none are
found in Europe. On our Atlantic coast, Stephanolepis hispidus and
Ceratacanthus schœpfi are common species. In the West Indies are
numerous others, Osbeckia lævis and Alutera güntheriana, largest in size,
among the commonest. Both of these are large fishes without ventral spine.
Monacanthus chinensis, with a great, drooping dewlap of skin behind the
ventral spine, is found on the coast of China. Of the numerous Japanese
species, the most abundant and largest is Pseudomonacanthus modestus,
with deep-blue fins and the ventral spine immovable. Another is
Stephanolepis cirrhifer, known as Kawamuki, or skin-peeler. Alutera
monoceros, and Osbeckia scripta, the unicorn fish, abound in the East
Indies, with numerous others of less size and note. In the male of the
Polynesian Amanses scopas (Fig. 347) the tail is armed with a brush of
extraordinarily long needle-like spines.
In Stephanolepis spilosomus the caudal fin is of a brilliant scarlet color,
contrasting with the usual dull colors of these fishes. In Oxymonacanthus
longirostris the body is blue with orange checker-like spots and the snout is
produced in a long tube. About the islands of Polynesia, filefishes are
relatively few, but some of them are very curious in form or color.
Monacanthidæ, known as filefishes, or foolfishes. In these the body is very
lean and meager, the scales being reduced to shagreen-like prickles. The
ventral fins are replaced by a single movable or immovable spine, which is
often absent, and the first dorsal fin is reduced to a single spine with
sometimes a rudiment behind it. The species are in general smaller than the
Balistidæ and usually but not always dull in color. They have no economic
value and are rarely used as food, the dry flesh being bitter and offensive.
The species are numerous in tropical and temperate seas, although none are
found in Europe. On our Atlantic coast, Stephanolepis hispidus and
Ceratacanthus schœpfi are common species. In the West Indies are
numerous others, Osbeckia lævis and Alutera güntheriana, largest in size,
among the commonest. Both of these are large fishes without ventral spine.
Monacanthus chinensis, with a great, drooping dewlap of skin behind the
ventral spine, is found on the coast of China. Of the numerous Japanese
species, the most abundant and largest is Pseudomonacanthus modestus,
with deep-blue fins and the ventral spine immovable. Another is
Stephanolepis cirrhifer, known as Kawamuki, or skin-peeler. Alutera
monoceros, and Osbeckia scripta, the unicorn fish, abound in the East
Indies, with numerous others of less size and note. In the male of the
Polynesian Amanses scopas (Fig. 347) the tail is armed with a brush of
extraordinarily long needle-like spines.
In Stephanolepis spilosomus the caudal fin is of a brilliant scarlet color,
contrasting with the usual dull colors of these fishes. In Oxymonacanthus
longirostris the body is blue with orange checker-like spots and the snout is
produced in a long tube. About the islands of Polynesia, filefishes are
relatively few, but some of them are very curious in form or color.
Page 478
Fig. 348.—Common File fish, Stephanolepis hispidus (Linnæus). Virginia.
The Spinacanthidæ.—In the extinct family Spinacanthidæ the body is
elongate, high in front and tapering behind. The first dorsal has six or seven
spines, and there are rough spines in the pectoral. The teeth are bluntly
conical. Spinacanthus blennioides and S. imperalis are found in the Eocene
of Monte Bolca. These are probably the nearest to the original ancestor
among known scleroderms.
The Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.—The group Ostracodermi contains the
single family of Ostraciidæ, the trunkfishes or cuckolds. In this group, the
body is enveloped in a bony box, made of six-sided scutes connected by
sutures, leaving only the jaws, fins and tail free. The spinous dorsal fin is
wholly wanting. There are no ventral fins, and the outer fins are short and
small. The trunkfishes live in shallow water in the tropical seas. They are
slow of motion, though often brightly colored.
The Spinacanthidæ.—In the extinct family Spinacanthidæ the body is
elongate, high in front and tapering behind. The first dorsal has six or seven
spines, and there are rough spines in the pectoral. The teeth are bluntly
conical. Spinacanthus blennioides and S. imperalis are found in the Eocene
of Monte Bolca. These are probably the nearest to the original ancestor
among known scleroderms.
The Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.—The group Ostracodermi contains the
single family of Ostraciidæ, the trunkfishes or cuckolds. In this group, the
body is enveloped in a bony box, made of six-sided scutes connected by
sutures, leaving only the jaws, fins and tail free. The spinous dorsal fin is
wholly wanting. There are no ventral fins, and the outer fins are short and
small. The trunkfishes live in shallow water in the tropical seas. They are
slow of motion, though often brightly colored.
Page 479
Fig. 349.—Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold, Lactophrys tricornis
(Linnæus). Charleston, S. C.
Fig. 350.—Horned Trunkfish, Ostracion cornutum (Linnæus). East Indies.
(After Bleeker.)
Fig. 351.—Spotted Trunkfish, Lactophrys bicaudalis (Linnæus). Cozumel
Island, Yucatan.
(Linnæus). Charleston, S. C.
Fig. 350.—Horned Trunkfish, Ostracion cornutum (Linnæus). East Indies.
(After Bleeker.)
Fig. 351.—Spotted Trunkfish, Lactophrys bicaudalis (Linnæus). Cozumel
Island, Yucatan.
Page 480
Fig. 352.—Spotted Trunkfish (face view), Lactophrys
bicaudalis (Linnæus).
bicaudalis (Linnæus).
Page 481
Fig. 353.—Spineless Trunkfish, Lactophrys triqueter (Linnæus). Tortugas.
Against most of their enemies they are protected by the bony case. The
species range from four inches to a foot in length, so far as known. They are
not poisonous, and are often baked in the shell. Three genera are
recognized: Lactophrys with the carapace, three-angled; Ostracion with
four angles; and Aracana, resembling Ostracion, but with the carapace not
closed behind the anal fin. In each of these genera there is considerable
minor variation due to the presence or absence of spines on the bony shell.
In some species, called cuckolds, or cowfishes, long horns are developed
over the eye. Others have spines on some other part of the shield and some
have no spines at all. No species are found in Europe, and none on the
Pacific coast of America. The three-angled species, called Lactophrys, are
native chiefly to the West Indies, sometimes carried by currents to Guinea,
and one is described from Australia. Lactophrys tricornis of the West Indies
has long horns over the eye; Lactophrys trigonus has spines on the lower
parts only. Lactophrys triqueter is without spines, and the fourth American
species, Lactophrys bicaudalis, is marked by large black spots. The species
of Ostracion radiate from the East Indies. One of them, Ostracion
gibbosum, has a turret-like spine on the middle of the back, causing the
carapace to appear five-angled; Ostracion diaphanum has short horns over
the eye, and Ostracion cornutum very long ones; Ostracion immaculatus,
the common species of Japan, is without spines; Ostracion sebæ of Hawaii
and Samoa is deep, rich blue with spots of golden. Aracana is also of East
Against most of their enemies they are protected by the bony case. The
species range from four inches to a foot in length, so far as known. They are
not poisonous, and are often baked in the shell. Three genera are
recognized: Lactophrys with the carapace, three-angled; Ostracion with
four angles; and Aracana, resembling Ostracion, but with the carapace not
closed behind the anal fin. In each of these genera there is considerable
minor variation due to the presence or absence of spines on the bony shell.
In some species, called cuckolds, or cowfishes, long horns are developed
over the eye. Others have spines on some other part of the shield and some
have no spines at all. No species are found in Europe, and none on the
Pacific coast of America. The three-angled species, called Lactophrys, are
native chiefly to the West Indies, sometimes carried by currents to Guinea,
and one is described from Australia. Lactophrys tricornis of the West Indies
has long horns over the eye; Lactophrys trigonus has spines on the lower
parts only. Lactophrys triqueter is without spines, and the fourth American
species, Lactophrys bicaudalis, is marked by large black spots. The species
of Ostracion radiate from the East Indies. One of them, Ostracion
gibbosum, has a turret-like spine on the middle of the back, causing the
carapace to appear five-angled; Ostracion diaphanum has short horns over
the eye, and Ostracion cornutum very long ones; Ostracion immaculatus,
the common species of Japan, is without spines; Ostracion sebæ of Hawaii
and Samoa is deep, rich blue with spots of golden. Aracana is also of East
Page 482
Indian origin; Aracana aculeata, with numerous species, is common in
Japan. A fossil species of Ostracion (O. micrurum) is known from the
Eocene of Monte Bolca.
Fig. 354.—Hornless Trunkfish, Lactophrys trigonus (Linnæus). Tortugas,
Fla.
The Gymnodontes.—The group of Gymnodontes, having the teeth united
in a turtle-like beak, carry still further the degeneration of scales and fins.
There is no trace of spinous dorsal, or ventral. The scales are reduced to
thorns or prickles, or are lost altogether. All the species have the habit of
inflating themselves with air when disturbed, thus floating, belly upward,
on the surface of the water. Very few, and these only northern species, are
used as food, the flesh of the tropical forms being generally poisonous, and
that often in a higher degree than any other fishes whatever.
Japan. A fossil species of Ostracion (O. micrurum) is known from the
Eocene of Monte Bolca.
Fig. 354.—Hornless Trunkfish, Lactophrys trigonus (Linnæus). Tortugas,
Fla.
The Gymnodontes.—The group of Gymnodontes, having the teeth united
in a turtle-like beak, carry still further the degeneration of scales and fins.
There is no trace of spinous dorsal, or ventral. The scales are reduced to
thorns or prickles, or are lost altogether. All the species have the habit of
inflating themselves with air when disturbed, thus floating, belly upward,
on the surface of the water. Very few, and these only northern species, are
used as food, the flesh of the tropical forms being generally poisonous, and
that often in a higher degree than any other fishes whatever.
Page 483
Fig. 355.—Skeleton of the Cowfish, Lactophrys tricornis (Linnæus).
The Triodontidæ.—The most generalized family is that of the
Triodontidæ. These fishes approach the Balistidæ in several regards, having
the body compressed and covered with rough scales. The teeth form a
single plate in the lower jaw, but are divided on the median line above. The
compressed, fan-like, ventral flap is greatly distensible. Triodon bursarius,
of the East Indies and northward to Japan, is the sole species of the family.
Fig. 356.—Silvery Puffer, Lagocephalus lævigatus (Linnæus). Virginia.
The Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.—In the Tetraodontidæ (globefishes, or
puffers), each jaw is divided by a median suture. The dorsal and anal are
short, and the ventrals are reduced in number, usually fifteen to twenty (7 +
13 to 7 + 9). The walls of the belly are capable of extraordinary distension,
The Triodontidæ.—The most generalized family is that of the
Triodontidæ. These fishes approach the Balistidæ in several regards, having
the body compressed and covered with rough scales. The teeth form a
single plate in the lower jaw, but are divided on the median line above. The
compressed, fan-like, ventral flap is greatly distensible. Triodon bursarius,
of the East Indies and northward to Japan, is the sole species of the family.
Fig. 356.—Silvery Puffer, Lagocephalus lævigatus (Linnæus). Virginia.
The Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.—In the Tetraodontidæ (globefishes, or
puffers), each jaw is divided by a median suture. The dorsal and anal are
short, and the ventrals are reduced in number, usually fifteen to twenty (7 +
13 to 7 + 9). The walls of the belly are capable of extraordinary distension,
Page 484
so that when inflated, the fish appears like a globe with a beak and a short
tail attached. The principal genus Spheroides contains a great variety of
forms, forming a closely intergrading series. In some of these the body is
smooth, in others more or less covered with prickles, usually three-rooted.
In some the form is elongate, the color silvery, and the side of the belly with
a conspicuous fold of skin. In these species, the caudal is lunate and the
other fins falcate, and with numerous rays. But these forms (called
Lagocephalus) pass by degrees into the short-bodied forms with small
rounded fins, and no clear line has yet been drawn separating the group into
genera. In these species each nostril has a double opening. Lagocephalus
lagocephalus, large and silvery, is found in Europe. Lagocephalus lævigatus
replaces it on the Atlantic Coast of North America. In Japan are numerous
forms of this type, the venomous Lagocephalus sceleratus being one of the
best known. Numerous other Japanese species, Spheroides xanthopterus,
rubripes, pardalis, ocellatus, vermiculatus, chrysops, etc., mark the
transition to typical Spheroides. Spheroides maculatus is common on our
Atlantic coast, the puffer, or swell-toad of the coastwise boys who tease it to
cause it to swell. Spheroides spengleri and S. testudineus abound in the
West Indies. Spheroides politus on the west coast of Mexico.
Fig. 357.—Puffer, inflated, Spheroides spengleri (Bloch). Wood's Hole,
Mass.
tail attached. The principal genus Spheroides contains a great variety of
forms, forming a closely intergrading series. In some of these the body is
smooth, in others more or less covered with prickles, usually three-rooted.
In some the form is elongate, the color silvery, and the side of the belly with
a conspicuous fold of skin. In these species, the caudal is lunate and the
other fins falcate, and with numerous rays. But these forms (called
Lagocephalus) pass by degrees into the short-bodied forms with small
rounded fins, and no clear line has yet been drawn separating the group into
genera. In these species each nostril has a double opening. Lagocephalus
lagocephalus, large and silvery, is found in Europe. Lagocephalus lævigatus
replaces it on the Atlantic Coast of North America. In Japan are numerous
forms of this type, the venomous Lagocephalus sceleratus being one of the
best known. Numerous other Japanese species, Spheroides xanthopterus,
rubripes, pardalis, ocellatus, vermiculatus, chrysops, etc., mark the
transition to typical Spheroides. Spheroides maculatus is common on our
Atlantic coast, the puffer, or swell-toad of the coastwise boys who tease it to
cause it to swell. Spheroides spengleri and S. testudineus abound in the
West Indies. Spheroides politus on the west coast of Mexico.
Fig. 357.—Puffer, inflated, Spheroides spengleri (Bloch). Wood's Hole,
Mass.
Page 485
Fig. 358.—Puffer, Spheroides maculatus (Schneider). Noank, Conn.
In Tetraodon the nasal tentacle is without distinct opening, its tip being
merely spongy. The species of this genus are even more inflatable and are
often strikingly colored, the young sometimes having the belly marked by
concentric stripes of black which disappear with age. Tetraodon hispidus
abounds in estuaries and shallow bays from Hawaii to India. In Hawaii, it is
regarded as the most poisonous of all fishes (muki-muki) and it is said that
its gall was once used to poison arrows. Tetraodon fahaka is a related
species, the first known of the family. It is found in the Nile. Tetraodon
lacrymatus, black with white spots, is common in Polynesia. Tetraodon
aërostaticus, with black spots, is frequently taken in Japan, and Tetraodon
setosus is frequent on the west coast of Mexico. This species is subject to
peculiar changes of color. Normally dark brown, with paler spots, it is
sometimes deep blue, sometimes lemon-yellow and sometimes of mixed
shades. Specimens showing these traits were obtained about Clarion Island
of the Revillagigedos. No Tetraodon occurs in the West Indies. Colomesus
psittacus, a river fish of the northern part of South America, resembles
Spheroides, but shows considerable difference in the skull.
In Tetraodon the nasal tentacle is without distinct opening, its tip being
merely spongy. The species of this genus are even more inflatable and are
often strikingly colored, the young sometimes having the belly marked by
concentric stripes of black which disappear with age. Tetraodon hispidus
abounds in estuaries and shallow bays from Hawaii to India. In Hawaii, it is
regarded as the most poisonous of all fishes (muki-muki) and it is said that
its gall was once used to poison arrows. Tetraodon fahaka is a related
species, the first known of the family. It is found in the Nile. Tetraodon
lacrymatus, black with white spots, is common in Polynesia. Tetraodon
aërostaticus, with black spots, is frequently taken in Japan, and Tetraodon
setosus is frequent on the west coast of Mexico. This species is subject to
peculiar changes of color. Normally dark brown, with paler spots, it is
sometimes deep blue, sometimes lemon-yellow and sometimes of mixed
shades. Specimens showing these traits were obtained about Clarion Island
of the Revillagigedos. No Tetraodon occurs in the West Indies. Colomesus
psittacus, a river fish of the northern part of South America, resembles
Spheroides, but shows considerable difference in the skull.
Page 486
Fig. 359.—Tetraodon meleagris (Lacépède). Riu Kiu Islands.
But few fossil Tetraodontidæ have been recognized. These are referred to
Tetraodon. The earliest is Tetraodon pygmæus from Monte Bolca.
The Chonerhinidæ of the East Indies are globefishes having the dorsal and
anal fins very long, the vertebræ more numerous (12 + 17), twenty-nine in
number. Chonerhinus naritus inhabits the rivers of Sumatra and Java.
The little family of Tropidichthyidæ is composed of small globefishes, with
a sharply-keeled back, and the nostrils almost, or quite, wanting. The teeth
are as in the Tetraodontidæ. The skeleton differs considerably from that of
Spheroides, apparently justifying their separation as a family. The species
are all very small, three to six inches in length, and prettily colored. In the
West Indies Tropidichthys rostratus is found. Tropidichthys solandri
abounds in the South Seas, dull orange with blue spots. Tropidichthys
rivulatus is common in Japan and several ether species are found in Hawaii.
But few fossil Tetraodontidæ have been recognized. These are referred to
Tetraodon. The earliest is Tetraodon pygmæus from Monte Bolca.
The Chonerhinidæ of the East Indies are globefishes having the dorsal and
anal fins very long, the vertebræ more numerous (12 + 17), twenty-nine in
number. Chonerhinus naritus inhabits the rivers of Sumatra and Java.
The little family of Tropidichthyidæ is composed of small globefishes, with
a sharply-keeled back, and the nostrils almost, or quite, wanting. The teeth
are as in the Tetraodontidæ. The skeleton differs considerably from that of
Spheroides, apparently justifying their separation as a family. The species
are all very small, three to six inches in length, and prettily colored. In the
West Indies Tropidichthys rostratus is found. Tropidichthys solandri
abounds in the South Seas, dull orange with blue spots. Tropidichthys
rivulatus is common in Japan and several ether species are found in Hawaii.
Page 487
Fig. 360.—Bristly Globefish, Tetraodon setosus Rosa Smith. Clarion
Island, Mex.
Other species occur on the west coast of Mexico, in Polynesia, and in the
East Indies.
Fig. 361.—Porcupine-fish, Diodon hystrix (Linnæus). Tortugas Islands.
The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.—In the remaining families of
Gymnodontes, there is no suture in either jaw, the teeth forming an
undivided beak. The Diodontidæ, or porcupine-fishes, have the body
spherical or squarish, and armed with sharp thorns, the bases of which are
Island, Mex.
Other species occur on the west coast of Mexico, in Polynesia, and in the
East Indies.
Fig. 361.—Porcupine-fish, Diodon hystrix (Linnæus). Tortugas Islands.
The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.—In the remaining families of
Gymnodontes, there is no suture in either jaw, the teeth forming an
undivided beak. The Diodontidæ, or porcupine-fishes, have the body
spherical or squarish, and armed with sharp thorns, the bases of which are
Page 488
so broad as to form a continuous coat of mail. In some of them, part of the
spines are movable, these being usually two-rooted; in others, all are
immovable and three-rooted. All are reputed poisonous, especially in the
equatorial seas.
In Diodon the spines are very long, the anterior ones, at least, movable. The
common porcupine-fish, Diodon hystrix, is found in all seas, and often in
abundance. It is a sluggish fish, olive and spotted with black. It reaches a
length of two feet or more, and by its long spines it is thoroughly protected
from all enemies. A second species, equally common, is the lesser
porcupine-fish, Diodon holacanthus. In this species, the frontal spines are
longer than those behind the pectoral, instead of the reverse, as in Diodon
hystrix. Many species of Diodon are recorded from the Eocene, besides
numerous species from later deposits. One of these, as Heptadiodon
heptadiodon from the Eocene of Italy, with the teeth subdivided, possibly
represents a distinct family. Diodon erinaceus is found in the Eocene of
Monte Bolca and Progymnodon hilgendorfi in the Eocene of Egypt.
Fig. 362.—Rabbit-fish, Chilomycterus schœpfi (Walbaum). Noank, Conn.
In the rabbit-fishes (Chilomycterus) the body is box-shaped, covered with
triangular spines, much shorter and broader at base than those of Diodon.
Numerous species are known.
Chilomycterus schœpfi is the common rabbit-fish, or swell-toad of our
Atlantic coast, light green, prettily varied with black lines. The larger,
spines are movable, these being usually two-rooted; in others, all are
immovable and three-rooted. All are reputed poisonous, especially in the
equatorial seas.
In Diodon the spines are very long, the anterior ones, at least, movable. The
common porcupine-fish, Diodon hystrix, is found in all seas, and often in
abundance. It is a sluggish fish, olive and spotted with black. It reaches a
length of two feet or more, and by its long spines it is thoroughly protected
from all enemies. A second species, equally common, is the lesser
porcupine-fish, Diodon holacanthus. In this species, the frontal spines are
longer than those behind the pectoral, instead of the reverse, as in Diodon
hystrix. Many species of Diodon are recorded from the Eocene, besides
numerous species from later deposits. One of these, as Heptadiodon
heptadiodon from the Eocene of Italy, with the teeth subdivided, possibly
represents a distinct family. Diodon erinaceus is found in the Eocene of
Monte Bolca and Progymnodon hilgendorfi in the Eocene of Egypt.
Fig. 362.—Rabbit-fish, Chilomycterus schœpfi (Walbaum). Noank, Conn.
In the rabbit-fishes (Chilomycterus) the body is box-shaped, covered with
triangular spines, much shorter and broader at base than those of Diodon.
Numerous species are known.
Chilomycterus schœpfi is the common rabbit-fish, or swell-toad of our
Atlantic coast, light green, prettily varied with black lines. The larger,
Page 489
Chilomycterus affinis, with the pectoral fin spotted with black, is widely
diffused through the Pacific. It is rather common in Japan, where it is the
torabuku, or tiger puffer. It is found also in Hawaii, and it is once recorded
by Dr. Eigenmann from San Pedro, California, and once by Snodgrass and
Heller, from the Galapagos.
The Head-fishes: Molidæ.—The headfishes, or Molidæ, also called
sunfishes, have the body abbreviated behind so that the dorsal, anal, and
caudal fins seem to be attached to the posterior outline of the head. This
feature, constituting the so-called gephyrocercal tail is a trait of specialized
degradation.
diffused through the Pacific. It is rather common in Japan, where it is the
torabuku, or tiger puffer. It is found also in Hawaii, and it is once recorded
by Dr. Eigenmann from San Pedro, California, and once by Snodgrass and
Heller, from the Galapagos.
The Head-fishes: Molidæ.—The headfishes, or Molidæ, also called
sunfishes, have the body abbreviated behind so that the dorsal, anal, and
caudal fins seem to be attached to the posterior outline of the head. This
feature, constituting the so-called gephyrocercal tail is a trait of specialized
degradation.
Page 490
Fig. 363.—Headfish (adult), Mola mola (Linnæus).
Virginia.
Mola mola, the common head-fish or sunfish, is found occasionally in all
tropical and temperate seas. Its form is almost circular, having been
compared by Linnæus to a mill-wheel (mola), and its surface is covered
with a rough, leathery skin. It swims very lazily at the surface of the water,
its high dorsal often rising above the surface. It is rarely used as food,
though not known to be poisonous. The largest example known to the writer
was taken at Redondo Beach, California, by Mr. Thomas Shooter, of Los
Virginia.
Mola mola, the common head-fish or sunfish, is found occasionally in all
tropical and temperate seas. Its form is almost circular, having been
compared by Linnæus to a mill-wheel (mola), and its surface is covered
with a rough, leathery skin. It swims very lazily at the surface of the water,
its high dorsal often rising above the surface. It is rarely used as food,
though not known to be poisonous. The largest example known to the writer
was taken at Redondo Beach, California, by Mr. Thomas Shooter, of Los
Page 491
Angeles. This specimen was 8 feet 2 inches in length, and weighed 1200
pounds. Another, almost as large, was taken at San Diego, in April, 1904.
No difference has been noticed among specimens from California, Cape
Cod, Japan, and the Mediterranean. The young, however, differ
considerably from the adult, as might be expected in a fish of such great
size and extraordinary form. (See Figs. 109 and 110, Vol. I.)
Fragments named Chelonopsis, and doubtfully referred to Mola, are found
in the Pliocene of Belgium. Certain jaws of cretaceous age, attributed to
Mola, probably belong, according to Woodward, to a turtle.
pounds. Another, almost as large, was taken at San Diego, in April, 1904.
No difference has been noticed among specimens from California, Cape
Cod, Japan, and the Mediterranean. The young, however, differ
considerably from the adult, as might be expected in a fish of such great
size and extraordinary form. (See Figs. 109 and 110, Vol. I.)
Fragments named Chelonopsis, and doubtfully referred to Mola, are found
in the Pliocene of Belgium. Certain jaws of cretaceous age, attributed to
Mola, probably belong, according to Woodward, to a turtle.
Page 492
Fig. 364.—The King of the Mackerel, Ranzania makua Jenkins, from
Honolulu. (After Jenkins.)
In the genus Ranzania, the body is more elongate, twice as long as deep, but
as in Mola, the body appears as if bitten off and then provided with a fringe
of tail. The species are rarely taken. Ranzania truncata is found in the
Mediterranean and once at Madeira. Ranzania makua, known as the king of
the mackerels about Hawaii, is beautifully colored brown and silvery. This
species has been taken once in Japan.
Honolulu. (After Jenkins.)
In the genus Ranzania, the body is more elongate, twice as long as deep, but
as in Mola, the body appears as if bitten off and then provided with a fringe
of tail. The species are rarely taken. Ranzania truncata is found in the
Mediterranean and once at Madeira. Ranzania makua, known as the king of
the mackerels about Hawaii, is beautifully colored brown and silvery. This
species has been taken once in Japan.
Page 493
In Hawaii it is believed that all the Scombroid fishes are subject to the rule
of the makua and that they will disappear if this fish be killed. By a similar
superstition, Regalecus glesne is "king of the herrings" in Norway and
about Cape Flattery, Trachypterus rex salmonorum is "king of the salmon."
of the makua and that they will disappear if this fish be killed. By a similar
superstition, Regalecus glesne is "king of the herrings" in Norway and
about Cape Flattery, Trachypterus rex salmonorum is "king of the salmon."
Page 494
CHAPTER XXV
PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES
he Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The vast group of Pareioplitæ
(Loricati) or mailed-cheek fishes is characterized by the
presence of a "bony stay" or backward-directed process from
the third suborbital. This extends backward across the cheek
toward the preopercle. In the most generalized forms this
bony stay is small and hidden under the skin. In more specialized forms it
grows larger, articulates with the preopercle, and becomes rough or spinous
at its surface. Finally, it joins the other bones to form a coat of mail which
covers the whole head. In degenerate forms it is again reduced in size,
finally becoming insignificant.
The more primitive Pareioplitæ (παρεία, cheek; ὁπλιτής, armed) closely
resemble the Percomorphi, having the same fins, the same type of shoulder-
girdle, and the same insertion of the ventral fins. In the more specialized
forms the ventral fins remain thoracic, but almost all other parts of the
anatomy are greatly distorted. In all cases, so far as known to the writer, the
hypercoracoid is perforate as in the Percomorphi. There are numerous
points of resemblance between the Cirrhitidæ and the Scorpænidæ, and it is
probable that the Scorpænidæ with all the other Pareioplitæ sprang from
some perciform stock allied to Cirrhitidæ and Latrididæ.
Fossil mailed-cheek fishes are extremely few and throw little light on the
origin of the group. Those belong chiefly to the Cottidæ. Lepidocottus,
recorded from the Miocene and Oligocene, seems to be the earliest genus.
PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES
he Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The vast group of Pareioplitæ
(Loricati) or mailed-cheek fishes is characterized by the
presence of a "bony stay" or backward-directed process from
the third suborbital. This extends backward across the cheek
toward the preopercle. In the most generalized forms this
bony stay is small and hidden under the skin. In more specialized forms it
grows larger, articulates with the preopercle, and becomes rough or spinous
at its surface. Finally, it joins the other bones to form a coat of mail which
covers the whole head. In degenerate forms it is again reduced in size,
finally becoming insignificant.
The more primitive Pareioplitæ (παρεία, cheek; ὁπλιτής, armed) closely
resemble the Percomorphi, having the same fins, the same type of shoulder-
girdle, and the same insertion of the ventral fins. In the more specialized
forms the ventral fins remain thoracic, but almost all other parts of the
anatomy are greatly distorted. In all cases, so far as known to the writer, the
hypercoracoid is perforate as in the Percomorphi. There are numerous
points of resemblance between the Cirrhitidæ and the Scorpænidæ, and it is
probable that the Scorpænidæ with all the other Pareioplitæ sprang from
some perciform stock allied to Cirrhitidæ and Latrididæ.
Fossil mailed-cheek fishes are extremely few and throw little light on the
origin of the group. Those belong chiefly to the Cottidæ. Lepidocottus,
recorded from the Miocene and Oligocene, seems to be the earliest genus.
Page 495
Fig. 365.—Rosefish, Sebastes marinus Linnæus. Cape Cod.
Fig. 366.—Skull of Scorpænichthys marmoratus Girard, showing the
suborbital stay (a).
Fig. 366.—Skull of Scorpænichthys marmoratus Girard, showing the
suborbital stay (a).
Page 496
The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.—The vast family of Scorpænidæ, or
scorpion-fishes, comprises such a variety of forms as almost to defy
diagnosis. The more primitive types are percoid in almost all respects, save
in the presence of the subocular stay. Their scales are ctenoid and well
developed. The dorsal spines are numerous and strong. The ventral fins are
complete and normally attached; the anal has three strong spines. The
cranium shows only a trace of spiny ridges, and the five spines on the
preoperculum are not very different from those seen in some species of
bass. The gill-arches are, however, different, there being but 3½ gills and no
slit behind the last. Otherwise the mouth and pharanx show no unusual
characters. In the extremes of the group, however, great changes take place,
the head becomes greatly distorted with ridges and grooves, the anal spines
are lost, and the dorsal spines variously modified. The scales may be lost or
replaced by warts or prickles and the ventral fins may be greatly reduced.
Still the changes are very gradual, and it is not easy to divide the group into
smaller families.
The most primitive existing genus is doubtless Sebastes. The familiar
rosefish, Sebastes marinus, is found on both shores of the north Atlantic. It
is bright red in color and is valued as food. As befits a northern fish, it has
an increased number of vertebræ (31) and the dorsal spines number 15.
From its large haddock-like eye it has been called the Norway haddock. It is
an important food-fish in New England as well as in northern Europe.
scorpion-fishes, comprises such a variety of forms as almost to defy
diagnosis. The more primitive types are percoid in almost all respects, save
in the presence of the subocular stay. Their scales are ctenoid and well
developed. The dorsal spines are numerous and strong. The ventral fins are
complete and normally attached; the anal has three strong spines. The
cranium shows only a trace of spiny ridges, and the five spines on the
preoperculum are not very different from those seen in some species of
bass. The gill-arches are, however, different, there being but 3½ gills and no
slit behind the last. Otherwise the mouth and pharanx show no unusual
characters. In the extremes of the group, however, great changes take place,
the head becomes greatly distorted with ridges and grooves, the anal spines
are lost, and the dorsal spines variously modified. The scales may be lost or
replaced by warts or prickles and the ventral fins may be greatly reduced.
Still the changes are very gradual, and it is not easy to divide the group into
smaller families.
The most primitive existing genus is doubtless Sebastes. The familiar
rosefish, Sebastes marinus, is found on both shores of the north Atlantic. It
is bright red in color and is valued as food. As befits a northern fish, it has
an increased number of vertebræ (31) and the dorsal spines number 15.
From its large haddock-like eye it has been called the Norway haddock. It is
an important food-fish in New England as well as in northern Europe.
Page 497
Fig. 367.—Sebastolobus altivelis Gilbert. Alaska.
In the north Pacific Sebastes gives place to Sebastolobus, with three species
(macrochir, altivelis, and alascanus), all bright-red fishes of soft substance
and living in rather deep water. Sebastolobus is characterized by its two-
lobed pectoral fin, the lower rays being enlarged.
The genus Sebastodes, with its rougher-headed ally Sebastichthys, with 13
dorsal spines and the vertebræ 27, ranges farther south than Sebastes and
forms one of the most characteristic features of the fauna of California and
Japan, 50 species occurring about California and 25 being already known
from Japan. One species (Sebastichthys capensis) is recorded from the Cape
of Good Hope, and two, Sebastichthys oculatus and S. darwini, from the
coast of Chile.
Within the limits of Sebastodes and Sebastichthys is a very large range of
form and color, far more than should exist within the range of a natural
genus. On the other hand, all attempts at generic subdivision have failed
because the species form a number of almost perfectly continuous series. At
one extreme are species with large mouths, small scales, relatively smooth
cranium, and long gill-rakers. At the other extreme are robust species, with
the head very rough, the mouth moderate, the scales larger, and the gill-
rakers short and thick. Still other species have slender cranial spines and
In the north Pacific Sebastes gives place to Sebastolobus, with three species
(macrochir, altivelis, and alascanus), all bright-red fishes of soft substance
and living in rather deep water. Sebastolobus is characterized by its two-
lobed pectoral fin, the lower rays being enlarged.
The genus Sebastodes, with its rougher-headed ally Sebastichthys, with 13
dorsal spines and the vertebræ 27, ranges farther south than Sebastes and
forms one of the most characteristic features of the fauna of California and
Japan, 50 species occurring about California and 25 being already known
from Japan. One species (Sebastichthys capensis) is recorded from the Cape
of Good Hope, and two, Sebastichthys oculatus and S. darwini, from the
coast of Chile.
Within the limits of Sebastodes and Sebastichthys is a very large range of
form and color, far more than should exist within the range of a natural
genus. On the other hand, all attempts at generic subdivision have failed
because the species form a number of almost perfectly continuous series. At
one extreme are species with large mouths, small scales, relatively smooth
cranium, and long gill-rakers. At the other extreme are robust species, with
the head very rough, the mouth moderate, the scales larger, and the gill-
rakers short and thick. Still other species have slender cranial spines and
Page 498
spots of bright pink in certain specialized localities. These approach the
genus Helicolenus as other species approach Scorpæna.
Fig. 368.—Priest-fish, Sebastodes mystinus Jordan & Gilbert. Monterey,
Cal.
The various species are known in California as rockfish, or rock-cod, in
Japan as Soi and Mebaru. In both regions they form a large part of the bulk
of food-fishes, the flesh being rather coarse and of moderate flavor. All the
species so far as known are ovoviviparous, the young being brought forth in
summer in very great number, born at the length of about ¼ of an inch. The
species living close to shore are brown, black, or green. Those living in
deeper waters are bright red, and in still deeper waters often creamy or gray,
with the lining of the mouth and the peritoneum black. The largest species
reach a length of two or three feet, the smallest eight or ten inches. None are
found between Lower California and Peru and none south of Nagasaki in
Japan. Of the California species the following are of most note: Sebastodes
paucispinis, the Bocaccio of the fishermen, from its large mouth, is an
elongate fish, dull red in color, and reaching a very large size. In deeper
waters are Sebastodes jordani and Sebastodes goodei, the former elongate
and red, the latter more robust and of a very bright crimson color.
genus Helicolenus as other species approach Scorpæna.
Fig. 368.—Priest-fish, Sebastodes mystinus Jordan & Gilbert. Monterey,
Cal.
The various species are known in California as rockfish, or rock-cod, in
Japan as Soi and Mebaru. In both regions they form a large part of the bulk
of food-fishes, the flesh being rather coarse and of moderate flavor. All the
species so far as known are ovoviviparous, the young being brought forth in
summer in very great number, born at the length of about ¼ of an inch. The
species living close to shore are brown, black, or green. Those living in
deeper waters are bright red, and in still deeper waters often creamy or gray,
with the lining of the mouth and the peritoneum black. The largest species
reach a length of two or three feet, the smallest eight or ten inches. None are
found between Lower California and Peru and none south of Nagasaki in
Japan. Of the California species the following are of most note: Sebastodes
paucispinis, the Bocaccio of the fishermen, from its large mouth, is an
elongate fish, dull red in color, and reaching a very large size. In deeper
waters are Sebastodes jordani and Sebastodes goodei, the former elongate
and red, the latter more robust and of a very bright crimson color.
Page 499
Sebastodes ovalis, the viuva, and Sebastodes entomelas are grayish in hue,
and the related Sebastodes proriger is red. The green rockfish Sebastodes
flavidus is common along the shore, as also the black rockfish, known as
pêche prêtre or priestfish, Sebastodes mystinus. Less common is Sebastodes
melanops. Similar to this but more orange in color is the large Sebastodes
miniatus. Somewhat rougher-headed is the small grass rockfish, Sebastodes
atrovirens. On the large red rockfish, Sebastichthys ruberrimus, the spinous
ridges are all large and rough serrate. On the equally large Sebastichthys
levis these ridges are smooth. Both these species are bright red in color.
Sebastichthys rubrovinctus, called the Spanish-flag, is covered with broad
alternating bands of deep crimson and creamy pink. It is the most
handsomely colored of our marine fishes and is often taken in southern
California. Sebastichthys elongatus is a red species with very large mouth.
Several other species small in size are red, with three or four spots of bright
pink. The commonest of these is the corsair, Sebastichthys rosaceus, plain
red and golden. Another species is the green and red flyfish, Sebastichthys
rhodochloris. Sebastichthys constellatus is spotted with pink and
Sebastichthys chlorostictus with green. To this group with pink spots the
South American and African species belong, but none of the Japanese.
Sebastodes aleutianus is a large red species common in Alaska and
Sebastodes ciliatus a green one. About the wharves in California and
northward the brown species called Sebastichthys auriculatus is abundant.
In the remaining species the spinous ridges are progressively higher, though
not so sharp as in some of those already named. Sebastichthys maliger has
very high dorsal spines and a golden blotch on the back. In Sebastichthys
caurinus and especially Sebastichthys vexillaris the spines are very high,
but the coloration is different, being reddish brown. Sebastichthys
nebulosus is blue-black with golden spots. Sebastichthys chrysomelas is
mottled black and yellow. Sebastichthys carnatus is flesh-color and green.
Sebastichthys rastrelliger is a small, blackish-green species looking like
Sebastodes atrovirens, but with short gill-rakers. Sebastichthys hopkinsi and
Sebastichthys gilberti are small species allied to it. The treefish,
Sebastichthys serriceps, has very high spines on the head, and the olive
body is crowned by broad black bands. Still more striking is the black-
banded rockfish, Sebastichthys nigrofasciatus, with very rough head and
bright red body with broad cross-bands of black.
and the related Sebastodes proriger is red. The green rockfish Sebastodes
flavidus is common along the shore, as also the black rockfish, known as
pêche prêtre or priestfish, Sebastodes mystinus. Less common is Sebastodes
melanops. Similar to this but more orange in color is the large Sebastodes
miniatus. Somewhat rougher-headed is the small grass rockfish, Sebastodes
atrovirens. On the large red rockfish, Sebastichthys ruberrimus, the spinous
ridges are all large and rough serrate. On the equally large Sebastichthys
levis these ridges are smooth. Both these species are bright red in color.
Sebastichthys rubrovinctus, called the Spanish-flag, is covered with broad
alternating bands of deep crimson and creamy pink. It is the most
handsomely colored of our marine fishes and is often taken in southern
California. Sebastichthys elongatus is a red species with very large mouth.
Several other species small in size are red, with three or four spots of bright
pink. The commonest of these is the corsair, Sebastichthys rosaceus, plain
red and golden. Another species is the green and red flyfish, Sebastichthys
rhodochloris. Sebastichthys constellatus is spotted with pink and
Sebastichthys chlorostictus with green. To this group with pink spots the
South American and African species belong, but none of the Japanese.
Sebastodes aleutianus is a large red species common in Alaska and
Sebastodes ciliatus a green one. About the wharves in California and
northward the brown species called Sebastichthys auriculatus is abundant.
In the remaining species the spinous ridges are progressively higher, though
not so sharp as in some of those already named. Sebastichthys maliger has
very high dorsal spines and a golden blotch on the back. In Sebastichthys
caurinus and especially Sebastichthys vexillaris the spines are very high,
but the coloration is different, being reddish brown. Sebastichthys
nebulosus is blue-black with golden spots. Sebastichthys chrysomelas is
mottled black and yellow. Sebastichthys carnatus is flesh-color and green.
Sebastichthys rastrelliger is a small, blackish-green species looking like
Sebastodes atrovirens, but with short gill-rakers. Sebastichthys hopkinsi and
Sebastichthys gilberti are small species allied to it. The treefish,
Sebastichthys serriceps, has very high spines on the head, and the olive
body is crowned by broad black bands. Still more striking is the black-
banded rockfish, Sebastichthys nigrofasciatus, with very rough head and
bright red body with broad cross-bands of black.
Page 500
Fig. 369.—Sebastichthys serriceps Jordan & Gilbert. Monterey, Cal.
Of the Japanese species the commonest, Sebastodes inermis, the Mebaru,
much resembles Sebastodes flavidus. Sebastodes fuscescens looks like
Sebastodes melanops, as does also Sebastodes taczanowskii. Sebastodes
matsubaræ and S. flammeus and S. iracundus, bright-red off-shore species,
run close to Sebastodes aleutianus. Sebastichthys pachycephalus suggests
Sebastichthys chrysomelas. Sebastodes steindachneri and S. itinus are
brighter-colored allies of Sebastodes ovalis and Sebastodes scythropus and
Sebastodes joyneri represent Sebastodes proriger. Sebastichthys trivittatus,
green, striped with bright golden, bears some resemblance to Sebastichthys
maliger. Sebastichthys elegans, Sebastichthys oblongus, and Sebastichthys
mitsukurii, dwarf species, profusely spotted, have no analogues among the
American forms. Sebastodes glaucus of the Kurile Islands has 14 dorsal
spines and is not closely related to any other. Fourteen dorsal spines are
occasionally present in Sebastichthys elegans. All the other species show
constantly 13.
Of the Japanese species the commonest, Sebastodes inermis, the Mebaru,
much resembles Sebastodes flavidus. Sebastodes fuscescens looks like
Sebastodes melanops, as does also Sebastodes taczanowskii. Sebastodes
matsubaræ and S. flammeus and S. iracundus, bright-red off-shore species,
run close to Sebastodes aleutianus. Sebastichthys pachycephalus suggests
Sebastichthys chrysomelas. Sebastodes steindachneri and S. itinus are
brighter-colored allies of Sebastodes ovalis and Sebastodes scythropus and
Sebastodes joyneri represent Sebastodes proriger. Sebastichthys trivittatus,
green, striped with bright golden, bears some resemblance to Sebastichthys
maliger. Sebastichthys elegans, Sebastichthys oblongus, and Sebastichthys
mitsukurii, dwarf species, profusely spotted, have no analogues among the
American forms. Sebastodes glaucus of the Kurile Islands has 14 dorsal
spines and is not closely related to any other. Fourteen dorsal spines are
occasionally present in Sebastichthys elegans. All the other species show
constantly 13.
Page 501
Fig. 370.—Banded Rockfish, Sebastichthys nigrocinctus (Ayres). Straits of
Fuca.
The genus Sebastiscus has the general appearance of Sebastodes, and like
the latter possesses a large air-bladder. It however agrees with Scorpæna in
the possession of but 12 dorsal spines and 24 vertebræ. The two known
species are common in Japan. Sebastiscus marmoratus, mottled brown, is
everywhere abundant along the coast, and the pretty Sebastiscus
albofasciatus, pink, violet, and golden, represents it in equal abundance in
deeper water.
The genus Sebastopsis differs from Sebastodes only in having no teeth on
the palatines. The species, all of small size and red or varied coloration, are
confined to the Pacific. Sebastopsis xyris occurs in lower California and
Sebastopsis guamensis and S. scaber in Polynesia. Species of this genus are
often found dried in Chinese insect boxes.
Helicolenus differs from Sebastiscus only in the total absence of air-
bladder. The species are all bright crimson in color, very handsome, and live
in deep water. Helicolenus dactylopterus is rather common in the
Fuca.
The genus Sebastiscus has the general appearance of Sebastodes, and like
the latter possesses a large air-bladder. It however agrees with Scorpæna in
the possession of but 12 dorsal spines and 24 vertebræ. The two known
species are common in Japan. Sebastiscus marmoratus, mottled brown, is
everywhere abundant along the coast, and the pretty Sebastiscus
albofasciatus, pink, violet, and golden, represents it in equal abundance in
deeper water.
The genus Sebastopsis differs from Sebastodes only in having no teeth on
the palatines. The species, all of small size and red or varied coloration, are
confined to the Pacific. Sebastopsis xyris occurs in lower California and
Sebastopsis guamensis and S. scaber in Polynesia. Species of this genus are
often found dried in Chinese insect boxes.
Helicolenus differs from Sebastiscus only in the total absence of air-
bladder. The species are all bright crimson in color, very handsome, and live
in deep water. Helicolenus dactylopterus is rather common in the
Page 502
Mediterranean, and is sometimes taken in the Gulf Stream, and also in
Japan, where two or three other species occur.
Neosebastes is much like Sebastodes, but the suborbital stay bears strong
spines and the dorsal is very high. Neosebastes panda is found in Australia,
and N. entaxis in Japan. Setarches is distinguished by the cavernous bones
of its head. Species are found in both the Atlantic and Pacific in deep water.
Several other peculiar or transitional genera are found in different parts of
the Pacific.
Fig. 371.—Florida Lion fish, Scorpæna grandicornis Cuv. & Val. Key
West.
In Scorpæna the head is more uneven in outline than in Sebastodes and
Sebastichthys, skinny flaps are often present on head and body, the air-
bladder is wanting, there are 12 dorsal spines and 24 vertebræ, and on each
dorsal spine is a small venom-secreting gland. The species are very
numerous, highly varied in color, and found in all warm seas, being known
as scorpion-fishes or Rascacios. Two species, Scorpæna scrofa and
Japan, where two or three other species occur.
Neosebastes is much like Sebastodes, but the suborbital stay bears strong
spines and the dorsal is very high. Neosebastes panda is found in Australia,
and N. entaxis in Japan. Setarches is distinguished by the cavernous bones
of its head. Species are found in both the Atlantic and Pacific in deep water.
Several other peculiar or transitional genera are found in different parts of
the Pacific.
Fig. 371.—Florida Lion fish, Scorpæna grandicornis Cuv. & Val. Key
West.
In Scorpæna the head is more uneven in outline than in Sebastodes and
Sebastichthys, skinny flaps are often present on head and body, the air-
bladder is wanting, there are 12 dorsal spines and 24 vertebræ, and on each
dorsal spine is a small venom-secreting gland. The species are very
numerous, highly varied in color, and found in all warm seas, being known
as scorpion-fishes or Rascacios. Two species, Scorpæna scrofa and
Page 503
Scorpæna porcus, are common in the Mediterranean, being regarded as
good food-fishes, though disliked by the fishermen.
Of the numerous West Indian species, Scorpæna plumieri, Scorpæna
grandicornis, and Scorpæna brasiliensis are best known. Scorpæna guttata
is common in southern California and is an excellent food-fish. Scorpæna
mystes is found on the west coast of Mexico. Scorpæna onaria and S.
izensis are found in Japan. Fossil remains referred to Scorpæna are recorded
from the Tertiary rocks.
In the islands of the Pacific are numerous dwarf species less than three
inches long, which have been set apart as a separate genus, Sebastapistes.
The longest known of these is Sebastapistes strongensis, named from
Strong Island, abundant in crevices in the corals throughout Polynesia, and
much disliked by fishermen.
Fig. 372.—Sea-scorpion, Scorpæna mystes Jordan. Mazatlan.
The genus Scorpænopsis differs from Scorpæna in the absence of palatine
teeth. It is still more fantastic in form and color. Scorpænopsis cirrhosa,
Scorpænopsis fimbriata, and other species are widely distributed through
the East Indies and Polynesia.
good food-fishes, though disliked by the fishermen.
Of the numerous West Indian species, Scorpæna plumieri, Scorpæna
grandicornis, and Scorpæna brasiliensis are best known. Scorpæna guttata
is common in southern California and is an excellent food-fish. Scorpæna
mystes is found on the west coast of Mexico. Scorpæna onaria and S.
izensis are found in Japan. Fossil remains referred to Scorpæna are recorded
from the Tertiary rocks.
In the islands of the Pacific are numerous dwarf species less than three
inches long, which have been set apart as a separate genus, Sebastapistes.
The longest known of these is Sebastapistes strongensis, named from
Strong Island, abundant in crevices in the corals throughout Polynesia, and
much disliked by fishermen.
Fig. 372.—Sea-scorpion, Scorpæna mystes Jordan. Mazatlan.
The genus Scorpænopsis differs from Scorpæna in the absence of palatine
teeth. It is still more fantastic in form and color. Scorpænopsis cirrhosa,
Scorpænopsis fimbriata, and other species are widely distributed through
the East Indies and Polynesia.
Page 504
The lion-fishes (Pterois) of the tropical Pacific are remarkable for their long
pectoral fins, elongate dorsal spines, and zebra-like coloration. The
numerous species are fantastic and handsomely colored, but their poisoned,
needle-like spines are dreaded by fishermen. They lurk in crevices in the
coral reefs, some of them reaching a foot in length.
Inimicus japonicus, common in Japan, has a depressed and monstrous head
and a generally bizarre appearance. It is usually black in color but is largely
bright red when found among red algæ. A related species, Inimicus
aurantiacus, is blackish when near shore, but lemon-yellow in deep water.
(See frontispiece.) A related species in the East Indies is Pelor
filamentosum, called Nohu or Gofu in Polynesia.
Fig. 373.—Lion-fish or Sausolele (the dorsal spines envenomed), Pterois
volitans (Linnæus). Family Scorpænidæ. (From a specimen from Samoa.)
Still more monstrous are the species of Synanceia, short, thick-set,
irregularly formed fishes, in which the poisoned spines reach a high degree
of venom. The flesh in all these species is wholesome, and when the dorsal
pectoral fins, elongate dorsal spines, and zebra-like coloration. The
numerous species are fantastic and handsomely colored, but their poisoned,
needle-like spines are dreaded by fishermen. They lurk in crevices in the
coral reefs, some of them reaching a foot in length.
Inimicus japonicus, common in Japan, has a depressed and monstrous head
and a generally bizarre appearance. It is usually black in color but is largely
bright red when found among red algæ. A related species, Inimicus
aurantiacus, is blackish when near shore, but lemon-yellow in deep water.
(See frontispiece.) A related species in the East Indies is Pelor
filamentosum, called Nohu or Gofu in Polynesia.
Fig. 373.—Lion-fish or Sausolele (the dorsal spines envenomed), Pterois
volitans (Linnæus). Family Scorpænidæ. (From a specimen from Samoa.)
Still more monstrous are the species of Synanceia, short, thick-set,
irregularly formed fishes, in which the poisoned spines reach a high degree
of venom. The flesh in all these species is wholesome, and when the dorsal
Page 505
spines are cut off the fishes sell readily in the markets. These fishes lie
hidden in cavities of the reefs, being scarcely distinguishable from the rock
itself. (See Fig. 168, Vol. I.)
The black Emmydrichthys vulcanus of Tahiti lies in crevices of lava, and
could scarcely be distinguished from an irregular lump of lava-rock.
Fig. 374.—Black Nohu, or Poison-fish, Emmydrichthys vulcanus Jordan.
A species with stinging spines, showing resemblance to lumps of lava
among which it lives. Family Scorpænidæ. From Tahiti.
A related form, Erosa erosa, the daruma-okose of Japan, is monstrous in
form but often beautifully colored with crimson and gray.
In Congiopus the very strong dorsal spines begin in the head, and the mouth
is very small. Dr. Gill makes this genus the type of a distinct family,
Congiopodidæ.
Besides these, very many genera and species of small poison-fishes, called
okose in Japan, abound in the sandy bays from Tokio to Hindostan and the
Red Sea. Some of these are handsomely colored, others are fantastically
formed. Paracentropogon rubripinnis and Minous adamsi are the
hidden in cavities of the reefs, being scarcely distinguishable from the rock
itself. (See Fig. 168, Vol. I.)
The black Emmydrichthys vulcanus of Tahiti lies in crevices of lava, and
could scarcely be distinguished from an irregular lump of lava-rock.
Fig. 374.—Black Nohu, or Poison-fish, Emmydrichthys vulcanus Jordan.
A species with stinging spines, showing resemblance to lumps of lava
among which it lives. Family Scorpænidæ. From Tahiti.
A related form, Erosa erosa, the daruma-okose of Japan, is monstrous in
form but often beautifully colored with crimson and gray.
In Congiopus the very strong dorsal spines begin in the head, and the mouth
is very small. Dr. Gill makes this genus the type of a distinct family,
Congiopodidæ.
Besides these, very many genera and species of small poison-fishes, called
okose in Japan, abound in the sandy bays from Tokio to Hindostan and the
Red Sea. Some of these are handsomely colored, others are fantastically
formed. Paracentropogon rubripinnis and Minous adamsi are the
Page 506
commonest species in Japan. Trachicephalus uranoscopus abounds in the
bays of hina. Snyderina yamanokami occurs in Southern Japan.
Fig. 375.—Snyderina yamanokami Jordan & Starks. Family Scorpænidæ.
Satsuma, Japan.
But few fossil Scorpænidæ are recorded. Scorpænopterus siluridens, a
mailed fish from the Vienna Miocene, with a warty head, seems to belong
to this group, and Ampheristus toliapicus, with a broad, depressed head, is
found in the London Eocene, and various Miocene species have been
referred to Scorpæna. Sebastodes rosæ is based on a fragment, probably
Pleistocene, from Port Harford, California.
bays of hina. Snyderina yamanokami occurs in Southern Japan.
Fig. 375.—Snyderina yamanokami Jordan & Starks. Family Scorpænidæ.
Satsuma, Japan.
But few fossil Scorpænidæ are recorded. Scorpænopterus siluridens, a
mailed fish from the Vienna Miocene, with a warty head, seems to belong
to this group, and Ampheristus toliapicus, with a broad, depressed head, is
found in the London Eocene, and various Miocene species have been
referred to Scorpæna. Sebastodes rosæ is based on a fragment, probably
Pleistocene, from Port Harford, California.
Page 507
Fig. 376.—Trachicephalus uranoscopus. Family Scorpænidæ. From
Swatow, China.
The small family of the Caracanthidæ consists of little fishes of the coral
reefs of the Pacific. These are compressed in form, and the skin is rough
with small prickles, the head being feebly armed. The species are rare and
little known, brown in color with pale spots.
Fig. 377.—Skilfish, Anoplopoma fimbria (Pallas). California.
The Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.—The small family of skilfishes or
Anoplopomidæ consists of two species found on the coast of California and
northward. These resemble the Scorpænidæ, having the usual form of
nostrils, and the suborbital stay well developed. The skull is, however, free
from spines, the scales are small and close-set, and the sleek, dark-colored
Swatow, China.
The small family of the Caracanthidæ consists of little fishes of the coral
reefs of the Pacific. These are compressed in form, and the skin is rough
with small prickles, the head being feebly armed. The species are rare and
little known, brown in color with pale spots.
Fig. 377.—Skilfish, Anoplopoma fimbria (Pallas). California.
The Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.—The small family of skilfishes or
Anoplopomidæ consists of two species found on the coast of California and
northward. These resemble the Scorpænidæ, having the usual form of
nostrils, and the suborbital stay well developed. The skull is, however, free
from spines, the scales are small and close-set, and the sleek, dark-colored
Page 508
body has suggested resemblance to the mackerel or hake. Anoplopoma
fimbria, known as skilfish, beshow, or coalfish, is rather common from
Unalaska to Monterey, reaching a length of two feet or more. In the north it
becomes very fat and is much valued as food. About San Francisco it is dry
and tasteless.
The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.—The curious family of greenlings,
Hexagrammidæ, is confined to the two shores of the North Pacific. The
species vary much in form, but agree in the unarmed cranium and in the
presence of but a single nostril on each side, the posterior opening being
reduced to a minute pore. The vertebræ are numerous, the scales small, and
the coloration often brilliant. The species are carnivorous and usually
valued as food. They live in the kelp and about rocks in California and
Japan and along the shores of Siberia and Alaska. The atka-fish
(Pleurogrammus monopterygius) is one of the finest of food-fishes. This
species reaches a length of eighteen inches. It is yellow in color, banded
with black, and the flesh is white and tender, somewhat like that of the Lake
whitefish (Coregonus clupeiformis), and is especially fine when salted. This
fish is found about the Aleutian Islands, especially the island of Atka, from
which it takes its name. It is commercially known as Atka mackerel.
Fig. 378.—Atka-fish, Pleurogrammus monopterygius (Pallas). Atka
Island.
fimbria, known as skilfish, beshow, or coalfish, is rather common from
Unalaska to Monterey, reaching a length of two feet or more. In the north it
becomes very fat and is much valued as food. About San Francisco it is dry
and tasteless.
The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.—The curious family of greenlings,
Hexagrammidæ, is confined to the two shores of the North Pacific. The
species vary much in form, but agree in the unarmed cranium and in the
presence of but a single nostril on each side, the posterior opening being
reduced to a minute pore. The vertebræ are numerous, the scales small, and
the coloration often brilliant. The species are carnivorous and usually
valued as food. They live in the kelp and about rocks in California and
Japan and along the shores of Siberia and Alaska. The atka-fish
(Pleurogrammus monopterygius) is one of the finest of food-fishes. This
species reaches a length of eighteen inches. It is yellow in color, banded
with black, and the flesh is white and tender, somewhat like that of the Lake
whitefish (Coregonus clupeiformis), and is especially fine when salted. This
fish is found about the Aleutian Islands, especially the island of Atka, from
which it takes its name. It is commercially known as Atka mackerel.
Fig. 378.—Atka-fish, Pleurogrammus monopterygius (Pallas). Atka
Island.
Page 509
In this genus there are numerous lateral lines, and the dorsal fin is
continuous. In Hexagrammos, the principal genus of the family, the dorsal
is divided into two fins, and there are about five lateral lines on each side.
Hexagrammos decagrammus is common on the coast of California, where it
is known by the incorrect name of rock-trout. It is a well-known food-fish,
reaching a length of eighteen inches. The sexes are quite unlike in color, the
males anteriorly with blue spots, the females speckled with red or brown.
Fig. 379.—Greenling, Hexagrammos decagrammus (Pallas). Sitka.
Fig. 380.—Cultus Cod, Ophiodon elongatus (Girard). Sitka, Alaska.
Hexagrammos octogrammus, the common greenfish of Alaska, and the
greenling Hexagrammos stelleri, are also well-known species. Close to the
continuous. In Hexagrammos, the principal genus of the family, the dorsal
is divided into two fins, and there are about five lateral lines on each side.
Hexagrammos decagrammus is common on the coast of California, where it
is known by the incorrect name of rock-trout. It is a well-known food-fish,
reaching a length of eighteen inches. The sexes are quite unlike in color, the
males anteriorly with blue spots, the females speckled with red or brown.
Fig. 379.—Greenling, Hexagrammos decagrammus (Pallas). Sitka.
Fig. 380.—Cultus Cod, Ophiodon elongatus (Girard). Sitka, Alaska.
Hexagrammos octogrammus, the common greenfish of Alaska, and the
greenling Hexagrammos stelleri, are also well-known species. Close to the
Page 510
latter species is the Abura ainame, or fat cod, Hexagrammos otakii,
common throughout Japan. The red rock-trout, Hexagrammos
superciliosus, is beautifully variegated with red, the color being extremely
variable. Other species are found in Japan and Kamchatka. Agrammus
agrammus of Japan differs in the possession of but one lateral line.
Ophiodon elongatus, the blue cod, cultus cod, or Buffalo cod of California,
is a large fish of moderate value as food, much resembling a codfish, but
with larger mouth and longer teeth. The flesh and bones are deeply tinged
with bluish green. Cultus is the Chinook name for worthless. Zaniolepis
latipinnis is a singular-looking fish, very rough, dry, and bony, occasionally
taken on the California coast. Oxylebius pictus is a small, handsome, and
very active little fish, whitish with black bands, common among rocks and
algæ on the California coast. It is, however, rarely brought into the markets,
as it shows great skill in escaping the nets.
No fossil Hexagrammidæ are known.
The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.—The family of Platycephalidæ
consists of spindle-shaped fishes, with flattened, rough heads and the body
covered with small, rough scales. About fifty species occur in the East
Indian region, where the larger ones are much valued as food. The most
abundant species and usually the largest in size is Platycephalus insidiator,
the kochi of the Japanese. The genus Insidiator contains smaller species
with larger scales. In all these the head is very much depressed, a feature
which separates them from all the Scorpænidæ. Hoplichthys langsdorfi, the
nezupo or rat-tail of Japan, is the type of a separate family, Hoplichthyidæ,
characterized by a bony armature of rough plates. Bembras japonicas,
another little Japanese fish, with the ventrals advanced in position and the
skin with rough plates, is the type of the family of Bembradidæ.
The Sculpins: Cottidæ.—The great family of Cottidæ or sculpins is one
especially characteristic of the northern seas, where a great variety of
species is found. These differ in general from the Scorpænidæ, from which
they are perhaps derived, in the greater number of vertebræ and in the
relative feebleness or degeneration of the spinous dorsal, the ventrals, and
the scales. In all these regards great variation exists. In the most primitive
genus, Jordania, the body is well scaled, the spinous dorsal well developed,
and the ventral rays I, 5. In Hemitripterus a large number of dorsal spines
remains, but the structure in other regards is highly modified. In the most
common throughout Japan. The red rock-trout, Hexagrammos
superciliosus, is beautifully variegated with red, the color being extremely
variable. Other species are found in Japan and Kamchatka. Agrammus
agrammus of Japan differs in the possession of but one lateral line.
Ophiodon elongatus, the blue cod, cultus cod, or Buffalo cod of California,
is a large fish of moderate value as food, much resembling a codfish, but
with larger mouth and longer teeth. The flesh and bones are deeply tinged
with bluish green. Cultus is the Chinook name for worthless. Zaniolepis
latipinnis is a singular-looking fish, very rough, dry, and bony, occasionally
taken on the California coast. Oxylebius pictus is a small, handsome, and
very active little fish, whitish with black bands, common among rocks and
algæ on the California coast. It is, however, rarely brought into the markets,
as it shows great skill in escaping the nets.
No fossil Hexagrammidæ are known.
The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.—The family of Platycephalidæ
consists of spindle-shaped fishes, with flattened, rough heads and the body
covered with small, rough scales. About fifty species occur in the East
Indian region, where the larger ones are much valued as food. The most
abundant species and usually the largest in size is Platycephalus insidiator,
the kochi of the Japanese. The genus Insidiator contains smaller species
with larger scales. In all these the head is very much depressed, a feature
which separates them from all the Scorpænidæ. Hoplichthys langsdorfi, the
nezupo or rat-tail of Japan, is the type of a separate family, Hoplichthyidæ,
characterized by a bony armature of rough plates. Bembras japonicas,
another little Japanese fish, with the ventrals advanced in position and the
skin with rough plates, is the type of the family of Bembradidæ.
The Sculpins: Cottidæ.—The great family of Cottidæ or sculpins is one
especially characteristic of the northern seas, where a great variety of
species is found. These differ in general from the Scorpænidæ, from which
they are perhaps derived, in the greater number of vertebræ and in the
relative feebleness or degeneration of the spinous dorsal, the ventrals, and
the scales. In all these regards great variation exists. In the most primitive
genus, Jordania, the body is well scaled, the spinous dorsal well developed,
and the ventral rays I, 5. In Hemitripterus a large number of dorsal spines
remains, but the structure in other regards is highly modified. In the most
Page 511
degraded types, Cottunculus, Psychrolutes, Gilbertidia, which are also
among the most specialized, there is little trace of spinous dorsal, the scales
are wholly lost, and the ventral fin is incomplete. Most of the species of
Cottidæ live on the bottom in shallow seas. Some are found in deep water
and a few swarm in the rivers. All are arctic or subarctic, none being found
to the south of Italy, Virginia, California, and Japan. None are valued as
food, being coarse and tough. Scarcely any are found fossil.
Of the multitude of genera of Cottidæ we notice a few of the most
prominent. Jordania zonope, a pretty little fish of Puget Sound, is the most
primitive in its characters, being closely allied to the Hexagrammidæ.
Fig. 381.—Jordania zonope Starks. Puget Sound.
Scorpænichthys marmoratus, the great sculpin, or cabezon, of California
reaches a length of 2½ feet. It has the ventral rays I, 5, although almost in
all the other sculpins the rays are reduced to I, 3 or I, 4. The flesh has the
livid blue color seen in the cultus cod Ophiodon elongatus.
among the most specialized, there is little trace of spinous dorsal, the scales
are wholly lost, and the ventral fin is incomplete. Most of the species of
Cottidæ live on the bottom in shallow seas. Some are found in deep water
and a few swarm in the rivers. All are arctic or subarctic, none being found
to the south of Italy, Virginia, California, and Japan. None are valued as
food, being coarse and tough. Scarcely any are found fossil.
Of the multitude of genera of Cottidæ we notice a few of the most
prominent. Jordania zonope, a pretty little fish of Puget Sound, is the most
primitive in its characters, being closely allied to the Hexagrammidæ.
Fig. 381.—Jordania zonope Starks. Puget Sound.
Scorpænichthys marmoratus, the great sculpin, or cabezon, of California
reaches a length of 2½ feet. It has the ventral rays I, 5, although almost in
all the other sculpins the rays are reduced to I, 3 or I, 4. The flesh has the
livid blue color seen in the cultus cod Ophiodon elongatus.
Page 512
Fig. 382.—Astrolytes notospilotus (Girard). Puget Sound.
Fig. 383.—Irish Lord, Hemilepidotus jordani Bean. Unalaska.
Fig. 384.—Triglops pingeli Kröyer. Chebucto, Canada.
Fig. 383.—Irish Lord, Hemilepidotus jordani Bean. Unalaska.
Fig. 384.—Triglops pingeli Kröyer. Chebucto, Canada.
Page 513
Fig. 335.—Buffalo Sculpin, Enophrys bison (Girard). Puget Sound.
To Icelinus, Artedius, Hemilepidotus, Astrolytes, and related genera belong
many species with the body partly scaled. These are characteristic of the
North Pacific, in which they drop to a considerable depth. Icelus, Triglops,
and Artediellus are found also in the North Atlantic, the Arctic fauna of
which is derived almost entirely from Pacific sources. The genus
Hemilepidotus contains coarse species, with bands of scales. The "Irish
lord," Hemilepidotus jordani, a familiar and fantastic inhabitant of Bering
Sea, is much valued by the Aleuts as a food-fish, although the flesh is rather
tough and without much flavor. Almost equally common in Bering Sea is
the red sculpin, Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus, and the still rougher
Ceratocottus diceraus. The stone-sculpin, or buffalo-sculpin, Enophrys
bison, with bony plates on the side and rough horns on the preopercle, is
found about Puget Sound and southward. In all these large rough species
from the North Pacific the preopercle is armed with long spines which are
erected when the fish is disturbed. This makes it almost impossible for any
larger fish to swallow them.
To Icelinus, Artedius, Hemilepidotus, Astrolytes, and related genera belong
many species with the body partly scaled. These are characteristic of the
North Pacific, in which they drop to a considerable depth. Icelus, Triglops,
and Artediellus are found also in the North Atlantic, the Arctic fauna of
which is derived almost entirely from Pacific sources. The genus
Hemilepidotus contains coarse species, with bands of scales. The "Irish
lord," Hemilepidotus jordani, a familiar and fantastic inhabitant of Bering
Sea, is much valued by the Aleuts as a food-fish, although the flesh is rather
tough and without much flavor. Almost equally common in Bering Sea is
the red sculpin, Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus, and the still rougher
Ceratocottus diceraus. The stone-sculpin, or buffalo-sculpin, Enophrys
bison, with bony plates on the side and rough horns on the preopercle, is
found about Puget Sound and southward. In all these large rough species
from the North Pacific the preopercle is armed with long spines which are
erected when the fish is disturbed. This makes it almost impossible for any
larger fish to swallow them.
Page 514
Fig. 386.—Ceratocottus diceraus (Cuv. & Val.). Tolstoi Bay, Alaska.
Fig. 387.—Elanura forficata Gilbert. Bering Sea.
Fig. 388.—Yellowstone Miller's Thumb, Cottus punctulatus (Gill).
Yellowstone River.
Fig. 387.—Elanura forficata Gilbert. Bering Sea.
Fig. 388.—Yellowstone Miller's Thumb, Cottus punctulatus (Gill).
Yellowstone River.
Page 515
The genera Cottus and Uranidea include the miller's thumbs, also called in
America, blob and muffle-jaws, of the Northern rivers. These little fishes
are found in Europe, Asia, and America wherever trout are found. They lurk
under weeds and stones, moving with the greatest swiftness when disturbed.
They are found in every cold stream of the region north of Virginia, and
they vie with the sticklebacks in their destruction of the eggs and fry of
salmon and trout. Cottus gobio is the commonest species of Europe. Cottus
ictalops is the most abundant of the several species of the eastern United
States, and Cottus asper in streams of the Pacific Coast, though very many
other species exist in each of these regions. The genus Uranidea is found in
America. It is composed of smaller species with fewer teeth and fin-rays,
the ventrals I, 3. Uranidea gracilis is the commonest of these, the miller's
thumb of New England. Rheopresbe fujiyamæ is a large river sculpin in
Japan.
Fig. 389.—Miller's Thumb, Uranidea tenuis Evermann & Meek. Klamath
Falls.
America, blob and muffle-jaws, of the Northern rivers. These little fishes
are found in Europe, Asia, and America wherever trout are found. They lurk
under weeds and stones, moving with the greatest swiftness when disturbed.
They are found in every cold stream of the region north of Virginia, and
they vie with the sticklebacks in their destruction of the eggs and fry of
salmon and trout. Cottus gobio is the commonest species of Europe. Cottus
ictalops is the most abundant of the several species of the eastern United
States, and Cottus asper in streams of the Pacific Coast, though very many
other species exist in each of these regions. The genus Uranidea is found in
America. It is composed of smaller species with fewer teeth and fin-rays,
the ventrals I, 3. Uranidea gracilis is the commonest of these, the miller's
thumb of New England. Rheopresbe fujiyamæ is a large river sculpin in
Japan.
Fig. 389.—Miller's Thumb, Uranidea tenuis Evermann & Meek. Klamath
Falls.
Page 516
Fig. 390.—Cottus evermanni Gilbert. Lost River, Oregon.
Trachidermus ansatus is another river species, the "mountain-witch"
(yamanokami) of Japan, remarkable for a scarlet brand on its cheek,
conspicuous in life.
The chief genus of Atlantic sculpins is Myoxocephalus, containing large
marine species, in structure much like the species of Cottus. Myoxocephalus
bubalis is the European fatherlasher, or proach; the European sculpin is
Myoxocephalus scorpius. The very similar daddy sculpin of New England
is Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus. This species swarms everywhere from
Cape Cod northward.
Trachidermus ansatus is another river species, the "mountain-witch"
(yamanokami) of Japan, remarkable for a scarlet brand on its cheek,
conspicuous in life.
The chief genus of Atlantic sculpins is Myoxocephalus, containing large
marine species, in structure much like the species of Cottus. Myoxocephalus
bubalis is the European fatherlasher, or proach; the European sculpin is
Myoxocephalus scorpius. The very similar daddy sculpin of New England
is Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus. This species swarms everywhere from
Cape Cod northward.
Page 517
Fig. 391.—California Miller's Thumb, Cottus gulosus Girard. McCloud
River, Cal. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
According to Fabricius, Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus is "abundant in all
the bays and inlets of Greenland, but prefers a stony coast clothed with
seaweed. It approaches the shore in spring and departs in winter. It is very
voracious, preying on everything that comes in its way and pursuing
incessantly the smaller fish, not sparing the young of its own species, and
devouring crustacea and worms. It is very active and bold, but does not
come to the surface unless it be led thither in pursuit of other fish. It spawns
in December and January and deposits its red-colored roe on the seaweed. It
is easily taken with a bait, and constitutes the daily food of the
Greenlanders, who are very fond of it. They eat the roe raw."
River, Cal. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.)
According to Fabricius, Myoxocephalus grœnlandicus is "abundant in all
the bays and inlets of Greenland, but prefers a stony coast clothed with
seaweed. It approaches the shore in spring and departs in winter. It is very
voracious, preying on everything that comes in its way and pursuing
incessantly the smaller fish, not sparing the young of its own species, and
devouring crustacea and worms. It is very active and bold, but does not
come to the surface unless it be led thither in pursuit of other fish. It spawns
in December and January and deposits its red-colored roe on the seaweed. It
is easily taken with a bait, and constitutes the daily food of the
Greenlanders, who are very fond of it. They eat the roe raw."
Page 518
Fig. 392.—Pribilof Sculpin, Myoxocephalus niger (Bean). St. Paul Island,
Bering Sea.
The little sculpin, or grubby, of the New England coast is Myoxocephalus
æneus, and the larger eighteen-spined sculpin is Myoxocephalus
octodecimspinosus. Still more numerous and varied are the sculpins of the
North Pacific, Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus being the best known
and most widely diffused. Oncocottus quadricornis is the long-horned
sculpin of the Arctic Europe, entering the lakes of Russia and British
America. Triglopsis thompsoni of the depths in our own Great Lakes seems
to be a dwarfed and degenerate descendant of Oncocottus.
Bering Sea.
The little sculpin, or grubby, of the New England coast is Myoxocephalus
æneus, and the larger eighteen-spined sculpin is Myoxocephalus
octodecimspinosus. Still more numerous and varied are the sculpins of the
North Pacific, Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus being the best known
and most widely diffused. Oncocottus quadricornis is the long-horned
sculpin of the Arctic Europe, entering the lakes of Russia and British
America. Triglopsis thompsoni of the depths in our own Great Lakes seems
to be a dwarfed and degenerate descendant of Oncocottus.
Page 519
Fig. 393.—18-spined Sculpin, Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus
(Mitchill). Beasley Point, N. J.
Fig. 394.—Oncocottus quadricornis (L.). St. Michael, Alaska.
The genus Zesticelus contains small soft-bodied sculpins from the depths of
the North Pacific. Zesticelus profundorum was taken in 664 fathoms off
Bogoslof Island and Zesticelus bathybius off Japan. In this genus the body
is very soft and the skeleton feeble, the result of deep-sea life. Another
deep-water genus less degraded is Cottunculus, from which by gradual loss
of fins the still more degraded Psychrolutes (paradoxus) and Gilbertidia
(sigolutes) are perhaps descended. In sculpins of this type the liparids, or
sea-snails, may have had their origin. Among the remaining genera
Gymnocanthus (tricuspis, etc.) has no vomerine teeth. Leptocottus
(armatus) and Clinocottus (analis) abound on the coast of California, and
Pseudoblennius (percoides) is found everywhere along the shores of Japan.
Vellitor centropomus of Japan is remarkable among sculpins for its
compressed body and long snout. Dialarchus snyderi of the California rock-
pools is perhaps the smallest species of sculpin, Blepsias (cirrhosus),
Nautichthys (oculofasciatus), and Hemitripterus (americanus), the sea-
raven, among the most fantastic. In the last-named genus the spinous dorsal
is many-rayed, as in Scorpænidæ, a fact which has led to its separation by
Dr. Gill as a distinct family. But the dorsal spines are equally numerous in
Jordania, which stands at the opposite extreme of the cottoid series.
(Mitchill). Beasley Point, N. J.
Fig. 394.—Oncocottus quadricornis (L.). St. Michael, Alaska.
The genus Zesticelus contains small soft-bodied sculpins from the depths of
the North Pacific. Zesticelus profundorum was taken in 664 fathoms off
Bogoslof Island and Zesticelus bathybius off Japan. In this genus the body
is very soft and the skeleton feeble, the result of deep-sea life. Another
deep-water genus less degraded is Cottunculus, from which by gradual loss
of fins the still more degraded Psychrolutes (paradoxus) and Gilbertidia
(sigolutes) are perhaps descended. In sculpins of this type the liparids, or
sea-snails, may have had their origin. Among the remaining genera
Gymnocanthus (tricuspis, etc.) has no vomerine teeth. Leptocottus
(armatus) and Clinocottus (analis) abound on the coast of California, and
Pseudoblennius (percoides) is found everywhere along the shores of Japan.
Vellitor centropomus of Japan is remarkable among sculpins for its
compressed body and long snout. Dialarchus snyderi of the California rock-
pools is perhaps the smallest species of sculpin, Blepsias (cirrhosus),
Nautichthys (oculofasciatus), and Hemitripterus (americanus), the sea-
raven, among the most fantastic. In the last-named genus the spinous dorsal
is many-rayed, as in Scorpænidæ, a fact which has led to its separation by
Dr. Gill as a distinct family. But the dorsal spines are equally numerous in
Jordania, which stands at the opposite extreme of the cottoid series.
Page 520
Fig. 395.—Blepsias cirrhosus Pallas. Straits of Fuca.
Fig. 396.—Sea raven, Hemitripterus americanus (Gmelin). Halifax, Nova
Scotia.
Fig. 396.—Sea raven, Hemitripterus americanus (Gmelin). Halifax, Nova
Scotia.
Page 521
Fig. 397.—Oligocottus maculosus Girard. Sitka.
In Ascelichthys (rhodorus), a pretty sculpin of the rock-pools of the Oregon
region, the ventral fins are wholly lost. Ereunias grallator, a deep-water
sculpin from Japan, without ventrals and with free rays below its pectorals,
should perhaps represent a distinct family, Ereuniidæ.
The degeneration of the spinous dorsal in Psychrolutes and Gilbertidia of
the North Pacific has been already noticed. These genera seem to lead
directly from Cottunculus to Liparis.
Fossil Cottidæ are few. Eocottus veronensis, from the Eocene of Monte
Bolca, is completely scaled, with the ventral rays I, 5. It is apparently
related to Jordania, but is still more primitive. Lepidocottus (aries and
numerous other species, mostly from the Miocene) is covered with scales,
but apparently has less than five soft rays in the ventrals. Remains of
Oncocottus, Icelus, and Cottus are found in Arctic Pleistocene rocks. The
family as a whole is evidently of recent date.
The Rhamphocottidæ consist of a single little sculpin with a large bony and
singularly formed head, found on the Pacific Coast from Sitka to Monterey.
The species is called Rhamphocottus richardsoni.
The Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.—The sea-poachers or alligator-fishes,
Agonidæ, are sculpins inclosed in a coat of mail made by a series of
overlying plates, much like those of the sea-horses or the catfishes of the
family Loricariidæ. So far as structure goes, these singular fishes are
essentially like the Cottidæ, but with a different and more perfect armature.
In Ascelichthys (rhodorus), a pretty sculpin of the rock-pools of the Oregon
region, the ventral fins are wholly lost. Ereunias grallator, a deep-water
sculpin from Japan, without ventrals and with free rays below its pectorals,
should perhaps represent a distinct family, Ereuniidæ.
The degeneration of the spinous dorsal in Psychrolutes and Gilbertidia of
the North Pacific has been already noticed. These genera seem to lead
directly from Cottunculus to Liparis.
Fossil Cottidæ are few. Eocottus veronensis, from the Eocene of Monte
Bolca, is completely scaled, with the ventral rays I, 5. It is apparently
related to Jordania, but is still more primitive. Lepidocottus (aries and
numerous other species, mostly from the Miocene) is covered with scales,
but apparently has less than five soft rays in the ventrals. Remains of
Oncocottus, Icelus, and Cottus are found in Arctic Pleistocene rocks. The
family as a whole is evidently of recent date.
The Rhamphocottidæ consist of a single little sculpin with a large bony and
singularly formed head, found on the Pacific Coast from Sitka to Monterey.
The species is called Rhamphocottus richardsoni.
The Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.—The sea-poachers or alligator-fishes,
Agonidæ, are sculpins inclosed in a coat of mail made by a series of
overlying plates, much like those of the sea-horses or the catfishes of the
family Loricariidæ. So far as structure goes, these singular fishes are
essentially like the Cottidæ, but with a different and more perfect armature.
Page 522
The many species belong chiefly to the North Pacific, a few in the Atlantic
and on the coast of Patagonia. Some are found in considerable depth of
water. All are too small to have value as food and some have most fantastic
forms. Only a few of the most prominent need be noticed. The largest and
most peculiar species is Percis japonicus of the Kurile Islands. Still more
fantastic is the Japanese Draciscus sachi with sail-like dorsal and anal.
Agonus cataphractus, the sea-poacher, is the only European species.
Podothecus acipenserinus, the alligator-fish, is the commonest species of
the North Pacific. Pallasina barbata is as slender as a pipefish, with a short
beard at the chin. Aspidophoroides monopterygius of the Atlantic and other
similar species of the Pacific lack the spinous dorsal fin.
Fig. 398.—Ereunias grallator Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 399.—Sleek Sculpin, Psychrolutes paradoxus (Günther). Puget
Sound.
and on the coast of Patagonia. Some are found in considerable depth of
water. All are too small to have value as food and some have most fantastic
forms. Only a few of the most prominent need be noticed. The largest and
most peculiar species is Percis japonicus of the Kurile Islands. Still more
fantastic is the Japanese Draciscus sachi with sail-like dorsal and anal.
Agonus cataphractus, the sea-poacher, is the only European species.
Podothecus acipenserinus, the alligator-fish, is the commonest species of
the North Pacific. Pallasina barbata is as slender as a pipefish, with a short
beard at the chin. Aspidophoroides monopterygius of the Atlantic and other
similar species of the Pacific lack the spinous dorsal fin.
Fig. 398.—Ereunias grallator Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 399.—Sleek Sculpin, Psychrolutes paradoxus (Günther). Puget
Sound.
Page 523
Fig. 400.—Gilbertidia sigolutes (Jordan). Puget Sound.
Fig. 401.—Richardson's Sculpin, Rhamphocottus richardsoni (Günther).
Puget Sound.
Fig. 401.—Richardson's Sculpin, Rhamphocottus richardsoni (Günther).
Puget Sound.
Page 524
Fig. 402.—Stelgis vulsus (Jordan & Gilbert). Point Reyes, Cal.
Fig. 403.—Draciscus sachi Jordan & Snyder. Family Agonidæ. Aomori,
Japan.
Fig. 404.—Agonoid-fish, Pallasina barbata (Steindachner). Port
Mulgrave, Alaska.
Fig. 403.—Draciscus sachi Jordan & Snyder. Family Agonidæ. Aomori,
Japan.
Fig. 404.—Agonoid-fish, Pallasina barbata (Steindachner). Port
Mulgrave, Alaska.
Page 525
Fig. 405.—Aspidophoroides monopterygius (Bloch). Halifax.
No fossil Agonidæ are known.
The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.—The lump-suckers, Cyclopteridæ, are
structurally very similar to the Cottidæ, but of very different habit, the body
being clumsy and the movements very slow. The ventral fins are united to
form a sucking disk by which these sluggish fishes hold fast to rocks. The
skeleton is feebly ossified, the spinous dorsal fin wholly or partly lost, the
skin smooth or covered with bony warts. The slender suborbital stay
indicates the relation of these fishes with the Cottidæ. The species are
chiefly Arctic, the common lumpfish or "cock and hen paddle," Cyclopterus
lumpus, abounding on both shores of the North Atlantic. It reaches a length
of twenty inches, spawning in eel-grass where the male is left to watch the
eggs. Cyclopterichthys ventricosus is a large species with smooth skin from
the North Pacific.
No fossil Agonidæ are known.
The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.—The lump-suckers, Cyclopteridæ, are
structurally very similar to the Cottidæ, but of very different habit, the body
being clumsy and the movements very slow. The ventral fins are united to
form a sucking disk by which these sluggish fishes hold fast to rocks. The
skeleton is feebly ossified, the spinous dorsal fin wholly or partly lost, the
skin smooth or covered with bony warts. The slender suborbital stay
indicates the relation of these fishes with the Cottidæ. The species are
chiefly Arctic, the common lumpfish or "cock and hen paddle," Cyclopterus
lumpus, abounding on both shores of the North Atlantic. It reaches a length
of twenty inches, spawning in eel-grass where the male is left to watch the
eggs. Cyclopterichthys ventricosus is a large species with smooth skin from
the North Pacific.
Page 526
Fig. 406.—Lumpfish, Cyclopterus lumpus (Linnæus). Eastport, Me.
Fig. 407.—Liparid, Crystallias matsushimæ, (Jordan and Snyder). Family
Liparididæ. Matsushima Bay, Japan.
The Sea-snails: Liparididæ.—The sea-snails, Liparididæ are closely
related to the lumpfishes, but the body is more elongate, tadpole shaped,
covered with very lax skin, like the "wrinkled skin on scalded milk." In
structure the liparids are still more degenerate than the lumpfishes. Even the
characteristic ventral disk is lost in some species (Paraliparis; Amitra) and
in numerous others the tail is drawn out into a point (leptocercal), a
character almost always a result of degradation. The dorsal spines are
wanting or imbedded in the loose skin, and all trace of spines on the head is
lost, but the characteristic suborbital stay is well developed. The numerous
species are all small, three to twelve inches in length. They live in Arctic
waters, often descending to great depths, in which case the body is very
soft. One genus, Enantioliparis, is found in the Antarctic. In the principal
genus, Liparis, the ventral disk is well developed, and the spinous dorsal
obsolete. Liparis liparis is found on both shores of the North Atlantic, and
is subject to large variations in color. Liparis agassizi is abundant in Japan
and northward, and Liparis pulchellus in California. In the most primitive
genus, Neoliparis, a notch in the fin indicates the separation of the spinous
dorsal. Neoliparis montagui is common in Europe, replaced in New
England by Neoliparis atlanticus. Careproctus, with numerous elongate
species, inhabits depths of the North Pacific. In Paraliparis (or
Hilgendorfia) ulochir, the ventral disk is gone and the lowest stage of
Fig. 407.—Liparid, Crystallias matsushimæ, (Jordan and Snyder). Family
Liparididæ. Matsushima Bay, Japan.
The Sea-snails: Liparididæ.—The sea-snails, Liparididæ are closely
related to the lumpfishes, but the body is more elongate, tadpole shaped,
covered with very lax skin, like the "wrinkled skin on scalded milk." In
structure the liparids are still more degenerate than the lumpfishes. Even the
characteristic ventral disk is lost in some species (Paraliparis; Amitra) and
in numerous others the tail is drawn out into a point (leptocercal), a
character almost always a result of degradation. The dorsal spines are
wanting or imbedded in the loose skin, and all trace of spines on the head is
lost, but the characteristic suborbital stay is well developed. The numerous
species are all small, three to twelve inches in length. They live in Arctic
waters, often descending to great depths, in which case the body is very
soft. One genus, Enantioliparis, is found in the Antarctic. In the principal
genus, Liparis, the ventral disk is well developed, and the spinous dorsal
obsolete. Liparis liparis is found on both shores of the North Atlantic, and
is subject to large variations in color. Liparis agassizi is abundant in Japan
and northward, and Liparis pulchellus in California. In the most primitive
genus, Neoliparis, a notch in the fin indicates the separation of the spinous
dorsal. Neoliparis montagui is common in Europe, replaced in New
England by Neoliparis atlanticus. Careproctus, with numerous elongate
species, inhabits depths of the North Pacific. In Paraliparis (or
Hilgendorfia) ulochir, the ventral disk is gone and the lowest stage of
Page 527
degradation of the Loricate or Scorpæna-Cottus type of fishes is reached.
No fossil lump-suckers or liparids are recorded, although remains of
Cyclopterus lumpus are found in nodules of glacial clay in Canada.
Fig. 408.—Snailfish, Neoliparis mucosus (Ayres). San Francisco.
The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.—The family of Comephoridæ includes
Comephorus baikalensis, a large fresh-water fish of Lake Baikal in Siberia,
having no near affinities with any other existing fish, but now known to be
a mail-cheek fish related to the Cottidæ. The body is elongate, naked, with
soft flesh and feeble skeleton. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and the
skull has a cavernous structure. There are no ventral fins. The spinous
dorsal is short and low, the second dorsal and anal many-rayed, and the
pectoral fins are excessively long, almost wing-like; the vertebræ number 8
+ 35 = 43, and unlike most fresh-water fishes, the species has no air-
bladder. Little is known of the habits of this singular fish. Another genus is
recently described under the name of Cottocomephorus.
Suborder Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.—A remarkable offshoot
from the Pareioplitæ is the suborder of gurnards, known as Craniomi
(κράνιον, skull; ὤμος, shoulder). In these fishes the suborbital stay is highly
developed, much as in the Agonidæ, bony externally and covering the
cheeks. The shoulder-girdle is distorted, the post-temporal being solidly
united to the cranium, while the postero-temporal is crowded out of place
by the side of the proscapula. In other regards these fishes resemble the
other mail-cheek forms, their affinities being perhaps closest with the
Agonidæ or certain aberrant Cottidæ as Ereunias.
No fossil lump-suckers or liparids are recorded, although remains of
Cyclopterus lumpus are found in nodules of glacial clay in Canada.
Fig. 408.—Snailfish, Neoliparis mucosus (Ayres). San Francisco.
The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.—The family of Comephoridæ includes
Comephorus baikalensis, a large fresh-water fish of Lake Baikal in Siberia,
having no near affinities with any other existing fish, but now known to be
a mail-cheek fish related to the Cottidæ. The body is elongate, naked, with
soft flesh and feeble skeleton. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and the
skull has a cavernous structure. There are no ventral fins. The spinous
dorsal is short and low, the second dorsal and anal many-rayed, and the
pectoral fins are excessively long, almost wing-like; the vertebræ number 8
+ 35 = 43, and unlike most fresh-water fishes, the species has no air-
bladder. Little is known of the habits of this singular fish. Another genus is
recently described under the name of Cottocomephorus.
Suborder Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.—A remarkable offshoot
from the Pareioplitæ is the suborder of gurnards, known as Craniomi
(κράνιον, skull; ὤμος, shoulder). In these fishes the suborbital stay is highly
developed, much as in the Agonidæ, bony externally and covering the
cheeks. The shoulder-girdle is distorted, the post-temporal being solidly
united to the cranium, while the postero-temporal is crowded out of place
by the side of the proscapula. In other regards these fishes resemble the
other mail-cheek forms, their affinities being perhaps closest with the
Agonidæ or certain aberrant Cottidæ as Ereunias.
Page 528
In the true gurnards or Triglidæ the head is rough and bony, the body
covered with rough scales and below the pectoral fin are three free rays
used as feelers by the fish as it creeps along the bottom. These free rays are
used in turning over stones, exploring shells and otherwise searching for
food. The numerous species are found in the warm seas. In Europe, the
genus Trigla, without palatine teeth and with the lateral line armed, is
represented by numerous well-known species. Trigla cuculus is a common
form of the Mediterranean. Chelidonichthys, similar to Trigla but larger and
less fully armed, is found in Asia as well as in Europe. Several species
occur in the Mediterranean. Chelidonichthys kumu is a common species in
Japan, a large fish with pectorals of a very brilliant variegated blue, like the
wings of certain butterflies.
Fig. 409.—Sea-robin, Prionotus evolans (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
Lepidotrigla, with larger scales, has many species on the coasts of Europe
as well as in China and Japan. Lepidotrigla alata, a red fish with a peculiar
bony, forked snout, is common in Japan. The American species of gurnards,
having teeth on the palatine, belong to the genus Prionotus. Northward
these fishes, known as sea-robins, live along the shores in shallow water. In
the tropics they descend to deeper water, assuming a red color. Prionotus
carolinus is the commonest species in New England. Prionotus strigatus,
the striped sea-robin, and Prionotus tribulus, the rough-headed sea-robin,
covered with rough scales and below the pectoral fin are three free rays
used as feelers by the fish as it creeps along the bottom. These free rays are
used in turning over stones, exploring shells and otherwise searching for
food. The numerous species are found in the warm seas. In Europe, the
genus Trigla, without palatine teeth and with the lateral line armed, is
represented by numerous well-known species. Trigla cuculus is a common
form of the Mediterranean. Chelidonichthys, similar to Trigla but larger and
less fully armed, is found in Asia as well as in Europe. Several species
occur in the Mediterranean. Chelidonichthys kumu is a common species in
Japan, a large fish with pectorals of a very brilliant variegated blue, like the
wings of certain butterflies.
Fig. 409.—Sea-robin, Prionotus evolans (L.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
Lepidotrigla, with larger scales, has many species on the coasts of Europe
as well as in China and Japan. Lepidotrigla alata, a red fish with a peculiar
bony, forked snout, is common in Japan. The American species of gurnards,
having teeth on the palatine, belong to the genus Prionotus. Northward
these fishes, known as sea-robins, live along the shores in shallow water. In
the tropics they descend to deeper water, assuming a red color. Prionotus
carolinus is the commonest species in New England. Prionotus strigatus,
the striped sea-robin, and Prionotus tribulus, the rough-headed sea-robin,
Page 529
are common species along the Carolina coast. None have much value as
food, being dry and bony. Numerous fossil species referred to Trigla are
found in the Miocene. Podopteryx, from the Italian Miocene, with small
pectorals and very large ventrals, perhaps belongs also to this family, but its
real affinities are unknown.
Fig. 410.—Flying Gurnard, Cephalacanthus volitans (L.). Virginia.
Fig. 411.—Peristedion miniatum Goode & Bean. Depths of the Gulf
Stream.
The Peristediidæ.—The Peristediidæ are deep-water sea-robins, much
depressed, with flat heads, a bony coat of mail, and two free feelers on the
food, being dry and bony. Numerous fossil species referred to Trigla are
found in the Miocene. Podopteryx, from the Italian Miocene, with small
pectorals and very large ventrals, perhaps belongs also to this family, but its
real affinities are unknown.
Fig. 410.—Flying Gurnard, Cephalacanthus volitans (L.). Virginia.
Fig. 411.—Peristedion miniatum Goode & Bean. Depths of the Gulf
Stream.
The Peristediidæ.—The Peristediidæ are deep-water sea-robins, much
depressed, with flat heads, a bony coat of mail, and two free feelers on the
Page 530
pectoral fin instead of three. The species of Peristedion are occasionally
taken with the dredge. Peristedion cataphractum is rather common in
Europe. The extinct Peristedion urcianense is described from the Pliocene
of Orciano, Tuscany.
The Flying Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.—The flying gurnards,
Cephalacanthidæ, differ in numerous respects and are among the most
fantastic inhabitants of the sea. The head is short and bony, the body
covered with firm scales, and the very long, wing-like pectoral fin is
divided into two parts, the posterior and larger almost as long as the rest of
the body. This fin is beautifully colored with blue and brownish red. The
first spine of the dorsal fin is free from the others and more or less
prolonged. The few species of flying gurnard are much alike, ranging
widely in the tropical seas, and having a slight power of flight. The flying
robin, or batfish, called in Spanish volador or murcielago, Cephalacanthus
volitans, is common on both coasts of the Atlantic, reaching a length of
eighteen inches. Cephalacanthus peterseni is found in Japan and
Cephalacanthus orientalis in the East Indies, Japan, and Hawaii. The
immature fishes have the pectoral fins much shorter than in the adult, and
differ in other regards. Cephalacanthus pliocenicus occurs in the Lower
Pliocene of Orciano, Tuscany.
Petalopteryx syriacus, an extinct flying gurnard found in the Cretaceous of
Mount Lebanon, is an ally of Cephalacanthus. The body is covered with
four-angled bony plates, and the first (free) spine of the dorsal is enlarged.
taken with the dredge. Peristedion cataphractum is rather common in
Europe. The extinct Peristedion urcianense is described from the Pliocene
of Orciano, Tuscany.
The Flying Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.—The flying gurnards,
Cephalacanthidæ, differ in numerous respects and are among the most
fantastic inhabitants of the sea. The head is short and bony, the body
covered with firm scales, and the very long, wing-like pectoral fin is
divided into two parts, the posterior and larger almost as long as the rest of
the body. This fin is beautifully colored with blue and brownish red. The
first spine of the dorsal fin is free from the others and more or less
prolonged. The few species of flying gurnard are much alike, ranging
widely in the tropical seas, and having a slight power of flight. The flying
robin, or batfish, called in Spanish volador or murcielago, Cephalacanthus
volitans, is common on both coasts of the Atlantic, reaching a length of
eighteen inches. Cephalacanthus peterseni is found in Japan and
Cephalacanthus orientalis in the East Indies, Japan, and Hawaii. The
immature fishes have the pectoral fins much shorter than in the adult, and
differ in other regards. Cephalacanthus pliocenicus occurs in the Lower
Pliocene of Orciano, Tuscany.
Petalopteryx syriacus, an extinct flying gurnard found in the Cretaceous of
Mount Lebanon, is an ally of Cephalacanthus. The body is covered with
four-angled bony plates, and the first (free) spine of the dorsal is enlarged.
Page 531
CHAPTER XXVI
GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND
TÆNIOSOMI
uborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.—The great family
of Gobiidæ, having no near relations among the spiny-rayed
fishes, may be here treated as forming a distinct suborder.
The chief characteristics of the family are the following: The
ventral fins are thoracic in position, each having one spine and five soft
rays, in some cases reduced to four, but never wanting. The ventral fins are
inserted very close together, the inner rays the longest, and in most cases the
two fins are completely joined, forming a single roundish fin, which may be
used as a sucking-disk in clinging to rocks. The shoulder-girdle is
essentially perch-like in form, the cranium is usually depressed, the bones
being without serrature. There is no lateral line, the gill-openings are
restricted to the sides, and the spinous dorsal is always small, of feeble
spines, and is sometimes altogether wanting. There is no bony stay to the
preopercle. The small pharyngeals are separate, and the vertebræ usually in
normal number, 10 + 14 = 24.
The species are excessively numerous in the tropics and temperate zones,
being found in lakes, brooks, swamps, and bays, never far out in the sea,
and usually in shallow water. Many of them burrow in the mud between or
below tide-marks. Others live in swift waters like the darters, which they
much resemble. A few reach a length of a foot or two, but most of the
species rarely exceed three inches, and some of them are mature at half an
inch.
GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND
TÆNIOSOMI
uborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.—The great family
of Gobiidæ, having no near relations among the spiny-rayed
fishes, may be here treated as forming a distinct suborder.
The chief characteristics of the family are the following: The
ventral fins are thoracic in position, each having one spine and five soft
rays, in some cases reduced to four, but never wanting. The ventral fins are
inserted very close together, the inner rays the longest, and in most cases the
two fins are completely joined, forming a single roundish fin, which may be
used as a sucking-disk in clinging to rocks. The shoulder-girdle is
essentially perch-like in form, the cranium is usually depressed, the bones
being without serrature. There is no lateral line, the gill-openings are
restricted to the sides, and the spinous dorsal is always small, of feeble
spines, and is sometimes altogether wanting. There is no bony stay to the
preopercle. The small pharyngeals are separate, and the vertebræ usually in
normal number, 10 + 14 = 24.
The species are excessively numerous in the tropics and temperate zones,
being found in lakes, brooks, swamps, and bays, never far out in the sea,
and usually in shallow water. Many of them burrow in the mud between or
below tide-marks. Others live in swift waters like the darters, which they
much resemble. A few reach a length of a foot or two, but most of the
species rarely exceed three inches, and some of them are mature at half an
inch.
Page 532
The largest species, Philypnus dormitor, the guavina de rio, is found in the
rivers of Mexico and the West Indies. It reaches a length of nearly two feet
and is valued as food. Unlike most of the others, in this species there are
teeth on the vomer. Other related forms of the subfamily of Eleotrinæ,
having the ventral fins separate, are Eleotris pisonis, a common river-fish
everywhere in tropical America; Eleotris fusca, a river-fish abounding from
Tahiti and Samoa to Hindostan; Dormitator maculatus, the stout-bodied
guavina-mapo of the West Indian regions, with the form of a small carp.
Guavina guavina of Cuba is another species of this type, and numerous
other species having separate ventrals are found in the East Indies, the West
Indies, and in the islands of Polynesia. Some species, as Valenciennesia
strigata of the East Indies and Vireosa hanæ of Japan, are very gracefully
colored. One genus, Eviota, is composed of numerous species, all minute,
less than an inch in length. These abound in the crevices in coral-heads.
Eviota epiphanes is found in Hawaii, the others farther south. Hypseleotris
guntheri, of the rivers and springs of Polynesia, swims freely in the water,
like a minnow, never hugging the bottom as usual among gobies.
Fig. 412.—Guavina de Rio, Philypnus dormitor (Bloch & Schneider).
Puerto Rico.
rivers of Mexico and the West Indies. It reaches a length of nearly two feet
and is valued as food. Unlike most of the others, in this species there are
teeth on the vomer. Other related forms of the subfamily of Eleotrinæ,
having the ventral fins separate, are Eleotris pisonis, a common river-fish
everywhere in tropical America; Eleotris fusca, a river-fish abounding from
Tahiti and Samoa to Hindostan; Dormitator maculatus, the stout-bodied
guavina-mapo of the West Indian regions, with the form of a small carp.
Guavina guavina of Cuba is another species of this type, and numerous
other species having separate ventrals are found in the East Indies, the West
Indies, and in the islands of Polynesia. Some species, as Valenciennesia
strigata of the East Indies and Vireosa hanæ of Japan, are very gracefully
colored. One genus, Eviota, is composed of numerous species, all minute,
less than an inch in length. These abound in the crevices in coral-heads.
Eviota epiphanes is found in Hawaii, the others farther south. Hypseleotris
guntheri, of the rivers and springs of Polynesia, swims freely in the water,
like a minnow, never hugging the bottom as usual among gobies.
Fig. 412.—Guavina de Rio, Philypnus dormitor (Bloch & Schneider).
Puerto Rico.
Page 533
Fig. 413.—Dormeur, Eleotris pisonis Gmelin. Tortugas, Fla.
Fig. 414.—Guavina mapo, Dormitator maculatus (Schneider). Puerto
Rico.
Fig. 414.—Guavina mapo, Dormitator maculatus (Schneider). Puerto
Rico.
Page 534
Fig. 415.—Vireosa hanæ Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 416.—Esmeralda de Mar, Gobionellus oceanicus (Pallas). Puerto
Rico.
Of the typical gobies having the ventrals united we can mention but a few
of the myriad forms, different species being abundant alike in fresh and salt
waters in all warm regions. In Europe Gobius jozo, Gobius ophiocephalus,
and many others are common species. The typical genus Gobius is known
by its united ventrals, and by the presence of silken free rays on the upper
part of the pectoral fin. Mapo soporator swarms about coral reefs in both
Indies. Gobionellus oceanicus, the esmeralda or emerald-fish, is notable for
its slender body and the green spot over its tongue. Gobiosoma alepidotum
and other species are scaleless. Barbulifer ceuthœcus lives in the cavities of
sponges. Coryphopterus similis, a small goby, swarms in almost every
brook of Japan. The species of Pterogobius are beautifully colored, banded
with white or black, or striped with red or blue. Pterogobius virgo and
Pterogobius daimio of Japan are the most attractive species. Species of
Cryptocentrus are also very prettily colored.
Fig. 416.—Esmeralda de Mar, Gobionellus oceanicus (Pallas). Puerto
Rico.
Of the typical gobies having the ventrals united we can mention but a few
of the myriad forms, different species being abundant alike in fresh and salt
waters in all warm regions. In Europe Gobius jozo, Gobius ophiocephalus,
and many others are common species. The typical genus Gobius is known
by its united ventrals, and by the presence of silken free rays on the upper
part of the pectoral fin. Mapo soporator swarms about coral reefs in both
Indies. Gobionellus oceanicus, the esmeralda or emerald-fish, is notable for
its slender body and the green spot over its tongue. Gobiosoma alepidotum
and other species are scaleless. Barbulifer ceuthœcus lives in the cavities of
sponges. Coryphopterus similis, a small goby, swarms in almost every
brook of Japan. The species of Pterogobius are beautifully colored, banded
with white or black, or striped with red or blue. Pterogobius virgo and
Pterogobius daimio of Japan are the most attractive species. Species of
Cryptocentrus are also very prettily colored.
Page 535
Fig. 417.—Pterogobius daimio Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 418.—Darter Goby, Aboma etheostoma Jordan. Mazatlan, Mex.
Of the species burrowing in mud the most interesting is the long-jawed
goby, Gillichthys mirabilis. In this species the upper jaw is greatly
prolonged, longer than the head, as in Opisthognathus and Neoclinus. In the
"American Naturalist" for August, 1877, Mr. W. N. Lockington says of the
long-jawed goby:
"I call it the long-jawed goby, as its chief peculiarity consists in its
tremendous length of jaw. A garpike has a long jaw, and so has an alligator,
and it is not unlikely that the title will call up in the minds of some who
read this the idea of a terrible mouth, armed with a bristling row of teeth.
This would be a great mistake, for our little fish has no teeth worth bragging
about, and does not open his mouth any wider than a well-behaved fish
should do. The great difference between his long jaws and those of a
Fig. 418.—Darter Goby, Aboma etheostoma Jordan. Mazatlan, Mex.
Of the species burrowing in mud the most interesting is the long-jawed
goby, Gillichthys mirabilis. In this species the upper jaw is greatly
prolonged, longer than the head, as in Opisthognathus and Neoclinus. In the
"American Naturalist" for August, 1877, Mr. W. N. Lockington says of the
long-jawed goby:
"I call it the long-jawed goby, as its chief peculiarity consists in its
tremendous length of jaw. A garpike has a long jaw, and so has an alligator,
and it is not unlikely that the title will call up in the minds of some who
read this the idea of a terrible mouth, armed with a bristling row of teeth.
This would be a great mistake, for our little fish has no teeth worth bragging
about, and does not open his mouth any wider than a well-behaved fish
should do. The great difference between his long jaws and those of a
Page 536
garpike is that the latter's project forward, while those of our goby are
prolonged backward immensely.
"The long-jawed goby was discovered by Dr. J. G. Cooper in the Bay of
San Diego, among seaweed growing on small stones at the wharf, and in
such position that it must have been out of the water from three to six hours
daily, though kept moist by the seaweed.
Fig. 419.—Long-jawed Goby. Gillichthys mirabilis Cooper. Santa
Barbara.
"On a recent occasion a single Gillichthys, much larger than any of the
original types, was presented by a gentleman who said that the fish, which
was new to him, was abundant upon his ranch in Richardson's Bay, in the
northern part of the Bay of San Francisco; that the Chinamen dug them up
and ate them, and that he had had about eleven specimens cooked, and
found them good, tasting, he thought, something like eels. The twelfth
specimen he had preserved in alcohol, in the interest of natural science. This
gentleman had the opportunity of observing something of the mode of life
of these fishes, and informed us that their holes, excavated in the muddy
banks of tidal creeks, increase in size as they go downward, so that the
lower portion is below the water-level, or at least sufficiently low to be kept
wet by the percolation from the surrounding mud.
"When the various specimens now acquired were placed side by side, the
difference in the relative length of their jaws was very conspicuous, for
while in the smallest it was about one-fifth of the total length, in the largest
it exceeded one-third.
prolonged backward immensely.
"The long-jawed goby was discovered by Dr. J. G. Cooper in the Bay of
San Diego, among seaweed growing on small stones at the wharf, and in
such position that it must have been out of the water from three to six hours
daily, though kept moist by the seaweed.
Fig. 419.—Long-jawed Goby. Gillichthys mirabilis Cooper. Santa
Barbara.
"On a recent occasion a single Gillichthys, much larger than any of the
original types, was presented by a gentleman who said that the fish, which
was new to him, was abundant upon his ranch in Richardson's Bay, in the
northern part of the Bay of San Francisco; that the Chinamen dug them up
and ate them, and that he had had about eleven specimens cooked, and
found them good, tasting, he thought, something like eels. The twelfth
specimen he had preserved in alcohol, in the interest of natural science. This
gentleman had the opportunity of observing something of the mode of life
of these fishes, and informed us that their holes, excavated in the muddy
banks of tidal creeks, increase in size as they go downward, so that the
lower portion is below the water-level, or at least sufficiently low to be kept
wet by the percolation from the surrounding mud.
"When the various specimens now acquired were placed side by side, the
difference in the relative length of their jaws was very conspicuous, for
while in the smallest it was about one-fifth of the total length, in the largest
it exceeded one-third.
Page 537
"As the fish had now been found in two places in the bay, I thought I would
try to find it also, and to this end sallied out one morning, armed with a
spade, and commenced prospecting in a marsh at Berkeley, not far from the
State University. For a long time I was unsuccessful, as I did not know by
what outward signs their habitations could be distinguished, and the extent
of mud-bank left bare by the retreating tide was, as compared with my
powers of delving, practically limitless.
"At last, toward evening, while digging in the bend of a small creek, in a
stratum of soft, bluish mud, and at a depth of about a foot below a small
puddle, I found five small fishes, which at first I believed to belong to an
undescribed species, so little did they resemble the typical G. mirabilis, but
which proved, upon a closer examination, to be the young of that species.
There was the depressed, broad head, the funnel-shaped ventral 'disk'
formed by the union of the two ventral fins, and the compressed tail of the
long-jawed goby, but where were the long jaws? The jaws were, of course,
in their usual place, but their prolongations had only just begun to grow
along the sides of the head, and were not noticeable unless looked for. A
comparison of the various specimens proved conclusively that the strange-
looking appendage is developed during the growth of the fish, as will be
seen by the following measurements of four individuals:
"In the smallest specimen the maxillary expansion extends beyond the orbit
for a distance about equal to that which intervenes between the anterior
margin of the orbit and the tip of the snout; in No. 2 it reaches to the
posterior margin of the preoperculum; in No. 3 it ends level with the gill-
opening; while in the largest individual it passes the origin of the pectoral
and ventral fins.
"What can be the use of this long fold of skin and cartilage, which is not
attached to the head except where it joins the mouth, and which, from its
gradual development and ultimate large dimensions, must certainly serve
some useful purpose?
"Do not understand that I mean that every part of a creature is of use to it in
its present mode of life, for, as all naturalists know, there are in structural
anatomy, just as in social life, cases of survival; remains of organs which
were at some former time more developed, parallel in their nature to such
survivals in costume as the two buttons on the back of a man's coat, once
try to find it also, and to this end sallied out one morning, armed with a
spade, and commenced prospecting in a marsh at Berkeley, not far from the
State University. For a long time I was unsuccessful, as I did not know by
what outward signs their habitations could be distinguished, and the extent
of mud-bank left bare by the retreating tide was, as compared with my
powers of delving, practically limitless.
"At last, toward evening, while digging in the bend of a small creek, in a
stratum of soft, bluish mud, and at a depth of about a foot below a small
puddle, I found five small fishes, which at first I believed to belong to an
undescribed species, so little did they resemble the typical G. mirabilis, but
which proved, upon a closer examination, to be the young of that species.
There was the depressed, broad head, the funnel-shaped ventral 'disk'
formed by the union of the two ventral fins, and the compressed tail of the
long-jawed goby, but where were the long jaws? The jaws were, of course,
in their usual place, but their prolongations had only just begun to grow
along the sides of the head, and were not noticeable unless looked for. A
comparison of the various specimens proved conclusively that the strange-
looking appendage is developed during the growth of the fish, as will be
seen by the following measurements of four individuals:
"In the smallest specimen the maxillary expansion extends beyond the orbit
for a distance about equal to that which intervenes between the anterior
margin of the orbit and the tip of the snout; in No. 2 it reaches to the
posterior margin of the preoperculum; in No. 3 it ends level with the gill-
opening; while in the largest individual it passes the origin of the pectoral
and ventral fins.
"What can be the use of this long fold of skin and cartilage, which is not
attached to the head except where it joins the mouth, and which, from its
gradual development and ultimate large dimensions, must certainly serve
some useful purpose?
"Do not understand that I mean that every part of a creature is of use to it in
its present mode of life, for, as all naturalists know, there are in structural
anatomy, just as in social life, cases of survival; remains of organs which
were at some former time more developed, parallel in their nature to such
survivals in costume as the two buttons on the back of a man's coat, once
Page 538
useful for the attachment of a sword-belt. But in this fish we have no case
of survival, but one of unusual development; the family (Gobiidæ) to which
it belongs presents no similar case, although its members have somewhat
similar habits, and the conviction grows upon us, as we consider the
subject, that the long jaws serve some useful purpose in the economy of the
creature. In view of the half-terrestrial life led by this fish, I am inclined to
suspect that the expansion of the upper jaw may serve for the retention of a
small quantity of water, which, slowly trickling downward into the mouth
and gills, keeps the latter moist when, from an unusually low tide or a dry
season, the waters of its native creek fail, perhaps for several hours, to reach
the holes in which the fishes dwell. It may be objected to this view that,
were such an appendage necessary or even useful, other species of Gobiidæ,
whose habits are similar, would show traces of a similar adaptation. This,
however, by no means follows. Nature has many ways of working out the
same end; and it must be remembered that every real species, when
thoroughly known, differs somewhat in habits from its congeners, or at least
from its family friends. To take an illustration from the mammalia. The
chimpanzee and the spider-monkey are both quadrumanous and both
arboreal, yet the end which is attained in the former by its more perfect
hands is reached in the latter by its prehensile tail.
"Why may not the extremely long channel formed by the jaw of this rather
abnormal member of the goby family be another mode of provision for the
requirements of respiration?"
Of the Asiatic genera, Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus are especially
notable. In these mud-skippers the eyes are raised on a short stalk, the fins
are strong, and the animal has the power of skipping along over the wet
sands and mud, even skimming with great speed over the surface of the
water. It chases its insect prey among rocks, leaves, and weeds, and out of
the water is as agile as a lizard. Several species of these mud-skippers are
known on the coasts of Asia and Polynesia, Periophthalmus barbarus and
Boleophthalmus chinensis being the best known. Awaous crassilabris is the
common oopu, or river goby, of the Hawaiian streams, and Lentipes
stimpsoni is the mountain oopu, capable of clinging to the rocks in the rush
of torrents. Paragobiodon echinocephalus is a short thick-set goby with
very large head, found in crevices of coral reefs of Polynesia.
of survival, but one of unusual development; the family (Gobiidæ) to which
it belongs presents no similar case, although its members have somewhat
similar habits, and the conviction grows upon us, as we consider the
subject, that the long jaws serve some useful purpose in the economy of the
creature. In view of the half-terrestrial life led by this fish, I am inclined to
suspect that the expansion of the upper jaw may serve for the retention of a
small quantity of water, which, slowly trickling downward into the mouth
and gills, keeps the latter moist when, from an unusually low tide or a dry
season, the waters of its native creek fail, perhaps for several hours, to reach
the holes in which the fishes dwell. It may be objected to this view that,
were such an appendage necessary or even useful, other species of Gobiidæ,
whose habits are similar, would show traces of a similar adaptation. This,
however, by no means follows. Nature has many ways of working out the
same end; and it must be remembered that every real species, when
thoroughly known, differs somewhat in habits from its congeners, or at least
from its family friends. To take an illustration from the mammalia. The
chimpanzee and the spider-monkey are both quadrumanous and both
arboreal, yet the end which is attained in the former by its more perfect
hands is reached in the latter by its prehensile tail.
"Why may not the extremely long channel formed by the jaw of this rather
abnormal member of the goby family be another mode of provision for the
requirements of respiration?"
Of the Asiatic genera, Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus are especially
notable. In these mud-skippers the eyes are raised on a short stalk, the fins
are strong, and the animal has the power of skipping along over the wet
sands and mud, even skimming with great speed over the surface of the
water. It chases its insect prey among rocks, leaves, and weeds, and out of
the water is as agile as a lizard. Several species of these mud-skippers are
known on the coasts of Asia and Polynesia, Periophthalmus barbarus and
Boleophthalmus chinensis being the best known. Awaous crassilabris is the
common oopu, or river goby, of the Hawaiian streams, and Lentipes
stimpsoni is the mountain oopu, capable of clinging to the rocks in the rush
of torrents. Paragobiodon echinocephalus is a short thick-set goby with
very large head, found in crevices of coral reefs of Polynesia.
Page 539
Fig. 420.—Pond-skipper, Boleophthalmus chinensis (Osbeck). Bay of
Tokyo, Japan. (Eye-stalks sunken in preservation.)
Tokyo, Japan. (Eye-stalks sunken in preservation.)
Page 540
Fig. 421.—Mud-skippy, Periophthalmus oarbarus (L.). Mouth of Vaisigono
River, Apia, Samoa.
In numerous interesting species the first dorsal fin is wanting or much
reduced. The crystal goby, Crystallogobius nilssoni, of Europe is one of this
type, with the body translucent. Equally translucent is the little Japanese
River, Apia, Samoa.
In numerous interesting species the first dorsal fin is wanting or much
reduced. The crystal goby, Crystallogobius nilssoni, of Europe is one of this
type, with the body translucent. Equally translucent is the little Japanese
Page 541
shiro-uwo, or whitefish, Leucopsarion petersi. Mistichthys luzonius of the
Philippine Islands, another diaphanous goby, is said to be the smallest of all
vertebrates, being mature at half an inch in length. This minute fish is so
very abundant as to become an important article of food in Luzon. The rank
of "smallest-known vertebrate" has been claimed in turn for the lancelet
(Asymmetron lucayanum), the top minnow, Heterandria formosa, and the
dwarf sunfish (Elassoma zonatum). Mistichthys luzonius is smaller than any
of these, but the diminutive gobies, called Eviota, found in interstices of
coral rocks are equally small, and there are several brilliant but minute
forms in the reefs of Samoa. The snake-like Eutæniichthys gilli of Japanese
rivers is scarcely larger, though over an inch long. Typhlogobius
californiensis, "the blindfish of Point Loma," is a small goby, colorless and
blind, found clinging in dark crevices of rock about Point Loma and Dead
Man's Island in southern California.
Fig. 422.—Eutæniichthys gillii Jordan & Snyder. Tokyo, Japan.
Its eyes are represented by mere rudiments, their loss being evidently
associated with the peculiar habit of the species, which clings to the under
side of stones in relative darkness, though in very shallow water. The flesh
is also colorless, the animal appearing pink in life.
In the Japanese species Luciogobus guttatus, common under stones and
along the coast, the spinous dorsal, weak in numerous other species, finally
vanishes altogether. Other gobies are band-shaped or eel-shaped, the dorsal
spines being continuous with the soft rays. Among these are the barreto of
Cuba, Gobioides broussoneti, and in Japan Tænioides lacepedei and
Trypauchen wakæ, the latter species remarkable for its strong canines.
Fossil gobies are practically unknown. A few fragments, otoliths, and partial
skeletons in southern Europe have been referred to Gobius, but no other
genus is represented.
Philippine Islands, another diaphanous goby, is said to be the smallest of all
vertebrates, being mature at half an inch in length. This minute fish is so
very abundant as to become an important article of food in Luzon. The rank
of "smallest-known vertebrate" has been claimed in turn for the lancelet
(Asymmetron lucayanum), the top minnow, Heterandria formosa, and the
dwarf sunfish (Elassoma zonatum). Mistichthys luzonius is smaller than any
of these, but the diminutive gobies, called Eviota, found in interstices of
coral rocks are equally small, and there are several brilliant but minute
forms in the reefs of Samoa. The snake-like Eutæniichthys gilli of Japanese
rivers is scarcely larger, though over an inch long. Typhlogobius
californiensis, "the blindfish of Point Loma," is a small goby, colorless and
blind, found clinging in dark crevices of rock about Point Loma and Dead
Man's Island in southern California.
Fig. 422.—Eutæniichthys gillii Jordan & Snyder. Tokyo, Japan.
Its eyes are represented by mere rudiments, their loss being evidently
associated with the peculiar habit of the species, which clings to the under
side of stones in relative darkness, though in very shallow water. The flesh
is also colorless, the animal appearing pink in life.
In the Japanese species Luciogobus guttatus, common under stones and
along the coast, the spinous dorsal, weak in numerous other species, finally
vanishes altogether. Other gobies are band-shaped or eel-shaped, the dorsal
spines being continuous with the soft rays. Among these are the barreto of
Cuba, Gobioides broussoneti, and in Japan Tænioides lacepedei and
Trypauchen wakæ, the latter species remarkable for its strong canines.
Fossil gobies are practically unknown. A few fragments, otoliths, and partial
skeletons in southern Europe have been referred to Gobius, but no other
genus is represented.
Page 542
The family of Oxudercidæ contains one species, Oxuderces dentatus, a
small goby-like fish from China. It is an elongate fish, without ventral fins,
and with very short dorsal and anal.
Suborder Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.—Next to the
gobies, for want of a better place, we may mention the singular group of
Discocephali (δίσκος, disk; κεφαλή, head). In this group the first dorsal fin
is transformed into a peculiar laminated sucking-disk, which covers the
whole top of the head and the nape. In other respects the structure does not
diverge very widely from the percoid type, there being a remarkable
resemblance in external characters to the Scombroid genus Rachycentron.
But the skeleton shows no special affinity to Rachycentron or to any
perciform fish. The basis of the cranium is simple, and in the depression of
the head with associated modifications the Discocephali approach the
gobies and blennies rather than the mackerel-like forms.
Fig. 423.—Sucking-fish, or Pegador, Leptecheneis naucrates (Linnæus).
Virginia.
The Discocephali comprise the single family of shark-suckers or remoras,
the Echeneididæ. All the species of this group are pelagic fishes, widely
diffused in the warm seas. All cling by their cephalic disks to sharks,
barracudas, and other free-swimming fishes, and are carried about the seas
by these. They do not harm the shark except by slightly impeding its
movement. They are carnivorous fishes, feeding on sardines, young herring,
and the like. When a shark, taken on the hook, is drawn out of the water the
sucking-fish leaves it instantly, and is capable of much speed in swimming
on its own account. These fishes are all dusky in color, the belly as dark as
the back, so as to form little contrast to the color of the shark.
small goby-like fish from China. It is an elongate fish, without ventral fins,
and with very short dorsal and anal.
Suborder Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.—Next to the
gobies, for want of a better place, we may mention the singular group of
Discocephali (δίσκος, disk; κεφαλή, head). In this group the first dorsal fin
is transformed into a peculiar laminated sucking-disk, which covers the
whole top of the head and the nape. In other respects the structure does not
diverge very widely from the percoid type, there being a remarkable
resemblance in external characters to the Scombroid genus Rachycentron.
But the skeleton shows no special affinity to Rachycentron or to any
perciform fish. The basis of the cranium is simple, and in the depression of
the head with associated modifications the Discocephali approach the
gobies and blennies rather than the mackerel-like forms.
Fig. 423.—Sucking-fish, or Pegador, Leptecheneis naucrates (Linnæus).
Virginia.
The Discocephali comprise the single family of shark-suckers or remoras,
the Echeneididæ. All the species of this group are pelagic fishes, widely
diffused in the warm seas. All cling by their cephalic disks to sharks,
barracudas, and other free-swimming fishes, and are carried about the seas
by these. They do not harm the shark except by slightly impeding its
movement. They are carnivorous fishes, feeding on sardines, young herring,
and the like. When a shark, taken on the hook, is drawn out of the water the
sucking-fish leaves it instantly, and is capable of much speed in swimming
on its own account. These fishes are all dusky in color, the belly as dark as
the back, so as to form little contrast to the color of the shark.
Page 543
The commonest species, Leptecheneis naucrates, called pegapega or
pegador in Cuba, reaches a length of about two feet and is almost
cosmopolitan in its range, being found exclusively on the larger sharks,
notably on Carcharias lamia. It has 20 to 22 plates in its disk, and the sides
are marked by a dusky lateral band.
Almost equally widely distributed is the smaller remora, or shark-sucker
(Echeneis remora), with a stouter body and about 18 plates in the cephalic
disk. This species is found in Europe, on the coast of New York, in the West
Indies, in California, and in Japan, but is nowhere abundant. Another widely
distributed species is Remorina albescens with 13 plates in its disk.
Remoropsis brachyptera, with 15 plates and a long soft dorsal, is also
occasionally taken. Rhombochirus osteochir is a rare species of the Atlantic
with 18 plates, having the pectoral rays all enlarged and stiff. The louse-fish
(Phtheirichthys lineatus) is a small and slender remora having but 10 plates
in its disk. It is found attached, not to sharks, but to barracudas and
spearfishes.
Fig. 424.—Rhombochirus osteochir (Cuv. & Val.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
A fossil remora is described from the Oligocene shales in Glarus,
Switzerland, under the name of Opisthomyzon glaronensis. It is
characterized by the small disk posteriorly inserted. Its vertebræ are 10 + 13
= 24 only. Dr. Storms gives the following account of this species:
"A careful comparison of the proportion of all the parts of the skeleton of
the fossil Echeneis with those of the living forms, such as Echeneis
naucrates or Echeneis remora, shows that the fossil differs nearly equally
from both, and that it was a more normally shaped fish than either of these
pegador in Cuba, reaches a length of about two feet and is almost
cosmopolitan in its range, being found exclusively on the larger sharks,
notably on Carcharias lamia. It has 20 to 22 plates in its disk, and the sides
are marked by a dusky lateral band.
Almost equally widely distributed is the smaller remora, or shark-sucker
(Echeneis remora), with a stouter body and about 18 plates in the cephalic
disk. This species is found in Europe, on the coast of New York, in the West
Indies, in California, and in Japan, but is nowhere abundant. Another widely
distributed species is Remorina albescens with 13 plates in its disk.
Remoropsis brachyptera, with 15 plates and a long soft dorsal, is also
occasionally taken. Rhombochirus osteochir is a rare species of the Atlantic
with 18 plates, having the pectoral rays all enlarged and stiff. The louse-fish
(Phtheirichthys lineatus) is a small and slender remora having but 10 plates
in its disk. It is found attached, not to sharks, but to barracudas and
spearfishes.
Fig. 424.—Rhombochirus osteochir (Cuv. & Val.). Wood's Hole, Mass.
A fossil remora is described from the Oligocene shales in Glarus,
Switzerland, under the name of Opisthomyzon glaronensis. It is
characterized by the small disk posteriorly inserted. Its vertebræ are 10 + 13
= 24 only. Dr. Storms gives the following account of this species:
"A careful comparison of the proportion of all the parts of the skeleton of
the fossil Echeneis with those of the living forms, such as Echeneis
naucrates or Echeneis remora, shows that the fossil differs nearly equally
from both, and that it was a more normally shaped fish than either of these
Page 544
forms. The head was narrower and less flattened, the preoperculum wider,
but its two jaws had nearly the same length. The ribs, as also the neural and
hæmal spines, were longer, the tail more forked, and the soft dorsal fin
much longer. In fact it was a more compressed type, probably a far better
swimmer than its living congeners, as might be expected if the smallness of
the adhesive disk is taken into account."
Concerning the relations of the Discocephali Dr. Gill has the following
pertinent remarks:
"The family of Scomberoides was constituted by Cuvier for certain forms of
known organization, among which were fishes evidently related to Caranx,
but which had free dorsal spines. Dr. Günther conceived the idea of
disintegrating this family because, inter alias, the typical Scomberoides
(family Scombridæ) have more than 24 vertebræ and others (family
Carangidæ) had just 24. The assumption of Cuvier as to the relationship of
Elacate (Rachycentron) was repeated, but inasmuch as it had 'more than 24
vertebræ' (it had 25 = 12 + 13) it was severed from the free-spined
Carangidæ and associated with the Scombridæ. Elacate has an elongated
body, flattened head, and a longitudinal lateral band; therefore Echeneis was
considered to be next allied to Elacate and to belong to the same family.
The very numerous differences in structure between the two were entirely
ignored, and the reference of the Echeneis to the Scombridæ is simply due
to assumption piled on assumption. The collocation need not, therefore,
longer detain us. The possession by Echeneis of the anterior oval cephalic
disk in place of a spinous dorsal fin would alone necessitate the isolation of
the genus as a peculiar family. But that difference is associated with almost
innumerable other peculiarities of the skeleton and other parts, and in a
logical system it must be removed far from the Scombridæ, and probably be
endowed with subordinal distinction. In all essential respects it departs
greatly from the type of structure manifested in the Scombridæ and rather
approximates—but very distantly—the Gobioidea and Blennioidea. In
those types we have in some a tendency to flattening of the head, of anterior
development of the dorsal fin, a simple basis cranii, etc. Nevertheless there
is no close affinity, nor even tendency to the extreme modification of the
spinous dorsal exhibited by Echeneis. In view of all these facts Echeneis,
with its subdivisions, may be regarded as constituting not only a family but
a suborder.... Who can consistently object to the proposition to segregate the
but its two jaws had nearly the same length. The ribs, as also the neural and
hæmal spines, were longer, the tail more forked, and the soft dorsal fin
much longer. In fact it was a more compressed type, probably a far better
swimmer than its living congeners, as might be expected if the smallness of
the adhesive disk is taken into account."
Concerning the relations of the Discocephali Dr. Gill has the following
pertinent remarks:
"The family of Scomberoides was constituted by Cuvier for certain forms of
known organization, among which were fishes evidently related to Caranx,
but which had free dorsal spines. Dr. Günther conceived the idea of
disintegrating this family because, inter alias, the typical Scomberoides
(family Scombridæ) have more than 24 vertebræ and others (family
Carangidæ) had just 24. The assumption of Cuvier as to the relationship of
Elacate (Rachycentron) was repeated, but inasmuch as it had 'more than 24
vertebræ' (it had 25 = 12 + 13) it was severed from the free-spined
Carangidæ and associated with the Scombridæ. Elacate has an elongated
body, flattened head, and a longitudinal lateral band; therefore Echeneis was
considered to be next allied to Elacate and to belong to the same family.
The very numerous differences in structure between the two were entirely
ignored, and the reference of the Echeneis to the Scombridæ is simply due
to assumption piled on assumption. The collocation need not, therefore,
longer detain us. The possession by Echeneis of the anterior oval cephalic
disk in place of a spinous dorsal fin would alone necessitate the isolation of
the genus as a peculiar family. But that difference is associated with almost
innumerable other peculiarities of the skeleton and other parts, and in a
logical system it must be removed far from the Scombridæ, and probably be
endowed with subordinal distinction. In all essential respects it departs
greatly from the type of structure manifested in the Scombridæ and rather
approximates—but very distantly—the Gobioidea and Blennioidea. In
those types we have in some a tendency to flattening of the head, of anterior
development of the dorsal fin, a simple basis cranii, etc. Nevertheless there
is no close affinity, nor even tendency to the extreme modification of the
spinous dorsal exhibited by Echeneis. In view of all these facts Echeneis,
with its subdivisions, may be regarded as constituting not only a family but
a suborder.... Who can consistently object to the proposition to segregate the
Page 545
Echeneididæ as a suborder of teleocephalous fishes? Not those who
consider that the development of three or four inarticulate rays (or even
less) in the front of the dorsal fin is sufficient to ordinarily differentiate a
given form from another with only one or two such. Certainly the difference
between the constituents of a disk and any rays or spines is much greater
than the mere development or atrophy of articulations. Not those who
consider that the manner of depression of spines, whether directly over the
following, or to the right or left alternately, are of cardinal importance; for
such differences, again, are manifestly of less morphological significance
than the factors of a suctorial disk. Nevertheless there are doubtless many
who will passively resist the proposition because of a conservative spirit,
and who will vaguely refer to the development of the disk as being a
'teleological modification,' and as if it were not an actual fact and a
development correlated with radical modifications of all parts of the
skeleton at least. But whatever may be the closest relations of Echeneis, or
the systematic value of its peculiarities, it is certain that it is not allied to
Elacate any more than to hosts of scombroid, percoid, and kindred fishes,
and that it differs in toto from it notwithstanding the claims that have been
made otherwise. It is true that there is a striking resemblance, especially
between the young—almost as great, for example, as that between the
placental mouse and the marsupial Antechinomys—but the likeness is
entirely superficial, and the scientific ichthyologist should be no more
misled than would be the scientific therologist by the likeness of the
marsupial and placental mammals."
Suborder Tæniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.—The suborder Tæniosomi
(ταινία, ribbon; σῶμα, body), or ribbon-fishes, is made up of strange
inhabitants of the open seas, perhaps aberrant derivatives of the mackerel
stock. The body is greatly elongate, much compressed, extremely fragile,
covered with shining silvery skin. The ribbon-fishes live in the open sea,
probably at no very great depth, but are almost never taken by collectors
except when thrown on shore in storms or when attacked by other fishes
and dragged above or below their depth. When found they are usually
reported as sea-serpents, and although perfectly harmless, they are usually
at once destroyed by their ignorant captors. The whole body is exceedingly
fragile; the bones are porous, thin, and light, containing scarcely any
calcareous matter. In the Tæniosomi the ventral fins are thoracic, formed of
one or a few soft rays. More remarkable is the character of the caudal fin,
consider that the development of three or four inarticulate rays (or even
less) in the front of the dorsal fin is sufficient to ordinarily differentiate a
given form from another with only one or two such. Certainly the difference
between the constituents of a disk and any rays or spines is much greater
than the mere development or atrophy of articulations. Not those who
consider that the manner of depression of spines, whether directly over the
following, or to the right or left alternately, are of cardinal importance; for
such differences, again, are manifestly of less morphological significance
than the factors of a suctorial disk. Nevertheless there are doubtless many
who will passively resist the proposition because of a conservative spirit,
and who will vaguely refer to the development of the disk as being a
'teleological modification,' and as if it were not an actual fact and a
development correlated with radical modifications of all parts of the
skeleton at least. But whatever may be the closest relations of Echeneis, or
the systematic value of its peculiarities, it is certain that it is not allied to
Elacate any more than to hosts of scombroid, percoid, and kindred fishes,
and that it differs in toto from it notwithstanding the claims that have been
made otherwise. It is true that there is a striking resemblance, especially
between the young—almost as great, for example, as that between the
placental mouse and the marsupial Antechinomys—but the likeness is
entirely superficial, and the scientific ichthyologist should be no more
misled than would be the scientific therologist by the likeness of the
marsupial and placental mammals."
Suborder Tæniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.—The suborder Tæniosomi
(ταινία, ribbon; σῶμα, body), or ribbon-fishes, is made up of strange
inhabitants of the open seas, perhaps aberrant derivatives of the mackerel
stock. The body is greatly elongate, much compressed, extremely fragile,
covered with shining silvery skin. The ribbon-fishes live in the open sea,
probably at no very great depth, but are almost never taken by collectors
except when thrown on shore in storms or when attacked by other fishes
and dragged above or below their depth. When found they are usually
reported as sea-serpents, and although perfectly harmless, they are usually
at once destroyed by their ignorant captors. The whole body is exceedingly
fragile; the bones are porous, thin, and light, containing scarcely any
calcareous matter. In the Tæniosomi the ventral fins are thoracic, formed of
one or a few soft rays. More remarkable is the character of the caudal fin,
Page 546
which is always distorted and usually not in line with the rest of the body.
The teeth are small. The general structure is not very different from that of
the cutlass-fishes, Trichiuridæ, and other degraded offshoots from the
scombroid group. The species are few and, from the nature of things, very
imperfectly known. Scarcely any specimens are perfectly preserved. When
dried the body almost disappears, both flesh and bones being composed
chiefly of water.
The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.—The Regalecidæ, or oarfishes, have the
caudal fin obsolete and the ventrals reduced to long filaments, thickened at
the tip. The species reach a length of twenty or thirty feet, and from their
great size, slender forms, and sinuous motion have been almost everywhere
regarded as sea-serpents. The very long anterior spines of the dorsal fin are
tipped with red, and the fish is often and not untruthfully described as a sea-
serpent "having a horse's head with a flaming red mane."
The great oarfish, Regalecus glesne (see Fig. 237, Vol. I) was long known
to the common people of Norway as king of the herrings, it being thought
that to harm it would be to drive the herring to some other coast. The name
"king of the herrings" went into science as Regalecus, from rex, king, and
halec, herring. The Japanese fancy, which runs in a different line, calls the
creature "Dugunonuatatori," which means the "cock of the palace under the
sea."
The Atlantic oarfish is named Regalecus glesne, from the Norwegian farm
of Glesnæs, where the first recorded specimen, described by Ascanius, was
taken 130 years ago. Since then the species has been many times found on
the shores of Great Britain and Norway, and once at Bermuda.
In this species the body is half-transparent, almost jelly-like, light blue in
color, with some darker cross-stripes, and the head has a long jaw and a
high forehead, suggesting the head of a horse. The dorsal fin begins on the
head, and the first few spines are very long, each having a red tuft on the
end. When the animal is alive these spines stand up like a red mane.
The creature is harmless, weak in muscle as well as feeble in mind. It lives
in the deep seas, all over the world. After great storms it sometimes comes
ashore. Perhaps this is because for some reason it has risen above its depth
and so lost control of itself. When a deep-water fish rises to the surface the
change of pressure greatly affects it. Reduction of pressure bursts its blood-
The teeth are small. The general structure is not very different from that of
the cutlass-fishes, Trichiuridæ, and other degraded offshoots from the
scombroid group. The species are few and, from the nature of things, very
imperfectly known. Scarcely any specimens are perfectly preserved. When
dried the body almost disappears, both flesh and bones being composed
chiefly of water.
The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.—The Regalecidæ, or oarfishes, have the
caudal fin obsolete and the ventrals reduced to long filaments, thickened at
the tip. The species reach a length of twenty or thirty feet, and from their
great size, slender forms, and sinuous motion have been almost everywhere
regarded as sea-serpents. The very long anterior spines of the dorsal fin are
tipped with red, and the fish is often and not untruthfully described as a sea-
serpent "having a horse's head with a flaming red mane."
The great oarfish, Regalecus glesne (see Fig. 237, Vol. I) was long known
to the common people of Norway as king of the herrings, it being thought
that to harm it would be to drive the herring to some other coast. The name
"king of the herrings" went into science as Regalecus, from rex, king, and
halec, herring. The Japanese fancy, which runs in a different line, calls the
creature "Dugunonuatatori," which means the "cock of the palace under the
sea."
The Atlantic oarfish is named Regalecus glesne, from the Norwegian farm
of Glesnæs, where the first recorded specimen, described by Ascanius, was
taken 130 years ago. Since then the species has been many times found on
the shores of Great Britain and Norway, and once at Bermuda.
In this species the body is half-transparent, almost jelly-like, light blue in
color, with some darker cross-stripes, and the head has a long jaw and a
high forehead, suggesting the head of a horse. The dorsal fin begins on the
head, and the first few spines are very long, each having a red tuft on the
end. When the animal is alive these spines stand up like a red mane.
The creature is harmless, weak in muscle as well as feeble in mind. It lives
in the deep seas, all over the world. After great storms it sometimes comes
ashore. Perhaps this is because for some reason it has risen above its depth
and so lost control of itself. When a deep-water fish rises to the surface the
change of pressure greatly affects it. Reduction of pressure bursts its blood-
Page 547
vessels, its swim-bladder swells, if it has one, and turns its stomach inside
out. If a deep-water fish gets above its depth it is lost, just as surely as a
surface fish is when it gets sunk to the depth of half a mile.
Sometimes, again, these deep-sea fishes rush to the shore to escape from
parasites, crustaceans that torture their soft flesh, or sharks that would tear
it.
Numerous specimens have been found in the Pacific, and to these several
names have been given, but the species are not at all clearly made out. The
oldest name is that of Regalecus russelli, for the naturalist Patrick Russell,
who took a specimen at Vizagapatam in 1788. I have seen two large
examples of Regalecus in the museum at Tokio, and several young ones
have recently been stranded on the Island of Santa Catalina in southern
California. A specimen twenty-two feet long lately came ashore at Newport
in Orange County, California. The story of its capture is thus told by Mr.
Horatio J. Forgy, of Santa Ana, California:
"On the 22d of February, 1901, a Mexican Indian reported at Newport
Beach that about one mile up the coast he had landed a sea-serpent, and as
proof showed four tentacles and a strip of flesh about six feet long. A crowd
went up to see it, and they said it was about twenty feet long and like a fish
in some respects and like a snake in others. Mr. Remsberg and I, on the
following day, went up to see it, and in a short time we gathered a crowd
and with the assistance of Mr. Peabody prepared the fish and took the
picture you have received.
"It measured twenty-one feet and some inches in length, and weighed about
500 or 600 pounds.
"The Indian, when he reported his discovery, said it was alive and in the
shallow water, and that he had landed it himself.
"This I very much doubt, but when it was first landed it was in a fine state
of preservation and could have easily been shipped to you, but he had cut it
to such an extent that shipment or preservation seemed out of the question
when we first saw it.
"At the time it came ashore an unusual number of peculiar fishes and sharks
were found. Among others, I found a small oarfish about three feet long in a
out. If a deep-water fish gets above its depth it is lost, just as surely as a
surface fish is when it gets sunk to the depth of half a mile.
Sometimes, again, these deep-sea fishes rush to the shore to escape from
parasites, crustaceans that torture their soft flesh, or sharks that would tear
it.
Numerous specimens have been found in the Pacific, and to these several
names have been given, but the species are not at all clearly made out. The
oldest name is that of Regalecus russelli, for the naturalist Patrick Russell,
who took a specimen at Vizagapatam in 1788. I have seen two large
examples of Regalecus in the museum at Tokio, and several young ones
have recently been stranded on the Island of Santa Catalina in southern
California. A specimen twenty-two feet long lately came ashore at Newport
in Orange County, California. The story of its capture is thus told by Mr.
Horatio J. Forgy, of Santa Ana, California:
"On the 22d of February, 1901, a Mexican Indian reported at Newport
Beach that about one mile up the coast he had landed a sea-serpent, and as
proof showed four tentacles and a strip of flesh about six feet long. A crowd
went up to see it, and they said it was about twenty feet long and like a fish
in some respects and like a snake in others. Mr. Remsberg and I, on the
following day, went up to see it, and in a short time we gathered a crowd
and with the assistance of Mr. Peabody prepared the fish and took the
picture you have received.
"It measured twenty-one feet and some inches in length, and weighed about
500 or 600 pounds.
"The Indian, when he reported his discovery, said it was alive and in the
shallow water, and that he had landed it himself.
"This I very much doubt, but when it was first landed it was in a fine state
of preservation and could have easily been shipped to you, but he had cut it
to such an extent that shipment or preservation seemed out of the question
when we first saw it.
"At the time it came ashore an unusual number of peculiar fishes and sharks
were found. Among others, I found a small oarfish about three feet long in a
Page 548
bad state of preservation in a piece of kelp. One side of it was nearly torn
off and the other side was decayed."
Mr. C. F. Holder gives this account of the capture of oarfishes in southern
California:
"From a zoological point of view the island of Santa Catalina, which lies
eighteen miles off the coast of Los Angeles County, southern California, is
very interesting, many rare animals being found there. Every winter the
dwellers of the island find numbers of argonaut-shells, and several living
specimens have been secured, one for a time living in the aquarium which
is maintained here for the benefit of students and the entertainment of
visitors. A number of rare and interesting fishes wander inshore from time
to time. Several years ago I found various Scopeloid fishes, which up to that
time had been considered rare, and during the past few years I have seen
one oarfish (Regalecus russelli) alive, while another was brought to me
dead. From reports I judge that a number of these very rare fishes have been
observed here. The first was of small size, not over two feet in length, and
was discovered swimming in shallow water along the beach of Avalon Bay.
I had an opportunity to observe the radiant creature before it died. Its
'topknot'—it can be compared to nothing else—was a vivid red or scarlet
mass of seeming plumes—the dorsal fins, which merged into a long dorsal
fin, extending to the tail. The color of the body was a brilliant silver sheen
splashed with equally vivid black zebra-like stripes, which gave the fish a
most striking appearance.
"The fish was a fragile and delicate creature, a very ghost of a fish, which
swam along where the water gently lapped the sands with an undulatory
motion, looking like one of its names—the ribbon-fish. The fortunate finder
of this specimen could not be persuaded to give it up or sell it, and it was its
fate to be pasted upon a piece of board, dried in the sun as a 'curio,' where,
as if in retaliation at the desecration of so rare a specimen, it soon
disappeared.
"This apparently was the first oarfish ever seen in the United States, so at
least Dr. G. Brown Goode wrote me at the time that it had not been
reported. In 1899 another oarfish was brought to me, evidently having been
washed in after a storm and found within a few yards of the former at
Avalon. The discoverer of this specimen also refused to allow it to be
off and the other side was decayed."
Mr. C. F. Holder gives this account of the capture of oarfishes in southern
California:
"From a zoological point of view the island of Santa Catalina, which lies
eighteen miles off the coast of Los Angeles County, southern California, is
very interesting, many rare animals being found there. Every winter the
dwellers of the island find numbers of argonaut-shells, and several living
specimens have been secured, one for a time living in the aquarium which
is maintained here for the benefit of students and the entertainment of
visitors. A number of rare and interesting fishes wander inshore from time
to time. Several years ago I found various Scopeloid fishes, which up to that
time had been considered rare, and during the past few years I have seen
one oarfish (Regalecus russelli) alive, while another was brought to me
dead. From reports I judge that a number of these very rare fishes have been
observed here. The first was of small size, not over two feet in length, and
was discovered swimming in shallow water along the beach of Avalon Bay.
I had an opportunity to observe the radiant creature before it died. Its
'topknot'—it can be compared to nothing else—was a vivid red or scarlet
mass of seeming plumes—the dorsal fins, which merged into a long dorsal
fin, extending to the tail. The color of the body was a brilliant silver sheen
splashed with equally vivid black zebra-like stripes, which gave the fish a
most striking appearance.
"The fish was a fragile and delicate creature, a very ghost of a fish, which
swam along where the water gently lapped the sands with an undulatory
motion, looking like one of its names—the ribbon-fish. The fortunate finder
of this specimen could not be persuaded to give it up or sell it, and it was its
fate to be pasted upon a piece of board, dried in the sun as a 'curio,' where,
as if in retaliation at the desecration of so rare a specimen, it soon
disappeared.
"This apparently was the first oarfish ever seen in the United States, so at
least Dr. G. Brown Goode wrote me at the time that it had not been
reported. In 1899 another oarfish was brought to me, evidently having been
washed in after a storm and found within a few yards of the former at
Avalon. The discoverer of this specimen also refused to allow it to be
Page 549
properly preserved, or to donate or sell it to any one who would have sent it
to some museum, but, believing it valuable as a 'curio,' also impaled it, the
delicate creature evaporating under the strong heat of the semitropic sun.
"This, as stated, was the second fish discovered, and during the past winter
(1900) a fine large specimen came in at Newport Beach, being reported by
H. J. Forgy, of Santa Ana. The newspapers announced that a Mexican had
found a young sea-serpent at Newport, and investigation showed that, as in
hundreds of similar instances, the man had found a valuable prize without
being aware of it. According to the account, the discoverer first saw the fish
alive in the surf and hauled it ashore. Being ignorant of its value, he cut it
up, bringing in a part of the scarlet fins and a slice of the flesh. This he
showed to some men, and led the way to where lay the mutilated remains of
one of the finest oar-or ribbon-fishes ever seen. The specimen was twenty-
one feet in length, and its weight estimated at five hundred pounds. The
finder had so mutilated it that the fish was ruined for almost any purpose. If
he had packed it in salt, the specimen would have returned him the
equivalent of several months' labor. Apparently the man had cut it up in
wanton amusement.
"This recalls a similar incident. I was on one occasion excavating at San
Clemente Island, and had remarked that it was a singular fact that all the
fine stone ollas were broken. 'Nothing strange about that,' said a half-breed,
one of the party. 'I used to herd sheep here, and we smashed mortars and
ollas to pass away time.'"
to some museum, but, believing it valuable as a 'curio,' also impaled it, the
delicate creature evaporating under the strong heat of the semitropic sun.
"This, as stated, was the second fish discovered, and during the past winter
(1900) a fine large specimen came in at Newport Beach, being reported by
H. J. Forgy, of Santa Ana. The newspapers announced that a Mexican had
found a young sea-serpent at Newport, and investigation showed that, as in
hundreds of similar instances, the man had found a valuable prize without
being aware of it. According to the account, the discoverer first saw the fish
alive in the surf and hauled it ashore. Being ignorant of its value, he cut it
up, bringing in a part of the scarlet fins and a slice of the flesh. This he
showed to some men, and led the way to where lay the mutilated remains of
one of the finest oar-or ribbon-fishes ever seen. The specimen was twenty-
one feet in length, and its weight estimated at five hundred pounds. The
finder had so mutilated it that the fish was ruined for almost any purpose. If
he had packed it in salt, the specimen would have returned him the
equivalent of several months' labor. Apparently the man had cut it up in
wanton amusement.
"This recalls a similar incident. I was on one occasion excavating at San
Clemente Island, and had remarked that it was a singular fact that all the
fine stone ollas were broken. 'Nothing strange about that,' said a half-breed,
one of the party. 'I used to herd sheep here, and we smashed mortars and
ollas to pass away time.'"
Page 550
Fig. 425.—Oarfish, Regalecus russelli, on the beach at Newport, Orange
Co., Cal. (Photograph by C. P. Remsberg.)
The Dealfishes: Trachypteridæ.—The family of Trachypteridæ comprises
the dealfishes, creatures of fantastic form and silvery coloration, smaller
than the oarfishes and more common, but of similar habit.
Just as in Norway the fantastic oarfish was believed to be the king of the
herrings and cherished as such, so among the Indians of Puget Sound
another freak fish is held sacred as the king of the salmon. The people about
Cape Flattery believe that if one does any harm to this fish the salmon will
at once leave the shores. This fable led the naturalists who first discovered
this fish to give it its name of Trachypterus rex-salmonorum.
In Europe a similar species (Trachypterus atlanticus) has long been known
by the name of dealfish, or vogmar, neither of these names having any
evident propriety.
The dealfish is one of the most singular of all the strange creatures of the
sea. It reaches a length of three or four feet. Its body is thin as a knife and
would be transparent were it not covered over with a shining white pigment
which gives to the animal the luster of burnished silver. On this white
Co., Cal. (Photograph by C. P. Remsberg.)
The Dealfishes: Trachypteridæ.—The family of Trachypteridæ comprises
the dealfishes, creatures of fantastic form and silvery coloration, smaller
than the oarfishes and more common, but of similar habit.
Just as in Norway the fantastic oarfish was believed to be the king of the
herrings and cherished as such, so among the Indians of Puget Sound
another freak fish is held sacred as the king of the salmon. The people about
Cape Flattery believe that if one does any harm to this fish the salmon will
at once leave the shores. This fable led the naturalists who first discovered
this fish to give it its name of Trachypterus rex-salmonorum.
In Europe a similar species (Trachypterus atlanticus) has long been known
by the name of dealfish, or vogmar, neither of these names having any
evident propriety.
The dealfish is one of the most singular of all the strange creatures of the
sea. It reaches a length of three or four feet. Its body is thin as a knife and
would be transparent were it not covered over with a shining white pigment
which gives to the animal the luster of burnished silver. On this white
Page 551
surface is a large black blotch or two, but no other colors. The head is
something like that of the oarfish, to which animal the dealfish bears a close
relationship. Both have small teeth and neither could bite if it would, and
neither wants to, for they are creatures of the most inoffensive sort. On the
head of the dealfish, where the oarfish has its mane, is a long, streamer-like
fin. At the end of the tail, instead of the ordinary caudal fin, is a long, slim
fin which projects directly upwards at right angles to the direction of the
back-bone. No other fish shows this strange peculiarity.
The dealfish swims in the open sea close to the surface of the water. It does
not often come near shore, but it is occasionally blown on the beach by
storms. Trachypterus rex-salmonorum has been recorded two or three times
from Puget Sound and twice from California. The finest specimen known,
the one from which our figure is taken, was secured off the Farallones in
1895 by a fisherman named W. C. Knox, and by him sent to Stanford
University. The specimen is perfect in all its parts, a condition rare with
these fragile creatures, and its picture gives a good idea of the mysterious
king of the salmon.
Fig. 426.—Dealfish, or King of the Salmon, Trachypterus rex-salmonorum
Jordan & Gilbert. Family Trachypteridæ. (From a specimen taken off the
Farallones.)
something like that of the oarfish, to which animal the dealfish bears a close
relationship. Both have small teeth and neither could bite if it would, and
neither wants to, for they are creatures of the most inoffensive sort. On the
head of the dealfish, where the oarfish has its mane, is a long, streamer-like
fin. At the end of the tail, instead of the ordinary caudal fin, is a long, slim
fin which projects directly upwards at right angles to the direction of the
back-bone. No other fish shows this strange peculiarity.
The dealfish swims in the open sea close to the surface of the water. It does
not often come near shore, but it is occasionally blown on the beach by
storms. Trachypterus rex-salmonorum has been recorded two or three times
from Puget Sound and twice from California. The finest specimen known,
the one from which our figure is taken, was secured off the Farallones in
1895 by a fisherman named W. C. Knox, and by him sent to Stanford
University. The specimen is perfect in all its parts, a condition rare with
these fragile creatures, and its picture gives a good idea of the mysterious
king of the salmon.
Fig. 426.—Dealfish, or King of the Salmon, Trachypterus rex-salmonorum
Jordan & Gilbert. Family Trachypteridæ. (From a specimen taken off the
Farallones.)
Page 552
Four of these fishes have been obtained on the coast of Japan, and have
been described and figured by the present writer in the annals of the
Imperial University of Tokyo. These are different from the California
species and are named Trachypterus ishikawæ, but they show the same
bright silver color and the same streamers on the head and tail. Probably
they, too, in Japan are kings of something or other, or perhaps silver swans
from the submarine palace, for along such lines the Japanese fancy is more
likely to run.
The young of the dealfish has the caudal symmetrical, and the dorsal spines
and ventral rays produced in very long streamers.
According to Goode and Bean, the dealfishes are "true deep-sea fishes,
which live at very great depths, and are only found when floating dead on
the surface or washed ashore by the waves. Almost nothing is known of
their habits except through Nilsson's observations in the far north. This
naturalist, as well as Olafson, appears to have had the opportunity of
observing them in life. They say that they approach the shore at flood-tide
on sandy, shelving bottoms, and are often left by the retreating waves.
Nilsson's opinion is that its habits resemble those of the flatfishes, and that
they move with one side turned obliquely upward, the other toward the
ground; and he says that they have been seen on the bottom in two or three
fathoms of water, where the fishermen hook them up with the implements
employed to raise dead seals, and that they are slow swimmers. This is not
necessarily the case, however, for the removal of pressure and the rough
treatment by which they were probably washed ashore would be
demoralizing, to say the least. Trichiurus, a fish similar in form, is a very
strong, swift swimmer, and so is Regalecus. Whether or not the habits of
Trachypterus arcticus, on which these observations were made, are a safe
guide in regard to the other forms is a matter of some doubt, but it is certain
that they live far from the surface, except near the Arctic Circle, and that
they only come ashore accidentally. They have never been taken by the
deep-sea dredge or trawl-net, and indeed perfect specimens are very rare,
the bodies being very soft and brittle, the bones and fin-rays exceedingly
fragile. A considerable number of species have been described, but in most
instances each was based on one or two specimens. It is probable that future
studies may be as fruitful as that of Emery, who, by means of a series of
twenty-three specimens, succeeded in uniting at least three of the
been described and figured by the present writer in the annals of the
Imperial University of Tokyo. These are different from the California
species and are named Trachypterus ishikawæ, but they show the same
bright silver color and the same streamers on the head and tail. Probably
they, too, in Japan are kings of something or other, or perhaps silver swans
from the submarine palace, for along such lines the Japanese fancy is more
likely to run.
The young of the dealfish has the caudal symmetrical, and the dorsal spines
and ventral rays produced in very long streamers.
According to Goode and Bean, the dealfishes are "true deep-sea fishes,
which live at very great depths, and are only found when floating dead on
the surface or washed ashore by the waves. Almost nothing is known of
their habits except through Nilsson's observations in the far north. This
naturalist, as well as Olafson, appears to have had the opportunity of
observing them in life. They say that they approach the shore at flood-tide
on sandy, shelving bottoms, and are often left by the retreating waves.
Nilsson's opinion is that its habits resemble those of the flatfishes, and that
they move with one side turned obliquely upward, the other toward the
ground; and he says that they have been seen on the bottom in two or three
fathoms of water, where the fishermen hook them up with the implements
employed to raise dead seals, and that they are slow swimmers. This is not
necessarily the case, however, for the removal of pressure and the rough
treatment by which they were probably washed ashore would be
demoralizing, to say the least. Trichiurus, a fish similar in form, is a very
strong, swift swimmer, and so is Regalecus. Whether or not the habits of
Trachypterus arcticus, on which these observations were made, are a safe
guide in regard to the other forms is a matter of some doubt, but it is certain
that they live far from the surface, except near the Arctic Circle, and that
they only come ashore accidentally. They have never been taken by the
deep-sea dredge or trawl-net, and indeed perfect specimens are very rare,
the bodies being very soft and brittle, the bones and fin-rays exceedingly
fragile. A considerable number of species have been described, but in most
instances each was based on one or two specimens. It is probable that future
studies may be as fruitful as that of Emery, who, by means of a series of
twenty-three specimens, succeeded in uniting at least three of the
Page 553
Mediterranean species which for half a century or more had been regarded
as distinct. The common species of the eastern Atlantic, Trachypterus
atlanticus, is not rare, one or more specimens, according to Günther, being
secured along the coast of northern Europe after almost every severe gale.
We desire to quote the recommendation of Dr. Günther, and to strongly urge
upon any one who may be so fortunate as to secure one of these fishes that
no attempt should be made to keep it entire, but that it should be cut into
short lengths and preserved in the strongest spirits, each piece wrapped
separately in muslin."
The family of Stylephoridæ is known from a single specimen of the species,
Stylephorus chordatus, taken off Cuba in 1790. In this form the tail ends in
a long, whip-like appendage, twice as long as the head.
No fossil dealfishes or oarfishes are known.
as distinct. The common species of the eastern Atlantic, Trachypterus
atlanticus, is not rare, one or more specimens, according to Günther, being
secured along the coast of northern Europe after almost every severe gale.
We desire to quote the recommendation of Dr. Günther, and to strongly urge
upon any one who may be so fortunate as to secure one of these fishes that
no attempt should be made to keep it entire, but that it should be cut into
short lengths and preserved in the strongest spirits, each piece wrapped
separately in muslin."
The family of Stylephoridæ is known from a single specimen of the species,
Stylephorus chordatus, taken off Cuba in 1790. In this form the tail ends in
a long, whip-like appendage, twice as long as the head.
No fossil dealfishes or oarfishes are known.
Page 554
CHAPTER XXVII
SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA
he Flatfishes.—Perhaps the most remarkable offshoot from the
order of spiny-rayed fishes is the great group of flounders and
soles, called by Bonaparte Heterosomata (ἔτερός, differing;
σῶμα, body). The essential character of this group is found in
the twisting of the anterior part of the cranium, an
arrangement which brings both eyes on the same side of the head. This is
accompanied by a great compression of the body, as a result of which the
flounders swim horizontally or lie flat on the sand. On the side which is
uppermost both eyes are placed, this side being colored, brown or gray or
mottled. The lower side is usually plain white. In certain genera the right
side is uppermost, in others the left. In a very few, confined to the coast of
California, the eyes are on the right or left side indifferently.
The process of the twisting of the head has been already described (see p.
174, Vol. I). The very young have the body translucent and symmetrical,
standing upright in the water. Soon the tendency to rest on the bottom sets
in, the body leans to left or right, and the lower eye gradually traverses the
front of the head to the other side. This movement is best seen in the species
of Platophrys, in which the final arrangement of the eyes is a highly
specialized one.
In some or all of the soles it is perhaps true that the eye turns over and
pierces the cranium instead of passing across it. This opinion needs
verification, and the process should be studied in detail in as many species
as possible. The present writer has seen it in species of Platophrys only, the
same genus in which it was carefully studied by Dr. Carlo F. Emery of
SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA
he Flatfishes.—Perhaps the most remarkable offshoot from the
order of spiny-rayed fishes is the great group of flounders and
soles, called by Bonaparte Heterosomata (ἔτερός, differing;
σῶμα, body). The essential character of this group is found in
the twisting of the anterior part of the cranium, an
arrangement which brings both eyes on the same side of the head. This is
accompanied by a great compression of the body, as a result of which the
flounders swim horizontally or lie flat on the sand. On the side which is
uppermost both eyes are placed, this side being colored, brown or gray or
mottled. The lower side is usually plain white. In certain genera the right
side is uppermost, in others the left. In a very few, confined to the coast of
California, the eyes are on the right or left side indifferently.
The process of the twisting of the head has been already described (see p.
174, Vol. I). The very young have the body translucent and symmetrical,
standing upright in the water. Soon the tendency to rest on the bottom sets
in, the body leans to left or right, and the lower eye gradually traverses the
front of the head to the other side. This movement is best seen in the species
of Platophrys, in which the final arrangement of the eyes is a highly
specialized one.
In some or all of the soles it is perhaps true that the eye turns over and
pierces the cranium instead of passing across it. This opinion needs
verification, and the process should be studied in detail in as many species
as possible. The present writer has seen it in species of Platophrys only, the
same genus in which it was carefully studied by Dr. Carlo F. Emery of
Page 555
Bologna. In the halibut, and in the more primitive flounders generally, the
process takes place at an earlier stage than in Platophrys.
Optic Nerves of Flounders.—In the Bulletin of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology (Vol. XL, No. 5) Professor George H. Parker
discusses the relations of the optic nerves in the group of flounders or
flatfishes.
In the bony fishes the optic nerves pass to the optic lobes of the brain, the
one passing to the lobes of the opposite side simply lying over the other,
without intermingling of fibers, such as takes place in the higher vertebrates
and in the more primitive fishes.
According to Parker's observations, in ordinary bony fishes the right nerve
may be indifferently above or below the other. In 1000 specimens of ten
common species, 486 have the left nerve uppermost and 514 the right
nerve. In most individual species the numbers are practically equal. Thus, in
the haddock, 48 have the left nerve uppermost and 52 the right nerve.
In the unsymmetrical teleosts or flounders, and soles, this condition no
longer obtains. In those species of flounder with the eyes on the right side
236 individuals, representing sixteen species, had the left nerve uppermost
in all cases.
Of flounders with the eyes on the left side, 131 individuals, representing
nine species, all have the right nerve uppermost.
There are a few species of flounders in which
reversed examples are so common that the
species may be described as having the eyes on
Fig. 427.—Young the right or left side indifferently. In all these
Flounder, just hatched, species, however, whether dextral or sinistral,
with symmetrical eyes. the relation of the nerves conforms to the type
(After S. R. Williams.) and is not influenced by the individual
deviation. Thus the starry flounder (Platichthys)
belongs to the dextral group. In 50 normal
specimens, the eyes on the right have the left nerve dorsal, while the left
nerve is also uppermost in 50 reversed examples with eyes on the left. In 15
examples of the California bastard halibut (Paralichthys californicus),
process takes place at an earlier stage than in Platophrys.
Optic Nerves of Flounders.—In the Bulletin of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology (Vol. XL, No. 5) Professor George H. Parker
discusses the relations of the optic nerves in the group of flounders or
flatfishes.
In the bony fishes the optic nerves pass to the optic lobes of the brain, the
one passing to the lobes of the opposite side simply lying over the other,
without intermingling of fibers, such as takes place in the higher vertebrates
and in the more primitive fishes.
According to Parker's observations, in ordinary bony fishes the right nerve
may be indifferently above or below the other. In 1000 specimens of ten
common species, 486 have the left nerve uppermost and 514 the right
nerve. In most individual species the numbers are practically equal. Thus, in
the haddock, 48 have the left nerve uppermost and 52 the right nerve.
In the unsymmetrical teleosts or flounders, and soles, this condition no
longer obtains. In those species of flounder with the eyes on the right side
236 individuals, representing sixteen species, had the left nerve uppermost
in all cases.
Of flounders with the eyes on the left side, 131 individuals, representing
nine species, all have the right nerve uppermost.
There are a few species of flounders in which
reversed examples are so common that the
species may be described as having the eyes on
Fig. 427.—Young the right or left side indifferently. In all these
Flounder, just hatched, species, however, whether dextral or sinistral,
with symmetrical eyes. the relation of the nerves conforms to the type
(After S. R. Williams.) and is not influenced by the individual
deviation. Thus the starry flounder (Platichthys)
belongs to the dextral group. In 50 normal
specimens, the eyes on the right have the left nerve dorsal, while the left
nerve is also uppermost in 50 reversed examples with eyes on the left. In 15
examples of the California bastard halibut (Paralichthys californicus),
Page 556
normally sinistral, the right eye is always uppermost. It is uppermost in 11
reversed examples.
Among the soles this uniformity or monomorphism no longer obtains. In 49
individuals of four species of dextral soles, the left nerve is uppermost in
24, the right nerve in 25. Among sinistral soles, or tongue-fishes, in 18
individuals of two species, the left nerve is uppermost in 13, the right nerve
in 5.
Professor Parker concludes from this evidence that soles are not degenerate
flounders, but rather descended from primitive flounders which still retain
the dimorphic condition as to the position of the optic nerves, a condition
prevalent in all bony fishes except the flounders.
The lack of symmetry among the flounders lies, therefore, deeper than the
matter of the migration of the eye. The asymmetry of the mouth is an
independent trait, but, like the migration of the eye, is an adaptation to
swimming on the side. Each of the various traits of asymmetry may appear
independently of the others.
Fig. 428.—Larval Flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus. (After S. R.
Williams.)
The development of the monomorphic arrangement in flounders Professor
Parker thinks can be accounted for by the principle of natural selection. In a
side-swimming fish the fixity of this trait has a mechanical advantage. The
unmetamorphosed young of the flounder are not strictly symmetrical, for
reversed examples.
Among the soles this uniformity or monomorphism no longer obtains. In 49
individuals of four species of dextral soles, the left nerve is uppermost in
24, the right nerve in 25. Among sinistral soles, or tongue-fishes, in 18
individuals of two species, the left nerve is uppermost in 13, the right nerve
in 5.
Professor Parker concludes from this evidence that soles are not degenerate
flounders, but rather descended from primitive flounders which still retain
the dimorphic condition as to the position of the optic nerves, a condition
prevalent in all bony fishes except the flounders.
The lack of symmetry among the flounders lies, therefore, deeper than the
matter of the migration of the eye. The asymmetry of the mouth is an
independent trait, but, like the migration of the eye, is an adaptation to
swimming on the side. Each of the various traits of asymmetry may appear
independently of the others.
Fig. 428.—Larval Flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus. (After S. R.
Williams.)
The development of the monomorphic arrangement in flounders Professor
Parker thinks can be accounted for by the principle of natural selection. In a
side-swimming fish the fixity of this trait has a mechanical advantage. The
unmetamorphosed young of the flounder are not strictly symmetrical, for
Page 557
they possess the monomorphic position of the optic nerve. The reversed
examples of various species of flounders (these, by the way, chiefly
confined to the California fauna) afford "striking examples of discontinuous
variation."
A very curious feature among the flounders is the possession in nine of the
California-Alaskan species of an accessory half-lateral line. This is found in
two different groups, while near relatives in other waters lack the character.
One species in Japan has this trait, which is not found in any Atlantic
species, or in any other flounders outside the fauna of northern California,
Oregon, and Alaska.
Ancestry of Flounders.—The ancestry of the flounders is wholly
uncertain. Because, like the codfishes, the flounders lack all fin-spines, they
have been placed by some authors after the Anacanthini, or codfishes, and a
common descent has been assumed. Some writers declare that the flounder
is only a codfish with distorted cranium.
Fig. 429.
examples of various species of flounders (these, by the way, chiefly
confined to the California fauna) afford "striking examples of discontinuous
variation."
A very curious feature among the flounders is the possession in nine of the
California-Alaskan species of an accessory half-lateral line. This is found in
two different groups, while near relatives in other waters lack the character.
One species in Japan has this trait, which is not found in any Atlantic
species, or in any other flounders outside the fauna of northern California,
Oregon, and Alaska.
Ancestry of Flounders.—The ancestry of the flounders is wholly
uncertain. Because, like the codfishes, the flounders lack all fin-spines, they
have been placed by some authors after the Anacanthini, or codfishes, and a
common descent has been assumed. Some writers declare that the flounder
is only a codfish with distorted cranium.
Fig. 429.
Page 558
Figs. 429 and 430.—Larval stages of Platophrys podas, a flounder of the
Mediterranean, showing the migration of the eye. (After Emery.)
A little study of the osteology of the flounder shows that this supposition is
without foundation. The flounders have thoracic ventrals, not jugular as in
the cod. The tail is homocercal, ending in a large hypural plate, never
isocercal, except in degraded soles, in which it is rather leptocercal. The
shoulder-girdle, with its perforate hypercoracoid, has the normal perch-like
form. The ventral fins have about six rays, as in the perch, although the first
ray is never spinous. Pseudobranchiæ are developed, these structures being
obsolete in the codfishes. The gills and pharyngeals are essentially as in the
perch.
It is fairly certain that the Heterosomata have diverged from the early
spiny-rayed forms, Zeoidei, Berycoidei, or Scombroidei of the Jurassic or
Cretaceous, and that their origin is prior to the development of the great
perch stock.
If one were to guess at the nearest relationships of the group, it would be to
regard them as allies of the deep-bodied mackerel-like forms, as the
Stromateidæ, or perhaps with extinct Berycoid forms, as Platycormus,
having the ventral fins wider than in the mackerel. Still more plausible is
the recent suggestion of Dr. Boulenger that the extinct genus Amphistium
Mediterranean, showing the migration of the eye. (After Emery.)
A little study of the osteology of the flounder shows that this supposition is
without foundation. The flounders have thoracic ventrals, not jugular as in
the cod. The tail is homocercal, ending in a large hypural plate, never
isocercal, except in degraded soles, in which it is rather leptocercal. The
shoulder-girdle, with its perforate hypercoracoid, has the normal perch-like
form. The ventral fins have about six rays, as in the perch, although the first
ray is never spinous. Pseudobranchiæ are developed, these structures being
obsolete in the codfishes. The gills and pharyngeals are essentially as in the
perch.
It is fairly certain that the Heterosomata have diverged from the early
spiny-rayed forms, Zeoidei, Berycoidei, or Scombroidei of the Jurassic or
Cretaceous, and that their origin is prior to the development of the great
perch stock.
If one were to guess at the nearest relationships of the group, it would be to
regard them as allies of the deep-bodied mackerel-like forms, as the
Stromateidæ, or perhaps with extinct Berycoid forms, as Platycormus,
having the ventral fins wider than in the mackerel. Still more plausible is
the recent suggestion of Dr. Boulenger that the extinct genus Amphistium
Page 559
resembles the primitive flounder. But there is little direct proof of such
relation, and the resemblance of larval flounders to the ribbon-fishes may
have equal significance. But the ribbon-fishes themselves may be
degenerate Scombroids. In any case both ribbon-fishes and flounders find
their nearest living relatives among the Berycoidei or Zeoidei, and have no
affinity whatever with the isocercal codfish or with other members of the
group called Anacanthini.
Fig. 431.—Platophrys lunatus (Linnæus), the Peacock Flounder. Family
Pleuronectidæ. Cuba. (From nature by Mrs. H. C. Nash.)
The Heterosomata are found in all seas, always close to the bottom and
swimming with a swift, undulatory motion. They are usually placed in a
single family, but the degraded types known as soles may be regarded as
forming a second family.
The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.—In the flounders, or Pleuronectidæ, the
membrane-bones of the head are distinct, the eyes large and well separated,
the mouth not greatly contracted, and the jaws always provided with teeth.
relation, and the resemblance of larval flounders to the ribbon-fishes may
have equal significance. But the ribbon-fishes themselves may be
degenerate Scombroids. In any case both ribbon-fishes and flounders find
their nearest living relatives among the Berycoidei or Zeoidei, and have no
affinity whatever with the isocercal codfish or with other members of the
group called Anacanthini.
Fig. 431.—Platophrys lunatus (Linnæus), the Peacock Flounder. Family
Pleuronectidæ. Cuba. (From nature by Mrs. H. C. Nash.)
The Heterosomata are found in all seas, always close to the bottom and
swimming with a swift, undulatory motion. They are usually placed in a
single family, but the degraded types known as soles may be regarded as
forming a second family.
The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.—In the flounders, or Pleuronectidæ, the
membrane-bones of the head are distinct, the eyes large and well separated,
the mouth not greatly contracted, and the jaws always provided with teeth.
Page 560
Among the 500 species of flounders is found the greatest variation in size,
ranging in weight from an ounce to 500 pounds. The species found in arctic
regions are most degenerate and these have the largest number of vertebræ
and of fin-rays. The halibut has 50 vertebræ (16 + 34), the craig-flounder
58, while in Etropus and other tropical forms the number is but 34 (10 +
24). The common flounders of intermediate geographical range
(Paralichthys dentatus, etc.) show intermediate numbers as 40 (10 + 30).
The apparent significance of this peculiar series of fact is given on page
212, Vol. I. It is, perhaps, related to the greater pressure of natural selection
in the tropics, showing itself in the better differentiation of the bones and
consequently smaller number of the vertebræ.
Fossil flounders are
very few and give
no clue as to the
origin of the group.
In the Eocene and
Miocene are
remains which have
been referred to
Fig. 432.—Heterocercal Bothus (Rhombus).
tail of young Trout, Bothus minimus is
Salmo fario Linnæus. the oldest species
(After Parker & known, described by
Haswell.) Agassiz from the Fig. 433.—Homocercal
Eocene of Monte tail of a Flounder,
Bolca. In the Paralichthys
Miocene are numerous other species of Bothus, californicus.]
as also tubercles referable to Scophthalmus.
On the testimony of fossils alone the genus Bothus, or one of its allies,
would be the most primitive of the group. If it be so, the simpler structure of
the halibut and its relatives is due to degeneration, which is probable,
although their structure has the suggestion of primitive simplicity,
especially in the greater approach to symmetry in the head and the
symmetry in the insertion of the ventral fins.
ranging in weight from an ounce to 500 pounds. The species found in arctic
regions are most degenerate and these have the largest number of vertebræ
and of fin-rays. The halibut has 50 vertebræ (16 + 34), the craig-flounder
58, while in Etropus and other tropical forms the number is but 34 (10 +
24). The common flounders of intermediate geographical range
(Paralichthys dentatus, etc.) show intermediate numbers as 40 (10 + 30).
The apparent significance of this peculiar series of fact is given on page
212, Vol. I. It is, perhaps, related to the greater pressure of natural selection
in the tropics, showing itself in the better differentiation of the bones and
consequently smaller number of the vertebræ.
Fossil flounders are
very few and give
no clue as to the
origin of the group.
In the Eocene and
Miocene are
remains which have
been referred to
Fig. 432.—Heterocercal Bothus (Rhombus).
tail of young Trout, Bothus minimus is
Salmo fario Linnæus. the oldest species
(After Parker & known, described by
Haswell.) Agassiz from the Fig. 433.—Homocercal
Eocene of Monte tail of a Flounder,
Bolca. In the Paralichthys
Miocene are numerous other species of Bothus, californicus.]
as also tubercles referable to Scophthalmus.
On the testimony of fossils alone the genus Bothus, or one of its allies,
would be the most primitive of the group. If it be so, the simpler structure of
the halibut and its relatives is due to degeneration, which is probable,
although their structure has the suggestion of primitive simplicity,
especially in the greater approach to symmetry in the head and the
symmetry in the insertion of the ventral fins.
Page 561
Fig. 434.—Window-pane, Lophopsetta maculata. Virginia.
Soles have been found in the later Tertiary rocks. Solea kirchbergiana of the
Miocene is not very different from species now extant in southern Europe.
No remains referable to allies of the halibut or plaice are found in Tertiary
rocks, and these relatively simple types must be regarded as of recent
origin.
The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.—The turbot tribe have the mouth large, the
eyes and color on the left side, and the ventral fins unlike, that of the left
side being extended along the ridge of the abdomen. The species are found
in the warm seas only. They are deeper in body than the halibut and plaice,
and some of them are the smallest of all flounders. It is probable that these
approach most nearly of existing flounders to the original ancestors of the
group.
Perhaps the most primitive genus is Bothus, species of which genus are
found in Italian Miocene. The European brill, Bothus rhombus, is a
Soles have been found in the later Tertiary rocks. Solea kirchbergiana of the
Miocene is not very different from species now extant in southern Europe.
No remains referable to allies of the halibut or plaice are found in Tertiary
rocks, and these relatively simple types must be regarded as of recent
origin.
The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.—The turbot tribe have the mouth large, the
eyes and color on the left side, and the ventral fins unlike, that of the left
side being extended along the ridge of the abdomen. The species are found
in the warm seas only. They are deeper in body than the halibut and plaice,
and some of them are the smallest of all flounders. It is probable that these
approach most nearly of existing flounders to the original ancestors of the
group.
Perhaps the most primitive genus is Bothus, species of which genus are
found in Italian Miocene. The European brill, Bothus rhombus, is a
Page 562
common fish of southern Europe, deep-bodied and covered with smooth
scales.
Fig. 435.—Wide-eyed Flounder, Syacium papillosum Linnæus. Pensacola,
Fla.
Very similar but much smaller in size is the half translucent speckled
flounder of our Atlantic coast (Lophopsetta maculata), popularly known as
window-pane. This species is too small to have much value as food.
Another species, similar to the brill in technical characters but very different
in appearance, is the turbot, Scophthalmus maximus, of Europe. This large
flounder has a very broad body, scaleless but covered with warty tubercles.
It reaches a weight of seventy pounds and has a high value as a food-fish.
There is but one species of turbot and it is found in Europe only, on sandy
bottoms from Norway to Italy. In a turbot of twenty-three pounds weight
Buckland found a roe of five pounds nine ounces, with 14,311,260 eggs.
The young retains its symmetrical condition for a relatively long period. No
true turbot is found in America and none in the Pacific. Other European
flounders allied to the turbot and brill are Zeugopterus punctatus; the
European whiff, Lepidorhombus whiff-jagonis; the topknot, Phrynorhombus
regius; the lantern-flounder, Arnoglossus laterna, and the tongue-fish,
Eucitharus linguatula, the last two of small size and feeble flesh.
scales.
Fig. 435.—Wide-eyed Flounder, Syacium papillosum Linnæus. Pensacola,
Fla.
Very similar but much smaller in size is the half translucent speckled
flounder of our Atlantic coast (Lophopsetta maculata), popularly known as
window-pane. This species is too small to have much value as food.
Another species, similar to the brill in technical characters but very different
in appearance, is the turbot, Scophthalmus maximus, of Europe. This large
flounder has a very broad body, scaleless but covered with warty tubercles.
It reaches a weight of seventy pounds and has a high value as a food-fish.
There is but one species of turbot and it is found in Europe only, on sandy
bottoms from Norway to Italy. In a turbot of twenty-three pounds weight
Buckland found a roe of five pounds nine ounces, with 14,311,260 eggs.
The young retains its symmetrical condition for a relatively long period. No
true turbot is found in America and none in the Pacific. Other European
flounders allied to the turbot and brill are Zeugopterus punctatus; the
European whiff, Lepidorhombus whiff-jagonis; the topknot, Phrynorhombus
regius; the lantern-flounder, Arnoglossus laterna, and the tongue-fish,
Eucitharus linguatula, the last two of small size and feeble flesh.
Page 563
In the wide-eyed or peacock flounders, Platophrys podas in Europe,
Platophrys lunatus, etc., in America, Platophrys mancus in Polynesia, the
eyes in the old males are very far apart, and the changes due to age and sex
are greater than in any other genera. The species of this group are highly
variegated and lie on the sand in the tropical seas. Numerous small species
allied to these abound in the West Indies, known in a general way as whiffs.
The most widely distributed of these are Citharichthys spilopterus of the
West Indies, Citharichthys gilberti and Azevia panamensis of Panama,
Orthopsetta sordida of California, and especially the common small-
mouthed Etropus crossotus found throughout tropical America. Numerous
other genera and species of the turbot tribe are found on the coasts of
tropical Asia and Africa, most of them of small size and weak structure.
Fig. 436.—Etropus crossotus Jordan & Gilbert. Cedar Keys, Fla.
Samaris cristatus of Asia is the type of another tribe of flounders and the
peculiar hook-jawed Oncopterus darwini of Patagonia represents still
another tribe.
The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.—In the great halibut tribe the mouth
is large and the ventral fins symmetrical. The arctic and subarctic species
Platophrys lunatus, etc., in America, Platophrys mancus in Polynesia, the
eyes in the old males are very far apart, and the changes due to age and sex
are greater than in any other genera. The species of this group are highly
variegated and lie on the sand in the tropical seas. Numerous small species
allied to these abound in the West Indies, known in a general way as whiffs.
The most widely distributed of these are Citharichthys spilopterus of the
West Indies, Citharichthys gilberti and Azevia panamensis of Panama,
Orthopsetta sordida of California, and especially the common small-
mouthed Etropus crossotus found throughout tropical America. Numerous
other genera and species of the turbot tribe are found on the coasts of
tropical Asia and Africa, most of them of small size and weak structure.
Fig. 436.—Etropus crossotus Jordan & Gilbert. Cedar Keys, Fla.
Samaris cristatus of Asia is the type of another tribe of flounders and the
peculiar hook-jawed Oncopterus darwini of Patagonia represents still
another tribe.
The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.—In the great halibut tribe the mouth
is large and the ventral fins symmetrical. The arctic and subarctic species
Page 564
have the eyes and color on the right. Those of the warmer regions (bastard
halibut) have the eyes and color on the left. These grow progressively
smaller in size to the southward, the mouth being smaller and more feebly
armed in southern species.
The largest of the family, and the one commercially of far greatest
importance, is the halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). This species is
found on both shores of both oceans, north of about the latitude of Paris,
Boston, Cape Mendocino, and Matsushima Bay in Japan. Its preference is
for off-shore banks of no great depth, and in very many localities it exists in
great abundance, reaching a length of 6 to 8 feet and a weight of 600
pounds. It sometimes ranges well out to sea and enters deeper waters than
the cod. The flesh is firm, white, and of good quality, although none of the
flatfishes have much flavor, the muscles being mostly destitute of oil. Small
halibut, called "chicken halibut," are highly esteemed.
Dr. Goode states that the "history of the halibut fishery has been a peculiar
one. At the beginning of the present century these fishes were exceedingly
abundant on George's Banks; since 1850 they have partially disappeared
from this region, and the fishermen have since been following them to other
banks, and since 1874 out into deeper and deeper water, and the fisheries
are now carried on almost exclusively in the gullies between the off-shore
banks and on the outer edges of the banks, in water 100 to 350 fathoms in
depth.
"The halibut with its large mouth is naturally a voracious fish, and probably
would disdain few objects in the way of fresh meat it would come across. It
is said, however, to feed more especially upon crabs and mollusks in
addition to fish. These fish 'they waylay lying upon the bottom, invisible by
reason of their flat bodies, colored to correspond to the general color of the
sand or mud upon which they rest. When in pursuit of their prey they are
active and often come quite to the surface, especially when in summer they
follow the capelin to the shoal water near the land. They feed upon skates,
cod, haddock, menhaden, mackerel, herring, lobsters, flounders, sculpins,
grenadiers, turbot, Norway haddock, bank-clams, and anything else that is
eatable and can be found in the same waters.' Frequently halibut may be
seen chasing flatfish over the bottom of the water. About Cape Sable their
favorite food seems to be haddock and cusk. A very singular mode of
attacking a cod has been recorded by Captain Collins, an experienced
halibut) have the eyes and color on the left. These grow progressively
smaller in size to the southward, the mouth being smaller and more feebly
armed in southern species.
The largest of the family, and the one commercially of far greatest
importance, is the halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). This species is
found on both shores of both oceans, north of about the latitude of Paris,
Boston, Cape Mendocino, and Matsushima Bay in Japan. Its preference is
for off-shore banks of no great depth, and in very many localities it exists in
great abundance, reaching a length of 6 to 8 feet and a weight of 600
pounds. It sometimes ranges well out to sea and enters deeper waters than
the cod. The flesh is firm, white, and of good quality, although none of the
flatfishes have much flavor, the muscles being mostly destitute of oil. Small
halibut, called "chicken halibut," are highly esteemed.
Dr. Goode states that the "history of the halibut fishery has been a peculiar
one. At the beginning of the present century these fishes were exceedingly
abundant on George's Banks; since 1850 they have partially disappeared
from this region, and the fishermen have since been following them to other
banks, and since 1874 out into deeper and deeper water, and the fisheries
are now carried on almost exclusively in the gullies between the off-shore
banks and on the outer edges of the banks, in water 100 to 350 fathoms in
depth.
"The halibut with its large mouth is naturally a voracious fish, and probably
would disdain few objects in the way of fresh meat it would come across. It
is said, however, to feed more especially upon crabs and mollusks in
addition to fish. These fish 'they waylay lying upon the bottom, invisible by
reason of their flat bodies, colored to correspond to the general color of the
sand or mud upon which they rest. When in pursuit of their prey they are
active and often come quite to the surface, especially when in summer they
follow the capelin to the shoal water near the land. They feed upon skates,
cod, haddock, menhaden, mackerel, herring, lobsters, flounders, sculpins,
grenadiers, turbot, Norway haddock, bank-clams, and anything else that is
eatable and can be found in the same waters.' Frequently halibut may be
seen chasing flatfish over the bottom of the water. About Cape Sable their
favorite food seems to be haddock and cusk. A very singular mode of
attacking a cod has been recorded by Captain Collins, an experienced
Page 565
fisherman and good observer. They often kill their prey by blows of the tail,
a fact which is quite novel and interesting. He has described an instance
which occurred on a voyage home from Sable Island in 1877: 'The man at
the wheel sang out that he saw a halibut flapping its tail about a quarter of a
mile off our starboard quarter. I looked through the spy-glass and his
statement was soon verified by the second appearance of the tail. We hove
out a dory, and two men went with her, taking with them a pair of gaff-
hooks. They soon returned, bringing not only the halibut, which was a fine
one of about seventy pounds weight, but a small codfish which it had been
trying to kill by striking it with its tail. The codfish was quite exhausted by
the repeated blows and did not attempt to escape after its enemy had been
captured. The halibut was so completely engaged in the pursuit of the
codfish that it paid no attention to the dory and was easily captured.'
"The females become heavy with roe near the middle of the year, and about
July and August are ready to spawn, although 'some fishermen say that they
spawn at Christmas' or 'in the month of January, when they are on the
shoals.' The roe of a large halibut which weighed 356 pounds weighed 44
pounds, and indeed the 'ovaries of a large fish are too heavy to be lifted by a
man without considerable exertion, being often 2 feet or more in length.' A
portion of the roe 'representing a fair average of the eggs, was weighed and
found to contain 2185 eggs,' and the entire number would be 2,182,773."
Closely allied to the halibut are numerous smaller forms with more elongate
body. The Greenland halibut, Reinhardtius hippoglossoides, and the closely
related species in Japan, Reinhardtius matsuuræ, differ from the halibut
most obviously in the straight lateral line. The arrow-toothed halibut,
Atheresthes stomias, lives in deeper waters in the North Pacific. Its flesh is
soft, the mouth very large, armed with arrow-shaped teeth. The head in this
species is less distorted than in any of the others, the upper eye being on the
edge of the disk in front of the dorsal fin. For this reason it has been
supposed to be the most primitive of the living species, but these traits are
doubtless elusive and a result of degeneration.
Eopsetta jordani is a smaller halibut-like fish, common on the coast of
California, an excellent food-fish, with firm white flesh, sold in San
Francisco restaurants under the very erroneous name of "English sole."
Large numbers are dried by the Chinese for export to China. A similar
species, Hippoglossoides platessoides, known as the "sand-dab," is
a fact which is quite novel and interesting. He has described an instance
which occurred on a voyage home from Sable Island in 1877: 'The man at
the wheel sang out that he saw a halibut flapping its tail about a quarter of a
mile off our starboard quarter. I looked through the spy-glass and his
statement was soon verified by the second appearance of the tail. We hove
out a dory, and two men went with her, taking with them a pair of gaff-
hooks. They soon returned, bringing not only the halibut, which was a fine
one of about seventy pounds weight, but a small codfish which it had been
trying to kill by striking it with its tail. The codfish was quite exhausted by
the repeated blows and did not attempt to escape after its enemy had been
captured. The halibut was so completely engaged in the pursuit of the
codfish that it paid no attention to the dory and was easily captured.'
"The females become heavy with roe near the middle of the year, and about
July and August are ready to spawn, although 'some fishermen say that they
spawn at Christmas' or 'in the month of January, when they are on the
shoals.' The roe of a large halibut which weighed 356 pounds weighed 44
pounds, and indeed the 'ovaries of a large fish are too heavy to be lifted by a
man without considerable exertion, being often 2 feet or more in length.' A
portion of the roe 'representing a fair average of the eggs, was weighed and
found to contain 2185 eggs,' and the entire number would be 2,182,773."
Closely allied to the halibut are numerous smaller forms with more elongate
body. The Greenland halibut, Reinhardtius hippoglossoides, and the closely
related species in Japan, Reinhardtius matsuuræ, differ from the halibut
most obviously in the straight lateral line. The arrow-toothed halibut,
Atheresthes stomias, lives in deeper waters in the North Pacific. Its flesh is
soft, the mouth very large, armed with arrow-shaped teeth. The head in this
species is less distorted than in any of the others, the upper eye being on the
edge of the disk in front of the dorsal fin. For this reason it has been
supposed to be the most primitive of the living species, but these traits are
doubtless elusive and a result of degeneration.
Eopsetta jordani is a smaller halibut-like fish, common on the coast of
California, an excellent food-fish, with firm white flesh, sold in San
Francisco restaurants under the very erroneous name of "English sole."
Large numbers are dried by the Chinese for export to China. A similar
species, Hippoglossoides platessoides, known as the "sand-dab," is
Page 566
common on both shores of the North Atlantic, and several related species
are found in the North Pacific. Verasper variegatus of Japan is notable for
its bright coloration, the lower side being largely orange-red.
In the bastard halibuts, Paralichthys, the eyes and color are on the left side.
These much resemble the true halibut, but are smaller and inferior as food,
besides differing in details of structure. The Monterey halibut (Paralichthys
californicus) is the largest of these, reaching a weight of sixty pounds. This
species and one other from California (Xystreurys liolepis), normally left-
sided, differ from all the other flounders in having the eyes almost as often
on the right side as on the left side, as usual or normal in their type. The
summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) replaces the Monterey halibut on
the Atlantic Coast, where it is a common food-fish. Farther south it gives
way to the Southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma) and the Gulf
flounder, Paralichthys albigutta. In Japan Paralichthys olivaceus is equally
common, and in western Mexico Paralichthys sinaloæ. The four-spotted
flounder of New England, Paralichthys oblongus, belongs to this group.
Similar species constituting the genus Pseudorhombus abound in India and
Japan.
Fig. 437.—Halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus Linnæus. Marmot I.,
Alaska.
The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.—The plaice tribe pass gradually into
the halibut tribe, from which they differ in the small mouth, in which the
are found in the North Pacific. Verasper variegatus of Japan is notable for
its bright coloration, the lower side being largely orange-red.
In the bastard halibuts, Paralichthys, the eyes and color are on the left side.
These much resemble the true halibut, but are smaller and inferior as food,
besides differing in details of structure. The Monterey halibut (Paralichthys
californicus) is the largest of these, reaching a weight of sixty pounds. This
species and one other from California (Xystreurys liolepis), normally left-
sided, differ from all the other flounders in having the eyes almost as often
on the right side as on the left side, as usual or normal in their type. The
summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) replaces the Monterey halibut on
the Atlantic Coast, where it is a common food-fish. Farther south it gives
way to the Southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma) and the Gulf
flounder, Paralichthys albigutta. In Japan Paralichthys olivaceus is equally
common, and in western Mexico Paralichthys sinaloæ. The four-spotted
flounder of New England, Paralichthys oblongus, belongs to this group.
Similar species constituting the genus Pseudorhombus abound in India and
Japan.
Fig. 437.—Halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus Linnæus. Marmot I.,
Alaska.
The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.—The plaice tribe pass gradually into
the halibut tribe, from which they differ in the small mouth, in which the
Page 567
blunt teeth are mostly on the blind side. The eyes are on the right side, the
vertebræ are numerous, and the species live only in the cold seas, none
being found in the tropics. In most of the Pacific species the lateral line has
an accessory branch along the dorsal fin. The genus Pleuronichthys, or frog-
flounders, has the teeth in bands. Pleuronichthys cornutus is common in
Japan and three species, Pleuronichthys cœnosus being the most abundant,
are found on the coast of California. Closely related to these is the
diamond-flounder, Hypsopsetta guttulata of California. Parophrys vetulus
is a small flounder of California, so abundant as to have considerable
economic value. Lepidopsetta bilineata, larger and rougher, is almost
equally common. It is similar to the mud-dab (Limanda limanda) of
northern Europe and the rusty-dab (Limanda ferruginea) of New England.
Fig. 438.—Wide mouthed Flounder, Paralichthys dentatus (L.). St.
George I., Md.
The plaice, Pleuronectes platessa, is the best known of the European
species of this type, being common in most parts of Europe and valued as
food. Closely related to the plaice is a second species of southern Europe
also of small size, Flesus flesus, to which the name flounder is in England
especially applied. The common winter flounder of New England,
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, is also very much like the plaice, but with
vertebræ are numerous, and the species live only in the cold seas, none
being found in the tropics. In most of the Pacific species the lateral line has
an accessory branch along the dorsal fin. The genus Pleuronichthys, or frog-
flounders, has the teeth in bands. Pleuronichthys cornutus is common in
Japan and three species, Pleuronichthys cœnosus being the most abundant,
are found on the coast of California. Closely related to these is the
diamond-flounder, Hypsopsetta guttulata of California. Parophrys vetulus
is a small flounder of California, so abundant as to have considerable
economic value. Lepidopsetta bilineata, larger and rougher, is almost
equally common. It is similar to the mud-dab (Limanda limanda) of
northern Europe and the rusty-dab (Limanda ferruginea) of New England.
Fig. 438.—Wide mouthed Flounder, Paralichthys dentatus (L.). St.
George I., Md.
The plaice, Pleuronectes platessa, is the best known of the European
species of this type, being common in most parts of Europe and valued as
food. Closely related to the plaice is a second species of southern Europe
also of small size, Flesus flesus, to which the name flounder is in England
especially applied. The common winter flounder of New England,
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, is also very much like the plaice, but with
Page 568
more uniform scales. It is an important food-fish, the most abundant of the
family about Cape Cod. The eel-back flounder, Liopsetta putnami, also of
New England, is frequently seen in the markets. The males of this species
have scattered rough scales, while the females are smooth. The great starry
flounder of Alaska, Platichthys stellatus, is the largest of the small-mouthed
flounders and in its region the most abundant. On the Pacific coast from
Monterey to Alaska and across to northern Japan it constitutes half the catch
of flounders. The body is covered with rough scattered scales, the fins are
barred with black. It reaches a weight of twenty pounds. Living in shallow
waters, it ascends all the larger rivers.
An allied species in Japan is Kareius bicoloratus, with scattered scales.
Clidoderma asperrimum, also of northern Japan, has the body covered with
series of warts.
Fig. 439.—Eel-back Flounder, Liopsetta putnami (Gill). Salem, Mass.
In deeper water are found the elongate forms known as smear-dab and
flukes. The smear-dab of Europe (Microstomus kitt) is rather common in
family about Cape Cod. The eel-back flounder, Liopsetta putnami, also of
New England, is frequently seen in the markets. The males of this species
have scattered rough scales, while the females are smooth. The great starry
flounder of Alaska, Platichthys stellatus, is the largest of the small-mouthed
flounders and in its region the most abundant. On the Pacific coast from
Monterey to Alaska and across to northern Japan it constitutes half the catch
of flounders. The body is covered with rough scattered scales, the fins are
barred with black. It reaches a weight of twenty pounds. Living in shallow
waters, it ascends all the larger rivers.
An allied species in Japan is Kareius bicoloratus, with scattered scales.
Clidoderma asperrimum, also of northern Japan, has the body covered with
series of warts.
Fig. 439.—Eel-back Flounder, Liopsetta putnami (Gill). Salem, Mass.
In deeper water are found the elongate forms known as smear-dab and
flukes. The smear-dab of Europe (Microstomus kitt) is rather common in
Page 569
deep water. Its skin is very slimy, but the flesh is excellent. The same is true
of the slippery sole, Microstomus pacificus, of California and Alaska, and of
other species found in Japan. Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, the craig-fluke,
or pole-flounder, of the North Atlantic, is taken in great numbers in rather
deep water on both coasts. Its flesh is much like that of the sole. A similar
species (Glyptocephalus zachirus) with a very long pectoral on the right
scale is found in California, and Microstomus kitaharæ in Japan.
The Soles: Soleidæ.—The soles (Soleidæ) are degraded flounders, the
typical forms bearing a close relation to the plaice tribe, from which they
may be derived. There are three very different groups or tribes of soles, and
some writers have thought that these are independently derived from
different groups of flounders. This fact has been urged as an argument
against the recognition of the Soleidæ as a family separate from the
flounders. If clearly proved, the soles should either be joined with the
flounders in one family or else they should be divided into two or three,
according to their supposed origin.
The soles as a whole differ from the flounders in having the bones of the
head obscurely outlined, their edges covered by scales. The gill-openings
are much reduced, the eyes small and close together, the ventral fins often
much reduced, and sometimes the pectoral or caudal also. The mouth is
very small, much twisted, and with few teeth.
of the slippery sole, Microstomus pacificus, of California and Alaska, and of
other species found in Japan. Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, the craig-fluke,
or pole-flounder, of the North Atlantic, is taken in great numbers in rather
deep water on both coasts. Its flesh is much like that of the sole. A similar
species (Glyptocephalus zachirus) with a very long pectoral on the right
scale is found in California, and Microstomus kitaharæ in Japan.
The Soles: Soleidæ.—The soles (Soleidæ) are degraded flounders, the
typical forms bearing a close relation to the plaice tribe, from which they
may be derived. There are three very different groups or tribes of soles, and
some writers have thought that these are independently derived from
different groups of flounders. This fact has been urged as an argument
against the recognition of the Soleidæ as a family separate from the
flounders. If clearly proved, the soles should either be joined with the
flounders in one family or else they should be divided into two or three,
according to their supposed origin.
The soles as a whole differ from the flounders in having the bones of the
head obscurely outlined, their edges covered by scales. The gill-openings
are much reduced, the eyes small and close together, the ventral fins often
much reduced, and sometimes the pectoral or caudal also. The mouth is
very small, much twisted, and with few teeth.
Page 570
Fig. 440.—Starry Flounder, Platichthys stellatus (Pallas). Alaska.
The species of sole, about 150 in number, abound on sandy bottoms in the
warm seas along the continents, very few being found about the Oceanic
Islands. The three subfamilies, or tribes, may be designated as broad soles,
true soles, and tongue-fishes.
The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.—The American soles (Achirinæ), or broad
soles, resemble the smaller members of the turbot tribe of flounders, having
the ventral fin of the eyed side extended along the ridge of the abdomen.
The eyes and color are, however, on the right side. The eyes are separated
by a narrow interorbital ridge. In most of these forms the body is broad and
covered with rough scales. The species are mostly less than six inches long,
and nearly all are confined to the warmer parts of America, many of them
ascending the rivers. A very few (Aseraggodes, Pardachirus) are found in
Japan and China. Some are scaleless and some have but a single small gill-
opening on the blind side. The principal genus is Achirus. Achirus fasciatus,
the common American sole, or hog-choker, is abundant from Boston to
Galveston. Achirus lineatus and other species are found in the West Indies
and on the west coast of Mexico. Almost all the species of Achirus are
The species of sole, about 150 in number, abound on sandy bottoms in the
warm seas along the continents, very few being found about the Oceanic
Islands. The three subfamilies, or tribes, may be designated as broad soles,
true soles, and tongue-fishes.
The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.—The American soles (Achirinæ), or broad
soles, resemble the smaller members of the turbot tribe of flounders, having
the ventral fin of the eyed side extended along the ridge of the abdomen.
The eyes and color are, however, on the right side. The eyes are separated
by a narrow interorbital ridge. In most of these forms the body is broad and
covered with rough scales. The species are mostly less than six inches long,
and nearly all are confined to the warmer parts of America, many of them
ascending the rivers. A very few (Aseraggodes, Pardachirus) are found in
Japan and China. Some are scaleless and some have but a single small gill-
opening on the blind side. The principal genus is Achirus. Achirus fasciatus,
the common American sole, or hog-choker, is abundant from Boston to
Galveston. Achirus lineatus and other species are found in the West Indies
and on the west coast of Mexico. Almost all the species of Achirus are
Page 571
banded with black and the pectorals are very small or wanting altogether.
All these species are practically useless as food from their very small size.
Fig. 441.—Hog-choker Sole, Achirus lineatus (L.). Potomac River.
The European Soles (Soleinæ).—The European soles are more elongate in
form, with the ventral fins narrow and not extended along the ridge of the
abdomen. The eyes are on the right side with no bony ridge between them.
No species of this type is certainly known from American waters, although
numerous in Europe and Asia. The species have much in common with the
plaice tribe of flounders and may be derived from the same stock. One
species, as above noted, is found in the Miocene.
The common sole of Europe, Solea solea, is one of the best of food-fishes,
reaching a length, according to Dr. Gill, of twenty-six inches and a weight
of nine pounds. As usually seen in the markets it rarely exceeds a pound. It
is found from Norway to Italy, and when properly cooked is very tender and
delicate, superior to any of the flounders. According to Dr. Francis Day, it
All these species are practically useless as food from their very small size.
Fig. 441.—Hog-choker Sole, Achirus lineatus (L.). Potomac River.
The European Soles (Soleinæ).—The European soles are more elongate in
form, with the ventral fins narrow and not extended along the ridge of the
abdomen. The eyes are on the right side with no bony ridge between them.
No species of this type is certainly known from American waters, although
numerous in Europe and Asia. The species have much in common with the
plaice tribe of flounders and may be derived from the same stock. One
species, as above noted, is found in the Miocene.
The common sole of Europe, Solea solea, is one of the best of food-fishes,
reaching a length, according to Dr. Gill, of twenty-six inches and a weight
of nine pounds. As usually seen in the markets it rarely exceeds a pound. It
is found from Norway to Italy, and when properly cooked is very tender and
delicate, superior to any of the flounders. According to Dr. Francis Day, it
Page 572
appears to prefer sandy or gravelly shores, but is rather uncertain in its
migrations, for, although mostly appearing at certain spots almost at a given
time, and usually decreasing in numbers by degrees, in other seasons they
disappear at once, as suddenly as they arrive. Along the British seacoast
they retire to the deep as frosts set in, revisiting the shallows about May if
the weather is warm, their migrations being influenced by temperature. The
food of the sole is to a considerable extent molluscous, but it is also said to
eat the eggs and fry of other fishes and sea-urchins.
The spawning season is late in the year and during the spring months. The
ova are in moderate number; a sole of one pound weight has, according to
Buckland, about 134,000 eggs. The newly hatched, according to Dr. Day,
do not appear to be commonly found so far out at sea as some other species.
They enter into shallow water at the edge of the tide and are very numerous
in favorable localities.
As is well known, the sole is one of the most esteemed of European fishes.
In the words of Dr. Day, "the flesh of this fish is white, firm, and of
excellent flavor, those from the deepest waters being generally preferred.
Those on the west coast and to the south are larger, as a rule, than those
towards the north of the British islands. In addition to its use as food, it is
available for another purpose. The skin is used for fining coffee, being a
good substitute for isinglass, and also as a material for artificial baits.
"The markets are generally supplied by the trawl. The principal English
trawling-ground lies from Dover to Devonshire. They may be taken by
spillers, but are not commonly captured with hooks; it is suggested that one
reason may be that spillers are mostly used by day, whereas the sole is a
night feeder. They are sometimes angled for with the hook, baited with
crabs, worms, or mollusks; the most favorable time for fishing is at night,
after a blow, when the water is thick, while a land breeze answers better
than a sea breeze."
Several smaller species of sole are found in Europe. In Japan Zebrias zebra,
black-banded, and Usinosita japonica, known as Usinóshita, or cow's
tongue, are common. Farther south are numerous species of Synaptura and
other genera peculiar to the Indian and Australian regions.
The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.—The tongue-fishes are soles having
the eyes on the left side not separated by a bony ridge, the two being very
migrations, for, although mostly appearing at certain spots almost at a given
time, and usually decreasing in numbers by degrees, in other seasons they
disappear at once, as suddenly as they arrive. Along the British seacoast
they retire to the deep as frosts set in, revisiting the shallows about May if
the weather is warm, their migrations being influenced by temperature. The
food of the sole is to a considerable extent molluscous, but it is also said to
eat the eggs and fry of other fishes and sea-urchins.
The spawning season is late in the year and during the spring months. The
ova are in moderate number; a sole of one pound weight has, according to
Buckland, about 134,000 eggs. The newly hatched, according to Dr. Day,
do not appear to be commonly found so far out at sea as some other species.
They enter into shallow water at the edge of the tide and are very numerous
in favorable localities.
As is well known, the sole is one of the most esteemed of European fishes.
In the words of Dr. Day, "the flesh of this fish is white, firm, and of
excellent flavor, those from the deepest waters being generally preferred.
Those on the west coast and to the south are larger, as a rule, than those
towards the north of the British islands. In addition to its use as food, it is
available for another purpose. The skin is used for fining coffee, being a
good substitute for isinglass, and also as a material for artificial baits.
"The markets are generally supplied by the trawl. The principal English
trawling-ground lies from Dover to Devonshire. They may be taken by
spillers, but are not commonly captured with hooks; it is suggested that one
reason may be that spillers are mostly used by day, whereas the sole is a
night feeder. They are sometimes angled for with the hook, baited with
crabs, worms, or mollusks; the most favorable time for fishing is at night,
after a blow, when the water is thick, while a land breeze answers better
than a sea breeze."
Several smaller species of sole are found in Europe. In Japan Zebrias zebra,
black-banded, and Usinosita japonica, known as Usinóshita, or cow's
tongue, are common. Farther south are numerous species of Synaptura and
other genera peculiar to the Indian and Australian regions.
The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.—The tongue-fishes are soles having
the eyes on the left side not separated by a bony ridge, the two being very
Page 573
small and apparently in the same socket. The body is lanceolate, covered
usually with rough scales, and as often with two or three lateral lines as
with one. The species are mostly Asiatic. Cynoglossus robustus and other
species are found in Japan, and in India are many others belonging to
Cynoglossus and related genera. The larger species are valued as food. The
single European species Symphurus nigrescens, common in the
Mediterranean, is too small to have any value. Symphurus plagiusa, the
tongue-fish of our coast, is common on our sandy shores from Cape
Hatteras southward. Symphurus plagusia, scarcely different, replaces it in
the West Indies. Symphurus atricandus is found in San Diego Bay, and
numerous other species of no economic importance find their place farther
south.
Fig. 442.—Symphurus plagiusa (L.). Beaufort, N. C.
usually with rough scales, and as often with two or three lateral lines as
with one. The species are mostly Asiatic. Cynoglossus robustus and other
species are found in Japan, and in India are many others belonging to
Cynoglossus and related genera. The larger species are valued as food. The
single European species Symphurus nigrescens, common in the
Mediterranean, is too small to have any value. Symphurus plagiusa, the
tongue-fish of our coast, is common on our sandy shores from Cape
Hatteras southward. Symphurus plagusia, scarcely different, replaces it in
the West Indies. Symphurus atricandus is found in San Diego Bay, and
numerous other species of no economic importance find their place farther
south.
Fig. 442.—Symphurus plagiusa (L.). Beaufort, N. C.
Page 574
CHAPTER XXVIII
SUBORDER JUGULARES
he Jugular-fishes.—In all the families of spiny-rayed fishes,
as ranged in order in the present work, from the Berycidæ to
the Soleidæ, the ventrals are thoracic in position, the pelvis, if
present, being joined to the shoulder-girdle behind the
symphysis of the clavicles so that the ventral fin falls below or
behind the pectoral fin. To this arrangement the families of Bembradidæ
and Pinguipedidæ offer perhaps the only exceptions.
In all the families which precede the Berycidæ in the linear series adopted
in this work, the ventral fins when present are abdominal, the pelvis lying
behind the clavicles and free from them as in the sharks, the reptiles, and all
higher vertebrates.
In all the families remaining for discussion, the ventrals are brought still
farther forward to a point distinctly before the pectorals. This position is
called jugular (Lat. jugulum, throat).
The fishes with jugular ventrals we here divide into six groups, orders, and
suborders: Jugulares, Haplodoci, Xenopterygii, Anacanthini, Opisthomi,
and Pediculati. The last two groups, and perhaps the Anacanthini also, may
well be considered as distinct orders, being more aberrant than the others.
For the most primitive and at the same time most obscurely defined of these
groups we may retain the term applied by Linnæus to all of them, the name
Jugulares. This group includes those jugular-fishes in which the position of
the gills, the structure of the skull, and the form of the tail are essentially as
in ordinary fishes. It is an extremely diversified and perhaps unnatural
group, some of its members resembling Opisthognathidæ and
SUBORDER JUGULARES
he Jugular-fishes.—In all the families of spiny-rayed fishes,
as ranged in order in the present work, from the Berycidæ to
the Soleidæ, the ventrals are thoracic in position, the pelvis, if
present, being joined to the shoulder-girdle behind the
symphysis of the clavicles so that the ventral fin falls below or
behind the pectoral fin. To this arrangement the families of Bembradidæ
and Pinguipedidæ offer perhaps the only exceptions.
In all the families which precede the Berycidæ in the linear series adopted
in this work, the ventral fins when present are abdominal, the pelvis lying
behind the clavicles and free from them as in the sharks, the reptiles, and all
higher vertebrates.
In all the families remaining for discussion, the ventrals are brought still
farther forward to a point distinctly before the pectorals. This position is
called jugular (Lat. jugulum, throat).
The fishes with jugular ventrals we here divide into six groups, orders, and
suborders: Jugulares, Haplodoci, Xenopterygii, Anacanthini, Opisthomi,
and Pediculati. The last two groups, and perhaps the Anacanthini also, may
well be considered as distinct orders, being more aberrant than the others.
For the most primitive and at the same time most obscurely defined of these
groups we may retain the term applied by Linnæus to all of them, the name
Jugulares. This group includes those jugular-fishes in which the position of
the gills, the structure of the skull, and the form of the tail are essentially as
in ordinary fishes. It is an extremely diversified and perhaps unnatural
group, some of its members resembling Opisthognathidæ and
Page 575
Malacanthidæ, others suggesting the mailed-cheek fishes, and still others
more degenerate. The fishes having the fins thus placed were long ago set
apart by Linnæus, under the name of "Jugulares," Callionymus being the
genus first placed by him in this group. Besides their anterior insertion, the
ventrals in the Jugulares are more or less reduced in size, the rays being
usually but not always less than I, 5 in number and more often reduced to
one or two, or even wholly lost.
In general, the jugular fishes are degenerate as compared with the perch-
like forms, but in certain regards they are often highly specialized. The
groups showing this character are probably related one to another, but in
some cases this fact is not clearly shown. In most of the jugular-fishes the
shoulder-girdle shows some change or distortion. The usual foramen in the
hypercoracoid is often wanting or relegated to the interspace between the
coracoids, and the arrangement of the actinosts often deviates from that
seen in the perciform fishes.
The Weevers: Trachinidæ.—Of the various families the group of weevers,
Trachinidæ, most approaches the type of ordinary fishes. In the words of
Dr. Gill, these fishes are known by "an elongated body attenuated backward
from the head, compressed, oblong head, with the snout very short, a deeply
cleft, oblique mouth, and a long spine projecting backward from each
operculum and strengthened by extension on the surface of the operculum,
as a keel. The dorsal fins are distinct, the first composed of strong, pungent
spines radiating from a short base and about six or seven in number. The
second dorsal and anal are very long. The pectorals have the lower rays
unbranched, and the ventrals are in advance of the pectorals, and have each
a spine and five rays. The species of this family are mostly found along the
European and western African coast; but singularly enough a species
closely related to the Old World form is found on the coast of Chile. None
have been obtained from the intermediate regions or from the American
coast. Two species are found in England, and are known under the name of
the greater weever (Trachinus draco), about twelve inches long, and the
lesser weever (Trachinus vipera), about six inches long. They are perhaps
the most dreaded of the smaller English fishes. The formidable opercular
spines are weapons of defense, and when seized by the fisherman the fish is
apt to throw its head in the direction of the hand and lance a spine into it.
The pungent dorsal spines are also defensive. Although without a poison
more degenerate. The fishes having the fins thus placed were long ago set
apart by Linnæus, under the name of "Jugulares," Callionymus being the
genus first placed by him in this group. Besides their anterior insertion, the
ventrals in the Jugulares are more or less reduced in size, the rays being
usually but not always less than I, 5 in number and more often reduced to
one or two, or even wholly lost.
In general, the jugular fishes are degenerate as compared with the perch-
like forms, but in certain regards they are often highly specialized. The
groups showing this character are probably related one to another, but in
some cases this fact is not clearly shown. In most of the jugular-fishes the
shoulder-girdle shows some change or distortion. The usual foramen in the
hypercoracoid is often wanting or relegated to the interspace between the
coracoids, and the arrangement of the actinosts often deviates from that
seen in the perciform fishes.
The Weevers: Trachinidæ.—Of the various families the group of weevers,
Trachinidæ, most approaches the type of ordinary fishes. In the words of
Dr. Gill, these fishes are known by "an elongated body attenuated backward
from the head, compressed, oblong head, with the snout very short, a deeply
cleft, oblique mouth, and a long spine projecting backward from each
operculum and strengthened by extension on the surface of the operculum,
as a keel. The dorsal fins are distinct, the first composed of strong, pungent
spines radiating from a short base and about six or seven in number. The
second dorsal and anal are very long. The pectorals have the lower rays
unbranched, and the ventrals are in advance of the pectorals, and have each
a spine and five rays. The species of this family are mostly found along the
European and western African coast; but singularly enough a species
closely related to the Old World form is found on the coast of Chile. None
have been obtained from the intermediate regions or from the American
coast. Two species are found in England, and are known under the name of
the greater weever (Trachinus draco), about twelve inches long, and the
lesser weever (Trachinus vipera), about six inches long. They are perhaps
the most dreaded of the smaller English fishes. The formidable opercular
spines are weapons of defense, and when seized by the fisherman the fish is
apt to throw its head in the direction of the hand and lance a spine into it.
The pungent dorsal spines are also defensive. Although without a poison
Page 576
gland, such as some fishes distantly related have at the base of the spines,
they cause very severe wounds, and death may occur from tetanus. They are
therefore divested of both opercular and dorsal spines before being exposed
for sale. The various popular names which the weevers enjoy, in addition to
their general designation, mostly refer to the armature of the spines, or are
the result of the armature; such are adder-fish, stingfish, and sting-bull."
No species of Trachinidæ is known from North America or from Asia. In
these fishes, as Dr. Boulenger has lately shown, the hypercoracoid is
without foramen, the usual perforation lying between this bone and the
hypercoracoid. A similar condition exists in the Anacanthini, or codfishes,
but it seems to have been developed independently in the two groups. In the
relatives of the Trachinidæ the position of this foramen changes gradually,
moving by degrees from its usual place to the lower margin of the
hypercoracoid. Species referred to Trachinus are recorded from the
Miocene as well as Trachinus.
The extinct group of Callipterygidæ found in the Eocene of Monte Bolca
seems allied to the Trachinidæ. It has the dorsal fin continuous, the spines
small, the soft rays high; the scales are very small or wanting. Callipteryx
speciosus and C. recticandus are the known species.
The Nototheniidæ.—In the family of Nototheniidæ the foramen is also
wanting or confluent with the suture between the coracoids. To this family
belong many species of the Antarctic region. These are elongate fishes with
ctenoid scales and a general resemblance to small Hexagrammidæ. In most
of the genera there is more than one lateral line. These species are the
antipodes of the Cottidæ and Hexagrammidæ; although lacking the bony
stay of the latter, they show several analogical resemblances and have very
similar habits.
The Harpagiferidæ, naked, with the opercle armed with spines, and
resemble sculpins even more closely than do the Nototheniidæ. Harpagifer
is found in Antarctic seas, and the three species of Draconetta in the deeper
waters of the North Atlantic and Pacific. These little fishes resemble
Callionymus, but the opercle, instead of the preopercle, bears spines. The
Bovichthyidæ of New Zealand are also sculpin-like and perhaps belong to
the same family. Dr. Boulenger places all these Antarctic forms with the
foramen outside the hypercoracoid in one family, Nototheniidæ. Several
they cause very severe wounds, and death may occur from tetanus. They are
therefore divested of both opercular and dorsal spines before being exposed
for sale. The various popular names which the weevers enjoy, in addition to
their general designation, mostly refer to the armature of the spines, or are
the result of the armature; such are adder-fish, stingfish, and sting-bull."
No species of Trachinidæ is known from North America or from Asia. In
these fishes, as Dr. Boulenger has lately shown, the hypercoracoid is
without foramen, the usual perforation lying between this bone and the
hypercoracoid. A similar condition exists in the Anacanthini, or codfishes,
but it seems to have been developed independently in the two groups. In the
relatives of the Trachinidæ the position of this foramen changes gradually,
moving by degrees from its usual place to the lower margin of the
hypercoracoid. Species referred to Trachinus are recorded from the
Miocene as well as Trachinus.
The extinct group of Callipterygidæ found in the Eocene of Monte Bolca
seems allied to the Trachinidæ. It has the dorsal fin continuous, the spines
small, the soft rays high; the scales are very small or wanting. Callipteryx
speciosus and C. recticandus are the known species.
The Nototheniidæ.—In the family of Nototheniidæ the foramen is also
wanting or confluent with the suture between the coracoids. To this family
belong many species of the Antarctic region. These are elongate fishes with
ctenoid scales and a general resemblance to small Hexagrammidæ. In most
of the genera there is more than one lateral line. These species are the
antipodes of the Cottidæ and Hexagrammidæ; although lacking the bony
stay of the latter, they show several analogical resemblances and have very
similar habits.
The Harpagiferidæ, naked, with the opercle armed with spines, and
resemble sculpins even more closely than do the Nototheniidæ. Harpagifer
is found in Antarctic seas, and the three species of Draconetta in the deeper
waters of the North Atlantic and Pacific. These little fishes resemble
Callionymus, but the opercle, instead of the preopercle, bears spines. The
Bovichthyidæ of New Zealand are also sculpin-like and perhaps belong to
the same family. Dr. Boulenger places all these Antarctic forms with the
foramen outside the hypercoracoid in one family, Nototheniidæ. Several
Page 577
deep-sea fishes of this type have been lately described by Dr. Louis Dollo
and others from the Patagonian region. One of these forms, Macrias
amissus, lately named by Gill and Townsend, is five feet long, perhaps the
largest deep-sea fish known. The family of Percophidæ, from Chile, is also
closely allied to these forms, the single species differing in slight respects of
osteology.
Fig. 443.—Pteropsaron evolans Jordan & Snyder. Sagami Bay, Japan.
Closely related to the family of Nototheniidæ and perhaps scarcely distinct
from it is the small family of Pteropsaridæ, which differs in having but one
lateral line and the foramen just above the lower edge of the hypercoracoid.
The numerous species inhabit the middle Pacific, and are prettily colored
fishes, looking like gobies. Pteropsaron is a Japanese genus, with high
dorsal and anal fins; Parapercis is more widely diffused. Osurus
schauinslandi is one of the neatest of the small fishes of Hawaii. Several
species of Parapercis and Neopercis occur in Japan and numerous others in
the waters of Polynesia. Pseudeleginus majori of the Italian Miocene must
belong near Parapercis.
and others from the Patagonian region. One of these forms, Macrias
amissus, lately named by Gill and Townsend, is five feet long, perhaps the
largest deep-sea fish known. The family of Percophidæ, from Chile, is also
closely allied to these forms, the single species differing in slight respects of
osteology.
Fig. 443.—Pteropsaron evolans Jordan & Snyder. Sagami Bay, Japan.
Closely related to the family of Nototheniidæ and perhaps scarcely distinct
from it is the small family of Pteropsaridæ, which differs in having but one
lateral line and the foramen just above the lower edge of the hypercoracoid.
The numerous species inhabit the middle Pacific, and are prettily colored
fishes, looking like gobies. Pteropsaron is a Japanese genus, with high
dorsal and anal fins; Parapercis is more widely diffused. Osurus
schauinslandi is one of the neatest of the small fishes of Hawaii. Several
species of Parapercis and Neopercis occur in Japan and numerous others in
the waters of Polynesia. Pseudeleginus majori of the Italian Miocene must
belong near Parapercis.
Page 578
The Bathymasteridæ, or ronquils, are perhaps allied to the Nototheniidæ;
they resemble the Opisthognathidæ, but the jaws are shorter and they have a
large number of vertebræ as befits their northern distribution. Ronquilus
jordani is found in Puget Sound and Bathymaster signatus in Alaska. The
ventral rays are I, 5, and the many-rayed dorsal has a few slender spines in
front.
Fig. 444.—Bathymaster signatus Cope. Shumagin Is., Alaska.
The Leptoscopidæ.—The Leptoscopidæ of New Zealand resemble the
weevers and star-gazers, but the head is unarmed, covered by thin skin.
The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.—The Uranoscopidæ, or star-gazers,
have the head cuboid, mostly bony above, the mouth almost vertical, the
lips usually fringed, and the eyes on the flat upper surface of the head. The
spinous dorsal is short and may be wanting. The hypercoracoid has a
foramen, and the body is naked or covered with small scales. The
appearance is eccentric, like that of some of the Scorpænidæ, but the
anatomy differs in several ways from that of the mailed-cheek fishes.
The species inhabit warm seas, and the larger ones are food-fishes of some
importance. One species, Uranoscopus scaber, abounds in the
Mediterranean. Uranoscopus japonicus and other species are found in
Japan. Astroscopus y-græcum is the commonest species on our Atlantic
coast. The bare spaces on the top of the head in this species yield vigorous
electric shocks. Another American species is Astroscopus guttatus. In Japan
and the East Indies the forms are more numerous and varied. Ichthyscopus
they resemble the Opisthognathidæ, but the jaws are shorter and they have a
large number of vertebræ as befits their northern distribution. Ronquilus
jordani is found in Puget Sound and Bathymaster signatus in Alaska. The
ventral rays are I, 5, and the many-rayed dorsal has a few slender spines in
front.
Fig. 444.—Bathymaster signatus Cope. Shumagin Is., Alaska.
The Leptoscopidæ.—The Leptoscopidæ of New Zealand resemble the
weevers and star-gazers, but the head is unarmed, covered by thin skin.
The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.—The Uranoscopidæ, or star-gazers,
have the head cuboid, mostly bony above, the mouth almost vertical, the
lips usually fringed, and the eyes on the flat upper surface of the head. The
spinous dorsal is short and may be wanting. The hypercoracoid has a
foramen, and the body is naked or covered with small scales. The
appearance is eccentric, like that of some of the Scorpænidæ, but the
anatomy differs in several ways from that of the mailed-cheek fishes.
The species inhabit warm seas, and the larger ones are food-fishes of some
importance. One species, Uranoscopus scaber, abounds in the
Mediterranean. Uranoscopus japonicus and other species are found in
Japan. Astroscopus y-græcum is the commonest species on our Atlantic
coast. The bare spaces on the top of the head in this species yield vigorous
electric shocks. Another American species is Astroscopus guttatus. In Japan
and the East Indies the forms are more numerous and varied. Ichthyscopus
Page 579
lebeck, with a single dorsal, is a fantastic inhabitant of the seas of Japan,
and Anema monopterygium in New Zealand.
Uranoscopus peruzzii, an extinct star-gazer, has been described from the
Pliocene of Tuscany.
Fig. 445.—A Star-gazer Ariscopus iburius Jordan & Snyder. Iburi, Japan.
The Dragonets: Callionymidæ.—Remotely allied to the Uranoscopidæ is
the interesting family of dragonets, or Callionymidæ. These are small
scaleless fishes with flat heads, the preopercle armed with a strong spine,
the body bearing a general resemblance to the smaller and smoother
Cottidæ. The gill-openings are very small, the ventral fins wide apart. The
colors are highly variegated, the fins are high, often filamentous, and the
sexes differ much in coloration and in the development of the fins. The
species are especially numerous on the shores of Japan, where Callionymus
valenciennesi, Callionymus beniteguri, and Calliurichthys japonicus are
food-fishes of some slight importance. Others are found in the East Indies,
and several large and handsome forms are taken in the Mediterranean.
Callionymus draco, the dragonet, or "sculpin," reaches the coast of
England. In America but three species have been taken. These are dredged
in deep water in the East Indies. In other parts of the world these fantastic
little creatures are shore-fishes, creeping about in the shallow bays. Species
of Synchiropus, colored like the coral sands, abound in the Polynesian coral
reefs.
A fossil species of Callionymus (C. macrocephalus) are found in the
Miocene of Croatia.
and Anema monopterygium in New Zealand.
Uranoscopus peruzzii, an extinct star-gazer, has been described from the
Pliocene of Tuscany.
Fig. 445.—A Star-gazer Ariscopus iburius Jordan & Snyder. Iburi, Japan.
The Dragonets: Callionymidæ.—Remotely allied to the Uranoscopidæ is
the interesting family of dragonets, or Callionymidæ. These are small
scaleless fishes with flat heads, the preopercle armed with a strong spine,
the body bearing a general resemblance to the smaller and smoother
Cottidæ. The gill-openings are very small, the ventral fins wide apart. The
colors are highly variegated, the fins are high, often filamentous, and the
sexes differ much in coloration and in the development of the fins. The
species are especially numerous on the shores of Japan, where Callionymus
valenciennesi, Callionymus beniteguri, and Calliurichthys japonicus are
food-fishes of some slight importance. Others are found in the East Indies,
and several large and handsome forms are taken in the Mediterranean.
Callionymus draco, the dragonet, or "sculpin," reaches the coast of
England. In America but three species have been taken. These are dredged
in deep water in the East Indies. In other parts of the world these fantastic
little creatures are shore-fishes, creeping about in the shallow bays. Species
of Synchiropus, colored like the coral sands, abound in the Polynesian coral
reefs.
A fossil species of Callionymus (C. macrocephalus) are found in the
Miocene of Croatia.
Page 580
The family of Rhyacichthyidæ is a small group of Asiatic fishes allied to the
Callionymidæ, but less elongate and differing in minor details. They are
found not in the sea, but in mountain streams. Rhyacichthys (formerly
called by the preoccupied name Platyptera) is the principal genus.
Fig. 446.—Star-gazer, Astroscopus guttatus Abbott. (From life by Dr. R.
W. Shufeldt.)
The Trichonontidæ, with wide gill-openings and cycloid scales, are also
related to the Callionymidæ. The species are few, small, and confined to the
Indian and Australian seas. Another small family closely related to this is
the group of Hemerocœtidæ of the same region.
The Dactyloscopidæ.—In this and the preceding families of jugular fishes
the ventral rays remain I, 5, as in the typical thoracic forms. In most of the
families yet to be described the number is I, 3, a character which separates
the little fishes of the family of Dactyloscopidæ from the Uranoscopidæ
and Leptoscopidæ. Dactyloscopus tridigitatus is a small fish of the coral
sands of Cuba. The other species of this family are found mostly in the West
Indies and on the west coast of Mexico. Several genera, Myxodagnus,
Gillellus, Dactylagnus, etc., are recognized. In the structure of the shoulder-
girdle these species diverge from the star-gazers, approaching the blennies,
and their position is intermediate between Trachinidæ and Blenniidæ.
Callionymidæ, but less elongate and differing in minor details. They are
found not in the sea, but in mountain streams. Rhyacichthys (formerly
called by the preoccupied name Platyptera) is the principal genus.
Fig. 446.—Star-gazer, Astroscopus guttatus Abbott. (From life by Dr. R.
W. Shufeldt.)
The Trichonontidæ, with wide gill-openings and cycloid scales, are also
related to the Callionymidæ. The species are few, small, and confined to the
Indian and Australian seas. Another small family closely related to this is
the group of Hemerocœtidæ of the same region.
The Dactyloscopidæ.—In this and the preceding families of jugular fishes
the ventral rays remain I, 5, as in the typical thoracic forms. In most of the
families yet to be described the number is I, 3, a character which separates
the little fishes of the family of Dactyloscopidæ from the Uranoscopidæ
and Leptoscopidæ. Dactyloscopus tridigitatus is a small fish of the coral
sands of Cuba. The other species of this family are found mostly in the West
Indies and on the west coast of Mexico. Several genera, Myxodagnus,
Gillellus, Dactylagnus, etc., are recognized. In the structure of the shoulder-
girdle these species diverge from the star-gazers, approaching the blennies,
and their position is intermediate between Trachinidæ and Blenniidæ.
Page 581
CHAPTER XXIX
THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ
Fig. 447.—Sarcastic Blenny, Neoclinus satiricus Girard. Monterey.
he great family of blennies, Blenniidæ, contains a vast number
of species with elongate body, numerous dorsal spines,
without suborbital stay or sucking-disk, and the ventrals
jugular, where present, and of one spine and less than five soft
rays. Most of them are of small size, living about rocks on the
sea-shores of all regions. In general they are active fishes, of handsome but
dark coloration, and in the different parts of the group is found great variety
of structure. The tropical forms differ from those of arctic regions in the
much shorter bodies and fewer vertebræ. These forms are most like
ordinary fishes in appearance and structure and are doubtless the most
primitive. Of the five hundred known species of blennies, we can note only
a few of the most prominent. To Clinus and related genera belong many
species of the warm seas, scaly and ovoviviparous, at least for the most
THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ
Fig. 447.—Sarcastic Blenny, Neoclinus satiricus Girard. Monterey.
he great family of blennies, Blenniidæ, contains a vast number
of species with elongate body, numerous dorsal spines,
without suborbital stay or sucking-disk, and the ventrals
jugular, where present, and of one spine and less than five soft
rays. Most of them are of small size, living about rocks on the
sea-shores of all regions. In general they are active fishes, of handsome but
dark coloration, and in the different parts of the group is found great variety
of structure. The tropical forms differ from those of arctic regions in the
much shorter bodies and fewer vertebræ. These forms are most like
ordinary fishes in appearance and structure and are doubtless the most
primitive. Of the five hundred known species of blennies, we can note only
a few of the most prominent. To Clinus and related genera belong many
species of the warm seas, scaly and ovoviviparous, at least for the most
Page 582
part. The largest of these is the great kelpfish of the coast of California,
Heterostichus rostratus, a food-fish of importance, reaching the length of
two feet. Others of this type scarcely exceed two inches. Neoclinus
satiricus, also of California, is remarkable for the great length of the upper
jaw, which is formed as in Opisthognathus. Its membranes are brightly
colored, being edged with bright yellow. Gibbonsia elegans is the pretty
"señorita" of the coralline-lined rock-pools of California. Lepisoma
nuchipinne, with a fringe of filaments at the nape, is very abundant in rock-
pools of the West Indies. The species of Auchenopterus abound in the rock-
pools of tropical America. These are very small neatly colored fishes with
but one soft ray in the long dorsal fin. Species of Tripterygion, Myxodes,
Cristiceps, and other genera abound in the South Pacific.
Fig. 448.—Kelp Blenny, Gibbonsia evides Jordan & Gilbert. San Diego.
Heterostichus rostratus, a food-fish of importance, reaching the length of
two feet. Others of this type scarcely exceed two inches. Neoclinus
satiricus, also of California, is remarkable for the great length of the upper
jaw, which is formed as in Opisthognathus. Its membranes are brightly
colored, being edged with bright yellow. Gibbonsia elegans is the pretty
"señorita" of the coralline-lined rock-pools of California. Lepisoma
nuchipinne, with a fringe of filaments at the nape, is very abundant in rock-
pools of the West Indies. The species of Auchenopterus abound in the rock-
pools of tropical America. These are very small neatly colored fishes with
but one soft ray in the long dorsal fin. Species of Tripterygion, Myxodes,
Cristiceps, and other genera abound in the South Pacific.
Fig. 448.—Kelp Blenny, Gibbonsia evides Jordan & Gilbert. San Diego.
Page 583
Fig. 449.—Blennius cristatus L. Florida.
In Blennius and its relatives the body is scaleless and the slender teeth are
arranged like the teeth of a comb. In most species long, fang-like posterior
canines are developed in the jaws. Blennius is represented in Europe by
many species, Blennius galerita, ocellaris, and basiliscus being among the
most common. Certain species inhabit Italian lakes, having assumed a
fresh-water habit. The numerous American species mostly belong to other
related genera, Chasmodes bosquianus being most common. Blennius
yatabei abounds in Japan. In Petroscirtes and its allies the gill-openings are
much restricted. The species are mainly Asiatic and Polynesian and are very
prettily colored. Petroscirtes elegans and P. trossulus adorn the Japanese
rock-pools and others, often deep blue in color, abound in the coral reefs of
Polynesia.
Fig. 450.—Rock-skipper, Alticus atlanticus. San Cristobal, Lower Cal.
In Blennius and its relatives the body is scaleless and the slender teeth are
arranged like the teeth of a comb. In most species long, fang-like posterior
canines are developed in the jaws. Blennius is represented in Europe by
many species, Blennius galerita, ocellaris, and basiliscus being among the
most common. Certain species inhabit Italian lakes, having assumed a
fresh-water habit. The numerous American species mostly belong to other
related genera, Chasmodes bosquianus being most common. Blennius
yatabei abounds in Japan. In Petroscirtes and its allies the gill-openings are
much restricted. The species are mainly Asiatic and Polynesian and are very
prettily colored. Petroscirtes elegans and P. trossulus adorn the Japanese
rock-pools and others, often deep blue in color, abound in the coral reefs of
Polynesia.
Fig. 450.—Rock-skipper, Alticus atlanticus. San Cristobal, Lower Cal.
Page 584
Fig. 451.—Lizard-skipper, Alticus saliens (Forster). A blenny which lies
out of water on lava rocks, leaping from one to another with great agility.
From nature; specimen from Point Distress, Tutuila Island, Samoa. (About
one-half size.)
out of water on lava rocks, leaping from one to another with great agility.
From nature; specimen from Point Distress, Tutuila Island, Samoa. (About
one-half size.)
Page 585
Fig. 452.—Emblemaria atlantica Jordan. Pensacola, Fla.
The rock-skippers (Salarias, Alticus, etc.) are herbivorous, with serrated
teeth set loosely in the jaws. These live in the rock-pools of the tropics and
leap from rock to rock when disturbed with the agility of lizards. They are
dusky or gray in color with handsome markings. One of them, Erpichthys
or Alticus saliens in Samoa, lives about lava rocks between tide-marks, and
at low tide remains on the rocks, over which it runs with the greatest ease
and with much speed, its movements being precisely like those of
Periophthalmus. As in the species of the latter genus, otherwise wholly
different, this Alticus has short ventral fins padded with muscle.
Fig. 453.—Scartichthys enosimæ Jordan & Snyder, a fish of the rock-
pools of the sacred island of Enoshima, Japan. Family Blenniidæ.
The rock-skippers (Salarias, Alticus, etc.) are herbivorous, with serrated
teeth set loosely in the jaws. These live in the rock-pools of the tropics and
leap from rock to rock when disturbed with the agility of lizards. They are
dusky or gray in color with handsome markings. One of them, Erpichthys
or Alticus saliens in Samoa, lives about lava rocks between tide-marks, and
at low tide remains on the rocks, over which it runs with the greatest ease
and with much speed, its movements being precisely like those of
Periophthalmus. As in the species of the latter genus, otherwise wholly
different, this Alticus has short ventral fins padded with muscle.
Fig. 453.—Scartichthys enosimæ Jordan & Snyder, a fish of the rock-
pools of the sacred island of Enoshima, Japan. Family Blenniidæ.
Page 586
Erpichthys atlanticus is found in abundance on both coasts of tropical
America. Many species abound in Polynesia and in both Indies. Salarias
enosimæ lives in the clefts of lava rocks on the shores of Japan.
Ophioblennius (webbi) is remarkable for its strong teeth, Emblemaria
(nivipes, Atlantica) for its very high dorsal. Many other genera allied to
Blennius, Clinus, and Salarias abound in the warm seas.
Fig. 454.—Zacalles bryope Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 455.—Bryostemma tarsodes Jordan & Snyder. Unalaska.
America. Many species abound in Polynesia and in both Indies. Salarias
enosimæ lives in the clefts of lava rocks on the shores of Japan.
Ophioblennius (webbi) is remarkable for its strong teeth, Emblemaria
(nivipes, Atlantica) for its very high dorsal. Many other genera allied to
Blennius, Clinus, and Salarias abound in the warm seas.
Fig. 454.—Zacalles bryope Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan.
Fig. 455.—Bryostemma tarsodes Jordan & Snyder. Unalaska.
Page 587
Fig. 456.—Exerpes asper Jenkins & Evermann. Guaymas, Mexico.
Family Blenniidæ.
The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.—The blennies of
the north temperate and arctic zones have the dorsal fin more elongate, the
dorsal fin usually but not always composed entirely of spines. The scales
are small and the ventral fins generally reduced in size. These are divided
by Dr. Gill into several distinct families, but the groups recognized by him
are subject to intergradations.
Fig. 457.—Gunnel, Pholis gunnellus (L.). Gloucester, Mass.
Fig. 458.—Xiphistes chirus Jordan & Gilbert. Amchitka I., Alaska.
Chirolophis (ascanii) of north Europe is remarkable for the tufted filaments
on the head. These are still more developed in Bryostemma of the North
Pacific, Bryostemma polyactocephalum and several other species being
common from Puget Sound to Japan. Apodichthys (flavidus) of California is
Family Blenniidæ.
The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.—The blennies of
the north temperate and arctic zones have the dorsal fin more elongate, the
dorsal fin usually but not always composed entirely of spines. The scales
are small and the ventral fins generally reduced in size. These are divided
by Dr. Gill into several distinct families, but the groups recognized by him
are subject to intergradations.
Fig. 457.—Gunnel, Pholis gunnellus (L.). Gloucester, Mass.
Fig. 458.—Xiphistes chirus Jordan & Gilbert. Amchitka I., Alaska.
Chirolophis (ascanii) of north Europe is remarkable for the tufted filaments
on the head. These are still more developed in Bryostemma of the North
Pacific, Bryostemma polyactocephalum and several other species being
common from Puget Sound to Japan. Apodichthys (flavidus) of California is
Page 588
remarkable for a large quill-shaped anal spine and for the great variation in
color, the hue being yellow, grass-green, or crimson, according to the color
of the algæ about it. There is no evidence, however, that the individual fish
can change its color, and these color forms seem to be distinct races within
the species. Xererpes fucorum of California lies quiescent in the seaweed
(Fucus) after the tide recedes, its form, color, and substance seeming to
correspond exactly with those of the stems of algæ. Pholis gunnellus is the
common gunnel (gunwale), or butter-fish, of both shores of the North
Atlantic, with numerous allies in the North Pacific. Of these, Enedrias
nebulosus, the ginpo, or silver-tail, is especially common in Japan.
Xiphidion and Xiphistes of the California coast, and Dictyosoma of Japan,
among others, are remarkable for the great number of lateral lines, these
extending crosswise as well as lengthwise. Cebedichthys violaceus, a large
blenny of California, has the posterior half of the dorsal made of soft rays.
Opisthocentrus of Siberia and north Japan has the dorsal spines flexible,
only the posterior ones being short and stiff. The snake-blennies
(Lumpenus), numerous in the far North, are extremely slender, with well-
developed pectorals and ventrals. Lumpenus lampetræformis is found on
both shores of the Atlantic. In Stichæus a lateral line is present. There is
none in Lumpenus, and in Ernogrammus and Ozorthe there are three. All
these are elongate fishes, of some value as food and especially
characteristic of the Northern seas. Fossil blennies are almost unknown.
Pterygocephalus paradoxus of the Eocene resembles the living Cristiceps, a
genus which differs from Clinus in having the first few dorsal spines
detached, inserted on the head. The first spine alone in Pterygocephalus is
detached and is very strong. A species called Clinus gracilis is described
from the Miocene near Vienna, Blennius fossilis from the Miocene of
Croatia, and an uncertain Oncolepis isseli from Monte Bolca. The family is
certainly one of the most recent in geologic times. The family of Blenniidæ,
as here recognized, includes a very great variety of forms and should
perhaps be subdivided into several families, as Dr. Gill has suggested. At
present there is, however, no satisfactory basis of division known.
color, the hue being yellow, grass-green, or crimson, according to the color
of the algæ about it. There is no evidence, however, that the individual fish
can change its color, and these color forms seem to be distinct races within
the species. Xererpes fucorum of California lies quiescent in the seaweed
(Fucus) after the tide recedes, its form, color, and substance seeming to
correspond exactly with those of the stems of algæ. Pholis gunnellus is the
common gunnel (gunwale), or butter-fish, of both shores of the North
Atlantic, with numerous allies in the North Pacific. Of these, Enedrias
nebulosus, the ginpo, or silver-tail, is especially common in Japan.
Xiphidion and Xiphistes of the California coast, and Dictyosoma of Japan,
among others, are remarkable for the great number of lateral lines, these
extending crosswise as well as lengthwise. Cebedichthys violaceus, a large
blenny of California, has the posterior half of the dorsal made of soft rays.
Opisthocentrus of Siberia and north Japan has the dorsal spines flexible,
only the posterior ones being short and stiff. The snake-blennies
(Lumpenus), numerous in the far North, are extremely slender, with well-
developed pectorals and ventrals. Lumpenus lampetræformis is found on
both shores of the Atlantic. In Stichæus a lateral line is present. There is
none in Lumpenus, and in Ernogrammus and Ozorthe there are three. All
these are elongate fishes, of some value as food and especially
characteristic of the Northern seas. Fossil blennies are almost unknown.
Pterygocephalus paradoxus of the Eocene resembles the living Cristiceps, a
genus which differs from Clinus in having the first few dorsal spines
detached, inserted on the head. The first spine alone in Pterygocephalus is
detached and is very strong. A species called Clinus gracilis is described
from the Miocene near Vienna, Blennius fossilis from the Miocene of
Croatia, and an uncertain Oncolepis isseli from Monte Bolca. The family is
certainly one of the most recent in geologic times. The family of Blenniidæ,
as here recognized, includes a very great variety of forms and should
perhaps be subdivided into several families, as Dr. Gill has suggested. At
present there is, however, no satisfactory basis of division known.
Page 589
Fig. 459.—Ozorthe dictyogramma (Hertzenstein), a Japanese blenny from
Hakodate: showing increased number of lateral lines, a trait characteristic
of many fishes of the north Pacific.
Fig. 460.—Stichæus punctatus Fabricius. St. Michael, Alaska.
The Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.—The Ptilichthyidæ, or quillfishes, are
small and slender blennies of the North Pacific, with very numerous fin-
rays. Ptilichthys goodei has 90 dorsal spines and 145 soft rays. Another
group of very slender naked blennies is the small family of Xiphasiidæ from
the South Pacific. The jaws have excessively long canines; there are no
ventral fins. The dorsal fin is very high and the caudal ends in a long thread.
Hakodate: showing increased number of lateral lines, a trait characteristic
of many fishes of the north Pacific.
Fig. 460.—Stichæus punctatus Fabricius. St. Michael, Alaska.
The Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.—The Ptilichthyidæ, or quillfishes, are
small and slender blennies of the North Pacific, with very numerous fin-
rays. Ptilichthys goodei has 90 dorsal spines and 145 soft rays. Another
group of very slender naked blennies is the small family of Xiphasiidæ from
the South Pacific. The jaws have excessively long canines; there are no
ventral fins. The dorsal fin is very high and the caudal ends in a long thread.
Page 590
Fig. 461.—Bryostemma otohime Jordan & Snyder. Hakodate, Japan.
Family Blenniidæ.
Fig. 462.—Quillfish, Ptilichthys goodei Bean. Unalaska.
Fig. 463.—Blochius longirostris Volta, restored. Upper Eocene of Monte
Bolca. (After Woodward.)
The Blochiidæ.—Of doubtful relationship is the extinct family of
Blochiidæ. In this group the body is elongate, covered with keeled plates
imbricated like shingles. The dorsal is composed of many slender spines,
and the vertebræ much elongate. In Blochius longirostris (Monte Bolca
Eocene) has very long jaws, lined with small teeth. Zittel regards the family
as allied to the Belonorhynchidæ, but the prolongation of the jaws may be a
character of analogy merely. Woodward places it next to the Blenniidæ,
supposing it to have small and jugular ventral fins. But as the presence of
Family Blenniidæ.
Fig. 462.—Quillfish, Ptilichthys goodei Bean. Unalaska.
Fig. 463.—Blochius longirostris Volta, restored. Upper Eocene of Monte
Bolca. (After Woodward.)
The Blochiidæ.—Of doubtful relationship is the extinct family of
Blochiidæ. In this group the body is elongate, covered with keeled plates
imbricated like shingles. The dorsal is composed of many slender spines,
and the vertebræ much elongate. In Blochius longirostris (Monte Bolca
Eocene) has very long jaws, lined with small teeth. Zittel regards the family
as allied to the Belonorhynchidæ, but the prolongation of the jaws may be a
character of analogy merely. Woodward places it next to the Blenniidæ,
supposing it to have small and jugular ventral fins. But as the presence of
Page 591
ventral fins is uncertain, the position of the family cannot be ascertained
and it may really belong in the neighborhood of Ammodytes. The dorsal
rays are figured by Woodward as simple.
Fig. 464.—Xiphasia setifera Swainson. India. (After Day.)
The Patæcidæ etc.—The Patæcidæ are blenny-like fishes of Australia,
having the form of Congriopus, the spinous dorsal being very high and
inserted before the eyes, forming a crest. Patæcus fronto is not rare in South
Australia. The Gnathanacanthidæ is another small group of peculiar
blennies from the Pacific. The Acanthoclinidæ are small blennies of New
Zealand with numerous spines in the anal fin. Acanthoclinus littoreus is the
only known species.
The Gadopsidæ, etc.—The family of Gadopsidæ of the rivers of New
Zealand and southern Australia consists of a single species, Gadopsis
marmoratus, resembling the scaly blennies called Clinus, but with long
ventrals of a single ray, and three spines in the anal fin besides other
peculiarities. The species is locally very common and with various other
fishes in regions where true trout are unknown, it is called "trout."
The Cerdalidæ are small band-shaped blennies of the Pacific coast of
Panama. The slender dorsal spines pass gradually into soft rays. Three
species are known.
and it may really belong in the neighborhood of Ammodytes. The dorsal
rays are figured by Woodward as simple.
Fig. 464.—Xiphasia setifera Swainson. India. (After Day.)
The Patæcidæ etc.—The Patæcidæ are blenny-like fishes of Australia,
having the form of Congriopus, the spinous dorsal being very high and
inserted before the eyes, forming a crest. Patæcus fronto is not rare in South
Australia. The Gnathanacanthidæ is another small group of peculiar
blennies from the Pacific. The Acanthoclinidæ are small blennies of New
Zealand with numerous spines in the anal fin. Acanthoclinus littoreus is the
only known species.
The Gadopsidæ, etc.—The family of Gadopsidæ of the rivers of New
Zealand and southern Australia consists of a single species, Gadopsis
marmoratus, resembling the scaly blennies called Clinus, but with long
ventrals of a single ray, and three spines in the anal fin besides other
peculiarities. The species is locally very common and with various other
fishes in regions where true trout are unknown, it is called "trout."
The Cerdalidæ are small band-shaped blennies of the Pacific coast of
Panama. The slender dorsal spines pass gradually into soft rays. Three
species are known.
Page 592
Fig. 465.—Wrymouth, Cryptacanthodes maculatus. New York.
The wrymouths, or Cryptacanthodidæ, are large blennies of the northern
seas, with the mouth almost vertical and the head cuboid. The wrymouth or
ghostfish, Cryptacanthodes maculatus, is frequently taken from Long
Island northward. It is usually dusky in color, but sometimes pure white.
Other genera are found in the north Pacific.
The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.—The wolf-fishes (Anarhichadidæ) are
large blennies of the northern seas, remarkable for their strong teeth. Those
in front are conical canines. Those behind are coarse molars. The dorsal is
high, of flexible spines. The species are large, powerful, voracious fishes,
known as wolf-fishes. Anarhichas lupus is the common wolf-fish of the
north Atlantic, reaching a length of four to six feet, the body marked by
dark cross-bands. Other similar species are found both in the north Pacific
and north Atlantic. Anarhichas lepturus, plain brown in color, is common
about the Aleutian Islands.
The wrymouths, or Cryptacanthodidæ, are large blennies of the northern
seas, with the mouth almost vertical and the head cuboid. The wrymouth or
ghostfish, Cryptacanthodes maculatus, is frequently taken from Long
Island northward. It is usually dusky in color, but sometimes pure white.
Other genera are found in the north Pacific.
The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.—The wolf-fishes (Anarhichadidæ) are
large blennies of the northern seas, remarkable for their strong teeth. Those
in front are conical canines. Those behind are coarse molars. The dorsal is
high, of flexible spines. The species are large, powerful, voracious fishes,
known as wolf-fishes. Anarhichas lupus is the common wolf-fish of the
north Atlantic, reaching a length of four to six feet, the body marked by
dark cross-bands. Other similar species are found both in the north Pacific
and north Atlantic. Anarhichas lepturus, plain brown in color, is common
about the Aleutian Islands.
Page 593
Fig. 466.—Wolf-fish, Anarhichas lupus (L.). Georges Bank.
Fig. 467.—Skull of Anarrhichthys ocellatus Ayres.
In the wolf-eel (Anarrhichthys ocellatus) of the coast of California, the head
is formed as in Anarhichas but the body is band-shaped, being drawn out
into a very long and tapering tail. This species, which is often supposed to
be a "sea-serpent," sometimes reaches a length of eight feet. It is used for
food. It feeds on sea-urchins and sand-dollars (Echinarachinius) which it
readily crushes with its tremendous teeth.
The skull of a fossil genus, Laparus (alticeps), with a resemblance to
Anarhichas, is recorded from the Eocene of England.
The Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.—The remaining blenny-like forms lack fin
spines, agreeing in this respect with the codfishes and their allies. In all of
the latter, however, the hypercoracoid is imperforate, the pseudobranchiæ
are obsolete, and the tail isocercal. The forms allied to Zoarces and
Ophidion, and which we may regard as degraded blennies, have homocercal
(rarely leptocercal) tails, generally but not always well-developed
pseudobranchiæ and the usual foramen in the hypercoracoid.
Fig. 467.—Skull of Anarrhichthys ocellatus Ayres.
In the wolf-eel (Anarrhichthys ocellatus) of the coast of California, the head
is formed as in Anarhichas but the body is band-shaped, being drawn out
into a very long and tapering tail. This species, which is often supposed to
be a "sea-serpent," sometimes reaches a length of eight feet. It is used for
food. It feeds on sea-urchins and sand-dollars (Echinarachinius) which it
readily crushes with its tremendous teeth.
The skull of a fossil genus, Laparus (alticeps), with a resemblance to
Anarhichas, is recorded from the Eocene of England.
The Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.—The remaining blenny-like forms lack fin
spines, agreeing in this respect with the codfishes and their allies. In all of
the latter, however, the hypercoracoid is imperforate, the pseudobranchiæ
are obsolete, and the tail isocercal. The forms allied to Zoarces and
Ophidion, and which we may regard as degraded blennies, have homocercal
(rarely leptocercal) tails, generally but not always well-developed
pseudobranchiæ and the usual foramen in the hypercoracoid.
Page 594
Fig. 463.—Eel-pout, Zoarces anguillaris Peck. Eastport, Me.
The Zoarcidæ, or eel-pouts, have the body elongate, naked, or covered with
small scales, the dorsal and anal of many soft rays and the gill-openings
confined to the side. Most of the species live in rather deep water in the
Arctic and Antarctic regions. Zoarces viviparus, the "mother of eels," is a
common fish of the coasts of northern Europe. In the genus Zoarces, the
last rays of the dorsal are short and stiff, like spines. The species are
viviparous; the young being eel-like in form, the name "mother of eels" has
naturally arisen in popular language. The American eel-pout, sometimes
called mutton-fish, Zoarces anguillaris, is rather common north of Cape
Cod, and a similar species, Zoarces elongatus, is found in northern Japan.
Lycodopsis pacifica, without spines in the dorsal, replaces Zoarces in
California. The species of Lycodes, without spines in the dorsal, and with
teeth on the vomer and palatines, are very abundant in the northern seas,
extending into deep waters farther south. Lycodes reticulatus is the most
abundant of these fishes, which are valued chiefly by the Esquimaux and
other Arctic races of people. Numerous related genera are recorded from
deep-sea explorations, and several others occur about Tierra del Fuego.
Gymnelis, small, naked species brightly colored, is represented by Gymnelis
viridis in the Arctic and by Gymnelis pictus about Cape Horn.
Fig. 469.—Eel-pout, Lycodes reticulatus Reinhardt. Banquereau.
The Zoarcidæ, or eel-pouts, have the body elongate, naked, or covered with
small scales, the dorsal and anal of many soft rays and the gill-openings
confined to the side. Most of the species live in rather deep water in the
Arctic and Antarctic regions. Zoarces viviparus, the "mother of eels," is a
common fish of the coasts of northern Europe. In the genus Zoarces, the
last rays of the dorsal are short and stiff, like spines. The species are
viviparous; the young being eel-like in form, the name "mother of eels" has
naturally arisen in popular language. The American eel-pout, sometimes
called mutton-fish, Zoarces anguillaris, is rather common north of Cape
Cod, and a similar species, Zoarces elongatus, is found in northern Japan.
Lycodopsis pacifica, without spines in the dorsal, replaces Zoarces in
California. The species of Lycodes, without spines in the dorsal, and with
teeth on the vomer and palatines, are very abundant in the northern seas,
extending into deep waters farther south. Lycodes reticulatus is the most
abundant of these fishes, which are valued chiefly by the Esquimaux and
other Arctic races of people. Numerous related genera are recorded from
deep-sea explorations, and several others occur about Tierra del Fuego.
Gymnelis, small, naked species brightly colored, is represented by Gymnelis
viridis in the Arctic and by Gymnelis pictus about Cape Horn.
Fig. 469.—Eel-pout, Lycodes reticulatus Reinhardt. Banquereau.
Page 595
Fig. 470.—Lycenchelys verrilli (Goode & Bean). Chebucto, Nova Scotia.
Fig. 471.—Scytalina cerdale Jordan & Gilbert. Straits of Fuca.
The family of Scytalinidæ contains a single species, Scytalina cerdale, a
small snake-shaped fish which lives in wet gravel between tide-marks, on
Waada Island near Cape Flattery in Washington, not having yet been found
elsewhere. It dives among the wet stones with great celerity, and can only
be taken by active digging.
To the family of Congrogadidæ belong several species of eel-shaped
blennies with soft rays only, found on the coasts of Asia. Another small
family, Derepodichthyidæ, is represented by one species, a scaleless little
fish from the shores of British Columbia.
The Xenocephalidæ consist of a single peculiar species, Xenocephalus
armatus, from the island of New Ireland. The head is very large, helmeted
with bony plates and armed with spines. The body is short and slender, the
ventrals with five rays, the dorsal and anal short.
The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.—The more important family of Ophidiidæ, or
cusk-eels, is characterized by the extremely anterior position of the ventral
fins, which are inserted at the throat, each one appearing as a long forked
Fig. 471.—Scytalina cerdale Jordan & Gilbert. Straits of Fuca.
The family of Scytalinidæ contains a single species, Scytalina cerdale, a
small snake-shaped fish which lives in wet gravel between tide-marks, on
Waada Island near Cape Flattery in Washington, not having yet been found
elsewhere. It dives among the wet stones with great celerity, and can only
be taken by active digging.
To the family of Congrogadidæ belong several species of eel-shaped
blennies with soft rays only, found on the coasts of Asia. Another small
family, Derepodichthyidæ, is represented by one species, a scaleless little
fish from the shores of British Columbia.
The Xenocephalidæ consist of a single peculiar species, Xenocephalus
armatus, from the island of New Ireland. The head is very large, helmeted
with bony plates and armed with spines. The body is short and slender, the
ventrals with five rays, the dorsal and anal short.
The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.—The more important family of Ophidiidæ, or
cusk-eels, is characterized by the extremely anterior position of the ventral
fins, which are inserted at the throat, each one appearing as a long forked
Page 596
barbel. The tail is leptocercal, attenuate, the dorsal and anal confluent
around it. Ophidion barbatum and Rissola rochei are common in southern
Europe. Rissola marginata is the commonest species on our Atlantic coast,
and Chilara taylori in California. Other species are found farther south, and
still others in deep water. Genypterus contains numerous species of the
south Pacific, some of which reach the length of five feet, forming a
commercial substitute for cod. Genypterus capensis is the klipvisch of the
Cape of Good Hope, and Genypterus australis the "Cloudy Bay cod" or
"rock ling" of New England. Another large species, Genypterus maculatus,
occurs in Chile. A few fragments doubtfully referred to Ophidion and
Fierasfer occur in the Eocene and later rocks. The Lycodapodidæ contain a
few small, scaleless fishes (Lycodapus) dredged in the north Pacific.
Fig. 472.—Cusk-eel, Rissola marginata (De Kay). Virginia.
Fig. 473.—Lycodapus dermatinus Gilbert. Lower California.
Sand-lances: Ammodytidæ.—Near the Ophidiidæ are placed the small
family of sand-lances (Ammodytidæ). This family comprises small, slender,
silvery fishes, of both Arctic and tropical seas, living along shore and
having the habit of burying themselves in the sand under the surf in shallow
water. The jaws are toothless, the body scarcely scaly and crossed by many
cross-folds of skin, the many-rayed dorsal fin is without spines, and the
around it. Ophidion barbatum and Rissola rochei are common in southern
Europe. Rissola marginata is the commonest species on our Atlantic coast,
and Chilara taylori in California. Other species are found farther south, and
still others in deep water. Genypterus contains numerous species of the
south Pacific, some of which reach the length of five feet, forming a
commercial substitute for cod. Genypterus capensis is the klipvisch of the
Cape of Good Hope, and Genypterus australis the "Cloudy Bay cod" or
"rock ling" of New England. Another large species, Genypterus maculatus,
occurs in Chile. A few fragments doubtfully referred to Ophidion and
Fierasfer occur in the Eocene and later rocks. The Lycodapodidæ contain a
few small, scaleless fishes (Lycodapus) dredged in the north Pacific.
Fig. 472.—Cusk-eel, Rissola marginata (De Kay). Virginia.
Fig. 473.—Lycodapus dermatinus Gilbert. Lower California.
Sand-lances: Ammodytidæ.—Near the Ophidiidæ are placed the small
family of sand-lances (Ammodytidæ). This family comprises small, slender,
silvery fishes, of both Arctic and tropical seas, living along shore and
having the habit of burying themselves in the sand under the surf in shallow
water. The jaws are toothless, the body scarcely scaly and crossed by many
cross-folds of skin, the many-rayed dorsal fin is without spines, and the
Page 597
ventral fins when present are jugular. The species of the family are very
much alike. From their great abundance they have sometimes much value
as food, more perhaps as bait, still more as food for salmon and other fishes,
from which they escape by plunging into the sand. Sometimes a falling tide
leaves a sandy beach fairly covered with living "lants" looking like a
moving foam of silver. Ammodytes tobianus is the sand-lance or lant of
northern Europe. Ammodytes americanus, scarcely distinguishable, replaces
it in America; and Ammodytes personatus in California, Alaska, and Japan.
This is a most excellent pan fish, and the Japanese, who regard little things,
value it highly.
Fig. 474.—Sand-lance, Ammodytes americanus De Kay. Nantucket.
Fig. 475.—Embolichthys mitsukurii (Jordan & Evermann). Formosa.
In the genus Hyperoplus there is a large tooth on the vomer. In the tropical
genera there is a much smaller number of vertebræ and the body is covered
with ordinary scales instead of delicate, oblique cross-folds of skin. These
tropical species must probably be detached from the Ammodytidæ to form a
distinct family, Bleekeriidæ. Bleekeria kallolepis is found in India,
Bleekeria gilli is from an unknown locality, and the most primitive species
of sand-lance, Embolichthys mitsukurii, occurs in Formosa. In this species,
alone of the sand-lances, the ventral fins are retained. These are jugular in
position, as in the Zoarcidæ, and the rays are I, 3. The discovery of this
species makes it necessary to separate the Ammodytidæ and Bleekeriidæ
much alike. From their great abundance they have sometimes much value
as food, more perhaps as bait, still more as food for salmon and other fishes,
from which they escape by plunging into the sand. Sometimes a falling tide
leaves a sandy beach fairly covered with living "lants" looking like a
moving foam of silver. Ammodytes tobianus is the sand-lance or lant of
northern Europe. Ammodytes americanus, scarcely distinguishable, replaces
it in America; and Ammodytes personatus in California, Alaska, and Japan.
This is a most excellent pan fish, and the Japanese, who regard little things,
value it highly.
Fig. 474.—Sand-lance, Ammodytes americanus De Kay. Nantucket.
Fig. 475.—Embolichthys mitsukurii (Jordan & Evermann). Formosa.
In the genus Hyperoplus there is a large tooth on the vomer. In the tropical
genera there is a much smaller number of vertebræ and the body is covered
with ordinary scales instead of delicate, oblique cross-folds of skin. These
tropical species must probably be detached from the Ammodytidæ to form a
distinct family, Bleekeriidæ. Bleekeria kallolepis is found in India,
Bleekeria gilli is from an unknown locality, and the most primitive species
of sand-lance, Embolichthys mitsukurii, occurs in Formosa. In this species,
alone of the sand-lances, the ventral fins are retained. These are jugular in
position, as in the Zoarcidæ, and the rays are I, 3. The discovery of this
species makes it necessary to separate the Ammodytidæ and Bleekeriidæ
Page 598
widely from the Percesoces, and especially from the extinct families of
Crossognathidæ and Cobitopsidæ with which its structure in other regards
has led Woodward, Boulenger, and the present writer to associate it.
Although an alleged sand-lance, Rhynchias septipinnis, with ventral fins
abdominal, was described a century ago by Pallas, no one has since seen it,
and it may not exist, or, if it exists, it may belong among the Percesoces.
The relation of Ammodytes to Embolichthys is too close to doubt their close
relationship. According to Dr. Gill the Ammodytidæ belong near the
Hemerocœtidæ.
Fig. 476.—Pearlfish, Fierasfer dubius Putnam, embedded in a layer of
mother-of-pearl. La Paz, Lower California. (Photograph by Capt. M.
Castro.)
The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.—In the little group of pearlfishes, called
Fierasferidæ or Carapidæ, the body is eel-shaped with a rather large head,
and the vent is at the throat. Numerous species of Fierasfer (Carapus) are
found in the warm seas. These little fishes enter the cavities of sea-
Crossognathidæ and Cobitopsidæ with which its structure in other regards
has led Woodward, Boulenger, and the present writer to associate it.
Although an alleged sand-lance, Rhynchias septipinnis, with ventral fins
abdominal, was described a century ago by Pallas, no one has since seen it,
and it may not exist, or, if it exists, it may belong among the Percesoces.
The relation of Ammodytes to Embolichthys is too close to doubt their close
relationship. According to Dr. Gill the Ammodytidæ belong near the
Hemerocœtidæ.
Fig. 476.—Pearlfish, Fierasfer dubius Putnam, embedded in a layer of
mother-of-pearl. La Paz, Lower California. (Photograph by Capt. M.
Castro.)
The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.—In the little group of pearlfishes, called
Fierasferidæ or Carapidæ, the body is eel-shaped with a rather large head,
and the vent is at the throat. Numerous species of Fierasfer (Carapus) are
found in the warm seas. These little fishes enter the cavities of sea-
Page 599
cucumbers (Holothurians) and other animals which offer shelter, being
frequently taken from the pearl-oyster. In the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, according to Professor Putnam, is "one valve of a pearl-oyster in
which a specimen of Fierasfer dubius is beautifully inclosed in a pearly
covering deposited on it by the oyster." A photograph of a similar specimen
is given above. The species found in Holothurians are transparent in texture,
with a bright pearly luster. Species living among lava rocks, as Jordanicus
umbratilis of the south seas, are mottled black. Since this was written a
specimen of this black species has been obtained from a Holothurian in
Hilo, Hawaii, by Mr. H. W. Henshaw.
Fig. 477.—Pearlfish, Fierasfer acus (Linnæus), issuing from a
Holothurian. Coast of Italy. (After Emery.)
The Brotulidæ.—The Brotulidæ constitute a large family of fishes,
resembling codfishes, but differing in the character of the hypercoracoid, as
well as in the form of the tail. The resemblance between the two groups is
largely superficial. We may look upon the Brotulidæ as degraded blennies,
frequently taken from the pearl-oyster. In the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, according to Professor Putnam, is "one valve of a pearl-oyster in
which a specimen of Fierasfer dubius is beautifully inclosed in a pearly
covering deposited on it by the oyster." A photograph of a similar specimen
is given above. The species found in Holothurians are transparent in texture,
with a bright pearly luster. Species living among lava rocks, as Jordanicus
umbratilis of the south seas, are mottled black. Since this was written a
specimen of this black species has been obtained from a Holothurian in
Hilo, Hawaii, by Mr. H. W. Henshaw.
Fig. 477.—Pearlfish, Fierasfer acus (Linnæus), issuing from a
Holothurian. Coast of Italy. (After Emery.)
The Brotulidæ.—The Brotulidæ constitute a large family of fishes,
resembling codfishes, but differing in the character of the hypercoracoid, as
well as in the form of the tail. The resemblance between the two groups is
largely superficial. We may look upon the Brotulidæ as degraded blennies,
Page 600
but the Gadidæ have an earlier and different origin which has not yet been
clearly made out. Most of the Brotulidæ live in deep water and are without
common name or economic relations. Two species have been landlocked in
cave streams in Cuba, where they have, like other cavefishes, lost their
sight, a phenomenon which richly deserves careful study, and which has
been recently investigated by Dr. C. H. Eigenmann. These blind Brotulids,
called Pez Ciego in Cuba, are found in different caves in the county of San
Antonio, where they reach a length of about five inches. As in other
blindfishes, the body is translucent and colorless. These species are known
as Lucifuga subterranea and Stygicola dentata. They are descended from
allies of the genera called Brotula and Dinematichthys. Brotula barbata is a
cusk-like fish, occasionally found in the markets of Havana. Similar
species, Brotula multibarbata and Sirembo inermis, are common in Japan,
and Brosmophycis marginatus, beautifully red in color, is occasionally seen
on the coast of California. Many other genera and species abound in the
depths of the sea and in crevices of coral reefs, showing much variety in
form and structure.
Fig. 478.—Brotula barbata Schneider. Cuba.
clearly made out. Most of the Brotulidæ live in deep water and are without
common name or economic relations. Two species have been landlocked in
cave streams in Cuba, where they have, like other cavefishes, lost their
sight, a phenomenon which richly deserves careful study, and which has
been recently investigated by Dr. C. H. Eigenmann. These blind Brotulids,
called Pez Ciego in Cuba, are found in different caves in the county of San
Antonio, where they reach a length of about five inches. As in other
blindfishes, the body is translucent and colorless. These species are known
as Lucifuga subterranea and Stygicola dentata. They are descended from
allies of the genera called Brotula and Dinematichthys. Brotula barbata is a
cusk-like fish, occasionally found in the markets of Havana. Similar
species, Brotula multibarbata and Sirembo inermis, are common in Japan,
and Brosmophycis marginatus, beautifully red in color, is occasionally seen
on the coast of California. Many other genera and species abound in the
depths of the sea and in crevices of coral reefs, showing much variety in
form and structure.
Fig. 478.—Brotula barbata Schneider. Cuba.
Page 601
Fig. 479.—Blind Brotula. Lucifuga subterranea (Poey), showing
viviparous habit. Joignan Cave, Pinar del Rio, Cuba. (Photograph by Dr.
Eigenmann.)
The Bregmacerotidæ are small fishes, closely related to the Brotulids,
having the hypercoracoid perforate, but with several minor peculiarities, the
first ray of the dorsal being free and much elongate. They live near the
surface in the open sea. Bregmaceros macclellandi is widely diffused in the
Pacific.
Ateleopodidæ.—The small family of Ateleopodidæ includes long-bodied,
deep-water fishes of the Pacific, resembling Macrourus, but with smooth
scales. The group has the coracoids as in Brotulidæ, and the actinosts are
united in an undivided plate. Ateleopus japonicus is the species taken in
Japan.
Suborder Haplodoci.—We may here place the peculiar family of
Batrachoididæ, or toadfishes. It constitutes the suborder of Haplodoci
(ἁπλόος, simple; δόκος, shaft) from the simple form of the post-temporal.
This order is characterized by the undivided post-temporal bone and by the
reduction of the gill-arches to three. A second bone behind the post-
temporal connects the shoulder-girdle above to the vertebral column. The
coracoid bones are more or less elongate, suggesting the arm seen in
pediculate fishes.
The single family has the general form of the Cottidæ, the body robust, with
large head, large mouth, strong teeth, and short spinous dorsal fin. The
viviparous habit. Joignan Cave, Pinar del Rio, Cuba. (Photograph by Dr.
Eigenmann.)
The Bregmacerotidæ are small fishes, closely related to the Brotulids,
having the hypercoracoid perforate, but with several minor peculiarities, the
first ray of the dorsal being free and much elongate. They live near the
surface in the open sea. Bregmaceros macclellandi is widely diffused in the
Pacific.
Ateleopodidæ.—The small family of Ateleopodidæ includes long-bodied,
deep-water fishes of the Pacific, resembling Macrourus, but with smooth
scales. The group has the coracoids as in Brotulidæ, and the actinosts are
united in an undivided plate. Ateleopus japonicus is the species taken in
Japan.
Suborder Haplodoci.—We may here place the peculiar family of
Batrachoididæ, or toadfishes. It constitutes the suborder of Haplodoci
(ἁπλόος, simple; δόκος, shaft) from the simple form of the post-temporal.
This order is characterized by the undivided post-temporal bone and by the
reduction of the gill-arches to three. A second bone behind the post-
temporal connects the shoulder-girdle above to the vertebral column. The
coracoid bones are more or less elongate, suggesting the arm seen in
pediculate fishes.
The single family has the general form of the Cottidæ, the body robust, with
large head, large mouth, strong teeth, and short spinous dorsal fin. The
Page 602
shoulder-girdle and its structures differ little from the blennioid type. There
are no pseudobranchiæ and the tail is homocercal. The species are relatively
few, chiefly confined to the warm seas and mostly American, none being
found in Europe or Asia. Some of them ascend rivers, and all are
carnivorous and voracious. None are valued as food, being coarse-grained
in flesh. The group is probably nearest allied to the Trachinidæ or
Uranoscopidæ.
Fig. 480.—Leopard Toadfish, Opsanus pardus (Goode & Bean).
Pensacola.
Opsanus tau, the common toadfish, or oyster-fish, of our Atlantic coast, is
very common in rocky places, the young clinging to stones by a sucking-
disk on the belly, a structure which is early lost. It reaches a length of about
fifteen inches. Opsanus pardus, the leopard toadfish, or sapo, of the Gulf
coast, lives in deeper water and is prettily marked with dark-brown spots on
a light yellowish ground.
In Opsanus the body is naked and there is a large foramen, or mucous pore,
in the axil of the pectoral. In the Marcgravia cryptocentra, a large Brazilian
toadfish, this foramen is absent. In Batrachoides, a South American genus,
the body is covered with cycloid scales. Batrachoides surinamensis is a
common species of the West Indies. Batrachoides pacifici occurs at
Panama. The genus Porichthys is remarkable for the development of series
of mucous pores and luminous spots in several different lateral lines which
are no pseudobranchiæ and the tail is homocercal. The species are relatively
few, chiefly confined to the warm seas and mostly American, none being
found in Europe or Asia. Some of them ascend rivers, and all are
carnivorous and voracious. None are valued as food, being coarse-grained
in flesh. The group is probably nearest allied to the Trachinidæ or
Uranoscopidæ.
Fig. 480.—Leopard Toadfish, Opsanus pardus (Goode & Bean).
Pensacola.
Opsanus tau, the common toadfish, or oyster-fish, of our Atlantic coast, is
very common in rocky places, the young clinging to stones by a sucking-
disk on the belly, a structure which is early lost. It reaches a length of about
fifteen inches. Opsanus pardus, the leopard toadfish, or sapo, of the Gulf
coast, lives in deeper water and is prettily marked with dark-brown spots on
a light yellowish ground.
In Opsanus the body is naked and there is a large foramen, or mucous pore,
in the axil of the pectoral. In the Marcgravia cryptocentra, a large Brazilian
toadfish, this foramen is absent. In Batrachoides, a South American genus,
the body is covered with cycloid scales. Batrachoides surinamensis is a
common species of the West Indies. Batrachoides pacifici occurs at
Panama. The genus Porichthys is remarkable for the development of series
of mucous pores and luminous spots in several different lateral lines which
Page 603
cover the body. These luminous spots are quite unlike those found in the
lantern-fishes (Myctophidæ) and other Iniomi. Their structure has been
worked out in detail by Dr. Charles Wilson Greene, a summary of whose
conclusions are given on page 191, Vol. I.
The common midshipman, or singing fish, of the coast of California is
Porichthys notatus. This species, named midshipman from its rows of
shining spots like brass buttons, is found among rocks and kelp and makes a
peculiar quivering or humming noise with its large air-bladder.
Porichthys porosissimus, the bagre sapo, is common on all coasts of the
Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Porichthys margaritatus is found
about Panama and Porichthys porosus in Chile.
Fig. 481.—Singing Fish or Bagre Sapo, Porichthys porosissimus (Cuv. &
Val.). Galveston.
The species of Thalassophryne and Thalassothia, the poison toadfishes, are
found along the coasts of South America, where they sometimes ascend the
rivers. In these species there is an elaborate series of venom glands
connected with the hollow spines of the opercle and the dorsal spines. Dr.
Günther gives the following account of this structure as shown in
Thalassophryne reticulata, a species from Panama:
"In this species I first observed and closely examined the poison organ with
which the fishes of this genus are provided. Its structure is as follows: (1)
The opercular part: The operculum is very narrow, vertically styliform and
very mobile; it is armed behind with a spine, eight lines long in a specimen
of 10½ inches, and of the same form as the venom fang of a snake; it is,
lantern-fishes (Myctophidæ) and other Iniomi. Their structure has been
worked out in detail by Dr. Charles Wilson Greene, a summary of whose
conclusions are given on page 191, Vol. I.
The common midshipman, or singing fish, of the coast of California is
Porichthys notatus. This species, named midshipman from its rows of
shining spots like brass buttons, is found among rocks and kelp and makes a
peculiar quivering or humming noise with its large air-bladder.
Porichthys porosissimus, the bagre sapo, is common on all coasts of the
Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Porichthys margaritatus is found
about Panama and Porichthys porosus in Chile.
Fig. 481.—Singing Fish or Bagre Sapo, Porichthys porosissimus (Cuv. &
Val.). Galveston.
The species of Thalassophryne and Thalassothia, the poison toadfishes, are
found along the coasts of South America, where they sometimes ascend the
rivers. In these species there is an elaborate series of venom glands
connected with the hollow spines of the opercle and the dorsal spines. Dr.
Günther gives the following account of this structure as shown in
Thalassophryne reticulata, a species from Panama:
"In this species I first observed and closely examined the poison organ with
which the fishes of this genus are provided. Its structure is as follows: (1)
The opercular part: The operculum is very narrow, vertically styliform and
very mobile; it is armed behind with a spine, eight lines long in a specimen
of 10½ inches, and of the same form as the venom fang of a snake; it is,
Page 604
however, somewhat less curved, being only slightly bent upward. It has a
longish slit at the outer side of its extremity which leads into a canal
perfectly closed and running along the whole length of its interior; a bristle
introduced into the canal reappears through another opening at the base of
the spine, entering into a sac situated on the opercle and along the basal half
of the spine; the sac is of an oblong-ovate shape and about double the size
of an oat grain. Though the specimen had been preserved in spirits for about
nine months it still contained a whitish substance of the consistency of thick
cream, which on the slightest pressure freely flowed from the opening in the
extremity of the spine. On the other hand, the sac could be easily filled with
air or fluid from the foramen of the spine. No gland could be discovered in
the immediate neighborhood of the sac; but on a more careful inspection I
found a minute tube floating free in the sac, whilst on the left-hand side
there is only a small opening instead of the tube. The attempts to introduce
a bristle into this opening for any distance failed, as it appears to lead into
the interior of the basal portion of the operculum, to which the sac firmly
adheres at this spot. (2) The dorsal part is composed of the two dorsal
spines, each of which is ten lines long. The whole arrangement is the same
as in the opercular spines; their slit is at the front side of the point; each has
a separate sac, which occupies the front of the basal portion; the contents
were the same as in the opercular sacs, but in somewhat greater quantity. A
strong branch of the lateral line ascends to the immediate neighborhood of
their base. Thus we have four poison spines, each with a sac at its base; the
walls of the sacs are thin, composed of a fibrous membrane, the interior of
which is coated over with mucus. There are no secretory glands embedded
between these membranes, and these sacs are probably merely the
reservoirs in which the fluid secreted accumulates. The absence of a
secretory organ in the immediate neighborhood of the reservoirs (an organ
the size of which would be in accordance with the quantity of fluid
secreted), the diversity of the osseous spines which have been modified into
poison organs, and the actual communication indicated by the foramen in
the sac lead me to the opinion that the organ of secretion is either that
system of muciferous channels which is found in nearly the whole class of
fishes, and the secretion of which has poisonous qualities in a few of them,
or at least an independent portion of it. This description was made from the
first example; through the kindness of Captain Dow I received two other
specimens, and in the hope of proving the connection of the poison bags
longish slit at the outer side of its extremity which leads into a canal
perfectly closed and running along the whole length of its interior; a bristle
introduced into the canal reappears through another opening at the base of
the spine, entering into a sac situated on the opercle and along the basal half
of the spine; the sac is of an oblong-ovate shape and about double the size
of an oat grain. Though the specimen had been preserved in spirits for about
nine months it still contained a whitish substance of the consistency of thick
cream, which on the slightest pressure freely flowed from the opening in the
extremity of the spine. On the other hand, the sac could be easily filled with
air or fluid from the foramen of the spine. No gland could be discovered in
the immediate neighborhood of the sac; but on a more careful inspection I
found a minute tube floating free in the sac, whilst on the left-hand side
there is only a small opening instead of the tube. The attempts to introduce
a bristle into this opening for any distance failed, as it appears to lead into
the interior of the basal portion of the operculum, to which the sac firmly
adheres at this spot. (2) The dorsal part is composed of the two dorsal
spines, each of which is ten lines long. The whole arrangement is the same
as in the opercular spines; their slit is at the front side of the point; each has
a separate sac, which occupies the front of the basal portion; the contents
were the same as in the opercular sacs, but in somewhat greater quantity. A
strong branch of the lateral line ascends to the immediate neighborhood of
their base. Thus we have four poison spines, each with a sac at its base; the
walls of the sacs are thin, composed of a fibrous membrane, the interior of
which is coated over with mucus. There are no secretory glands embedded
between these membranes, and these sacs are probably merely the
reservoirs in which the fluid secreted accumulates. The absence of a
secretory organ in the immediate neighborhood of the reservoirs (an organ
the size of which would be in accordance with the quantity of fluid
secreted), the diversity of the osseous spines which have been modified into
poison organs, and the actual communication indicated by the foramen in
the sac lead me to the opinion that the organ of secretion is either that
system of muciferous channels which is found in nearly the whole class of
fishes, and the secretion of which has poisonous qualities in a few of them,
or at least an independent portion of it. This description was made from the
first example; through the kindness of Captain Dow I received two other
specimens, and in the hope of proving the connection of the poison bags
Page 605
with the lateral-line system, I asked Dr. Pettigrew, of the Royal College of
Surgeons, a gentleman whose great skill has enriched that collection with a
series of the most admirable anatomical preparations, to lend me his
assistance in injecting the canals. The injection of the bags through the
opening of the spine was easily accomplished; but we failed to drive the
fluid beyond the bag or to fill with it any other part of the system of
muciferous channels. This, however, does not disprove the connection of
the poison bags with that system, inasmuch as it became apparent that if
there be minute openings they are so contracted by the action of the spirit in
which the specimens were preserved as to be impassable to the fluid of
injection. A great part of the lateral-line system consists of open canals;
however, on some parts of the body, these canals are entirely covered by the
skin; thus, for instance, the open lateral line ceases apparently in the
suprascapular region, being continued in the parietal region. We could not
discover any trace of an opening by which the open canal leads to below the
skin; yet we could distinctly trace the existence of the continuation of the
canal by a depressed line, so that it is quite evident that such openings do
exist, although they may be passable only in fresh specimens. Thus likewise
the existence of openings in the bags, as I believed to have found in the first
specimen dissected, may be proved by examination of fresh examples. The
sacs are without an external muscular layer and situated immediately below
the loose thick skin which envelops their spines to their extremity. The
injection of the poison into a living animal, therefore, can only be effected
by the pressure to which the sac is subjected the moment the spine enters
another body. Nobody will suppose that a complicated apparatus like the
one described can be intended for conveying an innocuous substance, and
therefore I have not hesitated to designate it as poisonous; and, Captain
Dow informs me in a letter lately received, 'the natives of Panama seemed
quite familiar with the existence of the spines and of the emission from
them of a poison which, when introduced into a wound, caused fever, an
effect somewhat similar to that produced by the sting of a scorpion; but in
no case was a wound caused by one of them known to result seriously. The
slightest pressure of the finger at the base of the spine caused the poison to
jet a foot or more from the opening of the spine.' The greatest importance
must be attached to this fact, inasmuch as it assists us in our inquiries into
the nature of the functions of the muciferous system, the idea of its being a
secretory organ having lately been superseded by the notion that it serves
Surgeons, a gentleman whose great skill has enriched that collection with a
series of the most admirable anatomical preparations, to lend me his
assistance in injecting the canals. The injection of the bags through the
opening of the spine was easily accomplished; but we failed to drive the
fluid beyond the bag or to fill with it any other part of the system of
muciferous channels. This, however, does not disprove the connection of
the poison bags with that system, inasmuch as it became apparent that if
there be minute openings they are so contracted by the action of the spirit in
which the specimens were preserved as to be impassable to the fluid of
injection. A great part of the lateral-line system consists of open canals;
however, on some parts of the body, these canals are entirely covered by the
skin; thus, for instance, the open lateral line ceases apparently in the
suprascapular region, being continued in the parietal region. We could not
discover any trace of an opening by which the open canal leads to below the
skin; yet we could distinctly trace the existence of the continuation of the
canal by a depressed line, so that it is quite evident that such openings do
exist, although they may be passable only in fresh specimens. Thus likewise
the existence of openings in the bags, as I believed to have found in the first
specimen dissected, may be proved by examination of fresh examples. The
sacs are without an external muscular layer and situated immediately below
the loose thick skin which envelops their spines to their extremity. The
injection of the poison into a living animal, therefore, can only be effected
by the pressure to which the sac is subjected the moment the spine enters
another body. Nobody will suppose that a complicated apparatus like the
one described can be intended for conveying an innocuous substance, and
therefore I have not hesitated to designate it as poisonous; and, Captain
Dow informs me in a letter lately received, 'the natives of Panama seemed
quite familiar with the existence of the spines and of the emission from
them of a poison which, when introduced into a wound, caused fever, an
effect somewhat similar to that produced by the sting of a scorpion; but in
no case was a wound caused by one of them known to result seriously. The
slightest pressure of the finger at the base of the spine caused the poison to
jet a foot or more from the opening of the spine.' The greatest importance
must be attached to this fact, inasmuch as it assists us in our inquiries into
the nature of the functions of the muciferous system, the idea of its being a
secretory organ having lately been superseded by the notion that it serves
Page 606
merely as a stratum for the distribution of peripheric nerves. Also the
objection that the sting-rays and many Siluroid fishes are not poisonous
because they have no poison organ cannot be maintained, although the
organs conveying their poison are neither so well adapted for this purpose
nor in such a perfect connection with the secretory mucous system as in
Thalassophryne. The poison organ serves merely as a weapon of defense.
All the Batrachoids with obtuse teeth on the palate and in the lower jaw
feed on Mollusca and Crustaceans."
No fossil Batrachoididæ are known.
Suborder Xenopterygii.—The clingfishes, forming the suborder
Xenopterygii (ξενός, strange; πτερύξ, fin), are, perhaps, allied to the
toadfishes. The ventral fins are jugular, the rays I, 4 or I, 5, and between
them is developed an elaborate sucking-disk, not derived from modified
fins, but from folds of the skin and underlying muscles.
The structure of this disk in Gobiesox sanguineus is thus described by Dr.
Günther:
"The whole disk is exceedingly large, subcircular, longer than broad, its
length being (often) one-third of the whole length of the fish. The central
portion is formed merely by skin, which is separated from the pelvic or
pubic bones by several layers of muscles. The peripheric portion is divided
into an anterior and posterior part by a deep notch behind the ventrals. The
anterior peripheric portion is formed by the ventral rays, the membrane
between them and a broad fringe which extends anteriorly from one ventral
to the other. This fringe is a fold of the skin, containing on one side the
rudimentary ventral spine, but no cartilage. The posterior peripheric portion
is suspended on each side on the coracoid, the upper bone of which is
exceedingly broad, becoming a free, movable plate behind the pectoral. The
lower bone of the coracoid is of a triangular form, and supports a very
broad fold of the skin, extending from one side to the other, and containing
a cartilage which runs through the whole of that fold. Fine processes of the
cartilage are continued into the soft striated margin, in which the disk
terminates posteriorly. The face of the disk is coated with a thick epidermis,
like the sole of the foot in higher animals. The epidermis is divided into
many polygonal plates. There are no such plates between the roots of the
ventral fins."
objection that the sting-rays and many Siluroid fishes are not poisonous
because they have no poison organ cannot be maintained, although the
organs conveying their poison are neither so well adapted for this purpose
nor in such a perfect connection with the secretory mucous system as in
Thalassophryne. The poison organ serves merely as a weapon of defense.
All the Batrachoids with obtuse teeth on the palate and in the lower jaw
feed on Mollusca and Crustaceans."
No fossil Batrachoididæ are known.
Suborder Xenopterygii.—The clingfishes, forming the suborder
Xenopterygii (ξενός, strange; πτερύξ, fin), are, perhaps, allied to the
toadfishes. The ventral fins are jugular, the rays I, 4 or I, 5, and between
them is developed an elaborate sucking-disk, not derived from modified
fins, but from folds of the skin and underlying muscles.
The structure of this disk in Gobiesox sanguineus is thus described by Dr.
Günther:
"The whole disk is exceedingly large, subcircular, longer than broad, its
length being (often) one-third of the whole length of the fish. The central
portion is formed merely by skin, which is separated from the pelvic or
pubic bones by several layers of muscles. The peripheric portion is divided
into an anterior and posterior part by a deep notch behind the ventrals. The
anterior peripheric portion is formed by the ventral rays, the membrane
between them and a broad fringe which extends anteriorly from one ventral
to the other. This fringe is a fold of the skin, containing on one side the
rudimentary ventral spine, but no cartilage. The posterior peripheric portion
is suspended on each side on the coracoid, the upper bone of which is
exceedingly broad, becoming a free, movable plate behind the pectoral. The
lower bone of the coracoid is of a triangular form, and supports a very
broad fold of the skin, extending from one side to the other, and containing
a cartilage which runs through the whole of that fold. Fine processes of the
cartilage are continued into the soft striated margin, in which the disk
terminates posteriorly. The face of the disk is coated with a thick epidermis,
like the sole of the foot in higher animals. The epidermis is divided into
many polygonal plates. There are no such plates between the roots of the
ventral fins."
Page 607
Fig. 482.—Aspasma ciconiæ Jordan & Snyder. Wakanoura, Japan.
The body is formed much as in the toadfishes. The skin is naked and there
is no spinous dorsal fin. The skeleton shows several peculiarities; there is
no suborbital ring, the palatine arcade is reduced, as are the gill-arches, the
opercle is reduced to a spine-like projection, and the vertebræ are
numerous. The species are found in tide-pools in the warm seas, where they
cling tightly to the rocks with their large ventral disks.
Several species of Lepadogaster and Mirbelia are found in the
Mediterranean. Lepadogaster gouani is the best-known European species.
Aspasma ciconiæ and minima occur about the rocks in the bays of Japan.
Fig. 483.—Clingfish, Caularchus mæandricus (Girard). Monterey, Cal.
Most of the West Indian species belong to Gobiesox, with entire teeth, and
to Arbaciosa, with serrated teeth. Some of these species are deep crimson in
color, but most of them are dull olive. Gobiesox virgatulus is common on
the Gulf Coast. Caularchus mæandricus, a very large species, reaching a
The body is formed much as in the toadfishes. The skin is naked and there
is no spinous dorsal fin. The skeleton shows several peculiarities; there is
no suborbital ring, the palatine arcade is reduced, as are the gill-arches, the
opercle is reduced to a spine-like projection, and the vertebræ are
numerous. The species are found in tide-pools in the warm seas, where they
cling tightly to the rocks with their large ventral disks.
Several species of Lepadogaster and Mirbelia are found in the
Mediterranean. Lepadogaster gouani is the best-known European species.
Aspasma ciconiæ and minima occur about the rocks in the bays of Japan.
Fig. 483.—Clingfish, Caularchus mæandricus (Girard). Monterey, Cal.
Most of the West Indian species belong to Gobiesox, with entire teeth, and
to Arbaciosa, with serrated teeth. Some of these species are deep crimson in
color, but most of them are dull olive. Gobiesox virgatulus is common on
the Gulf Coast. Caularchus mæandricus, a very large species, reaching a
Page 608
length of six inches, abounds along the coast of California. Other genera are
found at the Cape of Good Hope, especially about New Zealand.
Chorisochismus dentex, from the Cape of Good Hope, reaches the length of
a foot.
found at the Cape of Good Hope, especially about New Zealand.
Chorisochismus dentex, from the Cape of Good Hope, reaches the length of
a foot.
Page 609
CHAPTER XXX
OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI
rder Opisthomi.—The order Opisthomi (ὄπισθη, behind;
ὤμος, shoulder) is characterized by the general traits of the
blennies and other elongate, spiny-rayed fishes, but the
shoulder-girdle, as in the Apodes and the Heteromi, is inserted
on the vertebral column well behind the skull.
The single family, Mastacembelidæ, is composed of eel-shaped fishes with
a large mouth and projecting lower jaw, inhabiting the waters of India,
Africa, and the East Indies. They are small in size and of no economic
importance. The dorsal is long, with free spines in front and there are no
ventral fins. Were these fins developed, they should in theory be jugular in
position. There is no air-duct in Mastacembelus and it seems to be a true
spiny-rayed fish, having no special relation to either Notacanthus or to the
eels. Except for the separation of the shoulder-girdle from the skull, there
seems to be no reason for separating them far from the Blennioid forms,
and the resemblance to Notacanthus seems wholly fallacious.
Fig. 484.—Mastacembelus ellipsifer Boulenger. Congo River. (After
Boulenger.)
OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI
rder Opisthomi.—The order Opisthomi (ὄπισθη, behind;
ὤμος, shoulder) is characterized by the general traits of the
blennies and other elongate, spiny-rayed fishes, but the
shoulder-girdle, as in the Apodes and the Heteromi, is inserted
on the vertebral column well behind the skull.
The single family, Mastacembelidæ, is composed of eel-shaped fishes with
a large mouth and projecting lower jaw, inhabiting the waters of India,
Africa, and the East Indies. They are small in size and of no economic
importance. The dorsal is long, with free spines in front and there are no
ventral fins. Were these fins developed, they should in theory be jugular in
position. There is no air-duct in Mastacembelus and it seems to be a true
spiny-rayed fish, having no special relation to either Notacanthus or to the
eels. Except for the separation of the shoulder-girdle from the skull, there
seems to be no reason for separating them far from the Blennioid forms,
and the resemblance to Notacanthus seems wholly fallacious.
Fig. 484.—Mastacembelus ellipsifer Boulenger. Congo River. (After
Boulenger.)
Page 610
Mastacembelus armatus is a common species of India and China. In
Rhynchobdella the nasal appendage or proboscis, conspicuous in
Mastacembelus, is still more developed. Rhynchobdella aculeata is
common in India.
Order Anacanthini.—We may separate from the other jugular fishes the
great group of codfishes and their allies, retaining the name Anacanthini
(ἄνακανθος, without spine) suggested by Johannes Müller. In this group the
hypercoracoid is without foramen, the fenestra lying between this bone and
the hypocoracoid below it. The tail is isocercal, the vertebræ in a right line
and progressively smaller backward, sometimes degenerate or whip-like
(leptocercal) at tip. Other characters are shown in the structure of the skull.
There are no spines in any of the fins; the ventrals are jugular, the scales
generally small, and the coloration dull or brownish. The numerous species
live chiefly in the northern seas, some of them descending to great depths.
The resemblance of these fishes to some of the Blennioid group is very
strongly marked, but these likenesses seem analogical only and not
indicative of true affinity. The codfishes probably represent an early
offshoot from the ancestors of the spiny-rayed fishes, and their line of
evolution is unknown, possibly from Ganoid types. Among recent fishes
there is nothing structurally nearer than the Nototheniidæ and Brotulidæ,
but the line of descent must branch off much farther back than either of
these. For the present, therefore, we may regard the codfishes and their
allies (Anacanthini) as a distinct order.
Fig. 485.—Codfish, Gadus callarias L. Eastport, Me.
Rhynchobdella the nasal appendage or proboscis, conspicuous in
Mastacembelus, is still more developed. Rhynchobdella aculeata is
common in India.
Order Anacanthini.—We may separate from the other jugular fishes the
great group of codfishes and their allies, retaining the name Anacanthini
(ἄνακανθος, without spine) suggested by Johannes Müller. In this group the
hypercoracoid is without foramen, the fenestra lying between this bone and
the hypocoracoid below it. The tail is isocercal, the vertebræ in a right line
and progressively smaller backward, sometimes degenerate or whip-like
(leptocercal) at tip. Other characters are shown in the structure of the skull.
There are no spines in any of the fins; the ventrals are jugular, the scales
generally small, and the coloration dull or brownish. The numerous species
live chiefly in the northern seas, some of them descending to great depths.
The resemblance of these fishes to some of the Blennioid group is very
strongly marked, but these likenesses seem analogical only and not
indicative of true affinity. The codfishes probably represent an early
offshoot from the ancestors of the spiny-rayed fishes, and their line of
evolution is unknown, possibly from Ganoid types. Among recent fishes
there is nothing structurally nearer than the Nototheniidæ and Brotulidæ,
but the line of descent must branch off much farther back than either of
these. For the present, therefore, we may regard the codfishes and their
allies (Anacanthini) as a distinct order.
Fig. 485.—Codfish, Gadus callarias L. Eastport, Me.
Page 611
The Codfishes: Gadidæ.—The chief family is that of the Gadidæ, or
codfishes. These are characterized by a general resemblance to the common
codfish, Gadus callarias. This is one of the best known of fishes, found
everywhere on the shores of the North Atlantic, and the subject of economic
fisheries of the greatest importance. Its flesh is white, flaky, rather tasteless,
but takes salt readily, and is peculiarly well adapted for drying. The average
size of the codfish is about ten pounds, but Captain Nathaniel Atwood of
Provincetown records one with the weight of 160 pounds.
According to Dr. Goode:
"In the western Atlantic the species occurs in the winter in considerable
abundance as far south as the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, latitude 37°,
and stragglers have been observed about Ocracoke Inlet. The southern
limits of the species may be safely considered to be Cape Hatteras, in
latitude 35° 10´. Along the coast of New England, the Middle States, and
British North America, and upon all the off-shore banks of this region, cod
are found usually in great abundance, during part of the year at least. They
have been observed also in the Gulf of Bothnia, latitude 70° to 75°, and in
the southeastern part of Baffin's Land to the northward of Cumberland
Sound, and it is more than probable that they occur in the waters of the
Arctic Sea to the north of the American continent, or away around to Bering
Strait."
Dr. Gill says:
"The ocean banks of moderate depths are the favorite resorts of the cod, but
it is by no means confined to those localities. The fish, indeed, occasionally
enters into fresh, or at least brackish, water. According to Canadian
authorities, it is found 'well up the estuary of the St. Lawrence, though how
far up is not definitely stated, probably not beyond the limits of brackish
water.' Even as far south as the Delaware River it has been known to enter
the streams. Dr. C. C. Abbott records that in January, 1876, 'a healthy,
strong, active codfish, weighing nearly four pounds, was taken in a draw-
net in the Delaware River near Trenton, New Jersey; the stomach of the fish
showed that it had been in river-water several days. Many of them had been
taken about Philadelphia between 1856 and 1869.'
"The cod ranks among the most voracious of ordinary fishes, and almost
everything that is eatable, and some that is not, may find its way into its
codfishes. These are characterized by a general resemblance to the common
codfish, Gadus callarias. This is one of the best known of fishes, found
everywhere on the shores of the North Atlantic, and the subject of economic
fisheries of the greatest importance. Its flesh is white, flaky, rather tasteless,
but takes salt readily, and is peculiarly well adapted for drying. The average
size of the codfish is about ten pounds, but Captain Nathaniel Atwood of
Provincetown records one with the weight of 160 pounds.
According to Dr. Goode:
"In the western Atlantic the species occurs in the winter in considerable
abundance as far south as the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, latitude 37°,
and stragglers have been observed about Ocracoke Inlet. The southern
limits of the species may be safely considered to be Cape Hatteras, in
latitude 35° 10´. Along the coast of New England, the Middle States, and
British North America, and upon all the off-shore banks of this region, cod
are found usually in great abundance, during part of the year at least. They
have been observed also in the Gulf of Bothnia, latitude 70° to 75°, and in
the southeastern part of Baffin's Land to the northward of Cumberland
Sound, and it is more than probable that they occur in the waters of the
Arctic Sea to the north of the American continent, or away around to Bering
Strait."
Dr. Gill says:
"The ocean banks of moderate depths are the favorite resorts of the cod, but
it is by no means confined to those localities. The fish, indeed, occasionally
enters into fresh, or at least brackish, water. According to Canadian
authorities, it is found 'well up the estuary of the St. Lawrence, though how
far up is not definitely stated, probably not beyond the limits of brackish
water.' Even as far south as the Delaware River it has been known to enter
the streams. Dr. C. C. Abbott records that in January, 1876, 'a healthy,
strong, active codfish, weighing nearly four pounds, was taken in a draw-
net in the Delaware River near Trenton, New Jersey; the stomach of the fish
showed that it had been in river-water several days. Many of them had been
taken about Philadelphia between 1856 and 1869.'
"The cod ranks among the most voracious of ordinary fishes, and almost
everything that is eatable, and some that is not, may find its way into its
Page 612
capacious maw. Years ago, before naturalists had the facilities that the
dredge now affords, cods' stomachs were the favorite resort for rare shells,
and some species had never been obtained otherwise than through such a
medium, while many filled the cabinet that would not otherwise have been
represented. In the words of Mr. Goode, 'codfish swallow bivalve fish of the
largest size, like the great sea-clams, which are a favorite article of food on
certain portions of the coast'; further, 'these shells are nested, the smaller
inside of the larger, sometimes six or seven in a set, having been packed
together in this compact manner in the stomachs of the codfish after the soft
parts have been digested out. Some of them had shreds of the muscles
remaining in them and were quite fresh, having evidently been but recently
ejected by the fish.' Even banks of dead shells have been found in various
regions, which are supposed to be the remains of mollusks taken by the cod.
Shell-fishes, however, form probably but the smaller portion of its diet, and
fishes of its own class contribute materially to its food,—such as the herring
family, the capelin, etc.
"The codfish in its mode of reproduction exhibits some interesting
peculiarities. It does not come on the coast to spawn, as was once supposed,
but its eggs are deposited in mid-sea and float to the surface, although it
does really, in many cases, approach the land to do so. Prof. C. O. Sars, who
has discovered its peculiarities, 'found cod at a distance of twenty to thirty
Norwegian miles from the shore and at a depth of from one hundred to one
hundred and fifty fathoms.' The eggs thus confided to the mercy of the
waves are very numerous; as many as 9,100,000 have been calculated in a
seventy-five-pound fish. 'When the eggs are first seen in the fish they are so
small as to be hardly distinguishable; but they continue to increase in size
until maturity, and after impregnation have a diameter depending upon the
size of the parent, varying from one-nineteenth to one-seventeenth of an
inch. A five- to eight-pound fish has eggs of the smaller size, while a
twenty-five-pound one has them between an eighteenth and a seventeenth.'
There are about 190,000 eggs of the smaller size to a pound avoirdupois.
They are matured and ejected from September to November."
Unlike most fishes, the cod spawns in cooling water, a trait also found in
the salmon family.
The liver of the cod yields an easily digested oil of great value in the
medical treatment of diseases causing emaciation.
dredge now affords, cods' stomachs were the favorite resort for rare shells,
and some species had never been obtained otherwise than through such a
medium, while many filled the cabinet that would not otherwise have been
represented. In the words of Mr. Goode, 'codfish swallow bivalve fish of the
largest size, like the great sea-clams, which are a favorite article of food on
certain portions of the coast'; further, 'these shells are nested, the smaller
inside of the larger, sometimes six or seven in a set, having been packed
together in this compact manner in the stomachs of the codfish after the soft
parts have been digested out. Some of them had shreds of the muscles
remaining in them and were quite fresh, having evidently been but recently
ejected by the fish.' Even banks of dead shells have been found in various
regions, which are supposed to be the remains of mollusks taken by the cod.
Shell-fishes, however, form probably but the smaller portion of its diet, and
fishes of its own class contribute materially to its food,—such as the herring
family, the capelin, etc.
"The codfish in its mode of reproduction exhibits some interesting
peculiarities. It does not come on the coast to spawn, as was once supposed,
but its eggs are deposited in mid-sea and float to the surface, although it
does really, in many cases, approach the land to do so. Prof. C. O. Sars, who
has discovered its peculiarities, 'found cod at a distance of twenty to thirty
Norwegian miles from the shore and at a depth of from one hundred to one
hundred and fifty fathoms.' The eggs thus confided to the mercy of the
waves are very numerous; as many as 9,100,000 have been calculated in a
seventy-five-pound fish. 'When the eggs are first seen in the fish they are so
small as to be hardly distinguishable; but they continue to increase in size
until maturity, and after impregnation have a diameter depending upon the
size of the parent, varying from one-nineteenth to one-seventeenth of an
inch. A five- to eight-pound fish has eggs of the smaller size, while a
twenty-five-pound one has them between an eighteenth and a seventeenth.'
There are about 190,000 eggs of the smaller size to a pound avoirdupois.
They are matured and ejected from September to November."
Unlike most fishes, the cod spawns in cooling water, a trait also found in
the salmon family.
The liver of the cod yields an easily digested oil of great value in the
medical treatment of diseases causing emaciation.
Page 613
The Alaska cod, Gadus macrocephalus, is equally abundant with the
Atlantic species, from which it differs very slightly, the air-bladder or
sounds being smaller, according to the fishermen, and the head being
somewhat larger. This species is found from Cape Flattery to Hakodate in
Japan, and is very abundant about the Aleutian Islands and especially in the
Okhotsk Sea. With equal markets it would be as important commercially as
the Atlantic cod. In the codfish (Gadus) and related genera there are three
dorsal and two anal fins. In the codfish the lateral line is pale and the lower
jaw shorter than the upper.
Fig. 486.—Skull of Haddock, Melanogrammus æglifinus.
Atlantic species, from which it differs very slightly, the air-bladder or
sounds being smaller, according to the fishermen, and the head being
somewhat larger. This species is found from Cape Flattery to Hakodate in
Japan, and is very abundant about the Aleutian Islands and especially in the
Okhotsk Sea. With equal markets it would be as important commercially as
the Atlantic cod. In the codfish (Gadus) and related genera there are three
dorsal and two anal fins. In the codfish the lateral line is pale and the lower
jaw shorter than the upper.
Fig. 486.—Skull of Haddock, Melanogrammus æglifinus.
Page 614
Fig. 487.—Haddock, Melanogrammus æglifinus (L.). Eastport, Me.
The haddock (Melanogrammus æglifinus) closely resembles the cod and is
of similar quality as food. It is known at sight by the black lateral line. It is
found on both shores of the Atlantic and when smoked is the "finnan
haddie" of commerce.
The pollack, coalfish, or green cod (Pollachius carbonarius) is also
common on both shores of the north Atlantic. It is darker than the cod and
more lustrous, and the lower jaw is longer, with a smaller barbel at tip. It is
especially excellent when fresh.
Fig. 488.—Pollock, Theragra chalcogramma (Pallas). Shumagin I.,
Alaska.
The haddock (Melanogrammus æglifinus) closely resembles the cod and is
of similar quality as food. It is known at sight by the black lateral line. It is
found on both shores of the Atlantic and when smoked is the "finnan
haddie" of commerce.
The pollack, coalfish, or green cod (Pollachius carbonarius) is also
common on both shores of the north Atlantic. It is darker than the cod and
more lustrous, and the lower jaw is longer, with a smaller barbel at tip. It is
especially excellent when fresh.
Fig. 488.—Pollock, Theragra chalcogramma (Pallas). Shumagin I.,
Alaska.
Page 615
The whiting (Merlangus merlangus) is a pollack-like fish common on the
British coasts, but not reaching the American shores. It is found in large
schools in sandy bays. The Alaska pollack (Theragra chalcogramma) is a
large fish with projecting lower jaw, widely diffused in the north Pacific and
useful as a food-fish to the Aleutian peoples. It furnishes a large part of the
food of the fur-seal (Callorhinus alascanus and C. ursinus) during its
migrations. The fur-seal rarely catches the true codfish, which swims near
the bottom. The wall-eyed pollack (Theragra fucensis) is found about Puget
Sound. Smaller codfishes of this type are the wachna cod (Eleginus navaga)
of Siberia and the Arctic codling (Boreogadus saida), both common about
Kamchatka, the latter crossing to Greenland.
Several dwarf codfishes having, like the true cod, three dorsal fins and a
barbel at the chin are also recorded. Among these are the tomcod, or
frostfish, of the Atlantic (Microgadus tomcod), the California tomcod
(Microgadus proximus), and Micromesistius poutassou of the
Mediterranean. These little cods are valued as pan fishes, but the flesh is
soft and without much flavor.
Fig. 489.—Tomcod, Microgadus tomcod (Walbaum). Wood's Hole, Mass.
Other cod-like fishes have but two dorsals and one anal fin. Many of these
occur in deep water. Among those living near shore, and therefore having
economic value, we may mention a few of the more prominent. The
codlings (Urophycis) are represented by numerous species on both shores of
British coasts, but not reaching the American shores. It is found in large
schools in sandy bays. The Alaska pollack (Theragra chalcogramma) is a
large fish with projecting lower jaw, widely diffused in the north Pacific and
useful as a food-fish to the Aleutian peoples. It furnishes a large part of the
food of the fur-seal (Callorhinus alascanus and C. ursinus) during its
migrations. The fur-seal rarely catches the true codfish, which swims near
the bottom. The wall-eyed pollack (Theragra fucensis) is found about Puget
Sound. Smaller codfishes of this type are the wachna cod (Eleginus navaga)
of Siberia and the Arctic codling (Boreogadus saida), both common about
Kamchatka, the latter crossing to Greenland.
Several dwarf codfishes having, like the true cod, three dorsal fins and a
barbel at the chin are also recorded. Among these are the tomcod, or
frostfish, of the Atlantic (Microgadus tomcod), the California tomcod
(Microgadus proximus), and Micromesistius poutassou of the
Mediterranean. These little cods are valued as pan fishes, but the flesh is
soft and without much flavor.
Fig. 489.—Tomcod, Microgadus tomcod (Walbaum). Wood's Hole, Mass.
Other cod-like fishes have but two dorsals and one anal fin. Many of these
occur in deep water. Among those living near shore, and therefore having
economic value, we may mention a few of the more prominent. The
codlings (Urophycis) are represented by numerous species on both shores of
Page 616
the Atlantic. Urophycis blennoides is common in the Mediterranean.
Urophycis regius, on our South Atlantic coast, is said to exhibit electric
powers in life, a statement that needs verification. In the Gulf of Mexico
Urophycis floridanus is common. Farther north are the more important
species Urophycis tenuis, called the white hake, and Urophycis chuss, the
squirrel-hake. The ling (Molva molva) is found in deep water about the
North Sea.
A related genus, Lota, the burbot, called also ling and, in America, the
lawyer, is found in fresh waters. This genus contains the only fresh-water
members of the group of Anacanthini.
The European burbot, Lota lota, is common in the streams and lakes of
northern Europe and Siberia. It is a bottom fish, coarse in flesh and rather
tasteless, eaten sometimes when boiled and soaked in vinegar or made into
salad. It is dark olive in color, thickly marbled with blackish.
The American burbot, or lawyer (Lota maculosa), is very much like the
European species. It is found from New England throughout the Great
Lakes to the Yukon. It reaches a length of usually two or three feet and is
little valued as food in the United States, but rises much in esteem farther
north. The liver and roe are said to be delicious. In Siberia its skin is used
instead of glass for windows. In Alaska, according to Dr. Dall, it reaches a
length of six feet and a weight of sixty pounds.
Fig. 490.—Burbot, Lota maculosa (Le Sueur). New York.
Urophycis regius, on our South Atlantic coast, is said to exhibit electric
powers in life, a statement that needs verification. In the Gulf of Mexico
Urophycis floridanus is common. Farther north are the more important
species Urophycis tenuis, called the white hake, and Urophycis chuss, the
squirrel-hake. The ling (Molva molva) is found in deep water about the
North Sea.
A related genus, Lota, the burbot, called also ling and, in America, the
lawyer, is found in fresh waters. This genus contains the only fresh-water
members of the group of Anacanthini.
The European burbot, Lota lota, is common in the streams and lakes of
northern Europe and Siberia. It is a bottom fish, coarse in flesh and rather
tasteless, eaten sometimes when boiled and soaked in vinegar or made into
salad. It is dark olive in color, thickly marbled with blackish.
The American burbot, or lawyer (Lota maculosa), is very much like the
European species. It is found from New England throughout the Great
Lakes to the Yukon. It reaches a length of usually two or three feet and is
little valued as food in the United States, but rises much in esteem farther
north. The liver and roe are said to be delicious. In Siberia its skin is used
instead of glass for windows. In Alaska, according to Dr. Dall, it reaches a
length of six feet and a weight of sixty pounds.
Fig. 490.—Burbot, Lota maculosa (Le Sueur). New York.
Page 617
Fig. 491.—Four-bearded Rockling, Enchelyopus cimbrius (Linnæus).
Nahant, Mass.
The rocklings (Gaidropsarus and Enchelyopus) have the first dorsal
composed of a band of fringes preceded by a single ray. The species are
small and slender, abounding chiefly in the Mediterranean and the North
Atlantic. The young have been called "mackerel-midges." Our commonest
species is Enchelyopus cimbrius, found also in Great Britain.
The cusk, or torsk, Brosme brosme, has a single dorsal fin only. It is a large
fish found on both shores of the North Atlantic, but rather rare on our
coasts.
Fossil codfishes are not numerous. Fragments thought to belong to this
family are found in English Eocene rocks.
Nemopteryx troscheli, from the Oligocene of Glarus, has three dorsal fins
and a lunate caudal fin. Other forms have been referred with more or less
doubt to Gadus, Brosmius, Strinsia, and Melanogrammus.
Gill separates the "three-forked hake" (Raniceps trifurcus) of northern
Europe as a distinct family, Ranicipitidæ. In this species the head is very
large, broad and depressed, differing in this regard from the codlings and
hakes, which have also two dorsal fins. The deep-water genus, Bathyonus,
is also regarded as a distinct family, Bathyonidæ.
The Hakes: Merluciidæ.—Better defined than these families is the family
of hakes, Merluciidæ. These pike-like codfishes have the skull peculiarly
formed, the frontal bones being paired, excavated above, with diverging
crests continuous forward from the forked occipital crest. The species are
large fishes, very voracious, without barbels, with the skeleton papery and
Nahant, Mass.
The rocklings (Gaidropsarus and Enchelyopus) have the first dorsal
composed of a band of fringes preceded by a single ray. The species are
small and slender, abounding chiefly in the Mediterranean and the North
Atlantic. The young have been called "mackerel-midges." Our commonest
species is Enchelyopus cimbrius, found also in Great Britain.
The cusk, or torsk, Brosme brosme, has a single dorsal fin only. It is a large
fish found on both shores of the North Atlantic, but rather rare on our
coasts.
Fossil codfishes are not numerous. Fragments thought to belong to this
family are found in English Eocene rocks.
Nemopteryx troscheli, from the Oligocene of Glarus, has three dorsal fins
and a lunate caudal fin. Other forms have been referred with more or less
doubt to Gadus, Brosmius, Strinsia, and Melanogrammus.
Gill separates the "three-forked hake" (Raniceps trifurcus) of northern
Europe as a distinct family, Ranicipitidæ. In this species the head is very
large, broad and depressed, differing in this regard from the codlings and
hakes, which have also two dorsal fins. The deep-water genus, Bathyonus,
is also regarded as a distinct family, Bathyonidæ.
The Hakes: Merluciidæ.—Better defined than these families is the family
of hakes, Merluciidæ. These pike-like codfishes have the skull peculiarly
formed, the frontal bones being paired, excavated above, with diverging
crests continuous forward from the forked occipital crest. The species are
large fishes, very voracious, without barbels, with the skeleton papery and
Page 618
the flesh generally soft. The various species are all very much alike, large,
ill-favored fishes with strong teeth and a ragged appearance, the flesh of fair
quality. Merluccius merluccius, the hake or stock-fish, is common in
Europe; Merluccius bilinearis, the silver hake, is common in New England,
Merluccius productus in California, and Merluccius gayi in Chile.
Fig. 492.—California Hake, Merluccius productus (Ayres). Seattle.
Fig. 493.—Coryphænoides carapinus (Goode & Bean), showing
leptoceral tail. Gulf Stream.
The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.—The large family of grenadiers, or rat-
tails, Macrouridæ, is confined entirely to the oceanic depths, especially of
the north Atlantic and Pacific. The head is formed much as in the codfishes,
with usually a barbel at the chin. There are two dorsals, the second like the
anal being low, but the leptocercal tail is very long and tapering, ending in a
filament without caudal fin. The scales are usually rough and spinous. The
species are usually large in size, and dull gray or black in color.
ill-favored fishes with strong teeth and a ragged appearance, the flesh of fair
quality. Merluccius merluccius, the hake or stock-fish, is common in
Europe; Merluccius bilinearis, the silver hake, is common in New England,
Merluccius productus in California, and Merluccius gayi in Chile.
Fig. 492.—California Hake, Merluccius productus (Ayres). Seattle.
Fig. 493.—Coryphænoides carapinus (Goode & Bean), showing
leptoceral tail. Gulf Stream.
The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.—The large family of grenadiers, or rat-
tails, Macrouridæ, is confined entirely to the oceanic depths, especially of
the north Atlantic and Pacific. The head is formed much as in the codfishes,
with usually a barbel at the chin. There are two dorsals, the second like the
anal being low, but the leptocercal tail is very long and tapering, ending in a
filament without caudal fin. The scales are usually rough and spinous. The
species are usually large in size, and dull gray or black in color.
Page 619
Fig. 494.—Grenadier, Cœlorhynchus carminatus Goode & Bean. Martha's
Vineyard.
The best-known genus is Macrourus. Macrourus berglax is found on both
shores of the north Atlantic. Macrourus bairdi is abundant in off-shore
dredgings from Cape Cod to Cuba. Macrourus cinereus, the pop-eye
grenadier, outnumbers all other fishes in the depths of Bering Sea.
Cœlorhynchus japonicus is often taken by fishermen in Japan.
Coryphænoides rupestris is common in the north Atlantic. Bogoslovius
clarki and Albatrossia pectoralis were dredged by the Albatross about the
volcanic island of Bogoslof. Trachyrhynchus trachyrhynchus is
characteristic of the Mediterranean. Nematonurus goodei is common in the
Gulf Stream, and Dolloa longifilis is found off Japan. Other prominent
genera are Bathygadus, Gadomus, Regania, and Steindachnerella.
Fig. 495.—Steindachnerella argentea (Goode & Bean). Gulf Stream.
Vineyard.
The best-known genus is Macrourus. Macrourus berglax is found on both
shores of the north Atlantic. Macrourus bairdi is abundant in off-shore
dredgings from Cape Cod to Cuba. Macrourus cinereus, the pop-eye
grenadier, outnumbers all other fishes in the depths of Bering Sea.
Cœlorhynchus japonicus is often taken by fishermen in Japan.
Coryphænoides rupestris is common in the north Atlantic. Bogoslovius
clarki and Albatrossia pectoralis were dredged by the Albatross about the
volcanic island of Bogoslof. Trachyrhynchus trachyrhynchus is
characteristic of the Mediterranean. Nematonurus goodei is common in the
Gulf Stream, and Dolloa longifilis is found off Japan. Other prominent
genera are Bathygadus, Gadomus, Regania, and Steindachnerella.
Fig. 495.—Steindachnerella argentea (Goode & Bean). Gulf Stream.
Page 620
The Murænolepidæ are deep-sea fishes, with minute eel-like scales, and no
caudal fin. The ventrals are five-rayed and there are 10 pterygials.
caudal fin. The ventrals are five-rayed and there are 10 pterygials.
Page 621
CHAPTER XXXI
ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS
he Angler-fishes.—The few remaining fishes possess also
jugular ventral fins, but in other regards they show so many
peculiarities of structure that we may well consider them as
forming a distinct order, Pediculati (pedicula, a foot-stalk),
although the relation of these forms to the Batrachoididæ
seems a very close one.
The most salient character of the group is the reduction and backward
insertion of the gill-opening, which is behind the pectoral fins, not in front
of them as in all other fishes. The hypocoracoid and hypercoracoid are
much elongate and greatly changed in form, so that the pectoral fin is borne
on the end of a sort of arm. The large ventrals are similarly more or less
exserted. The spinous dorsal is much reduced, the first spine being modified
to form a so-called fishing-rod, projecting over the mouth with a fleshy pad,
lure, or bait at its tip. The form of the body varies much in the different
families. The scales are lost or changed to prickles and the whole aspect is
very singular, and in many cases distinctly frog-like. The species are mostly
tropical, some living in tide-pools and about coral reefs, some on sandy
shores, others in the oceanic abysses.
The nearest allies of the Pediculates among normal fishes are probably the
Batrachoididæ. One species of Lophiidæ is recorded among the fossils,
Lophius brachysomus, from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No fossil
Antennariidæ are known. Fossil teeth from the Cretaceous of Patagonia are
doubtfully named "Lophius patagonicus."
The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.—In the most generalized family, that of the
fishing-frogs (Lophiidæ), the body is very much depressed, the head the
ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS
he Angler-fishes.—The few remaining fishes possess also
jugular ventral fins, but in other regards they show so many
peculiarities of structure that we may well consider them as
forming a distinct order, Pediculati (pedicula, a foot-stalk),
although the relation of these forms to the Batrachoididæ
seems a very close one.
The most salient character of the group is the reduction and backward
insertion of the gill-opening, which is behind the pectoral fins, not in front
of them as in all other fishes. The hypocoracoid and hypercoracoid are
much elongate and greatly changed in form, so that the pectoral fin is borne
on the end of a sort of arm. The large ventrals are similarly more or less
exserted. The spinous dorsal is much reduced, the first spine being modified
to form a so-called fishing-rod, projecting over the mouth with a fleshy pad,
lure, or bait at its tip. The form of the body varies much in the different
families. The scales are lost or changed to prickles and the whole aspect is
very singular, and in many cases distinctly frog-like. The species are mostly
tropical, some living in tide-pools and about coral reefs, some on sandy
shores, others in the oceanic abysses.
The nearest allies of the Pediculates among normal fishes are probably the
Batrachoididæ. One species of Lophiidæ is recorded among the fossils,
Lophius brachysomus, from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. No fossil
Antennariidæ are known. Fossil teeth from the Cretaceous of Patagonia are
doubtfully named "Lophius patagonicus."
The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.—In the most generalized family, that of the
fishing-frogs (Lophiidæ), the body is very much depressed, the head the
Page 622
largest part of it. The mouth is excessively wide, with strong jaw-muscles,
and strong sharp teeth. The skin is smooth, with dermal flaps about the
head. Over the mouth, like a fishing-rod, hangs the first dorsal spine with a
lure at the tip. The fishes lie flat on the bottom with sluggish movements
except for the convulsive snap of the jaws. It has been denied that the bait
serves to attract small fishes to their destruction, but the current belief that it
does so is certainly plausible. As to this Dr. Gill observes:
"The name 'angler' is derived from the supposition that by means of the
foremost dorsal spine, which bears leaf-like tags, or appendages, at the end,
it angles for fishes itself, lying upon the ground with its head somewhat
upraised. According to Mr. S. Kent, however, this is at most only partly the
case: 'That the fish deliberately uses this structure as a fisherman does his
rod and line for the alluring and capture of other fish is a matter of tradition
handed down to us from the time of Pliny and Aristotle, and which scarcely
any authority since their time has ventured to gainsay. Nevertheless, like
many of the delightful natural-history romances bequeathed to us by the
ancient philosophers, this one of the angler-fish will have to be relegated to
the limbo of disproved fiction. The plain and certain ground of facts, all the
same, has frequently more startling revelations in store for us than the most
fervid imaginations of philosophers, and that this assertion holds good in
the case now under consideration must undoubtedly be admitted. It is here
proposed to show, in fact, that the angler is one of the most interesting
examples upon which Nature has exercised her handicraft, in the direction
of concealing the identity of her protégé, such ingenuity being sometimes
utilized with the object of protecting the organism from the attacks of other
animals, or, as illustrated in the present instance, for the purpose of enabling
it by stealth to obtain prey which it lacks the agility to hunt down after the
manner of ordinary carnivorous fishes. To recognize the several details here
described, it will not suffice to refer to examples simply, and usually most
atrociously stuffed, nor even to those preserved in spirit, in which all the
life colors are more or less completely obliterated and the various
membranous appendages shrunk up and distorted. In place of this, a
healthy, living example fresh from the sea, or, better still, acclimatized in
the tanks of an aquarium, must be attentively examined, and whereupon it
will be found that this singular fish, throughout the whole extent of its
superficies, may be appropriately designated a living sham."
and strong sharp teeth. The skin is smooth, with dermal flaps about the
head. Over the mouth, like a fishing-rod, hangs the first dorsal spine with a
lure at the tip. The fishes lie flat on the bottom with sluggish movements
except for the convulsive snap of the jaws. It has been denied that the bait
serves to attract small fishes to their destruction, but the current belief that it
does so is certainly plausible. As to this Dr. Gill observes:
"The name 'angler' is derived from the supposition that by means of the
foremost dorsal spine, which bears leaf-like tags, or appendages, at the end,
it angles for fishes itself, lying upon the ground with its head somewhat
upraised. According to Mr. S. Kent, however, this is at most only partly the
case: 'That the fish deliberately uses this structure as a fisherman does his
rod and line for the alluring and capture of other fish is a matter of tradition
handed down to us from the time of Pliny and Aristotle, and which scarcely
any authority since their time has ventured to gainsay. Nevertheless, like
many of the delightful natural-history romances bequeathed to us by the
ancient philosophers, this one of the angler-fish will have to be relegated to
the limbo of disproved fiction. The plain and certain ground of facts, all the
same, has frequently more startling revelations in store for us than the most
fervid imaginations of philosophers, and that this assertion holds good in
the case now under consideration must undoubtedly be admitted. It is here
proposed to show, in fact, that the angler is one of the most interesting
examples upon which Nature has exercised her handicraft, in the direction
of concealing the identity of her protégé, such ingenuity being sometimes
utilized with the object of protecting the organism from the attacks of other
animals, or, as illustrated in the present instance, for the purpose of enabling
it by stealth to obtain prey which it lacks the agility to hunt down after the
manner of ordinary carnivorous fishes. To recognize the several details here
described, it will not suffice to refer to examples simply, and usually most
atrociously stuffed, nor even to those preserved in spirit, in which all the
life colors are more or less completely obliterated and the various
membranous appendages shrunk up and distorted. In place of this, a
healthy, living example fresh from the sea, or, better still, acclimatized in
the tanks of an aquarium, must be attentively examined, and whereupon it
will be found that this singular fish, throughout the whole extent of its
superficies, may be appropriately designated a living sham."
Page 623
It was, in the first place, observed by Mr. Kent "that the fish while quietly
reclining upon the bottom of its tank presented a most astonishing
resemblance to a piece of inert rock, the rugose prominences in the
neighborhood of the head lending additional strength to this likeness. This
resemblance being recognized, it was next found, on a little closer
inspection, that the fish constituted, in connection with its color,
ornamentations, and manifold organs and appendages, the most perfect
facsimile of a submerged rock, with that natural clothing of sedentary
animal and vegetable growths common to boulders lying beneath the water
in what is known as the laminarian zone. In this manner the numerous
simple or lobulated membranous structures dependent from the lower jaw
and developed as a fringe along the lateral line of the body imitate with
great fidelity the little flat calcareous sponges (Grantia), small compound
ascidians, and other low organized zoophytic growths that hang in
profusion from favorably situated submarine stones. That famous structure
known as the angler's 'rod and bait' finds its precise counterpart in the early
growing phase of certain sea-plants, such as the oarweed (Laminaria),
while the more posterior dorsal fin-rays, having short lateral branchlets,
counterfeit in a like manner the plant-like hydroid zoophytes known as
Sertulariæ. One of the most extraordinary mimetic adaptations was,
however, found in connection with the eyes, structures which, however
perfectly the surrounding details may be concealed, serve, as a rule, to
betray the animal's presence to a close observer. In the case of the angler,
the eyes during life are raised on conical elevations the sides of which are
separated by darker longitudinal stripes into symmetrical regions, the
structure, as a whole, with its truncated summit upon which the pupil opens,
reproducing with the most wonderful minuteness the multivalve shell of a
rook barnacle (Balanus). To complete the simile the entire exposed surface
of the body of the fish is mapped out by darker punctated lines into
irregular polygonal areas, whose pattern is at once recognized by the
student of marine zoology as corresponding with that of the flat, cushion-
like expansions of the compound tunicate Botryllus violaceus. Thus
disguised at every point, the angler has merely to lie prone, as is its wont,
among the stones and débris at the bottom of the sea and to wait for the
advent of its unsuspecting prey, which, approaching to browse from what it
takes to be a flat rock—differing in no respect from that off which it
reclining upon the bottom of its tank presented a most astonishing
resemblance to a piece of inert rock, the rugose prominences in the
neighborhood of the head lending additional strength to this likeness. This
resemblance being recognized, it was next found, on a little closer
inspection, that the fish constituted, in connection with its color,
ornamentations, and manifold organs and appendages, the most perfect
facsimile of a submerged rock, with that natural clothing of sedentary
animal and vegetable growths common to boulders lying beneath the water
in what is known as the laminarian zone. In this manner the numerous
simple or lobulated membranous structures dependent from the lower jaw
and developed as a fringe along the lateral line of the body imitate with
great fidelity the little flat calcareous sponges (Grantia), small compound
ascidians, and other low organized zoophytic growths that hang in
profusion from favorably situated submarine stones. That famous structure
known as the angler's 'rod and bait' finds its precise counterpart in the early
growing phase of certain sea-plants, such as the oarweed (Laminaria),
while the more posterior dorsal fin-rays, having short lateral branchlets,
counterfeit in a like manner the plant-like hydroid zoophytes known as
Sertulariæ. One of the most extraordinary mimetic adaptations was,
however, found in connection with the eyes, structures which, however
perfectly the surrounding details may be concealed, serve, as a rule, to
betray the animal's presence to a close observer. In the case of the angler,
the eyes during life are raised on conical elevations the sides of which are
separated by darker longitudinal stripes into symmetrical regions, the
structure, as a whole, with its truncated summit upon which the pupil opens,
reproducing with the most wonderful minuteness the multivalve shell of a
rook barnacle (Balanus). To complete the simile the entire exposed surface
of the body of the fish is mapped out by darker punctated lines into
irregular polygonal areas, whose pattern is at once recognized by the
student of marine zoology as corresponding with that of the flat, cushion-
like expansions of the compound tunicate Botryllus violaceus. Thus
disguised at every point, the angler has merely to lie prone, as is its wont,
among the stones and débris at the bottom of the sea and to wait for the
advent of its unsuspecting prey, which, approaching to browse from what it
takes to be a flat rock—differing in no respect from that off which it
Page 624
obtained the last appetizing morsel of weed or worm—finds itself suddenly
engulfed beyond recall within the merciless jaws of this marine impostor."
Fig. 496.—Anko or Fishing-frog, Lophius litulon (Jordan). Matsushima
Bay, Japan.
The great fishing-frog of the North Atlantic, Lophius piscatorius, is also
known as angler, monkfish, goosefish, allmouth, wide-gape, kettleman, and
bellows-fish. It is common in shallow water both in America and Europe,
ranging southward to Cape Hatteras and to the Mediterranean. It reaches a
length of three feet or more. A fisherman told Mr. Goode that "he once saw
a struggle in the water, and found that a goosefish had swallowed the head
and neck of a large loon, which had pulled it to the surface and was trying
to escape. There is authentic record of seven wild ducks having been taken
from the stomach of one of them. Slyly approaching from below, they seize
birds as they float upon the surface."
engulfed beyond recall within the merciless jaws of this marine impostor."
Fig. 496.—Anko or Fishing-frog, Lophius litulon (Jordan). Matsushima
Bay, Japan.
The great fishing-frog of the North Atlantic, Lophius piscatorius, is also
known as angler, monkfish, goosefish, allmouth, wide-gape, kettleman, and
bellows-fish. It is common in shallow water both in America and Europe,
ranging southward to Cape Hatteras and to the Mediterranean. It reaches a
length of three feet or more. A fisherman told Mr. Goode that "he once saw
a struggle in the water, and found that a goosefish had swallowed the head
and neck of a large loon, which had pulled it to the surface and was trying
to escape. There is authentic record of seven wild ducks having been taken
from the stomach of one of them. Slyly approaching from below, they seize
birds as they float upon the surface."
Page 625
"The angler, or goosefish, spawns in summer along the eastern Atlantic
coast, and the result of its labor is quite remarkable. 'The eggs are very
numerous, inclosed in a ribbon-shaped gelatinous mass, about a foot in
width and thirty or forty feet long, which floats near the surface. One of
these ribbons will weigh perhaps forty pounds, and is usually partially
folded together and visible a foot or eighteen inches from the top of the
water, its color being brownish purple. The number of eggs in one of these
has been estimated to be from forty to fifty thousand.' The growth of the
young after exclusion from the egg is rather rapid, and Professor Goode saw
'young fish two or three inches long' while others were yet spawning, and
these young fish were presumably the fry of those that had spawned the
same year, only somewhat earlier. In a few days after hatching they present
a striking appearance on account of the enormous development of the
pectoral and ventral fins."
Aristotle gives, according to Professor Horace A. Hoffman, this account of
the angler: "'Inasmuch as the flat, front part is not fleshy, nature has
compensated for this by adding to the rear and the tail as much fleshy
substance as has been subtracted from the front.' The βάτραχος is called the
angler. He fishes with the hair-like filaments hung before his eyes. On the
end of each filament is a little knob, just as if it had been placed there for a
bait. He makes a disturbance in sandy or muddy places, hides himself and
raises these filaments. When the little fish strikes at them he leads them
down with the filaments until he brings them to his mouth. The βάτραχος is
one of the σελάχη. All the σελάχη are viviparous or ovoviviparous except
the βάτραχος. The other flat σελάχη have their gills uncovered and
underneath them, but the βάτραχος has its gills on the side and covered with
skinny opercula, not with horny opercula like the fish which are not
σελαχώδη. Some fishes have the gall-bladder upon the liver, others have it
upon the intestine, more or less remote from the liver and attached to it by a
duct. Such are βάτραχος, ἔλλοψ, συνάγρίς, σμύραινα, and ξιφίας. The
βάτραχος is the only one of the σελάχη which is oviparous. This is on
account of the nature of its body, for it has a head many times as large as the
rest of its body, and spiny and very rough. For this same reason it does not
afterwards admit its young into itself. The size and roughness of the head
prevent them both from coming out (i.e., being born alive) and from going
in (being taken into the mouth of the parent). The βάτραχος is the most
coast, and the result of its labor is quite remarkable. 'The eggs are very
numerous, inclosed in a ribbon-shaped gelatinous mass, about a foot in
width and thirty or forty feet long, which floats near the surface. One of
these ribbons will weigh perhaps forty pounds, and is usually partially
folded together and visible a foot or eighteen inches from the top of the
water, its color being brownish purple. The number of eggs in one of these
has been estimated to be from forty to fifty thousand.' The growth of the
young after exclusion from the egg is rather rapid, and Professor Goode saw
'young fish two or three inches long' while others were yet spawning, and
these young fish were presumably the fry of those that had spawned the
same year, only somewhat earlier. In a few days after hatching they present
a striking appearance on account of the enormous development of the
pectoral and ventral fins."
Aristotle gives, according to Professor Horace A. Hoffman, this account of
the angler: "'Inasmuch as the flat, front part is not fleshy, nature has
compensated for this by adding to the rear and the tail as much fleshy
substance as has been subtracted from the front.' The βάτραχος is called the
angler. He fishes with the hair-like filaments hung before his eyes. On the
end of each filament is a little knob, just as if it had been placed there for a
bait. He makes a disturbance in sandy or muddy places, hides himself and
raises these filaments. When the little fish strikes at them he leads them
down with the filaments until he brings them to his mouth. The βάτραχος is
one of the σελάχη. All the σελάχη are viviparous or ovoviviparous except
the βάτραχος. The other flat σελάχη have their gills uncovered and
underneath them, but the βάτραχος has its gills on the side and covered with
skinny opercula, not with horny opercula like the fish which are not
σελαχώδη. Some fishes have the gall-bladder upon the liver, others have it
upon the intestine, more or less remote from the liver and attached to it by a
duct. Such are βάτραχος, ἔλλοψ, συνάγρίς, σμύραινα, and ξιφίας. The
βάτραχος is the only one of the σελάχη which is oviparous. This is on
account of the nature of its body, for it has a head many times as large as the
rest of its body, and spiny and very rough. For this same reason it does not
afterwards admit its young into itself. The size and roughness of the head
prevent them both from coming out (i.e., being born alive) and from going
in (being taken into the mouth of the parent). The βάτραχος is the most
Page 626
prolific of the σελάχη, but it is scarce because the eggs are easily destroyed,
for it lays them in a bunch near the shore."
The genus Lophius of northern range has a vertebral column of about thirty
vertebræ. Lophius litulon occurs in Japan. In the North Pacific is found
Lophiomus, similar in appearance but smaller in size, ranging southward to
the equator, a southern fish having but eighteen vertebræ. Lophiomus
setigerus is the common anko of Japan, and other species are recorded from
Hawaii, and the Galapagos.
The Sea-devils: Ceratiidæ.—The sea-devils, or Ceratiidæ, are degenerate
anglers of various forms, found in the depths of the arctic seas. The body is
compressed, the mouth vertical; the substance is very soft, and the color
uniform black. Dr. Günther thus speaks of them:
Fig. 497.—Cryptopsaras couesi Gill. Gulf Stream.
for it lays them in a bunch near the shore."
The genus Lophius of northern range has a vertebral column of about thirty
vertebræ. Lophius litulon occurs in Japan. In the North Pacific is found
Lophiomus, similar in appearance but smaller in size, ranging southward to
the equator, a southern fish having but eighteen vertebræ. Lophiomus
setigerus is the common anko of Japan, and other species are recorded from
Hawaii, and the Galapagos.
The Sea-devils: Ceratiidæ.—The sea-devils, or Ceratiidæ, are degenerate
anglers of various forms, found in the depths of the arctic seas. The body is
compressed, the mouth vertical; the substance is very soft, and the color
uniform black. Dr. Günther thus speaks of them:
Fig. 497.—Cryptopsaras couesi Gill. Gulf Stream.
Page 627
Fig. 498.—Deep-sea Angler, Ceratias holbolli Kröyer. Greenland.
Fig. 499.—Caulophryne jordani Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. Family
Ceratiidæ.
Fig. 499.—Caulophryne jordani Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. Family
Ceratiidæ.
Page 628
"The bathybial sea-devils are degraded forms of Lophius; they descend to
the greatest depths of the ocean. Their bones are of an extremely light and
thin texture, and frequently other parts of their organization, their
integuments, muscles, and intestines are equally loose in texture when the
specimens are brought to the surface. In their habits they probably do not
differ in any degree from their surface representative, Lophius. The number
of the dorsal spines is always reduced, and at the end of the series of these
species only one spine remains, with a simple, very small lamella at the
extremity (Melanocetus johnsonii, Melanocetus murrayi). In other forms
sometimes a second cephalic spine, sometimes a spine on the back of the
trunk, is preserved. The first cephalic spine always retains the original
function of a lure for other marine creatures, but to render it more effective
a special luminous organ is sometimes developed in connection with the
filaments with which its extremity is provided (Ceratias bispinosus,
Oneirodes eschrichtii). So far as known at present these complicated
tentacles attain to the highest degree of development in Himantolophus and
Ægæonichthys. In other species very peculiar dermal appendages are
developed, either accompanying the spine on the back or replacing it. They
may be paired or form a group of three, are pear-shaped, covered with
common skin, and perforated at the top, a delicate tentacle sometimes
issuing from the foramen."
Of the fifteen or twenty species of Ceratiidæ described, none are common
and all are rare catches of the deep-sea dredge. Caulophryne jordani is
remarkable for its large fins and the luminous filaments, Linophryne lucifer
for its large head, and Corynolophus reinhardti (Fig. 143, Vol. I) for its
luminous fishing-bulb.
the greatest depths of the ocean. Their bones are of an extremely light and
thin texture, and frequently other parts of their organization, their
integuments, muscles, and intestines are equally loose in texture when the
specimens are brought to the surface. In their habits they probably do not
differ in any degree from their surface representative, Lophius. The number
of the dorsal spines is always reduced, and at the end of the series of these
species only one spine remains, with a simple, very small lamella at the
extremity (Melanocetus johnsonii, Melanocetus murrayi). In other forms
sometimes a second cephalic spine, sometimes a spine on the back of the
trunk, is preserved. The first cephalic spine always retains the original
function of a lure for other marine creatures, but to render it more effective
a special luminous organ is sometimes developed in connection with the
filaments with which its extremity is provided (Ceratias bispinosus,
Oneirodes eschrichtii). So far as known at present these complicated
tentacles attain to the highest degree of development in Himantolophus and
Ægæonichthys. In other species very peculiar dermal appendages are
developed, either accompanying the spine on the back or replacing it. They
may be paired or form a group of three, are pear-shaped, covered with
common skin, and perforated at the top, a delicate tentacle sometimes
issuing from the foramen."
Of the fifteen or twenty species of Ceratiidæ described, none are common
and all are rare catches of the deep-sea dredge. Caulophryne jordani is
remarkable for its large fins and the luminous filaments, Linophryne lucifer
for its large head, and Corynolophus reinhardti (Fig. 143, Vol. I) for its
luminous fishing-bulb.
Page 629
Fig. 500.—Sargassum-fish, Pterophryne tumida (Osbeck). Florida. Family
Antennariidæ.
The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.—The frogfishes, Antennariidæ, belong to
the tropical seas and rarely descend far below the surface. Most of them
abound about sand-banks or coral reefs, especially along the shores of the
East and West Indies, where they creep along the rocks like toads. Some are
pelagic, drifting about in floating masses of seaweed. All are fantastic in
form and color, usually closely imitating the objects about them. The body
is compressed, the mouth nearly vertical, and the skin either prickly or
provided with fleshy slips.
The species of Pterophryne live in the open sea, drifting with the currents in
masses of sargassum. Two species, Pterophryne tumida and Pterophryne
gibba, are found in the West Indies and Gulf Stream. Two others very
similar, Pterophryne histrio and Pterophryne ranina, live in the East Indies
Antennariidæ.
The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.—The frogfishes, Antennariidæ, belong to
the tropical seas and rarely descend far below the surface. Most of them
abound about sand-banks or coral reefs, especially along the shores of the
East and West Indies, where they creep along the rocks like toads. Some are
pelagic, drifting about in floating masses of seaweed. All are fantastic in
form and color, usually closely imitating the objects about them. The body
is compressed, the mouth nearly vertical, and the skin either prickly or
provided with fleshy slips.
The species of Pterophryne live in the open sea, drifting with the currents in
masses of sargassum. Two species, Pterophryne tumida and Pterophryne
gibba, are found in the West Indies and Gulf Stream. Two others very
similar, Pterophryne histrio and Pterophryne ranina, live in the East Indies
Page 630
and drift in the Kuro Shiwo of Japan. All these are light olive-brown with
fantastic black markings.
Fig. 501.—Fishing-frog, Antennarius nox Jordan. Wakanoura, Japan.
The genus Antennarius contains species of the shoals and reefs, with
markings which correspond to the colors of the rocks. These fishes are firm
in texture with a velvety skin, and the prevailing color is brown and red.
There are many species wherever reefs are found. Antennarius ocellatus,
the pescador, is the commonest West Indian species. Antennarius
multiocellatus, with many ocellated spots, is the Martin Pescador of Cuba,
also common.
On the Pacific coast of Mexico the commonest species is Antennarius
strigatus. In Japan, Antennarius tridens abounds everywhere on the muddy
bottoms of the bays. Antennarius nox is a jet-black species of the Japanese
reefs, and Antennarius sanguifluus is spotted with blood-red in imitation of
coralline patches. Many other species abound in the East Indies and in
Polynesia. The genus Chaunax is represented by several deep-water species
of the West Indies, Japan, etc.
fantastic black markings.
Fig. 501.—Fishing-frog, Antennarius nox Jordan. Wakanoura, Japan.
The genus Antennarius contains species of the shoals and reefs, with
markings which correspond to the colors of the rocks. These fishes are firm
in texture with a velvety skin, and the prevailing color is brown and red.
There are many species wherever reefs are found. Antennarius ocellatus,
the pescador, is the commonest West Indian species. Antennarius
multiocellatus, with many ocellated spots, is the Martin Pescador of Cuba,
also common.
On the Pacific coast of Mexico the commonest species is Antennarius
strigatus. In Japan, Antennarius tridens abounds everywhere on the muddy
bottoms of the bays. Antennarius nox is a jet-black species of the Japanese
reefs, and Antennarius sanguifluus is spotted with blood-red in imitation of
coralline patches. Many other species abound in the East Indies and in
Polynesia. The genus Chaunax is represented by several deep-water species
of the West Indies, Japan, etc.
Page 631
Fig. 502.—Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, Ogcocephalus radiatus (Mitchill).
The Gigactinidæ of the deep seas differ from the Ogcocephalidæ, according
to Boulenger, in the absence of ventrals.
The Gigactinidæ of the deep seas differ from the Ogcocephalidæ, according
to Boulenger, in the absence of ventrals.
Page 632
Fig. 503.—Frogfish, Antennarus scaber (Cuvier). Puerto Rico.
The Batfishes: Ogcocephalidæ.—The batfishes, Ogcocephalidæ, are
anglers with the body depressed and covered with hard bony warts. The
mouth is small and the bony bases of the pectoral and ventral fins are longer
than in any other of the anglers. The species live in the warm seas, some in
very shallow water, others descending to great depths, the deep-sea forms
being small and more or less degenerate. These walk along like toads on the
sea-bottoms; the ventrals, being jugular, act as fore legs and the pectorals
extend behind them as hind legs.
The Batfishes: Ogcocephalidæ.—The batfishes, Ogcocephalidæ, are
anglers with the body depressed and covered with hard bony warts. The
mouth is small and the bony bases of the pectoral and ventral fins are longer
than in any other of the anglers. The species live in the warm seas, some in
very shallow water, others descending to great depths, the deep-sea forms
being small and more or less degenerate. These walk along like toads on the
sea-bottoms; the ventrals, being jugular, act as fore legs and the pectorals
extend behind them as hind legs.
Page 633
Fig. 504.—Ogcocephalus vespertilio (L.). Florida.
The common sea-bat, or diablo, of the West Indies, Ogcocephalus
vespertilio, is dusky in color with the belly coppery red. It reaches the
length of a foot. The angling spine is very short, hidden under the long stiff
process of the snout. Farther north occurs the short-nosed batfish,
Ogcocephalus radiatus, very similar, but with the nostril process, or snout,
blunt and short. Zalieutes elater, with a large black eye-like spot on each
side of the back, is found on the west coast of Mexico. In deeper water are
species of Halieutichthys in the West Indies and of Halieutæa in Japan.
Dibranchus atlanticus has the gills reduced to two pairs. Malthopsis
consists of small species, with the rostrum prominent, like a bishop's miter.
Two species are found in the Pacific, Malthopsis mitrata in Hawaii and
Malthopsis tiarella in Japan.
And with these dainty freaks of the sea, the results of centuries on centuries
of specialization, degeneration, and adaptation, we close the long roll-call
of the fishes, living and dead. And in their long genealogy is enfolded the
genealogy of men and beasts and birds and reptiles and of all other back-
boned animals of whom the fish-like forms are at once the ancestors, the
The common sea-bat, or diablo, of the West Indies, Ogcocephalus
vespertilio, is dusky in color with the belly coppery red. It reaches the
length of a foot. The angling spine is very short, hidden under the long stiff
process of the snout. Farther north occurs the short-nosed batfish,
Ogcocephalus radiatus, very similar, but with the nostril process, or snout,
blunt and short. Zalieutes elater, with a large black eye-like spot on each
side of the back, is found on the west coast of Mexico. In deeper water are
species of Halieutichthys in the West Indies and of Halieutæa in Japan.
Dibranchus atlanticus has the gills reduced to two pairs. Malthopsis
consists of small species, with the rostrum prominent, like a bishop's miter.
Two species are found in the Pacific, Malthopsis mitrata in Hawaii and
Malthopsis tiarella in Japan.
And with these dainty freaks of the sea, the results of centuries on centuries
of specialization, degeneration, and adaptation, we close the long roll-call
of the fishes, living and dead. And in their long genealogy is enfolded the
genealogy of men and beasts and birds and reptiles and of all other back-
boned animals of whom the fish-like forms are at once the ancestors, the
Page 634
cousins, and the younger brothers. When the fishes of the Devonian age
came out upon the land, the potentiality of the higher methods of life first
became manifest. With the new conditions, more varied and more exacting,
higher and more varied specialization was demanded, and, in response to
these new conditions, from a fish-like stock have arisen all the birds and
beasts and men that have dwelt upon the earth.
Fig. 505.—Batfish, Ogcocephalus vespertilio (L.). Florida.
Fig. 506.—Batfish, Ogcocephalus vespertilio (Linnæus). Carolina Coast.
THE END.
came out upon the land, the potentiality of the higher methods of life first
became manifest. With the new conditions, more varied and more exacting,
higher and more varied specialization was demanded, and, in response to
these new conditions, from a fish-like stock have arisen all the birds and
beasts and men that have dwelt upon the earth.
Fig. 505.—Batfish, Ogcocephalus vespertilio (L.). Florida.
Fig. 506.—Batfish, Ogcocephalus vespertilio (Linnæus). Carolina Coast.
THE END.
Page 635
INDEX
aal-mutter, ii, 144
Abbott, i, 415, 419, 422; ii, 307, 534
on perch, ii, 307
abdominal fishes, ii, 39
Abdominales, i, 393; ii, 38, 39
Abeona, ii, 375
Abramis, ii, 167
figure of, ii, 168
Aboma,
figure of, ii, 462
abundance of food-fish, i, 329
abura-ainame, ii, 440
abura-bodzu, ii, 323
aburazame, i, 524
Acantharchus, ii, 297
Acanthistius, ii, 323
Acanthobatis, i, 553
Acanthocephala, i, 344, 351
Acanthocepola, ii, 363
Acanthoclinidæ, ii, 516
aal-mutter, ii, 144
Abbott, i, 415, 419, 422; ii, 307, 534
on perch, ii, 307
abdominal fishes, ii, 39
Abdominales, i, 393; ii, 38, 39
Abeona, ii, 375
Abramis, ii, 167
figure of, ii, 168
Aboma,
figure of, ii, 462
abundance of food-fish, i, 329
abura-ainame, ii, 440
abura-bodzu, ii, 323
aburazame, i, 524
Acantharchus, ii, 297
Acanthistius, ii, 323
Acanthobatis, i, 553
Acanthocephala, i, 344, 351
Acanthocepola, ii, 363
Acanthoclinidæ, ii, 516
Page 636
Acanthoclinus, ii, 516
Acanthocybium, ii, 266
Acanthodei, i, 65, 437, 447, 513, 519, 545, 561
Dean on, i, 517
families of, i, 516
order of, i, 514
Woodward on, i, 514
Acanthoëssidæ, i, 515, 516
Acanthoëssus, i, 446, 510-513
figure of, i, 515
scales of, figured, i, 521
Acantholabrus, ii, 387
Acanthonemus, ii, 286
Acanthopteri, ii, 157
Acanthopterygian, ii, 39, 293
Acanthopterygii, i, 391; ii, 189, 208-214
Acanthostracion, i, 377
Acanthuridæ, i, 206; ii, 405, 407, 410, 411
family of, ii, 407
Acanthurus, i, 268, 271; ii, 407, 409
Acanus, ii, 330
Acara, ii, 381
Acentronura, ii, 236
Acerina, ii, 241, 309
Acentrophorus, ii, 23
Achirinæ, ii, 495
Achirus,
figure of, ii, 496
Acanthocybium, ii, 266
Acanthodei, i, 65, 437, 447, 513, 519, 545, 561
Dean on, i, 517
families of, i, 516
order of, i, 514
Woodward on, i, 514
Acanthoëssidæ, i, 515, 516
Acanthoëssus, i, 446, 510-513
figure of, i, 515
scales of, figured, i, 521
Acantholabrus, ii, 387
Acanthonemus, ii, 286
Acanthopteri, ii, 157
Acanthopterygian, ii, 39, 293
Acanthopterygii, i, 391; ii, 189, 208-214
Acanthostracion, i, 377
Acanthuridæ, i, 206; ii, 405, 407, 410, 411
family of, ii, 407
Acanthurus, i, 268, 271; ii, 407, 409
Acanus, ii, 330
Acara, ii, 381
Acentronura, ii, 236
Acerina, ii, 241, 309
Acentrophorus, ii, 23
Achirinæ, ii, 495
Achirus,
figure of, ii, 496
Page 637
Acipenser, i, 291, 332, 391, 452; ii, 18, 19, 20, 22
figure of, ii, 19, 20
larva of, figured, i, 141
Acipenseridæ, i, 290; ii, 18
Acipenseroidei, i, 382
Acraniata, i, 484
Acrocheilus, ii, 169
Acrogaster, ii, 252
Acrognathus, ii, 34
Acropoma, ii, 317
Acropomidæ, ii, 317
Acrotidæ, ii, 285
Acrotus, ii, 285
Actinistia, i, 602
order of, i, 604
Actinopteri, i, 451, 507, 599, 610; ii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 208
Actinopterygii, i, 462; ii, 1
Actinosts, ii, 1, 33
actinotrichia, i, 80
Adaptation of fishes, i, 177-225
adaptive radiation,
law of, i, 296
adder-fish, ii, 501
Adelfisch, ii, 65
Adelochorda, i, 461
Adinia, ii, 199
adipose fin, i, 25
figure of, ii, 19, 20
larva of, figured, i, 141
Acipenseridæ, i, 290; ii, 18
Acipenseroidei, i, 382
Acraniata, i, 484
Acrocheilus, ii, 169
Acrogaster, ii, 252
Acrognathus, ii, 34
Acropoma, ii, 317
Acropomidæ, ii, 317
Acrotidæ, ii, 285
Acrotus, ii, 285
Actinistia, i, 602
order of, i, 604
Actinopteri, i, 451, 507, 599, 610; ii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 208
Actinopterygii, i, 462; ii, 1
Actinosts, ii, 1, 33
actinotrichia, i, 80
Adaptation of fishes, i, 177-225
adaptive radiation,
law of, i, 296
adder-fish, ii, 501
Adelfisch, ii, 65
Adelochorda, i, 461
Adinia, ii, 199
adipose fin, i, 25
Page 638
Ægæonichthys, ii, 549
Æoliscus,
figure of, ii, 235
Ærolepis, ii, 14
Æthalion, ii, 41
Ætheospondyli, ii, 24, 29
Æthoprora,
figure of, i, 188
Aëtobatis, i, 557
figure of, i, 558
African catfish,
figure of, i, 457; ii, 185
Agassiz, A., i, 405
Agassiz, L., i, 419, 428, 614; ii, 1, 39, 183, 486
on dispersion, i, 284
on Embiotocidæ, ii, 378, 379
on embryology of garpike, ii, 31
on fish fauna of N. E., i, 302
on fossil fishes, i, 404
on ganoids, ii, 9
on high and low forms, i, 381
on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
on Onchus, i, 530
portrait of, i, 399
pupils of, i, 405
questions raised by, i, 284
sketch of, i, 404
Age of fishes, i, 144-146
agency of ocean currents, i, 243
Agnatha, i, 508
Agonidæ, i, 208; ii, 3, 185, 452, 453, 456
Æoliscus,
figure of, ii, 235
Ærolepis, ii, 14
Æthalion, ii, 41
Ætheospondyli, ii, 24, 29
Æthoprora,
figure of, i, 188
Aëtobatis, i, 557
figure of, i, 558
African catfish,
figure of, i, 457; ii, 185
Agassiz, A., i, 405
Agassiz, L., i, 419, 428, 614; ii, 1, 39, 183, 486
on dispersion, i, 284
on Embiotocidæ, ii, 378, 379
on embryology of garpike, ii, 31
on fish fauna of N. E., i, 302
on fossil fishes, i, 404
on ganoids, ii, 9
on high and low forms, i, 381
on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
on Onchus, i, 530
portrait of, i, 399
pupils of, i, 405
questions raised by, i, 284
sketch of, i, 404
Age of fishes, i, 144-146
agency of ocean currents, i, 243
Agnatha, i, 508
Agonidæ, i, 208; ii, 3, 185, 452, 453, 456
Page 639
family of, ii, 449
Agonoid fish,
figure of, i, 221; ii, 453
Agonostomus, ii, 107, 222
Agonus, i, 219; ii, 453
Agrammus, ii, 440
Ahl, i, 394
aholehole, ii, 304
air-bladder, i, 11
air-duct, i, 12
Aristotle on, 95
Borelli on, i, 95
of Carp, i, 93; ii, 159, 160
in Cœlacanthus, i, 604
defined, i, 92, 93
De Fosse on, i, 97
Delaroche on, i, 95
figure of, i, 93, 604
function of, i, 94
in ganoids, i, 101
gases in, i, 94
in Labyrinthici, i, 91
an organ of hearing, ii, 159
origin of, i, 98
position of, i, 35
Sörensen on, i, 97
Tower on, i, 95
use of, i, 12
wanting in sharks, i, 506
Weber on, i, 96
akadai, ii, 344
Alaska blackfish, i, 51, 147, 290
figure of, i, 149; ii, 206
Agonoid fish,
figure of, i, 221; ii, 453
Agonostomus, ii, 107, 222
Agonus, i, 219; ii, 453
Agrammus, ii, 440
Ahl, i, 394
aholehole, ii, 304
air-bladder, i, 11
air-duct, i, 12
Aristotle on, 95
Borelli on, i, 95
of Carp, i, 93; ii, 159, 160
in Cœlacanthus, i, 604
defined, i, 92, 93
De Fosse on, i, 97
Delaroche on, i, 95
figure of, i, 93, 604
function of, i, 94
in ganoids, i, 101
gases in, i, 94
in Labyrinthici, i, 91
an organ of hearing, ii, 159
origin of, i, 98
position of, i, 35
Sörensen on, i, 97
Tower on, i, 95
use of, i, 12
wanting in sharks, i, 506
Weber on, i, 96
akadai, ii, 344
Alaska blackfish, i, 51, 147, 290
figure of, i, 149; ii, 206
Page 640
Alaska cod, ii, 536
Alaska grayling,
figure of, i, 328; ii, 120
Alaskan rivers,
fishes of, i, 304, 305
Albacore, i, 210; ii, 136
figure of, ii, 263
Goode on, ii, 263
long fin, ii, 263
Albatross, the i, 263, 408; ii, 60, 130, 138
Albatrossia, ii, 541
Albula, i, 142, 205; ii, 29, 46, 148
figure of, i, 147; ii, 44
Albulidæ, ii, 41, 44
Alburnus, ii, 167
Alcock, i, 244, 408; ii, 290
Aldrich,
photograph by, i, 303
Aldrovandi, i, 388
Aldrovandia,
figure of, ii, 138
Alectis, i, 202; ii, 276
aleihi, ii, 253
Alepisauridæ, i, 134
Alepocephalidæ, ii, 60
Alepocephalus,
figure of, ii, 60
alewife, ii, 49
figure of, ii, 50
Alaska grayling,
figure of, i, 328; ii, 120
Alaskan rivers,
fishes of, i, 304, 305
Albacore, i, 210; ii, 136
figure of, ii, 263
Goode on, ii, 263
long fin, ii, 263
Albatross, the i, 263, 408; ii, 60, 130, 138
Albatrossia, ii, 541
Albula, i, 142, 205; ii, 29, 46, 148
figure of, i, 147; ii, 44
Albulidæ, ii, 41, 44
Alburnus, ii, 167
Alcock, i, 244, 408; ii, 290
Aldrich,
photograph by, i, 303
Aldrovandi, i, 388
Aldrovandia,
figure of, ii, 138
Alectis, i, 202; ii, 276
aleihi, ii, 253
Alepisauridæ, i, 134
Alepocephalidæ, ii, 60
Alepocephalus,
figure of, ii, 60
alewife, ii, 49
figure of, ii, 50
Page 641
alfonsinos, ii, 251
alimentary canal, i, 31
alkaloid poisons, i, 182, 184, 185; ii, 411, 412
allantiasis, i, 183
alligator-fish, ii, 449, 453
alligator-gar,
figure of, ii, 31
allmouth, ii, 545
Alopiidæ,
family of, i, 536
Alosa, i, 204, 291; ii, 50
Alticus,
figure of, i, 230; ii, 509
Alutera, i, 206; ii, 414, 415
amadai, ii, 363
Amanses, ii, 415
figure of, ii, 414
Amaræcium, i, 477
Ambassis, ii, 317
Ambassidæ, ii, 317
amber-fish, ii, 272
figure of, i, 458; ii, 273
amber-jack, ii, 274
Amblodon, i, 302
Ambloplites,
figure of, ii, 299
skull of, figured, ii, 296
Amblyopsidæ, 290; ii, 204
alimentary canal, i, 31
alkaloid poisons, i, 182, 184, 185; ii, 411, 412
allantiasis, i, 183
alligator-fish, ii, 449, 453
alligator-gar,
figure of, ii, 31
allmouth, ii, 545
Alopiidæ,
family of, i, 536
Alosa, i, 204, 291; ii, 50
Alticus,
figure of, i, 230; ii, 509
Alutera, i, 206; ii, 414, 415
amadai, ii, 363
Amanses, ii, 415
figure of, ii, 414
Amaræcium, i, 477
Ambassis, ii, 317
Ambassidæ, ii, 317
amber-fish, ii, 272
figure of, i, 458; ii, 273
amber-jack, ii, 274
Amblodon, i, 302
Ambloplites,
figure of, ii, 299
skull of, figured, ii, 296
Amblyopsidæ, 290; ii, 204
Page 642
family of, ii, 200
Amblyopsis, i, 220, 314
figure of, i, 221, 222; ii, 203
Amblypterus, ii, 14
Amblystoma, i, 78
Ameiurus, i, 283, 293, 310, 356; ii, 35, 183, 185, 186, 299
figure of, i, 344, 358; ii, 180, 181
parasites of, i, 344
American charr, ii, 110
American fishes,
Goode on, i, 335
Amia, i, 33, 101, 102, 204, 291, 344, 391, 612, 623; ii, 8, 9, 11, 31, 33, 36,
41, 160
figure of, ii, 33, 35
lower jaw of, ii, 33
shoulder-girdle in, i, 86
tail of, i, 82
Amiatus, i, 394
Amiidæ, i, 290; ii, 4, 34, 35, 36
Amioidei,
Lütken on, ii, 33
Amiopsis, ii, 36
Amitra, ii, 454
Ammocœtes, i, 142
Ammocrypta, ii, 306
figure of, i, 158; ii, 313
Ammodytes, ii, 224, 391, 514, 522
figure of, ii, 521
Ammodytidæ, ii, 215, 520, 521
Amphacanthi,
Amblyopsis, i, 220, 314
figure of, i, 221, 222; ii, 203
Amblypterus, ii, 14
Amblystoma, i, 78
Ameiurus, i, 283, 293, 310, 356; ii, 35, 183, 185, 186, 299
figure of, i, 344, 358; ii, 180, 181
parasites of, i, 344
American charr, ii, 110
American fishes,
Goode on, i, 335
Amia, i, 33, 101, 102, 204, 291, 344, 391, 612, 623; ii, 8, 9, 11, 31, 33, 36,
41, 160
figure of, ii, 33, 35
lower jaw of, ii, 33
shoulder-girdle in, i, 86
tail of, i, 82
Amiatus, i, 394
Amiidæ, i, 290; ii, 4, 34, 35, 36
Amioidei,
Lütken on, ii, 33
Amiopsis, ii, 36
Amitra, ii, 454
Ammocœtes, i, 142
Ammocrypta, ii, 306
figure of, i, 158; ii, 313
Ammodytes, ii, 224, 391, 514, 522
figure of, ii, 521
Ammodytidæ, ii, 215, 520, 521
Amphacanthi,
Page 643
suborder of, ii, 409
Ampheristus, ii, 436
Amphibia, i, 393, 600, 606
Amphibians, ii, 9
origin of, i, 600
Amphicœlian, i, 49
Amphiodon, i, 394
Amphioxides, i, 483
Amphioxus, i, 482, 495
Amphiplaga, ii, 243
Amphipnoidæ, 11, 141
Amphipnous, ii, 141
Amphiprion, ii, 384
Amphisile, ii, 235
Amphisticus, ii, 375
Amphistiidæ,
family of, ii, 245, 247
Amphistium, ii, 485
figure of, ii, 247
Amyzon, ii, 175
Anabantidæ, ii, 215, 370
Gill on, i, 366
Anabas, i, 91, 103, 163
figure of, ii, 366
Anableps, i, 117, 391; ii, 131
eye of, ii, 194
figure of, i, 117
Marsh on, ii, 194
Nelson on, ii, 196
Ampheristus, ii, 436
Amphibia, i, 393, 600, 606
Amphibians, ii, 9
origin of, i, 600
Amphicœlian, i, 49
Amphiodon, i, 394
Amphioxides, i, 483
Amphioxus, i, 482, 495
Amphiplaga, ii, 243
Amphipnoidæ, 11, 141
Amphipnous, ii, 141
Amphiprion, ii, 384
Amphisile, ii, 235
Amphisticus, ii, 375
Amphistiidæ,
family of, ii, 245, 247
Amphistium, ii, 485
figure of, ii, 247
Amyzon, ii, 175
Anabantidæ, ii, 215, 370
Gill on, i, 366
Anabas, i, 91, 103, 163
figure of, ii, 366
Anableps, i, 117, 391; ii, 131
eye of, ii, 194
figure of, i, 117
Marsh on, ii, 194
Nelson on, ii, 196
Page 644
Anacanthini, i, 405; ii, 484, 485, 499, 501, 532, 533, 538
order of, ii, 532, 533
anadromous fishes, i, 291
anadromous salmon, ii, 68
anal fin, i, 10
in Embiotocidæ, i, 125
as intromittent organ, i, 124
in Pœciliidæ, i, 125
in sword-tail minnow, i, 124
analogy and homology, i, 368, 369
Coues on, i, 369
Anampses, ii, 390
Anarhichadidæ, ii, 517
Anarhichas, i, 208, 391; ii, 518
figure of, ii, 517
food of, ii, 518
Anarchias, ii, 153
Anarrhichthys, i, 208, 364; ii, 518
skull of, ii, 517
Anarthri, i, 509
Anarthrodira, i, 584, 585, 590
Anaspida, i, 573, 622
order of, i, 579
anatomy of tunicates,
figure showing, i, 472
Anchovia, i, 199, 205
figure of, ii, 54
anchovy,
figure of, ii, 54
anchovy, silvery,
order of, ii, 532, 533
anadromous fishes, i, 291
anadromous salmon, ii, 68
anal fin, i, 10
in Embiotocidæ, i, 125
as intromittent organ, i, 124
in Pœciliidæ, i, 125
in sword-tail minnow, i, 124
analogy and homology, i, 368, 369
Coues on, i, 369
Anampses, ii, 390
Anarhichadidæ, ii, 517
Anarhichas, i, 208, 391; ii, 518
figure of, ii, 517
food of, ii, 518
Anarchias, ii, 153
Anarrhichthys, i, 208, 364; ii, 518
skull of, ii, 517
Anarthri, i, 509
Anarthrodira, i, 584, 585, 590
Anaspida, i, 573, 622
order of, i, 579
anatomy of tunicates,
figure showing, i, 472
Anchovia, i, 199, 205
figure of, ii, 54
anchovy,
figure of, ii, 54
anchovy, silvery,
Page 645
figure of, ii, 54
ancient outlet of Lake Bonneville,
photograph of, i, 303
Ancylostylos, ii, 45
Andaman Islands,
fishes of, i, 166
Andrews, i, 428
Anema, ii, 504
angel-fishes, i, 547, 549
figure of, ii, 401, 404
angler-fishes, i, 189, 206; ii, 542-553
carpels of, i, 51
figure of, i, 52
Gill on, ii, 543
habits of, ii, 543-545
Kent on, ii, 543
anglers,
dorsal fin in, i, 202
angling, i, 336
Young on, i, 337-339
Anguilla, i, 127, 162, 211; ii, 143
figure of, ii, 142, 148
Anguillidæ, i, 290; ii, 148
family of, ii, 142
angular, i, 606
Anisotremus, i, 271; ii, 341
Anomalopidæ,
family of, ii, 317
anko,
figure of, ii, 545
ancient outlet of Lake Bonneville,
photograph of, i, 303
Ancylostylos, ii, 45
Andaman Islands,
fishes of, i, 166
Andrews, i, 428
Anema, ii, 504
angel-fishes, i, 547, 549
figure of, ii, 401, 404
angler-fishes, i, 189, 206; ii, 542-553
carpels of, i, 51
figure of, i, 52
Gill on, ii, 543
habits of, ii, 543-545
Kent on, ii, 543
anglers,
dorsal fin in, i, 202
angling, i, 336
Young on, i, 337-339
Anguilla, i, 127, 162, 211; ii, 143
figure of, ii, 142, 148
Anguillidæ, i, 290; ii, 148
family of, ii, 142
angular, i, 606
Anisotremus, i, 271; ii, 341
Anomalopidæ,
family of, ii, 317
anko,
figure of, ii, 545
Page 646
Anomalops, ii, 317
Anoplogaster, ii, 252
Anoplopoma,
figure of, ii, 438
Anoplopomidæ,
family of, ii, 438
Anoplus, i, 260; ii, 333
Antechinomys, ii, 471
Antennariidæ, i, 52; ii, 542, 549, 553
Aristotle on, ii, 546
deep-sea, ii, 548
Goode on, ii, 545
habits of, ii, 544-546
Hoffmann on, ii, 546
spawning of, ii, 546
Antennarius, i, 197, 206
figure of, ii, 550, 553
Anthias, ii, 328
Antiarcha, i, 573, 581, 590, 622
order of, i, 576
Antigonia, i, 262
Anyperodon, ii, 328
ao, ii, 274
Apeltes,
figure of, ii, 232
Aphanopus, i, 210
Aphareus,
figure of, ii, 339
Aphredoderidæ, i, 290; ii, 243, 294
Aphredoderus, ii, 204, 252, 291, 294, 296
Anoplogaster, ii, 252
Anoplopoma,
figure of, ii, 438
Anoplopomidæ,
family of, ii, 438
Anoplus, i, 260; ii, 333
Antechinomys, ii, 471
Antennariidæ, i, 52; ii, 542, 549, 553
Aristotle on, ii, 546
deep-sea, ii, 548
Goode on, ii, 545
habits of, ii, 544-546
Hoffmann on, ii, 546
spawning of, ii, 546
Antennarius, i, 197, 206
figure of, ii, 550, 553
Anthias, ii, 328
Antiarcha, i, 573, 581, 590, 622
order of, i, 576
Antigonia, i, 262
Anyperodon, ii, 328
ao, ii, 274
Apeltes,
figure of, ii, 232
Aphanopus, i, 210
Aphareus,
figure of, ii, 339
Aphredoderidæ, i, 290; ii, 243, 294
Aphredoderus, ii, 204, 252, 291, 294, 296
Page 647
figure of, ii, 295
Apia,
coral reef of, figured, i, 234
Apichthys, ii, 278
Aplidiopsis,
figure of, i, 479
Aploactis, i, 202
Aplodactylidæ, ii, 363
Aplodactylus, ii, 364
Aplodinotus, i, 291, 302; ii, 354, 357
Apocopodon, i, 558
Apodes, i, 393, 611; ii, 40, 139-158, 532
order of, ii, 141
Apodichthys, i, 227; ii, 512
Apogon,
figure of, i, 455; ii, 316, 319
Apogonidæ,
family of, ii, 316
Apomotis, i, 26, 310; ii, 301
figure of, i, 27; ii, 350
Apostasis, ii, 406
Apostolides, i, 412
Appendicularia, i, 466
Brooks on, i, 480
Appendiculariidæ, i, 474
Aprion, i, 325; ii, 338
Apsilus, ii, 338
aquatic worms, ii, 143
Apia,
coral reef of, figured, i, 234
Apichthys, ii, 278
Aplidiopsis,
figure of, i, 479
Aploactis, i, 202
Aplodactylidæ, ii, 363
Aplodactylus, ii, 364
Aplodinotus, i, 291, 302; ii, 354, 357
Apocopodon, i, 558
Apodes, i, 393, 611; ii, 40, 139-158, 532
order of, ii, 141
Apodichthys, i, 227; ii, 512
Apogon,
figure of, i, 455; ii, 316, 319
Apogonidæ,
family of, ii, 316
Apomotis, i, 26, 310; ii, 301
figure of, i, 27; ii, 350
Apostasis, ii, 406
Apostolides, i, 412
Appendicularia, i, 466
Brooks on, i, 480
Appendiculariidæ, i, 474
Aprion, i, 325; ii, 338
Apsilus, ii, 338
aquatic worms, ii, 143
Page 648
Aracana, ii, 417
Arapaima, ii, 11, 56
Arbaciosa,
species of, ii, 531
Archæomænidæ, ii, 29
Archæus, ii, 278
Archencheli,
suborder of, ii, 141, 142
archers, ii, 400
archicercal tail, i, 81, 83
archipterygium, i, 59-61, 68, 69, 73, 446, 459, 511, 512, 522, 598, 600, 601
Boulenger on, i, 79
Gegenbaur on, i, 60
Günther on, i, 60
archnoid membrane, i, 109
Archoplites, i, 179, 240; ii, 297
figure of, i, 258
Archosargus, i, 324; ii, 346
figure of, i, 31; ii, 347
Archoteuthis, ii, 410
Arctic codling, ii, 537
Arctic species,
in lakes, i, 316
Loven on, i, 317
Malmgren on, i, 317
Smith on, i, 317
Arctoscopus, ii, 364
Argentina, i, 391
Argentinidæ, ii, 122, 124
Arapaima, ii, 11, 56
Arbaciosa,
species of, ii, 531
Archæomænidæ, ii, 29
Archæus, ii, 278
Archencheli,
suborder of, ii, 141, 142
archers, ii, 400
archicercal tail, i, 81, 83
archipterygium, i, 59-61, 68, 69, 73, 446, 459, 511, 512, 522, 598, 600, 601
Boulenger on, i, 79
Gegenbaur on, i, 60
Günther on, i, 60
archnoid membrane, i, 109
Archoplites, i, 179, 240; ii, 297
figure of, i, 258
Archosargus, i, 324; ii, 346
figure of, i, 31; ii, 347
Archoteuthis, ii, 410
Arctic codling, ii, 537
Arctic species,
in lakes, i, 316
Loven on, i, 317
Malmgren on, i, 317
Smith on, i, 317
Arctoscopus, ii, 364
Argentina, i, 391
Argentinidæ, ii, 122, 124
Page 649
Argidæ, ii, 185
Argyropelecus,
figure of, i, 190; ii, 137
Argyrosomus, i, 315; ii, 62, 65, 67
figure of, ii, 66
Ariscopus, i, 257
figure of, ii, 504
Aristotle, ii, 146
on fishes of Greece, i, 387
on noises of fish, i, 95
Arius, ii, 178, 186
arm of frog, i, 601
figure of, i, 71
ama-ama, ii, 221
armado, i, 169
arnillo, ii, 338
Arnoglossus, ii, 488
arrow-toothed halibut, ii, 491
Artedi, i, 374, 390
on genera, i, 391
Artediellus, ii, 442
Artedius, ii, 442
Arthrodira, i, 573, 584, 585, 590, 612
Dean on, i, 581
Jækel on, i, 591
Arthrodires, i, 204, 241, 436, 437, 603, 622; ii, 3
classification of, i, 584
figure of, i, 445, 584
occurrence of, i, 583
relationships of, i, 588
Argyropelecus,
figure of, i, 190; ii, 137
Argyrosomus, i, 315; ii, 62, 65, 67
figure of, ii, 66
Ariscopus, i, 257
figure of, ii, 504
Aristotle, ii, 146
on fishes of Greece, i, 387
on noises of fish, i, 95
Arius, ii, 178, 186
arm of frog, i, 601
figure of, i, 71
ama-ama, ii, 221
armado, i, 169
arnillo, ii, 338
Arnoglossus, ii, 488
arrow-toothed halibut, ii, 491
Artedi, i, 374, 390
on genera, i, 391
Artediellus, ii, 442
Artedius, ii, 442
Arthrodira, i, 573, 584, 585, 590, 612
Dean on, i, 581
Jækel on, i, 591
Arthrodires, i, 204, 241, 436, 437, 603, 622; ii, 3
classification of, i, 584
figure of, i, 445, 584
occurrence of, i, 583
relationships of, i, 588
Page 650
Arthropteridæ, i, 553
Arthropterus, i, 553
Arthrognathi, i, 581, 584, 585, 589, 590
Dean on, i, 584
Arthrothoraci, i, 584, 586, 587
articular, i, 606
artificial impregnation,
Jacobian method, i, 150
Ascanius, i, 396; ii, 472
Ascelichthys, ii, 449
Ascidia,
figure of, i, 474
Ascidiacea, i, 474
ascidians, i, 460, 467
Kingsley on, i, 474
Ritter on, i, 474
Ascidiiæ, i, 474, 475
Ascidina,
figure of, i, 475
Aseraggodes, ii, 496
Ashmead,
on leprosy transmission, i, 186
Asineopidæ, ii, 243, 296, 317
Asineops, ii, 243, 317
Asmuss, i, 427
Aspasma, ii, 531
figure of, ii, 530
Aspidocephali, i, 568, 575
Arthropterus, i, 553
Arthrognathi, i, 581, 584, 585, 589, 590
Dean on, i, 584
Arthrothoraci, i, 584, 586, 587
articular, i, 606
artificial impregnation,
Jacobian method, i, 150
Ascanius, i, 396; ii, 472
Ascelichthys, ii, 449
Ascidia,
figure of, i, 474
Ascidiacea, i, 474
ascidians, i, 460, 467
Kingsley on, i, 474
Ritter on, i, 474
Ascidiiæ, i, 474, 475
Ascidina,
figure of, i, 475
Aseraggodes, ii, 496
Ashmead,
on leprosy transmission, i, 186
Asineopidæ, ii, 243, 296, 317
Asineops, ii, 243, 317
Asmuss, i, 427
Aspasma, ii, 531
figure of, ii, 530
Aspidocephali, i, 568, 575
Page 651
Aspidoganoidei, i, 568
Aspidophoroides,
figure of, ii, 453
Aspidorhini, i, 568
Aspidorhynchidæ, ii, 24, 29
Aspidorhynchus, ii, 29
Aspius, ii, 175
Aspredo, ii, 184
Aspro, ii, 307, 310
figure of, ii, 309
aspron, ii, 309
figure of, ii, 310
Asterolepidæ, i, 576, 623
Asterolepis, i, 577, 591
Asterospondyli, i, 447, 510, 513, 532
order of, i, 525
asterospondylous, i, 49
Asterosteidæ, i, 584, 585
Asterosteus, i, 585
Asterropteryx, i, 263
Astrodermiidæ, i, 551
Astrodermus, i, 551
Astrolabe, the, i, 408
Astrolytes,
figure of, ii, 442
Astronesthidæ, ii, 128
Astrape, i, 554
Astroscopus, ii, 503
Aspidophoroides,
figure of, ii, 453
Aspidorhini, i, 568
Aspidorhynchidæ, ii, 24, 29
Aspidorhynchus, ii, 29
Aspius, ii, 175
Aspredo, ii, 184
Aspro, ii, 307, 310
figure of, ii, 309
aspron, ii, 309
figure of, ii, 310
Asterolepidæ, i, 576, 623
Asterolepis, i, 577, 591
Asterospondyli, i, 447, 510, 513, 532
order of, i, 525
asterospondylous, i, 49
Asterosteidæ, i, 584, 585
Asterosteus, i, 585
Asterropteryx, i, 263
Astrodermiidæ, i, 551
Astrodermus, i, 551
Astrolabe, the, i, 408
Astrolytes,
figure of, ii, 442
Astronesthidæ, ii, 128
Astrape, i, 554
Astroscopus, ii, 503
Page 652
Gilbert on, i, 187
electric organs of, i, 187
Asymmetron, i, 483; ii, 467
Ateleaspis, i, 574
Atheresthes, i, 205; ii, 491
Atherina, i, 393; ii, 216
Atherinidæ, i, 290; ii, 215
Atherinops, ii, 218
Atherinopsis,
figure of, ii, 218
Atherinosoma, ii, 218
Athlennes, ii, 211
Atka fish,
figure of, i, 328; ii, 439
Atka mackerel, ii, 439
Atlantic creek, i, 308, 309
Atlantic oarfish, ii, 472
Atlantic salmon, ii, 89
attenuate, i, 19
Atthey, i, 426
Auchenopterus, ii, 508
atule, ii, 275
auditory ossicles, ii, 160
Aulichthys, ii, 233
Aulolepis, ii, 48
Aulopidæ, ii, 130, 132
Aulopus, i, 259; ii, 190
electric organs of, i, 187
Asymmetron, i, 483; ii, 467
Ateleaspis, i, 574
Atheresthes, i, 205; ii, 491
Atherina, i, 393; ii, 216
Atherinidæ, i, 290; ii, 215
Atherinops, ii, 218
Atherinopsis,
figure of, ii, 218
Atherinosoma, ii, 218
Athlennes, ii, 211
Atka fish,
figure of, i, 328; ii, 439
Atka mackerel, ii, 439
Atlantic creek, i, 308, 309
Atlantic oarfish, ii, 472
Atlantic salmon, ii, 89
attenuate, i, 19
Atthey, i, 426
Auchenopterus, ii, 508
atule, ii, 275
auditory ossicles, ii, 160
Aulichthys, ii, 233
Aulolepis, ii, 48
Aulopidæ, ii, 130, 132
Aulopus, i, 259; ii, 190
Page 653
Aulorhamphus, ii, 406
Aulorhynchidæ,
family of, ii, 232
Aulorhynchus, ii, 233
Aulostomidæ,
family of, ii, 233
Aulostomus, ii, 233
figure of, ii, 234
Australia, ii, 363
Australian flying-fish,
figure of, i, 341
Australian lung-fish, i, 100
autochthonous, i, 245
autostylic skull, i, 561; ii, 8
Auxis, ii, 262
awa, ii, 45, 221
awaawa, ii, 43
awaous, i, 254; ii, 465
aweoweo, ii, 333
Axinurus, ii, 409
axonasts, i, 604, 605; ii, 17
Ayres, i, 419, 428
ayu, i, 256; ii, 115, 117, 118
figure of, i, 321; ii, 116
fishing for figured, i, 333, 335
Azevia, i, 271; ii, 489
d'Azyr, i, 390
Azygostei, i, 581
Aulorhynchidæ,
family of, ii, 232
Aulorhynchus, ii, 233
Aulostomidæ,
family of, ii, 233
Aulostomus, ii, 233
figure of, ii, 234
Australia, ii, 363
Australian flying-fish,
figure of, i, 341
Australian lung-fish, i, 100
autochthonous, i, 245
autostylic skull, i, 561; ii, 8
Auxis, ii, 262
awa, ii, 45, 221
awaawa, ii, 43
awaous, i, 254; ii, 465
aweoweo, ii, 333
Axinurus, ii, 409
axonasts, i, 604, 605; ii, 17
Ayres, i, 419, 428
ayu, i, 256; ii, 115, 117, 118
figure of, i, 321; ii, 116
fishing for figured, i, 333, 335
Azevia, i, 271; ii, 489
d'Azyr, i, 390
Azygostei, i, 581
Page 654
azygous, i, 88
Baer, i, 428
Bagarius, ii, 186
bagonado, ii, 344
bagre, ii, 182
bagre de Rio, ii, 182
Bagrus, ii, 183
Baikal cods, ii, 455
Baird, i, 419; ii, 142
on bluefish, ii, 279-282
on eel migrations, ii, 142
portrait of, i, 407
Bairdiella, ii, 355
figure of, ii, 355
Bakker, i, 428
Balanoglossidæ, i, 465
Balanglossus, i, 461
Balanus, ii, 544
balaos, ii, 212
Balfour, i, 428, 511, 513; ii, 8
finfold theory, i, 69, 514
lateral-fold theory, i, 71-73
on paired fins, ii, 8
on sharks, i, 511
Balfour and Parker,
on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
Balistapus, i, 181; ii, 413
Balistes, i, 206, 391, 611; ii, 22
Baer, i, 428
Bagarius, ii, 186
bagonado, ii, 344
bagre, ii, 182
bagre de Rio, ii, 182
Bagrus, ii, 183
Baikal cods, ii, 455
Baird, i, 419; ii, 142
on bluefish, ii, 279-282
on eel migrations, ii, 142
portrait of, i, 407
Bairdiella, ii, 355
figure of, ii, 355
Bakker, i, 428
Balanoglossidæ, i, 465
Balanglossus, i, 461
Balanus, ii, 544
balaos, ii, 212
Balfour, i, 428, 511, 513; ii, 8
finfold theory, i, 69, 514
lateral-fold theory, i, 71-73
on paired fins, ii, 8
on sharks, i, 511
Balfour and Parker,
on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
Balistapus, i, 181; ii, 413
Balistes, i, 206, 391, 611; ii, 22
Page 655
figure of, i, 184; ii, 412
Balistidæ, ii, 413, 418
family of, ii, 412
Ballou,
on eels, ii, 417
banded rockfish,
figure of, ii, 432
banded sunfish,
figure of, ii, 299
bandfishes, ii, 363
bandfishes,
the crested, ii, 291
Banks, i, 395
barbels, i, 115; ii, 170
organs of touch, i, 122
barber-fish, ii, 328
barbero, ii, 408
barbudos, ii, 256
Barbulifer, ii, 462
Barbus, ii, 170, 175
Barkas, i, 426
Barneville, i, 412
Barracuda, ii, 34, 39, 215, 266, 317, 469
Barracuda,
family of, ii, 222
figure of, ii, 223
Barramunda, i, 116, 614, 615
Günther on, i, 615
barreto, ii, 467
Balistidæ, ii, 413, 418
family of, ii, 412
Ballou,
on eels, ii, 417
banded rockfish,
figure of, ii, 432
banded sunfish,
figure of, ii, 299
bandfishes, ii, 363
bandfishes,
the crested, ii, 291
Banks, i, 395
barbels, i, 115; ii, 170
organs of touch, i, 122
barber-fish, ii, 328
barbero, ii, 408
barbudos, ii, 256
Barbulifer, ii, 462
Barbus, ii, 170, 175
Barkas, i, 426
Barneville, i, 412
Barracuda, ii, 34, 39, 215, 266, 317, 469
Barracuda,
family of, ii, 222
figure of, ii, 223
Barramunda, i, 116, 614, 615
Günther on, i, 615
barreto, ii, 467
Page 656
barriers,
Alleghanies, i, 311
artificial dams, i, 300
Cape of Good Hope, i, 268
checks to movement, i, 240
crossing by fishes, i, 302
to dispersion, i, 297
Isthmus of Panama, i, 269
local, i, 298
mountain chains, i, 310
Rocky Mountains, i, 305
the Sierras, i, 310
silt-bearing streams, i, 301
species absent from, i, 239
temperature, i, 298
waterfalls, i, 300
watersheds, i, 205
basal bone,
of dorsal fin, i, 49
figure of, i, 49, 56
of pectoral fin, i, 59
baseosts, ii, 17
basilar, i, 88
Basilevsky, i, 411
basking shark, i, 539
figure of, i, 540
largest of fishes, i, 539
bass, i, 4, 21, 47, 290, 323, 440; ii, 316-350
black, i, 303, 304
white, i, 321
yellow, i, 321
bassalian fishes, i, 245, 246; ii, 128
Bassani, i, 427
Alleghanies, i, 311
artificial dams, i, 300
Cape of Good Hope, i, 268
checks to movement, i, 240
crossing by fishes, i, 302
to dispersion, i, 297
Isthmus of Panama, i, 269
local, i, 298
mountain chains, i, 310
Rocky Mountains, i, 305
the Sierras, i, 310
silt-bearing streams, i, 301
species absent from, i, 239
temperature, i, 298
waterfalls, i, 300
watersheds, i, 205
basal bone,
of dorsal fin, i, 49
figure of, i, 49, 56
of pectoral fin, i, 59
baseosts, ii, 17
basilar, i, 88
Basilevsky, i, 411
basking shark, i, 539
figure of, i, 540
largest of fishes, i, 539
bass, i, 4, 21, 47, 290, 323, 440; ii, 316-350
black, i, 303, 304
white, i, 321
yellow, i, 321
bassalian fishes, i, 245, 246; ii, 128
Bassani, i, 427
Page 657
Bassozetus,
figure of, i, 456
bastard halibut, ii, 489
Bateson, i, 463
batfish, ii, 402, 458
figure of, ii, 553
shoulder-girdle of, i, 88; ii, 551
Bathyclupeidæ, ii, 290
Bathygadus, ii, 541
Bathylagus, ii, 127
Bathymaster, ii, 502
figure of, ii, 503
Bathymasteridæ, ii, 502
Bathyonidæ, ii, 540
Bathyonus, ii, 540
Bathypteroidæ, ii, 130
Bathypterois, ii, 131
Batoidei, i, 519
suborder of, i, 549
Batrachians, i, 85, 87, 88
Batrachoides, i, 394; ii, 526
Batrachoides,
shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
Batrachoididæ, i, 182, 192; ii, 525, 529, 542
Batrachoids, ii, 529
Batrictius, i, 394
Bdellostoma, i, 490
Beagle, the, i, 408
figure of, i, 456
bastard halibut, ii, 489
Bateson, i, 463
batfish, ii, 402, 458
figure of, ii, 553
shoulder-girdle of, i, 88; ii, 551
Bathyclupeidæ, ii, 290
Bathygadus, ii, 541
Bathylagus, ii, 127
Bathymaster, ii, 502
figure of, ii, 503
Bathymasteridæ, ii, 502
Bathyonidæ, ii, 540
Bathyonus, ii, 540
Bathypteroidæ, ii, 130
Bathypterois, ii, 131
Batoidei, i, 519
suborder of, i, 549
Batrachians, i, 85, 87, 88
Batrachoides, i, 394; ii, 526
Batrachoides,
shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
Batrachoididæ, i, 182, 192; ii, 525, 529, 542
Batrachoids, ii, 529
Batrictius, i, 394
Bdellostoma, i, 490
Beagle, the, i, 408
Page 658
Bean, i, 408, 419
Beardslee, ii, 101
Beardslee trout, ii, 101
Belemnobatis, i, 551
Bellotti, i, 412
bellows fish, ii, 545
Belon,
on fishes of Mediterranean, i, 388
Belone, ii, 210, 211
Belonidæ,
family of, ii, 210
Belonorhynchidæ, ii, 514
Belonorhynchus, ii, 17
Belostomus, ii, 29
Bembradidæ, ii, 441, 499
Bembras, ii, 441
Benecke,
on spawning of eels, ii, 146
Beneden, i, 427
benimasu, ii, 72
Bennett, i, 408, 416
Bentenia, ii, 286
Benthosauridæ, ii, 130
Benthosaurus, ii, 131
Berg, i, 415
portrait of, i, 409
Berndt,
opah taken by, ii, 244
Beardslee, ii, 101
Beardslee trout, ii, 101
Belemnobatis, i, 551
Bellotti, i, 412
bellows fish, ii, 545
Belon,
on fishes of Mediterranean, i, 388
Belone, ii, 210, 211
Belonidæ,
family of, ii, 210
Belonorhynchidæ, ii, 514
Belonorhynchus, ii, 17
Belostomus, ii, 29
Bembradidæ, ii, 441, 499
Bembras, ii, 441
Benecke,
on spawning of eels, ii, 146
Beneden, i, 427
benimasu, ii, 72
Bennett, i, 408, 416
Bentenia, ii, 286
Benthosauridæ, ii, 130
Benthosaurus, ii, 131
Berg, i, 415
portrait of, i, 409
Berndt,
opah taken by, ii, 244
Page 659
photograph by, i, 323
Berycidæ, i, 206; ii, 294, 499
family of, ii, 251
Berycoidei, ii, 40, 245, 290, 484, 485
suborder of, ii, 250-257
Berycoid fishes, ii, 250
figure of, i, 439; ii, 253
Starks on, ii, 250
Berycoids, ii, 247
Berycopsis, ii, 285
Beryx, i, 259, 263, 438; ii, 249, 289
figure of, ii, 251
beshow, ii, 438
Betta, i, 163; ii, 370
biajaiba, ii, 336
Bianconi, i, 412
Bibron, i, 412
big-eye, ii, 333
figure of, ii, 332
big-eyed scad, ii, 275
Birkenia, i, 580
figure of, i, 579
Birkeniidæ, i, 579
bishop-fish, i, 361
bishop-fish,
figure of, i, 361
Björnson,
on fishing villages of Norway, i, 329
black angel, ii, 405
Berycidæ, i, 206; ii, 294, 499
family of, ii, 251
Berycoidei, ii, 40, 245, 290, 484, 485
suborder of, ii, 250-257
Berycoid fishes, ii, 250
figure of, i, 439; ii, 253
Starks on, ii, 250
Berycoids, ii, 247
Berycopsis, ii, 285
Beryx, i, 259, 263, 438; ii, 249, 289
figure of, ii, 251
beshow, ii, 438
Betta, i, 163; ii, 370
biajaiba, ii, 336
Bianconi, i, 412
Bibron, i, 412
big-eye, ii, 333
figure of, ii, 332
big-eyed scad, ii, 275
Birkenia, i, 580
figure of, i, 579
Birkeniidæ, i, 579
bishop-fish, i, 361
bishop-fish,
figure of, i, 361
Björnson,
on fishing villages of Norway, i, 329
black angel, ii, 405
Page 660
black angel-fish,
figure of, ii, 403
black bass, i, 209; ii, 168, 301, 328
Hallock on, ii, 302
Henshall on, ii, 302
large-mouthed, ii, 304
small-mouthed, ii, 303
black bream, ii, 206
Black Current of Japan, sharks in, i, 536
black escolar, 338
black-fin snapper, ii, 336
blackfish, ii, 387
black grouper, ii, 323, 325
black-horse, ii, 173
Blackiston's line,
relation to fishes, i, 257
black-jack, ii, 276
black nohu,
figure of, i, 180; ii, 436
stinging spines of, i, 180
black-nosed dace,
figure of, i, 342; ii, 164
parasites on, i, 342
black rockfish, ii, 429
black ruff, ii, 284
black sea-bass, ii, 329
black-sided darter,
figure of, ii, 311
blacksmith, ii, 381
figure of, ii, 403
black bass, i, 209; ii, 168, 301, 328
Hallock on, ii, 302
Henshall on, ii, 302
large-mouthed, ii, 304
small-mouthed, ii, 303
black bream, ii, 206
Black Current of Japan, sharks in, i, 536
black escolar, 338
black-fin snapper, ii, 336
blackfish, ii, 387
black grouper, ii, 323, 325
black-horse, ii, 173
Blackiston's line,
relation to fishes, i, 257
black-jack, ii, 276
black nohu,
figure of, i, 180; ii, 436
stinging spines of, i, 180
black-nosed dace,
figure of, i, 342; ii, 164
parasites on, i, 342
black rockfish, ii, 429
black ruff, ii, 284
black sea-bass, ii, 329
black-sided darter,
figure of, ii, 311
blacksmith, ii, 381
Page 661
black-spotted sailor's choice, ii, 341
black-spotted trout, ii, 95
black swallower,
figure of, i, 29; ii, 360
black tai, ii, 344
black will, ii, 328
black wrasse, ii, 387
Blainville, i, 400
on Palæoniscum, ii, 14
Blake, i, 60, 408
Blanchard, i, 412
blanquillos, ii, 361, 362
blastoderm, i, 135
blastomeres, i, 135
blastopore, i, 138
blastula, i, 131, 132
bleak, ii, 163, 167
Bleeker, i, 376, 412, 414
Bleekeria, ii, 521
Bleekeriidæ, ii, 522
Blenniidæ, i, 208, 276, 290; ii, 506-531
Blennioidea, ii, 470
Blennius, i, 208, 391; ii, 511, 513
Blennius,
figure of, i, 508
blenny, i, 209, 230, 290, 429; ii, 507-531
figure of, ii, 509, 511
Japanese, i, 9; ii, 513
black-spotted trout, ii, 95
black swallower,
figure of, i, 29; ii, 360
black tai, ii, 344
black will, ii, 328
black wrasse, ii, 387
Blainville, i, 400
on Palæoniscum, ii, 14
Blake, i, 60, 408
Blanchard, i, 412
blanquillos, ii, 361, 362
blastoderm, i, 135
blastomeres, i, 135
blastopore, i, 138
blastula, i, 131, 132
bleak, ii, 163, 167
Bleeker, i, 376, 412, 414
Bleekeria, ii, 521
Bleekeriidæ, ii, 522
Blenniidæ, i, 208, 276, 290; ii, 506-531
Blennioidea, ii, 470
Blennius, i, 208, 391; ii, 511, 513
Blennius,
figure of, i, 508
blenny, i, 209, 230, 290, 429; ii, 507-531
figure of, ii, 509, 511
Japanese, i, 9; ii, 513
Page 662
kelp, ii, 507
northern, ii, 511
sarcastic, ii, 507
snake, ii, 512
Blepsias,
figure of, ii, 448
blind Brotula,
figure of, i, 222
blind catfish, ii, 181
blind cavefish,
figure of, i, 116; ii, 202
blindfish, i, 290; ii, 202, 524
descent of, ii, 202
Eigenmann on, i, 117; ii, 202
habits of, ii, 202
theories regarding origin, ii, 202
blindfish of Mammoth Cave, ii, 202, 203
Eigenmann on, i, 221, 222
figure of, i, 221
blind goby, ii, 467
blob, ii, 444
Bloch, i, 389, 397
Blochiidæ, ii, 514
Blochius,
figure of, ii, 514
Blossom, the, i, 408
blue-back, ii, 71, 73-76
blue-back salmon, ii, 68, 69
blue-breasted darter, i, 231; ii, 314
figure of, i, 231
northern, ii, 511
sarcastic, ii, 507
snake, ii, 512
Blepsias,
figure of, ii, 448
blind Brotula,
figure of, i, 222
blind catfish, ii, 181
blind cavefish,
figure of, i, 116; ii, 202
blindfish, i, 290; ii, 202, 524
descent of, ii, 202
Eigenmann on, i, 117; ii, 202
habits of, ii, 202
theories regarding origin, ii, 202
blindfish of Mammoth Cave, ii, 202, 203
Eigenmann on, i, 221, 222
figure of, i, 221
blind goby, ii, 467
blob, ii, 444
Bloch, i, 389, 397
Blochiidæ, ii, 514
Blochius,
figure of, ii, 514
Blossom, the, i, 408
blue-back, ii, 71, 73-76
blue-back salmon, ii, 68, 69
blue-breasted darter, i, 231; ii, 314
figure of, i, 231
Page 663
blue cod, ii, 440
bluefin, ii, 66
bluefin cisco,
figure of, ii, 66
bluefish, ii, 278, 354
Baird on, i, 279-282
destructiveness of, ii, 281
figure of, i, 324; ii, 279
food of, ii, 280
bluegill,
figure of, ii, 300
blue-green sunfish, i, 26
figure of, i, 27; ii, 350
blue parrot-fish, ii, 396
figure of, ii, 394
figure of jaws, ii, 393
blue sharks, i, 534, 542
blue smelt,
figure of, ii, 218
blue-spotted guativere, ii, 324
blue surf-fish, ii, 375
blue tang, ii, 408
figure of, ii, 407
Blyth, i, 396
boarfishes, ii, 135, 398
bobo,
figure of, ii, 222
boccaccio, ii, 429
Bocage, i, 414
Bocourt, i, 412
bluefin, ii, 66
bluefin cisco,
figure of, ii, 66
bluefish, ii, 278, 354
Baird on, i, 279-282
destructiveness of, ii, 281
figure of, i, 324; ii, 279
food of, ii, 280
bluegill,
figure of, ii, 300
blue-green sunfish, i, 26
figure of, i, 27; ii, 350
blue parrot-fish, ii, 396
figure of, ii, 394
figure of jaws, ii, 393
blue sharks, i, 534, 542
blue smelt,
figure of, ii, 218
blue-spotted guativere, ii, 324
blue surf-fish, ii, 375
blue tang, ii, 408
figure of, ii, 407
Blyth, i, 396
boarfishes, ii, 135, 398
bobo,
figure of, ii, 222
boccaccio, ii, 429
Bocage, i, 414
Bocourt, i, 412
Page 664
Bodianus, i, 207, 271; ii, 388
boga, ii, 347, 348
Bogoslovius, ii, 541
Bohr, i, 97
Boleophthalmus, ii, 465
figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
Boleosoma, i, 302; ii, 313
Bollman, i, 420
Boltenia, i, 475
Bombay-duck, ii, 131
bonaci-arará, ii, 325
bonaci-cardenal, ii, 325
Bonaparte, i, 412
bones of the fish,
actinosts, i, 42
alisphenoid, i, 38, 39, 40, 53
anal fin, i, 48
angular, i, 42, 43, 54
articular, i, 42, 43, 54
basibranchial, i, 46
basihyal, i, 42, 45
basioccipital, i, 36, 38, 39, 40, 53
basisphenoid, i, 36, 38, 39, 53
branchiostegals, i, 42, 45
carpals, i, 51
of anglers, i, 51
caudal fin, i, 48
caudal vertebræ, i, 48
ceratobranchial, i, 46
ceratohyal, i, 42, 45
clavicle, i, 42, 50, 52
figured, i, 52
boga, ii, 347, 348
Bogoslovius, ii, 541
Bohr, i, 97
Boleophthalmus, ii, 465
figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
Boleosoma, i, 302; ii, 313
Bollman, i, 420
Boltenia, i, 475
Bombay-duck, ii, 131
bonaci-arará, ii, 325
bonaci-cardenal, ii, 325
Bonaparte, i, 412
bones of the fish,
actinosts, i, 42
alisphenoid, i, 38, 39, 40, 53
anal fin, i, 48
angular, i, 42, 43, 54
articular, i, 42, 43, 54
basibranchial, i, 46
basihyal, i, 42, 45
basioccipital, i, 36, 38, 39, 40, 53
basisphenoid, i, 36, 38, 39, 53
branchiostegals, i, 42, 45
carpals, i, 51
of anglers, i, 51
caudal fin, i, 48
caudal vertebræ, i, 48
ceratobranchial, i, 46
ceratohyal, i, 42, 45
clavicle, i, 42, 50, 52
figured, i, 52
Page 665
coracoid, i, 50, 51
of cranium, i, 39
dentary, i, 42, 43, 54
dorsal fin, i, 48
epihyal, i, 42, 45
epibranchial, i, 46
epioccipital, i, 36
epiotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
epipleurals, i, 48
ethmoid, i, 36, 37, 53
exoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
frontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
glossihyal, i, 42
hæmal spine, i, 48
hæmaphysis, i, 48
hyoid arch, i, 42
hyomandibular, i, 42, 44, 54
hypercoracoid, i, 42, 52
hypobranchial, i, 46
hypocoracoid, i, 42, 43, 52
hypural, i, 48, 49
infraclavicle, i, 51
interclavicle, i, 51
interhæmals, i, 49
interhyal, i, 42, 45
interneural, i, 48
interopercle, i, 42, 45, 54
interspinals, i, 49
isthmus, i, 45
maxillary, i, 41, 42
mesopterygoid, i, 41, 42
metapterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54
nasal, i, 42, 53
neural spine, i, 48
neuropophysis, i, 48
opercle, i, 42, 54
opisthotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40
of cranium, i, 39
dentary, i, 42, 43, 54
dorsal fin, i, 48
epihyal, i, 42, 45
epibranchial, i, 46
epioccipital, i, 36
epiotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
epipleurals, i, 48
ethmoid, i, 36, 37, 53
exoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
frontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
glossihyal, i, 42
hæmal spine, i, 48
hæmaphysis, i, 48
hyoid arch, i, 42
hyomandibular, i, 42, 44, 54
hypercoracoid, i, 42, 52
hypobranchial, i, 46
hypocoracoid, i, 42, 43, 52
hypural, i, 48, 49
infraclavicle, i, 51
interclavicle, i, 51
interhæmals, i, 49
interhyal, i, 42, 45
interneural, i, 48
interopercle, i, 42, 45, 54
interspinals, i, 49
isthmus, i, 45
maxillary, i, 41, 42
mesopterygoid, i, 41, 42
metapterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54
nasal, i, 42, 53
neural spine, i, 48
neuropophysis, i, 48
opercle, i, 42, 54
opisthotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40
Page 666
palatine, i, 41, 42, 54
parapophysis, i, 48
parietal, i, 36, 37, 39, 40, 53
parsasphenoid, i, 36, 38, 53
pectoral fin, i, 42
pelvic girdle, i, 42
pharyngeals, i, 46, 47
figure of, i, 47
lower, i, 46
suspensory, i, 46
upper, i, 46
postclavicle, i, 42, 51
figured, i, 52
postero-temporal, i, 50
post-temporal, i, 42, 52
prefrontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
premaxillary, i, 42
preopercle, i, 42, 54
preorbital, i, 41, 42
prootic, i, 36, 38, 53
proscapula, i, 50
pterotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
pterygials, i, 51
pterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54
quadrate, i, 42, 43, 54
ribs, i, 48
scapula, i, 50
shoulder-girdle, i, 42, 50, 51, 52
sphenotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
subopercle, i, 42, 54
suborbital, i, 42
supraclavicle, i, 42, 50
supraoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
suprascapula, i, 50
supratemporal, i, 42, 50
figured, i, 51
symplectic, i, 42, 54
parapophysis, i, 48
parietal, i, 36, 37, 39, 40, 53
parsasphenoid, i, 36, 38, 53
pectoral fin, i, 42
pelvic girdle, i, 42
pharyngeals, i, 46, 47
figure of, i, 47
lower, i, 46
suspensory, i, 46
upper, i, 46
postclavicle, i, 42, 51
figured, i, 52
postero-temporal, i, 50
post-temporal, i, 42, 52
prefrontal, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
premaxillary, i, 42
preopercle, i, 42, 54
preorbital, i, 41, 42
prootic, i, 36, 38, 53
proscapula, i, 50
pterotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53
pterygials, i, 51
pterygoid, i, 41, 42, 54
quadrate, i, 42, 43, 54
ribs, i, 48
scapula, i, 50
shoulder-girdle, i, 42, 50, 51, 52
sphenotic, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
subopercle, i, 42, 54
suborbital, i, 42
supraclavicle, i, 42, 50
supraoccipital, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
suprascapula, i, 50
supratemporal, i, 42, 50
figured, i, 51
symplectic, i, 42, 54
Page 667
urohyal, i, 42, 54
ventral fin, i, 42
vomer, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
zygapophysis, i, 48
bonito, ii, 264
bonnaterre, i, 397
bony fish, i, 204, 454, 506; ii, 37
classification of, ii, 38
development of, i, 135
figure of, ii, 438
specialized, figured, i, 456
bony scales, i, 21
Boops, i, 260, 267; ii, 348, 350
Borassus, ii, 367
Borelli, i, 390
on air-bladder, i, 95
Boreogadus, ii, 537
botolism, i, 183
Bothinæ, ii, 487
Bothriocephalus, i, 345
Bothriolepis, i, 577
Bothus, ii, 486
Botryllidæ, i, 476
Botryllus, i, 476; ii, 545
figure of, i, 477, 478, 479
bottle-nosed chimæra,
eggs of, figured, i, 127
Bougainville, i, 395
ventral fin, i, 42
vomer, i, 36, 37, 38, 53
zygapophysis, i, 48
bonito, ii, 264
bonnaterre, i, 397
bony fish, i, 204, 454, 506; ii, 37
classification of, ii, 38
development of, i, 135
figure of, ii, 438
specialized, figured, i, 456
bony scales, i, 21
Boops, i, 260, 267; ii, 348, 350
Borassus, ii, 367
Borelli, i, 390
on air-bladder, i, 95
Boreogadus, ii, 537
botolism, i, 183
Bothinæ, ii, 487
Bothriocephalus, i, 345
Bothriolepis, i, 577
Bothus, ii, 486
Botryllidæ, i, 476
Botryllus, i, 476; ii, 545
figure of, i, 477, 478, 479
bottle-nosed chimæra,
eggs of, figured, i, 127
Bougainville, i, 395
Page 668
Boulenger, i, 360, 364, 370, 414, 428, 513, 600, 601, 606, 608, 609; ii, 41,
48, 128, 129, 136, 138, 158, 190, 485, 502, 522, 551
on Archipterygium, i, 79
on Galaxias, ii, 205
catalogue of fishes, i, 402
on opahs, ii, 243
portrait of, i, 403
on vertebræ, i, 213
on zooid fishes, ii, 245
Bovichthyidæ, ii, 502
bowfin, i, 290, 440; ii, 33, 34
figure of, ii, 35
tail of, figured, i, 82
Bowring,
on noises by fishes, i, 168
Brachydirus, i, 590
Brachyistius, ii, 375
Brachymystax, ii, 62, 67
brain,
of chimæra, i, 410, 411
figures of, i, 110, 111
Günther on, i, 109
in hagfish, i, 112
of lamprey, i, 112
of perch, i, 111
of pike, i, 109
of primitive fishes, i, 112
reflex action of, i, 153
of shark, i, 110, 111
Brama, ii, 135, 286
Bramidæ, ii, 291
family of, ii, 286
branch herring, ii, 49
48, 128, 129, 136, 138, 158, 190, 485, 502, 522, 551
on Archipterygium, i, 79
on Galaxias, ii, 205
catalogue of fishes, i, 402
on opahs, ii, 243
portrait of, i, 403
on vertebræ, i, 213
on zooid fishes, ii, 245
Bovichthyidæ, ii, 502
bowfin, i, 290, 440; ii, 33, 34
figure of, ii, 35
tail of, figured, i, 82
Bowring,
on noises by fishes, i, 168
Brachydirus, i, 590
Brachyistius, ii, 375
Brachymystax, ii, 62, 67
brain,
of chimæra, i, 410, 411
figures of, i, 110, 111
Günther on, i, 109
in hagfish, i, 112
of lamprey, i, 112
of perch, i, 111
of pike, i, 109
of primitive fishes, i, 112
reflex action of, i, 153
of shark, i, 110, 111
Brama, ii, 135, 286
Bramidæ, ii, 291
family of, ii, 286
branch herring, ii, 49
Page 669
branchial bones, i, 46
Branchiostegi, i, 391
Branchiostoma, i, 34, 35, 120, 383, 483
eggs of, i, 131
figure of, i, 484
Branchiostomidæ, i, 484
Brandt, i, 412
Branner, i, 415
Brayton, i, 420
bream, ii, 163, 167
Bregmaceros, ii, 524
Bregmacerotidæ, ii, 524
Brevoort, i, 416
Brevoortia, ii, 51
figure of, i, 340; ii, 51
brit, ii, 216, 217
broad-shad, ii, 347
broad-soles, ii, 495
Brongniart, i, 427, 428
brook lamprey,
figure of, i, 120, 505
larva of, figured, i, 492
mouth of, figured, i, 492
Brooks,
on Appendicularia, i, 480
brook trout, ii, 99, 107, 108, 110, 113, 115
figure of, ii, 111
Brosme, ii, 539
Branchiostegi, i, 391
Branchiostoma, i, 34, 35, 120, 383, 483
eggs of, i, 131
figure of, i, 484
Branchiostomidæ, i, 484
Brandt, i, 412
Branner, i, 415
Brayton, i, 420
bream, ii, 163, 167
Bregmaceros, ii, 524
Bregmacerotidæ, ii, 524
Brevoort, i, 416
Brevoortia, ii, 51
figure of, i, 340; ii, 51
brit, ii, 216, 217
broad-shad, ii, 347
broad-soles, ii, 495
Brongniart, i, 427, 428
brook lamprey,
figure of, i, 120, 505
larva of, figured, i, 492
mouth of, figured, i, 492
Brooks,
on Appendicularia, i, 480
brook trout, ii, 99, 107, 108, 110, 113, 115
figure of, ii, 111
Brosme, ii, 539
Page 670
Brosmius, ii, 539
Brosmophycis, ii, 524
Brotula,
figure of, ii, 524
blind, figured, ii, 524
Brotulidæ, i, 314; ii, 523, 533
Brotulids, ii, 39, 524
Broussonet, i, 396
Brown, i, 426
Browne, i, 389
brown tang,
figure of, i, 181; ii, 408
Brünnich, i, 394
Bryactinus, i, 565
Brycon,
figure of, ii, 162
Bryostemma,
figure of, ii, 511, 514
Bryttosus, i, 256; ii, 297, 320
buccal cirri, i, 595
Buchanan,
on hunting of Chaca, i, 170
Buckland, i, 423
on soles, ii, 497
on turbot roe, ii, 488
Bucklandium, ii, 186
budai, ii, 390
buffalo-cod, ii, 440
Brosmophycis, ii, 524
Brotula,
figure of, ii, 524
blind, figured, ii, 524
Brotulidæ, i, 314; ii, 523, 533
Brotulids, ii, 39, 524
Broussonet, i, 396
Brown, i, 426
Browne, i, 389
brown tang,
figure of, i, 181; ii, 408
Brünnich, i, 394
Bryactinus, i, 565
Brycon,
figure of, ii, 162
Bryostemma,
figure of, ii, 511, 514
Bryttosus, i, 256; ii, 297, 320
buccal cirri, i, 595
Buchanan,
on hunting of Chaca, i, 170
Buckland, i, 423
on soles, ii, 497
on turbot roe, ii, 488
Bucklandium, ii, 186
budai, ii, 390
buffalo-cod, ii, 440
Page 671
Buffalo Creek, i, 309
buffalo-fish, ii, 160, 172
figure of, ii, 173
shoulder-girdle of, i, 51
buffalo sculpin,
figure of, ii, 443
bulbus arteriosus, ii, 10, 11
bullhead, i, 356
bullhead shark,
figure of, i, 526
bumpers, ii, 276
Bunocephalidæ, ii, 184
burbot, i, 209; ii, 538
figure of, ii, 539
Bürger, i, 414
butter-fish, ii, 283, 284, 324, 512
butterfly fish, i, 440; ii, 381
figure of, i, 143; ii, 402
butterfly ray, i, 556
butterfly sculpin,
figure of, i, 288
caballerote, ii, 335
cabezon, ii, 442
cabra mora,
figure of, i, 20
cabrilla, ii, 324, 328, 329
cachucho,
figure of, ii, 337
buffalo-fish, ii, 160, 172
figure of, ii, 173
shoulder-girdle of, i, 51
buffalo sculpin,
figure of, ii, 443
bulbus arteriosus, ii, 10, 11
bullhead, i, 356
bullhead shark,
figure of, i, 526
bumpers, ii, 276
Bunocephalidæ, ii, 184
burbot, i, 209; ii, 538
figure of, ii, 539
Bürger, i, 414
butter-fish, ii, 283, 284, 324, 512
butterfly fish, i, 440; ii, 381
figure of, i, 143; ii, 402
butterfly ray, i, 556
butterfly sculpin,
figure of, i, 288
caballerote, ii, 335
cabezon, ii, 442
cabra mora,
figure of, i, 20
cabrilla, ii, 324, 328, 329
cachucho,
figure of, ii, 337
Page 672
Cælorhynchus,
figure of, ii, 541
Cæsio, ii, 342
cagon de le alto, ii, 337
cají, ii, 336
Calamoichthys, i, 76, 89, 608
Calamostoma, ii, 236
Calamus, i, 49, 238; ii, 344
figure of, ii, 345, 347
calico-bass, ii, 297
calico-salmon, ii, 72
California lancelet,
figure of, i, 484
California miller's thumb,
figure of, ii, 446
California hake,
figure of, ii, 540
California pampano, ii, 283
California sucker,
figure of, ii, 174
Callbreath,
on running of salmon, ii, 86
Callechelys, ii, 150
Callichthyidæ, ii, 185
Callichthys, i, 290
calling the fishes, i, 167, 168
in Indian temples, i, 167
in basins of Tuileries, i, 167
Callionymidæ, ii, 506
figure of, ii, 541
Cæsio, ii, 342
cagon de le alto, ii, 337
cají, ii, 336
Calamoichthys, i, 76, 89, 608
Calamostoma, ii, 236
Calamus, i, 49, 238; ii, 344
figure of, ii, 345, 347
calico-bass, ii, 297
calico-salmon, ii, 72
California lancelet,
figure of, i, 484
California miller's thumb,
figure of, ii, 446
California hake,
figure of, ii, 540
California pampano, ii, 283
California sucker,
figure of, ii, 174
Callbreath,
on running of salmon, ii, 86
Callechelys, ii, 150
Callichthyidæ, ii, 185
Callichthys, i, 290
calling the fishes, i, 167, 168
in Indian temples, i, 167
in basins of Tuileries, i, 167
Callionymidæ, ii, 506
Page 673
Callionymus, i, 246, 257, 259, 263, 393, 500, 504
Callipterygidæ, ii, 501
Callipteryx, ii, 501
Calliurus, i, 302
Callorhynchus, i, 565, 566
egg of figured, i, 127
Callorhinus, ii, 537
Calotomus, ii, 390, 391
Camper, i, 389
Campostoma, ii, 164
figure of, i, 33; ii, 167
Campyloprion, i, 529
candil, ii, 255
candle-fish, ii, 124
Canestrini, i, 412
Canobius, ii, 14
Canthidermis, ii, 413
Canthigaster, i, 206
Cantor, i, 416
on fighting-fish, i, 163
Cape of Good Hope,
as barrier, i, 269
capelin,
figure of, ii, 126
capello, i, 414
capitaine,
figure of, ii, 387
Capros, ii, 135, 398, 400
Callipterygidæ, ii, 501
Callipteryx, ii, 501
Calliurus, i, 302
Callorhynchus, i, 565, 566
egg of figured, i, 127
Callorhinus, ii, 537
Calotomus, ii, 390, 391
Camper, i, 389
Campostoma, ii, 164
figure of, i, 33; ii, 167
Campyloprion, i, 529
candil, ii, 255
candle-fish, ii, 124
Canestrini, i, 412
Canobius, ii, 14
Canthidermis, ii, 413
Canthigaster, i, 206
Cantor, i, 416
on fighting-fish, i, 163
Cape of Good Hope,
as barrier, i, 269
capelin,
figure of, ii, 126
capello, i, 414
capitaine,
figure of, ii, 387
Capros, ii, 135, 398, 400
Page 674
Caracanthidæ, ii, 438
Carangidæ, i, 144, 149, 210; ii, 15, 278, 470
family of, ii, 272
Carangopsis, ii, 278
Carangus, i, 169, 324; ii, 275, 276, 285
Carapidæ, ii, 522
Caraproctus, ii, 455
Carapus, ii, 520, 522
Carassius, ii, 171
figure of, i, 151
Caranx, ii, 245, 275, 470, 542
Carboniferous,
fishes, i, 437
sharks, i, 224
Carcharias, i, 447, 534, 543; ii, 468
figure of, i, 542
Carchariidæ, i, 532, 534, 540, 542, 543
carcharioid sharks, i, 540
Carcharodon, i, 538
Carcharopsis, i, 522
cardenal, ii, 316
cardiform teeth, i, 29
cardinal fishes, the, ii, 316
figure of, i, 455; ii, 316, 319
cardinal vein, i, 108
Carencheli, ii, 140, 153, 155
caribe,
Günther on, ii, 161
Carangidæ, i, 144, 149, 210; ii, 15, 278, 470
family of, ii, 272
Carangopsis, ii, 278
Carangus, i, 169, 324; ii, 275, 276, 285
Carapidæ, ii, 522
Caraproctus, ii, 455
Carapus, ii, 520, 522
Carassius, ii, 171
figure of, i, 151
Caranx, ii, 245, 275, 470, 542
Carboniferous,
fishes, i, 437
sharks, i, 224
Carcharias, i, 447, 534, 543; ii, 468
figure of, i, 542
Carchariidæ, i, 532, 534, 540, 542, 543
carcharioid sharks, i, 540
Carcharodon, i, 538
Carcharopsis, i, 522
cardenal, ii, 316
cardiform teeth, i, 29
cardinal fishes, the, ii, 316
figure of, i, 455; ii, 316, 319
cardinal vein, i, 108
Carencheli, ii, 140, 153, 155
caribe,
Günther on, ii, 161
Page 675
carnivorous fishes, i, 29
carp, i, 21, 53, 93, 290; ii, 162, 164
air-bladder of, figured, ii, 160
native of China, ii, 170
domestication of, ii, 170
Carpiodes, i, 302
figure of, ii, 173
carp-sucker,
figure of, ii, 173
carrying eggs in mouth, i, 170-173
by catfish, i, 170
casabe, ii, 276
Cassiquiare,
Branner on, i, 307
crossing by fishes, i, 307
Castelnau, i, 415
Castour, i, 396
Castro,
photograph by, ii, 522
catadromous fishes, i, 162, 291; ii, 143
Catalina flying-fish,
figure of, ii, 214
catalineta, ii, 341
Catalogue,
of Panama fishes, i, 272
catalufa de lo alto,
figure of, ii, 289
catalufa, ii, 288, 333
figure of, ii, 331
Catesby, i, 389
carp, i, 21, 53, 93, 290; ii, 162, 164
air-bladder of, figured, ii, 160
native of China, ii, 170
domestication of, ii, 170
Carpiodes, i, 302
figure of, ii, 173
carp-sucker,
figure of, ii, 173
carrying eggs in mouth, i, 170-173
by catfish, i, 170
casabe, ii, 276
Cassiquiare,
Branner on, i, 307
crossing by fishes, i, 307
Castelnau, i, 415
Castour, i, 396
Castro,
photograph by, ii, 522
catadromous fishes, i, 162, 291; ii, 143
Catalina flying-fish,
figure of, ii, 214
catalineta, ii, 341
Catalogue,
of Panama fishes, i, 272
catalufa de lo alto,
figure of, ii, 289
catalufa, ii, 288, 333
figure of, ii, 331
Catesby, i, 389
Page 676
catfish, i, 4, 20, 53, 119, 122,128, 169, 290, 440; ii, 159, 160, 177-187
African, ii, 185
channel, ii, 179
clavicle in, i, 87
Cope on, i, 180
descent from, ii, 186
destroyed by lampreys, i, 357
electric, ii, 183
electric, figured, i, 186
fossil, ii, 186
of India, ii, 184
Japanese, ii, 183
Old World, ii, 182
poison glands of, i, 180
poison spine of, i, 179
shoulder-girdle in, i, 86
spines of, i, 179
transfer to Sacramento, i, 310
Catopteridæ, ii, 16
Catopterus, ii, 16
Catostomidæ, i, 46, 290; ii, 172, 175
family of, ii, 171
figure of, i, 315
Catostomus, i, 198, 283, 302, 304, 316, 346; ii, 56
figure of, i, 348; ii, 171
pharyngeal teeth of, ii, 175
cat shark, i, 533
Catulus, i, 533
caudal fin, i, 10
caudal lancet, ii, 409
Caularchus,
figure of, i, 198, 531
Caulolatilus, ii, 362
African, ii, 185
channel, ii, 179
clavicle in, i, 87
Cope on, i, 180
descent from, ii, 186
destroyed by lampreys, i, 357
electric, ii, 183
electric, figured, i, 186
fossil, ii, 186
of India, ii, 184
Japanese, ii, 183
Old World, ii, 182
poison glands of, i, 180
poison spine of, i, 179
shoulder-girdle in, i, 86
spines of, i, 179
transfer to Sacramento, i, 310
Catopteridæ, ii, 16
Catopterus, ii, 16
Catostomidæ, i, 46, 290; ii, 172, 175
family of, ii, 171
figure of, i, 315
Catostomus, i, 198, 283, 302, 304, 316, 346; ii, 56
figure of, i, 348; ii, 171
pharyngeal teeth of, ii, 175
cat shark, i, 533
Catulus, i, 533
caudal fin, i, 10
caudal lancet, ii, 409
Caularchus,
figure of, i, 198, 531
Caulolatilus, ii, 362
Page 677
Caulolepis, ii, 252, 253
Caulophryne,
figure of, i, 276, 548
causes of dispersion, i, 318
cavalla, ii, 266, 272-292
cavefish, ii, 201, 523, 524
Eigenmann on, ii, 524
figure of, i, 117
Cebedichthys, ii, 512
Centaurus,
larva of figured, i, 143
centers of distribution, i, 244
Centrarchidæ, i, 209, 232, 290; ii, 304, 320, 327, 380
family of, ii, 297
Centrarchus, i, 302; ii, 297
Centriscidæ, ii, 227, 235
family of, ii, 234
Centriscus, i, 393; ii, 235
Centrogenys, ii, 320
Centrolepis, ii, 14
Centrolophiidæ, ii, 283
Centrolophius, i, 260; ii, 286
Centrophoroides, i, 546
Centrophorus, i, 546
Centropomidæ, ii, 319
Centropomus, i, 271, 273; ii, 309
figure of, i, 324; ii, 319
Centropristes, i, 136; ii, 328, 329
Caulophryne,
figure of, i, 276, 548
causes of dispersion, i, 318
cavalla, ii, 266, 272-292
cavefish, ii, 201, 523, 524
Eigenmann on, ii, 524
figure of, i, 117
Cebedichthys, ii, 512
Centaurus,
larva of figured, i, 143
centers of distribution, i, 244
Centrarchidæ, i, 209, 232, 290; ii, 304, 320, 327, 380
family of, ii, 297
Centrarchus, i, 302; ii, 297
Centriscidæ, ii, 227, 235
family of, ii, 234
Centriscus, i, 393; ii, 235
Centrogenys, ii, 320
Centrolepis, ii, 14
Centrolophiidæ, ii, 283
Centrolophius, i, 260; ii, 286
Centrophoroides, i, 546
Centrophorus, i, 546
Centropomidæ, ii, 319
Centropomus, i, 271, 273; ii, 309
figure of, i, 324; ii, 319
Centropristes, i, 136; ii, 328, 329
Page 678
eggs of, figured, i, 135
Centroscymnus, i, 546
Centrolabrus, ii, 387
Cephalacanthidæ, i, 208
family of, ii, 458
Cephalacanthus, ii, 458
figure of, ii, 456
Cephalaspidæ, i, 576, 623
Cephalaspis, i, 444, 569, 571
figure of, i, 576, 577, 579
Cephalopholis, ii, 324, 325
Cephaloscyllium, i, 197
Cepola, i, 260, 264, 393; ii, 363
Cepolidæ, the, ii, 363
Ceratacanthus, ii, 414
Ceratias,
figure of, ii, 548
Ceratiidæ, i, 276
Ceratobatis, i, 560
Ceratocottus, ii, 443
Ceratodontidæ, i, 600, 612
family of, i, 613
Ceratodus, i, 77, 85, 613-616
Ceratoscopelus,
figure of, ii, 133
Ceratiidæ, ii, 547-549
Cerdale, i, 271
Cerdalidæ, ii, 516
Centroscymnus, i, 546
Centrolabrus, ii, 387
Cephalacanthidæ, i, 208
family of, ii, 458
Cephalacanthus, ii, 458
figure of, ii, 456
Cephalaspidæ, i, 576, 623
Cephalaspis, i, 444, 569, 571
figure of, i, 576, 577, 579
Cephalopholis, ii, 324, 325
Cephaloscyllium, i, 197
Cepola, i, 260, 264, 393; ii, 363
Cepolidæ, the, ii, 363
Ceratacanthus, ii, 414
Ceratias,
figure of, ii, 548
Ceratiidæ, i, 276
Ceratobatis, i, 560
Ceratocottus, ii, 443
Ceratodontidæ, i, 600, 612
family of, i, 613
Ceratodus, i, 77, 85, 613-616
Ceratoscopelus,
figure of, ii, 133
Ceratiidæ, ii, 547-549
Cerdale, i, 271
Cerdalidæ, ii, 516
Page 679
cestodes, i, 344
Cestraciont shark, i, 526, 527, 530
Eastman on, i, 529
teeth, figured, i, 527
Cestraciontes, i, 438, 519, 566
Eastman on, i, 529
families of, i, 528
suborder of, i, 526
teeth of figured, i, 527, 529
Cetomimidæ, ii, 132
Cetomimus,
figure of, ii, 132
Cetorhinus,
figure of, i, 540
Cetorhinidæ,
family of, i, 539
Cette, i, 396
Chaca, i, 170
Chacidæ, ii, 184
Chænobryttus, i, 302; ii, 300
Chætobranchus, ii, 381
Chætodipterus,
figure of, i, 325, 401
Chætodon, i, 235, 242, 267, 391; ii, 400, 403, 405, 406
figure of, i, 143; ii, 402
Chætodontidæ, i, 206; ii, 245, 291, 381, 398, 402, 404, 405
Chætodonts, ii, 247
Chalacodus, i, 566
Challenger, the, ii, 60, 130
Cestraciont shark, i, 526, 527, 530
Eastman on, i, 529
teeth, figured, i, 527
Cestraciontes, i, 438, 519, 566
Eastman on, i, 529
families of, i, 528
suborder of, i, 526
teeth of figured, i, 527, 529
Cetomimidæ, ii, 132
Cetomimus,
figure of, ii, 132
Cetorhinus,
figure of, i, 540
Cetorhinidæ,
family of, i, 539
Cette, i, 396
Chaca, i, 170
Chacidæ, ii, 184
Chænobryttus, i, 302; ii, 300
Chætobranchus, ii, 381
Chætodipterus,
figure of, i, 325, 401
Chætodon, i, 235, 242, 267, 391; ii, 400, 403, 405, 406
figure of, i, 143; ii, 402
Chætodontidæ, i, 206; ii, 245, 291, 381, 398, 402, 404, 405
Chætodonts, ii, 247
Chalacodus, i, 566
Challenger, the, ii, 60, 130
Page 680
Champsodon, ii, 361
Champsodontidæ, ii, 361
Chanos, i, 205; ii, 221
figure of, ii, 45
Chanidæ,
family of, ii, 44
Channa,
figure of, ii, 370
channel bass, ii, 355
channel catfish,
figure of, i, 280
channel-cats, the, ii, 179, 182
Channomuræna, ii, 153
Chanoides, ii, 44
Chapala Lake,
fishes of, ii, 216
Characidæ, ii, 161, 162
Characin, i, 290
Characinidæ, i, 205, 290; ii, 381
Characins, ii, 61, 160-162, 186
Characodon, ii, 201
characters,
of Elasmobranchs, i, 507
of species, i, 292
Charitosomus, ii, 56
charr, ii, 67, 99, 107, 114, 122
Charlevoix, ii, 64
Chasmistes, i, 304, 316; ii, 172
Champsodontidæ, ii, 361
Chanos, i, 205; ii, 221
figure of, ii, 45
Chanidæ,
family of, ii, 44
Channa,
figure of, ii, 370
channel bass, ii, 355
channel catfish,
figure of, i, 280
channel-cats, the, ii, 179, 182
Channomuræna, ii, 153
Chanoides, ii, 44
Chapala Lake,
fishes of, ii, 216
Characidæ, ii, 161, 162
Characin, i, 290
Characinidæ, i, 205, 290; ii, 381
Characins, ii, 61, 160-162, 186
Characodon, ii, 201
characters,
of Elasmobranchs, i, 507
of species, i, 292
Charitosomus, ii, 56
charr, ii, 67, 99, 107, 114, 122
Charlevoix, ii, 64
Chasmistes, i, 304, 316; ii, 172
Page 681
Chasmodes, ii, 509
Chauliodontidæ, ii, 129
Chauliodus,
figure of, ii, 129
Chaunax, ii, 551
Cheilio, ii, 390
Cheilinus, ii, 390
Cheilodipteridæ,
family of, ii, 278
Cheilodipterus, ii, 278
figure of, ii, 279
Cheiracanthus, i, 517
Cheirodopsis, ii, 15
Cheirodus, ii, 14
Cheirolepis, ii, 14
Chelidonichthys, i, 260; ii, 456
Chelmo, ii, 404
Chelonichthyidæ, i, 586
Chelonopsis, ii, 425
Chonerhinus, ii, 419
cherna, ii, 324
chevron, ii, 89
chiasma, ii, 4
Chiasmodon, ii, 136
figure of, i, 29; ii, 360
Chiasmodontidæ, ii, 215, 360
Chilobranchidæ, ii, 141
Chauliodontidæ, ii, 129
Chauliodus,
figure of, ii, 129
Chaunax, ii, 551
Cheilio, ii, 390
Cheilinus, ii, 390
Cheilodipteridæ,
family of, ii, 278
Cheilodipterus, ii, 278
figure of, ii, 279
Cheiracanthus, i, 517
Cheirodopsis, ii, 15
Cheirodus, ii, 14
Cheirolepis, ii, 14
Chelidonichthys, i, 260; ii, 456
Chelmo, ii, 404
Chelonichthyidæ, i, 586
Chelonopsis, ii, 425
Chonerhinus, ii, 419
cherna, ii, 324
chevron, ii, 89
chiasma, ii, 4
Chiasmodon, ii, 136
figure of, i, 29; ii, 360
Chiasmodontidæ, ii, 215, 360
Chilobranchidæ, ii, 141
Page 682
Chilomycterus,
figure of, ii, 423
Chiloscyllium, i, 56, 533
pectoral fin of, i, 66
Chimæra, i, 23, 35, 85, 204, 393, 435, 437, 448, 507, 509, 512-514, 545,
561-567, 595, 610
of California, i, 564
Dean on, i, 563
figure of, i, 449, 564, 565
Parker on, i, 563
Chimæridæ,
family of, i, 564
Chimæroids, i, 224, 583
Chimæropsis, i, 566
China fish,
snake-headed, ii, 371
Chinese whitebait, ii, 127, 128
chinook, ii, 69
chirivita, ii, 405
Chirocentridæ, ii, 46
Chirocentrus, ii, 46, 48
Chirolophis, ii, 512
Chiropterygium, i, 600, 605
Chirostoma,
figure of, i, 329; ii, 217
Chirothricidæ, ii, 133
Chirothrix,
figure of, ii, 46, 134
chisel-mouth, ii, 169
figure of, ii, 423
Chiloscyllium, i, 56, 533
pectoral fin of, i, 66
Chimæra, i, 23, 35, 85, 204, 393, 435, 437, 448, 507, 509, 512-514, 545,
561-567, 595, 610
of California, i, 564
Dean on, i, 563
figure of, i, 449, 564, 565
Parker on, i, 563
Chimæridæ,
family of, i, 564
Chimæroids, i, 224, 583
Chimæropsis, i, 566
China fish,
snake-headed, ii, 371
Chinese whitebait, ii, 127, 128
chinook, ii, 69
chirivita, ii, 405
Chirocentridæ, ii, 46
Chirocentrus, ii, 46, 48
Chirolophis, ii, 512
Chiropterygium, i, 600, 605
Chirostoma,
figure of, i, 329; ii, 217
Chirothricidæ, ii, 133
Chirothrix,
figure of, ii, 46, 134
chisel-mouth, ii, 169
Page 683
Chlamydoselachidæ,
family of, i, 525
Chlamydoselachus, i, 361, 447, 448, 509, 521, 536
figure of, i, 523
Chlarias, i, 98, 290; ii, 186, 187
figure of, i, 457; ii, 185
Chlariidæ, ii, 184, 185
Chlevastes, ii, 150
figure of, i, 232
Chloropthalmus, i, 260; ii, 130
Chloroscombrus, ii, 276
chochouwo, ii, 403
chogset, ii, 387
Chologaster, i, 203, 204, 223
Eigenmann on, ii, 203
figure of, i, 116; ii, 201
Garman on, ii, 202
Hoppin on, ii, 203
Chondrenchelys, i, 521
Chondropterygians, i, 508
Chondropterygii, i, 391
Chondrostei, i, 623, 624; ii, 2, 5, 13
order of, ii, 17
Chondrosteidæ, ii, 17, 18
Chondrosteus, i, 622
Chonerhinidæ, ii, 419
Chopa, ii, 344, 350
figure of, ii, 349
Chordata, i, 460
family of, i, 525
Chlamydoselachus, i, 361, 447, 448, 509, 521, 536
figure of, i, 523
Chlarias, i, 98, 290; ii, 186, 187
figure of, i, 457; ii, 185
Chlariidæ, ii, 184, 185
Chlevastes, ii, 150
figure of, i, 232
Chloropthalmus, i, 260; ii, 130
Chloroscombrus, ii, 276
chochouwo, ii, 403
chogset, ii, 387
Chologaster, i, 203, 204, 223
Eigenmann on, ii, 203
figure of, i, 116; ii, 201
Garman on, ii, 202
Hoppin on, ii, 203
Chondrenchelys, i, 521
Chondropterygians, i, 508
Chondropterygii, i, 391
Chondrostei, i, 623, 624; ii, 2, 5, 13
order of, ii, 17
Chondrosteidæ, ii, 17, 18
Chondrosteus, i, 622
Chonerhinidæ, ii, 419
Chopa, ii, 344, 350
figure of, ii, 349
Chordata, i, 460
Page 684
Chordate animals, i, 460
lowest forms figured, i, 465
Chordates, i, 508, 584, 597; ii, 1
Chorisochismus, ii, 531
Chriodorus, ii, 212
Chromides,
suborder of, ii, 380
Chromis, i, 166; ii, 381
Chrondrosteus,
figure of, ii, 18
Chrosomus, i, 304; ii, 164, 167
chub, ii, 118, 147, 163
figure of, ii, 169
of Great Basin, ii, 169
of Pacific, ii, 169
chub of Great Basin,
figure of, i, 287
chub-mackerel, i, 94
chub-sucker, i, 292
figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
chum, ii, 72
cichla, ii, 380
Cichlasoma, ii, 381
cichlid, i, 290
Cichlidæ, i, 209, 290; ii, 380, 381
organs of smell in, i, 115
cigar-fish, ii, 274
ciguatera, i, 182-185; ii, 335, 411, 413
Cimolichthys, ii, 133
lowest forms figured, i, 465
Chordates, i, 508, 584, 597; ii, 1
Chorisochismus, ii, 531
Chriodorus, ii, 212
Chromides,
suborder of, ii, 380
Chromis, i, 166; ii, 381
Chrondrosteus,
figure of, ii, 18
Chrosomus, i, 304; ii, 164, 167
chub, ii, 118, 147, 163
figure of, ii, 169
of Great Basin, ii, 169
of Pacific, ii, 169
chub of Great Basin,
figure of, i, 287
chub-mackerel, i, 94
chub-sucker, i, 292
figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
chum, ii, 72
cichla, ii, 380
Cichlasoma, ii, 381
cichlid, i, 290
Cichlidæ, i, 209, 290; ii, 380, 381
organs of smell in, i, 115
cigar-fish, ii, 274
ciguatera, i, 182-185; ii, 335, 411, 413
Cimolichthys, ii, 133
Page 685
Ciona, i, 481
Cirrhilabrus, ii, 390
Cirrhitidæ, the, ii, 363, 426
Cirrhitus, i, 271
figure of, ii, 364
Cirrostomi, i, 482, 595
cisco, ii, 65
Citharichthys, i, 274; ii, 489
Citharinus, ii, 162
Citula, i, 202; ii, 276
Cladistia, i, 602
order of, i, 605
Cladodontidæ, i, 520, 522
Cladodus, i, 65, 80, 437
pectoral fin of, i, 521
shoulder-girdle in, i, 521
teeth of, figured, i, 522
Cladoselache, i, 64, 66, 79, 80, 437, 446, 448, 510, 571, 573, 623
Dean on, i, 518
figure of, i, 65, 514, 515
primitive character of, i, 514
teeth of, figured, i, 515
ventral view of, i, 515
Cladoselachidæ, i, 514
family of, i, 523
clam-cracker, i, 556
Clark,
on eulachon, ii, 125
Clarke, i, 416
claspers, i, 124, 125
Cirrhilabrus, ii, 390
Cirrhitidæ, the, ii, 363, 426
Cirrhitus, i, 271
figure of, ii, 364
Cirrostomi, i, 482, 595
cisco, ii, 65
Citharichthys, i, 274; ii, 489
Citharinus, ii, 162
Citula, i, 202; ii, 276
Cladistia, i, 602
order of, i, 605
Cladodontidæ, i, 520, 522
Cladodus, i, 65, 80, 437
pectoral fin of, i, 521
shoulder-girdle in, i, 521
teeth of, figured, i, 522
Cladoselache, i, 64, 66, 79, 80, 437, 446, 448, 510, 571, 573, 623
Dean on, i, 518
figure of, i, 65, 514, 515
primitive character of, i, 514
teeth of, figured, i, 515
ventral view of, i, 515
Cladoselachidæ, i, 514
family of, i, 523
clam-cracker, i, 556
Clark,
on eulachon, ii, 125
Clarke, i, 416
claspers, i, 124, 125
Page 686
classification,
Coues on, i, 370
of Elasmobranchs, i, 509, 510
of fishes, i, 367-386
of instincts, i, 154
morphological, i, 371
natural, i, 370
terms used in, i, 462
Clastes,
Eastman on, ii, 32
Clavellinidæ, i, 475
clavicle,
figure of, i, 87
of sea catfish, i, 87
Claypole, i, 426
portrait of, i, 409
cleavages, i, 135
Clepticus, ii, 388
Clidoderma, ii, 494
Climatius, i, 446
figure of, i, 518
climbing-fish, ii, 367
climbing-perch,
figure of, ii, 366
clingfish, ii, 529
figure of, i, 198; ii, 531
Günther on, ii, 529, 530
sucking-disk in, i, 198
Clinocottus, ii, 448
Clinton, ii, 64
Clinus, i, 208; ii, 507, 511, 513, 516
Coues on, i, 370
of Elasmobranchs, i, 509, 510
of fishes, i, 367-386
of instincts, i, 154
morphological, i, 371
natural, i, 370
terms used in, i, 462
Clastes,
Eastman on, ii, 32
Clavellinidæ, i, 475
clavicle,
figure of, i, 87
of sea catfish, i, 87
Claypole, i, 426
portrait of, i, 409
cleavages, i, 135
Clepticus, ii, 388
Clidoderma, ii, 494
Climatius, i, 446
figure of, i, 518
climbing-fish, ii, 367
climbing-perch,
figure of, ii, 366
clingfish, ii, 529
figure of, i, 198; ii, 531
Günther on, ii, 529, 530
sucking-disk in, i, 198
Clinocottus, ii, 448
Clinton, ii, 64
Clinus, i, 208; ii, 507, 511, 513, 516
Page 687
Cloquet, i, 397
Cloudy Bay cod, ii, 520
Clupanodon, ii, 53
Clupea, i, 204, 329, 391
figure of, i, 331, ii, 49
Clupeidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, 49, 52, 53
clupeiform, ii, 11
clupeoid, ii, 10
Clupeidea, the, ii, 41
coalfish, i, 209; ii; 438, 537
Coal measures,
fishes of, i, 223
teeth found in, i, 65
Costa, i, 412
coast lines,
effect on distribution, i, 248
cobbler-fish, ii, 276
cobia, ii, 282
Cobitidæ, ii, 175, 185
Cobitis, i, 391; ii, 176
Cobitopsidæ,
family of, ii, 224
Cobitopsis,
figure of, ii, 224
Coccoderma, i, 605
Coccosteans, i, 581
Coccosteidæ, i, 622, 623, 584, 586
Coccosteus, i, 583, 584, 587, 590, 593, 596, 623
Cloudy Bay cod, ii, 520
Clupanodon, ii, 53
Clupea, i, 204, 329, 391
figure of, i, 331, ii, 49
Clupeidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, 49, 52, 53
clupeiform, ii, 11
clupeoid, ii, 10
Clupeidea, the, ii, 41
coalfish, i, 209; ii; 438, 537
Coal measures,
fishes of, i, 223
teeth found in, i, 65
Costa, i, 412
coast lines,
effect on distribution, i, 248
cobbler-fish, ii, 276
cobia, ii, 282
Cobitidæ, ii, 175, 185
Cobitis, i, 391; ii, 176
Cobitopsidæ,
family of, ii, 224
Cobitopsis,
figure of, ii, 224
Coccoderma, i, 605
Coccosteans, i, 581
Coccosteidæ, i, 622, 623, 584, 586
Coccosteus, i, 583, 584, 587, 590, 593, 596, 623
Page 688
figure of, i, 582
cochino, ii, 413
Cochliodontidæ, i, 530
family of, i, 531
Cochliodus,
lower jaw figured, i, 531
cock-and-hen paddle, ii, 453
cock-of-palace-under-sea, ii, 472
cockeye pilot,
figure of, ii, 382
Coccolepis, ii, 14
cod, ii, 51
codfish, i, 122, 128, 290; ii, 481, 501, 532, 533
figure of, i, 331; ii, 535
Gill on, ii, 534
Goode on, ii, 534
pectoral fin of, i, 66
reproduction of, ii, 535
Sars on, ii, 535
codling, ii, 538
Cœlacanthidæ, i, 605
Cœlacanthus,
figure of, i, 604
Cœlolepia, i, 573
Cœlodus, ii, 22
Cœlolepidæ, i, 573
coho, ii, 72
collection of fishes, i, 429-434
by explosives, i, 430
by poison, i, 430
cochino, ii, 413
Cochliodontidæ, i, 530
family of, i, 531
Cochliodus,
lower jaw figured, i, 531
cock-and-hen paddle, ii, 453
cock-of-palace-under-sea, ii, 472
cockeye pilot,
figure of, ii, 382
Coccolepis, ii, 14
cod, ii, 51
codfish, i, 122, 128, 290; ii, 481, 501, 532, 533
figure of, i, 331; ii, 535
Gill on, ii, 534
Goode on, ii, 534
pectoral fin of, i, 66
reproduction of, ii, 535
Sars on, ii, 535
codling, ii, 538
Cœlacanthidæ, i, 605
Cœlacanthus,
figure of, i, 604
Cœlolepia, i, 573
Cœlodus, ii, 22
Cœlolepidæ, i, 573
coho, ii, 72
collection of fishes, i, 429-434
by explosives, i, 430
by poison, i, 430
Page 689
tackle for, i, 430
Collett, i, 408, 427
portrait of, i, 403
Collie, i, 564
Collins,
on catastrophe to tilefishes, ii, 362
on halibut, ii, 490
Cololabis, ii, 212
Colocephali, ii, 140-142, 153
suborder of, ii, 152
Colomesus, ii, 421
Colorado trout,
figure of, ii, 106
colors of fishes, i, 226-236
of coral-fishes, i, 235
fading of, in spirits, i, 235
intensity of, i, 232
nuptial, i, 230
protective, i, 226-229
sexual, i, 230
variation of, i, 235
Columbia,
figure of, ii, 242
Comephoridæ, the, ii, 455
Comephorus, ii, 524
Commerson, i, 395
commissure, i, 112
common eel,
figure of, ii, 143
common skate,
figure of, i, 552
Collett, i, 408, 427
portrait of, i, 403
Collie, i, 564
Collins,
on catastrophe to tilefishes, ii, 362
on halibut, ii, 490
Cololabis, ii, 212
Colocephali, ii, 140-142, 153
suborder of, ii, 152
Colomesus, ii, 421
Colorado trout,
figure of, ii, 106
colors of fishes, i, 226-236
of coral-fishes, i, 235
fading of, in spirits, i, 235
intensity of, i, 232
nuptial, i, 230
protective, i, 226-229
sexual, i, 230
variation of, i, 235
Columbia,
figure of, ii, 242
Comephoridæ, the, ii, 455
Comephorus, ii, 524
Commerson, i, 395
commissure, i, 112
common eel,
figure of, ii, 143
common skate,
figure of, i, 552
Page 690
common sucker,
figure of, ii, 174
common sunfish,
figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, 301
conceptions of genus, i, 375
Conchopona, i, 613
conclusions,
of Cope on dispersion, i, 286
of Evermann, i, 274
of Hill, 277-279
as to Isthmus of Suez, i, 269
of Jenkins, i, 274
conger eels, ii, 149, 151
figure of, ii, 150
Congiopodidæ, ii, 436
Congiopus, ii, 436
Congo River,
fishes from, i, 78, 607
Congriopus, ii, 514
Congrogadidæ, ii, 519
Connoly,
on calling fishes, i, 168
Conocara, ii, 60
Conodontes, i, 487
figure of, i, 488
Conorhynchus, i, 128
constantino, ii, 320
Cooper, i, 419
on long-jawed goby, ii, 463
Cope, i, 84, 311, 419, 428, 512, 602; ii, 1, 4, 13, 24, 35, 56, 159
figure of, ii, 174
common sunfish,
figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, 301
conceptions of genus, i, 375
Conchopona, i, 613
conclusions,
of Cope on dispersion, i, 286
of Evermann, i, 274
of Hill, 277-279
as to Isthmus of Suez, i, 269
of Jenkins, i, 274
conger eels, ii, 149, 151
figure of, ii, 150
Congiopodidæ, ii, 436
Congiopus, ii, 436
Congo River,
fishes from, i, 78, 607
Congriopus, ii, 514
Congrogadidæ, ii, 519
Connoly,
on calling fishes, i, 168
Conocara, ii, 60
Conodontes, i, 487
figure of, i, 488
Conorhynchus, i, 128
constantino, ii, 320
Cooper, i, 419
on long-jawed goby, ii, 463
Cope, i, 84, 311, 419, 428, 512, 602; ii, 1, 4, 13, 24, 35, 56, 159
Page 691
on classification, i, 406
conclusions of, 286
on dispersion, i, 286, 287
on eels, ii, 139
on fossil forms, ii, 32
on isocercal tail, i, 84
on ostracophores, ii, 569
portrait of, i, 407
sketch of, i, 406
Copeland, i, 420
portrait of, i, 421
Copelandellus, ii, 315
Coquille, i, 408
coracoid, i, 88, 90
coraco-scapular, i, 87
coral reefs,
at Apia, figured, i, 234
fishes of, i, 235, 297
fish life in, i, 215
Corax,
teeth of, figured, i, 543
Coregoni, ii, 67
Coregonus, i, 291, 305, 316, 322, 391; ii, 62, 65, 439
figure of, i, 321; ii, 63
Coreoperca, ii, 320
Coris, ii, 390
cormorant-fishing, ii, 116-119
illustrations of, i, 333, 335
cornet-fishes, ii, 390
family of, ii, 233
Cornide, i, 396
conclusions of, 286
on dispersion, i, 286, 287
on eels, ii, 139
on fossil forms, ii, 32
on isocercal tail, i, 84
on ostracophores, ii, 569
portrait of, i, 407
sketch of, i, 406
Copeland, i, 420
portrait of, i, 421
Copelandellus, ii, 315
Coquille, i, 408
coracoid, i, 88, 90
coraco-scapular, i, 87
coral reefs,
at Apia, figured, i, 234
fishes of, i, 235, 297
fish life in, i, 215
Corax,
teeth of, figured, i, 543
Coregoni, ii, 67
Coregonus, i, 291, 305, 316, 322, 391; ii, 62, 65, 439
figure of, i, 321; ii, 63
Coreoperca, ii, 320
Coris, ii, 390
cormorant-fishing, ii, 116-119
illustrations of, i, 333, 335
cornet-fishes, ii, 390
family of, ii, 233
Cornide, i, 396
Page 692
coronado, ii, 274
corpus vestiforme, i, 112
corsair, ii, 430
Corvula, ii, 355
Corynolophus, i, 189; ii, 549
figure of, i, 188
luminous bulb in, i, 188
Coryphæna, i, 210, 391
figure of, ii, 287
Coryphænidæ,
family of, ii, 286
Coryphænoides,
figure of, i, 83; ii, 541
leptocercal, tail of, i, 83
Coryphopterus, ii, 462
Corythroichthys, ii, 236
Costa, i, 412
Cottidæ, i, 208, 290; ii, 363, 442, 449, 453, 455, 501, 504, 525
family of, i, 441
fossil forms, i, 449
Cottocomephorus, ii, 525
Cottogaster, i, 300
Cottunculus, i, 219; ii, 441, 447, 449
Cottus, i, 169, 219, 312, 391; ii, 443, 445, 449
figure of, ii, 444, 445, 446
Couch, i, 410
on fighting-fish, i, 165
on skippers, ii, 21
Coues,
on classification, i, 368
corpus vestiforme, i, 112
corsair, ii, 430
Corvula, ii, 355
Corynolophus, i, 189; ii, 549
figure of, i, 188
luminous bulb in, i, 188
Coryphæna, i, 210, 391
figure of, ii, 287
Coryphænidæ,
family of, ii, 286
Coryphænoides,
figure of, i, 83; ii, 541
leptocercal, tail of, i, 83
Coryphopterus, ii, 462
Corythroichthys, ii, 236
Costa, i, 412
Cottidæ, i, 208, 290; ii, 363, 442, 449, 453, 455, 501, 504, 525
family of, i, 441
fossil forms, i, 449
Cottocomephorus, ii, 525
Cottogaster, i, 300
Cottunculus, i, 219; ii, 441, 447, 449
Cottus, i, 169, 219, 312, 391; ii, 443, 445, 449
figure of, ii, 444, 445, 446
Couch, i, 410
on fighting-fish, i, 165
on skippers, ii, 21
Coues,
on classification, i, 368
Page 693
on meaning of species, i, 379
on synonymy, i, 374
cowfish,
figure of, i, 373; ii, 416
skeleton of figured, i, 215; ii, 418
cow's tongue, ii, 497
crab-eater, ii, 282
Cragin, i, 171
craig-fluke, ii, 494
Cramer, i, 408, 420, 422
cramp-fishes, i, 554
cranial nerves,
figure of, i, 111
Craniomi,
suborder of, ii, 456
Craniotes, i, 588
cranium,
bones of, i, 36-39
inferior view, i, 38
lateral view, i, 36
posterior view, i, 40
of Roccus, figured, i, 36-39
of Sebastolobus, i, 53
superior view, i, 37
crappie, ii, 168, 297
figure of, ii, 297
photograph of, ii, 298
Cratinus, i, 271
cravo, ii, 244
crawl-a-bottom, ii, 312
on synonymy, i, 374
cowfish,
figure of, i, 373; ii, 416
skeleton of figured, i, 215; ii, 418
cow's tongue, ii, 497
crab-eater, ii, 282
Cragin, i, 171
craig-fluke, ii, 494
Cramer, i, 408, 420, 422
cramp-fishes, i, 554
cranial nerves,
figure of, i, 111
Craniomi,
suborder of, ii, 456
Craniotes, i, 588
cranium,
bones of, i, 36-39
inferior view, i, 38
lateral view, i, 36
posterior view, i, 40
of Roccus, figured, i, 36-39
of Sebastolobus, i, 53
superior view, i, 37
crappie, ii, 168, 297
figure of, ii, 297
photograph of, ii, 298
Cratinus, i, 271
cravo, ii, 244
crawl-a-bottom, ii, 312
Page 694
crayfish, ii, 147
creek fish,
figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
Crenilabrus, i, 207, 260, 267; ii, 387
creole-fish, ii, 328, 329
Crescent lake trout, ii, 101
Cricodus, i, 603
Cristiceps, i, 208; ii, 508, 513
Cristivomer, i, 291; ii, 62, 115
figure of, ii, 114
croaker, ii, 353, 355
Cromeriidæ, ii, 56
cross-bow shooter, ii, 413
Crossognathidæ, ii, 215, 521
family of, ii, 224
Crossopholis, ii, 21
Crossopterygians, i, 78, 79, 89, 91, 204, 436, 457, 511-515, 591, 602, 623,
624; ii, 38
figure of, i, 451
fins of, i, 601
Crossopterygii, i, 382, 462, 599, 600, 601, 608
crustacean parasites, i, 340
Cryptacanthididæ, ii, 516
Cryptacanthodes,
figure of, i, 516
Cryptocentrus, i, 264; ii, 462
Cryptopsaras,
figure of, ii, 547
creek fish,
figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
Crenilabrus, i, 207, 260, 267; ii, 387
creole-fish, ii, 328, 329
Crescent lake trout, ii, 101
Cricodus, i, 603
Cristiceps, i, 208; ii, 508, 513
Cristivomer, i, 291; ii, 62, 115
figure of, ii, 114
croaker, ii, 353, 355
Cromeriidæ, ii, 56
cross-bow shooter, ii, 413
Crossognathidæ, ii, 215, 521
family of, ii, 224
Crossopholis, ii, 21
Crossopterygians, i, 78, 79, 89, 91, 204, 436, 457, 511-515, 591, 602, 623,
624; ii, 38
figure of, i, 451
fins of, i, 601
Crossopterygii, i, 382, 462, 599, 600, 601, 608
crustacean parasites, i, 340
Cryptacanthididæ, ii, 516
Cryptacanthodes,
figure of, i, 516
Cryptocentrus, i, 264; ii, 462
Cryptopsaras,
figure of, ii, 547
Page 695
Cryptotomus,
figure of, ii, 391
crystal darter,
figure of, ii, 313
crystal goby, ii, 466
Crystallias,
figure of, i, 218; ii, 454
Crystallogobius, ii, 466
Ctenochætus, ii, 409
Ctenodentex, ii, 340
Ctenodipterini,
order of, i, 612
Ctenodontidæ, i, 613
Ctenodus, i, 613
ctenoid scales, i, 20, 21; ii, 39
Ctenoidei, ii, 39, 209
Ctenolabrus, ii, 387
Ctenolates, ii, 320
Ctenoptychius, i, 555
Ctenothrissa,
figure of, ii, 48
Ctenothrissidæ,
figure of, ii, 48
cuatro ojos, ii, 194
Cuban fishes, i, 314
cubero, ii, 335
cuboid, i, 19
cub-shark,
figure of, ii, 391
crystal darter,
figure of, ii, 313
crystal goby, ii, 466
Crystallias,
figure of, i, 218; ii, 454
Crystallogobius, ii, 466
Ctenochætus, ii, 409
Ctenodentex, ii, 340
Ctenodipterini,
order of, i, 612
Ctenodontidæ, i, 613
Ctenodus, i, 613
ctenoid scales, i, 20, 21; ii, 39
Ctenoidei, ii, 39, 209
Ctenolabrus, ii, 387
Ctenolates, ii, 320
Ctenoptychius, i, 555
Ctenothrissa,
figure of, ii, 48
Ctenothrissidæ,
figure of, ii, 48
cuatro ojos, ii, 194
Cuban fishes, i, 314
cubero, ii, 335
cuboid, i, 19
cub-shark,
Page 696
figure of, i, 542
cuckold, ii, 417
figure of, i, 373; ii, 416
cucugo, ii, 413
cultus cod, ii, 442
figure of, ii, 440
Cunias, i, 541
cunner, ii, 387
Cunningham,
on eye of flounder, i, 176
Curimatus, ii, 162
cusk-eel, i, 187, 314; ii, 539
figure of, ii, 520
cutlass-fishes, i, 149, 210; ii, 267
figure of, ii, 268
species of, ii, 472
cutthroat trout, ii, 95-97, 102, 104, 106
Cuvier, i, 103, 105, 400, 404, 428; ii, 39, 307
Günther on, i, 400
Lyman on, i, 401
portrait of, i, 399
Cycleptus, ii, 173
Cycliæ, i, 204, 437, 462, 592, 593
subclass of, i, 591
Cyclobatis, i, 557
Cycloganoidei, ii, 34
cycloid scales, i, 20, 22; ii, 39
Cycloidei, ii, 39
Cyclopterichthys, ii, 454
cuckold, ii, 417
figure of, i, 373; ii, 416
cucugo, ii, 413
cultus cod, ii, 442
figure of, ii, 440
Cunias, i, 541
cunner, ii, 387
Cunningham,
on eye of flounder, i, 176
Curimatus, ii, 162
cusk-eel, i, 187, 314; ii, 539
figure of, ii, 520
cutlass-fishes, i, 149, 210; ii, 267
figure of, ii, 268
species of, ii, 472
cutthroat trout, ii, 95-97, 102, 104, 106
Cuvier, i, 103, 105, 400, 404, 428; ii, 39, 307
Günther on, i, 400
Lyman on, i, 401
portrait of, i, 399
Cycleptus, ii, 173
Cycliæ, i, 204, 437, 462, 592, 593
subclass of, i, 591
Cyclobatis, i, 557
Cycloganoidei, ii, 34
cycloid scales, i, 20, 22; ii, 39
Cycloidei, ii, 39
Cyclopterichthys, ii, 454
Page 697
Cyclopteridæ, i, 198, 208
family of, ii, 453
Cyclopterus, i, 391; ii, 453, 455
figure of, i, 220; ii, 454
Cyclospondyli, i, 510, 543
order of, i, 545
cyclospondylous, i, 49
cyclospondylous sharks, i, 549
Cyclostomata, i, 593
Cyclostomes, i, 113, 443, 486-505, 570, 596, 592, 617
extinct forms, i, 487
Cyclostomi, i, 462, 584
Cyclothone, ii, 129
Cyclurus, ii, 36
Cymatogaster, ii, 376
figure of, i, 125; ii, 372
Cymolutes, ii, 390
Cymothoa, i, 340
Cynoglossinæ, ii, 497
Cynoglossus, ii, 497
Cynoscion, i, 94, 324; ii, 107
figure of, ii, 353
Cynthia,
figure of, i, 476
Cynthiidæ, i, 475
Cyprinidæ, i, 33, 46, 205, 230, 251, 285, 287, 290, 406; ii, 65, 161, 162,
164-171
fossil forms, ii, 174
species of, ii, 165
family of, ii, 453
Cyclopterus, i, 391; ii, 453, 455
figure of, i, 220; ii, 454
Cyclospondyli, i, 510, 543
order of, i, 545
cyclospondylous, i, 49
cyclospondylous sharks, i, 549
Cyclostomata, i, 593
Cyclostomes, i, 113, 443, 486-505, 570, 596, 592, 617
extinct forms, i, 487
Cyclostomi, i, 462, 584
Cyclothone, ii, 129
Cyclurus, ii, 36
Cymatogaster, ii, 376
figure of, i, 125; ii, 372
Cymolutes, ii, 390
Cymothoa, i, 340
Cynoglossinæ, ii, 497
Cynoglossus, ii, 497
Cynoscion, i, 94, 324; ii, 107
figure of, ii, 353
Cynthia,
figure of, i, 476
Cynthiidæ, i, 475
Cyprinidæ, i, 33, 46, 205, 230, 251, 285, 287, 290, 406; ii, 65, 161, 162,
164-171
fossil forms, ii, 174
species of, ii, 165
Page 698
Cyprinodon, ii, 198, 201
figure of, ii, 196
Cyprinodontes, ii, 194
Cyprinodontidæ, i, 290
Cyprinus, i, 391; ii, 170, 174
Cypselurus, ii, 213
figure of, i, 157, 440
Cyrthaspis, i, 575
Cyttoides, ii, 249
Cyttus, ii, 249
dabonawa, i, 430
dace, i, 251; ii, 118, 162, 166, 168
Dactylagnus, ii, 506
Dactyloscopidæ, ii, 506
Dactyloscopus, ii, 506
daddy sculpin, ii, 445
Dalatias, i, 546
Dalatiidæ, i, 548
Daldorf,
on capture of Anabas, i, 163
on climbing-fish, ii, 367
Dale, ii, 539
Dallia, i, 51
figure of, i, 149; ii, 206
Dalliidæ, i, 290; ii, 206
Damalichthys,
figure of, ii, 374
figure of, ii, 196
Cyprinodontes, ii, 194
Cyprinodontidæ, i, 290
Cyprinus, i, 391; ii, 170, 174
Cypselurus, ii, 213
figure of, i, 157, 440
Cyrthaspis, i, 575
Cyttoides, ii, 249
Cyttus, ii, 249
dabonawa, i, 430
dace, i, 251; ii, 118, 162, 166, 168
Dactylagnus, ii, 506
Dactyloscopidæ, ii, 506
Dactyloscopus, ii, 506
daddy sculpin, ii, 445
Dalatias, i, 546
Dalatiidæ, i, 548
Daldorf,
on capture of Anabas, i, 163
on climbing-fish, ii, 367
Dale, ii, 539
Dallia, i, 51
figure of, i, 149; ii, 206
Dalliidæ, i, 290; ii, 206
Damalichthys,
figure of, ii, 374
Page 699
damsel-fish, ii, 381
figure of, ii, 382
Dapediidæ, ii, 25
Dapedium,
figure of, ii, 25
Dapedoglossus, ii, 56
darters, i, 209, 231, 300, 304; ii, 166, 306, 310-315
darter goby,
figure of, ii, 462
Darwin, i, 408
on noises of catfish, i, 168
daruma-okose, ii, 436
Dasyatidæ,
family of, i, 555
Dasyatis,
figure of, i, 247, 556
Dasyscopelus, ii, 133
Davis, H. S., ii, 81, 84
on chinook salmon, ii, 85
Davis, J. W., i, 426
on fossil teeth, i, 525
Dawson, i, 427, 594
Day, i, 416; ii, 90, 92, 95
on calling fishes, i, 168
on electric eel, i, 170
on grayling, ii, 121
on Labyrinthici, ii, 365
on sole, ii, 496, 497
day chub,
head of, figured, ii, 167
figure of, ii, 382
Dapediidæ, ii, 25
Dapedium,
figure of, ii, 25
Dapedoglossus, ii, 56
darters, i, 209, 231, 300, 304; ii, 166, 306, 310-315
darter goby,
figure of, ii, 462
Darwin, i, 408
on noises of catfish, i, 168
daruma-okose, ii, 436
Dasyatidæ,
family of, i, 555
Dasyatis,
figure of, i, 247, 556
Dasyscopelus, ii, 133
Davis, H. S., ii, 81, 84
on chinook salmon, ii, 85
Davis, J. W., i, 426
on fossil teeth, i, 525
Dawson, i, 427, 594
Day, i, 416; ii, 90, 92, 95
on calling fishes, i, 168
on electric eel, i, 170
on grayling, ii, 121
on Labyrinthici, ii, 365
on sole, ii, 496, 497
day chub,
head of, figured, ii, 167
Page 700
dealfish, ii, 477, 480
figure of, ii, 478
Dean, i, 512, 591, 594, 595
on Acanthodei, i, 517, 518
on Arthrodira, i, 518, 588
on Chimæras, i, 563
on fin migration, i, 75
on fossil forms, i, 422
on lateral line, i, 23
on lung-fish, i, 618
on Ostracophores, i, 571
portrait of, i, 417
on sharks, i, 511, 531
on Teleosts, i, 135
Deania, i, 546
deathfish, i, 183
Death Valley fish,
figure of, ii, 199
Decapterus, ii, 274
decurrent flounder,
figure of, i, 441
deep-sea angler,
figure of, ii, 548
deep-sea Chimæra,
figure of, i, 449
deep-sea fishes, i, 246, 247, 408; ii, 129
degenerate fishes, i, 210, 211, 216, 218
degeneration,
of eye, i, 220
in fishes, i, 54
in lamprey, i, 217
of structure, i, 216
figure of, ii, 478
Dean, i, 512, 591, 594, 595
on Acanthodei, i, 517, 518
on Arthrodira, i, 518, 588
on Chimæras, i, 563
on fin migration, i, 75
on fossil forms, i, 422
on lateral line, i, 23
on lung-fish, i, 618
on Ostracophores, i, 571
portrait of, i, 417
on sharks, i, 511, 531
on Teleosts, i, 135
Deania, i, 546
deathfish, i, 183
Death Valley fish,
figure of, ii, 199
Decapterus, ii, 274
decurrent flounder,
figure of, i, 441
deep-sea angler,
figure of, ii, 548
deep-sea Chimæra,
figure of, i, 449
deep-sea fishes, i, 246, 247, 408; ii, 129
degenerate fishes, i, 210, 211, 216, 218
degeneration,
of eye, i, 220
in fishes, i, 54
in lamprey, i, 217
of structure, i, 216
Page 701
in tunicates, i, 480
Delaroche, i, 95
Dekay, i, 418
Delfin,
on hagfishes, i, 489
Deltistes, ii, 172
Deltodus, i, 531
Dendrodus, i, 603
dentary, i, 606
Dentex, i, 94; ii, 338, 340
Dercetes, ii, 136
Dercetidæ, ii, 136, 137, 158
Derepodichthyidæ, ii, 520
Derichthyidæ, ii, 155
Derichthys, ii, 153
figure of, ii, 156
Dermopteri, i, 486
Desmarest, i, 396
development, i, 217
of bony fishes, i, 135
Dean on, i, 135
embryonic, i, 133
of flounders, i, 144
heredity in, i, 134
of horsehead-fish, i, 148
of paired fins, i, 66
devil ray,
figure of, i, 559
De Vis, i, 416
Delaroche, i, 95
Dekay, i, 418
Delfin,
on hagfishes, i, 489
Deltistes, ii, 172
Deltodus, i, 531
Dendrodus, i, 603
dentary, i, 606
Dentex, i, 94; ii, 338, 340
Dercetes, ii, 136
Dercetidæ, ii, 136, 137, 158
Derepodichthyidæ, ii, 520
Derichthyidæ, ii, 155
Derichthys, ii, 153
figure of, ii, 156
Dermopteri, i, 486
Desmarest, i, 396
development, i, 217
of bony fishes, i, 135
Dean on, i, 135
embryonic, i, 133
of flounders, i, 144
heredity in, i, 134
of horsehead-fish, i, 148
of paired fins, i, 66
devil ray,
figure of, i, 559
De Vis, i, 416
Page 702
Devonian,
fishes, i, 436
lamprey, i, 563
sharks from, i, 65
Diabasis, i, 375
diablo, ii, 552
Dialarchus, ii, 448
Dialommus, i, 117
diamond,
fishes, ii, 398
flounder, ii, 493
snapper, ii, 337
Diaphus, ii, 133
figure of, ii, 132
Dibothrium, 345
figure of, ii, 103
Dibranchus, i, 207; ii, 552
Dicentrodus, i, 522
Dicentrarchus, i, 324; ii, 321, 330
dichotomous rays, i, 596
Dicranodus, i, 521
Dictyorhabdidæ, i, 565
Dictyorhabdus, i, 435, 565, 578
Dictyopyge, ii, 16
Dictyopygidæ, ii, 14
Dictyosoma, 512
Didemnidæ, i, 477
Didymaspis, i, 576
fishes, i, 436
lamprey, i, 563
sharks from, i, 65
Diabasis, i, 375
diablo, ii, 552
Dialarchus, ii, 448
Dialommus, i, 117
diamond,
fishes, ii, 398
flounder, ii, 493
snapper, ii, 337
Diaphus, ii, 133
figure of, ii, 132
Dibothrium, 345
figure of, ii, 103
Dibranchus, i, 207; ii, 552
Dicentrodus, i, 522
Dicentrarchus, i, 324; ii, 321, 330
dichotomous rays, i, 596
Dicranodus, i, 521
Dictyorhabdidæ, i, 565
Dictyorhabdus, i, 435, 565, 578
Dictyopyge, ii, 16
Dictyopygidæ, ii, 14
Dictyosoma, 512
Didemnidæ, i, 477
Didymaspis, i, 576
Page 703
Didymodus, i, 521, 525
Dinematichthys, ii, 524
Dinichthyidæ, i, 587
Dinichthys, i, 587, 589
figure of, i, 445, 584
jaws of figured, i, 583
Diodon, i, 273, 393, 394
figure of, i, 17; ii, 422
Diodontidæ,
family of, ii, 422
diœcious fishes, i, 124
diphycercal tail, i, 49, 81, 83, 84, 507, 513, 516, 598
Boulenger on, i, 84
Dollo on, i, 84
Diplacanthidæ, i, 517, 518
Diplacanthus,
figure of, i, 517
Diplectrum, ii, 329
Diplesion,
figure of, i, 247; ii, 312
Diplodus, ii, 347
figure of, ii, 346
Diplognathus, i, 584, 589
Diplomystes, ii, 178
Diplomystidæ, ii, 178
Diplomystus,
figure of, i, 205, 453; ii, 52
Diploneumoni, i, 612, 619
Diploprion, ii, 327
Dinematichthys, ii, 524
Dinichthyidæ, i, 587
Dinichthys, i, 587, 589
figure of, i, 445, 584
jaws of figured, i, 583
Diodon, i, 273, 393, 394
figure of, i, 17; ii, 422
Diodontidæ,
family of, ii, 422
diœcious fishes, i, 124
diphycercal tail, i, 49, 81, 83, 84, 507, 513, 516, 598
Boulenger on, i, 84
Dollo on, i, 84
Diplacanthidæ, i, 517, 518
Diplacanthus,
figure of, i, 517
Diplectrum, ii, 329
Diplesion,
figure of, i, 247; ii, 312
Diplodus, ii, 347
figure of, ii, 346
Diplognathus, i, 584, 589
Diplomystes, ii, 178
Diplomystidæ, ii, 178
Diplomystus,
figure of, i, 205, 453; ii, 52
Diploneumoni, i, 612, 619
Diploprion, ii, 327
Page 704
Diplopterus, i, 82, 604
Diplospondyli, i, 509, 523
Diplurus, i, 605
Dipneusti, i, 405, 462, 582, 599, 601, 605, 607, 622, 624; ii, 4
relationship of, i, 609, 610
subclass of, i, 609-622
Dipnoans, i, 436, 512, 572, 582, 583; ii, 3, 8
air-bladder in, i, 101
classification of, i, 612
ear sac in, i, 120
figure of, i, 449
pectoral fin in, i, 60
shoulder-girdle in, i, 86, 88
Dipnoi, i, 77, 85, 89, 382
Diptera, ii, 306
Dipteridæ, i, 612
Dipterus, i, 612
figure of, i, 437, 449
Discobatis, i, 553
Discocephali, ii, 459-480
Gill on, ii, 470
suborder of, ii, 468
diseases of fishes, i, 340-358
contagious, i, 340
parasitic, i, 342
remedies for, i, 342
Dismal Swamp fish,
figure of, i, 116; ii, 201
dispersion of fishes,
Agassiz on, i, 284
barriers to, i, 297, 310, 311
Diplospondyli, i, 509, 523
Diplurus, i, 605
Dipneusti, i, 405, 462, 582, 599, 601, 605, 607, 622, 624; ii, 4
relationship of, i, 609, 610
subclass of, i, 609-622
Dipnoans, i, 436, 512, 572, 582, 583; ii, 3, 8
air-bladder in, i, 101
classification of, i, 612
ear sac in, i, 120
figure of, i, 449
pectoral fin in, i, 60
shoulder-girdle in, i, 86, 88
Dipnoi, i, 77, 85, 89, 382
Diptera, ii, 306
Dipteridæ, i, 612
Dipterus, i, 612
figure of, i, 437, 449
Discobatis, i, 553
Discocephali, ii, 459-480
Gill on, ii, 470
suborder of, ii, 468
diseases of fishes, i, 340-358
contagious, i, 340
parasitic, i, 342
remedies for, i, 342
Dismal Swamp fish,
figure of, i, 116; ii, 201
dispersion of fishes,
Agassiz on, i, 284
barriers to, i, 297, 310, 311
Page 705
causes of, i, 318
Cope on, i, 286
by floods, i, 301
of fresh-water fishes, 282-296
of river fishes, 297-319
dissection of the fish, i, 26-33
Distomidæ, i, 477
distribution of fishes,
affected by coast line, i, 247, 261
agency of currents in, i, 242
centers of, i, 243
determined by temperature, i, 241
of fresh-water forms, i, 249
general laws of, i, 238
of marine forms, i, 245
Panama, barrier to, i, 266
of shore fishes, i, 263-265
Suez, barrier to, i, 266
zones of, i, 249, 251, 252
Ditrema, ii, 375
Dittodus, i, 521, 525
doctor-fish, ii, 408
Döderlein, i, 411, 416
dogfishes, i, 519
figure of, i, 545
dogoro, ii, 381
dog salmon, ii, 71-73, 80, 81
dog snapper, ii, 336
Dolichoglossus, i, 463
Doliolum, i, 479
dollar-fish, ii, 283
Cope on, i, 286
by floods, i, 301
of fresh-water fishes, 282-296
of river fishes, 297-319
dissection of the fish, i, 26-33
Distomidæ, i, 477
distribution of fishes,
affected by coast line, i, 247, 261
agency of currents in, i, 242
centers of, i, 243
determined by temperature, i, 241
of fresh-water forms, i, 249
general laws of, i, 238
of marine forms, i, 245
Panama, barrier to, i, 266
of shore fishes, i, 263-265
Suez, barrier to, i, 266
zones of, i, 249, 251, 252
Ditrema, ii, 375
Dittodus, i, 521, 525
doctor-fish, ii, 408
Döderlein, i, 411, 416
dogfishes, i, 519
figure of, i, 545
dogoro, ii, 381
dog salmon, ii, 71-73, 80, 81
dog snapper, ii, 336
Dolichoglossus, i, 463
Doliolum, i, 479
dollar-fish, ii, 283
Page 706
Dollo, i, 415, 427, 600, 601; ii, 502
portrait of, i, 413
on tail forms, i, 84
Dolloa, ii, 541
Dolly Varden trout, i, 305; ii, 112, 113
figure of, i, 327; ii, 114
dolphins, i, 210; ii, 286, 362
figure of, ii, 287
Doncella,
figure of, i, 297; ii, 180, 396
Donovan, i, 410
dorados, ii, 286
figure of, ii, 287
Doras, ii, 183
Doratonotus, ii, 388
Dormeur,
figure of, ii, 460
Dormitator,
figure of, ii, 461
dorsal fin, i, 10, 603
figured, i, 49
Dorosoma, i, 32, 300
figure of, ii, 53
Dorosomatidæ, ii, 53
Dorosomidæ, i, 290
Doryichthys, ii, 236
Dorypteridæ, ii, 14-16
Dorypterus, ii, 15, 16
Draciscus,
portrait of, i, 413
on tail forms, i, 84
Dolloa, ii, 541
Dolly Varden trout, i, 305; ii, 112, 113
figure of, i, 327; ii, 114
dolphins, i, 210; ii, 286, 362
figure of, ii, 287
Doncella,
figure of, i, 297; ii, 180, 396
Donovan, i, 410
dorados, ii, 286
figure of, ii, 287
Doras, ii, 183
Doratonotus, ii, 388
Dormeur,
figure of, ii, 460
Dormitator,
figure of, ii, 461
dorsal fin, i, 10, 603
figured, i, 49
Dorosoma, i, 32, 300
figure of, ii, 53
Dorosomatidæ, ii, 53
Dorosomidæ, i, 290
Doryichthys, ii, 236
Dorypteridæ, ii, 14-16
Dorypterus, ii, 15, 16
Draciscus,
Page 707
figure of, ii, 452
Draconetta, ii, 506
Draconettidæ, ii, 506
dragonets, i, 246; ii, 504
drawing net at Milo,
photograph of, i, 281
Drepane, ii, 401
Drepanaspidæ, i, 574
Drepanaspis, i, 570
figure of, i, 574
Drepanidæ, ii, 401
Drepaniodus, i, 488
drum, i, 290
figure of, ii, 358
duck-billed eels, ii, 150, 151
Ductor, ii, 278
ducts, i, 28
ductus cholidechus, i, 32
Dufosse,
on air-bladder, i, 97
Dugès, i, 90, 420
Dugunonutatatori, ii, 472
Duméril, i, 398, 401
duodenum, i, 32
Dussumieriidæ, ii, 52
Dussumieria, ii, 52
Duverncy, i, 390
Draconetta, ii, 506
Draconettidæ, ii, 506
dragonets, i, 246; ii, 504
drawing net at Milo,
photograph of, i, 281
Drepane, ii, 401
Drepanaspidæ, i, 574
Drepanaspis, i, 570
figure of, i, 574
Drepanidæ, ii, 401
Drepaniodus, i, 488
drum, i, 290
figure of, ii, 358
duck-billed eels, ii, 150, 151
Ductor, ii, 278
ducts, i, 28
ductus cholidechus, i, 32
Dufosse,
on air-bladder, i, 97
Dugès, i, 90, 420
Dugunonutatatori, ii, 472
Duméril, i, 398, 401
duodenum, i, 32
Dussumieriidæ, ii, 52
Dussumieria, ii, 52
Duverncy, i, 390
Page 708
Duymæria, i, 260; ii, 390
dwarf,
herring, ii, 54
perch, ii, 306
salmon, ii, 117
sunfish, ii, 467
Dybowsky, i, 411
Dynatobatis, i, 553
Dysommidæ, ii, 150
Dytiscus, ii, 144
eagle ray,
figure of, i, 558
early writers on fishes, i, 272, 422, 423
earliest sharks, i, 436, 443
ear of fish, i, 119-121
ear sac, i, 119, 120
ear stones, i, 119
earthquakes,
fatal to fishes, i, 356; ii, 137
Eastman, i, 427, 428
on Cestraciont shark, i, 529
on Clastes, ii, 32
on Neoceratodus, i, 619
portrait of, i, 425
on teeth of Edestus, i, 530
Ebisu, the god of fishes, ii, 344
figure of, ii, 343
Ebisus, ii, 323
Echeneididæ, ii, 468, 470
dwarf,
herring, ii, 54
perch, ii, 306
salmon, ii, 117
sunfish, ii, 467
Dybowsky, i, 411
Dynatobatis, i, 553
Dysommidæ, ii, 150
Dytiscus, ii, 144
eagle ray,
figure of, i, 558
early writers on fishes, i, 272, 422, 423
earliest sharks, i, 436, 443
ear of fish, i, 119-121
ear sac, i, 119, 120
ear stones, i, 119
earthquakes,
fatal to fishes, i, 356; ii, 137
Eastman, i, 427, 428
on Cestraciont shark, i, 529
on Clastes, ii, 32
on Neoceratodus, i, 619
portrait of, i, 425
on teeth of Edestus, i, 530
Ebisu, the god of fishes, ii, 344
figure of, ii, 343
Ebisus, ii, 323
Echeneididæ, ii, 468, 470
Page 709
Echeneis, i, 391; ii, 468, 470, 471
Echidna, i, 211; ii, 152, 153
Echidnocephalus, ii, 138
Echinorhinidæ,
family of, i, 547
Echinorhinus, i, 547
Echiodon, i, 84
economic fishes, i, 333
ectoblast, i, 152
ectocoracoid, i, 87
ectoderm, i, 139
ectopterygoid, i, 606
Edaphodon, i, 565
Edestus,
teeth of, figured, i, 529
eel-back flounder,
figure of, ii, 494
eel-fairs, ii, 142
eel-like fishes, ii, 137-158
eel-mother, ii, 144
eel-pouts,
figure of, ii, 518, 519
eels, i, 21, 210, 217, 268, 290; ii, 40, 44, 147, 153, 157
Cope on, ii, 139
Günther on, ii, 141
larva of, figured, ii, 148
migration of, ii, 142
reproduction of, ii, 143
species of, ii, 148
Echidna, i, 211; ii, 152, 153
Echidnocephalus, ii, 138
Echinorhinidæ,
family of, i, 547
Echinorhinus, i, 547
Echiodon, i, 84
economic fishes, i, 333
ectoblast, i, 152
ectocoracoid, i, 87
ectoderm, i, 139
ectopterygoid, i, 606
Edaphodon, i, 565
Edestus,
teeth of, figured, i, 529
eel-back flounder,
figure of, ii, 494
eel-fairs, ii, 142
eel-like fishes, ii, 137-158
eel-mother, ii, 144
eel-pouts,
figure of, ii, 518, 519
eels, i, 21, 210, 217, 268, 290; ii, 40, 44, 147, 153, 157
Cope on, ii, 139
Günther on, ii, 141
larva of, figured, ii, 148
migration of, ii, 142
reproduction of, ii, 143
species of, ii, 148
Page 710
shoulder-girdle in, ii, 142
Woodward on, ii, 140
effects on distribution,
of shore line, i, 262
of temperature, i, 149
Egerton, i, 423
Egertonia, ii, 396
eggs of fish,
artificial impregnation of, i, 150
of bottle-nosed chimæra, i, 127
care of, i, 128
carrying of, i, 128, 171
of Embiotocidæ, i, 127
embryo of, i, 128
fertilization of, i, 125
figures of, i, 127
germ disk in, i, 135
hatching of, i, 125
of herring, i, 125
month incubation of, i, 170, 171
transportation of, i, 171
Eichwald, i, 411, 427
Eigenmann, i, 415, 420; ii, 147, 148, 376
on blind fishes, i, 117, 221, 222; ii, 202, 523
on Nematognathi, ii, 178
photograph by, i, 222
portrait of, i, 417
Eigenmannia, ii, 187
eighteen-spined sculpin,
figure of, ii, 447
Ekström, i, 410
Elacate, ii, 282, 470, 471
Woodward on, ii, 140
effects on distribution,
of shore line, i, 262
of temperature, i, 149
Egerton, i, 423
Egertonia, ii, 396
eggs of fish,
artificial impregnation of, i, 150
of bottle-nosed chimæra, i, 127
care of, i, 128
carrying of, i, 128, 171
of Embiotocidæ, i, 127
embryo of, i, 128
fertilization of, i, 125
figures of, i, 127
germ disk in, i, 135
hatching of, i, 125
of herring, i, 125
month incubation of, i, 170, 171
transportation of, i, 171
Eichwald, i, 411, 427
Eigenmann, i, 415, 420; ii, 147, 148, 376
on blind fishes, i, 117, 221, 222; ii, 202, 523
on Nematognathi, ii, 178
photograph by, i, 222
portrait of, i, 417
Eigenmannia, ii, 187
eighteen-spined sculpin,
figure of, ii, 447
Ekström, i, 410
Elacate, ii, 282, 470, 471
Page 711
Elagatis, ii, 274
Elanura,
figure of, ii, 444
Elasmobranchiates, i, 384
Elasmobranchii, i, 462, 507, 584; ii, 7
Elasmobranchs, i, 92, 102, 204, 506-522, 571, 583, 588, 589
characters of, i, 506-508
classification of, i, 507-510
ear sac in, i, 120
geological distribution of, i, 459
notochord in, i, 57
subclass of, i, 507
Elassoma, i, 290; ii, 296, 307, 467
figure of, ii, 295
Elassomidæ, i, 290; ii, 296
family of, ii, 295
elastic spring, i, 96
Elater, i, 582
electric catfish,
figure of, ii, 183
electric cells, i, 553
electric eel, i, 186; ii, 140
Day on, i, 170
electric organs, i, 25, 186, 187
electrophores, ii, 187, 188
Electrophoridæ, ii, 187
Electrophorus, i, 170, 186
Eleotrids, ii, 460
Eleotris, i, 254
figure of, ii, 460
Elanura,
figure of, ii, 444
Elasmobranchiates, i, 384
Elasmobranchii, i, 462, 507, 584; ii, 7
Elasmobranchs, i, 92, 102, 204, 506-522, 571, 583, 588, 589
characters of, i, 506-508
classification of, i, 507-510
ear sac in, i, 120
geological distribution of, i, 459
notochord in, i, 57
subclass of, i, 507
Elassoma, i, 290; ii, 296, 307, 467
figure of, ii, 295
Elassomidæ, i, 290; ii, 296
family of, ii, 295
elastic spring, i, 96
Elater, i, 582
electric catfish,
figure of, ii, 183
electric cells, i, 553
electric eel, i, 186; ii, 140
Day on, i, 170
electric organs, i, 25, 186, 187
electrophores, ii, 187, 188
Electrophoridæ, ii, 187
Electrophorus, i, 170, 186
Eleotrids, ii, 460
Eleotris, i, 254
figure of, ii, 460
Page 712
Elera, i, 414
Eleginus, ii, 537
elephant sharks, i, 540
figure of, i, 565
Elliott,
on trout, ii, 105
Elonichthys, ii, 14
Elopidæ, i, 43; ii, 35, 41-44
Elopopsis, ii, 43
Elops, i, 205, 393; ii, 43, 221
figure of, i, 454; ii, 42
Embiotoca, i, 404
Embiotocidæ, i, 207, 290; ii, 373
Agassiz on, i, 377-379
anal fin in, i, 125
viviparity of, i, 376, 377
Emblemaria,
figure of, ii, 510
embryo, i, 136, 138, 139
embryology and growth, i, 131-151
Embolichthys, ii, 522
figure of, ii, 521
emerald-fish, ii, 462
Emery, i, 412; ii, 480, 481
Emmelichthys, i, 262; ii, 346, 347
Emmydrichthys,
figure of, i, 180; ii, 436
Empetrichthys,
figure of, ii, 199
Eleginus, ii, 537
elephant sharks, i, 540
figure of, i, 565
Elliott,
on trout, ii, 105
Elonichthys, ii, 14
Elopidæ, i, 43; ii, 35, 41-44
Elopopsis, ii, 43
Elops, i, 205, 393; ii, 43, 221
figure of, i, 454; ii, 42
Embiotoca, i, 404
Embiotocidæ, i, 207, 290; ii, 373
Agassiz on, i, 377-379
anal fin in, i, 125
viviparity of, i, 376, 377
Emblemaria,
figure of, ii, 510
embryo, i, 136, 138, 139
embryology and growth, i, 131-151
Embolichthys, ii, 522
figure of, ii, 521
emerald-fish, ii, 462
Emery, i, 412; ii, 480, 481
Emmelichthys, i, 262; ii, 346, 347
Emmydrichthys,
figure of, i, 180; ii, 436
Empetrichthys,
figure of, ii, 199
Page 713
Empo, ii, 137
Enantioliparis, ii, 455
Enchelurus, ii, 138
Enchelycephali, ii, 140, 141, 147, 152
suborder of, ii, 142
Enchelynassa, ii, 153
Enchelyopus,
figure of, ii, 539
Enchodontidæ, ii, 136, 137
Enchodus, ii, 136
Endoskeleton, i, 439
Enedrias, ii, 512
Engraulididæ, ii, 54
Engraulis, i, 205; ii, 54
Enneacanthus, ii, 301
Enophrys,
figure of, ii, 443
Enoplosidæ, ii, 317
Enoplosus, i, 268; ii, 317
Enteropneusta, i, 457, 461, 462
classification of, i, 464
entoderm, i, 138
Entosphenus, i, 490
entozoa, i, 348
Eocottus, ii, 449
Eomyrus, ii, 150
Eopsetta, i, 205; 491
Enantioliparis, ii, 455
Enchelurus, ii, 138
Enchelycephali, ii, 140, 141, 147, 152
suborder of, ii, 142
Enchelynassa, ii, 153
Enchelyopus,
figure of, ii, 539
Enchodontidæ, ii, 136, 137
Enchodus, ii, 136
Endoskeleton, i, 439
Enedrias, ii, 512
Engraulididæ, ii, 54
Engraulis, i, 205; ii, 54
Enneacanthus, ii, 301
Enophrys,
figure of, ii, 443
Enoplosidæ, ii, 317
Enoplosus, i, 268; ii, 317
Enteropneusta, i, 457, 461, 462
classification of, i, 464
entoderm, i, 138
Entosphenus, i, 490
entozoa, i, 348
Eocottus, ii, 449
Eomyrus, ii, 150
Eopsetta, i, 205; 491
Page 714
Eothynnus, ii, 266
Epelasmia, ii, 397, 398
Eperlanus, ii, 123
Ephippidæ, ii, 400
Ephippus, i, 268; ii, 400
epiblast, ii, 5
Epigonichthys, i, 483
Epigonus, ii, 317
Epinephelus, i, 19; ii, 323, 330
figure of, i, 20; ii, 324-326, 328
Epiphysis, i, 112
figure of, i, 111
Eptatretidæ, i, 489
Eptatretus, i, 490
figure of, i, 198
equatorial fishes,
specialization of, i, 248
equatorial zone, i, 251
Eques, ii, 357
Equula, ii, 287
Erebus, i, 408
Ereunias,
figure of, ii, 450
Ereuniidæ, ii, 449
Ericymba,
figure of, ii, 165
Erimyzon, i, 292; ii, 175
figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
Epelasmia, ii, 397, 398
Eperlanus, ii, 123
Ephippidæ, ii, 400
Ephippus, i, 268; ii, 400
epiblast, ii, 5
Epigonichthys, i, 483
Epigonus, ii, 317
Epinephelus, i, 19; ii, 323, 330
figure of, i, 20; ii, 324-326, 328
Epiphysis, i, 112
figure of, i, 111
Eptatretidæ, i, 489
Eptatretus, i, 490
figure of, i, 198
equatorial fishes,
specialization of, i, 248
equatorial zone, i, 251
Eques, ii, 357
Equula, ii, 287
Erebus, i, 408
Ereunias,
figure of, ii, 450
Ereuniidæ, ii, 449
Ericymba,
figure of, ii, 165
Erimyzon, i, 292; ii, 175
figure of, i, 315; ii, 172
Page 715
Eriptychius, i, 435, 603, 578
Erisichthe, ii, 34
Erismatopteridæ, ii, 242, 296
Erismatopterus, ii, 243
figure of, ii, 242
Ernogrammus, ii, 513
Erosa, ii, 436
Erpetichthys, i, 204
Erpetoichthys, i, 450
figure of, i, 608
Erpichthys, i, 608; ii, 510
Erythrichthys, ii, 347
Erythrinidæ, ii, 162
Erythrinus, ii, 160
escolars, ii, 267, 317
Esmarck, i, 410
Esmeralda, ii, 462
esmeralda de mar,
figure of, ii, 461
Esocidæ, i, 290; ii, 190, 192
Esox, i, 109, 253, 315, 327, 391; ii, 190, 194
figure of, i, 328; ii, 192
Etelis, i, 262; ii, 338
figure of, ii, 337
Etheostoma, i, 129, 283; ii, 310, 315
figure of, i, 231; ii, 314
Etheostominæ, i, 230, 232; ii, 166, 306, 307, 310
ethmoid, ii, 142
Erisichthe, ii, 34
Erismatopteridæ, ii, 242, 296
Erismatopterus, ii, 243
figure of, ii, 242
Ernogrammus, ii, 513
Erosa, ii, 436
Erpetichthys, i, 204
Erpetoichthys, i, 450
figure of, i, 608
Erpichthys, i, 608; ii, 510
Erythrichthys, ii, 347
Erythrinidæ, ii, 162
Erythrinus, ii, 160
escolars, ii, 267, 317
Esmarck, i, 410
Esmeralda, ii, 462
esmeralda de mar,
figure of, ii, 461
Esocidæ, i, 290; ii, 190, 192
Esox, i, 109, 253, 315, 327, 391; ii, 190, 194
figure of, i, 328; ii, 192
Etelis, i, 262; ii, 338
figure of, ii, 337
Etheostoma, i, 129, 283; ii, 310, 315
figure of, i, 231; ii, 314
Etheostominæ, i, 230, 232; ii, 166, 306, 307, 310
ethmoid, ii, 142
Page 716
Etmopterus,
figure of, i, 189, 546
etrumei-iwashi, ii, 52
Etrumeus, ii, 52
Eucalia, ii, 232
Eucitharus,
figure of, ii, 488
Eucinostomus, ii, 347
Eugnathidæ, ii, 26
eulachon, i, 321; ii, 19, 125, 126
figure of, i, 320; ii, 124
Euleptorhamphus, ii, 212
Eumicrotremus, ii, 135
Euphaneropidæ, i, 576
Euphrosen, i, 396
Eupomotis, i, 283
figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, 301
European chub,
pharyngeals of, i, 48
teeth of, figured, ii, 164
European lancelet,
figure of, i, 120
European sculpin,
figure of, i, 219
European soles, ii, 496
Eurylepis, ii, 14
Eurynotus,
figure of, ii, 15
Eurypharyngidæ, ii, 156
figure of, i, 189, 546
etrumei-iwashi, ii, 52
Etrumeus, ii, 52
Eucalia, ii, 232
Eucitharus,
figure of, ii, 488
Eucinostomus, ii, 347
Eugnathidæ, ii, 26
eulachon, i, 321; ii, 19, 125, 126
figure of, i, 320; ii, 124
Euleptorhamphus, ii, 212
Eumicrotremus, ii, 135
Euphaneropidæ, i, 576
Euphrosen, i, 396
Eupomotis, i, 283
figure of, i, 7, 13; ii, 301
European chub,
pharyngeals of, i, 48
teeth of, figured, ii, 164
European lancelet,
figure of, i, 120
European sculpin,
figure of, i, 219
European soles, ii, 496
Eurylepis, ii, 14
Eurynotus,
figure of, ii, 15
Eurypharyngidæ, ii, 156
Page 717
Eurypharynx, ii, 156
Eurypholis,
figure of, ii, 136, 137
Euselachii, i, 532
Eusthenopteron, i, 603
Eutæniichthys,
figure of, ii, 467
Euthynotus, ii, 34
Evenchelys, ii, 153
Eventognathi, i, 405; ii, 160, 162
everglade minnow,
figure of, ii, 197
everglade pigmy perch,
figure of, ii, 295
Evermann, ii, 69, 100, 103, 354
on Panama fishes, i, 274
portrait of, i, 421
on Two Ocean Pass, i, 307-310
Evermannellidæ, ii, 135
Evermannella, ii, 136
Eviota, ii, 460, 467
evolution of fishes, i, 223-225, 435-459
Dean on, i, 223
Exerpes,
figure of, i, 276; ii, 511
Exocœtidæ, ii, 210, 211, 214
Exocœtoididæ, ii, 134
Exocœtoides, ii, 133
Exocœtus, i, 391; ii, 213
Eurypholis,
figure of, ii, 136, 137
Euselachii, i, 532
Eusthenopteron, i, 603
Eutæniichthys,
figure of, ii, 467
Euthynotus, ii, 34
Evenchelys, ii, 153
Eventognathi, i, 405; ii, 160, 162
everglade minnow,
figure of, ii, 197
everglade pigmy perch,
figure of, ii, 295
Evermann, ii, 69, 100, 103, 354
on Panama fishes, i, 274
portrait of, i, 421
on Two Ocean Pass, i, 307-310
Evermannellidæ, ii, 135
Evermannella, ii, 136
Eviota, ii, 460, 467
evolution of fishes, i, 223-225, 435-459
Dean on, i, 223
Exerpes,
figure of, i, 276; ii, 511
Exocœtidæ, ii, 210, 211, 214
Exocœtoididæ, ii, 134
Exocœtoides, ii, 133
Exocœtus, i, 391; ii, 213
Page 718
Exoglossum,
head of, figured, ii, 167
Exonautes, ii, 213
exoskeleton, i, 20
Exostoma, ii, 184
extension of Indian fauna, i, 267
exterior of fish, i, 16-25
external gills,
figure of, i, 78, 602
Kerr on, i, 76
Mauer on, i, 77
Orr on, i, 77
Rusconi on, i, 77
extinction of species, i, 240
causes of, i, 241
Eyclesheimer, i, 428
Eydoux, i, 408
eye of fish, i, 119
eye of flounder,
in larval stage, i, 174
migration of, i, 173-176
Williams on, i, 174-178
eye-of-the-sea, ii, 361
Faber, i, 396
Fabricius, i, 394
Facciola, i, 412
factors of extinction, i, 442
fading of pigment in spirits, i, 235
head of, figured, ii, 167
Exonautes, ii, 213
exoskeleton, i, 20
Exostoma, ii, 184
extension of Indian fauna, i, 267
exterior of fish, i, 16-25
external gills,
figure of, i, 78, 602
Kerr on, i, 76
Mauer on, i, 77
Orr on, i, 77
Rusconi on, i, 77
extinction of species, i, 240
causes of, i, 241
Eyclesheimer, i, 428
Eydoux, i, 408
eye of fish, i, 119
eye of flounder,
in larval stage, i, 174
migration of, i, 173-176
Williams on, i, 174-178
eye-of-the-sea, ii, 361
Faber, i, 396
Fabricius, i, 394
Facciola, i, 412
factors of extinction, i, 442
fading of pigment in spirits, i, 235
Page 719
fair maid, ii, 344
fallfish, i, 311; ii, 167
fall-salmon, ii, 80
family,
definition of, i, 373
fan-tailed darter, ii, 315
Farquhar,
on Opah, ii, 244
fat cod, ii, 440
fat head, ii, 388
fatherlasher, ii, 445
faunal areas,
minor, i, 248
of Japanese fishes, i, 257
faunal resemblances, i, 259, 260
faunal differences, i, 260, 261
favorable waters have most species, i, 301
fear in fishes, i, 163
expressions of, i, 165
Felichthys,
figure of, ii, 179
fiatola, ii, 283
Fierasfer, i, 84; ii, 520
figure of, i, 159; ii, 522, 523
Fierasferidæ, ii, 158, 522
fighting-fish, ii, 370
of Siam, i, 163
filefish, ii, 413-415
figure of, i, 182
fallfish, i, 311; ii, 167
fall-salmon, ii, 80
family,
definition of, i, 373
fan-tailed darter, ii, 315
Farquhar,
on Opah, ii, 244
fat cod, ii, 440
fat head, ii, 388
fatherlasher, ii, 445
faunal areas,
minor, i, 248
of Japanese fishes, i, 257
faunal resemblances, i, 259, 260
faunal differences, i, 260, 261
favorable waters have most species, i, 301
fear in fishes, i, 163
expressions of, i, 165
Felichthys,
figure of, ii, 179
fiatola, ii, 283
Fierasfer, i, 84; ii, 520
figure of, i, 159; ii, 522, 523
Fierasferidæ, ii, 158, 522
fighting-fish, ii, 370
of Siam, i, 163
filefish, ii, 413-415
figure of, i, 182
Page 720
filiform, i, 19
Filippi, i, 412
finfold, i, 63, 64
Balfour's theory of, i, 69
fin migration,
Dean on, i, 75
of Heterodontus, i, 75
finnan haddie, ii, 537
fins of fishes,
described, i, 9, 10, 20, 24, 25
migration of, i, 75
morphology of, i, 62-90
origin of, i, 62
fin-spines, i, 528, 529; ii, 39
of Hybodus, i, 528, 529
of Onchus, figured, i, 509
Fischer,
on fishes of Panama, i, 275
Fish Commission,
fish stocking by, i, 346
fisheries,
economic, i, 337
salmon, i, 81, 87
fishes,
in action, i, 11
adaptation to environment, i, 156
affection of, i, 167
affected by temperature, i, 149
age of, i, 144, 146
air-bladder of, i, 12, 92, 93
alimentary canal in, i, 31
anadromous, i, 156, 160, 291
anger of, i, 165
Filippi, i, 412
finfold, i, 63, 64
Balfour's theory of, i, 69
fin migration,
Dean on, i, 75
of Heterodontus, i, 75
finnan haddie, ii, 537
fins of fishes,
described, i, 9, 10, 20, 24, 25
migration of, i, 75
morphology of, i, 62-90
origin of, i, 62
fin-spines, i, 528, 529; ii, 39
of Hybodus, i, 528, 529
of Onchus, figured, i, 509
Fischer,
on fishes of Panama, i, 275
Fish Commission,
fish stocking by, i, 346
fisheries,
economic, i, 337
salmon, i, 81, 87
fishes,
in action, i, 11
adaptation to environment, i, 156
affection of, i, 167
affected by temperature, i, 149
age of, i, 144, 146
air-bladder of, i, 12, 92, 93
alimentary canal in, i, 31
anadromous, i, 156, 160, 291
anger of, i, 165
Page 721
in aquaria, i, 150, 165
blood of, i, 11
body form of, i, 16
bones of, i, 10
bony, i, 454, 506
brain of, i, 12, 14, 109, 112
breathing of, i, 5, 91, 103
of British Museum, i, 402
burrowing of, ii, 463, 465
care of eggs by, i, 128
catadromous, i, 162, 291
catalogues of, i, 402
channel, i, 291
circulatory organs of, i, 26
classification of, i, 367-386
of Coal Measures, i, 223
collecting of, i, 429
color and coloration of, i, 6, 129, 226-236
conditions of life of, i, 215
of coral reefs, i, 235
currents affecting, i, 243, 244
deep sea, i, 408
definition of, i, 3
degeneration in, i, 54, 216, 218-220; ii, 547
digestion and digestive organs of, i, 11, 26
diœcious, i, 124
dispersion of, i, 318
diseases of, i, 340-358
dissection of, i, 26, 27
distortion in, i, 129
distribution of, i, 237-255, 435
domestication of, i, 149, 151
ear of, i, 8, 119-121
earliest forms of, i, 443
eggs of, i, 125-135
electric organs of, i, 25; ii, 187
embryology of, i, 131-151
blood of, i, 11
body form of, i, 16
bones of, i, 10
bony, i, 454, 506
brain of, i, 12, 14, 109, 112
breathing of, i, 5, 91, 103
of British Museum, i, 402
burrowing of, ii, 463, 465
care of eggs by, i, 128
catadromous, i, 162, 291
catalogues of, i, 402
channel, i, 291
circulatory organs of, i, 26
classification of, i, 367-386
of Coal Measures, i, 223
collecting of, i, 429
color and coloration of, i, 6, 129, 226-236
conditions of life of, i, 215
of coral reefs, i, 235
currents affecting, i, 243, 244
deep sea, i, 408
definition of, i, 3
degeneration in, i, 54, 216, 218-220; ii, 547
digestion and digestive organs of, i, 11, 26
diœcious, i, 124
dispersion of, i, 318
diseases of, i, 340-358
dissection of, i, 26, 27
distortion in, i, 129
distribution of, i, 237-255, 435
domestication of, i, 149, 151
ear of, i, 8, 119-121
earliest forms of, i, 443
eggs of, i, 125-135
electric organs of, i, 25; ii, 187
embryology of, i, 131-151
Page 722
evolution in, i, 223, 435-459
exterior of, i, 16-25
extinct, i, 224
eye of, i, 6, 119
eye-stalks of, ii, 466
face of, i, 5
fins of, i, 9, 10, 24
flight of, i, 167
flow of blood in, i, 107
as food for man, i, 320-339
food of, i, 11, 29
form of, i, 4
fossil, i, 422-428
fresh-water, i, 250
gall-bladder in, i, 26
generalized forms of, i, 224
gills of, i, 92
growth of, i, 30, 144
habits of, i, 152
hearing of, i, 8, 119
heart of, i, 11, 28, 106
herbivorous, i, 30, 155; ii, 364
hermaphrodite, i, 124
homologies of bones in, i, 34
hybridism in, i, 144
instincts of, i, 154
intestines of, i, 33
intromittent organ in, i, 124
with jugular fins, i, 456
kidneys of, i, 11, 28
killed by earthquakes, i, 356
Labyrinthine, ii, 365
larval forms, i, 142, 620, 621
lateral line of, i, 9
life cycle of, i, 3-5, 152
lowland, i, 291
luminous organs of, i, 188-190
exterior of, i, 16-25
extinct, i, 224
eye of, i, 6, 119
eye-stalks of, ii, 466
face of, i, 5
fins of, i, 9, 10, 24
flight of, i, 167
flow of blood in, i, 107
as food for man, i, 320-339
food of, i, 11, 29
form of, i, 4
fossil, i, 422-428
fresh-water, i, 250
gall-bladder in, i, 26
generalized forms of, i, 224
gills of, i, 92
growth of, i, 30, 144
habits of, i, 152
hearing of, i, 8, 119
heart of, i, 11, 28, 106
herbivorous, i, 30, 155; ii, 364
hermaphrodite, i, 124
homologies of bones in, i, 34
hybridism in, i, 144
instincts of, i, 154
intestines of, i, 33
intromittent organ in, i, 124
with jugular fins, i, 456
kidneys of, i, 11, 28
killed by earthquakes, i, 356
Labyrinthine, ii, 365
larval forms, i, 142, 620, 621
lateral line of, i, 9
life cycle of, i, 3-5, 152
lowland, i, 291
luminous organs of, i, 188-190
Page 723
lungs of, i, 98
measurements of, i, 19
migration of, i, 160
monstrosities among, i, 151
mortality among, i, 357
mountain, i, 291
mouth of, i, 29
muscles of, i, 25
mythology of, i, 359
naturalization of, i, 150
nerves of, i, 12, 14, 109, 113; ii, 368
nests and nest-building of, i, 15, 167, 128; ii, 184, 229-231
noises of, i, 121, 168
nostril of, i, 6
nuptial colors in, i, 155, 156
nutrition organs of, i, 29
organs of,
locomotion, i, 24
phosphorescence, i, 194
reproduction, i, 28, 124-130
sense, i, 115-123
sight, i, 6, 116
smell, i, 115
taste, i, 121
touch, i, 122
ovaries, i, 26
oviparous, i, 125
ovoviviparous, i, 125
pain, sense of, in, i, 123
parasites of, i, 340-344
parasitic, i, 198
pectoral limb of, i, 50
pelagic, i, 156
pineal eye in, i, 111
poisonous, i, 180-185, 236; ii, 177, 411, 413, 421, 433,436, 526
postembryonic development, i, 132
posterior limbs of, i, 53
measurements of, i, 19
migration of, i, 160
monstrosities among, i, 151
mortality among, i, 357
mountain, i, 291
mouth of, i, 29
muscles of, i, 25
mythology of, i, 359
naturalization of, i, 150
nerves of, i, 12, 14, 109, 113; ii, 368
nests and nest-building of, i, 15, 167, 128; ii, 184, 229-231
noises of, i, 121, 168
nostril of, i, 6
nuptial colors in, i, 155, 156
nutrition organs of, i, 29
organs of,
locomotion, i, 24
phosphorescence, i, 194
reproduction, i, 28, 124-130
sense, i, 115-123
sight, i, 6, 116
smell, i, 115
taste, i, 121
touch, i, 122
ovaries, i, 26
oviparous, i, 125
ovoviviparous, i, 125
pain, sense of, in, i, 123
parasites of, i, 340-344
parasitic, i, 198
pectoral limb of, i, 50
pelagic, i, 156
pineal eye in, i, 111
poisonous, i, 180-185, 236; ii, 177, 411, 413, 421, 433,436, 526
postembryonic development, i, 132
posterior limbs of, i, 53
Page 724
preservation of, i, 431
problem of highest, i, 383
protection of young by, i, 128
pugnacity of, i, 162
recognition marks in, i, 7, 232, 236
records of, i, 433
scales of, i, 20
sensitiveness to change, i, 150
sexual modifications in, i, 129
shoulder-girdle of, i, 50, 52
skeleton of, i, 10, 214, 215
specialization in, i, 219, 220, 224, 249; ii, 438
spinal cord of, i, 112
spineless, i, 25
spiral valve in, i, 32
tail of, i, 49
teeth of, i, 5, 29
tenacity of life in, i, 146, 147
timidity of, i, 166
tongue of, i, 6, 31
upland, i, 291
variety in tropics, i, 333
viscera of, i, 26
viviparous, i, 125; ii, 376
voices of, i, 121
where found, i, 158, 159
zeoid, ii, 245
fishes as food, i, 320-339
fishes of Panama,
Evermann on, i, 274
Fischer on, i, 275
Günther on, i, 272, 273
Hill on, i, 277
Upham on, i, 276
Wright on, i, 275
fish faunas,
problem of highest, i, 383
protection of young by, i, 128
pugnacity of, i, 162
recognition marks in, i, 7, 232, 236
records of, i, 433
scales of, i, 20
sensitiveness to change, i, 150
sexual modifications in, i, 129
shoulder-girdle of, i, 50, 52
skeleton of, i, 10, 214, 215
specialization in, i, 219, 220, 224, 249; ii, 438
spinal cord of, i, 112
spineless, i, 25
spiral valve in, i, 32
tail of, i, 49
teeth of, i, 5, 29
tenacity of life in, i, 146, 147
timidity of, i, 166
tongue of, i, 6, 31
upland, i, 291
variety in tropics, i, 333
viscera of, i, 26
viviparous, i, 125; ii, 376
voices of, i, 121
where found, i, 158, 159
zeoid, ii, 245
fishes as food, i, 320-339
fishes of Panama,
Evermann on, i, 274
Fischer on, i, 275
Günther on, i, 272, 273
Hill on, i, 277
Upham on, i, 276
Wright on, i, 275
fish faunas,
Page 725
genera in, i, 262, 263
Indian, i, 267
of Japan, i, 255, 256, 259
of Mediterranean, i, 259
of Panama, i, 267
separated by barriers, i, 255-281
fish fighting, i, 162
fish god of Japan,
figure of, ii, 343
fish guano, i, 538
Fish-Hawk, the, i, 408; ii, 147
fishing,
apparatus for, i, 335
for ayu, i, 333
for tai, figured, i, 338
with cormorants, i, 333, 335
methods of, i, 334
fishing-frog, i, 202; ii, 542
capture of prey by, i, 169
figure of, i, 18; ii, 545, 550
fish-like vertebrates, i, 34
fish of Paradise, ii, 369
Fistularia, i, 85, 393; ii, 233, 390
shoulder-girdle of, ii, 227
Fistulariidæ, ii, 227
family of, ii, 233
Flammeo, ii, 254
flashers, ii, 331
flatfish family, i, 177; ii, 48
flatheads, ii, 441
Flesus, ii, 493
Indian, i, 267
of Japan, i, 255, 256, 259
of Mediterranean, i, 259
of Panama, i, 267
separated by barriers, i, 255-281
fish fighting, i, 162
fish god of Japan,
figure of, ii, 343
fish guano, i, 538
Fish-Hawk, the, i, 408; ii, 147
fishing,
apparatus for, i, 335
for ayu, i, 333
for tai, figured, i, 338
with cormorants, i, 333, 335
methods of, i, 334
fishing-frog, i, 202; ii, 542
capture of prey by, i, 169
figure of, i, 18; ii, 545, 550
fish-like vertebrates, i, 34
fish of Paradise, ii, 369
Fistularia, i, 85, 393; ii, 233, 390
shoulder-girdle of, ii, 227
Fistulariidæ, ii, 227
family of, ii, 233
Flammeo, ii, 254
flashers, ii, 331
flatfish family, i, 177; ii, 48
flatheads, ii, 441
Flesus, ii, 493
Page 726
Fleurieu's whirlpool, ii, 242
flier, ii, 297
flight of fishes, i, 157
Floeberg, ii, 110
Florida jewfish,
figure of, ii, 323
Florida lion-fish,
figure of, ii, 433
flounder, i, 117, 178, 203, 440; ii, 483-485, 488, 493, 494
development of, i, 144
diamond, ii, 493
eel-back, ii, 493
eyes of, i, 118, 174-178
frog, ii, 493
lantern, ii, 488
larval form, i, 176; ii, 483, 484
migration of eye, figured, ii, 484
newly hatched, figured, i, 177
osteology of, ii, 484
peacock, ii, 488
pole, ii, 494
shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, 2
starry, ii, 493
tail of, figured, ii, 486
vertebræ in, i, 205
wide-eyed, ii, 488
wide-eyed, figured, i, 175
young, figured, i, 175; ii, 482
flower of the surf,
figure of, ii, 218
flow of blood in fish, i, 107
flukes, ii, 494
flying-fish, ii, 211-214
flier, ii, 297
flight of fishes, i, 157
Floeberg, ii, 110
Florida jewfish,
figure of, ii, 323
Florida lion-fish,
figure of, ii, 433
flounder, i, 117, 178, 203, 440; ii, 483-485, 488, 493, 494
development of, i, 144
diamond, ii, 493
eel-back, ii, 493
eyes of, i, 118, 174-178
frog, ii, 493
lantern, ii, 488
larval form, i, 176; ii, 483, 484
migration of eye, figured, ii, 484
newly hatched, figured, i, 177
osteology of, ii, 484
peacock, ii, 488
pole, ii, 494
shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, 2
starry, ii, 493
tail of, figured, ii, 486
vertebræ in, i, 205
wide-eyed, ii, 488
wide-eyed, figured, i, 175
young, figured, i, 175; ii, 482
flower of the surf,
figure of, ii, 218
flow of blood in fish, i, 107
flukes, ii, 494
flying-fish, ii, 211-214
Page 727
figure of, i, 157, 341, 440
parasites of, i, 342
flyfish, ii, 429
flying gurnard, ii, 456, 458
figure of, i, 457
flying robin, ii, 458
Fodiator,
figure of, ii, 213
food-fishes,
abundance of, i, 329
relative rank of, i, 320
food of lampreys, i, 491
foolfishes, i, 206; ii, 413
Foot-notes to Evolution,
reference to, i, 302
foramen, i, 92
forelle, i, 327
Forcipiger, ii, 404
Forgy,
on oarfish, ii, 473
Forbes, i, 419
on fish epidemics, i, 340
formalin,
as preservative, i, 432
Forskål, i, 394
Forster, i, 395
fossil capelin, ii, 126, 127
fossil darters, ii, 315
fossil fishes, i, 205; ii, 48, 52, 53, 56, 174
parasites of, i, 342
flyfish, ii, 429
flying gurnard, ii, 456, 458
figure of, i, 457
flying robin, ii, 458
Fodiator,
figure of, ii, 213
food-fishes,
abundance of, i, 329
relative rank of, i, 320
food of lampreys, i, 491
foolfishes, i, 206; ii, 413
Foot-notes to Evolution,
reference to, i, 302
foramen, i, 92
forelle, i, 327
Forcipiger, ii, 404
Forgy,
on oarfish, ii, 473
Forbes, i, 419
on fish epidemics, i, 340
formalin,
as preservative, i, 432
Forskål, i, 394
Forster, i, 395
fossil capelin, ii, 126, 127
fossil darters, ii, 315
fossil fishes, i, 205; ii, 48, 52, 53, 56, 174
Page 728
Agassiz on, i, 422, 423
Dean on, i, 422
earliest forms, i, 568
figure of, i, 436, 454; ii, 47, 59
first period of, i, 423
from Green River, ii, 59
morphological work on, i, 427
second period, i, 424
study of, i, 424
third period, i, 427
fossil gobies, ii, 467
fossil herring,
figure of, i, 453; ii, 52
fossil trout, ii, 62, 118
four-eyed fish,
figure of, i, 117
four-spined stickleback,
figure of, ii, 232
Fowler, i, 422
fox shark, i, 536
Frère Jacques, ii, 255
fresh-water eels, ii, 149
fresh-water fishes, i, 209; ii, 157, 160, 161
dispersion of, i, 282-296
distribution of, i, 249
Günther on, i, 249
of Japan, i, 256
of North America, i, 290
fresh-water minnows, i, 33
fresh-water perch,
figure of, ii, 373
Dean on, i, 422
earliest forms, i, 568
figure of, i, 436, 454; ii, 47, 59
first period of, i, 423
from Green River, ii, 59
morphological work on, i, 427
second period, i, 424
study of, i, 424
third period, i, 427
fossil gobies, ii, 467
fossil herring,
figure of, i, 453; ii, 52
fossil trout, ii, 62, 118
four-eyed fish,
figure of, i, 117
four-spined stickleback,
figure of, ii, 232
Fowler, i, 422
fox shark, i, 536
Frère Jacques, ii, 255
fresh-water eels, ii, 149
fresh-water fishes, i, 209; ii, 157, 160, 161
dispersion of, i, 282-296
distribution of, i, 249
Günther on, i, 249
of Japan, i, 256
of North America, i, 290
fresh-water minnows, i, 33
fresh-water perch,
figure of, ii, 373
Page 729
Friar Odoric,
on fear in fishes, i, 166
Fries, i, 410
frilled shark, i, 361, 516
figure of, i, 525
Fritsch, i, 427, 428, 512
frog,
arm of, figured, i, 601
frogfish, i, 197; ii, 549
figure of, ii, 551
frog flounder, ii, 493
frostfish, ii, 537
Fucus, ii, 512
Fullarton, i, 177
function of lateral line, i, 23
Fundulus, ii, 194, 199
figure of, i, 198
fur seal,
food of, ii, 127, 537
Gadidæ, i, 290; ii, 522, 533
Gadopsidæ, ii, 516
Gadus, i, 209, 391
figure of, i, 331; ii, 533
Gazza, ii, 287
gaff-topsail cat,
figure of, ii, 179
Gaidropsarus, i, 209; ii, 539
Gaimard, i, 406
on fear in fishes, i, 166
Fries, i, 410
frilled shark, i, 361, 516
figure of, i, 525
Fritsch, i, 427, 428, 512
frog,
arm of, figured, i, 601
frogfish, i, 197; ii, 549
figure of, ii, 551
frog flounder, ii, 493
frostfish, ii, 537
Fucus, ii, 512
Fullarton, i, 177
function of lateral line, i, 23
Fundulus, ii, 194, 199
figure of, i, 198
fur seal,
food of, ii, 127, 537
Gadidæ, i, 290; ii, 522, 533
Gadopsidæ, ii, 516
Gadus, i, 209, 391
figure of, i, 331; ii, 533
Gazza, ii, 287
gaff-topsail cat,
figure of, ii, 179
Gaidropsarus, i, 209; ii, 539
Gaimard, i, 406
Page 730
galafata, ii, 413
Galaxias, i, 223, 252, 253, 254
Boulenger on, ii, 204, 205
Galaxiidæ,
family of, ii, 204
Galei, i, 532
Galeidæ, i, 540
Galeichthys, i, 128, 242, 271, 273; ii, 178
figure of, ii, 179
Galeocerdo, i, 541, 542
Galeoid sharks, i, 519
Galeorhinidæ, i, 532, 540
Galeorhinus, i, 454
Galeus,
figure of, i, 541
gall-bladder, i, 26
galliwasp, ii, 130
galo, ii, 394
Gambusia, i, 64, 66, 67; ii, 199
Ganocephala, i, 85, 86
Ganoidei, i, 444, 599, 616; ii, 2, 3, 13
Ganoids, i, 22, 38, 88, 91, 139, 157, 159, 186, 204, 384, 569, 622; ii, 1-36
Agassiz on, ii, 9
air-bladder in, i, 109
classification of, ii, 13
Gill on, ii, 9
as a group, ii, 4, 9
ganoid fish, i, 582
figure of, i, 452, 453
Galaxias, i, 223, 252, 253, 254
Boulenger on, ii, 204, 205
Galaxiidæ,
family of, ii, 204
Galei, i, 532
Galeidæ, i, 540
Galeichthys, i, 128, 242, 271, 273; ii, 178
figure of, ii, 179
Galeocerdo, i, 541, 542
Galeoid sharks, i, 519
Galeorhinidæ, i, 532, 540
Galeorhinus, i, 454
Galeus,
figure of, i, 541
gall-bladder, i, 26
galliwasp, ii, 130
galo, ii, 394
Gambusia, i, 64, 66, 67; ii, 199
Ganocephala, i, 85, 86
Ganoidei, i, 444, 599, 616; ii, 2, 3, 13
Ganoids, i, 22, 38, 88, 91, 139, 157, 159, 186, 204, 384, 569, 622; ii, 1-36
Agassiz on, ii, 9
air-bladder in, i, 109
classification of, ii, 13
Gill on, ii, 9
as a group, ii, 4, 9
ganoid fish, i, 582
figure of, i, 452, 453
Page 731
Garden, i, 390
Garibaldi,
figure of, i, 227; ii, 382
garfish, ii, 147, 210, 211
shoulder-girdle in, i, 59
Garman, i, 405, 408, 420; ii, 183
on blind fish, ii, 202
on frilled shark, i, 525
on Sunapee trout, ii, 109
garpike, i, 290; ii, 30-32
figure of, ii, 27
fossil, ii, 32
tail of, i, 82
vertebræ of, i, 48
garrupa, ii, 323
gaspergou, ii, 354
Gasteronemus, ii, 288
figure of, ii, 289
Gasterosteidæ, i, 128, 290
family of, ii, 228, 232
Gasterosteus, i, 161, 172, 391; ii, 229, 231, 236
Lord on, ii, 230
figure of, ii, 232
Gastrostomus,
figure of, ii, 156
gastrula, i, 131, 132
Gaudry,
on leptocercal tail, i, 84
Gay, i, 415
Gegenbaur, i, 428, 511, 512, 591, 594, 601
on archipterygium, i, 60
Garibaldi,
figure of, i, 227; ii, 382
garfish, ii, 147, 210, 211
shoulder-girdle in, i, 59
Garman, i, 405, 408, 420; ii, 183
on blind fish, ii, 202
on frilled shark, i, 525
on Sunapee trout, ii, 109
garpike, i, 290; ii, 30-32
figure of, ii, 27
fossil, ii, 32
tail of, i, 82
vertebræ of, i, 48
garrupa, ii, 323
gaspergou, ii, 354
Gasteronemus, ii, 288
figure of, ii, 289
Gasterosteidæ, i, 128, 290
family of, ii, 228, 232
Gasterosteus, i, 161, 172, 391; ii, 229, 231, 236
Lord on, ii, 230
figure of, ii, 232
Gastrostomus,
figure of, ii, 156
gastrula, i, 131, 132
Gaudry,
on leptocercal tail, i, 84
Gay, i, 415
Gegenbaur, i, 428, 511, 512, 591, 594, 601
on archipterygium, i, 60
Page 732
on morphology, i, 68
on pectoral fin, i, 67
theory of, i, 73
Gempylidæ,
family of, ii, 267
Gempylus, ii, 267
general laws,
of development, i, 133
of distribution, i, 239
generalization and specialization, i, 380
genital organs, i, 124
genus, i, 375
definition of, i, 372
Genyonemus, ii, 356
Genypterus, ii, 520
geographical distribution, i, 237-259
of sharks, charted, i, 459
geological evidence of submergence, i, 268
Geophagus, ii, 381
Geotria, i, 491
Gephyrura, ii, 201
Gephyroberyx, ii, 252
gephyrocercal tail, i, 84, 604
figure of, i, 85
German carp, ii, 175
germ-cells, i, 124
Germo, 210; ii, 262, 266
figure of, ii, 263
Gerres, i, 271, 273
on pectoral fin, i, 67
theory of, i, 73
Gempylidæ,
family of, ii, 267
Gempylus, ii, 267
general laws,
of development, i, 133
of distribution, i, 239
generalization and specialization, i, 380
genital organs, i, 124
genus, i, 375
definition of, i, 372
Genyonemus, ii, 356
Genypterus, ii, 520
geographical distribution, i, 237-259
of sharks, charted, i, 459
geological evidence of submergence, i, 268
Geophagus, ii, 381
Geotria, i, 491
Gephyrura, ii, 201
Gephyroberyx, ii, 252
gephyrocercal tail, i, 84, 604
figure of, i, 85
German carp, ii, 175
germ-cells, i, 124
Germo, 210; ii, 262, 266
figure of, ii, 263
Gerres, i, 271, 273
Page 733
figure of, ii, 349
Gerridæ, i, 206; ii, 372
family of, ii, 347
Gervais, i, 408
ghost-fishes, ii, 150, 516
giant bass, ii, 324
Gibbes, i, 426
Gibbons, i, 419
on Embiotocidæ, ii, 377
Gibbonsia,
figure of, ii, 508
gibbus, ii, 45
Gigactinidæ, ii, 551
Giglioli, i, 412
Gila, i, 304; ii, 169
Gilbert, i, 408, 415, 420; ii, 239
on Astroscopus, i, 187
on coracoid plate, ii, 206
on flight of fishes, i, 157
on island forms, i, 240
on larval forms, i, 142
portrait of, i, 421
Gilbertidia, ii, 441, 447, 449
figure of, ii, 451
Gill, i, 408, 419, 448, 528, 591, 594, 600; ii, 24, 34, 40, 52, 317, 365, 366,
502, 511
on anglers, ii, 543
on Discocephali, ii, 470, 471
on eels, ii, 143, 156
on high and low forms, i, 383
on work of Lacépède, i, 398
Gerridæ, i, 206; ii, 372
family of, ii, 347
Gervais, i, 408
ghost-fishes, ii, 150, 516
giant bass, ii, 324
Gibbes, i, 426
Gibbons, i, 419
on Embiotocidæ, ii, 377
Gibbonsia,
figure of, ii, 508
gibbus, ii, 45
Gigactinidæ, ii, 551
Giglioli, i, 412
Gila, i, 304; ii, 169
Gilbert, i, 408, 415, 420; ii, 239
on Astroscopus, i, 187
on coracoid plate, ii, 206
on flight of fishes, i, 157
on island forms, i, 240
on larval forms, i, 142
portrait of, i, 421
Gilbertidia, ii, 441, 447, 449
figure of, ii, 451
Gill, i, 408, 419, 448, 528, 591, 594, 600; ii, 24, 34, 40, 52, 317, 365, 366,
502, 511
on anglers, ii, 543
on Discocephali, ii, 470, 471
on eels, ii, 143, 156
on high and low forms, i, 383
on work of Lacépède, i, 398
Page 734
on New Zealand fauna, i, 252
on paired limbs, i, 85
portrait of, i, 407
on Selachii, i, 509
on shoulder-girdle, i, 86-89
sketch of, i, 405
on soles, ii, 496
on swallowers, ii, 360, 361
on tilefish, ii, 361, 362
gill,
arches, i, 45, 91, 508
basket, figured, i, 92, 485
covers, i, 44
filaments, i, 107
offices of, i, 11
openings, i, 91
rakers, i, 31, 46
septum, i, 73
slits, i, 508
Gillellus, ii, 506
Gillichthys, ii, 462
figure of, ii, 463
Gillicus, ii, 48
Ginglymodi, ii, 24, 30
Ginglymostoma, i, 533
Ginglymostomidæ, i, 533
Girard, i, 405, 419; ii, 378, 379
girdle in Dipnoans, i, 86
Girella, ii, 348
gisu, ii, 46
gizzard-shad, i, 290; ii, 51, 53
on paired limbs, i, 85
portrait of, i, 407
on Selachii, i, 509
on shoulder-girdle, i, 86-89
sketch of, i, 405
on soles, ii, 496
on swallowers, ii, 360, 361
on tilefish, ii, 361, 362
gill,
arches, i, 45, 91, 508
basket, figured, i, 92, 485
covers, i, 44
filaments, i, 107
offices of, i, 11
openings, i, 91
rakers, i, 31, 46
septum, i, 73
slits, i, 508
Gillellus, ii, 506
Gillichthys, ii, 462
figure of, ii, 463
Gillicus, ii, 48
Ginglymodi, ii, 24, 30
Ginglymostoma, i, 533
Ginglymostomidæ, i, 533
Girard, i, 405, 419; ii, 378, 379
girdle in Dipnoans, i, 86
Girella, ii, 348
gisu, ii, 46
gizzard-shad, i, 290; ii, 51, 53
Page 735
glacial epoch,
effect on dispersion, i, 316
Glaucosoma, ii, 323, 340
Glandiceps, i, 465
Glanencheli, ii, 187
glassy darter, ii, 313
glenoid, i, 90
Glesnæs oarfish, ii, 472
figure of, i, 363
globefishes, i, 197, 440, 455; ii, 419
figure of, i, 244; ii, 422
Globulodus, ii, 15
Glossobalanus,
figure of, i, 464
larva of, figured, i, 463
glut-herring, ii, 50
Glyphisodon, i, 267
figure of, ii, 383
Glyptocephalus, i, 206; ii, 494
Glyptolepis, i, 603
Glyptopomus, i, 604
Gmelin, i, 395, 397
Gnathanacanthidæ, ii, 514
Gnathodentex, ii, 341
Gnathonemus,
figure of, ii, 189
Gnathostomata, i, 78
Gnathostomes, i, 35, 572, 573
effect on dispersion, i, 316
Glaucosoma, ii, 323, 340
Glandiceps, i, 465
Glanencheli, ii, 187
glassy darter, ii, 313
glenoid, i, 90
Glesnæs oarfish, ii, 472
figure of, i, 363
globefishes, i, 197, 440, 455; ii, 419
figure of, i, 244; ii, 422
Globulodus, ii, 15
Glossobalanus,
figure of, i, 464
larva of, figured, i, 463
glut-herring, ii, 50
Glyphisodon, i, 267
figure of, ii, 383
Glyptocephalus, i, 206; ii, 494
Glyptolepis, i, 603
Glyptopomus, i, 604
Gmelin, i, 395, 397
Gnathanacanthidæ, ii, 514
Gnathodentex, ii, 341
Gnathonemus,
figure of, ii, 189
Gnathostomata, i, 78
Gnathostomes, i, 35, 572, 573
Page 736
Gnathostomi, i, 508, 570
Gnathypops,
figure of, ii, 359
goatfish, i, 198; ii, 351, 379
figure of, i, 122
gobies, i, 428; ii, 459
Gobiesox, ii, 529, 530, 531
Gobiidæ, i, 22, 206, 290; ii, 306
family of, ii, 459
Gobius, i, 208, 273, 391; ii, 461, 467
Gobio, ii, 167, 175
Gobioides, ii, 467
Gobioidea, ii, 470
Gobioidei, 11, 459-480
suborder of, ii, 459
Gobiomorus,
figure of, i, 160
Gobionellus, i, 208
figure of, ii, 461
Gobiosoma, i, 313; ii, 462
goblin sharks,
figures of, i, 535
goby, i, 290; ii, 462, 466
gofu, ii, 434
figure of, i, 229
goggler, ii, 275
golden,
shiner, ii, 167
goldsinny, ii, 387
Gnathypops,
figure of, ii, 359
goatfish, i, 198; ii, 351, 379
figure of, i, 122
gobies, i, 428; ii, 459
Gobiesox, ii, 529, 530, 531
Gobiidæ, i, 22, 206, 290; ii, 306
family of, ii, 459
Gobius, i, 208, 273, 391; ii, 461, 467
Gobio, ii, 167, 175
Gobioides, ii, 467
Gobioidea, ii, 470
Gobioidei, 11, 459-480
suborder of, ii, 459
Gobiomorus,
figure of, i, 160
Gobionellus, i, 208
figure of, ii, 461
Gobiosoma, i, 313; ii, 462
goblin sharks,
figures of, i, 535
goby, i, 290; ii, 462, 466
gofu, ii, 434
figure of, i, 229
goggler, ii, 275
golden,
shiner, ii, 167
goldsinny, ii, 387
Page 737
surmullet,
figure of, i, 322; ii, 352
trout, ii, 99
goldfish, ii, 170, 171
of Japan, i, 151
Gomphosus, ii, 390
Goniistius, ii, 363
Goniognathus, ii, 287
Gonioplectrus, ii, 323
Gonorhynchidæ, ii, 54-56
Gonorhynchus, ii, 56
Gonostoma, ii, 129
Gonostomidæ, ii, 129
Gonzalez, i, 414
Goodea, ii, 199, 201
figure of, i, 126; ii, 200
with young, figured, i, 126
Goodsira, i, 476
goody, ii, 356
goosefish, ii, 545
Gorbuscha, ii, 73
Goode, i, 408, 419; ii, 307, 308
on albacore, ii, 267
on American fisheries, i, 335
on codfish, ii, 534
estimate of herring product, i, 330
on fishing-frog, ii, 545
on habits of mullets, ii, 219, 220
on mackerel, ii, 260, 264, 265
on menhaden, ii, 51
figure of, i, 322; ii, 352
trout, ii, 99
goldfish, ii, 170, 171
of Japan, i, 151
Gomphosus, ii, 390
Goniistius, ii, 363
Goniognathus, ii, 287
Gonioplectrus, ii, 323
Gonorhynchidæ, ii, 54-56
Gonorhynchus, ii, 56
Gonostoma, ii, 129
Gonostomidæ, ii, 129
Gonzalez, i, 414
Goodea, ii, 199, 201
figure of, i, 126; ii, 200
with young, figured, i, 126
Goodsira, i, 476
goody, ii, 356
goosefish, ii, 545
Gorbuscha, ii, 73
Goode, i, 408, 419; ii, 307, 308
on albacore, ii, 267
on American fisheries, i, 335
on codfish, ii, 534
estimate of herring product, i, 330
on fishing-frog, ii, 545
on habits of mullets, ii, 219, 220
on mackerel, ii, 260, 264, 265
on menhaden, ii, 51
Page 738
portrait of, i, 407
on swordfish, ii, 270
Gordiichthys, i, 211; ii, 153
Gordius, ii, 143, 144
Gosfordia, i, 613
Gosse, i, 415
Gouan, i, 397
gatasami, ii, 361
Gottsche, i, 428
goujon, ii, 182
gourami, ii, 369
gouramy,
nest of, i, 167
Grammicolepidæ,
family of, ii, 249
Grammicolepis, ii, 249
Grammistes, ii, 330
grande écaille,
figure of, ii, 43
Granodus, i, 565
Grantea, ii, 544
Graphiurus, i, 605
Grassi, i, 428
grass rockfish, ii, 429
Gray, i, 416
grayling, i, 150, 305; ii, 120-138
gray snapper, ii, 335
figure of, ii, 334
on swordfish, ii, 270
Gordiichthys, i, 211; ii, 153
Gordius, ii, 143, 144
Gosfordia, i, 613
Gosse, i, 415
Gouan, i, 397
gatasami, ii, 361
Gottsche, i, 428
goujon, ii, 182
gourami, ii, 369
gouramy,
nest of, i, 167
Grammicolepidæ,
family of, ii, 249
Grammicolepis, ii, 249
Grammistes, ii, 330
grande écaille,
figure of, ii, 43
Granodus, i, 565
Grantea, ii, 544
Graphiurus, i, 605
Grassi, i, 428
grass rockfish, ii, 429
Gray, i, 416
grayling, i, 150, 305; ii, 120-138
gray snapper, ii, 335
figure of, ii, 334
Page 739
Great Basin,
chub of, i, 287
dispersion of fishes in, i, 316
fishes of, i, 302
great blue cat, ii, 180
great oarfish, ii, 472
Greeley, i, 422
Green,
on Sacramento perch, i, 179
green-backed trout, ii, 104
figure of, ii, 105
green cod, ii, 537
Greene,
on Porichthys, i, 190-197; ii, 526
greenfish, ii, 348
Greenland char, ii, 109
Greenland halibut, ii, 491
Greenland shark, i, 547
greenling, ii, 439
figure of, ii, 440
green mackerel,
figure of, ii, 275
Green River shales, i, 205; ii, 52, 57-59
green rockfish, ii, 429
green-sided darter,
figure of, i, 247; ii, 312
green wrasse, ii, 387
Gregarinidia, i, 242
grenadier, i, 84; ii, 540
chub of, i, 287
dispersion of fishes in, i, 316
fishes of, i, 302
great blue cat, ii, 180
great oarfish, ii, 472
Greeley, i, 422
Green,
on Sacramento perch, i, 179
green-backed trout, ii, 104
figure of, ii, 105
green cod, ii, 537
Greene,
on Porichthys, i, 190-197; ii, 526
greenfish, ii, 348
Greenland char, ii, 109
Greenland halibut, ii, 491
Greenland shark, i, 547
greenling, ii, 439
figure of, ii, 440
green mackerel,
figure of, ii, 275
Green River shales, i, 205; ii, 52, 57-59
green rockfish, ii, 429
green-sided darter,
figure of, i, 247; ii, 312
green wrasse, ii, 387
Gregarinidia, i, 242
grenadier, i, 84; ii, 540
Page 740
figure of, ii, 541
grilse, ii, 91
grindle, ii, 35
griset,
figure of, i, 523
Gronias, ii, 181
Gronovius, i, 390
groupers, ii, 323
grubby, ii, 446
grunt, i, 239
figure of, ii, 340
grunters, ii, 340
gruntfishes, i, 121
Grystes, i, 302
Guacamaia, ii, 394
figure of, i, 330
guahu, ii, 266
guasa, ii, 323
guavina de rio, ii, 459
figure of, ii, 460
Guaymas,
fishes of, i, 274
gudgeon, i, 122; ii, 167
Guichenot, i, 412, 415
guipo, ii, 512
guitar-fishes, i, 550
figure of, i, 551
gular plate, i, 43; ii, 33
grilse, ii, 91
grindle, ii, 35
griset,
figure of, i, 523
Gronias, ii, 181
Gronovius, i, 390
groupers, ii, 323
grubby, ii, 446
grunt, i, 239
figure of, ii, 340
grunters, ii, 340
gruntfishes, i, 121
Grystes, i, 302
Guacamaia, ii, 394
figure of, i, 330
guahu, ii, 266
guasa, ii, 323
guavina de rio, ii, 459
figure of, ii, 460
Guaymas,
fishes of, i, 274
gudgeon, i, 122; ii, 167
Guichenot, i, 412, 415
guipo, ii, 512
guitar-fishes, i, 550
figure of, i, 551
gular plate, i, 43; ii, 33
Page 741
Güldenstadt, i, 395
Gulf Stream, i, 239
deep-sea fish of, i, 276
gulper-eel, ii, 156
gulpers, ii, 155
gunnel,
figure of, ii, 512
Gunner, i, 396; ii, 245
Günther, i, 88, 255, 259, 404; ii, 3, 95, 135, 161, 183, 229, 371
on archipterygium, i, 60
on Barramunda, i, 615
catalogue of, i, 402
on work of Cuvier, i, 400
on deep-sea fishes, ii, 136
on dispersion, i, 289
on eels, ii, 141
on electrophores, ii, 188
estimate of eggs by, i, 128
on fishes of Panama, i, 272, 273
on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
on month gestation, i, 173
on pain in fishes, i, 123
on poison glands, i, 180; ii, 527-529
portrait of, i, 403
on respiration, i, 91
on salmon, ii, 92
on sea-devils, ii, 547
on trout, ii, 94
on variation in vertebræ, i, 210
on zones of distribution, i, 249, 251
gunwale, ii, 512
Gurley,
on parasitic diseases, i, 342
Gulf Stream, i, 239
deep-sea fish of, i, 276
gulper-eel, ii, 156
gulpers, ii, 155
gunnel,
figure of, ii, 512
Gunner, i, 396; ii, 245
Günther, i, 88, 255, 259, 404; ii, 3, 95, 135, 161, 183, 229, 371
on archipterygium, i, 60
on Barramunda, i, 615
catalogue of, i, 402
on work of Cuvier, i, 400
on deep-sea fishes, ii, 136
on dispersion, i, 289
on eels, ii, 141
on electrophores, ii, 188
estimate of eggs by, i, 128
on fishes of Panama, i, 272, 273
on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
on month gestation, i, 173
on pain in fishes, i, 123
on poison glands, i, 180; ii, 527-529
portrait of, i, 403
on respiration, i, 91
on salmon, ii, 92
on sea-devils, ii, 547
on trout, ii, 94
on variation in vertebræ, i, 210
on zones of distribution, i, 249, 251
gunwale, ii, 512
Gurley,
on parasitic diseases, i, 342
Page 742
gurnard, i, 122, 198, 208, 209; ii, 456
gurry shark, i, 547
Gymnarchidæ, ii, 188
Gymnarchus, ii, 188
Gymnelis, i, 209; ii, 519
Gymnocanthus, ii, 448
Gymnocephalus, ii, 241, 310
Gymnodontes, ii, 398, 411, 418, 422
Gymnosarda, ii, 262
Gymnothorax, i, 211, 274; ii, 152
figure of, i, 458; ii, 154, 155
Gymnonoti, ii, 159-161, 188
order of, ii, 187
Gymnotidæ, ii, 187
Gymnotus, i, 391
Gyrinidæ, ii, 222
Gyrodus,
figure of, ii, 22
Gyrolepis, ii, 14
Gyrosteus, ii, 18
Gyroptychius, i, 82
figure of, i, 604
habits of fishes, i, 152
haddock, ii, 537
figure of, ii, 536
skull of, figured, ii, 536
Hadrodus, ii, 22
gurry shark, i, 547
Gymnarchidæ, ii, 188
Gymnarchus, ii, 188
Gymnelis, i, 209; ii, 519
Gymnocanthus, ii, 448
Gymnocephalus, ii, 241, 310
Gymnodontes, ii, 398, 411, 418, 422
Gymnosarda, ii, 262
Gymnothorax, i, 211, 274; ii, 152
figure of, i, 458; ii, 154, 155
Gymnonoti, ii, 159-161, 188
order of, ii, 187
Gymnotidæ, ii, 187
Gymnotus, i, 391
Gyrinidæ, ii, 222
Gyrodus,
figure of, ii, 22
Gyrolepis, ii, 14
Gyrosteus, ii, 18
Gyroptychius, i, 82
figure of, i, 604
habits of fishes, i, 152
haddock, ii, 537
figure of, ii, 536
skull of, figured, ii, 536
Hadrodus, ii, 22
Page 743
Hadropterus, i, 300
figure of, ii, 311
haë, ii, 117, 118
Hæckel, i, 411, 511
on origin of fins, i, 62
hæmal arch, ii, 6
Hæmapophyres, i, 48
Hæmulidæ, i, 206; ii, 340, 342, 359
family of, ii, 340
Hæmulon, i, 121, 238, 271, 274, 375
figure of, ii, 340
hagfishes, i, 28, 488
Delfin on feeding of, i, 489
egg of, figured, i, 127
figure of, i, 199, 489
and lampreys, i, 189
hair-worm, ii, 144
hake, ii, 136, 539, 540
isocercal tail of, i, 83
shoulder-girdle of, i, 60
hakone dace, i, 257
Haldeman, i, 419
Halec, ii, 33, 136
Halecomorphi, ii, 13, 23, 24, 29, 35
order of, ii, 33
half-beak,
figure of, ii, 212
half-moon fish, ii, 350
halibut, 128; ii, 149, 489, 491
figure of, i, 332; ii, 492
figure of, ii, 311
haë, ii, 117, 118
Hæckel, i, 411, 511
on origin of fins, i, 62
hæmal arch, ii, 6
Hæmapophyres, i, 48
Hæmulidæ, i, 206; ii, 340, 342, 359
family of, ii, 340
Hæmulon, i, 121, 238, 271, 274, 375
figure of, ii, 340
hagfishes, i, 28, 488
Delfin on feeding of, i, 489
egg of, figured, i, 127
figure of, i, 199, 489
and lampreys, i, 189
hair-worm, ii, 144
hake, ii, 136, 539, 540
isocercal tail of, i, 83
shoulder-girdle of, i, 60
hakone dace, i, 257
Haldeman, i, 419
Halec, ii, 33, 136
Halecomorphi, ii, 13, 23, 24, 29, 35
order of, ii, 33
half-beak,
figure of, ii, 212
half-moon fish, ii, 350
halibut, 128; ii, 149, 489, 491
figure of, i, 332; ii, 492
Page 744
fishery, ii, 490
Halichœres, i, 207, 257, 297; ii, 180, 388-390
figure of i, 297; ii, 396
Halientichthys, ii, 552
Hallock,
on black bass, ii, 302
on Esox, ii, 192
Halosauridæ, ii, 158
Halosaurus, ii, 138
Hamilton, i, 416
hammerhead shark, i, 543
figure of, i, 544
Hancock, i, 415
handsaw-fish, ii, 135
Hansen,
on Chinook salmon, ii, 85
Haplistia, i, 602
Haplochiton, ii, 128
Haplochitonidæ, ii, 129, 204
Haplodoci, ii, 499
sub order of, ii, 525
Haplomi, i, 405; ii, 34, 40, 41, 129, 188-207, 224, 250
mesocoracoid arch in, ii, 189
ventral fin, i, 67
Haplopagrus, i, 271
hard-tails, ii, 169
Hardwicke,
on affection in fishes, i, 167
harelip-sucker, ii, 174
Halichœres, i, 207, 257, 297; ii, 180, 388-390
figure of i, 297; ii, 396
Halientichthys, ii, 552
Hallock,
on black bass, ii, 302
on Esox, ii, 192
Halosauridæ, ii, 158
Halosaurus, ii, 138
Hamilton, i, 416
hammerhead shark, i, 543
figure of, i, 544
Hancock, i, 415
handsaw-fish, ii, 135
Hansen,
on Chinook salmon, ii, 85
Haplistia, i, 602
Haplochiton, ii, 128
Haplochitonidæ, ii, 129, 204
Haplodoci, ii, 499
sub order of, ii, 525
Haplomi, i, 405; ii, 34, 40, 41, 129, 188-207, 224, 250
mesocoracoid arch in, ii, 189
ventral fin, i, 67
Haplopagrus, i, 271
hard-tails, ii, 169
Hardwicke,
on affection in fishes, i, 167
harelip-sucker, ii, 174
Page 745
Harengula ii, 51
Harpagiferidæ, ii, 501
Harpodon, ii, 131
Harrimania,
figure of, i, 465
Harrimaniidæ,
family of, i, 465
low organization of, i, 465
Harriottia, i, 199, 566
figure of, i, 449
harvest-fish, ii, 283
figure of, i, 18; ii, 284
Hasse, i, 428, 543
on Elasmobranchs, i, 509
on ossicles, i, 96
on sharks, i, 509, 530, 561
Hasselquist, i, 389
Hatta, i, 418
Hauy, i, 397
Hawaii,
fish fauna of, i, 243
Hay, i, 419, 427, 581; ii, 4 34, 36
on fossil eels, ii, 22
on Pycnodonti, ii, 22
on varieties of sharks, i, 528, 529
hazé, ii, 118
headfishes, i, 19, 84, 206
figure of, ii, 424
larva of, figured, i, 143
headlight-fish,
figure of, i, 188; ii, 132
Harpagiferidæ, ii, 501
Harpodon, ii, 131
Harrimania,
figure of, i, 465
Harrimaniidæ,
family of, i, 465
low organization of, i, 465
Harriottia, i, 199, 566
figure of, i, 449
harvest-fish, ii, 283
figure of, i, 18; ii, 284
Hasse, i, 428, 543
on Elasmobranchs, i, 509
on ossicles, i, 96
on sharks, i, 509, 530, 561
Hasselquist, i, 389
Hatta, i, 418
Hauy, i, 397
Hawaii,
fish fauna of, i, 243
Hay, i, 419, 427, 581; ii, 4 34, 36
on fossil eels, ii, 22
on Pycnodonti, ii, 22
on varieties of sharks, i, 528, 529
hazé, ii, 118
headfishes, i, 19, 84, 206
figure of, ii, 424
larva of, figured, i, 143
headlight-fish,
figure of, i, 188; ii, 132
Page 746
Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348
Linton on, i, 348-350
heart of the fish, i, 106
Hector, i, 416
Helicolemus, i, 259; ii, 429, 432
Helicoprion,
teeth of, figured, i, 530
Heller, i, 422
Helodus, i, 531
Helostoma, ii, 370
Helostomidæ, ii, 370
Hemerocœtidæ, ii, 506
Hemianthias, ii, 330
Hemibranchii, ii, 40, 157, 209, 227-240
sub order of, ii, 227
Hemichordata, i, 461
Hemicyclaspis, i, 576
Hemiexocœtus, ii, 213
Hemigymnus, ii, 390
Hemilepidotus, ii, 442
figure of, ii, 443
Hemipteronotus, ii, 390
Hemiramphus, ii, 214, 268
figure of, ii, 212
Hemiscylliidæ, i, 533
Hemitripterus, i, 595; ii, 441
figure of, i, 220; ii, 448
Heniochus, ii, 404
Linton on, i, 348-350
heart of the fish, i, 106
Hector, i, 416
Helicolemus, i, 259; ii, 429, 432
Helicoprion,
teeth of, figured, i, 530
Heller, i, 422
Helodus, i, 531
Helostoma, ii, 370
Helostomidæ, ii, 370
Hemerocœtidæ, ii, 506
Hemianthias, ii, 330
Hemibranchii, ii, 40, 157, 209, 227-240
sub order of, ii, 227
Hemichordata, i, 461
Hemicyclaspis, i, 576
Hemiexocœtus, ii, 213
Hemigymnus, ii, 390
Hemilepidotus, ii, 442
figure of, ii, 443
Hemipteronotus, ii, 390
Hemiramphus, ii, 214, 268
figure of, ii, 212
Hemiscylliidæ, i, 533
Hemitripterus, i, 595; ii, 441
figure of, i, 220; ii, 448
Heniochus, ii, 404
Page 747
Henle, i, 405
Henshall,
on black bass, ii, 302
Henshaw, ii, 523
photograph by, i, 281
hepatic sinus, i, 108
Heptadiodon, ii, 423
Heptanema, i, 605
Heptatrema, i, 490
Heptranchias, i, 447, 509, 536
pectoral fin in, figured, i, 57
skull of, i, 56
teeth of, figured, i, 524
Herald, i, 408
Herbert,
on lake trout-fishing, ii, 115
herbivorous fishes, i, 30; ii, 364
Herdmania, i, 474
hermaphrodite fish, i, 124
Heros, i, 314; ii, 381
Herpetichthys, i, 608
herring, i, 21, 204, 290, 429, 440; ii, 33, 38, 43, 46, 49, 52, 73, 123, 159
figure of, i, 331; ii, 48
Goode on, i, 330
product of, i, 330
Hertwig, i, 112
Herzenstein, i, 411
Heterandria, i, 314; ii, 194, 201, 467
Heterobranchus, ii, 186
Henshall,
on black bass, ii, 302
Henshaw, ii, 523
photograph by, i, 281
hepatic sinus, i, 108
Heptadiodon, ii, 423
Heptanema, i, 605
Heptatrema, i, 490
Heptranchias, i, 447, 509, 536
pectoral fin in, figured, i, 57
skull of, i, 56
teeth of, figured, i, 524
Herald, i, 408
Herbert,
on lake trout-fishing, ii, 115
herbivorous fishes, i, 30; ii, 364
Herdmania, i, 474
hermaphrodite fish, i, 124
Heros, i, 314; ii, 381
Herpetichthys, i, 608
herring, i, 21, 204, 290, 429, 440; ii, 33, 38, 43, 46, 49, 52, 73, 123, 159
figure of, i, 331; ii, 48
Goode on, i, 330
product of, i, 330
Hertwig, i, 112
Herzenstein, i, 411
Heterandria, i, 314; ii, 194, 201, 467
Heterobranchus, ii, 186
Page 748
heterocercal tail, i, 49, 507, 513, 516, 602
of Acipenser, figured, i, 80
of Amia, figured, i, 82
of garpike, figured, i, 82
of Lepisosteus, figured, i, 82
of Salmo, i, 83
of sturgeon, figured, i, 80
of young trout, i, 83
Heterocongridæ, ii, 150
Heterodontus, i, 128, 447, 536
eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527
figure of, i, 75, 526
lower jaw, figured, i, 526
pectoral fin of, figured, i, 57
Heterodontidæ, i, 65, 127, 447, 511, 523, 529, 530, 545
family of, i, 527
Heterognathi, ii, 161, 162
Heteromi, i, 405, 611; ii, 12 138, 532
order of, ii, 157
Heteropleuron, i, 483
Heterostichus, ii, 507
Heterosomata, ii, 247, 481-498
Heterosteus, i, 586
Heterostraci, i, 568, 571, 622; ii, 13
order of, i, 573
Heterotis, ii, 56
Hexagrammidæ, ii, 442, 501
family of, ii, 439
organs of smell in, i, 115
Hexagrammos, i, 257; ii, 107, 439
figure of, ii, 440
of Acipenser, figured, i, 80
of Amia, figured, i, 82
of garpike, figured, i, 82
of Lepisosteus, figured, i, 82
of Salmo, i, 83
of sturgeon, figured, i, 80
of young trout, i, 83
Heterocongridæ, ii, 150
Heterodontus, i, 128, 447, 536
eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527
figure of, i, 75, 526
lower jaw, figured, i, 526
pectoral fin of, figured, i, 57
Heterodontidæ, i, 65, 127, 447, 511, 523, 529, 530, 545
family of, i, 527
Heterognathi, ii, 161, 162
Heteromi, i, 405, 611; ii, 12 138, 532
order of, ii, 157
Heteropleuron, i, 483
Heterostichus, ii, 507
Heterosomata, ii, 247, 481-498
Heterosteus, i, 586
Heterostraci, i, 568, 571, 622; ii, 13
order of, i, 573
Heterotis, ii, 56
Hexagrammidæ, ii, 442, 501
family of, ii, 439
organs of smell in, i, 115
Hexagrammos, i, 257; ii, 107, 439
figure of, ii, 440
Page 749
Hexanchidæ, i, 509, 528
family of, i, 524
Hexanchus, i, 447, 524
figure of, i, 523
hickory shad,
figure of, ii, 53
high and low forms,
Agassiz on, i, 380, 381
Gill on, i, 383
Traquair on, i, 381, 382
Hilgendorf, i, 411, 416
portrait of, i, 417
Hilgendorfia, ii, 455
Hill, i, 415
conclusions of, i, 277, 279
Himantolophus, ii, 549
hinalea, i, 158
hingio, ii, 128
Hiodon, i, 291, 394; ii, 45, 46
figure of, ii, 45
Hiodontidæ, i, 290; ii, 45
Hippocampus, i, 19; ii, 236
figure of, i, 17, 250; ii, 238
Hippoglossinæ, ii, 489
Hippoglossoides, i, 205; ii, 491
Hippoglossus, i, 205, 329; ii, 489
figure of, i, 332; ii, 492
hirondelle, i, 408; ii, 60
His, i, 428
family of, i, 524
Hexanchus, i, 447, 524
figure of, i, 523
hickory shad,
figure of, ii, 53
high and low forms,
Agassiz on, i, 380, 381
Gill on, i, 383
Traquair on, i, 381, 382
Hilgendorf, i, 411, 416
portrait of, i, 417
Hilgendorfia, ii, 455
Hill, i, 415
conclusions of, i, 277, 279
Himantolophus, ii, 549
hinalea, i, 158
hingio, ii, 128
Hiodon, i, 291, 394; ii, 45, 46
figure of, ii, 45
Hiodontidæ, i, 290; ii, 45
Hippocampus, i, 19; ii, 236
figure of, i, 17, 250; ii, 238
Hippoglossinæ, ii, 489
Hippoglossoides, i, 205; ii, 491
Hippoglossus, i, 205, 329; ii, 489
figure of, i, 332; ii, 492
hirondelle, i, 408; ii, 60
His, i, 428
Page 750
Histiopteridæ, ii, 398
Histiopterus, i, 260; ii, 333
Histiothrissa, ii, 52
history of ichthyology, i, 387-428
Hoffman, i, 412; ii, 546
hog-choker,
figure of, ii, 496
hogfish, ii, 388
figure of, ii, 387
Holacanthus, ii, 403
figure of, ii, 404, 405
skeleton of, figured, i, 214
Holbrook, i, 419
Holcolepis,
figure of, i, 454; ii, 43
Holconoti, ii, 365, 379, 380
suborder of, ii, 372
Holconotus, i, 404; ii, 375
Holden, ii, 291
Holder, ii, 409, 474
on oarfish, ii, 474
Holostei, i, 624; ii, 24
Holotrachys, ii, 256
Hollard, i, 412
Hollardia, ii, 412
Holocentridæ,
family of, ii, 253
Holocentrus, i, 267; ii, 253, 255
figure of, ii, 254
Histiopterus, i, 260; ii, 333
Histiothrissa, ii, 52
history of ichthyology, i, 387-428
Hoffman, i, 412; ii, 546
hog-choker,
figure of, ii, 496
hogfish, ii, 388
figure of, ii, 387
Holacanthus, ii, 403
figure of, ii, 404, 405
skeleton of, figured, i, 214
Holbrook, i, 419
Holcolepis,
figure of, i, 454; ii, 43
Holconoti, ii, 365, 379, 380
suborder of, ii, 372
Holconotus, i, 404; ii, 375
Holden, ii, 291
Holder, ii, 409, 474
on oarfish, ii, 474
Holostei, i, 624; ii, 24
Holotrachys, ii, 256
Hollard, i, 412
Hollardia, ii, 412
Holocentridæ,
family of, ii, 253
Holocentrus, i, 267; ii, 253, 255
figure of, ii, 254
Page 751
Holocephali, i, 448, 508, 519, 520, 561-567
Holopterus, ii, 41
Holoptychiidæ, i, 602, 603, 624
Holoptychius,
basal fin of, figured, i, 603
dorsal fin of, figured, i, 49
figure of, i, 451
Holostomi, ii, 140, 141
Holothurian, ii, 522
Fierasfer issuing from, i, 159
Holurus, ii, 14
Homalopteridæ, ii, 176
Hombron, i, 408
Home, i, 396
Homistius, i, 586
homocercal tail, i, 49, 81-83, 602
figure of, i, 84
of flounder, i, 84
homologies,
of bones, i, 34, 35
of pectoral limb, i, 85
Homonotus, ii, 253
homoplasy, i, 296
Homosoma, ii, 283
Hooker,
on fishes prey of birds, i, 166
Hoplias, ii, 162
Hoplichthyidæ, ii, 441
Hoplichthys, ii, 441
Holopterus, ii, 41
Holoptychiidæ, i, 602, 603, 624
Holoptychius,
basal fin of, figured, i, 603
dorsal fin of, figured, i, 49
figure of, i, 451
Holostomi, ii, 140, 141
Holothurian, ii, 522
Fierasfer issuing from, i, 159
Holurus, ii, 14
Homalopteridæ, ii, 176
Hombron, i, 408
Home, i, 396
Homistius, i, 586
homocercal tail, i, 49, 81-83, 602
figure of, i, 84
of flounder, i, 84
homologies,
of bones, i, 34, 35
of pectoral limb, i, 85
Homonotus, ii, 253
homoplasy, i, 296
Homosoma, ii, 283
Hooker,
on fishes prey of birds, i, 166
Hoplias, ii, 162
Hoplichthyidæ, ii, 441
Hoplichthys, ii, 441
Page 752
Hoplopagrus, i, 271
Hoplopteryx,
figure of, i, 438; ii, 253
Hoplostethus, i, 260, 263; ii, 252
Hoppin,
on blind fish, ii, 202, 203
Hornbaum-Hornschuch, ii, 144
horn-dace, i, 122, 283; ii, 167
figure of, i, 285; ii, 168
horned pout, ii, 35, 180
figure of, ii, 181
horned trunkfish, i, 374
figure of, i, 373, 376; ii, 416
hornfish, ii, 412
hornless trunkfish, i, 378; ii, 418
face view of, i, 379
figure of, i, 378; ii, 416
horse-eye-jack, ii, 276
horsehead-fish, ii, 276
figure of, i, 148
horse-mackerel, ii, 135
figure of, ii, 274
horseshoe-crab,
figure of, i, 572
Houttuyn, i, 394, 416
how fish cross watersheds, i, 306
how fishes breathe, i, 91
how to secure fish, i, 429
Hoy, i, 419; ii, 64
Hoplopteryx,
figure of, i, 438; ii, 253
Hoplostethus, i, 260, 263; ii, 252
Hoppin,
on blind fish, ii, 202, 203
Hornbaum-Hornschuch, ii, 144
horn-dace, i, 122, 283; ii, 167
figure of, i, 285; ii, 168
horned pout, ii, 35, 180
figure of, ii, 181
horned trunkfish, i, 374
figure of, i, 373, 376; ii, 416
hornfish, ii, 412
hornless trunkfish, i, 378; ii, 418
face view of, i, 379
figure of, i, 378; ii, 416
horse-eye-jack, ii, 276
horsehead-fish, ii, 276
figure of, i, 148
horse-mackerel, ii, 135
figure of, ii, 274
horseshoe-crab,
figure of, i, 572
Houttuyn, i, 394, 416
how fish cross watersheds, i, 306
how fishes breathe, i, 91
how to secure fish, i, 429
Hoy, i, 419; ii, 64
Page 753
huchen, ii, 106
Hucho, i, 253; ii, 62, 106
figure of, ii, 107
Humboldt, i, 410
on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95
humpback salmon, ii, 68, 72, 80
figure of, ii, 70, 72
humpback sucker, ii, 174
humpback whitefish, ii, 65
Hutton, i, 416
Huxley, i, 424, 428, 593, 601; ii, 3
on herring product, i, 330
on Lepidostei, ii, 23
Hybocladodus, i, 522
Hybodus, i, 528, 529
eggs of, figured, i, 527
fin-spine of, figured, i, 528, 529
Hybopsis, ii, 167
hybridism, i, 144; ii, 94
Hydrocyon, ii, 162
Hydrolagus, i, 564
Hyodon, i, 302
Hyoganoidea, ii, 24
Hyoganoids, ii, 11
hyomandibular, i, 508, 521, 606
hyostylic skull, i, 508, 561; ii, 7
figure of, i, 56
Hypamia, ii, 36
Hucho, i, 253; ii, 62, 106
figure of, ii, 107
Humboldt, i, 410
on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95
humpback salmon, ii, 68, 72, 80
figure of, ii, 70, 72
humpback sucker, ii, 174
humpback whitefish, ii, 65
Hutton, i, 416
Huxley, i, 424, 428, 593, 601; ii, 3
on herring product, i, 330
on Lepidostei, ii, 23
Hybocladodus, i, 522
Hybodus, i, 528, 529
eggs of, figured, i, 527
fin-spine of, figured, i, 528, 529
Hybopsis, ii, 167
hybridism, i, 144; ii, 94
Hydrocyon, ii, 162
Hydrolagus, i, 564
Hyodon, i, 302
Hyoganoidea, ii, 24
Hyoganoids, ii, 11
hyomandibular, i, 508, 521, 606
hyostylic skull, i, 508, 561; ii, 7
figure of, i, 56
Hypamia, ii, 36
Page 754
hypercoracoid, i, 89; ii, 1, 12
Hyperoartia, i, 488, 490, 593
Hyperoplus, ii, 521
Hyperotreta, i, 488, 593
Hyperprosopon, ii, 375
hypocoracoid, i, 89; ii, 12
Hypocritichthys,
figure of, i, 309; ii, 375
Hypohomus, ii, 312
Hypophthalmidæ, ii, 185
Hypoplectrus, i, 235, 271; ii, 237
figure of, ii, 329
Hyporhamphus, ii, 212
Hypostomides, ii, 227-240
suborder of, ii, 239
Hypotrema, i, 549
hypural, ii, 142
Hypseleotris, ii, 460
Hypsoblennius, i, 242
Hypsopsetta, ii, 493
Hypsurus, ii, 375
figure of, ii, 373
Hypsycormus, ii, 34
Hypsypops,
figure of, i, 227; ii, 382
Hyrtl, i, 428
Hysterocarpus, i, 304; ii, 374
figure of, ii, 373, 379
Hyperoartia, i, 488, 490, 593
Hyperoplus, ii, 521
Hyperotreta, i, 488, 593
Hyperprosopon, ii, 375
hypocoracoid, i, 89; ii, 12
Hypocritichthys,
figure of, i, 309; ii, 375
Hypohomus, ii, 312
Hypophthalmidæ, ii, 185
Hypoplectrus, i, 235, 271; ii, 237
figure of, ii, 329
Hyporhamphus, ii, 212
Hypostomides, ii, 227-240
suborder of, ii, 239
Hypotrema, i, 549
hypural, ii, 142
Hypseleotris, ii, 460
Hypsoblennius, i, 242
Hypsopsetta, ii, 493
Hypsurus, ii, 375
figure of, ii, 373
Hypsycormus, ii, 34
Hypsypops,
figure of, i, 227; ii, 382
Hyrtl, i, 428
Hysterocarpus, i, 304; ii, 374
figure of, ii, 373, 379
Page 755
Icarus, ii, 43
icefish, i, 146; ii, 123, 127
figure of, i, 149; ii, 128
Icelinus, ii, 442
Icelus, ii, 442, 449
Icosteidæ, ii, 285
Icosteus, ii, 285
Ictalurus, i, 291, 292; ii, 179-181
figure of, i, 280
ichthyized fishes, i, 210
Ichthyocephali, ii, 140, 141
Ichthyodectes, ii, 48
Ichthyodectidæ, ii, 48
Ichthyodorolites, i, 516, 529, 566
ichthyologists,
portraits of, i, 399, 403, 407, 409, 413, 417, 421, 425, 513, 516, 525, 545,
561, 599, 601
ichthyology,
Aristotle on, i, 387
history of, i, 387-428
Ichthyotomi, i, 437, 446
order of, i, 519
Parker & Haswell on, i, 520
Ichthyomyzon, i, 491
Ichthyopsida, i, 601
Ichthyosism, i, 183
Ichthysauroides, i, 586
Icthyscopus, ii, 503
icefish, i, 146; ii, 123, 127
figure of, i, 149; ii, 128
Icelinus, ii, 442
Icelus, ii, 442, 449
Icosteidæ, ii, 285
Icosteus, ii, 285
Ictalurus, i, 291, 292; ii, 179-181
figure of, i, 280
ichthyized fishes, i, 210
Ichthyocephali, ii, 140, 141
Ichthyodectes, ii, 48
Ichthyodectidæ, ii, 48
Ichthyodorolites, i, 516, 529, 566
ichthyologists,
portraits of, i, 399, 403, 407, 409, 413, 417, 421, 425, 513, 516, 525, 545,
561, 599, 601
ichthyology,
Aristotle on, i, 387
history of, i, 387-428
Ichthyotomi, i, 437, 446
order of, i, 519
Parker & Haswell on, i, 520
Ichthyomyzon, i, 491
Ichthyopsida, i, 601
Ichthyosism, i, 183
Ichthysauroides, i, 586
Icthyscopus, ii, 503
Page 756
Ictiobus, i, 291; ii, 172
figure of, ii, 173
shoulder-girdle of, i, 51; ii, 160
id, ii, 168
Idiacanthidæ, ii, 138
Idus, ii, 168
igami, ii, 390
Ilarches, ii, 400
Ilarchidæ, ii, 291, 400, 401
Ilarchus, ii, 398
Ilisha, i, 271; ii, 52
Ilyophidæ, ii, 150
imaginary garpike, i, 364
incisor teeth, figured, i, 31
inconnu,
figure of, ii, 67
Indian fauna, i, 267
extension of, i, 265
Indian fish, ii, 405
Indian sawfish,
figure of, i, 200
Indian parrot-fish,
figure of pharyngeals, ii, 393
Indigo damsel-fish
figure of, ii, 384
infraclavicles, ii, 13
infundibulum, ii, 6
Iniistius, ii, 389, 390
figure of, ii, 173
shoulder-girdle of, i, 51; ii, 160
id, ii, 168
Idiacanthidæ, ii, 138
Idus, ii, 168
igami, ii, 390
Ilarches, ii, 400
Ilarchidæ, ii, 291, 400, 401
Ilarchus, ii, 398
Ilisha, i, 271; ii, 52
Ilyophidæ, ii, 150
imaginary garpike, i, 364
incisor teeth, figured, i, 31
inconnu,
figure of, ii, 67
Indian fauna, i, 267
extension of, i, 265
Indian fish, ii, 405
Indian sawfish,
figure of, i, 200
Indian parrot-fish,
figure of pharyngeals, ii, 393
Indigo damsel-fish
figure of, ii, 384
infraclavicles, ii, 13
infundibulum, ii, 6
Iniistius, ii, 389, 390
Page 757
Inimicus, i, 236; ii, 434
figure of, frontispiece, II. Vol.
Iniomi, i, 405; ii, 38, 40, 41, 138, 189, 190, 204, 526
suborder of, ii, 129
iniomous fishes,
photophores of, i, 189
instincts in fishes,
basis of, i, 154
classification of, i, 154
of courtship, i, 155
heredity in, i, 154
of migration, i, 156
variability of, i, 155, 156
Whitman on, i, 156
intensity of coloration, i, 232
interclavicle,
Starks on, ii, 227
interhæmals, i, 49; ii, 348
interneurals, i, 49; ii, 15
intestine of fish, i, 33
intromittent organ, i, 124
Investigator, the, i, 408; ii, 60
Ioa, ii, 313
Ionoscopus, ii, 36
Ipnopidæ, ii, 131
Ipnops,
figure of, i, 181; ii, 131
Irish lord, ii, 442
figure of, ii, 443
Irish Pampano,
figure of, frontispiece, II. Vol.
Iniomi, i, 405; ii, 38, 40, 41, 138, 189, 190, 204, 526
suborder of, ii, 129
iniomous fishes,
photophores of, i, 189
instincts in fishes,
basis of, i, 154
classification of, i, 154
of courtship, i, 155
heredity in, i, 154
of migration, i, 156
variability of, i, 155, 156
Whitman on, i, 156
intensity of coloration, i, 232
interclavicle,
Starks on, ii, 227
interhæmals, i, 49; ii, 348
interneurals, i, 49; ii, 15
intestine of fish, i, 33
intromittent organ, i, 124
Investigator, the, i, 408; ii, 60
Ioa, ii, 313
Ionoscopus, ii, 36
Ipnopidæ, ii, 131
Ipnops,
figure of, i, 181; ii, 131
Irish lord, ii, 442
figure of, ii, 443
Irish Pampano,
Page 758
figure of, ii, 349
isabelita,
figure of, ii, 404
Isaciella, i, 270
isaki, ii, 342
Ischnacanthidæ, i, 517
Ischnacanthus, i, 517
Ischyodus, i, 565
ishigakidai, ii, 360
Ishikawa, i, 416
ishinagi, ii, 323
Iso,
figure of, ii, 218
isocercal tail, i, 49, 83, 602
Cope on, i, 84
figure of, i, 83
Isopholidæ, ii, 26
Isopholis, ii, 26
figure of, ii, 27
Isospondyli, i, 204, 406; ii, 26, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37-60, 128, 129, 138,
139, 142, 148, 159, 160, 188-190, 209, 250
order of, ii, 38
Isotœnia, i, 565
isthmus, i, 45
isthmus barriers, i, 255-281
Isthmus of Panama,
as barrier, i, 269
fish fauna of, i, 266, 271
species of shores, i, 269
isabelita,
figure of, ii, 404
Isaciella, i, 270
isaki, ii, 342
Ischnacanthidæ, i, 517
Ischnacanthus, i, 517
Ischyodus, i, 565
ishigakidai, ii, 360
Ishikawa, i, 416
ishinagi, ii, 323
Iso,
figure of, ii, 218
isocercal tail, i, 49, 83, 602
Cope on, i, 84
figure of, i, 83
Isopholidæ, ii, 26
Isopholis, ii, 26
figure of, ii, 27
Isospondyli, i, 204, 406; ii, 26, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37-60, 128, 129, 138,
139, 142, 148, 159, 160, 188-190, 209, 250
order of, ii, 38
Isotœnia, i, 565
isthmus, i, 45
isthmus barriers, i, 255-281
Isthmus of Panama,
as barrier, i, 269
fish fauna of, i, 266, 271
species of shores, i, 269
Page 759
Isthmus of Suez, i, 255, 258
as barrier, i, 266
submergence of, i, 267
Istiæus,
figure of, ii, 46
Istiophoridæ, ii, 268
Istiophorus, ii, 269
Istlarius, ii, 182
Isuropsis,
figure of, i, 537
Isurus, i, 537, 538
Italian parrot-fish, i, 48
figure of, ii, 391
ito,
figure of, ii, 107
itoryori, ii, 340
iwana, ii, 114
jack mariddle, ii, 43
Jackson,
on Embiotocidæ, ii, 375, 393
Jacobi,
artificial impregnation by, i, 150
Jacoby,
on origin of eels, ii, 144, 145
Jacquinot, i, 408
Jadgeska hatchery, ii, 86
Jækel, i, 427, 428, 591
jallao, ii, 341
as barrier, i, 266
submergence of, i, 267
Istiæus,
figure of, ii, 46
Istiophoridæ, ii, 268
Istiophorus, ii, 269
Istlarius, ii, 182
Isuropsis,
figure of, i, 537
Isurus, i, 537, 538
Italian parrot-fish, i, 48
figure of, ii, 391
ito,
figure of, ii, 107
itoryori, ii, 340
iwana, ii, 114
jack mariddle, ii, 43
Jackson,
on Embiotocidæ, ii, 375, 393
Jacobi,
artificial impregnation by, i, 150
Jacoby,
on origin of eels, ii, 144, 145
Jacquinot, i, 408
Jadgeska hatchery, ii, 86
Jækel, i, 427, 428, 591
jallao, ii, 341
Page 760
Janassa,
teeth of, i, 554
Japan,
Black Current of, i, 255, 256, 258
fishes of, i, 256
fresh-water fauna of, i, 256
Japan and Mediterranean
fish faunas, i, 259, 260
Japanese blenny,
figure of, i, 9; ii, 513
Japanese catfish, ii, 183
Japanese dace, ii, 170
Japanese filefish,
figure of, i, 241
Japanese samlet,
figure of, i, 321
Japanese sea-horse,
figure of, i, 250
jaqueta, ii, 383
jara-bakka, i, 171
jawfish,
figure of, ii, 359
jaws, i, 201
of Amia, i, 43
bones of, i, 41, 43
figured, i, 30, 43, 583; ii, 39
of parrot-fish, i, 30; ii, 391, 393
of shark, i, 35
Jenkins, i, 420; ii, 52
on fishes of Panama, i, 274
Jenkinsia, ii, 52
teeth of, i, 554
Japan,
Black Current of, i, 255, 256, 258
fishes of, i, 256
fresh-water fauna of, i, 256
Japan and Mediterranean
fish faunas, i, 259, 260
Japanese blenny,
figure of, i, 9; ii, 513
Japanese catfish, ii, 183
Japanese dace, ii, 170
Japanese filefish,
figure of, i, 241
Japanese samlet,
figure of, i, 321
Japanese sea-horse,
figure of, i, 250
jaqueta, ii, 383
jara-bakka, i, 171
jawfish,
figure of, ii, 359
jaws, i, 201
of Amia, i, 43
bones of, i, 41, 43
figured, i, 30, 43, 583; ii, 39
of parrot-fish, i, 30; ii, 391, 393
of shark, i, 35
Jenkins, i, 420; ii, 52
on fishes of Panama, i, 274
Jenkinsia, ii, 52
Page 761
Jenyns, i, 408
Jerdon, i, 416
Jerusalem haddock, ii, 244
Jeude, i, 414
jewfishes, ii, 321, 323
jiguagua, ii, 276
jocu, ii, 336
John,
on climbing-fish, ii, 367
John dories, ii, 245, 247
figure of, ii, 248
Johnny darter, ii, 313
John Paw,
figure of, ii, 325
Johnson, i, 410
on interbreeding of trout, ii, 94
Johnston, i, 428
jolt-head porgy,
figure of, ii, 344
Jordan, i, 348, 408; ii, 522
on parent stream theory, ii, 81
portrait of, i, 421
on return of salmon to spawning grounds, ii, 83
Jordanella, i, 314; ii, 198
figure of, ii, 197
Jordania, ii, 441, 449
figure of, ii, 442
Jordanicus, ii, 522
jorobado, ii, 276
Jerdon, i, 416
Jerusalem haddock, ii, 244
Jeude, i, 414
jewfishes, ii, 321, 323
jiguagua, ii, 276
jocu, ii, 336
John,
on climbing-fish, ii, 367
John dories, ii, 245, 247
figure of, ii, 248
Johnny darter, ii, 313
John Paw,
figure of, ii, 325
Johnson, i, 410
on interbreeding of trout, ii, 94
Johnston, i, 428
jolt-head porgy,
figure of, ii, 344
Jordan, i, 348, 408; ii, 522
on parent stream theory, ii, 81
portrait of, i, 421
on return of salmon to spawning grounds, ii, 83
Jordanella, i, 314; ii, 198
figure of, ii, 197
Jordania, ii, 441, 449
figure of, ii, 442
Jordanicus, ii, 522
jorobado, ii, 276
Page 762
joturo, ii, 26
figure of, ii, 28, 222
Joturus,
figure of, ii, 222
Jugulares, i, 393
suborder of, i, 499-506; ii, 39, 499, 534
Julis, i, 158, 235; ii, 389, 390
jurel, ii, 276
kæpra, i, 171
kajika, ii, 118
kaku, ii, 221
Kalm, i, 390
Kamchatka lamprey,
figure of, i, 495
Kamloops trout, ii, 101
Kansas River,
blue-green sunfish from, i, 26
Kareius, ii, 494
Karpinsky, i, 529
Kaup, i, 411
kawamasu, ii, 95
kawamuki, ii, 415
Kellogg's Zoology, i, 26
Kelly
on otoliths, i, 120
kelpfish, ii, 389, 390, 507
kelts, ii, 91
figure of, ii, 28, 222
Joturus,
figure of, ii, 222
Jugulares, i, 393
suborder of, i, 499-506; ii, 39, 499, 534
Julis, i, 158, 235; ii, 389, 390
jurel, ii, 276
kæpra, i, 171
kajika, ii, 118
kaku, ii, 221
Kalm, i, 390
Kamchatka lamprey,
figure of, i, 495
Kamloops trout, ii, 101
Kansas River,
blue-green sunfish from, i, 26
Kareius, ii, 494
Karpinsky, i, 529
Kaup, i, 411
kawamasu, ii, 95
kawamuki, ii, 415
Kellogg's Zoology, i, 26
Kelly
on otoliths, i, 120
kelpfish, ii, 389, 390, 507
kelts, ii, 91
Page 763
Kent,
on anglers, ii, 543, 544
Kerr, i, 619
on Balfour's theory, i, 72
on fin migration, i, 74
on Gegenbaur theory, i, 73
on external gill, i, 76, 78
on Lepidosiren, i, 61, 620
on morphology, i, 68
Kessler, i, 411
Kessleria, i, 252, 452; ii, 18, 20
keta, ii, 73
Kettleman, ii, 545
kihi kihi, ii, 406
killer, i, 361
killifish, i, 290, 304; ii, 194, 198
hearing of, i, 121
king crab,
figure of, i, 572
king darter,
figure of, ii, 311
kingfish, ii, 266, 356
figure of, ii, 357
king of salmon, ii, 425
figure of, ii, 478
king of herrings, ii, 425, 472
king of mackerels,
figure of, ii, 425
king salmon, ii, 68, 69
anadromous instinct of, i, 160
grilse, figured, ii, 70, 72
on anglers, ii, 543, 544
Kerr, i, 619
on Balfour's theory, i, 72
on fin migration, i, 74
on Gegenbaur theory, i, 73
on external gill, i, 76, 78
on Lepidosiren, i, 61, 620
on morphology, i, 68
Kessler, i, 411
Kessleria, i, 252, 452; ii, 18, 20
keta, ii, 73
Kettleman, ii, 545
kihi kihi, ii, 406
killer, i, 361
killifish, i, 290, 304; ii, 194, 198
hearing of, i, 121
king crab,
figure of, i, 572
king darter,
figure of, ii, 311
kingfish, ii, 266, 356
figure of, ii, 357
king of salmon, ii, 425
figure of, ii, 478
king of herrings, ii, 425, 472
king of mackerels,
figure of, ii, 425
king salmon, ii, 68, 69
anadromous instinct of, i, 160
grilse, figured, ii, 70, 72
Page 764
Kingsley,
on ascidians, i, 474
on degeneration, i, 460
on sense organs, i, 175
on tunicates, i, 466-468
Kirsch, i, 422
Kirtland, i, 418; ii, 35
Kirtlandia,
figure of, ii, 217
Kishinouye, i, 418
kisugo, ii, 358
Kittlitz, i, 410
Klein, i, 390
Klunzinger, i, 411
Kner, i, 410, 411, 427
on Ganoids, ii, 10
Kneriidæ,
family of, ii, 204
knightfish, ii, 257
Knox, ii, 477
kobini-iwashi, ii, 52
kochi, ii, 441
Koenen, i, 427
Koken, i, 427
kokopu, ii, 204
kokos, ii, 71
Kolliker, i, 428
Konwick, i, 427
on ascidians, i, 474
on degeneration, i, 460
on sense organs, i, 175
on tunicates, i, 466-468
Kirsch, i, 422
Kirtland, i, 418; ii, 35
Kirtlandia,
figure of, ii, 217
Kishinouye, i, 418
kisugo, ii, 358
Kittlitz, i, 410
Klein, i, 390
Klunzinger, i, 411
Kner, i, 410, 411, 427
on Ganoids, ii, 10
Kneriidæ,
family of, ii, 204
knightfish, ii, 257
Knox, ii, 477
kobini-iwashi, ii, 52
kochi, ii, 441
Koenen, i, 427
Koken, i, 427
kokopu, ii, 204
kokos, ii, 71
Kolliker, i, 428
Konwick, i, 427
Page 765
konoshiro, ii, 53
Kölreuter, i, 396
Kowala, ii, 51
Kowalevskia, i, 474
Kowalevsky, i, 428
Krascheninnikov, i, 395; ii, 68
Krefft, i, 614
Kröyer, i, 410
Kuhlia, ii, 304
Kuhliidæ, ii, 297, 354
kumu, i, 322; ii, 352
Kundscha, ii, 114
Kuppfer's vesicle, i, 138
kurodai, ii, 343
kuromutsu,
figure of, ii, 213
Kuro Shiwo, i, 242, 251, 258
fishes in, i, 239
goblin shark of, i, 534
Kurtidæ, ii, 287
Kurtus, ii, 288
Kyphosidæ, ii, 349, 364, 398
Kyphosus, ii, 350
figure of, ii, 349
Labidesthes, i, 313; ii, 218
Labrodon, ii, 385
Kölreuter, i, 396
Kowala, ii, 51
Kowalevskia, i, 474
Kowalevsky, i, 428
Krascheninnikov, i, 395; ii, 68
Krefft, i, 614
Kröyer, i, 410
Kuhlia, ii, 304
Kuhliidæ, ii, 297, 354
kumu, i, 322; ii, 352
Kundscha, ii, 114
Kuppfer's vesicle, i, 138
kurodai, ii, 343
kuromutsu,
figure of, ii, 213
Kuro Shiwo, i, 242, 251, 258
fishes in, i, 239
goblin shark of, i, 534
Kurtidæ, ii, 287
Kurtus, ii, 288
Kyphosidæ, ii, 349, 364, 398
Kyphosus, ii, 350
figure of, ii, 349
Labidesthes, i, 313; ii, 218
Labrodon, ii, 385
Page 766
Labrax, ii, 330
Labridæ, i, 207; ii, 372, 385, 390, 396
Labrus, i, 207, 260, 267, 391; ii, 385, 387
labyrinthine fishes, ii, 365, 370
Labyrinthinci, i, 149; ii, 365, 379
Day on, ii, 365
Gill on, ii, 365
Labyrinthodontidæ, i, 86
lac de marbre, ii, 109
Lacépède, i, 376, 389
portrait of, i, 399
Lachnolæmus, ii, 388
figure of, ii, 387
Lactariidæ, ii, 356
Lactarius, ii, 358
Lactophrys, ii, 417
figure of, i, 214, 373, 377, 378; ii, 416, 417
skeleton of, figured, ii, 418
ladyfish, i, 117, 198; ii, 388
figure of, i, 147; ii, 44
transformations in, i, 147
La Favorite, the, i, 408
Lafayette, ii, 356
Lagocephalus,
figure of, ii, 419
Lagodon, ii, 344
Lake Bonneville,
ancient outlet of, i, 303
lake herring, ii, 65-67
Labridæ, i, 207; ii, 372, 385, 390, 396
Labrus, i, 207, 260, 267, 391; ii, 385, 387
labyrinthine fishes, ii, 365, 370
Labyrinthinci, i, 149; ii, 365, 379
Day on, ii, 365
Gill on, ii, 365
Labyrinthodontidæ, i, 86
lac de marbre, ii, 109
Lacépède, i, 376, 389
portrait of, i, 399
Lachnolæmus, ii, 388
figure of, ii, 387
Lactariidæ, ii, 356
Lactarius, ii, 358
Lactophrys, ii, 417
figure of, i, 214, 373, 377, 378; ii, 416, 417
skeleton of, figured, ii, 418
ladyfish, i, 117, 198; ii, 388
figure of, i, 147; ii, 44
transformations in, i, 147
La Favorite, the, i, 408
Lafayette, ii, 356
Lagocephalus,
figure of, ii, 419
Lagodon, ii, 344
Lake Bonneville,
ancient outlet of, i, 303
lake herring, ii, 65-67
Page 767
lake lamprey,
head of, figured, i, 111
mouth figured, i, 492
Lake Nicaragua,
shark from, i, 542
Lake Patzcuaro,
viviparous fishes from, i, 126
Lake Pontchartrain,
fish fauna of, i, 314
lake trout, ii, 66, 115
figure of, ii, 114
lake whiting, ii, 65
Lamdodus, i, 522
Laminaria, ii, 544
Lamnidæ, i, 532, 537, 538, 542
Lamna, i, 534, 538
teeth of, figured, i, 537
figure of, 447
lamnoid sharks, i, 519, 533
distinguished, i, 534
families of, i, 534
Lampetra, i, 491
figure of, i, 120, 492
lamprey, i, 28, 35, 56, 111, 204, 249, 290, 490, 506
ascending brook figured, i, 496
brain of, i, 112
catfishes destroyed by, i, 358
extinct forms, i, 487
fate of, i, 504
food of, i, 491
gill-basket of, figured, i, 92, 485
Kamchatka, i, 495
head of, figured, i, 111
mouth figured, i, 492
Lake Nicaragua,
shark from, i, 542
Lake Patzcuaro,
viviparous fishes from, i, 126
Lake Pontchartrain,
fish fauna of, i, 314
lake trout, ii, 66, 115
figure of, ii, 114
lake whiting, ii, 65
Lamdodus, i, 522
Laminaria, ii, 544
Lamnidæ, i, 532, 537, 538, 542
Lamna, i, 534, 538
teeth of, figured, i, 537
figure of, 447
lamnoid sharks, i, 519, 533
distinguished, i, 534
families of, i, 534
Lampetra, i, 491
figure of, i, 120, 492
lamprey, i, 28, 35, 56, 111, 204, 249, 290, 490, 506
ascending brook figured, i, 496
brain of, i, 112
catfishes destroyed by, i, 358
extinct forms, i, 487
fate of, i, 504
food of, i, 491
gill-basket of, figured, i, 92, 485
Kamchatka, i, 495
Page 768
method of attack, i, 493
migration of, i, 494
orders of, i, 488
parasites of, i, 354
Reighard on, i, 491
spawning of, i, 498, 500
structure of, i, 486
Surface on, i, 491
Lamprididæ, ii, 16
family of, ii, 243
Lampris, i, 210, 322; ii, 228, 245, 288
figure of, i, 323
shoulder-girdle, figured, ii, 243
Lanarkia, i, 570, 622
figure of, i, 574
lancelet, i, 28, 31, 121, 204, 482-485, 506; ii, 467
characteristics of, i, 482
figure of, i, 484
habits of, i, 483
vertebral column of, i, 55
lancet-fish, ii, 408
figure of, ii, 135
lancet of surgeon-fish, i, 181
lane-snapper,
figure of, ii, 336
Lankester, i, 61, 87, 426, 571, 593
lantern-fishes, ii, 41, 61, 128, 129, 525
figure of, ii, 133
lantern-flounder, ii, 488
laolach, i, 620
Laparus, ii, 518
migration of, i, 494
orders of, i, 488
parasites of, i, 354
Reighard on, i, 491
spawning of, i, 498, 500
structure of, i, 486
Surface on, i, 491
Lamprididæ, ii, 16
family of, ii, 243
Lampris, i, 210, 322; ii, 228, 245, 288
figure of, i, 323
shoulder-girdle, figured, ii, 243
Lanarkia, i, 570, 622
figure of, i, 574
lancelet, i, 28, 31, 121, 204, 482-485, 506; ii, 467
characteristics of, i, 482
figure of, i, 484
habits of, i, 483
vertebral column of, i, 55
lancet-fish, ii, 408
figure of, ii, 135
lancet of surgeon-fish, i, 181
lane-snapper,
figure of, ii, 336
Lankester, i, 61, 87, 426, 571, 593
lantern-fishes, ii, 41, 61, 128, 129, 525
figure of, ii, 133
lantern-flounder, ii, 488
laolach, i, 620
Laparus, ii, 518
Page 769
large-mouthed black bass,
figure of, ii, 305
Larimus, ii, 355
Larvacea, i, 470, 473
figure of, i, 480
larval development of fishes, i, 139-141, 143-147, 174-176
Dean on, i, 139
in common eel, i, 141
Gilbert on, i, 142
figures showing, i, 140-142
in brook lamprey, i, 140
in sturgeon, i, 141
larval flounder,
figure of, ii, 483
larval forms,
of Chætodon, i, 144
figures of, i, 140-142
of flounder, figured, i, 147, 175, 176
of ladyfish, i, 147
of Lepidosiren, i, 620, 621
of Mola, i, 143, 145
of sailfish, i, 140
of swordfish, i, 139
Lasianius,
figure of, i, 580
Lateolabrax, i, 324; ii, 320
lateral fold, i, 64
Balfour on, i, 71-73
Kerr on, i, 72
Mollier on, i, 71
lateral line, i, 9, 22, 23
a mucous channel, i, 22
Dean on, i, 23
figure of, ii, 305
Larimus, ii, 355
Larvacea, i, 470, 473
figure of, i, 480
larval development of fishes, i, 139-141, 143-147, 174-176
Dean on, i, 139
in common eel, i, 141
Gilbert on, i, 142
figures showing, i, 140-142
in brook lamprey, i, 140
in sturgeon, i, 141
larval flounder,
figure of, ii, 483
larval forms,
of Chætodon, i, 144
figures of, i, 140-142
of flounder, figured, i, 147, 175, 176
of ladyfish, i, 147
of Lepidosiren, i, 620, 621
of Mola, i, 143, 145
of sailfish, i, 140
of swordfish, i, 139
Lasianius,
figure of, i, 580
Lateolabrax, i, 324; ii, 320
lateral fold, i, 64
Balfour on, i, 71-73
Kerr on, i, 72
Mollier on, i, 71
lateral line, i, 9, 22, 23
a mucous channel, i, 22
Dean on, i, 23
Page 770
function of, i, 23
relation to touch, i, 122
in singing-fish, figured, i, 23
Lates, ii, 320, 330
Latham, i, 396
Latilidæ, the, ii, 361, 363
Latilus, ii, 362
Latrididæ, ii, 363, 364, 426
Latris, ii, 363
lavaret, ii, 65
lawyer, ii, 335, 538
Lay, i, 409
Leach, i, 396
leather-carp, i, 151
leather-jackets, ii, 272, 413
Lebias, ii, 198, 201
lectocephalous condition,
Günther on, i, 142
Leidy, i, 426
Leiognathidæ, ii, 287, 348
Leiognathus, ii, 287
Leiostomus, ii, 356
Leiuranus, ii, 150
length of intestine, i, 33
Lentipes, ii, 466
leopard toadfish,
figure of, ii, 525
relation to touch, i, 122
in singing-fish, figured, i, 23
Lates, ii, 320, 330
Latham, i, 396
Latilidæ, the, ii, 361, 363
Latilus, ii, 362
Latrididæ, ii, 363, 364, 426
Latris, ii, 363
lavaret, ii, 65
lawyer, ii, 335, 538
Lay, i, 409
Leach, i, 396
leather-carp, i, 151
leather-jackets, ii, 272, 413
Lebias, ii, 198, 201
lectocephalous condition,
Günther on, i, 142
Leidy, i, 426
Leiognathidæ, ii, 287, 348
Leiognathus, ii, 287
Leiostomus, ii, 356
Leiuranus, ii, 150
length of intestine, i, 33
Lentipes, ii, 466
leopard toadfish,
figure of, ii, 525
Page 771
Lepadogaster, i, 263; ii, 531
Lepechin, i, 396
Lepidaplois, ii, 390
figure of, ii, 389
Lepidocottus, ii, 426, 449
Lepidopidæ,
family of, ii, 267
Lepidopsetta, ii, 493
Lepidopus, i, 210; ii, 267
Lepidorhombus, i, 206; ii, 488
Lepidosiren, i, 60, 73, 85, 89, 100, 149, 450, 619, 621, 622
adult male, figured, i, 620
larval forms, figured, i, 620
at 3 days, i, 620
at 30 days, i, 621
at 40 days, i, 621
at three months, i, 621
pectoral fin in, i, 60
Lepidosirenidæ, i, 88, 612, 619
Lepidostei, ii, 13, 26
Huxley on, ii, 23
Zittel on, ii, 23, 24
Lepidosteids, ii, 32
Lepidosteoidei, i, 382
Lepidotidæ, ii, 24
Lepidotes, ii, 24
Lepidotrigla, i, 259; ii, 456
Lepisoma, i, 208; ii, 508
Lepisosteidæ, i, 290; ii, 11, 29, 30
Lepechin, i, 396
Lepidaplois, ii, 390
figure of, ii, 389
Lepidocottus, ii, 426, 449
Lepidopidæ,
family of, ii, 267
Lepidopsetta, ii, 493
Lepidopus, i, 210; ii, 267
Lepidorhombus, i, 206; ii, 488
Lepidosiren, i, 60, 73, 85, 89, 100, 149, 450, 619, 621, 622
adult male, figured, i, 620
larval forms, figured, i, 620
at 3 days, i, 620
at 30 days, i, 621
at 40 days, i, 621
at three months, i, 621
pectoral fin in, i, 60
Lepidosirenidæ, i, 88, 612, 619
Lepidostei, ii, 13, 26
Huxley on, ii, 23
Zittel on, ii, 23, 24
Lepidosteids, ii, 32
Lepidosteoidei, i, 382
Lepidotidæ, ii, 24
Lepidotes, ii, 24
Lepidotrigla, i, 259; ii, 456
Lepisoma, i, 208; ii, 508
Lepisosteidæ, i, 290; ii, 11, 29, 30
Page 772
Lepisosteus, i, 32, 66, 85, 101, 102, 291, 314, 357, 604, 623; ii, 5, 6, 23, 29,
30, 32
Agassiz on, ii, 5
Balfour and Parker on, ii, 5
Eastman on, ii, 32
figure of, i, 452; ii, 31
Günther on, ii, 5, 7
Müller on, ii, 517
tail of, figured, i, 82
Lepomis, i, 302; ii, 301
figure of, i, 4; ii, 300
Leptecheneis,
figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
leptocardial tail, i, 81, 83
Leptocardians, i, 383
Leptocardii, i, 55, 482-485
Leptocephalidæ, ii, 149
Leptocephalus, i, 211; ii, 148, 149
figure of, ii, 150
leptocercal tail, i, 50, 81, 83, 507, 602
Agassiz on, i, 81
figure of, i, 82
Gaudry on, i, 84
Leptocottus, ii, 448
Leptolepidæ, ii, 36, 41
Leptolepis, ii, 42
figure of, ii, 41
Leptomylus, i, 565
Leptops, ii, 182
Leptoscopidæ, the, ii, 503, 506
Leptosmus, ii, 53
30, 32
Agassiz on, ii, 5
Balfour and Parker on, ii, 5
Eastman on, ii, 32
figure of, i, 452; ii, 31
Günther on, ii, 5, 7
Müller on, ii, 517
tail of, figured, i, 82
Lepomis, i, 302; ii, 301
figure of, i, 4; ii, 300
Leptecheneis,
figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
leptocardial tail, i, 81, 83
Leptocardians, i, 383
Leptocardii, i, 55, 482-485
Leptocephalidæ, ii, 149
Leptocephalus, i, 211; ii, 148, 149
figure of, ii, 150
leptocercal tail, i, 50, 81, 83, 507, 602
Agassiz on, i, 81
figure of, i, 82
Gaudry on, i, 84
Leptocottus, ii, 448
Leptolepidæ, ii, 36, 41
Leptolepis, ii, 42
figure of, ii, 41
Leptomylus, i, 565
Leptops, ii, 182
Leptoscopidæ, the, ii, 503, 506
Leptosmus, ii, 53
Page 773
Leptotrachelus, ii, 136
Lepturus, i, 391
lesser-weaver, i, 169
Lesson, i, 408
Le Sueur, i, 418
Lethrinus, i, 268; ii, 347
Leuciscus, i, 254, 256, 346; ii, 168, 169
figure of, i, 287; ii, 169
pharyngeals of, i, 47
teeth of, figured, ii, 163, 175
Leuckart, i, 609
Leucopsarion, ii, 467
Lias, ii, 14
Libys, i, 605
Ligul, a, i, 348
Lilljeborg, i, 410
Limanda, ii, 493
little roncador, ii, 356
Limulus, i, 569
figure of, i, 572
Lindström, i, 427
ling, ii, 538
Linnæus, i, 375, 390; ii, 410, 424, 499
followers of, i, 394
Systema Naturæ of, i, 392
Linophryne, ii, 549
Linton,
on parasitic diseases, i, 343-348
Lepturus, i, 391
lesser-weaver, i, 169
Lesson, i, 408
Le Sueur, i, 418
Lethrinus, i, 268; ii, 347
Leuciscus, i, 254, 256, 346; ii, 168, 169
figure of, i, 287; ii, 169
pharyngeals of, i, 47
teeth of, figured, ii, 163, 175
Leuckart, i, 609
Leucopsarion, ii, 467
Lias, ii, 14
Libys, i, 605
Ligul, a, i, 348
Lilljeborg, i, 410
Limanda, ii, 493
little roncador, ii, 356
Limulus, i, 569
figure of, i, 572
Lindström, i, 427
ling, ii, 538
Linnæus, i, 375, 390; ii, 410, 424, 499
followers of, i, 394
Systema Naturæ of, i, 392
Linophryne, ii, 549
Linton,
on parasitic diseases, i, 343-348
Page 774
Liodesmidæ, ii, 34
Liodesmus, ii, 34
lion-fish, ii, 434
figure of, ii, 433, 435
Liopsetta, ii, 493
figure of, ii, 494
liparid, ii, 447, 454
figure of, ii, 413, 454
Liparididæ,
family of, ii, 454
Liparididæ, i, 189, 208, 218; ii, 313
Liparis, i, 202, 217, 219, 375, 380; ii, 449, 455
figure of, i, 218
Lipogenyidæ, ii, 158
Lipogenys, ii, 158
Lister, i, 373, 375, 376
lithographic shales, ii, 42
Litholepis, i, 364
littoral fishes,
distribution of, i, 247
Liuranus,
figure of, i, 233
Liza, ii, 221
lizard-fishes, ii, 61
figure of, ii, 130
lizard-skipper,
figure of, i, 230; ii, 509
loach, i, 290; ii, 185
fossil, ii, 175, 176
Liodesmus, ii, 34
lion-fish, ii, 434
figure of, ii, 433, 435
Liopsetta, ii, 493
figure of, ii, 494
liparid, ii, 447, 454
figure of, ii, 413, 454
Liparididæ,
family of, ii, 454
Liparididæ, i, 189, 208, 218; ii, 313
Liparis, i, 202, 217, 219, 375, 380; ii, 449, 455
figure of, i, 218
Lipogenyidæ, ii, 158
Lipogenys, ii, 158
Lister, i, 373, 375, 376
lithographic shales, ii, 42
Litholepis, i, 364
littoral fishes,
distribution of, i, 247
Liuranus,
figure of, i, 233
Liza, ii, 221
lizard-fishes, ii, 61
figure of, ii, 130
lizard-skipper,
figure of, i, 230; ii, 509
loach, i, 290; ii, 185
fossil, ii, 175, 176
Page 775
Lobotes,
figure of, ii, 331
Lobotidæ,
family of, ii, 331
local barriers, i, 298
Lockington, i, 419
on long-jawed goby, ii, 462-465
log-perch,
figure of, ii, 311
Lohest, i, 427
lok-sild, ii, 67
longe, ii, 114
long-eared sunfish, i, 3-15
figure of, i, 2, 3; ii, 300
long-jawed goby, ii, 462, 463
Cooper on, ii, 463
figure of, ii, 463
Lockington on, ii, 462
long-horned sculpin, ii, 447
long-jaw, ii, 66
long-necked eels, ii, 153
lophobranchii, ii, 9, 209, 227-240
lophobranchs, i, 92
suborder of, ii, 235
Lophogobius, i, 208
Lophiidæ, i, 206; ii, 542
Lophiomus, i, 207, 271; ii, 547
Lophius, i, 169, 202, 206, 391; ii, 542, 545, 547, 548
figure of, i, 18; ii, 545
figure of, ii, 331
Lobotidæ,
family of, ii, 331
local barriers, i, 298
Lockington, i, 419
on long-jawed goby, ii, 462-465
log-perch,
figure of, ii, 311
Lohest, i, 427
lok-sild, ii, 67
longe, ii, 114
long-eared sunfish, i, 3-15
figure of, i, 2, 3; ii, 300
long-jawed goby, ii, 462, 463
Cooper on, ii, 463
figure of, ii, 463
Lockington on, ii, 462
long-horned sculpin, ii, 447
long-jaw, ii, 66
long-necked eels, ii, 153
lophobranchii, ii, 9, 209, 227-240
lophobranchs, i, 92
suborder of, ii, 235
Lophogobius, i, 208
Lophiidæ, i, 206; ii, 542
Lophiomus, i, 207, 271; ii, 547
Lophius, i, 169, 202, 206, 391; ii, 542, 545, 547, 548
figure of, i, 18; ii, 545
Page 776
lophocercal tail, i, 81, 83
Lopholatilus, i, 94, 357; ii, 361
Lophopsetta, ii, 488
figure of, ii, 487
Lophotes, i, 260, 263; ii, 291
Lophotidæ, ii, 292
family of, ii, 291
Loricaria, i, 393
figure of, ii, 186
Loricariidæ, ii, 185, 186, 449
Loricati, ii, 426, 455
loro, ii, 394, 396
Lota, i, 109, 209, 316; ii, 538
figure of, ii, 539
Lotella, i, 259
louse-fish, ii, 469
louvar,
figure of, ii, 290
Loven,
on Arctic species, i, 317
Lowe, i, 410
Lowell,
on trout, ii, 108
lower jaw,
figure of, i, 526
of Cochliodus figured, i, 531
of Neoceratodus figured, i, 616
of Polypterus figured, i, 606
lower pharyngeals,
figure of, ii, 171
Lopholatilus, i, 94, 357; ii, 361
Lophopsetta, ii, 488
figure of, ii, 487
Lophotes, i, 260, 263; ii, 291
Lophotidæ, ii, 292
family of, ii, 291
Loricaria, i, 393
figure of, ii, 186
Loricariidæ, ii, 185, 186, 449
Loricati, ii, 426, 455
loro, ii, 394, 396
Lota, i, 109, 209, 316; ii, 538
figure of, ii, 539
Lotella, i, 259
louse-fish, ii, 469
louvar,
figure of, ii, 290
Loven,
on Arctic species, i, 317
Lowe, i, 410
Lowell,
on trout, ii, 108
lower jaw,
figure of, i, 526
of Cochliodus figured, i, 531
of Neoceratodus figured, i, 616
of Polypterus figured, i, 606
lower pharyngeals,
figure of, ii, 171
Page 777
Lower Silurian,
shark teeth from, i, 508
lowland fishes,
dispersion of, i, 313
Luciæ, i, 477
Lucifuga, i, 314; ii, 524
figure of, i, 222; ii, 524
Lucigobius, ii, 467
Luciocephalidæ, ii, 370
Luciocephalus, ii, 370
Lucioperca, ii, 315
Lucas,
on Therobromus, ii, 127
luminous organs, i, 187
von Lendenfeld on, i, 189
of Porichthys, figured, i, 191
Lumpenus, i, 209; ii, 513
lumpfish, i, 208; ii, 135, 453, 454
figure of, i, 220; ii, 454
lump-sucker, ii, 453, 455
lung-fish, i, 100, 458, 609-622
lungs of the fish,
origin of, i, 98, 99
Morris on, i, 98
lurking-fishes,
Whitmee on, i, 169
Lutianidæ, ii, 323, 335
family of, i, 333; ii, 340
Lutianus, i, 324; ii, 330, 333, 335, 336
figure of, i, 331; ii, 333, 335, 336
shark teeth from, i, 508
lowland fishes,
dispersion of, i, 313
Luciæ, i, 477
Lucifuga, i, 314; ii, 524
figure of, i, 222; ii, 524
Lucigobius, ii, 467
Luciocephalidæ, ii, 370
Luciocephalus, ii, 370
Lucioperca, ii, 315
Lucas,
on Therobromus, ii, 127
luminous organs, i, 187
von Lendenfeld on, i, 189
of Porichthys, figured, i, 191
Lumpenus, i, 209; ii, 513
lumpfish, i, 208; ii, 135, 453, 454
figure of, i, 220; ii, 454
lump-sucker, ii, 453, 455
lung-fish, i, 100, 458, 609-622
lungs of the fish,
origin of, i, 98, 99
Morris on, i, 98
lurking-fishes,
Whitmee on, i, 169
Lutianidæ, ii, 323, 335
family of, i, 333; ii, 340
Lutianus, i, 324; ii, 330, 333, 335, 336
figure of, i, 331; ii, 333, 335, 336
Page 778
Lütken, i, 410; ii, 33, 133
on Selene, i, 144
on flying-fish, ii, 214
Luvaridæ, ii, 291
Luvarus, ii, 291
figure of, ii, 290
Lycenchelys,
figure of, ii, 519
Lycodapodidæ, ii, 520
Lycodes, ii, 518
figure of, ii, 519
Lycodapus,
figure of, ii, 520
Lycodopsis, ii, 518
Lycodes, i, 209
Lycoptera, ii, 41
Lyman,
on the museum at Paris, i, 401
Lyomeri,
order of, ii, 140, 155
Lyopomi, ii, 138, 158, 189
Lyopsetta, i, 205
Lyrifera, i, 462, 508
Lysopteri, i, 623; ii, 13
maaji, ii, 274
maccaroni piatti, i, 351
Macleay, i, 416, 428
Macdonald, i, 419
on Selene, i, 144
on flying-fish, ii, 214
Luvaridæ, ii, 291
Luvarus, ii, 291
figure of, ii, 290
Lycenchelys,
figure of, ii, 519
Lycodapodidæ, ii, 520
Lycodes, ii, 518
figure of, ii, 519
Lycodapus,
figure of, ii, 520
Lycodopsis, ii, 518
Lycodes, i, 209
Lycoptera, ii, 41
Lyman,
on the museum at Paris, i, 401
Lyomeri,
order of, ii, 140, 155
Lyopomi, ii, 138, 158, 189
Lyopsetta, i, 205
Lyrifera, i, 462, 508
Lysopteri, i, 623; ii, 13
maaji, ii, 274
maccaroni piatti, i, 351
Macleay, i, 416, 428
Macdonald, i, 419
Page 779
Macdonaldia, ii, 157
Mackenzie salmon, ii, 67
mackerel, i, 19, 117, 156, 210; ii, 258, 259
figure of, i, 332; ii, 260
fishery, ii, 260, 261
Goode on, ii, 260
mackerel-midges, ii, 539
mackerel-scads, ii, 274
mackerel-shark, i, 533
figure of, i, 447, 537
Mackinaw trout, ii, 114
Macrias, ii, 502
Macrodon, ii, 354
Macropetalichthyidæ,
family of, i, 585
Macropetalichthys, i, 583, 585, 589, 590
Macropharyngodon, ii, 390
Macrophthalmia, i, 491
Macropistius, ii, 26
Macropodus, ii, 369, 370
Macropoma, i, 605
Macrorhamphosidæ, ii, 227, 234, 235
Macrorhamphosus, i, 259
figure of, ii, 234
Macrosemiidæ, ii, 26, 28
Macrosemius, ii, 26
Macrouridæ, i, 84; ii, 541
vertebræ in, 209; ii, 540
Mackenzie salmon, ii, 67
mackerel, i, 19, 117, 156, 210; ii, 258, 259
figure of, i, 332; ii, 260
fishery, ii, 260, 261
Goode on, ii, 260
mackerel-midges, ii, 539
mackerel-scads, ii, 274
mackerel-shark, i, 533
figure of, i, 447, 537
Mackinaw trout, ii, 114
Macrias, ii, 502
Macrodon, ii, 354
Macropetalichthyidæ,
family of, i, 585
Macropetalichthys, i, 583, 585, 589, 590
Macropharyngodon, ii, 390
Macrophthalmia, i, 491
Macropistius, ii, 26
Macropodus, ii, 369, 370
Macropoma, i, 605
Macrorhamphosidæ, ii, 227, 234, 235
Macrorhamphosus, i, 259
figure of, ii, 234
Macrosemiidæ, ii, 26, 28
Macrosemius, ii, 26
Macrouridæ, i, 84; ii, 541
vertebræ in, 209; ii, 540
Page 780
mademoiselle,
figure of, ii, 355
mad tom, ii, 182
figure of, i, 179; ii, 182
Mænidæ,
family of, ii, 347
magifi, ii, 288
mahogany snapper, ii, 337
maigre, ii, 355
mail-cheek fishes, ii, 426
makrede, i, 171
makua, ii, 425
Malacanthidæ, ii, 361, 499
Malacanthus, ii, 361
Malacopterygii, i, 391; ii, 208
Malacopterygium, ii, 39
Malacorhinus, i, 553
Malacosteidæ, ii, 128, 134
Malapterurus, ii, 183
malau, ii, 253
Mallotus,
figure of, ii, 126
Malm, i, 410
malma, i, 326
figure of, ii, 112
Malmgren, i, 410
on Arctic species, i, 317
Malpighi, i, 390
figure of, ii, 355
mad tom, ii, 182
figure of, i, 179; ii, 182
Mænidæ,
family of, ii, 347
magifi, ii, 288
mahogany snapper, ii, 337
maigre, ii, 355
mail-cheek fishes, ii, 426
makrede, i, 171
makua, ii, 425
Malacanthidæ, ii, 361, 499
Malacanthus, ii, 361
Malacopterygii, i, 391; ii, 208
Malacopterygium, ii, 39
Malacorhinus, i, 553
Malacosteidæ, ii, 128, 134
Malapterurus, ii, 183
malau, ii, 253
Mallotus,
figure of, ii, 126
Malm, i, 410
malma, i, 326
figure of, ii, 112
Malmgren, i, 410
on Arctic species, i, 317
Malpighi, i, 390
Page 781
Malthe, i, 206
Malthopsis, ii, 552
mandible,
suspensorium of, i, 43, 120
mandibular rami, i, 589
man-eating shark, i, 538
Maner,
on external gill, i, 77
mangrove snapper, ii, 335
man-of-war fish, ii, 285
Manta, i, 448, 560
figure of, i, 559
map of continents, i, 270
Mapo, ii, 461
Marcgraf, i, 389
Marcgravia, ii, 526
Marcusen, i, 428
marine blenny, i, 118
marine fishes,
checked by barriers, i, 241
distribution of, i, 246
Mariposa, ii, 244, 403
Marquette, ii, 64
Marsh,
on eye of Anableps, ii, 195
Marsiobranch, i, 592, 593
Marsipobranchi, i, 486
Martin pescador, ii, 550
Malthopsis, ii, 552
mandible,
suspensorium of, i, 43, 120
mandibular rami, i, 589
man-eating shark, i, 538
Maner,
on external gill, i, 77
mangrove snapper, ii, 335
man-of-war fish, ii, 285
Manta, i, 448, 560
figure of, i, 559
map of continents, i, 270
Mapo, ii, 461
Marcgraf, i, 389
Marcgravia, ii, 526
Marcusen, i, 428
marine blenny, i, 118
marine fishes,
checked by barriers, i, 241
distribution of, i, 246
Mariposa, ii, 244, 403
Marquette, ii, 64
Marsh,
on eye of Anableps, ii, 195
Marsiobranch, i, 592, 593
Marsipobranchi, i, 486
Martin pescador, ii, 550
Page 782
Mason, ii, 73
Mastacembelidæ, ii, 532
Mastacembelus, ii, 157
figure of, ii, 532
Masticura, i, 555
masu, ii, 68, 73
figure of, ii, 71, 72
matajuelo, ii, 252, 253
matajuelo blanco, ii, 361
matao, ii, 249
matodai, ii, 333
matsubara, i, 418
Matthew, i, 427
Mauer,
on external gill, i, 77
Maurolicidæ,
family of, ii, 134
Maurolicus, ii, 134
maxillary,
figure of, i, 55
of Sebastolobus, i, 55
mayfish,
figure of, ii, 198
McClelland, i, 416
McCoy, i, 82, 410, 581
McGregor, i, 422
McKay, i, 420
McMurrich, i, 428
Mastacembelidæ, ii, 532
Mastacembelus, ii, 157
figure of, ii, 532
Masticura, i, 555
masu, ii, 68, 73
figure of, ii, 71, 72
matajuelo, ii, 252, 253
matajuelo blanco, ii, 361
matao, ii, 249
matodai, ii, 333
matsubara, i, 418
Matthew, i, 427
Mauer,
on external gill, i, 77
Maurolicidæ,
family of, ii, 134
Maurolicus, ii, 134
maxillary,
figure of, i, 55
of Sebastolobus, i, 55
mayfish,
figure of, ii, 198
McClelland, i, 416
McCoy, i, 82, 410, 581
McGregor, i, 422
McKay, i, 420
McMurrich, i, 428
Page 783
meaji, ii, 275
meaning of species, i, 293
Coues on, i, 379
measurements of the fish, i, 19
mebaru, ii, 429, 431
Meckel's cartilage, i, 44, 57, 507, 596, 606
Meda, ii, 169
Meddagh,
photograph by, i, 164
Medialuna, ii, 350
medregal, ii, 274
Meek,
on trout, ii, 105
Megalaspis, ii, 274
Megalichthyidæ, i, 602, 603
Megalichthys,
figure of, i, 604
Megalops, ii, 43
Megalurus,
figure of, ii, 36
Megaperca, ii, 322
Megaprotodon, ii, 404
mejenidai, ii, 348
Melamphaës, ii, 252
Melaniris, ii, 218
Melanocetus, ii, 548
Melanogrammus, i, 209; ii, 539
figure of, ii, 536
meaning of species, i, 293
Coues on, i, 379
measurements of the fish, i, 19
mebaru, ii, 429, 431
Meckel's cartilage, i, 44, 57, 507, 596, 606
Meda, ii, 169
Meddagh,
photograph by, i, 164
Medialuna, ii, 350
medregal, ii, 274
Meek,
on trout, ii, 105
Megalaspis, ii, 274
Megalichthyidæ, i, 602, 603
Megalichthys,
figure of, i, 604
Megalops, ii, 43
Megalurus,
figure of, ii, 36
Megaperca, ii, 322
Megaprotodon, ii, 404
mejenidai, ii, 348
Melamphaës, ii, 252
Melaniris, ii, 218
Melanocetus, ii, 548
Melanogrammus, i, 209; ii, 539
figure of, ii, 536
Page 784
skull of, figured, ii, 536
Melanotænia, ii, 218
Melanotæniidæ, ii, 218
Melichthys, ii, 413
Melletes,
figure of, i, 288
membrane bone of face, i, 44
Mene,
figure of, ii, 288
menhaden,
figure of, i, 340; ii, 51
Menidia, ii, 218
Menidæ,
family of, ii, 218
Menomonee whitefish, ii, 63
Menopneumona, i, 612
Menticirrhus,
figure of, ii, 357
mergate fish, ii, 341
Merlangus, i, 209; ii, 537
Merluccius, i, 209; ii, 136
figure of, ii, 540
isocercal tail of, i, 83
shoulder-girdle of, i, 60
Merluciidæ, ii, 540
mermaid, i, 359
merou, ii, 323, 324
Merriam,
on fossil trout, ii, 62
Melanotænia, ii, 218
Melanotæniidæ, ii, 218
Melichthys, ii, 413
Melletes,
figure of, i, 288
membrane bone of face, i, 44
Mene,
figure of, ii, 288
menhaden,
figure of, i, 340; ii, 51
Menidia, ii, 218
Menidæ,
family of, ii, 218
Menomonee whitefish, ii, 63
Menopneumona, i, 612
Menticirrhus,
figure of, ii, 357
mergate fish, ii, 341
Merlangus, i, 209; ii, 537
Merluccius, i, 209; ii, 136
figure of, ii, 540
isocercal tail of, i, 83
shoulder-girdle of, i, 60
Merluciidæ, ii, 540
mermaid, i, 359
merou, ii, 323, 324
Merriam,
on fossil trout, ii, 62
Page 785
Mesencephalon,
figured, i, 109, 110
mesentary, i, 32
Mesichthys, ii, 190
mesocoracoid, i, 89; ii, 12
mesoderm, i, 138
Mesodon, ii, 22
Mesogonistius, ii, 301
figure of, ii, 299
Mesolepis, ii, 15
mesopterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, 12
Mesopus, ii, 124
Swan on, ii, 123
Mesozoic fishes, i, 437
metameral characters, i, 23
metapterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, 12
metencephalon, figured, i, 109
Michigan grayling,
figure of, ii, 122
Microbranchium, i, 577
Microcanthus, ii, 404
Microdesmus, i, 271
Microdon, i, 204
Microgadus, ii, 537
figure of, ii, 538
Microlepidotus, i, 271
Microperca, ii, 307, 315
Micropogon, i, 271; ii, 356
figured, i, 109, 110
mesentary, i, 32
Mesichthys, ii, 190
mesocoracoid, i, 89; ii, 12
mesoderm, i, 138
Mesodon, ii, 22
Mesogonistius, ii, 301
figure of, ii, 299
Mesolepis, ii, 15
mesopterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, 12
Mesopus, ii, 124
Swan on, ii, 123
Mesozoic fishes, i, 437
metameral characters, i, 23
metapterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523; ii, 12
metencephalon, figured, i, 109
Michigan grayling,
figure of, ii, 122
Microbranchium, i, 577
Microcanthus, ii, 404
Microdesmus, i, 271
Microdon, i, 204
Microgadus, ii, 537
figure of, ii, 538
Microlepidotus, i, 271
Microperca, ii, 307, 315
Micropogon, i, 271; ii, 356
Page 786
Micropterus, i, 291, 302; ii, 297, 302, 304
figure of, i, 325; ii, 303, 305
Microspathodon, i, 271; ii, 384, 385
figure of, ii, 384
Microstoma, ii, 127
Microstomidæ, ii, 127
Microstomus, ii, 494
midshipman, i, 121, 189; ii, 526
luminous organs of, i, 191
migratory fishes, i, 160
milkfish,
figure of, ii, 45
milktschitsch, ii, 73
Miller, i, 426
miller's thumb, ii, 444
California, ii, 446
figure of, ii, 445
Yellowstone, ii, 444
Milner, i, 419
on whitefish, ii, 64
minnow, i, 33, 124, 304; ii, 118, 161, 163, 193, 196-199
treatment of eggs by, i, 129
Minous, ii, 436
Mioplosus, ii, 315
Mirbelia, ii, 531
mirror carp, i, 151; ii, 17
Misaki,
tide pools of, i, 161
Misgurnus, i, 98; ii, 176
figure of, i, 325; ii, 303, 305
Microspathodon, i, 271; ii, 384, 385
figure of, ii, 384
Microstoma, ii, 127
Microstomidæ, ii, 127
Microstomus, ii, 494
midshipman, i, 121, 189; ii, 526
luminous organs of, i, 191
migratory fishes, i, 160
milkfish,
figure of, ii, 45
milktschitsch, ii, 73
Miller, i, 426
miller's thumb, ii, 444
California, ii, 446
figure of, ii, 445
Yellowstone, ii, 444
Milner, i, 419
on whitefish, ii, 64
minnow, i, 33, 124, 304; ii, 118, 161, 163, 193, 196-199
treatment of eggs by, i, 129
Minous, ii, 436
Mioplosus, ii, 315
Mirbelia, ii, 531
mirror carp, i, 151; ii, 17
Misaki,
tide pools of, i, 161
Misgurnus, i, 98; ii, 176
Page 787
Mississippi Valley,
blind fishes of, i, 117, 220
stone-roller of, i, 33
Missouri sucker, ii, 173
Mistichthys, ii, 467
Mitchill, i, 376, 418
on climbing-fish, ii, 367, 368
on Spanish mackerel, ii, 264
Mitchillina, ii, 60
Mitsukurina, i, 199, 536, 566
figures of, i, 535
Mitsukurinidæ, i, 534
Mitsukuri, i, 418
on phosphorescent shark, i, 189
portrait of, i, 417
Mivart,
on paired limbs, i, 70
monana, ii, 353
Mobula, i, 448
fœtus of, i, 560
Mobulidæ, i, 559
mojarra, ii, 348
figure of, ii, 348
mojarra cardenal, ii, 254
mojarra de las piedras, ii, 405
mojarra de ley, ii, 348
mojarra verde, ii, 381
Mola, i, 19, 84, 142, 206, 272; ii, 424, 425
figure of, ii, 424
larva of, figured, i, 143
blind fishes of, i, 117, 220
stone-roller of, i, 33
Missouri sucker, ii, 173
Mistichthys, ii, 467
Mitchill, i, 376, 418
on climbing-fish, ii, 367, 368
on Spanish mackerel, ii, 264
Mitchillina, ii, 60
Mitsukurina, i, 199, 536, 566
figures of, i, 535
Mitsukurinidæ, i, 534
Mitsukuri, i, 418
on phosphorescent shark, i, 189
portrait of, i, 417
Mivart,
on paired limbs, i, 70
monana, ii, 353
Mobula, i, 448
fœtus of, i, 560
Mobulidæ, i, 559
mojarra, ii, 348
figure of, ii, 348
mojarra cardenal, ii, 254
mojarra de las piedras, ii, 405
mojarra de ley, ii, 348
mojarra verde, ii, 381
Mola, i, 19, 84, 142, 206, 272; ii, 424, 425
figure of, ii, 424
larva of, figured, i, 143
Page 788
Molgula, i, 474
Molgulidæ, i, 474
Molidæ, ii, 424
Molina, i, 396
Mollier,
on lateral fold, i, 71
Mollienesia, ii, 199
Mollusca, ii, 529
Molva, i, 209; ii, 538
Monacanthidæ, i, 242
family of, ii, 413
Monacanthus, i, 181, 206; ii, 414
du Monceau, i, 396
Mondini, ii, 144
mongrel whitefish, ii, 67
monkfish, i, 359; ii, 545
brain of, figured, i, 547
pectoral fin, figured, i, 56
Monocentridæ, ii, 250
family of, ii, 257
Houttuyn, discoverer of, ii, 257
Monocentrus, i, 260
figure of, ii, 257
Monoceros, i, 268; ii, 409
Monodactylus, ii, 398
figure of, ii, 397
Monolene, i, 206
Monopteridæ, ii, 141
Molgulidæ, i, 474
Molidæ, ii, 424
Molina, i, 396
Mollier,
on lateral fold, i, 71
Mollienesia, ii, 199
Mollusca, ii, 529
Molva, i, 209; ii, 538
Monacanthidæ, i, 242
family of, ii, 413
Monacanthus, i, 181, 206; ii, 414
du Monceau, i, 396
Mondini, ii, 144
mongrel whitefish, ii, 67
monkfish, i, 359; ii, 545
brain of, figured, i, 547
pectoral fin, figured, i, 56
Monocentridæ, ii, 250
family of, ii, 257
Houttuyn, discoverer of, ii, 257
Monocentrus, i, 260
figure of, ii, 257
Monoceros, i, 268; ii, 409
Monodactylus, ii, 398
figure of, ii, 397
Monolene, i, 206
Monopteridæ, ii, 141
Page 789
Monopterus, ii, 141
Monorhinus, i, 593
Monotaxis, ii, 344
Monro, i, 390
monstre marin, i, 360, 361
monstrosities among fishes, i, 150
monstrous goldfish,
figure of, i, 151
Montagu, i, 396
month incubation, i, 170, 171, 172
Günther on, i, 173
Moorish idols, ii, 406
figure of, ii, 406
Moodeliar,
on climbing-fish, ii, 367, 368
mooneye, i, 290; ii, 45
moonfishes, i, 144; ii, 243, 244, 276, 401
figure of, i, 323
morays, ii, 152, 153
figure of, i, 458; ii, 155
Mordacia, i, 491
Mordaciidæ, i, 491
Moreau, i, 95, 412
Morgan, i, 428
Moringua, ii, 153, 189
Moringuidæ, ii, 188, 189
family of, ii, 153
Mormyrus, i, 393
Monorhinus, i, 593
Monotaxis, ii, 344
Monro, i, 390
monstre marin, i, 360, 361
monstrosities among fishes, i, 150
monstrous goldfish,
figure of, i, 151
Montagu, i, 396
month incubation, i, 170, 171, 172
Günther on, i, 173
Moorish idols, ii, 406
figure of, ii, 406
Moodeliar,
on climbing-fish, ii, 367, 368
mooneye, i, 290; ii, 45
moonfishes, i, 144; ii, 243, 244, 276, 401
figure of, i, 323
morays, ii, 152, 153
figure of, i, 458; ii, 155
Mordacia, i, 491
Mordaciidæ, i, 491
Moreau, i, 95, 412
Morgan, i, 428
Moringua, ii, 153, 189
Moringuidæ, ii, 188, 189
family of, ii, 153
Mormyrus, i, 393
Page 790
Morone, ii, 321
figure of, ii, 322
morphology, i, 511
of fins, i, 62-90
Morris,
on lungs of fishes, i, 98-106
mortality of filefish, i, 357
Moseley,
on Ipnopidæ, ii, 131
Moser,
on catching salmon, ii, 85
moss-bunker, ii, 51
motor nerves, i, 153
mountain chains,
as barriers, i, 310
mountain-oopu, ii, 466
mountain-witch, ii, 445
Mount Whitney,
golden trout of, ii, 99
Moxostoma, ii, 174
mu, ii, 344
mucous channels, i, 22, 23
mud-bass, ii, 297
mud-dab, ii, 493
mud-minnows, i, 290; ii, 35, 193, 194
mud-minnows,
figure of, ii, 193
tenacity of life in, i, 147
mud-skippers, ii, 465
figure of, ii, 322
morphology, i, 511
of fins, i, 62-90
Morris,
on lungs of fishes, i, 98-106
mortality of filefish, i, 357
Moseley,
on Ipnopidæ, ii, 131
Moser,
on catching salmon, ii, 85
moss-bunker, ii, 51
motor nerves, i, 153
mountain chains,
as barriers, i, 310
mountain-oopu, ii, 466
mountain-witch, ii, 445
Mount Whitney,
golden trout of, ii, 99
Moxostoma, ii, 174
mu, ii, 344
mucous channels, i, 22, 23
mud-bass, ii, 297
mud-dab, ii, 493
mud-minnows, i, 290; ii, 35, 193, 194
mud-minnows,
figure of, ii, 193
tenacity of life in, i, 147
mud-skippers, ii, 465
Page 791
figure of, ii, 466
muffle jaws, ii, 444
Mugil, i, 32, 157, 343, 391; ii, 144, 219
figure of, i, 330; ii, 221
Mugilidæ, i, 206; ii, 219
muki-muki, i, 183; ii, 420
Müller, i, 384, 396, 405, 415, 428, 609, 613; ii, 3, 24, 39, 40, 144, 533
on elastic spring, i, 96
on ganoids, ii, 9
on gas in swim-bladder, i, 96
on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
portrait of, i, 399
Mullerian duct, i, 28
mullets, i, 117, 268, 328; ii, 39, 144, 215, 219, 221
Goode on, ii, 219, 220
Mullidæ, i, 206; ii, 257, 351-379
Mullus, i, 261, 393; ii, 256
figure of, i, 322; ii, 352
Munster, i, 423
munu, i, 322; ii, 352
Muræna, i, 211, 391; ii, 152
figure of, ii, 153
Murænesocidæ, ii, 150
Murænesox, i, 211; ii, 150
Murænidæ, i, 211; ii, 152, 155
Murænolepidæ, ii, 541
Murchison, i, 423
murcielago, ii, 458
muroaji, ii, 274
muffle jaws, ii, 444
Mugil, i, 32, 157, 343, 391; ii, 144, 219
figure of, i, 330; ii, 221
Mugilidæ, i, 206; ii, 219
muki-muki, i, 183; ii, 420
Müller, i, 384, 396, 405, 415, 428, 609, 613; ii, 3, 24, 39, 40, 144, 533
on elastic spring, i, 96
on ganoids, ii, 9
on gas in swim-bladder, i, 96
on Lepidosteus, ii, 5
portrait of, i, 399
Mullerian duct, i, 28
mullets, i, 117, 268, 328; ii, 39, 144, 215, 219, 221
Goode on, ii, 219, 220
Mullidæ, i, 206; ii, 257, 351-379
Mullus, i, 261, 393; ii, 256
figure of, i, 322; ii, 352
Munster, i, 423
munu, i, 322; ii, 352
Muræna, i, 211, 391; ii, 152
figure of, ii, 153
Murænesocidæ, ii, 150
Murænesox, i, 211; ii, 150
Murænidæ, i, 211; ii, 152, 155
Murænolepidæ, ii, 541
Murchison, i, 423
murcielago, ii, 458
muroaji, ii, 274
Page 792
muscles of the fish, i, 25
muskallonge,
figure of, ii, 192
Musquaw whitefish, ii, 65
Mustelus, i, 71, 541
mutsu, ii, 317
mutton-fish, i, 324; ii, 518
mutton-snapper, ii, 335
figure of, i, 331
Mycteroperca, 271; ii, 325, 327
figure of, ii, 327
Myctophidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, 132-134, 526
Myctophum, i, 195; ii, 133, 134
figure of, ii, 133
Myliobatis, i, 557, 558
Mylognathus, i, 565
Mylostoma, i, 583, 584, 587, 589, 590
Mylostomidæ, i, 587
myotomes, i, 71
Myoxocephalus, ii, 445
figure of, i, 219; ii, 446, 447
Myriacanthidæ, i, 566
Myriacanthus, i, 566; ii, 255
Myrichthys,
figure of, ii, 151
Myridæ, ii, 148, 150
Myriolepis, ii, 14
Myripristis, i, 162, 268, 271; ii, 254-256
muskallonge,
figure of, ii, 192
Musquaw whitefish, ii, 65
Mustelus, i, 71, 541
mutsu, ii, 317
mutton-fish, i, 324; ii, 518
mutton-snapper, ii, 335
figure of, i, 331
Mycteroperca, 271; ii, 325, 327
figure of, ii, 327
Myctophidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, 132-134, 526
Myctophum, i, 195; ii, 133, 134
figure of, ii, 133
Myliobatis, i, 557, 558
Mylognathus, i, 565
Mylostoma, i, 583, 584, 587, 589, 590
Mylostomidæ, i, 587
myotomes, i, 71
Myoxocephalus, ii, 445
figure of, i, 219; ii, 446, 447
Myriacanthidæ, i, 566
Myriacanthus, i, 566; ii, 255
Myrichthys,
figure of, ii, 151
Myridæ, ii, 148, 150
Myriolepis, ii, 14
Myripristis, i, 162, 268, 271; ii, 254-256
Page 793
Myrocongridæ, ii, 153
Myrophis, i, 313
Myrus, i, 259, 263; ii, 150
Mysis, i, 317
Mysore,
walking-fish of, i, 167
mythology of fishes, i, 359-366
Myxine, i, 198, 490, 593
Myxinidæ, i, 489
Myxobolus, i, 343
Myxocyprinus, ii, 173
Myxodagnus, ii, 506
Myxodes, ii, 508
Myxosporidia, i, 342, 344
Myzontes, i, 486
Nagg's head-fish, i, 375, 376
Naisia, ii, 32
namazu, ii, 188
names of bones, i, 39
names of fishes, i, 372
nami-ho-hana, ii, 218
Nandidæ, ii, 358
Nannocharax, ii, 162
Nansenia, ii, 127
Narcine,
figure of, i, 185, 553
Myrophis, i, 313
Myrus, i, 259, 263; ii, 150
Mysis, i, 317
Mysore,
walking-fish of, i, 167
mythology of fishes, i, 359-366
Myxine, i, 198, 490, 593
Myxinidæ, i, 489
Myxobolus, i, 343
Myxocyprinus, ii, 173
Myxodagnus, ii, 506
Myxodes, ii, 508
Myxosporidia, i, 342, 344
Myzontes, i, 486
Nagg's head-fish, i, 375, 376
Naisia, ii, 32
namazu, ii, 188
names of bones, i, 39
names of fishes, i, 372
nami-ho-hana, ii, 218
Nandidæ, ii, 358
Nannocharax, ii, 162
Nansenia, ii, 127
Narcine,
figure of, i, 185, 553
Page 794
Narcobatidæ,
family of, i, 553
Narcobatis, i, 553
Nardo, i, 412
Nassau,
figure of, ii, 324
natural selection,
effect of, i, 318
in fishes, i, 218
process of, i, 297
species changed by, i, 240
Naucrates, ii, 272, 278
figure of, ii, 273
Nantichthys, ii, 448
Nebris, ii, 355
Necturus, i, 157, 600
needle-bearing filefish,
figure of, ii, 414
needle-fishes, i, 128
figure of, ii, 210
negro-chub, ii, 167
negro-fish, ii, 324
Nelson, i, 419
on Anableps, ii, 196, 197
Nemachilus, ii, 176
Nematognathi, i, 405; ii, 9, 40, 161, 177, 178
Nematistiidæ, ii, 278
Nematocentrus, ii, 218
Nematodes, i, 344
family of, i, 553
Narcobatis, i, 553
Nardo, i, 412
Nassau,
figure of, ii, 324
natural selection,
effect of, i, 318
in fishes, i, 218
process of, i, 297
species changed by, i, 240
Naucrates, ii, 272, 278
figure of, ii, 273
Nantichthys, ii, 448
Nebris, ii, 355
Necturus, i, 157, 600
needle-bearing filefish,
figure of, ii, 414
needle-fishes, i, 128
figure of, ii, 210
negro-chub, ii, 167
negro-fish, ii, 324
Nelson, i, 419
on Anableps, ii, 196, 197
Nemachilus, ii, 176
Nematognathi, i, 405; ii, 9, 40, 161, 177, 178
Nematistiidæ, ii, 278
Nematocentrus, ii, 218
Nematodes, i, 344
Page 795
Linton on, i, 352
Nematonurus, ii, 541
Nemichthyidæ, ii, 151
Nemichthys, i, 211; ii, 151
figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, 152
jaws figured, i, 156
Nemipterus, ii, 340
Nemopteryx, ii, 539
Neoceratodus, i, 79, 80, 100, 116, 204, 450, 613
eggs of, i, 618
figure of, i, 614
lower jaw of, figured, i, 616
shoulder-girdle in, i, 68, 609
skull of, i, 67
Neochanna, i, 252; ii, 206
Neoclinus, ii, 462
figure of, ii, 507
Neoditrema, ii, 375
Neoliparis, ii, 455
figure of, ii, 455
Neopercis, ii, 502
Neosebastes, ii, 433
nerka, ii, 73
nerve cells and fibres, i, 152
nerves of fishes, i, 113, 114
nervous system, i, 109-114
nest-building, ii, 229
of sticklebacks, ii, 230, 231
nest of fish, i, 14, 172
Nematonurus, ii, 541
Nemichthyidæ, ii, 151
Nemichthys, i, 211; ii, 151
figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, 152
jaws figured, i, 156
Nemipterus, ii, 340
Nemopteryx, ii, 539
Neoceratodus, i, 79, 80, 100, 116, 204, 450, 613
eggs of, i, 618
figure of, i, 614
lower jaw of, figured, i, 616
shoulder-girdle in, i, 68, 609
skull of, i, 67
Neochanna, i, 252; ii, 206
Neoclinus, ii, 462
figure of, ii, 507
Neoditrema, ii, 375
Neoliparis, ii, 455
figure of, ii, 455
Neopercis, ii, 502
Neosebastes, ii, 433
nerka, ii, 73
nerve cells and fibres, i, 152
nerves of fishes, i, 113, 114
nervous system, i, 109-114
nest-building, ii, 229
of sticklebacks, ii, 230, 231
nest of fish, i, 14, 172
Page 796
Nettastoma, i, 211, 259; ii, 151
Nettastomidæ, ii, 148, 151
neurentric canal, i, 138
Newberry, i, 426, 428, 584, 589
New England,
scanty fauna of, i, 302
Newton, i, 426
New Zealand,
fauna of, i, 252
nezupo, ii, 441
nictitating membrane, i, 540
nijinge-rijinge, i, 171, 172
Nieuhof, i, 396
Nilsson, i, 410
Niphon, ii, 320
nohu, ii, 434
noises of fishes, i, 168, 169
Nomeidæ, ii, 283
nomenclature, i, 173
beginning of, i, 374
trinomial, i, 378
of trunkfishes, i, 373
Nordmann, i, 410
northern blennies, ii, 511
northern zone, i, 250
Norway haddock, ii, 428
Notacanthidæ, ii, 157
Notacanthus, ii, 157, 532
Nettastomidæ, ii, 148, 151
neurentric canal, i, 138
Newberry, i, 426, 428, 584, 589
New England,
scanty fauna of, i, 302
Newton, i, 426
New Zealand,
fauna of, i, 252
nezupo, ii, 441
nictitating membrane, i, 540
nijinge-rijinge, i, 171, 172
Nieuhof, i, 396
Nilsson, i, 410
Niphon, ii, 320
nohu, ii, 434
noises of fishes, i, 168, 169
Nomeidæ, ii, 283
nomenclature, i, 173
beginning of, i, 374
trinomial, i, 378
of trunkfishes, i, 373
Nordmann, i, 410
northern blennies, ii, 511
northern zone, i, 250
Norway haddock, ii, 428
Notacanthidæ, ii, 157
Notacanthus, ii, 157, 532
Page 797
figure of, ii, 158
Notæus, ii, 36
Notagogus, ii, 26
figure of, ii, 28
Notelops, ii, 44
Notidiani, i, 447, 513, 519, 526
order of, i, 523
Notidanoid shark, i, 438
skull of, figured, i, 56
Notidanus, i, 523, 524
notochord, i, 55, 56, 509
in Chimæras, i, 59
in Elasmobranchs, i, 57
Notogeneus, i, 456
figure of, ii, 55
Notopteridæ, ii, 48, 49
Notopterus, ii, 49
Nototheniidæ, ii, 501, 502, 533
Notropis, i, 129, 283, 304, 307, 311, 313; ii, 164
figure of, i, 343, 457; ii, 165, 167
Noturus, i, 180; ii, 177, 182
Novaculichthys, ii, 390
Novara, i, 410
Nozawa, i, 418
numbers of genera, i, 262
numbfish,
figure of, i, 185, 553
number of vertebræ, i, 202-204
Notæus, ii, 36
Notagogus, ii, 26
figure of, ii, 28
Notelops, ii, 44
Notidiani, i, 447, 513, 519, 526
order of, i, 523
Notidanoid shark, i, 438
skull of, figured, i, 56
Notidanus, i, 523, 524
notochord, i, 55, 56, 509
in Chimæras, i, 59
in Elasmobranchs, i, 57
Notogeneus, i, 456
figure of, ii, 55
Notopteridæ, ii, 48, 49
Notopterus, ii, 49
Nototheniidæ, ii, 501, 502, 533
Notropis, i, 129, 283, 304, 307, 311, 313; ii, 164
figure of, i, 343, 457; ii, 165, 167
Noturus, i, 180; ii, 177, 182
Novaculichthys, ii, 390
Novara, i, 410
Nozawa, i, 418
numbers of genera, i, 262
numbfish,
figure of, i, 185, 553
number of vertebræ, i, 202-204
Page 798
nuptial colors, i, 155, 156
nuptial tubercles, i, 33
figure showing, ii, 167
Nyström, i, 416
oarfish, i, 361; ii, 472
figure of, i, 362; ii, 476
Forgy on, ii, 473
Glesnæs, ii, 472
Holder on, ii, 474
Oatka Creek, i, 282
Oblata, i, 260; ii, 348
ocean currents,
agency of, i, 242
Ocyurus,
figure of, ii, 337
Odacidæ, ii, 388
Odax, ii, 390
Odontaspididæ, i, 533
Odontaspis, i, 534
Odontoscion, ii, 355
Odontostomus, ii, 136
Odontotodontidæ, i, 576
Odontotodus,
figure of, i, 570
Ogcocephalidæ, ii, 551
Ogcocephalus,
figure of, ii, 551-553
shoulder-girdle in, i, 88
nuptial tubercles, i, 33
figure showing, ii, 167
Nyström, i, 416
oarfish, i, 361; ii, 472
figure of, i, 362; ii, 476
Forgy on, ii, 473
Glesnæs, ii, 472
Holder on, ii, 474
Oatka Creek, i, 282
Oblata, i, 260; ii, 348
ocean currents,
agency of, i, 242
Ocyurus,
figure of, ii, 337
Odacidæ, ii, 388
Odax, ii, 390
Odontaspididæ, i, 533
Odontaspis, i, 534
Odontoscion, ii, 355
Odontostomus, ii, 136
Odontotodontidæ, i, 576
Odontotodus,
figure of, i, 570
Ogcocephalidæ, ii, 551
Ogcocephalus,
figure of, ii, 551-553
shoulder-girdle in, i, 88
Page 799
Ogilby, i, 408, 416
on ragfishes, ii, 285
oil shark, i, 524
Oikopleura, i, 474
ojanco, ii, 337
okose, i, 236, 429; ii, 436
oldwench, ii, 413
oldwife, ii, 413
Old World catfish, ii, 182
olfactory lobe,
figure of, i, 111
Oligocottus, ii, 447, 449
figure of, ii, 449
Oligopleuridæ, ii, 36, 41
Oligopleurus, ii, 36
Oligoplites, ii, 272
Oligorus, ii, 320
ombre chevalier, ii, 108, 109
Omosoma, ii, 284
Omosudis, ii, 136
Onchus,
Agassiz on, i, 530
fin-spine of, i, 509
Oncobatis, i, 553
Oncottus, i, 317; ii, 447, 449
figure of, ii, 447
Oncolepis, ii, 513
Oncopterus, ii, 489
on ragfishes, ii, 285
oil shark, i, 524
Oikopleura, i, 474
ojanco, ii, 337
okose, i, 236, 429; ii, 436
oldwench, ii, 413
oldwife, ii, 413
Old World catfish, ii, 182
olfactory lobe,
figure of, i, 111
Oligocottus, ii, 447, 449
figure of, ii, 449
Oligopleuridæ, ii, 36, 41
Oligopleurus, ii, 36
Oligoplites, ii, 272
Oligorus, ii, 320
ombre chevalier, ii, 108, 109
Omosoma, ii, 284
Omosudis, ii, 136
Onchus,
Agassiz on, i, 530
fin-spine of, i, 509
Oncobatis, i, 553
Oncottus, i, 317; ii, 447, 449
figure of, ii, 447
Oncolepis, ii, 513
Oncopterus, ii, 489
Page 800
Oncorhynchus, i, 146, 160, 301, 329, 332; ii, 68, 70, 89, 94
figure of, 354; ii, 69, 71, 72, 76
ontogeny, i, 511
ontology, i, 63
oopu, ii, 465
Onychodontidæ, i, 602, 604
Onychodus, i, 604
opahs, i, 210; ii, 243
taken by Berndt, ii, 244
Farquhar on, ii, 244
figure of, i, 323
opercle, i, 7, 45
opercula,
used in climbing, ii, 367
operculum, ii, 7
Ophicephalidæ, ii, 370
Ophidiidæ, ii, 520
Ophidion, i, 391, 612
Ophichthyidæ, i, 211; ii, 150
Ophichthus,
figure of, ii, 151
Ophiocephalidæ, i, 103, 104; ii, 215
Ophiocephalus, i, 149
figure of, i, 150
Ophiodon, ii, 442, 518, 520
figure of, ii, 440
Ophioblennius, ii, 510
Ophiopsis, ii, 26
figure of, 354; ii, 69, 71, 72, 76
ontogeny, i, 511
ontology, i, 63
oopu, ii, 465
Onychodontidæ, i, 602, 604
Onychodus, i, 604
opahs, i, 210; ii, 243
taken by Berndt, ii, 244
Farquhar on, ii, 244
figure of, i, 323
opercle, i, 7, 45
opercula,
used in climbing, ii, 367
operculum, ii, 7
Ophicephalidæ, ii, 370
Ophidiidæ, ii, 520
Ophidion, i, 391, 612
Ophichthyidæ, i, 211; ii, 150
Ophichthus,
figure of, ii, 151
Ophiocephalidæ, i, 103, 104; ii, 215
Ophiocephalus, i, 149
figure of, i, 150
Ophiodon, ii, 442, 518, 520
figure of, ii, 440
Ophioblennius, ii, 510
Ophiopsis, ii, 26
Page 801
Ophocephalus,
figure of, ii, 370
Opistharthri, i, 509
Opisthocentrus, ii, 512
Opisthocœlian, i, 49; ii, 29
Opisthocœlous, ii, 6
Opisthognathidæ, ii, 330, 359, 499, 502
Opisthognathus, ii, 462, 508
figure of, ii, 360
Opisthomi, i, 611; ii, 499, 532-542
Opisthomyzon, ii, 469
Storms on, ii, 469
Opisthonema, ii, 51, 53
opisthure, i, 84
Oplegnathus, i, 260
Opsanus, ii, 525
figure of, ii, 524
Opsariichthys, ii, 165
optic nerves,
of flounders, ii, 482
orbitophenoid, ii, 40
orca, i, 361, 536
order,
defined, i, 373
organs of the fish,
electric, i, 25
of hearing, i, 119-121
nutritive, i, 29
Orectolobus, i, 533
figure of, ii, 370
Opistharthri, i, 509
Opisthocentrus, ii, 512
Opisthocœlian, i, 49; ii, 29
Opisthocœlous, ii, 6
Opisthognathidæ, ii, 330, 359, 499, 502
Opisthognathus, ii, 462, 508
figure of, ii, 360
Opisthomi, i, 611; ii, 499, 532-542
Opisthomyzon, ii, 469
Storms on, ii, 469
Opisthonema, ii, 51, 53
opisthure, i, 84
Oplegnathus, i, 260
Opsanus, ii, 525
figure of, ii, 524
Opsariichthys, ii, 165
optic nerves,
of flounders, ii, 482
orbitophenoid, ii, 40
orca, i, 361, 536
order,
defined, i, 373
organs of the fish,
electric, i, 25
of hearing, i, 119-121
nutritive, i, 29
Orectolobus, i, 533
Page 802
Orestias, ii, 200
Oregon lamprey,
figure of, i, 496
Oregon sucker,
teeth of, figured, ii, 175
Ordovician deposits,
figure of, i, 435
origin,
of air-bladder, i, 98
of fins, i, 62, 64, 67
of lungs, i, 98
origin of lancelets,
Willey on, i, 484
Orodontidæ, i, 65, 66, 447, 528
Orr,
on external gill, i, 77
Ortmann, i, 238, 256, 270
map of continents, i, 270
Orthacanthus, i, 521
Orthodon, ii, 165
Orthopristis, ii, 342
Orthopsetta, i, 206; ii, 489
Orthostœchus, i, 271
Osbeck, i, 389
Osbeckia, ii, 414
figure of, ii, 414
Osborn,
on extinction of species, i, 239, 442
on law of radiation, i, 296
Osmeroides, ii, 44, 134
Oregon lamprey,
figure of, i, 496
Oregon sucker,
teeth of, figured, ii, 175
Ordovician deposits,
figure of, i, 435
origin,
of air-bladder, i, 98
of fins, i, 62, 64, 67
of lungs, i, 98
origin of lancelets,
Willey on, i, 484
Orodontidæ, i, 65, 66, 447, 528
Orr,
on external gill, i, 77
Ortmann, i, 238, 256, 270
map of continents, i, 270
Orthacanthus, i, 521
Orthodon, ii, 165
Orthopristis, ii, 342
Orthopsetta, i, 206; ii, 489
Orthostœchus, i, 271
Osbeck, i, 389
Osbeckia, ii, 414
figure of, ii, 414
Osborn,
on extinction of species, i, 239, 442
on law of radiation, i, 296
Osmeroides, ii, 44, 134
Page 803
Osmerus, i, 391; ii, 123, 127
figure of, ii, 123
Osphromenidæ, ii, 368, 370
Osphromenus, ii, 368
ossicles,
Hasse on, i, 96
Ostariophysi, i, 120; ii, 38, 40, 140, 209
series of, ii, 159-165
Osteoglossidæ, ii, 56, 60, 160
Osteoglossum, ii, 11, 41, 42, 56, 57
Osteolepis, i, 602-604
Osteostraci, i, 568, 571, 573, 590
order of, i, 575
Ostichthys,
figure of, ii, 255
Ostraciidæ, i, 568
family of, ii, 415
Ostracion, i, 206, 373, 391; ii, 416-418
figure of, i, 16, 376; ii, 416
Ostracodermi, i, 568; ii, 398, 411, 415
Ostracophores, i, 240, 242, 246, 444, 488, 568, 581, 582, 590, 603; ii, 3
figure of, i, 444
nature of, i, 569
order of, i, 573
Ostracophori, i, 462
class of, i, 568, 569
Osurus, ii, 502
Otaki, i, 418, 422
Otodus, i, 538
figure of, ii, 123
Osphromenidæ, ii, 368, 370
Osphromenus, ii, 368
ossicles,
Hasse on, i, 96
Ostariophysi, i, 120; ii, 38, 40, 140, 209
series of, ii, 159-165
Osteoglossidæ, ii, 56, 60, 160
Osteoglossum, ii, 11, 41, 42, 56, 57
Osteolepis, i, 602-604
Osteostraci, i, 568, 571, 573, 590
order of, i, 575
Ostichthys,
figure of, ii, 255
Ostraciidæ, i, 568
family of, ii, 415
Ostracion, i, 206, 373, 391; ii, 416-418
figure of, i, 16, 376; ii, 416
Ostracodermi, i, 568; ii, 398, 411, 415
Ostracophores, i, 240, 242, 246, 444, 488, 568, 581, 582, 590, 603; ii, 3
figure of, i, 444
nature of, i, 569
order of, i, 573
Ostracophori, i, 462
class of, i, 568, 569
Osurus, ii, 502
Otaki, i, 418, 422
Otodus, i, 538
Page 804
otoliths, i, 119-121; 354
Otsego bass, ii, 64
Ouananiche, ii, 92, 93
Overland Monthly,
reference to, ii, 69
oviducts, ii, 6
oviparous fishes, i, 125
ovoviviparous fishes, i, 125, 550
Owen, i, 88, 90, 424, 428
on swordfish, ii, 270, 271
Owsjannikow, i, 428
Owston,
sharks taken by, i, 534
Oxuderces, ii, 468
Oxudercidæ, ii, 468
Oxygnathus, ii, 14
Oxylabracidæ, ii, 320, 327
family of, ii, 319
Oxylabrax, ii, 320, 355
figure of, ii, 319
Oxylebius, ii, 440
Oxyjulis, ii, 388
Oxymonacanthus, ii, 415
Oxynotidæ, i, 546
Oxynotus, i, 546
Oxystomus, i, 259
oyster-fish, ii, 525
Ozorthe, ii, 513
Otsego bass, ii, 64
Ouananiche, ii, 92, 93
Overland Monthly,
reference to, ii, 69
oviducts, ii, 6
oviparous fishes, i, 125
ovoviviparous fishes, i, 125, 550
Owen, i, 88, 90, 424, 428
on swordfish, ii, 270, 271
Owsjannikow, i, 428
Owston,
sharks taken by, i, 534
Oxuderces, ii, 468
Oxudercidæ, ii, 468
Oxygnathus, ii, 14
Oxylabracidæ, ii, 320, 327
family of, ii, 319
Oxylabrax, ii, 320, 355
figure of, ii, 319
Oxylebius, ii, 440
Oxyjulis, ii, 388
Oxymonacanthus, ii, 415
Oxynotidæ, i, 546
Oxynotus, i, 546
Oxystomus, i, 259
oyster-fish, ii, 525
Ozorthe, ii, 513
Page 805
figure of, i, 9; ii, 513
Pachycormidæ, ii, 34
Pachycormus, ii, 34
Pachylebias, ii, 201
Pachyrhizodontidæ, ii, 44
Pachyrhizodus, ii, 44
Pacific Creek, i, 308, 309
paddle-fish, i, 199, 253, 290; ii, 20
Pagellus, i, 260, 267; ii, 344, 346
Pagrus, i, 94, 259, 263, 324; ii, 343, 344, 346
figure of, ii, 342
paired fins,
in Acanthodei, i, 515
Balfour on, ii, 8
migration of, i, 75
origin of, i, 64
Ryder on, i, 66
paired limbs,
Dean on, i, 81
Mivart on, i, 70
relation of, i, 69
Thacker on, i, 70
Gill on, i, 85
palæichthyologists, i, 424, 426, 427
palæichthyology, i, 426
Palæichthys, ii, 3
Palæobalistum, ii, 22
Palæoniscidæ, i, 452, 580; ii, 4, 14, 15, 23
Pachycormidæ, ii, 34
Pachycormus, ii, 34
Pachylebias, ii, 201
Pachyrhizodontidæ, ii, 44
Pachyrhizodus, ii, 44
Pacific Creek, i, 308, 309
paddle-fish, i, 199, 253, 290; ii, 20
Pagellus, i, 260, 267; ii, 344, 346
Pagrus, i, 94, 259, 263, 324; ii, 343, 344, 346
figure of, ii, 342
paired fins,
in Acanthodei, i, 515
Balfour on, ii, 8
migration of, i, 75
origin of, i, 64
Ryder on, i, 66
paired limbs,
Dean on, i, 81
Mivart on, i, 70
relation of, i, 69
Thacker on, i, 70
Gill on, i, 85
palæichthyologists, i, 424, 426, 427
palæichthyology, i, 426
Palæichthys, ii, 3
Palæobalistum, ii, 22
Palæoniscidæ, i, 452, 580; ii, 4, 14, 15, 23
Page 806
Palæoniscum, i, 437, 622
Blainville on, ii, 14
figure of, i, 453; ii, 14
palæontology, evidence of, i, 64
Palæorhynchidæ,
family of, ii, 268
Palæorhynchus, ii, 268
figure of, ii, 268
Palæospinax, i, 528
Palæospondylidæ, i, 593
Palæospondylus, i, 204, 437, 444, 593, 595, 596
figure of, i, 591
relationships of, i, 593
palatines, i, 6
palatopterygoid arch, ii, 152, 155
palato-quadrate apparatus, i, 508, 509, 523
Palinurichthys, ii, 284
Pallas, ii, 67, 135, 428, 522
Pallasina, ii, 453
figure of, i, 221; ii, 453
Palœaspis, i, 575
palometa, i, 324; ii, 283
pampano, i, 210, 324; ii, 272-292
gaff-topsail, ii, 277
great, ii, 277
round, ii, 277
true, ii, 277
panai feri, ii, 367
Panama,
as barrier, i, 270
Blainville on, ii, 14
figure of, i, 453; ii, 14
palæontology, evidence of, i, 64
Palæorhynchidæ,
family of, ii, 268
Palæorhynchus, ii, 268
figure of, ii, 268
Palæospinax, i, 528
Palæospondylidæ, i, 593
Palæospondylus, i, 204, 437, 444, 593, 595, 596
figure of, i, 591
relationships of, i, 593
palatines, i, 6
palatopterygoid arch, ii, 152, 155
palato-quadrate apparatus, i, 508, 509, 523
Palinurichthys, ii, 284
Pallas, ii, 67, 135, 428, 522
Pallasina, ii, 453
figure of, i, 221; ii, 453
Palœaspis, i, 575
palometa, i, 324; ii, 283
pampano, i, 210, 324; ii, 272-292
gaff-topsail, ii, 277
great, ii, 277
round, ii, 277
true, ii, 277
panai feri, ii, 367
Panama,
as barrier, i, 270
Page 807
final hypothesis as to, i, 279
pancreas, i, 32
Pander, i, 427
pan fish, ii, 355
Panicum, ii, 369
Pantodon, ii, 60
Pantodontidæ, ii, 57
Pantosteus, i, 304, 316; ii, 172
papagallo, ii, 278
papilla, i, 115
Pappichthys, ii, 36
Parabatrachus, i, 604
Paracentropogon, ii, 436
Paracentropristis, ii, 328
Paracirrhites, ii, 363
paraglenal, i, 90; ii, 12
Paragobiodon, ii, 466
Paralabrax, ii, 328
Paralepidæ, ii, 136
Paralichthys, i, 206; ii, 482, 486, 492
figure of, ii, 493
shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, 2
tail of, figured, i, 83; ii, 486
Paraliparis, i, 202, 219; ii, 454, 455
Paramia, ii, 317
Paranguilla, ii, 150
Paranthias, ii, 328
pancreas, i, 32
Pander, i, 427
pan fish, ii, 355
Panicum, ii, 369
Pantodon, ii, 60
Pantodontidæ, ii, 57
Pantosteus, i, 304, 316; ii, 172
papagallo, ii, 278
papilla, i, 115
Pappichthys, ii, 36
Parabatrachus, i, 604
Paracentropogon, ii, 436
Paracentropristis, ii, 328
Paracirrhites, ii, 363
paraglenal, i, 90; ii, 12
Paragobiodon, ii, 466
Paralabrax, ii, 328
Paralepidæ, ii, 136
Paralichthys, i, 206; ii, 482, 486, 492
figure of, ii, 493
shoulder-girdle of, i, 58; ii, 2
tail of, figured, i, 83; ii, 486
Paraliparis, i, 202, 219; ii, 454, 455
Paramia, ii, 317
Paranguilla, ii, 150
Paranthias, ii, 328
Page 808
Paraphyllodus, ii, 396
Parapristipoma, ii, 342
Parapegasus, ii, 240
Parapercis, ii, 502
Parasilurus, ii, 183
parasites of fishes,
crustaceans, i, 340
figures illustrating, i, 341-344
fungi, i, 353
Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348
hosts of, i, 343
internal, i, 342
protozoans, i, 342
parasitic diseases,
Gurley on, i, 342
Linton on, i, 343
Megnin on, i, 343
Railliet on, i, 343
Stiles on, i, 343
Ward on, i, 343
parasitic fungi, i, 353
parasitic worms,
acanthocephala, i, 344
cestodes, i, 344
an article of food, i, 351
nematodes, i, 344
trematodes, i, 344
Paratrachichthys, i, 439; ii, 295
figure of, ii, 253
Paraxus, i, 517
Pareioplitæ, ii, 426-458
parental affection in fishes, i, 166, 167
Parapristipoma, ii, 342
Parapegasus, ii, 240
Parapercis, ii, 502
Parasilurus, ii, 183
parasites of fishes,
crustaceans, i, 340
figures illustrating, i, 341-344
fungi, i, 353
Heart Lake tapeworm, i, 348
hosts of, i, 343
internal, i, 342
protozoans, i, 342
parasitic diseases,
Gurley on, i, 342
Linton on, i, 343
Megnin on, i, 343
Railliet on, i, 343
Stiles on, i, 343
Ward on, i, 343
parasitic fungi, i, 353
parasitic worms,
acanthocephala, i, 344
cestodes, i, 344
an article of food, i, 351
nematodes, i, 344
trematodes, i, 344
Paratrachichthys, i, 439; ii, 295
figure of, ii, 253
Paraxus, i, 517
Pareioplitæ, ii, 426-458
parental affection in fishes, i, 166, 167
Page 809
Parexocœtus, ii, 214
parent-stream theory, ii, 81
Parequula, ii, 287
pargo criollo, i, 324; ii, 335
pargo de lo alto, ii, 336
pargo guachinango, ii, 335
pargos, ii, 333
Park, i, 393
Parker, i, 90, 428, 594; ii, 160, 482
on Chimæras, i, 563
on hearing of fishes, i, 121, 122
optic nerve of flounder, ii, 482, 483
on soles, ii, 483
Parnell, i, 410
Parophrys, ii, 493
Parr, ii, 91
Parra, i, 396
parrot-fish, i, 21; ii, 56, 360, 385, 390, 393
figure of, i, 330; ii, 392, 394, 395
jaws of, figured, i, 30; ii, 391
pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, 393
parts of skeleton, i, 35
paru, ii, 405
Patæcidæ, ii, 516
Patæcus, ii, 514
patao, ii, 348
Patten, i, 428
on Ostracophores, i, 569
parent-stream theory, ii, 81
Parequula, ii, 287
pargo criollo, i, 324; ii, 335
pargo de lo alto, ii, 336
pargo guachinango, ii, 335
pargos, ii, 333
Park, i, 393
Parker, i, 90, 428, 594; ii, 160, 482
on Chimæras, i, 563
on hearing of fishes, i, 121, 122
optic nerve of flounder, ii, 482, 483
on soles, ii, 483
Parnell, i, 410
Parophrys, ii, 493
Parr, ii, 91
Parra, i, 396
parrot-fish, i, 21; ii, 56, 360, 385, 390, 393
figure of, i, 330; ii, 392, 394, 395
jaws of, figured, i, 30; ii, 391
pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, 393
parts of skeleton, i, 35
paru, ii, 405
Patæcidæ, ii, 516
Patæcus, ii, 514
patao, ii, 348
Patten, i, 428
on Ostracophores, i, 569
Page 810
pesce re, ii, 218
peacock flounders, ii, 488
pearlfish, i, 84, 159; ii, 522
figure of, i, 522, 523
pêche prêtre, ii, 429
Peck, i, 419
pecten, ii, 6
pectoral fin, i, 10, 521
of Chiloscyllium, i, 66
of codfish, i, 66
figure of, i, 57, 66
Gegenbaur on, i, 66, 67
of Heptranchias, i, 57
origin of, i, 67
pectoral limb, i, 50
of Dipnoan, i, 60
figure of, i, 85
Kerr on, i, 61
in shark, i, 60
peculiar,
jaws and teeth, i, 201
larval forms, i, 142
pediculates, i, 51, 206, 207, 405; ii, 40, 499
order of, ii, 542-553
Pegador,
figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
pegapega, ii, 468
Pegasidæ, ii, 240
family of, ii, 239
Pegasus, i, 393; ii, 240
peixe rey, ii, 216
peacock flounders, ii, 488
pearlfish, i, 84, 159; ii, 522
figure of, i, 522, 523
pêche prêtre, ii, 429
Peck, i, 419
pecten, ii, 6
pectoral fin, i, 10, 521
of Chiloscyllium, i, 66
of codfish, i, 66
figure of, i, 57, 66
Gegenbaur on, i, 66, 67
of Heptranchias, i, 57
origin of, i, 67
pectoral limb, i, 50
of Dipnoan, i, 60
figure of, i, 85
Kerr on, i, 61
in shark, i, 60
peculiar,
jaws and teeth, i, 201
larval forms, i, 142
pediculates, i, 51, 206, 207, 405; ii, 40, 499
order of, ii, 542-553
Pegador,
figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
pegapega, ii, 468
Pegasidæ, ii, 240
family of, ii, 239
Pegasus, i, 393; ii, 240
peixe rey, ii, 216
Page 811
pelagic fishes, i, 245
vertebræ in, i, 209
Pelamis, i, 364
Pelargorhynchus, ii, 136
Pelates, ii, 342
Pelecanus, i, 345
Pelecopterus, ii, 34
pelican,
fish parasites in, i, 345
pelican-eel, ii, 156
Pellegrin, i, 412
on poisonous fishes, i, 182-184
Pelor, i, 180; ii, 434
Peltacephalata, i, 568
pelvic girdle, i, 42
Pempheridæ, ii, 288
Pempheris, ii, 289
figure of, ii, 289, 290
penfishes, ii, 344
Penella, i, 242
Pennant, i, 396
on parental affection in fishes, i, 166
Pentacerotidæ,[14] ii, 333
vertebræ in, i, 209
Pelamis, i, 364
Pelargorhynchus, ii, 136
Pelates, ii, 342
Pelecanus, i, 345
Pelecopterus, ii, 34
pelican,
fish parasites in, i, 345
pelican-eel, ii, 156
Pellegrin, i, 412
on poisonous fishes, i, 182-184
Pelor, i, 180; ii, 434
Peltacephalata, i, 568
pelvic girdle, i, 42
Pempheridæ, ii, 288
Pempheris, ii, 289
figure of, ii, 289, 290
penfishes, ii, 344
Penella, i, 242
Pennant, i, 396
on parental affection in fishes, i, 166
Pentacerotidæ,[14] ii, 333
Page 812
14. This family should stand as Histiopteridæ, the name Pentaceros, Pentacerotidæ, being used
earlier for starfishes.
pentadactyle limb, i, 79
Pentapus, ii, 341
Peprilus, ii, 285
figure of, i, 18; ii, 284
Perca, 391; ii, 307, 315, 367
brain of, i, 111
figure of, ii, 308
Percalates, ii, 320
Percarina, ii, 310
Percesoces, ii, 157, 208, 228, 290, 360, 370, 521, 522
order of, ii, 215
perches, i, 21, 209, 290, 304; ii, 168, 258, 304, 307, 310
brain of, figured, i, 111
European, ii, 307
everglade pigmy, figured, ii, 295
white, ii, 304
yellow, ii, 307, 308
Percichthys, ii, 320
Percidæ, i, 209, 248, 290, 406; ii, 171, 258, 294, 304, 309, 320
family of, ii, 304
Percilia, ii, 320
Percina, ii, 306, 310
figure of, ii, 311
Percis, ii, 453
Percoidea, ii, 293-315
Percoidei, ii, 398
percoid fishes, ii, 293-315
earlier for starfishes.
pentadactyle limb, i, 79
Pentapus, ii, 341
Peprilus, ii, 285
figure of, i, 18; ii, 284
Perca, 391; ii, 307, 315, 367
brain of, i, 111
figure of, ii, 308
Percalates, ii, 320
Percarina, ii, 310
Percesoces, ii, 157, 208, 228, 290, 360, 370, 521, 522
order of, ii, 215
perches, i, 21, 209, 290, 304; ii, 168, 258, 304, 307, 310
brain of, figured, i, 111
European, ii, 307
everglade pigmy, figured, ii, 295
white, ii, 304
yellow, ii, 307, 308
Percichthys, ii, 320
Percidæ, i, 209, 248, 290, 406; ii, 171, 258, 294, 304, 309, 320
family of, ii, 304
Percilia, ii, 320
Percina, ii, 306, 310
figure of, ii, 311
Percis, ii, 453
Percoidea, ii, 293-315
Percoidei, ii, 398
percoid fishes, ii, 293-315
Page 813
Percomorphi, ii, 258-271, 365, 397, 398, 426
suborder of, ii, 258
Percophidæ, ii, 502
Percopsidæ, i, 290; ii, 241
family of, ii, 241
Percopsis, i, 316; ii, 296
figure of, ii, 241
periblast, i, 136
Periophthalmus, i, 117; ii, 465, 510
figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
Peristediidæ, i, 208; ii, 457
Peristedion, i, 219
figure of, i, 299; ii, 457
peritoneum, i, 32
Permian, ii, 14, 23
sharks from, i, 517
Perugia, i, 412
pescado azul, ii, 382
pescadillo del red, ii, 354
pescado blanco, i, 328; ii, 216
figure of, i, 217, 329
pescado del rey, ii, 216
pesce rey, ii, 216
Petalodontidæ, i, 531
family of, i, 554
teeth of, figured, i, 555
Petalodus, i, 554
Petalopteryx, ii, 26, 458
Peters, i, 411
suborder of, ii, 258
Percophidæ, ii, 502
Percopsidæ, i, 290; ii, 241
family of, ii, 241
Percopsis, i, 316; ii, 296
figure of, ii, 241
periblast, i, 136
Periophthalmus, i, 117; ii, 465, 510
figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
Peristediidæ, i, 208; ii, 457
Peristedion, i, 219
figure of, i, 299; ii, 457
peritoneum, i, 32
Permian, ii, 14, 23
sharks from, i, 517
Perugia, i, 412
pescado azul, ii, 382
pescadillo del red, ii, 354
pescado blanco, i, 328; ii, 216
figure of, i, 217, 329
pescado del rey, ii, 216
pesce rey, ii, 216
Petalodontidæ, i, 531
family of, i, 554
teeth of, figured, i, 555
Petalodus, i, 554
Petalopteryx, ii, 26, 458
Peters, i, 411
Page 814
peto, ii, 266
Petromyzon, i, 132, 142, 357, 372, 391, 490, 618
figure of, i, 491
mouth figured, i, 492
head of, figured, i, 111
Petromyzonidæ, i, 290, 373, 490
Petroscirtes, ii, 509
pez ciego, ii, 524
pez del rey,
figure of, ii, 218
pez de pluma, ii, 344
pez puerco, ii, 413
Phæbodus, i, 522
Phanerodon, ii, 375
Phaneropleuron, i, 612
figure of, i, 613
Phanerosteon, i, 580
Phareodus, ii, 56, 57
figures of, ii, 57-59
fossils of, ii, 58, 59
pharyngeals, i, 5, 48
figure of, i, 47
of Italian parrot-fish, ii, 391
of parrot-fish, figured, ii, 391
use in voice, i, 121
pharyngeal teeth,
figured, ii, 175
Pharyngognathi, i, 405; ii, 259, 380, 396
suborder of, ii, 384
Philippi, i, 415
Petromyzon, i, 132, 142, 357, 372, 391, 490, 618
figure of, i, 491
mouth figured, i, 492
head of, figured, i, 111
Petromyzonidæ, i, 290, 373, 490
Petroscirtes, ii, 509
pez ciego, ii, 524
pez del rey,
figure of, ii, 218
pez de pluma, ii, 344
pez puerco, ii, 413
Phæbodus, i, 522
Phanerodon, ii, 375
Phaneropleuron, i, 612
figure of, i, 613
Phanerosteon, i, 580
Phareodus, ii, 56, 57
figures of, ii, 57-59
fossils of, ii, 58, 59
pharyngeals, i, 5, 48
figure of, i, 47
of Italian parrot-fish, ii, 391
of parrot-fish, figured, ii, 391
use in voice, i, 121
pharyngeal teeth,
figured, ii, 175
Pharyngognathi, i, 405; ii, 259, 380, 396
suborder of, ii, 384
Philippi, i, 415
Page 815
Philypnus, ii, 459
figure of, ii, 460
Pholidophoridæ, ii, 26, 29, 36, 41
Pholidophorus, ii, 28
figure of, ii, 29
Pholidurus, ii, 22
Pholis, i, 209; ii, 512
figure of, ii, 512
phosphorescent groups, i, 187
phosphorescent organs,
artificial stimulation of, i, 191
chemical action in, i, 196
cross-section of, i, 193
Greene on, i, 194, 196, 197
Lendenfeld on, i, 194, 195
of Porichthys, i, 194
photophores, i, 187, 189
Phoxinus, ii, 167
Phractolamidæ, ii, 48
Phrynorhombus, ii, 488
Phtheirichthys, ii, 469
Phthinobranchii, i, 227-240
Phyllodus, ii, 396
Phyllolepidæ, i, 584
phylogeny, i, 63, 79
Phylopteryx, ii, 238
Phylyctænaspis, i, 586
Physoclysti, i, 405; ii, 39, 209
physostome, ii, 10
figure of, ii, 460
Pholidophoridæ, ii, 26, 29, 36, 41
Pholidophorus, ii, 28
figure of, ii, 29
Pholidurus, ii, 22
Pholis, i, 209; ii, 512
figure of, ii, 512
phosphorescent groups, i, 187
phosphorescent organs,
artificial stimulation of, i, 191
chemical action in, i, 196
cross-section of, i, 193
Greene on, i, 194, 196, 197
Lendenfeld on, i, 194, 195
of Porichthys, i, 194
photophores, i, 187, 189
Phoxinus, ii, 167
Phractolamidæ, ii, 48
Phrynorhombus, ii, 488
Phtheirichthys, ii, 469
Phthinobranchii, i, 227-240
Phyllodus, ii, 396
Phyllolepidæ, i, 584
phylogeny, i, 63, 79
Phylopteryx, ii, 238
Phylyctænaspis, i, 586
Physoclysti, i, 405; ii, 39, 209
physostome, ii, 10
Page 816
Physostomi, i, 405; ii, 39, 40
picarel, ii, 347
pickerel, i, 4; ii, 147
pigfish, ii, 342
pigmentation, i, 226
effect of spirits on, i, 235
pigmy sunfishes, ii, 296
pike, i, 209, 239, 250, 290, 304, 328, 440; ii, 190
figure of, i, 203, 328; ii, 191
skeleton of, i, 203
pike-perch, ii, 309
pilchard, ii, 50
pilot-fish, i, 63; ii, 272
figure of, ii, 273
Pimelodus, ii, 183, 186
Pimelometopon, ii, 388, 389
figure of, ii, 389
pineal organ, i, 111
Dean on, i, 112
figure of, i, 111
pine-cone-fish,
figure of, i, 16; ii, 257
pinfish, ii, 344
ping, ii, 91
Pinguipedidæ, ii, 363, 499
pink, ii, 72
pintado, ii, 266
pipefish, i, 64, 128, 440
family of, ii, 236
picarel, ii, 347
pickerel, i, 4; ii, 147
pigfish, ii, 342
pigmentation, i, 226
effect of spirits on, i, 235
pigmy sunfishes, ii, 296
pike, i, 209, 239, 250, 290, 304, 328, 440; ii, 190
figure of, i, 203, 328; ii, 191
skeleton of, i, 203
pike-perch, ii, 309
pilchard, ii, 50
pilot-fish, i, 63; ii, 272
figure of, ii, 273
Pimelodus, ii, 183, 186
Pimelometopon, ii, 388, 389
figure of, ii, 389
pineal organ, i, 111
Dean on, i, 112
figure of, i, 111
pine-cone-fish,
figure of, i, 16; ii, 257
pinfish, ii, 344
ping, ii, 91
Pinguipedidæ, ii, 363, 499
pink, ii, 72
pintado, ii, 266
pipefish, i, 64, 128, 440
family of, ii, 236
Page 817
pirate-perch, i, 290; ii, 294
figure of, ii, 295
Pisces, i, 393, 588
characteristics of, i, 506
Piso, i, 389
placoderm, i, 462, 584, 590, 591, 593
Placodermi, i, 568, 622, 623
placoid scales, i, 21
Placopharynx, ii, 174
lower pharyngeal figured, ii, 171
Plagioscion, ii, 354
Plagiostomi, i, 507
Plagiuri, i, 392
Plagyodontidæ, ii, 134, 136
Plagyodus, ii, 136
figure of, ii, 135
plaice, ii, 487, 493
plaice tribe, ii, 492
pla-kat, ii, 370
Platacidæ, ii, 398, 400, 401
Platax, i, 240, 268; ii, 243, 245, 398, 401
Platophrys,
figure of, i, 174, 175
larval form, i, 174
Platichthys, ii, 482, 493
figure of, ii, 495
Platophrys, ii, 481, 482, 488
larval stages of, figured, ii, 484
figure of, ii, 295
Pisces, i, 393, 588
characteristics of, i, 506
Piso, i, 389
placoderm, i, 462, 584, 590, 591, 593
Placodermi, i, 568, 622, 623
placoid scales, i, 21
Placopharynx, ii, 174
lower pharyngeal figured, ii, 171
Plagioscion, ii, 354
Plagiostomi, i, 507
Plagiuri, i, 392
Plagyodontidæ, ii, 134, 136
Plagyodus, ii, 136
figure of, ii, 135
plaice, ii, 487, 493
plaice tribe, ii, 492
pla-kat, ii, 370
Platacidæ, ii, 398, 400, 401
Platax, i, 240, 268; ii, 243, 245, 398, 401
Platophrys,
figure of, i, 174, 175
larval form, i, 174
Platichthys, ii, 482, 493
figure of, ii, 495
Platophrys, ii, 481, 482, 488
larval stages of, figured, ii, 484
Page 818
Platycephalidæ, i, 267
family of, ii, 441
Platycephalus, ii, 441
Platycormus, ii, 283, 284, 485
Platyglossus, ii, 390
Platyptera, ii, 506
Platysomidæ, ii, 4, 14, 15
Platysomus, ii, 15
figure of, i, 452
Platystacus, i, 128; ii, 184
Platyurus, i, 364
Playfair, i, 416
Plecoglossus, i, 260; ii, 62, 115, 117
figure of, i, 321; ii, 116
plectognath fishes, i, 206
Plectognathi, ii, 9, 40
series of, ii, 411
Plectognaths, ii, 291, 411
Plectorhynchus, ii, 341
Plectospondyli, ii, 40, 161, 162
plectospondylous, i, 48
Plectromus, ii, 253
Plectropoma, ii, 323
Plesiops, ii, 330, 359
Plethodus, ii, 44
Pleuracanthus, i, 65, 66, 204, 437, 510, 511, 513
diphycercal tail of, i, 80
figures of, i, 74, 519, 520
family of, ii, 441
Platycephalus, ii, 441
Platycormus, ii, 283, 284, 485
Platyglossus, ii, 390
Platyptera, ii, 506
Platysomidæ, ii, 4, 14, 15
Platysomus, ii, 15
figure of, i, 452
Platystacus, i, 128; ii, 184
Platyurus, i, 364
Playfair, i, 416
Plecoglossus, i, 260; ii, 62, 115, 117
figure of, i, 321; ii, 116
plectognath fishes, i, 206
Plectognathi, ii, 9, 40
series of, ii, 411
Plectognaths, ii, 291, 411
Plectorhynchus, ii, 341
Plectospondyli, ii, 40, 161, 162
plectospondylous, i, 48
Plectromus, ii, 253
Plectropoma, ii, 323
Plesiops, ii, 330, 359
Plethodus, ii, 44
Pleuracanthus, i, 65, 66, 204, 437, 510, 511, 513
diphycercal tail of, i, 80
figures of, i, 74, 519, 520
Page 819
headbones and teeth of, figured, i, 520
Pleurocanthidæ, i, 519, 520, 522, 566
Pleurogrammus, i, 209
figure of, i, 328; ii, 439
Pleuronectidæ, i, 290
family of, ii, 485
Pleuronectinæ, ii, 492
Pleuronectes, i, 391; ii, 493
Pleuronichthys, i, 206, 257; ii, 493
figure of, i, 441
Pleuropholis, ii, 29
Pleuropterygii, i, 513, 514, 518
Plioplarchus, ii, 304
Plotosidæ, ii, 184
Plotosus, ii, 184
Plumier, i, 389
Pneumatosteus, ii, 32
Podopteryx, ii, 457
Podothecus, ii, 453
pond-skipper,
figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
Pœcilia, ii, 199
Pœciliidæ, 22, 125; ii, 194, 198, 199, 201, 213
figure of, i, 126
Pœcilodus, i, 531
Poey, i, 376, 415
portrait of, i, 413
Pogonias, i, 595; ii, 354, 357
Pleurocanthidæ, i, 519, 520, 522, 566
Pleurogrammus, i, 209
figure of, i, 328; ii, 439
Pleuronectidæ, i, 290
family of, ii, 485
Pleuronectinæ, ii, 492
Pleuronectes, i, 391; ii, 493
Pleuronichthys, i, 206, 257; ii, 493
figure of, i, 441
Pleuropholis, ii, 29
Pleuropterygii, i, 513, 514, 518
Plioplarchus, ii, 304
Plotosidæ, ii, 184
Plotosus, ii, 184
Plumier, i, 389
Pneumatosteus, ii, 32
Podopteryx, ii, 457
Podothecus, ii, 453
pond-skipper,
figure of, i, 118; ii, 466
Pœcilia, ii, 199
Pœciliidæ, 22, 125; ii, 194, 198, 199, 201, 213
figure of, i, 126
Pœcilodus, i, 531
Poey, i, 376, 415
portrait of, i, 413
Pogonias, i, 595; ii, 354, 357
Page 820
figure of, ii, 358
Pogonichthys, ii, 169
poison fishes, i, 180-185, 236
figure of, i, 229; ii, 436
poison glands, ii, 177, 527
in catfishes, ii, 182
Günther on, ii, 527, 528, 529
poisonous fishes, ii, 325, 335
diseases arising from, i, 183
varieties of, i, 180, 182, 183
Polistotrema,
figure of, i, 489
Pollachius, i, 209; ii, 537
pollack,
figure of, ii, 537
Pollard, i, 595, 600
Polycentridæ, ii, 358
Polyclinidæ, i, 477
Polydactylus,
figure of, ii, 225
shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, 225
Polygnathus,
figure of, i, 486
Polymixia, i, 122; ii, 257
Polymixiidæ,
family of, ii, 256
Polynemidæ, i, 122; 11, 215, 224
Polynemus, i, 393
Polyodon, i, 199, 253, 302, 452, 534, 566, 622, 623; ii, 22
figure of, ii, 22
Pogonichthys, ii, 169
poison fishes, i, 180-185, 236
figure of, i, 229; ii, 436
poison glands, ii, 177, 527
in catfishes, ii, 182
Günther on, ii, 527, 528, 529
poisonous fishes, ii, 325, 335
diseases arising from, i, 183
varieties of, i, 180, 182, 183
Polistotrema,
figure of, i, 489
Pollachius, i, 209; ii, 537
pollack,
figure of, ii, 537
Pollard, i, 595, 600
Polycentridæ, ii, 358
Polyclinidæ, i, 477
Polydactylus,
figure of, ii, 225
shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, 225
Polygnathus,
figure of, i, 486
Polymixia, i, 122; ii, 257
Polymixiidæ,
family of, ii, 256
Polynemidæ, i, 122; 11, 215, 224
Polynemus, i, 393
Polyodon, i, 199, 253, 302, 452, 534, 566, 622, 623; ii, 22
figure of, ii, 22
Page 821
Polyodontidæ, i, 290; ii, 20, 21, 22
Polyospondyli, i, 509, 530, 561
Polypteridæ, i, 602, 605
Boulenger on, i, 608
Polypterus, i, 76, 79, 88, 89, 204, 450, 600, 601, 603, 606, 616; ii, 2
figure of, i, 79, 602, 607
shoulder-girdle of, figured, i, 600
Polyrhizodus, i, 555
Polystylidæ, i, 476
Pomacanthus, ii, 403, 405
figure of, ii, 403
Pomacentridæ, i, 206, 209; ii, 380, 381, 382
organs of smell in, i, 115
Pomacentrus, i, 235; ii, 383
figure of, ii, 382
species of, ii, 383
Pomadasis, ii, 341, 342
Pomatomidæ, ii, 278
Pomatomus, ii, 278
figure of, i, 324
pomfret, ii, 286
Pomolobus, i, 300; ii, 49, 53
figure of, i, 455; ii, 50
Pomotis, i, 302; ii, 379
Pomoxis, i, 302; ii, 297
figure of, ii, 297, 298
pompon, ii, 341
pond-skipper,
figure of, i, 118
Polyospondyli, i, 509, 530, 561
Polypteridæ, i, 602, 605
Boulenger on, i, 608
Polypterus, i, 76, 79, 88, 89, 204, 450, 600, 601, 603, 606, 616; ii, 2
figure of, i, 79, 602, 607
shoulder-girdle of, figured, i, 600
Polyrhizodus, i, 555
Polystylidæ, i, 476
Pomacanthus, ii, 403, 405
figure of, ii, 403
Pomacentridæ, i, 206, 209; ii, 380, 381, 382
organs of smell in, i, 115
Pomacentrus, i, 235; ii, 383
figure of, ii, 382
species of, ii, 383
Pomadasis, ii, 341, 342
Pomatomidæ, ii, 278
Pomatomus, ii, 278
figure of, i, 324
pomfret, ii, 286
Pomolobus, i, 300; ii, 49, 53
figure of, i, 455; ii, 50
Pomotis, i, 302; ii, 379
Pomoxis, i, 302; ii, 297
figure of, ii, 297, 298
pompon, ii, 341
pond-skipper,
figure of, i, 118
Page 822
pond-smelt, ii, 124
poolfishes, i, 159
pope, ii, 309
poppy-fish, ii, 283
Popular Science Monthly,
reference to, ii, 69
porbeagle, i, 537
porc des rivières, ii, 369
porcupine-fish, i, 19, 197; ii, 422, 423
figure of, i, 17; ii, 422
porgy, i, 239; ii, 342
varieties of, ii, 344
Porichthys, i, 121, 190, 191, 192; ii, 526
figure of, i, 23; ii, 526
Greene on, i, 190; ii, 526
luminous organs of, i, 172
phosphorescent organs of, i, 191
porkfish, ii, 341
figure of, ii, 341
portal vein, i, 108
Portheus, ii, 48
skeleton of, ii, 47
Port Jackson shark,
eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527
portugais, ii, 405
Portuguese man-of-war,
figure of, i, 160
Porcus, ii, 183
postembryonic development of fishes, i, 132
poolfishes, i, 159
pope, ii, 309
poppy-fish, ii, 283
Popular Science Monthly,
reference to, ii, 69
porbeagle, i, 537
porc des rivières, ii, 369
porcupine-fish, i, 19, 197; ii, 422, 423
figure of, i, 17; ii, 422
porgy, i, 239; ii, 342
varieties of, ii, 344
Porichthys, i, 121, 190, 191, 192; ii, 526
figure of, i, 23; ii, 526
Greene on, i, 190; ii, 526
luminous organs of, i, 172
phosphorescent organs of, i, 191
porkfish, ii, 341
figure of, ii, 341
portal vein, i, 108
Portheus, ii, 48
skeleton of, ii, 47
Port Jackson shark,
eggs of, figured, i, 128, 527
portugais, ii, 405
Portuguese man-of-war,
figure of, i, 160
Porcus, ii, 183
postembryonic development of fishes, i, 132
Page 823
posterior limbs, i, 53
postero-temporal, i, 90
post-temporal, i, 88, 90
Potamorrhaphis, ii, 211
Powrie, i, 424
predatory fishes, i, 116; ii, 164
premaxillary,
figure of, i, 55
preopercle, i, 45
preservation of fishes,
Günther on, i, 431
methods of, i, 431, 432
Priacanthidæ, ii, 333
Priacanthus, ii, 333
figure of, ii, 331
Pribilof sculpin,
figure of, ii, 446
Priem, i, 427
priestfish,
figure of, ii, 430
Prime,
on crab-eater as game fish, ii, 282
primitive fishes,
brain of, i, 112
skeleton of, i, 54
primitive herring-like fishes, i, 454
primitive sharks, i, 511
orders of, i, 513
Prionace, i, 542
postero-temporal, i, 90
post-temporal, i, 88, 90
Potamorrhaphis, ii, 211
Powrie, i, 424
predatory fishes, i, 116; ii, 164
premaxillary,
figure of, i, 55
preopercle, i, 45
preservation of fishes,
Günther on, i, 431
methods of, i, 431, 432
Priacanthidæ, ii, 333
Priacanthus, ii, 333
figure of, ii, 331
Pribilof sculpin,
figure of, ii, 446
Priem, i, 427
priestfish,
figure of, ii, 430
Prime,
on crab-eater as game fish, ii, 282
primitive fishes,
brain of, i, 112
skeleton of, i, 54
primitive herring-like fishes, i, 454
primitive sharks, i, 511
orders of, i, 513
Prionace, i, 542
Page 824
Prionodus, i, 488
Prionodes, ii, 329
Prionotus, i, 246; ii, 283
figure of, ii, 456
Prionurus, ii, 409
Priscacara, ii, 381
Pristipoma, i, 375
Pristididæ, i, 549
Pristodontidæ, i, 555
Pristiophoridæ,
family of, i, 548, 549
Pristiophorus, i, 199
figure of, i, 201, 548
Pristis, i, 199, 548
figure of, i, 200
Pristiurus, i, 70
proach, ii, 445
Proantigonia, ii, 400
Proballostomus, ii, 201
problem of highest fishes,
Gill on, i, 383
problem of Oatka Creek, i, 282
process of natural selection, i, 297, 302
Prochanos, ii, 45
Prognathodes, ii, 404
Progymnodon, ii, 423
Prolebias, ii, 201
Promethichthys, ii, 267
Prionodes, ii, 329
Prionotus, i, 246; ii, 283
figure of, ii, 456
Prionurus, ii, 409
Priscacara, ii, 381
Pristipoma, i, 375
Pristididæ, i, 549
Pristodontidæ, i, 555
Pristiophoridæ,
family of, i, 548, 549
Pristiophorus, i, 199
figure of, i, 201, 548
Pristis, i, 199, 548
figure of, i, 200
Pristiurus, i, 70
proach, ii, 445
Proantigonia, ii, 400
Proballostomus, ii, 201
problem of highest fishes,
Gill on, i, 383
problem of Oatka Creek, i, 282
process of natural selection, i, 297, 302
Prochanos, ii, 45
Prognathodes, ii, 404
Progymnodon, ii, 423
Prolebias, ii, 201
Promethichthys, ii, 267
Page 825
Promicrops, ii, 323
pronephros, i, 619; ii, 5, 8
Pronotocanthus, ii, 157
Propristis, i, 550
propterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523
Prosarthri, i, 509, 526
proscapula, i, 89
prosencephalon, i, 109
figure of, i, 111
Protamia, ii, 36
Protaulopsis, ii, 233
protection,
through poisonous flesh, i, 182
of young, i, 128
protective,
coloration, i, 226
markings, i, 228
Proteus, i, 600
Protocatostomus, ii, 56
protocercal tail, i, 81, 598
Wyman on, i, 81
Protochordata, i, 460-466
Protonotacanthidæ, ii, 157
Protopterus, i, 82, 85, 100, 204, 450, 613, 616, 617
figure of, i, 622
Protoselachii, i, 523
Protosphyræna, ii, 34
Protosphyrænidæ, ii, 34
pronephros, i, 619; ii, 5, 8
Pronotocanthus, ii, 157
Propristis, i, 550
propterygium, i, 58, 511, 512, 523
Prosarthri, i, 509, 526
proscapula, i, 89
prosencephalon, i, 109
figure of, i, 111
Protamia, ii, 36
Protaulopsis, ii, 233
protection,
through poisonous flesh, i, 182
of young, i, 128
protective,
coloration, i, 226
markings, i, 228
Proteus, i, 600
Protocatostomus, ii, 56
protocercal tail, i, 81, 598
Wyman on, i, 81
Protochordata, i, 460-466
Protonotacanthidæ, ii, 157
Protopterus, i, 82, 85, 100, 204, 450, 613, 616, 617
figure of, i, 622
Protoselachii, i, 523
Protosphyræna, ii, 34
Protosphyrænidæ, ii, 34
Page 826
Prostospondyli, ii, 23, 34
Protosyngnathus, ii, 233
Prototroctes, i, 252; ii, 128
protozoan parasites, i, 342
Provençal i, 95
Psammobatis, i, 553
Psammodus, i, 558, 559
Psammosteidæ, i, 574
Psenes, ii, 285
Psenopsis, ii, 284
Psephodus, i, 531
Psephurus, i, 199, 253, 452, 622, 623
figure of, ii, 21
Psettidæ, ii, 291
Psettus, ii, 398, 400
figure of, ii, 399
Pseudecheneis, ii, 184
Pseudeleginus, ii, 502
Pseudobagrus, ii, 183
Pseudoberyx, ii, 52
Pseudoblennius, i, 260; ii, 448
pseudobranch, ii, 7
pseudobranchiæ, i, 92
Pseudocheilinus, ii, 390
Pseudochromipidæ, ii, 359
Pseudogaleus, i, 533
Pseudojulis, ii, 389
Protosyngnathus, ii, 233
Prototroctes, i, 252; ii, 128
protozoan parasites, i, 342
Provençal i, 95
Psammobatis, i, 553
Psammodus, i, 558, 559
Psammosteidæ, i, 574
Psenes, ii, 285
Psenopsis, ii, 284
Psephodus, i, 531
Psephurus, i, 199, 253, 452, 622, 623
figure of, ii, 21
Psettidæ, ii, 291
Psettus, ii, 398, 400
figure of, ii, 399
Pseudecheneis, ii, 184
Pseudeleginus, ii, 502
Pseudobagrus, ii, 183
Pseudoberyx, ii, 52
Pseudoblennius, i, 260; ii, 448
pseudobranch, ii, 7
pseudobranchiæ, i, 92
Pseudocheilinus, ii, 390
Pseudochromipidæ, ii, 359
Pseudogaleus, i, 533
Pseudojulis, ii, 389
Page 827
Pseudolabrus, ii, 390
Pseudomonacanthus, ii, 415
Pseudopleuronectes, i, 174; ii, 493
larval figures of, i, 176; ii, 483
Pseudopriacanthus, ii, 332, 333
figure of, ii, 332
Pseudorhombus, ii, 492
Pseudoscaphirhynchus, ii, 18, 20
Pseudoscarus, i, 329; ii, 394, 396
figure of, i, 330
Pseudosciæna, i, 169; ii, 355, 356
Pseudotriakidæ,
family of, i, 536
Pseudotriakis, i, 536
Pseudovomer, ii, 278, 286
Pseudogobio, i, 416
Pseudupeneus, ii, 352
figure of, i, 122, 329; ii, 351
Psychrolutes, i, 219; ii, 441, 447, 449
figure of, i, 221; ii, 451
Psychromaster, ii, 315
Pteraclidæ, ii, 286, 291
Pteraclis, ii, 286
Pteraspidæ, i, 570
Pteraspis, i, 569, 571, 591, 622
figure of, i, 575
Pterichthyodes, i, 444, 622
figure of, i, 576
Pseudomonacanthus, ii, 415
Pseudopleuronectes, i, 174; ii, 493
larval figures of, i, 176; ii, 483
Pseudopriacanthus, ii, 332, 333
figure of, ii, 332
Pseudorhombus, ii, 492
Pseudoscaphirhynchus, ii, 18, 20
Pseudoscarus, i, 329; ii, 394, 396
figure of, i, 330
Pseudosciæna, i, 169; ii, 355, 356
Pseudotriakidæ,
family of, i, 536
Pseudotriakis, i, 536
Pseudovomer, ii, 278, 286
Pseudogobio, i, 416
Pseudupeneus, ii, 352
figure of, i, 122, 329; ii, 351
Psychrolutes, i, 219; ii, 441, 447, 449
figure of, i, 221; ii, 451
Psychromaster, ii, 315
Pteraclidæ, ii, 286, 291
Pteraclis, ii, 286
Pteraspidæ, i, 570
Pteraspis, i, 569, 571, 591, 622
figure of, i, 575
Pterichthyodes, i, 444, 622
figure of, i, 576
Page 828
Pterichthys, i, 581
Pterogobius,
figure of, ii, 462
Pterois, i, 180, 202; ii, 434
figure of, ii, 435
Pterophryne, ii, 550
figure of, ii, 549
species of, ii, 550
Pteroplatea, i, 556
Pteropsaridæ, ii, 502
Pteropsaron,
figure of, ii, 502
Pterothrissidæ, ii, 46
described, ii, 46
Pterothrissus, ii, 46
Pterophryne,
figure of, i, 52
pterygials, ii, 1
Pterygocephalus, ii, 513
pterygoid, i, 606
Ptilichthyidæ, ii, 513
Ptilichthys,
figure of, ii, 514
Ptychochelius, i, 164, 304; ii, 169
figure of, i, 162
Ptychoderidæ, i, 465
Ptychodus, i, 557
Ptycholepis, ii, 26
figure of, ii, 28
Pterogobius,
figure of, ii, 462
Pterois, i, 180, 202; ii, 434
figure of, ii, 435
Pterophryne, ii, 550
figure of, ii, 549
species of, ii, 550
Pteroplatea, i, 556
Pteropsaridæ, ii, 502
Pteropsaron,
figure of, ii, 502
Pterothrissidæ, ii, 46
described, ii, 46
Pterothrissus, ii, 46
Pterophryne,
figure of, i, 52
pterygials, ii, 1
Pterygocephalus, ii, 513
pterygoid, i, 606
Ptilichthyidæ, ii, 513
Ptilichthys,
figure of, ii, 514
Ptychochelius, i, 164, 304; ii, 169
figure of, i, 162
Ptychoderidæ, i, 465
Ptychodus, i, 557
Ptycholepis, ii, 26
figure of, ii, 28
Page 829
ptychopterygium, i, 510, 512
Ptychodus, i, 566
pudding-wife, ii, 388
pudiano, ii, 388
puffer, inflated,
figure of, ii, 420
puffers, i, 206, 236;
figure of, ii, 419, 420
silver, ii, 419
tiger, ii, 423
pugnacity of fishes, i, 162
pug-nosed eel, ii, 148
figure of, ii, 149
Putnam, i, 405; ii, 522
Pycnodonti, ii, 13
Pycnodontidæ, ii, 22
Pycnodus, ii, 22
Pygæidæ, ii, 405
Pygæus, ii, 405, 410
Pygidiidæ, ii, 185, 186
Pygopterus, ii, 14
Pygosteus, ii, 231
pyloric cæca, i, 26, 32
Pyrosoma, i, 477
Pyrosomidæ, i, 477
quadrate, i, 606
Quassilabia, ii, 174
Ptychodus, i, 566
pudding-wife, ii, 388
pudiano, ii, 388
puffer, inflated,
figure of, ii, 420
puffers, i, 206, 236;
figure of, ii, 419, 420
silver, ii, 419
tiger, ii, 423
pugnacity of fishes, i, 162
pug-nosed eel, ii, 148
figure of, ii, 149
Putnam, i, 405; ii, 522
Pycnodonti, ii, 13
Pycnodontidæ, ii, 22
Pycnodus, ii, 22
Pygæidæ, ii, 405
Pygæus, ii, 405, 410
Pygidiidæ, ii, 185, 186
Pygopterus, ii, 14
Pygosteus, ii, 231
pyloric cæca, i, 26, 32
Pyrosoma, i, 477
Pyrosomidæ, i, 477
quadrate, i, 606
Quassilabia, ii, 174
Page 830
Quensel, i, 396
Querimana, ii, 222
questions,
by Agassiz, i, 284
by Cope, i, 288
quiescent fishes, i, 158
quillfish,
the, ii, 513
figure of, ii, 514
quinnat salmon, i, 150, 301; ii, 68, 73-76
figure of, i, 354; ii, 69, 79
young male figured, i, 355
rabbit-fishes,
figure of, ii, 423
Rabirubia, ii, 337
Rachycentridæ,
family of, ii, 282
Rachycentron, ii, 470, 468
figure of, ii, 282
Rafinesque, i, 395; ii, 315
on imaginary garpike, i, 364, 366
ragfishes, the, ii, 285
Ogilby on, ii, 285
rainbow darter, ii, 315
rainbow trout, ii, 96-98, 100
figure of, i, 326; ii, 98, 99
Raja, i, 72, 129, 391, 549
figure of, i, 448, 552
Rajidæ, i, 551, 553
Querimana, ii, 222
questions,
by Agassiz, i, 284
by Cope, i, 288
quiescent fishes, i, 158
quillfish,
the, ii, 513
figure of, ii, 514
quinnat salmon, i, 150, 301; ii, 68, 73-76
figure of, i, 354; ii, 69, 79
young male figured, i, 355
rabbit-fishes,
figure of, ii, 423
Rabirubia, ii, 337
Rachycentridæ,
family of, ii, 282
Rachycentron, ii, 470, 468
figure of, ii, 282
Rafinesque, i, 395; ii, 315
on imaginary garpike, i, 364, 366
ragfishes, the, ii, 285
Ogilby on, ii, 285
rainbow darter, ii, 315
rainbow trout, ii, 96-98, 100
figure of, i, 326; ii, 98, 99
Raja, i, 72, 129, 391, 549
figure of, i, 448, 552
Rajidæ, i, 551, 553
Page 831
Ranicipitidæ, ii, 539
Rangeley trout, ii, 109
figure of, i, 326
Raniceps, ii, 539
Ranzania, i, 84, 412
figure of, ii, 425
Rapp, i, 411
Rascasio, ii, 433
ratfish, i, 564
Rathke, i, 428; ii, 144
rat-tail, i, 209; ii, 441, 540
Ray, i, 390
ray, i, 9, 24, 35, 117, 508, 509, 549
electric organs of, i, 186
razor-back sucker, ii, 174
figure of, ii, 175
razor-fish,
figure of, ii, 388
recognition marks, i, 7, 231, 232
records of fishes, i, 433
red charr, ii, 108
red drum,
figure of, ii, 356
redeye, ii, 168
Redfield, i, 423
redfin, ii, 166
Redfieldius, ii, 16
redfish, ii, 68, 324, 355, 388
Rangeley trout, ii, 109
figure of, i, 326
Raniceps, ii, 539
Ranzania, i, 84, 412
figure of, ii, 425
Rapp, i, 411
Rascasio, ii, 433
ratfish, i, 564
Rathke, i, 428; ii, 144
rat-tail, i, 209; ii, 441, 540
Ray, i, 390
ray, i, 9, 24, 35, 117, 508, 509, 549
electric organs of, i, 186
razor-back sucker, ii, 174
figure of, ii, 175
razor-fish,
figure of, ii, 388
recognition marks, i, 7, 231, 232
records of fishes, i, 433
red charr, ii, 108
red drum,
figure of, ii, 356
redeye, ii, 168
Redfield, i, 423
redfin, ii, 166
Redfieldius, ii, 16
redfish, ii, 68, 324, 355, 388
Page 832
figure of, ii, 389
red goatfish, ii, 35
figure of, i, 329
red grouper, ii, 324
figure of, ii, 325
red hind, ii, 324
figure of, ii, 326
red-mouth grunt, ii, 340
red mullet, ii, 352
red mumea, ii, 335
red parrot-fish,
figure of, ii, 393
red porgy, ii, 343
red rockfish, ii, 429
red rock-trout, ii, 440
skeleton of, figured, i, 214
red salmon, ii, 69, 71, 82
figure of, ii, 70, 76
red snapper, ii, 330, 335
red tai, ii, 349
figure of, ii, 342
red-throated trout, ii, 102
red voraz, ii, 338
red wrasse, ii, 387
Reed, ii, 112, 113
on trout-fishing, ii, 112
Regalecidæ,
family of, i, 472
Regalecus, i, 361; ii, 425, 472, 473, 479
red goatfish, ii, 35
figure of, i, 329
red grouper, ii, 324
figure of, ii, 325
red hind, ii, 324
figure of, ii, 326
red-mouth grunt, ii, 340
red mullet, ii, 352
red mumea, ii, 335
red parrot-fish,
figure of, ii, 393
red porgy, ii, 343
red rockfish, ii, 429
red rock-trout, ii, 440
skeleton of, figured, i, 214
red salmon, ii, 69, 71, 82
figure of, ii, 70, 76
red snapper, ii, 330, 335
red tai, ii, 349
figure of, ii, 342
red-throated trout, ii, 102
red voraz, ii, 338
red wrasse, ii, 387
Reed, ii, 112, 113
on trout-fishing, ii, 112
Regalecidæ,
family of, i, 472
Regalecus, i, 361; ii, 425, 472, 473, 479
Page 833
figure of, i, 362, 363
Regan, ii, 291
on Teleostomi, i, 622, 623
Règnè Animal, i, 400
Reighard, i, 428
on lampreys, i, 491
Reinhardt, i, 410; ii, 127
portrait of, i, 409
Reinhardtius, ii, 491
Reis, i, 427, 428, 571
relations of fish faunas,
Japan and Mediterranean, i, 270
relationships,
of Chimæras, i, 563
of Palæspondylus, i, 593, 595
relation of vertebræ to temperature, i, 202
Remora, i, 197; ii, 468, 469
Remorina, ii, 469
Remoropsis, ii, 469
Remsberg,
photograph by, i, 362
Renard, i, 396
reproduction of lost parts, i, 150
Requins, i, 540
resemblances of fish faunas, i, 259, 260
respiration, i, 91-108
Retropinna, i, 252; ii, 123
Retzius, i, 428
Regan, ii, 291
on Teleostomi, i, 622, 623
Règnè Animal, i, 400
Reighard, i, 428
on lampreys, i, 491
Reinhardt, i, 410; ii, 127
portrait of, i, 409
Reinhardtius, ii, 491
Reis, i, 427, 428, 571
relations of fish faunas,
Japan and Mediterranean, i, 270
relationships,
of Chimæras, i, 563
of Palæspondylus, i, 593, 595
relation of vertebræ to temperature, i, 202
Remora, i, 197; ii, 468, 469
Remorina, ii, 469
Remoropsis, ii, 469
Remsberg,
photograph by, i, 362
Renard, i, 396
reproduction of lost parts, i, 150
Requins, i, 540
resemblances of fish faunas, i, 259, 260
respiration, i, 91-108
Retropinna, i, 252; ii, 123
Retzius, i, 428
Page 834
Rhabdofario, ii, 62, 118
Rhacochilus, ii, 375
figure of, ii, 374
Rhacolepis, ii, 44
Rhadinichthys, ii, 14
Rhamphognathus, ii, 218
Rhamphocottidæ, ii, 449
Rhamphocottus, ii, 449
figure of, ii, 451
Rhamphosidæ, ii, 234
Rhamphosus, ii, 234
Rhegnopteri,
order of, ii, 224
Rheopresbe, i, 256; ii, 445
Rhina, i, 551
Rhinæ,
suborder of, i, 547
Rhineastes, ii, 186
Rhinellidæ, ii, 134
Rhinellus, ii, 134
figure of, ii, 134
Rhineodon, i, 540
Rhineodontidæ, i, 540
Rhinesomus, i, 377
Rhinichthys, i, 283, 307
figure of, i, 342; ii, 164
Rhinidæ, i, 551
Rhinobatidæ, i, 551
Rhacochilus, ii, 375
figure of, ii, 374
Rhacolepis, ii, 44
Rhadinichthys, ii, 14
Rhamphognathus, ii, 218
Rhamphocottidæ, ii, 449
Rhamphocottus, ii, 449
figure of, ii, 451
Rhamphosidæ, ii, 234
Rhamphosus, ii, 234
Rhegnopteri,
order of, ii, 224
Rheopresbe, i, 256; ii, 445
Rhina, i, 551
Rhinæ,
suborder of, i, 547
Rhineastes, ii, 186
Rhinellidæ, ii, 134
Rhinellus, ii, 134
figure of, ii, 134
Rhineodon, i, 540
Rhineodontidæ, i, 540
Rhinesomus, i, 377
Rhinichthys, i, 283, 307
figure of, i, 342; ii, 164
Rhinidæ, i, 551
Rhinobatidæ, i, 551
Page 835
family of, i, 550
Rhinobatis, i, 553
figure of, i, 551
Rhinochimæra, i, 199, 566
Rhinochimæridæ, i, 565
Rhinoptera, i, 557
Rhinotriacis, i, 541
Rhipidistia, i, 602
Rhizodontidæ, i, 603
Rhizodopsis, i, 603
Rhodeus, i, 129; ii, 164
Rhombochirus,
figure of, ii, 469
Rhomboganoidea, ii, 24
Rhomboplites, ii, 337
Rhombus, ii, 486
Rhyacichthyidæ, ii, 504
Rhyacichthys, ii, 504
Rhynchias, ii, 522
Rhynchobdella, ii, 532
Rhynchodus, i, 566
Rhynchorhinus, ii, 150
ribbon-fish, ii, 471, 475, 485
Goode on, ii, 475
rice-field eels, ii, 141
Richardson, i, 408, 418; ii, 64
on whitefish, i, 322
Rhinobatis, i, 553
figure of, i, 551
Rhinochimæra, i, 199, 566
Rhinochimæridæ, i, 565
Rhinoptera, i, 557
Rhinotriacis, i, 541
Rhipidistia, i, 602
Rhizodontidæ, i, 603
Rhizodopsis, i, 603
Rhodeus, i, 129; ii, 164
Rhombochirus,
figure of, ii, 469
Rhomboganoidea, ii, 24
Rhomboplites, ii, 337
Rhombus, ii, 486
Rhyacichthyidæ, ii, 504
Rhyacichthys, ii, 504
Rhynchias, ii, 522
Rhynchobdella, ii, 532
Rhynchodus, i, 566
Rhynchorhinus, ii, 150
ribbon-fish, ii, 471, 475, 485
Goode on, ii, 475
rice-field eels, ii, 141
Richardson, i, 408, 418; ii, 64
on whitefish, i, 322
Page 836
Richardson's sculpin,
figure of, ii, 451
Rio Grande trout,
figure of, ii, 106
Risso, i, 395
Rissola,
figure of, ii, 520
Ritter,
on ascidians, i, 474
on Enteropneusta, i, 464
river-bullhead,
spawning of, i, 166
river-drum, ii, 354, 355
river-fishes,
dispersion of, i, 297-319
river-ruff, ii, 309
river-sculpin, ii, 445
river-sheepshead, ii, 354
river-trout, ii, 94
river-wolf, ii, 190
Rivulus, i, 314
roach, ii, 163, 168
robalito, ii, 320
robalo, the, i, 320, 355
figure of, ii, 319, 324
Roccus, i, 291, 324; ii, 321, 330
bones of, i, 35
cranium of, i, 36-39
figures of, i, 35-39, 46, 48
figure of, ii, 451
Rio Grande trout,
figure of, ii, 106
Risso, i, 395
Rissola,
figure of, ii, 520
Ritter,
on ascidians, i, 474
on Enteropneusta, i, 464
river-bullhead,
spawning of, i, 166
river-drum, ii, 354, 355
river-fishes,
dispersion of, i, 297-319
river-ruff, ii, 309
river-sculpin, ii, 445
river-sheepshead, ii, 354
river-trout, ii, 94
river-wolf, ii, 190
Rivulus, i, 314
roach, ii, 163, 168
robalito, ii, 320
robalo, the, i, 320, 355
figure of, ii, 319, 324
Roccus, i, 291, 324; ii, 321, 330
bones of, i, 35
cranium of, i, 36-39
figures of, i, 35-39, 46, 48
Page 837
Roche, i, 396
rock-bass, i, 4; ii, 297
figure of, ii, 299
skull of, figured, ii, 296
rock-beauty, ii, 404
figure of, ii, 405
rock-cod, i, 203; ii, 429
rock-cook, ii, 387
rockfish, i, 94, 125, 159; ii, 321, 429, 431
figure of, i, 218
rock-hind, i, 19; ii, 324
figure of, i, 29
rocklings, i, 209; ii, 520, 539
rock-pilots, the, ii, 381
rock-pool fishes,
figure of, i, 294
rock-skipper, ii, 510
figure of, ii, 509
Rocky Mountains,
barriers to dispersion, i, 305
Rohon, i, 427, 428
romero, ii, 272
roncador, ii, 353, 355, 356
ronco amarilla, ii, 340
ronco arará, ii, 340
Rondelet, i, 361, 388
on sea-monster, i, 360
Rondeletiidæ, ii, 132
Ronquilus, ii, 502
rock-bass, i, 4; ii, 297
figure of, ii, 299
skull of, figured, ii, 296
rock-beauty, ii, 404
figure of, ii, 405
rock-cod, i, 203; ii, 429
rock-cook, ii, 387
rockfish, i, 94, 125, 159; ii, 321, 429, 431
figure of, i, 218
rock-hind, i, 19; ii, 324
figure of, i, 29
rocklings, i, 209; ii, 520, 539
rock-pilots, the, ii, 381
rock-pool fishes,
figure of, i, 294
rock-skipper, ii, 510
figure of, ii, 509
Rocky Mountains,
barriers to dispersion, i, 305
Rohon, i, 427, 428
romero, ii, 272
roncador, ii, 353, 355, 356
ronco amarilla, ii, 340
ronco arará, ii, 340
Rondelet, i, 361, 388
on sea-monster, i, 360
Rondeletiidæ, ii, 132
Ronquilus, ii, 502
Page 838
ronquils, ii, 502
rosefishes, i, 125; ii, 428
figure of, ii, 427
Rosenthal, i, 428
rothfisch, ii, 106
rough-headed sea-robin, ii, 457
roundfish, ii, 63
round-herring, ii, 52
round-minnow,
figure of, ii, 196
round-robin, ii, 274
rousettes, i, 533
Rudarius,
figure of, i, 241
rudder-fish, ii, 273, 285, 349, 350
figure of, ii, 349
runners, ii, 272
Rüppell, i, 411
Rusconi,
on external gills, i, 77
Russell, i, 396; ii, 473
rusty-dab, ii, 493
Rutilus, ii, 164, 168
Rutter, i, 422; ii, 69, 84
photograph by, i, 355
Ruvettus, ii, 267
Ryder, i, 408, 428
on embryos, i, 64
rosefishes, i, 125; ii, 428
figure of, ii, 427
Rosenthal, i, 428
rothfisch, ii, 106
rough-headed sea-robin, ii, 457
roundfish, ii, 63
round-herring, ii, 52
round-minnow,
figure of, ii, 196
round-robin, ii, 274
rousettes, i, 533
Rudarius,
figure of, i, 241
rudder-fish, ii, 273, 285, 349, 350
figure of, ii, 349
runners, ii, 272
Rüppell, i, 411
Rusconi,
on external gills, i, 77
Russell, i, 396; ii, 473
rusty-dab, ii, 493
Rutilus, ii, 164, 168
Rutter, i, 422; ii, 69, 84
photograph by, i, 355
Ruvettus, ii, 267
Ryder, i, 408, 428
on embryos, i, 64
Page 839
on nest-building, ii, 229
on paired limbs, i, 66
on tail forms, i, 81, 84
Rypticus,
figure of, ii, 330
saboti, ii, 304
Saccopharynx, ii, 136, 157
Sacramento perch, i, 179
figure of, i, 258
Sagenodus, i, 613
sailfish, ii, 268
sailor-fish, i, 199
St. Ambrose, ii, 120
on Thymallus, ii, 120
St. Hilaire, i, 396, 428
St. John, i, 426
Salangidæ, ii, 127
Salanx, i, 146; ii, 123, 127, 128
figure of, i, 147; ii, 128
sälbling, ii, 108
Salar, ii, 90, 93
Salarias, i, 208, 271; ii, 510, 511
salema, ii, 346
Salmo, i, 291, 304, 305, 316-318, 332, 345, 346, 378, 391; ii, 62, 68, 89,
94-96, 98
figure of, i, 326; ii, 98, 99, 101, 104-106
general description, ii, 89
tail of, figured, ii, 486
on paired limbs, i, 66
on tail forms, i, 81, 84
Rypticus,
figure of, ii, 330
saboti, ii, 304
Saccopharynx, ii, 136, 157
Sacramento perch, i, 179
figure of, i, 258
Sagenodus, i, 613
sailfish, ii, 268
sailor-fish, i, 199
St. Ambrose, ii, 120
on Thymallus, ii, 120
St. Hilaire, i, 396, 428
St. John, i, 426
Salangidæ, ii, 127
Salanx, i, 146; ii, 123, 127, 128
figure of, i, 147; ii, 128
sälbling, ii, 108
Salar, ii, 90, 93
Salarias, i, 208, 271; ii, 510, 511
salema, ii, 346
Salmo, i, 291, 304, 305, 316-318, 332, 345, 346, 378, 391; ii, 62, 68, 89,
94-96, 98
figure of, i, 326; ii, 98, 99, 101, 104-106
general description, ii, 89
tail of, figured, ii, 486
Page 840
salmon, i, 21, 25, 28, 39, 53, 146, 204, 209, 249, 256, 290, 440; ii, 67-69,
94, 107, 128, 159
artificial propagation of, ii, 88
ascent of cascades, ii, 76
Callbreath on, ii, 89
colors of, ii, 78
family of, i, 61-119
habits in ocean, ii, 73
method of descent of stream, ii, 78
mutilation of, ii, 75, 76
nest of, ii, 78
packing of, ii, 87
scales of, i, 21
sexual distortion in, i, 129
spawning changes in, ii, 89
spawning of, ii, 78-80
spring running, ii, 73
white-meated, ii, 78
of Yukon, i, 73
salmonete, i, 329
figure of, ii, 351
salmon fishery,
of Japan, ii, 81
output of, ii, 87
salmon fry,
liberation of, ii, 84
marking of, ii, 84
Salmonidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, 61-119, 127, 130, 161, 190
Salmonoidea, ii, 41, 61
salmonoids, ii, 94, 107
salmon pack,
estimate of, ii, 80
salmon roe, ii, 76
94, 107, 128, 159
artificial propagation of, ii, 88
ascent of cascades, ii, 76
Callbreath on, ii, 89
colors of, ii, 78
family of, i, 61-119
habits in ocean, ii, 73
method of descent of stream, ii, 78
mutilation of, ii, 75, 76
nest of, ii, 78
packing of, ii, 87
scales of, i, 21
sexual distortion in, i, 129
spawning changes in, ii, 89
spawning of, ii, 78-80
spring running, ii, 73
white-meated, ii, 78
of Yukon, i, 73
salmonete, i, 329
figure of, ii, 351
salmon fishery,
of Japan, ii, 81
output of, ii, 87
salmon fry,
liberation of, ii, 84
marking of, ii, 84
Salmonidæ, i, 204, 290; ii, 61-119, 127, 130, 161, 190
Salmonoidea, ii, 41, 61
salmonoids, ii, 94, 107
salmon pack,
estimate of, ii, 80
salmon roe, ii, 76
Page 841
salmon shark, i, 447, 537
salmon trout, ii, 94, 105, 114
Salmopercæ, ii, 241-249
suborder of, ii, 241
Salpa, i, 477; ii, 348
Salpidæ, i, 477
Salvelini, ii, 95, 106
Salvelinus, i, 282, 306, 307, 311; ii, 62, 95, 99, 107, 108-110, 112-114
description of, ii, 107
figure of, i, 326; ii, 110, 111
samarang, i, 408
Samaris, ii, 489
samlet,
figure of, ii, 116
Sancassini, ii, 144
Sandalodus, i, 531
sand-dab, ii, 491
sand-darter, ii, 313
figure of, i, 158; ii, 313
sandfishes, ii, 364
figure of, ii, 364
sand-lance,
figure of, ii, 521
sand-pike, ii, 308
sand-roller,
figure of, ii, 241
Sandroserrus, ii, 309
Sandrus, ii, 309
salmon trout, ii, 94, 105, 114
Salmopercæ, ii, 241-249
suborder of, ii, 241
Salpa, i, 477; ii, 348
Salpidæ, i, 477
Salvelini, ii, 95, 106
Salvelinus, i, 282, 306, 307, 311; ii, 62, 95, 99, 107, 108-110, 112-114
description of, ii, 107
figure of, i, 326; ii, 110, 111
samarang, i, 408
Samaris, ii, 489
samlet,
figure of, ii, 116
Sancassini, ii, 144
Sandalodus, i, 531
sand-dab, ii, 491
sand-darter, ii, 313
figure of, i, 158; ii, 313
sandfishes, ii, 364
figure of, ii, 364
sand-lance,
figure of, ii, 521
sand-pike, ii, 308
sand-roller,
figure of, ii, 241
Sandroserrus, ii, 309
Sandrus, ii, 309
Page 842
sandstone,
fragment figured, i, 435
sand-sucker, ii, 357
sand-whiting, ii, 357
San Pedro fish, ii, 244
São Paulo, ii, 162
Saprolegnia, i, 353; ii, 76
surface on, i, 354
sarcastic blenny,
figure of, ii, 507
Sarda, i, 210; ii, 264
Sardinella, i, 204, 327, 332; ii, 50
sardines, i, 199, 268; ii, 50
Sardinia, i, 204
Sardiniodes, ii, 134
Sardinius, ii, 44
Sargassum fish,
figure of, i, 52; ii, 549
sargo, ii, 345
Sars, ii, 535
saucer-eye porgy,
figure of, ii, 345
sauger,
figure of, ii, 309
Sauripterus, i, 603
Saurocephalus, ii, 48
Saurodon, ii, 48
Saurodontidæ, ii, 48
fragment figured, i, 435
sand-sucker, ii, 357
sand-whiting, ii, 357
San Pedro fish, ii, 244
São Paulo, ii, 162
Saprolegnia, i, 353; ii, 76
surface on, i, 354
sarcastic blenny,
figure of, ii, 507
Sarda, i, 210; ii, 264
Sardinella, i, 204, 327, 332; ii, 50
sardines, i, 199, 268; ii, 50
Sardinia, i, 204
Sardiniodes, ii, 134
Sardinius, ii, 44
Sargassum fish,
figure of, i, 52; ii, 549
sargo, ii, 345
Sars, ii, 535
saucer-eye porgy,
figure of, ii, 345
sauger,
figure of, ii, 309
Sauripterus, i, 603
Saurocephalus, ii, 48
Saurodon, ii, 48
Saurodontidæ, ii, 48
Page 843
Sauropsida, i, 601
Sauropsis, ii, 34
Saurorhynchidæ, ii, 17
Saurorhynchus, ii, 17
saury,
figure of, ii, 212
sausolele,
figure of, ii, 435
Sauvage, i, 412, 427
savalo, ii, 43
sawfish, i, 199, 548
figure of, i, 550
saw-shark, i, 549
figure of, i, 201, 548
scabbard-fishes, ii, 267
Scænidæ, i, 206
scales of fish,
classification of, i, 20
figure of, i, 21, 22
scamp, ii, 327
Scapanorhinus,
snout figured, i, 536
Scaphirhynchus, i, 253, 452; ii, 18, 20
Scardinius, ii, 168
Scaridæ, ii, 390, 393, 396
Scaridea, ii, 391
Scartichthys,
figure of, i, 294; ii, 510
Sauropsis, ii, 34
Saurorhynchidæ, ii, 17
Saurorhynchus, ii, 17
saury,
figure of, ii, 212
sausolele,
figure of, ii, 435
Sauvage, i, 412, 427
savalo, ii, 43
sawfish, i, 199, 548
figure of, i, 550
saw-shark, i, 549
figure of, i, 201, 548
scabbard-fishes, ii, 267
Scænidæ, i, 206
scales of fish,
classification of, i, 20
figure of, i, 21, 22
scamp, ii, 327
Scapanorhinus,
snout figured, i, 536
Scaphirhynchus, i, 253, 452; ii, 18, 20
Scardinius, ii, 168
Scaridæ, ii, 390, 393, 396
Scaridea, ii, 391
Scartichthys,
figure of, i, 294; ii, 510
Page 844
Scarus, ii, 352, 391, 393, 396
figure of, ii, 394
jaws of, figured, ii, 393
pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, 393
Scatophagus, ii, 400
Scaumenacia, i, 612
Schedophilus, ii, 285
Schilbiosus,
figure of, i, 179
Schilbeodes, i, 180, 202; ii, 177, 182
figure of, ii, 182
structure of, ii, 177
Schizocardium, i, 465
Schlegel, i, 414
Schmidt, i, 411
Schnäbel, ii, 63
Schnapper, ii, 343
Schneider, i, 398
schoolmaster, ii, 336
schoolmaster-snapper,
figure of, i, 440
Schomburgk, i, 415
Schöpf, i, 395
Sciæna, i, 391; ii, 356-358
Sciænidæ, i, 290; ii, 225, 353-355, 358
Sciænops, ii, 355
figure of, ii, 356
Sclerodermi, ii, 398, 411, 412
figure of, ii, 394
jaws of, figured, ii, 393
pharyngeals of, i, 47, 48; ii, 393
Scatophagus, ii, 400
Scaumenacia, i, 612
Schedophilus, ii, 285
Schilbiosus,
figure of, i, 179
Schilbeodes, i, 180, 202; ii, 177, 182
figure of, ii, 182
structure of, ii, 177
Schizocardium, i, 465
Schlegel, i, 414
Schmidt, i, 411
Schnäbel, ii, 63
Schnapper, ii, 343
Schneider, i, 398
schoolmaster, ii, 336
schoolmaster-snapper,
figure of, i, 440
Schomburgk, i, 415
Schöpf, i, 395
Sciæna, i, 391; ii, 356-358
Sciænidæ, i, 290; ii, 225, 353-355, 358
Sciænops, ii, 355
figure of, ii, 356
Sclerodermi, ii, 398, 411, 412
Page 845
scleroderms, ii, 412, 415
Scoliodon, i, 542
Scolopsis, ii, 342
Scomber, i, 94, 210, 391; ii, 260, 262, 266
figure of, i, 332; ii, 260
Scomberoides, ii, 272, 470
Scomberomorus, i, 210, 322; ii, 264, 266
figure of, ii, 264
Scomberosomus,
figure of, i, 322
Scomberidea, ii, 258, 271
Scombramphodon, ii, 266
Scombresox, ii, 211, 214
figure of, i, 212
Scombridæ, i, 210; ii, 258, 272, 470
family of, ii, 259
scombriform fishes, i, 209
Scombrinus, ii, 266
Scombroclupea, ii, 52
Scombroidea,
suborder of, ii, 258
Scombroidei, ii, 291, 484, 485
scombroids, ii, 485
Scombropidæ, ii, 317
Scombrops, ii, 317
scopeloid, ii, 474
Scopelus, ii, 133
Scophthalmus, ii, 486, 488
Scoliodon, i, 542
Scolopsis, ii, 342
Scomber, i, 94, 210, 391; ii, 260, 262, 266
figure of, i, 332; ii, 260
Scomberoides, ii, 272, 470
Scomberomorus, i, 210, 322; ii, 264, 266
figure of, ii, 264
Scomberosomus,
figure of, i, 322
Scomberidea, ii, 258, 271
Scombramphodon, ii, 266
Scombresox, ii, 211, 214
figure of, i, 212
Scombridæ, i, 210; ii, 258, 272, 470
family of, ii, 259
scombriform fishes, i, 209
Scombrinus, ii, 266
Scombroclupea, ii, 52
Scombroidea,
suborder of, ii, 258
Scombroidei, ii, 291, 484, 485
scombroids, ii, 485
Scombropidæ, ii, 317
Scombrops, ii, 317
scopeloid, ii, 474
Scopelus, ii, 133
Scophthalmus, ii, 486, 488
Page 846
Scopoli, i, 396
Scorpæna, i, 180, 211, 391; ii, 429, 432, 433, 438
figure of, i, 433, 434
Scorpænichthys, ii, 442
skull of, figured, i, 427
Scorpænidæ, i, 94, 207, 211; ii, 363, 426, 435, 441, 503
family of, i, 426, 448
Scorpænopsis, ii, 434
Scorpænopterus, ii, 436
Scorpididæ, ii, 397, 398, 400
Scorpis, ii, 398, 400
scorpion-fishes, i, 207, 429; ii, 426, 433
Scudder, i, 405
sculpin, i, 21, 219, 257, 290, 429, 440; ii, 363, 441, 445, 447-449
buffalo, ii, 443
daddy, ii, 445
eighteen-spined, ii, 446
great, ii, 442
little, ii, 446
long-horned, ii, 447
Pribilof, ii, 446
red, ii, 443
Richardson's, ii, 451
river, ii, 445
sleek, ii, 451
stone, ii, 443
scup, ii, 344
figure of, ii, 343
scutes, i, 570
Scuticaria, ii, 153
Scymnorhinus, i, 546
Scorpæna, i, 180, 211, 391; ii, 429, 432, 433, 438
figure of, i, 433, 434
Scorpænichthys, ii, 442
skull of, figured, i, 427
Scorpænidæ, i, 94, 207, 211; ii, 363, 426, 435, 441, 503
family of, i, 426, 448
Scorpænopsis, ii, 434
Scorpænopterus, ii, 436
Scorpididæ, ii, 397, 398, 400
Scorpis, ii, 398, 400
scorpion-fishes, i, 207, 429; ii, 426, 433
Scudder, i, 405
sculpin, i, 21, 219, 257, 290, 429, 440; ii, 363, 441, 445, 447-449
buffalo, ii, 443
daddy, ii, 445
eighteen-spined, ii, 446
great, ii, 442
little, ii, 446
long-horned, ii, 447
Pribilof, ii, 446
red, ii, 443
Richardson's, ii, 451
river, ii, 445
sleek, ii, 451
stone, ii, 443
scup, ii, 344
figure of, ii, 343
scutes, i, 570
Scuticaria, ii, 153
Scymnorhinus, i, 546
Page 847
Scyliorhinidæ, i, 127, 532, 533
Scyliorhinoid shark,
skull of, figured, i, 56
Scyliorhinus, i, 447, 533
Scyphophori, ii, 188, 207
order of, ii, 188, 189
Scytalina,
figure of, ii, 519
Scytalinidæ, ii, 519
sea-bass, i, 135; ii, 320, 323
figure of, i, 137
sea-bat, ii, 552
sea-catfish, ii, 178
eggs of, hatched in mouth, ii, 179
figure of, ii, 179
sea-devil, i, 559; ii, 547
sea-drum, ii, 357
sea-horse, i, 19, 64, 128; ii, 449
family of, i, 236
figure of, i, 17
Seale, i, 422
sea-mink, ii, 356
sea-moth, ii, 239
figure of, ii, 240
sea-poacher, i, 208; ii, 449, 453
sea-raven,
figure of, i, 220; ii, 448
sea-robin, i, 246; ii, 457
figure of, ii, 456
rough-headed, ii, 457
Scyliorhinoid shark,
skull of, figured, i, 56
Scyliorhinus, i, 447, 533
Scyphophori, ii, 188, 207
order of, ii, 188, 189
Scytalina,
figure of, ii, 519
Scytalinidæ, ii, 519
sea-bass, i, 135; ii, 320, 323
figure of, i, 137
sea-bat, ii, 552
sea-catfish, ii, 178
eggs of, hatched in mouth, ii, 179
figure of, ii, 179
sea-devil, i, 559; ii, 547
sea-drum, ii, 357
sea-horse, i, 19, 64, 128; ii, 449
family of, i, 236
figure of, i, 17
Seale, i, 422
sea-mink, ii, 356
sea-moth, ii, 239
figure of, ii, 240
sea-poacher, i, 208; ii, 449, 453
sea-raven,
figure of, i, 220; ii, 448
sea-robin, i, 246; ii, 457
figure of, ii, 456
rough-headed, ii, 457
Page 848
striped, ii, 457
sea-scorpion, ii, 363
figure of, ii, 434
sea-serpent, i, 361; ii, 471, 473
sea-snail, i, 217; ii, 39, 454
sea-trout, ii, 94
sea-waifs, ii, 133
sea weed, ii, 512
sebago, ii, 92
Sebastapistes, ii, 434
Sebastes, i, 125, 211; ii, 428
figure of, i, 218; ii, 427
Sebastichthys, ii, 428, 429, 433
figure of, ii, 431, 432
Sebastiscus, ii, 432
Sebastodes, i, 125, 211, 219, 375; ii, 428, 429, 431-433, 438
figure of, ii, 429
skeleton of, figured, i, 214
Sebastolobus, i, 52-55, 211
cranium of, i, 53
figure of, ii, 428
lower jaw of, i, 54
maxillary of, i, 55
shoulder-girdle of, i, 52
Sebastopsis, i, 271; ii, 432
Sectator, i, 271; ii, 350
Seeley, i, 410
Segemehl, i, 97
segments of Dibothrium figured, ii, 103
sea-scorpion, ii, 363
figure of, ii, 434
sea-serpent, i, 361; ii, 471, 473
sea-snail, i, 217; ii, 39, 454
sea-trout, ii, 94
sea-waifs, ii, 133
sea weed, ii, 512
sebago, ii, 92
Sebastapistes, ii, 434
Sebastes, i, 125, 211; ii, 428
figure of, i, 218; ii, 427
Sebastichthys, ii, 428, 429, 433
figure of, ii, 431, 432
Sebastiscus, ii, 432
Sebastodes, i, 125, 211, 219, 375; ii, 428, 429, 431-433, 438
figure of, ii, 429
skeleton of, figured, i, 214
Sebastolobus, i, 52-55, 211
cranium of, i, 53
figure of, ii, 428
lower jaw of, i, 54
maxillary of, i, 55
shoulder-girdle of, i, 52
Sebastopsis, i, 271; ii, 432
Sectator, i, 271; ii, 350
Seeley, i, 410
Segemehl, i, 97
segments of Dibothrium figured, ii, 103
Page 849
selachians, i, 572, 592
Selachii, i, 382, 507-509; ii, 9
Selachostomi, i, 623; ii, 13
order of, ii, 20
Selenaspis,
clavicle of, i, 87
shoulder-girdle of, i, 86
Selene, ii, 276
development of, figured, i, 148
Lütken on, i, 144
skeleton of, figured, i, 55
Selenichthyes, ii, 241-249
suborder of, ii, 243
Selenosteus, i, 588
Selenosteidæ, i, 587
Semicossyphus, ii, 390
Semionotidæ, ii, 23, 24, 26
Semionotus,
figure of, ii, 24
Semiophoridæ, ii, 245
Semiophorus, ii, 245
figure of, ii, 246
Semon, i, 428
Semotilus, i, 282; ii, 167
figure of, i, 285; ii, 268
señorita, ii, 388
sense organs, i, 115-123
sense of pain, i, 123
sense of taste, i, 121
Selachii, i, 382, 507-509; ii, 9
Selachostomi, i, 623; ii, 13
order of, ii, 20
Selenaspis,
clavicle of, i, 87
shoulder-girdle of, i, 86
Selene, ii, 276
development of, figured, i, 148
Lütken on, i, 144
skeleton of, figured, i, 55
Selenichthyes, ii, 241-249
suborder of, ii, 243
Selenosteus, i, 588
Selenosteidæ, i, 587
Semicossyphus, ii, 390
Semionotidæ, ii, 23, 24, 26
Semionotus,
figure of, ii, 24
Semiophoridæ, ii, 245
Semiophorus, ii, 245
figure of, ii, 246
Semon, i, 428
Semotilus, i, 282; ii, 167
figure of, i, 285; ii, 268
señorita, ii, 388
sense organs, i, 115-123
sense of pain, i, 123
sense of taste, i, 121
Page 850
sense of touch, i, 121
sensorium, i, 153
sensory nerves, i, 153
Sergeant Baker, ii, 130
sergeant-fish,
figure of, ii, 282
Seriola, ii, 272, 278
figure of, i, 459; ii, 273
Seriphus, ii, 354
serran, ii, 329
Serrana, ii, 357
Serranellus, ii, 329
Serranidæ, i, 206, 209, 259, 290; ii, 258, 293, 319, 320, 324, 327, 328, 330,
331, 333, 359, 363
serrano, ii, 327, 328
Serranus, ii, 328, 363
Serrasalmo, ii, 161, 162
Sertulariæ, ii, 544
sese de lo alto, ii, 336
sesele, ii, 304
Setarches, ii, 433
setiform, i, 30
sexual coloration, i, 230
sexual modification,
in colors, i, 129
in structure, i, 129
shad, ii, 50, 53, 147
shad waiter, ii, 63
sensorium, i, 153
sensory nerves, i, 153
Sergeant Baker, ii, 130
sergeant-fish,
figure of, ii, 282
Seriola, ii, 272, 278
figure of, i, 459; ii, 273
Seriphus, ii, 354
serran, ii, 329
Serrana, ii, 357
Serranellus, ii, 329
Serranidæ, i, 206, 209, 259, 290; ii, 258, 293, 319, 320, 324, 327, 328, 330,
331, 333, 359, 363
serrano, ii, 327, 328
Serranus, ii, 328, 363
Serrasalmo, ii, 161, 162
Sertulariæ, ii, 544
sese de lo alto, ii, 336
sesele, ii, 304
Setarches, ii, 433
setiform, i, 30
sexual coloration, i, 230
sexual modification,
in colors, i, 129
in structure, i, 129
shad, ii, 50, 53, 147
shad waiter, ii, 63
Page 851
shagreen grains, i, 570
sharks, i, 21, 23, 24, 28, 53, 75, 445, 446, 519, 523, 542, 543, 545, 546
air-bladder wanting in, i, 506
distribution of, i, 459
eggs of, i, 127, 433
fossil teeth of, i, 546
jaws of, i, 35
pectoral limbs of, i, 60, 66
phosphorescent, i, 189
primitive, i, 510, 511
shoulder-girdle in, i, 507
skull of, i, 56, 57
shark-sucker, i, 197; ii, 468, 469
sharp-nosed flying-fish,
figure of, ii, 213
Shasta, ii, 97
Shaw, i, 398
sheatfish, ii, 182, 183
sheepshead, i, 30, 324; ii, 345, 346
figure of, i, 31; ii, 346
shibi, ii, 263
shiner, i, 283; ii, 163, 168
figure of, ii, 168
shiro-uwo, ii, 127, 467
Shooter,
head-fish taken by, ii, 424
shore-fishes, i, 245
distribution of, i, 263-265
short-nosed garpike,
figure of, i, 452
shoulder girdle, i, 42, 50
sharks, i, 21, 23, 24, 28, 53, 75, 445, 446, 519, 523, 542, 543, 545, 546
air-bladder wanting in, i, 506
distribution of, i, 459
eggs of, i, 127, 433
fossil teeth of, i, 546
jaws of, i, 35
pectoral limbs of, i, 60, 66
phosphorescent, i, 189
primitive, i, 510, 511
shoulder-girdle in, i, 507
skull of, i, 56, 57
shark-sucker, i, 197; ii, 468, 469
sharp-nosed flying-fish,
figure of, ii, 213
Shasta, ii, 97
Shaw, i, 398
sheatfish, ii, 182, 183
sheepshead, i, 30, 324; ii, 345, 346
figure of, i, 31; ii, 346
shibi, ii, 263
shiner, i, 283; ii, 163, 168
figure of, ii, 168
shiro-uwo, ii, 127, 467
Shooter,
head-fish taken by, ii, 424
shore-fishes, i, 245
distribution of, i, 263-265
short-nosed garpike,
figure of, i, 452
shoulder girdle, i, 42, 50
Page 852
of batfish, ii, 551
of buffalo-fish, ii, 160
figure of, i, 51, 52, 58, 59, 60, 69, 70, 86, 88, 89, 600; ii, 225, 227
figure of fossil, i, 521
of flounder figured, i, 58; ii, 2
of Ictiobus ii, 160
inner view of, ii, 160
of Neoceratodus, i, 609
of Opah figured, ii, 243
of Polypterus, i, 70
of Sebastolobus figured, i, 52
in sharks, i, 507
in true eel, ii, 141
shovel-nosed sturgeon i, 253
shrimp, ii, 147
shrimpfishes, ii, 234
figure of, ii, 235
Shufeldt,
photographs by, i, 7, 13, 137; ii, 181, 305, 333
Siebold, i, 411, 414
sierra, ii, 266
Siganidæ, ii, 409, 410
Siganus, ii, 410
sight organs, i, 116-118
significance,
of resemblance, i, 259
of rare forms, i, 262
Sillaginidæ, ii, 358
sillago, ii, 358
silk-snapper, ii, 336
Siluridæ, i, 149, 205, 280, 290, 293; ii, 60, 178, 182, 186
of buffalo-fish, ii, 160
figure of, i, 51, 52, 58, 59, 60, 69, 70, 86, 88, 89, 600; ii, 225, 227
figure of fossil, i, 521
of flounder figured, i, 58; ii, 2
of Ictiobus ii, 160
inner view of, ii, 160
of Neoceratodus, i, 609
of Opah figured, ii, 243
of Polypterus, i, 70
of Sebastolobus figured, i, 52
in sharks, i, 507
in true eel, ii, 141
shovel-nosed sturgeon i, 253
shrimp, ii, 147
shrimpfishes, ii, 234
figure of, ii, 235
Shufeldt,
photographs by, i, 7, 13, 137; ii, 181, 305, 333
Siebold, i, 411, 414
sierra, ii, 266
Siganidæ, ii, 409, 410
Siganus, ii, 410
sight organs, i, 116-118
significance,
of resemblance, i, 259
of rare forms, i, 262
Sillaginidæ, ii, 358
sillago, ii, 358
silk-snapper, ii, 336
Siluridæ, i, 149, 205, 280, 290, 293; ii, 60, 178, 182, 186
Page 853
siluroid, i, 290; ii, 529
Silurus, i, 391; ii, 182
silverfin,
figure of, i, 457; ii, 166
silver-jaw minnow, ii, 165
figure of, ii, 165
silver-jenny, ii, 348
silver-king, ii, 43
silver-perch, ii, 342
silver-salmon, ii, 68, 71, 73, 87
silversides, i, 290; ii, 215
figure of, ii, 217
silver surf-fish,
figure of, i, 309; ii, 375
silver-tail, ii, 512
silvery anchovy,
figure of, ii, 54
silvery puffer,
figure of, ii, 419
Simenchelyidæ, ii, 148
Simenchelys, ii, 148
figure of, ii, 149
Sindo, i, 418, 422
singing-fish, i, 121
figure of, i, 23; ii, 526
species of, ii, 526
Siniperca, ii, 320
sinus impar, i, 120
sinus venosus, i, 108
Silurus, i, 391; ii, 182
silverfin,
figure of, i, 457; ii, 166
silver-jaw minnow, ii, 165
figure of, ii, 165
silver-jenny, ii, 348
silver-king, ii, 43
silver-perch, ii, 342
silver-salmon, ii, 68, 71, 73, 87
silversides, i, 290; ii, 215
figure of, ii, 217
silver surf-fish,
figure of, i, 309; ii, 375
silver-tail, ii, 512
silvery anchovy,
figure of, ii, 54
silvery puffer,
figure of, ii, 419
Simenchelyidæ, ii, 148
Simenchelys, ii, 148
figure of, ii, 149
Sindo, i, 418, 422
singing-fish, i, 121
figure of, i, 23; ii, 526
species of, ii, 526
Siniperca, ii, 320
sinus impar, i, 120
sinus venosus, i, 108
Page 854
Siphonognathidæ, ii, 390
Siphonognathus, ii, 390
Siphonostoma, ii, 236
Sirembo, ii, 524
Sirenoidei, i, 612
order of, i, 613
sisco, ii, 66, 67
siscowet, ii, 66, 115
Sisoridæ, ii, 184
skates, i, 28, 551, 552
skeleton of cowfish,
figure of, ii, 418
skeleton of fish, i, 10, 34-61
of cowfish, i, 215
of Chimæra, i, 564
parts of, i, 35, 36
primitive, i, 54
of pike figured, i, 203
of red rockfish, i, 214
of Selene figured, i, 55
of shark, i, 57
of spiny-rayed fish, i, 214
skilfishes, ii, 438
figure of, ii, 438
skin-peeler, ii, 415
skipjack, ii, 50
skippers,
Couch on, ii, 211
skipping-goby, i, 117
skittle-dogs, i, 545
Siphonognathus, ii, 390
Siphonostoma, ii, 236
Sirembo, ii, 524
Sirenoidei, i, 612
order of, i, 613
sisco, ii, 66, 67
siscowet, ii, 66, 115
Sisoridæ, ii, 184
skates, i, 28, 551, 552
skeleton of cowfish,
figure of, ii, 418
skeleton of fish, i, 10, 34-61
of cowfish, i, 215
of Chimæra, i, 564
parts of, i, 35, 36
primitive, i, 54
of pike figured, i, 203
of red rockfish, i, 214
of Selene figured, i, 55
of shark, i, 57
of spiny-rayed fish, i, 214
skilfishes, ii, 438
figure of, ii, 438
skin-peeler, ii, 415
skipjack, ii, 50
skippers,
Couch on, ii, 211
skipping-goby, i, 117
skittle-dogs, i, 545
Page 855
skull,
of Anarrhichthys, ii, 517
autostylic, i, 57
figure of, ii, 296
of haddock, ii, 536
hyostylic, i, 56, 508
of rock-bass, ii, 296
of Scorpænichthys figured, ii, 427
of shark figured, i, 56
sleek-sculpin,
figure of, i, 221; ii, 451
sleeper-shark, i, 547
sleepy Argentine, ii, 134
slippery Dick, ii, 388
figure of, i, 297; ii, 180, 396
Sloane, i, 389
small-mouthed bass,
figure of, i, 325; ii, 303
smear-dab, ii, 494
smelt, ii, 66, 91, 120-138
figure of, ii, 123
Smerdis, ii, 310, 330
Smith, i, 416, 419, 608
on Arctic species, i, 317
Smitt, i, 410
snailfish, ii, 455
snake-blennies, ii, 512
snake-eels, ii, 150
figure of, i, 233
snake-headed China-fish, ii, 371
figure of, i, 150; ii, 371
of Anarrhichthys, ii, 517
autostylic, i, 57
figure of, ii, 296
of haddock, ii, 536
hyostylic, i, 56, 508
of rock-bass, ii, 296
of Scorpænichthys figured, ii, 427
of shark figured, i, 56
sleek-sculpin,
figure of, i, 221; ii, 451
sleeper-shark, i, 547
sleepy Argentine, ii, 134
slippery Dick, ii, 388
figure of, i, 297; ii, 180, 396
Sloane, i, 389
small-mouthed bass,
figure of, i, 325; ii, 303
smear-dab, ii, 494
smelt, ii, 66, 91, 120-138
figure of, ii, 123
Smerdis, ii, 310, 330
Smith, i, 416, 419, 608
on Arctic species, i, 317
Smitt, i, 410
snailfish, ii, 455
snake-blennies, ii, 512
snake-eels, ii, 150
figure of, i, 233
snake-headed China-fish, ii, 371
figure of, i, 150; ii, 371
Page 856
snake-headed mullets, ii, 370
snapper, ii, 333, 335, 338
diamond, ii, 337
gray, ii, 334, 335
lane, ii, 336
mahogany, ii, 337
mangrove, ii, 335
mutton, ii, 335
red, ii, 335
silk, ii, 336
true, ii, 337
yellow-tail, ii, 337
snipe-eels, ii, 151
snipefishes, ii, 234
Snodgrass, i, 422; ii, 423
snooks, ii, 282, 320
snowy grouper,
figure of, ii, 329
Snyder, i, 418, 420
Snyderina,
figure of, ii, 437
soapfishes, ii, 330
figure of, ii, 330
sobaco, ii, 413
sockeye, ii, 69
soft-rayed fishes, i, 204; ii, 39
soi, ii, 429
soldados, ii, 253
Solander, i, 395
soldier-fish, ii, 315
snapper, ii, 333, 335, 338
diamond, ii, 337
gray, ii, 334, 335
lane, ii, 336
mahogany, ii, 337
mangrove, ii, 335
mutton, ii, 335
red, ii, 335
silk, ii, 336
true, ii, 337
yellow-tail, ii, 337
snipe-eels, ii, 151
snipefishes, ii, 234
Snodgrass, i, 422; ii, 423
snooks, ii, 282, 320
snowy grouper,
figure of, ii, 329
Snyder, i, 418, 420
Snyderina,
figure of, ii, 437
soapfishes, ii, 330
figure of, ii, 330
sobaco, ii, 413
sockeye, ii, 69
soft-rayed fishes, i, 204; ii, 39
soi, ii, 429
soldados, ii, 253
Solander, i, 395
soldier-fish, ii, 315
Page 857
family of, ii, 253
figure of, ii, 254
Solea, i, 327; ii, 487, 496
Soleidæ, i, 290; ii, 495, 499
Soleinæ, ii, 496
Solenostomidæ,
family of, ii, 236
Solenostomus, i, 128; ii, 236
figure of, ii, 237
soles, ii, 495
broad, ii, 495
Day on, ii, 496, 497
European, ii, 496
Gill on, ii, 496
habits of, ii, 496
hog-choker, ii, 498
Parker on, ii, 483
Sonnerat, i, 395
Sörensen,
on elastic spring, i, 97
sounds of fishes, i, 168-170
Bowring on, i, 168
soup-fin sharks,
figure of, i, 541
southern zone, i, 253
spadefish, ii, 400
figure of, i, 325; ii, 401
Spaniodon, ii, 43
Spaniodontidæ, ii, 47
Spanish-flag, ii, 323, 429
figure of, ii, 254
Solea, i, 327; ii, 487, 496
Soleidæ, i, 290; ii, 495, 499
Soleinæ, ii, 496
Solenostomidæ,
family of, ii, 236
Solenostomus, i, 128; ii, 236
figure of, ii, 237
soles, ii, 495
broad, ii, 495
Day on, ii, 496, 497
European, ii, 496
Gill on, ii, 496
habits of, ii, 496
hog-choker, ii, 498
Parker on, ii, 483
Sonnerat, i, 395
Sörensen,
on elastic spring, i, 97
sounds of fishes, i, 168-170
Bowring on, i, 168
soup-fin sharks,
figure of, i, 541
southern zone, i, 253
spadefish, ii, 400
figure of, i, 325; ii, 401
Spaniodon, ii, 43
Spaniodontidæ, ii, 47
Spanish-flag, ii, 323, 429
Page 858
Spanish-mackerel, i, 64, 210, 322
figure of, i, 322; ii, 264
Goode on, ii, 264, 265
Mitchill on, ii, 264
Sparidæ, i, 206; ii, 342, 344, 346, 372
family of, ii, 342
Sparisoma, i, 268; ii, 352, 391, 392, 396
figure of, ii, 392
jaws figured, i, 30
Sparnodus, ii, 347
Sparus, i, 259, 263, 391; ii, 346
Spathiurus, ii, 36
Spaulding, ii, 84
marking of fry by, ii, 84
spawning-grounds,
return to, ii, 82
spawning of salmon, i, 160
special creation impossible, i, 295
spearfish, i, 199; ii, 469
specialized fishes, i, 249
species, i, 371
absent through barriers, i, 238
changed through natural
selection, ii, 239
characters of, i, 292
conditions favorable to, i, 301
extinction of, i, 239
meaning of, i, 293, 379
special creation, i, 295
transfer of, i, 312
speckled flounder, ii, 488
figure of, i, 322; ii, 264
Goode on, ii, 264, 265
Mitchill on, ii, 264
Sparidæ, i, 206; ii, 342, 344, 346, 372
family of, ii, 342
Sparisoma, i, 268; ii, 352, 391, 392, 396
figure of, ii, 392
jaws figured, i, 30
Sparnodus, ii, 347
Sparus, i, 259, 263, 391; ii, 346
Spathiurus, ii, 36
Spaulding, ii, 84
marking of fry by, ii, 84
spawning-grounds,
return to, ii, 82
spawning of salmon, i, 160
special creation impossible, i, 295
spearfish, i, 199; ii, 469
specialized fishes, i, 249
species, i, 371
absent through barriers, i, 238
changed through natural
selection, ii, 239
characters of, i, 292
conditions favorable to, i, 301
extinction of, i, 239
meaning of, i, 293, 379
special creation, i, 295
transfer of, i, 312
speckled flounder, ii, 488
Page 859
speckled hind, ii, 324
figure of, ii, 325
speckled trout,
figure of, i, 326; ii, 110
Spengel,
on Enteropneusta, i, 464
Spengelia, i, 465
Spengeliidæ, i, 465
sperling, ii, 123
Sphærodon, i, 268
Sphagebranchus, ii, 151
Sphagepæa, i, 565
sphenial, i, 606
Sphenocephalus, ii, 252
Spheroides, i, 206; ii, 419-421
figure of, i, 420
Sphyrænidæ, i, 206
family of, ii, 222
Sphyræna, ii, 221
figure of, ii, 223
Sphyrænodus, ii, 266
Sphyrna, i, 543
figure of, i, 544
Sphyrnidæ, i, 543
Spicara, i, 260; ii, 347
Spinacanthidæ, ii, 415
Spinacanthus, ii, 415
Spinachia, ii, 232
figure of, ii, 325
speckled trout,
figure of, i, 326; ii, 110
Spengel,
on Enteropneusta, i, 464
Spengelia, i, 465
Spengeliidæ, i, 465
sperling, ii, 123
Sphærodon, i, 268
Sphagebranchus, ii, 151
Sphagepæa, i, 565
sphenial, i, 606
Sphenocephalus, ii, 252
Spheroides, i, 206; ii, 419-421
figure of, i, 420
Sphyrænidæ, i, 206
family of, ii, 222
Sphyræna, ii, 221
figure of, ii, 223
Sphyrænodus, ii, 266
Sphyrna, i, 543
figure of, i, 544
Sphyrnidæ, i, 543
Spicara, i, 260; ii, 347
Spinacanthidæ, ii, 415
Spinacanthus, ii, 415
Spinachia, ii, 232
Page 860
spinal cord, i, 112
spineless trunkfish,
figure of, i, 378; ii, 417
spines of catfish, i, 179
spiny eels, ii, 157
spiny-rayed fishes, i, 21, 206-208; ii, 39, 208, 307
skeleton of, figured, i, 214
spiracle, i, 92
Spiraculis, i, 393
spiral valve, i, 32
splenial, i, 43
split-tail, ii, 169
Spondyliosoma, i, 260, 267; ii, 348, 350
spookfishes, i, 564
spot, ii, 356
spotted trout, ii, 105
spotted trunkfish, ii, 416
figure of, i, 377; ii, 417
spotted weakfish,
figure of, ii, 353
sprat, i, 204; ii, 50, 123
spring salmon, ii, 80
Squalidæ, i, 531, 543, 545, 546, 566
Squaloraja, i, 566
Squalorajidæ, i, 566
Squalus, i, 391
figure of, i, 545
Squamipinnes, ii, 209, 411
spineless trunkfish,
figure of, i, 378; ii, 417
spines of catfish, i, 179
spiny eels, ii, 157
spiny-rayed fishes, i, 21, 206-208; ii, 39, 208, 307
skeleton of, figured, i, 214
spiracle, i, 92
Spiraculis, i, 393
spiral valve, i, 32
splenial, i, 43
split-tail, ii, 169
Spondyliosoma, i, 260, 267; ii, 348, 350
spookfishes, i, 564
spot, ii, 356
spotted trout, ii, 105
spotted trunkfish, ii, 416
figure of, i, 377; ii, 417
spotted weakfish,
figure of, ii, 353
sprat, i, 204; ii, 50, 123
spring salmon, ii, 80
Squalidæ, i, 531, 543, 545, 546, 566
Squaloraja, i, 566
Squalorajidæ, i, 566
Squalus, i, 391
figure of, i, 545
Squamipinnes, ii, 209, 411
Page 861
Squamipinus, ii, 397-410
square-tails, ii, 291
Squatina, i, 548
brain of, figured, i, 547
pectoral fin figured, i, 56
Squatinidæ, i, 549, 554
squawfish,
figure of, i, 162; ii, 169
spawning journey of, i, 164
squeteague, ii, 353
squirrel-fish, ii, 253, 329
Stannius, i, 428
star-gazer, ii, 364, 503
figure of, i, 187, 504
Starks, C. L.
drawings of fishes i, 36-39
Starks, E. C., i, 420
on berycoid skull, ii, 250
on fish skeleton, i, 39
starry-flounder, ii, 493
figure of, ii, 495
star-spined ray,
figure of, i, 448
Stearns, i, 419
steelhead, ii, 94, 96, 99, 100
figure of, ii, 101
steelhead-trout,
figure of, i, 327
Steenstrup, i, 410
Stegocephali, i, 606
square-tails, ii, 291
Squatina, i, 548
brain of, figured, i, 547
pectoral fin figured, i, 56
Squatinidæ, i, 549, 554
squawfish,
figure of, i, 162; ii, 169
spawning journey of, i, 164
squeteague, ii, 353
squirrel-fish, ii, 253, 329
Stannius, i, 428
star-gazer, ii, 364, 503
figure of, i, 187, 504
Starks, C. L.
drawings of fishes i, 36-39
Starks, E. C., i, 420
on berycoid skull, ii, 250
on fish skeleton, i, 39
starry-flounder, ii, 493
figure of, ii, 495
star-spined ray,
figure of, i, 448
Stearns, i, 419
steelhead, ii, 94, 96, 99, 100
figure of, ii, 101
steelhead-trout,
figure of, i, 327
Steenstrup, i, 410
Stegocephali, i, 606
Page 862
Stegostoma, i, 533
Stegothalami, i, 584
Dean on, i, 585
Steindachnerella, ii, 541
Steindachner, i, 411, 414, 427
portrait of, i, 403
Steindachneria,
figure of, ii, 541
Steinegeria, ii, 286
Steinegeriidæ, ii, 286
Stelgis,
figure of, ii, 451
Steller, i, 395; ii, 135
on quinnat salmon, ii, 68
Stellifer, i, 271; ii, 355
Stenodus, ii, 62, 68
figure of, ii, 67
Stenotomus, ii, 344
figure of, ii, 343
Stephanoberycidæ,
family of, ii, 223
Stephanoberyx, ii, 223
Stephanolepis, ii, 414, 415
figure of, i, 182, 415
Stereobalanus, i, 465
Stereolepis, ii, 321
Sternoptychidæ, ii, 137
Sternoptyx, i, 357; ii, 137
Stethojulis, ii, 390
Stegothalami, i, 584
Dean on, i, 585
Steindachnerella, ii, 541
Steindachner, i, 411, 414, 427
portrait of, i, 403
Steindachneria,
figure of, ii, 541
Steinegeria, ii, 286
Steinegeriidæ, ii, 286
Stelgis,
figure of, ii, 451
Steller, i, 395; ii, 135
on quinnat salmon, ii, 68
Stellifer, i, 271; ii, 355
Stenodus, ii, 62, 68
figure of, ii, 67
Stenotomus, ii, 344
figure of, ii, 343
Stephanoberycidæ,
family of, ii, 223
Stephanoberyx, ii, 223
Stephanolepis, ii, 414, 415
figure of, i, 182, 415
Stereobalanus, i, 465
Stereolepis, ii, 321
Sternoptychidæ, ii, 137
Sternoptyx, i, 357; ii, 137
Stethojulis, ii, 390
Page 863
Stichæiniæ, ii, 511
Stichæus, ii, 513
figure of, ii, 513
stickleback, i, 51, 128, 250, 290; ii, 157, 215, 228, 229, 232
fighting of, i, 165
figure of, ii, 232
shoulder-girdle of, ii, 227
spines of, i, 179
Stieda, i, 428
Stiles,
on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344
stingaree, i, 556
sting-bull, ii, 501
stingfish, ii, 501
sting-rays, i, 84, 267, 549
figure of, i, 246, 555
spines of, i, 182
Stizostedion, ii, 308
figure of, ii, 309
Stolephorus, ii, 52
Stomias,
figure of, ii, 128
Stomiatidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, 128
Stone, ii, 80
on rate of travel of salmon, ii, 80
stone-bass, ii, 323
stone-cats, ii, 182
stone-roller, i, 157; ii, 166
figure of, i, 33; ii, 167
stone-sculpin, ii, 443
Stichæus, ii, 513
figure of, ii, 513
stickleback, i, 51, 128, 250, 290; ii, 157, 215, 228, 229, 232
fighting of, i, 165
figure of, ii, 232
shoulder-girdle of, ii, 227
spines of, i, 179
Stieda, i, 428
Stiles,
on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344
stingaree, i, 556
sting-bull, ii, 501
stingfish, ii, 501
sting-rays, i, 84, 267, 549
figure of, i, 246, 555
spines of, i, 182
Stizostedion, ii, 308
figure of, ii, 309
Stolephorus, ii, 52
Stomias,
figure of, ii, 128
Stomiatidæ, i, 189, 204; ii, 128
Stone, ii, 80
on rate of travel of salmon, ii, 80
stone-bass, ii, 323
stone-cats, ii, 182
stone-roller, i, 157; ii, 166
figure of, i, 33; ii, 167
stone-sculpin, ii, 443
Page 864
stonewall perch, ii, 359, 360
stony-flounder, ii, 482
Storer, i, 418
Storms, i, 427
on fossil remora, ii, 469
Stratodontidæ, ii, 137
Stratodus, ii, 137
Strinsia, ii, 539
striped-bass, i, 48, 53; ii, 37, 321
bones of, i, 39, 45
figure of, i, 35
tail of, i, 49
vertebral column of, i, 48
striped-mullet,
figure of, i, 330
striped sea-robin, ii, 457
Ström, i, 396
Stromateidæ, i, 160; ii, 215, 259, 284, 291, 398, 485
family of, ii, 283
Stromateus, i, 391; ii, 283, 291
sturgeon, i, 128, 204, 250, 257, 290; ii, 18-21, 159, 160, 182, 186
child swallowed by, ii, 182
of Danube, ii, 182
figure of, ii, 19, 20
larva of, figured, i, 141
Styela,
figure of, i, 475, 476
Stygicola, i, 314; ii, 524
Stylephoridæ, ii, 480
Stylephorus, ii, 480
stony-flounder, ii, 482
Storer, i, 418
Storms, i, 427
on fossil remora, ii, 469
Stratodontidæ, ii, 137
Stratodus, ii, 137
Strinsia, ii, 539
striped-bass, i, 48, 53; ii, 37, 321
bones of, i, 39, 45
figure of, i, 35
tail of, i, 49
vertebral column of, i, 48
striped-mullet,
figure of, i, 330
striped sea-robin, ii, 457
Ström, i, 396
Stromateidæ, i, 160; ii, 215, 259, 284, 291, 398, 485
family of, ii, 283
Stromateus, i, 391; ii, 283, 291
sturgeon, i, 128, 204, 250, 257, 290; ii, 18-21, 159, 160, 182, 186
child swallowed by, ii, 182
of Danube, ii, 182
figure of, ii, 19, 20
larva of, figured, i, 141
Styela,
figure of, i, 475, 476
Stygicola, i, 314; ii, 524
Stylephoridæ, ii, 480
Stylephorus, ii, 480
Page 865
subgenus, i, 373
suborbital stay, i, 44
subspecies, i, 294
sucker, i, 156, 198, 290, 304; ii, 56, 171, 172, 174
California, ii, 174
carp, ii, 173
common, ii, 174
figure showing parasites, i, 348
Oregon, ii, 175
razor-backed, figured, ii, 175
sucking-disks,
of clingfish, i, 198
sucking-fish,
figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
Suckley, i, 419
Sudis, ii, 9, 136
Suez Canal, i, 268
sukkegh, ii, 69
Suletind watershed, i, 307
Sulphur, the, i, 408
summer herring,
figure of, i, 455
Sunapee trout,
figure of, ii, 109
sunfish, i, 3-15, 28, 209, 290; ii, 37, 297, 424
banded, ii, 299
blue-green, i, 26
common figured, i, 7; ii, 301
description of, i, 4
dwarf, ii, 467
figure of, i, 2, 4, 27
suborbital stay, i, 44
subspecies, i, 294
sucker, i, 156, 198, 290, 304; ii, 56, 171, 172, 174
California, ii, 174
carp, ii, 173
common, ii, 174
figure showing parasites, i, 348
Oregon, ii, 175
razor-backed, figured, ii, 175
sucking-disks,
of clingfish, i, 198
sucking-fish,
figure of, i, 197; ii, 468
Suckley, i, 419
Sudis, ii, 9, 136
Suez Canal, i, 268
sukkegh, ii, 69
Suletind watershed, i, 307
Sulphur, the, i, 408
summer herring,
figure of, i, 455
Sunapee trout,
figure of, ii, 109
sunfish, i, 3-15, 28, 209, 290; ii, 37, 297, 424
banded, ii, 299
blue-green, i, 26
common figured, i, 7; ii, 301
description of, i, 4
dwarf, ii, 467
figure of, i, 2, 4, 27
Page 866
food of, i, 11
long-eared, i, 3; ii, 300
nine-spined, ii, 301
photograph of, i, 13
pigmy, ii, 297
supraclavicle, i, 89
Surface,
on destruction of fish, i, 357
on lampreys, i, 491-505
on Saprolegnia, i, 354-356
surf-fish, i, 125, 207, 290; ii, 372, 373
blue, ii, 375
silver, ii, 375
thick-lipped, ii, 374
wall-eye, ii, 375
white, ii, 374
surf-shiner, ii, 376
surf-smelt, ii, 123, 124, 127
surf-whiting, ii, 357
surgeon-fish, ii, 407
lancet of, i, 181
surmullets, i, 122, 198, 322; ii, 351-379
suspensorium of mandible, i, 43
susuki, i, 324; ii, 320
Swain, i, 422
Swainson, i, 410
swallowers, ii, 360
Swammerdam, i, 390
swampy watersheds, i, 314
Swan, ii, 123
long-eared, i, 3; ii, 300
nine-spined, ii, 301
photograph of, i, 13
pigmy, ii, 297
supraclavicle, i, 89
Surface,
on destruction of fish, i, 357
on lampreys, i, 491-505
on Saprolegnia, i, 354-356
surf-fish, i, 125, 207, 290; ii, 372, 373
blue, ii, 375
silver, ii, 375
thick-lipped, ii, 374
wall-eye, ii, 375
white, ii, 374
surf-shiner, ii, 376
surf-smelt, ii, 123, 124, 127
surf-whiting, ii, 357
surgeon-fish, ii, 407
lancet of, i, 181
surmullets, i, 122, 198, 322; ii, 351-379
suspensorium of mandible, i, 43
susuki, i, 324; ii, 320
Swain, i, 422
Swainson, i, 410
swallowers, ii, 360
Swammerdam, i, 390
swampy watersheds, i, 314
Swan, ii, 123
Page 867
on Mesopus, ii, 123
sweetfish, ii, 115
sweet-perch, ii, 363
swell-sharks, i, 197, 533
swell-toad, ii, 420, 423
swim-bladder, ii, 95
swordfish, i, 169, 199, 210; ii, 269
adult, figured, ii, 270
Goode on, ii, 270
Owen on, ii, 270, 271
vessels struck by, ii, 270
young, figured, ii, 269
swordtail-minnow,
figure of, i, 124; ii, 199
Syacium,
figure of, ii, 488
Syllæmus, ii, 224
Symbranchia, ii, 140
order of, ii, 140
Symbranchidæ, ii, 141
Symbranchus, ii, 141
Symphodus, i, 268; ii, 387
Symphurus,
figure of, ii, 498
symplectic bone, ii, 156
Synagrops, ii, 317
Synanceia, i, 180; ii, 434
figure of, i, 229
Synaphobranchidæ, ii, 149
sweetfish, ii, 115
sweet-perch, ii, 363
swell-sharks, i, 197, 533
swell-toad, ii, 420, 423
swim-bladder, ii, 95
swordfish, i, 169, 199, 210; ii, 269
adult, figured, ii, 270
Goode on, ii, 270
Owen on, ii, 270, 271
vessels struck by, ii, 270
young, figured, ii, 269
swordtail-minnow,
figure of, i, 124; ii, 199
Syacium,
figure of, ii, 488
Syllæmus, ii, 224
Symbranchia, ii, 140
order of, ii, 140
Symbranchidæ, ii, 141
Symbranchus, ii, 141
Symphodus, i, 268; ii, 387
Symphurus,
figure of, ii, 498
symplectic bone, ii, 156
Synagrops, ii, 317
Synanceia, i, 180; ii, 434
figure of, i, 229
Synaphobranchidæ, ii, 149
Page 868
Synaphobranchus, ii, 149
figure of, ii, 149
Synaptura, ii, 497
Synchiropus, ii, 506
Synechodus,
eggs of, i, 527
Synentognathi, ii, 190, 208-214
suborder of, ii, 209
Syngnathidæ,
family of, i, 236
Syngnathus, i, 170, 391; ii, 236
Synodontidæ, ii, 130, 133
Synodontis, ii, 182
Synodus, ii, 190
figure of, ii, 130
synonymy and priority,
Coues on, i, 374
Syntegmodus, ii, 44
Syrski, ii, 144, 145
on eels, ii, 145
Systema Naturæ, i, 373
Tachysurus, ii, 178, 179, 86
Tænioides, ii, 467
Tæniosomi, ii, 292, 459-480
suborder of, ii, 471, 472
Tæniotoca, ii, 375
Tæniura, i, 557
tahanohadai, ii, 363
figure of, ii, 149
Synaptura, ii, 497
Synchiropus, ii, 506
Synechodus,
eggs of, i, 527
Synentognathi, ii, 190, 208-214
suborder of, ii, 209
Syngnathidæ,
family of, i, 236
Syngnathus, i, 170, 391; ii, 236
Synodontidæ, ii, 130, 133
Synodontis, ii, 182
Synodus, ii, 190
figure of, ii, 130
synonymy and priority,
Coues on, i, 374
Syntegmodus, ii, 44
Syrski, ii, 144, 145
on eels, ii, 145
Systema Naturæ, i, 373
Tachysurus, ii, 178, 179, 86
Tænioides, ii, 467
Tæniosomi, ii, 292, 459-480
suborder of, ii, 471, 472
Tæniotoca, ii, 375
Tæniura, i, 557
tahanohadai, ii, 363
Page 869
Tahoe trout,
figure of, i, 327; ii, 104
tai-fishing,
illustration of, i, 338
tail forms, i, 49, 50, 80-85
taiva, ii, 342
Talisman, i, 408; ii, 60
Talismania, ii, 60
Tamiobatidæ, i, 532
Tamiobatis, i, 551
tangs, ii, 407
Tantogolabrus, ii, 387
Tarpon, i, 157, 205; ii, 35, 51
figure of, ii, 43
Tarrassiidæ, i, 602
Tarrassius, i, 602
tarwhine, ii, 344
tautog, ii, 387
figure of, ii, 385, 386
Tautoga, i, 207; ii, 385
taxonomy, i, 367, 368
Tectospondyli, i, 448, 510, 513, 519, 545, 549
order of, i, 543
Woodward on, i, 543
tectospondylous, i, 49
teeth, i, 29, 30, 201
of Ceratodus figured, i, 614
of Chimæra, i, 562
of Corax, i, 543
figure of, i, 327; ii, 104
tai-fishing,
illustration of, i, 338
tail forms, i, 49, 50, 80-85
taiva, ii, 342
Talisman, i, 408; ii, 60
Talismania, ii, 60
Tamiobatidæ, i, 532
Tamiobatis, i, 551
tangs, ii, 407
Tantogolabrus, ii, 387
Tarpon, i, 157, 205; ii, 35, 51
figure of, ii, 43
Tarrassiidæ, i, 602
Tarrassius, i, 602
tarwhine, ii, 344
tautog, ii, 387
figure of, ii, 385, 386
Tautoga, i, 207; ii, 385
taxonomy, i, 367, 368
Tectospondyli, i, 448, 510, 513, 519, 545, 549
order of, i, 543
Woodward on, i, 543
tectospondylous, i, 49
teeth, i, 29, 30, 201
of Ceratodus figured, i, 614
of Chimæra, i, 562
of Corax, i, 543
Page 870
figured, i, 522, 524
of Janassa, i, 554
of sharks, i, 515, 527, 529, 537
Teleocephali, i, 405; ii, 39, 40, 209
Teleosteans, i, 384
Teleostei, i, 66, 204, 622, 624; ii, 2, 5, 37
sympathetic system of, i, 114
Teleostomes, i, 599
Teleostomi, i, 462, 572, 583, 598, 599, 603
Regan on, i, 622
teleosts, i, 35, 135, 139, 141, 204, 569; ii, 1, 3, 4, 159
Telepholis, ii, 133
Telescopias, ii, 317
figure of, ii, 318
teleotemporal, i, 90
Temnothoraci, i, 584, 586
temperature,
affecting distribution, i, 242
tenacity of life in fishes, i, 146, 147, 149
tench, ii, 168
tengudai, ii, 333
tengusame, i, 534
ten-pounder, ii, 35, 43
figure of, i, 454; ii, 42
Terapon, ii, 342
Teraponidæ, ii, 342
Tertiary fishes, i, 440
Tertiary ganoids, ii, 140
of Janassa, i, 554
of sharks, i, 515, 527, 529, 537
Teleocephali, i, 405; ii, 39, 40, 209
Teleosteans, i, 384
Teleostei, i, 66, 204, 622, 624; ii, 2, 5, 37
sympathetic system of, i, 114
Teleostomes, i, 599
Teleostomi, i, 462, 572, 583, 598, 599, 603
Regan on, i, 622
teleosts, i, 35, 135, 139, 141, 204, 569; ii, 1, 3, 4, 159
Telepholis, ii, 133
Telescopias, ii, 317
figure of, ii, 318
teleotemporal, i, 90
Temnothoraci, i, 584, 586
temperature,
affecting distribution, i, 242
tenacity of life in fishes, i, 146, 147, 149
tench, ii, 168
tengudai, ii, 333
tengusame, i, 534
ten-pounder, ii, 35, 43
figure of, i, 454; ii, 42
Terapon, ii, 342
Teraponidæ, ii, 342
Tertiary fishes, i, 440
Tertiary ganoids, ii, 140
Page 871
tessellated darter,
figure of, ii, 312
tessellated teeth, i, 30, 549
Tetragonolepis, i, 24
figure of, ii, 26
Tetragonopterus, i, 314; ii, 161, 162, 381
Tetragonuridæ, ii, 215
family of, ii, 291
Tetragonurus, ii, 291
Tetraodon, i, 169, 197, 206, 236, 393, 611; ii, 420
figure of, i, 183, 244; ii, 421, 422
Tetraodontidæ, i, 182; ii, 421
family of, ii, 419
Tetrapturus, i, 257; ii, 269
Tetrarhynchus, ii, 134
Tetronarce, i, 554
Teuthidæ, ii, 291
Teuthididæ, ii, 407, 409
Teuthis, i, 268, 271, 293; ii, 407
figure of, i, 181; ii, 407, 408
Thacher,
on paired limbs, i, 70
thalamencephalon, ii, 6, 8
Thalassoma, i, 207, 267, 271; ii, 389
Thalassophryne, i, 180; ii, 526, 527
poison organ of, ii, 528, 529
structure of, ii, 527, 528
Thalassothia, ii, 526
Thaleichthys, ii, 124
figure of, ii, 312
tessellated teeth, i, 30, 549
Tetragonolepis, i, 24
figure of, ii, 26
Tetragonopterus, i, 314; ii, 161, 162, 381
Tetragonuridæ, ii, 215
family of, ii, 291
Tetragonurus, ii, 291
Tetraodon, i, 169, 197, 206, 236, 393, 611; ii, 420
figure of, i, 183, 244; ii, 421, 422
Tetraodontidæ, i, 182; ii, 421
family of, ii, 419
Tetrapturus, i, 257; ii, 269
Tetrarhynchus, ii, 134
Tetronarce, i, 554
Teuthidæ, ii, 291
Teuthididæ, ii, 407, 409
Teuthis, i, 268, 271, 293; ii, 407
figure of, i, 181; ii, 407, 408
Thacher,
on paired limbs, i, 70
thalamencephalon, ii, 6, 8
Thalassoma, i, 207, 267, 271; ii, 389
Thalassophryne, i, 180; ii, 526, 527
poison organ of, ii, 528, 529
structure of, ii, 527, 528
Thalassothia, ii, 526
Thaleichthys, ii, 124
Page 872
figure of, i, 320; ii, 19, 124
sketch of, ii, 125
Thaliacea, i, 477
Thaumaturus, ii, 119
Thelodontidæ, i, 574, 579
Thelodus, i, 570, 573
Theragra, i, 209
figure of, ii, 537
Therobromus, ii, 127
Thetis, the, i, 410
thick-lipped surf-fish,
figure of, i, 374
Tholichthys, i, 144; ii, 402
Thollière, i, 427
Thompson, i, 410, 418
Thoracici, i, 393; ii, 39
Thoracies, ii, 209
Thoreau, ii, 190, 308
thread-eel, ii, 151, 152
figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, 152
threadfins, i, 122; ii, 215, 224
figure of, ii, 225
shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, 225
threadfish, ii, 276
threadhead worms, i, 351
thread-herring, ii, 51, 53
three-forked hake, ii, 539
three-spined stickleback,
sketch of, ii, 125
Thaliacea, i, 477
Thaumaturus, ii, 119
Thelodontidæ, i, 574, 579
Thelodus, i, 570, 573
Theragra, i, 209
figure of, ii, 537
Therobromus, ii, 127
Thetis, the, i, 410
thick-lipped surf-fish,
figure of, i, 374
Tholichthys, i, 144; ii, 402
Thollière, i, 427
Thompson, i, 410, 418
Thoracici, i, 393; ii, 39
Thoracies, ii, 209
Thoreau, ii, 190, 308
thread-eel, ii, 151, 152
figure of, i, 17, 365; ii, 152
threadfins, i, 122; ii, 215, 224
figure of, ii, 225
shoulder-girdle of, i, 89; ii, 225
threadfish, ii, 276
threadhead worms, i, 351
thread-herring, ii, 51, 53
three-forked hake, ii, 539
three-spined stickleback,
Page 873
figure of, ii, 232
thresher-shark, i, 536
Thrissopater, ii, 43
Thrissops, ii, 41
Thryptodontidæ, ii, 44
Thryptodus, ii, 44
Thunberg, i, 416
thunder-pumper, ii, 354, 355
Thunnus, i, 210, 272; ii, 262
Thursius, i, 604
Thwaite shad, ii, 50
Thyestes, i, 576
Thymallidæ, ii, 120
Thymallus, i, 305; ii, 120, 121, 122
figure of, i, 328; ii, 120, 122
Thyrsites, ii, 267
Thyrsitocephalus, ii, 267
tide pools of Misaki,
view of, i, 161
tiger-puffer, ii, 423
tiger-sharks, i, 533
Tilapia, ii, 380
tilefish, ii, 361
catastrophe to, ii, 362
Collins on, ii, 362
Gill on, ii, 361, 362
Tilesius, i, 396, 416
Tinca, i, 345; ii, 168, 175
thresher-shark, i, 536
Thrissopater, ii, 43
Thrissops, ii, 41
Thryptodontidæ, ii, 44
Thryptodus, ii, 44
Thunberg, i, 416
thunder-pumper, ii, 354, 355
Thunnus, i, 210, 272; ii, 262
Thursius, i, 604
Thwaite shad, ii, 50
Thyestes, i, 576
Thymallidæ, ii, 120
Thymallus, i, 305; ii, 120, 121, 122
figure of, i, 328; ii, 120, 122
Thyrsites, ii, 267
Thyrsitocephalus, ii, 267
tide pools of Misaki,
view of, i, 161
tiger-puffer, ii, 423
tiger-sharks, i, 533
Tilapia, ii, 380
tilefish, ii, 361
catastrophe to, ii, 362
Collins on, ii, 362
Gill on, ii, 361, 362
Tilesius, i, 396, 416
Tinca, i, 345; ii, 168, 175
Page 874
tiñosa, ii, 276
Tiphle, ii, 236
Titanichthyidæ, i, 587
Titanichthys, i, 583, 587, 589
Titicaca Lake,
peculiar fish from, ii, 201
toadfish, ii, 525, 526
Brazilian, ii, 526
poison, ii, 526
poison-organs of, i, 180
shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
tomcod, ii, 537
figure of, ii, 538
tomtates, ii, 341
tongue-fish, ii, 488, 497
tooth,
of Hybodus, figured, i, 528
of Lamnidæ, i, 538
topknot, ii, 488
top-minnow, i, 118; ii, 198, 199, 467
figure of, ii, 198
toque, ii, 114
torabuku, ii, 423
tori, ii, 6
Tornaria,
figure of, i, 463
torpedo, i, 268; ii, 183, 188
figure of, i, 186; ii, 183
fin rudiments in, i, 71
torsk, ii, 539
Tiphle, ii, 236
Titanichthyidæ, i, 587
Titanichthys, i, 583, 587, 589
Titicaca Lake,
peculiar fish from, ii, 201
toadfish, ii, 525, 526
Brazilian, ii, 526
poison, ii, 526
poison-organs of, i, 180
shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
tomcod, ii, 537
figure of, ii, 538
tomtates, ii, 341
tongue-fish, ii, 488, 497
tooth,
of Hybodus, figured, i, 528
of Lamnidæ, i, 538
topknot, ii, 488
top-minnow, i, 118; ii, 198, 199, 467
figure of, ii, 198
toque, ii, 114
torabuku, ii, 423
tori, ii, 6
Tornaria,
figure of, i, 463
torpedo, i, 268; ii, 183, 188
figure of, i, 186; ii, 183
fin rudiments in, i, 71
torsk, ii, 539
Page 875
toto, ii, 398
totuava, ii, 354
Townsend, ii, 502
Tower,
on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95, 96
on weakfish, i, 94
Toxotes, i, 240, 268; ii, 400
Toxotidæ, ii, 400
Trachicephalus,
figure of, i, 456; ii, 438
Trachichthyidæ, ii, 253
Trachichthys, i, 263; ii, 252
Trachidermus, ii, 445
Trachinidæ, ii, 500, 501, 506, 525
Trachinotus, i, 322; ii, 276
Trachinus, i, 169, 180, 391; ii, 500, 501
Boulenger on, ii, 501
Trachosteus, i, 583, 588, 589, 590
Trachurops, ii, 275
Trachurus, i, 210, 274
figure of, ii, 274
Trachypteridæ,
family of, ii, 477
Goode and Bean on, ii, 479
Trachypterus, i, 144; ii, 425, 477
figure of, ii, 478
Günther on, ii, 480
Trachyrhynchus, ii, 541
trahira, ii, 162
totuava, ii, 354
Townsend, ii, 502
Tower,
on gas in swim-bladder, i, 95, 96
on weakfish, i, 94
Toxotes, i, 240, 268; ii, 400
Toxotidæ, ii, 400
Trachicephalus,
figure of, i, 456; ii, 438
Trachichthyidæ, ii, 253
Trachichthys, i, 263; ii, 252
Trachidermus, ii, 445
Trachinidæ, ii, 500, 501, 506, 525
Trachinotus, i, 322; ii, 276
Trachinus, i, 169, 180, 391; ii, 500, 501
Boulenger on, ii, 501
Trachosteus, i, 583, 588, 589, 590
Trachurops, ii, 275
Trachurus, i, 210, 274
figure of, ii, 274
Trachypteridæ,
family of, ii, 477
Goode and Bean on, ii, 479
Trachypterus, i, 144; ii, 425, 477
figure of, ii, 478
Günther on, ii, 480
Trachyrhynchus, ii, 541
trahira, ii, 162
Page 876
transportation of fishes, i, 150
Trautschold, i, 427
Traquair, i, 426, 428
on Gnasthome, i, 573
on high and low forms, i, 381, 382
on Ostracophores, i, 569-571
on Palæospondylus, i, 591
portrait of, i, 425
on sharks, i, 512
Traquairia, i, 517
Travailleur, the, i, 408; ii, 60
tree-climber of India,
Daldorf on, i, 163
treefish, ii, 431
Tremataspidæ, i, 576
trematodes, i, 344
Triakis, i, 541
Triacanthidæ, ii, 412
Triacanthodes, ii, 412
Triacanthus, ii, 412
Trichina, i, 352
Trichiurichthys, ii, 268
Trichiuridæ, i, 210; ii, 472
family of, ii, 267
Trichiurides, ii, 32
Trichiurus, ii, 268, 479
figure of, ii, 268
Trichodon,
figure of, ii, 364
Trautschold, i, 427
Traquair, i, 426, 428
on Gnasthome, i, 573
on high and low forms, i, 381, 382
on Ostracophores, i, 569-571
on Palæospondylus, i, 591
portrait of, i, 425
on sharks, i, 512
Traquairia, i, 517
Travailleur, the, i, 408; ii, 60
tree-climber of India,
Daldorf on, i, 163
treefish, ii, 431
Tremataspidæ, i, 576
trematodes, i, 344
Triakis, i, 541
Triacanthidæ, ii, 412
Triacanthodes, ii, 412
Triacanthus, ii, 412
Trichina, i, 352
Trichiurichthys, ii, 268
Trichiuridæ, i, 210; ii, 472
family of, ii, 267
Trichiurides, ii, 32
Trichiurus, ii, 268, 479
figure of, ii, 268
Trichodon,
figure of, ii, 364
Page 877
Trichodontidæ, ii, 364, 506
trinomial nomenclature, i, 378
trigger-fishes, i, 440; ii, 412, 413
figure of, i, 184, 412
Trigla, i, 169, 391; ii, 456, 457
air-bladder of, i, 97
Triglidæ, i, 122, 208; ii, 455
family of, ii, 455
Triglops, ii, 442
figure of, ii, 443
Triglopsis, i, 317; ii, 447
Trigonodon, ii, 347
Triodon, ii, 419
Triodontidæ, ii, 418
Tripterygian, ii, 508
Tristichopterus, i, 603
Trochocopus, ii, 388
Troglichthys, i, 220, 222; ii, 202, 203
tropical fishes,
species of, i, 271
variety among, i, 333
Tropidichthyidæ, ii, 421
Tropidichthys, i, 115; ii, 422
Troschel, i, 415
trout, i, 156, 250, 290, 304, 326, 327; ii, 38, 41, 61, 89, 90, 107, 121, 128,
147, 168
tail figure of, ii, 486
of Utah basin, ii, 104
of Yellowstone, i, 345
trinomial nomenclature, i, 378
trigger-fishes, i, 440; ii, 412, 413
figure of, i, 184, 412
Trigla, i, 169, 391; ii, 456, 457
air-bladder of, i, 97
Triglidæ, i, 122, 208; ii, 455
family of, ii, 455
Triglops, ii, 442
figure of, ii, 443
Triglopsis, i, 317; ii, 447
Trigonodon, ii, 347
Triodon, ii, 419
Triodontidæ, ii, 418
Tripterygian, ii, 508
Tristichopterus, i, 603
Trochocopus, ii, 388
Troglichthys, i, 220, 222; ii, 202, 203
tropical fishes,
species of, i, 271
variety among, i, 333
Tropidichthyidæ, ii, 421
Tropidichthys, i, 115; ii, 422
Troschel, i, 415
trout, i, 156, 250, 290, 304, 326, 327; ii, 38, 41, 61, 89, 90, 107, 121, 128,
147, 168
tail figure of, ii, 486
of Utah basin, ii, 104
of Yellowstone, i, 345
Page 878
trout-perch, i, 241, 290; ii, 61
figure of, ii, 242
trout-spotted darter, ii, 314
trout-worm, ii, 103
figure of head, ii, 103
segments of, figured, ii, 103
trucha, ii, 320
true eels, ii, 141
shoulder-girdle in, ii, 141
true perches, ii, 304
true sharks, i, 523-560
true snapper, ii, 337
trumpeter, ii, 363
trumpet-fish, i, 51, 440
family of, i, 233
figure of, i, 234
truncate, i, 19
truncus arteriosus, ii, 6
trunkfishes, i, 16, 19, 206, 373, 375, 378, 429; ii, 415-417
figure of, i, 373, 376, 377
horned, ii, 416
hornless, ii, 419
spineless, ii, 417
spotted, ii, 416
Trypauchen, ii, 467
tschawytscha, ii, 73
Tschudi, i, 415
tsuzume, ii, 402
tullibee, ii, 67
figure of, ii, 242
trout-spotted darter, ii, 314
trout-worm, ii, 103
figure of head, ii, 103
segments of, figured, ii, 103
trucha, ii, 320
true eels, ii, 141
shoulder-girdle in, ii, 141
true perches, ii, 304
true sharks, i, 523-560
true snapper, ii, 337
trumpeter, ii, 363
trumpet-fish, i, 51, 440
family of, i, 233
figure of, i, 234
truncate, i, 19
truncus arteriosus, ii, 6
trunkfishes, i, 16, 19, 206, 373, 375, 378, 429; ii, 415-417
figure of, i, 373, 376, 377
horned, ii, 416
hornless, ii, 419
spineless, ii, 417
spotted, ii, 416
Trypauchen, ii, 467
tschawytscha, ii, 73
Tschudi, i, 415
tsuzume, ii, 402
tullibee, ii, 67
Page 879
tunicates, i, 460, 462, 467-481
adult, figured, i, 480
anatomy, figured, i, 472
Kingsley on, i, 467, 468, 469
larva, figured, i, 471
Ritter on, i, 474
tunny, i, 19, 210
great, ii, 262
turbots, i, 206, 328; ii, 488, 489
tribe, the, ii, 487
Turner,
on Dallia, ii, 207
Turton, i, 410
Tutuila Island,
lizard skipper from, i, 230
Twin Lakes,
trout of, i, 241
Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307, 308, 309, 310
Evermann on, i, 307
tyee, ii, 69
Tylosurus, i, 128
figure of, ii, 210
shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
Typhlichthys, i, 220, 314; ii, 201, 202
figure of, i, 116; ii, 202
Typhlogobius, i, 198; ii, 467
Typodus, ii, 222
uku, i, 325; ii, 338
Ulæma, i, 271
adult, figured, i, 480
anatomy, figured, i, 472
Kingsley on, i, 467, 468, 469
larva, figured, i, 471
Ritter on, i, 474
tunny, i, 19, 210
great, ii, 262
turbots, i, 206, 328; ii, 488, 489
tribe, the, ii, 487
Turner,
on Dallia, ii, 207
Turton, i, 410
Tutuila Island,
lizard skipper from, i, 230
Twin Lakes,
trout of, i, 241
Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307, 308, 309, 310
Evermann on, i, 307
tyee, ii, 69
Tylosurus, i, 128
figure of, ii, 210
shoulder-girdle of, i, 59
Typhlichthys, i, 220, 314; ii, 201, 202
figure of, i, 116; ii, 202
Typhlogobius, i, 198; ii, 467
Typodus, ii, 222
uku, i, 325; ii, 338
Ulæma, i, 271
Page 880
ulchen, ii, 124
figure of, i, 320; ii, 124
Umbra, i, 253; ii, 35
figure of, ii, 193
Umbridæ, i, 290; ii, 193, 194
Umbrina, ii, 356, 357
figure of, ii, 357
umiuma, i, 429
uncertain conclusions, i, 79
Undina, i, 204, 605
unicorn-fish, ii, 409, 415
U. S. Fish Commission, ii, 69
Upeneus, ii, 353
Upham,
on glacial effects, i, 275
upland fishes, i, 311
Uranidea, ii, 443, 445
figure of, ii, 445
Uranoplosus, ii, 22
Uranoscopus, i, 259, 260, 393; ii, 361, 364, 503, 504
Uranoscopidæ, ii, 503, 504, 506, 525
Urenchelyidæ, ii, 142
Urenchelys, ii, 142
ureters, ii, 6
Urochordata, i, 460
Urodela, i, 76
Urolophus, i, 555-557
Uronemidæ, i, 612
figure of, i, 320; ii, 124
Umbra, i, 253; ii, 35
figure of, ii, 193
Umbridæ, i, 290; ii, 193, 194
Umbrina, ii, 356, 357
figure of, ii, 357
umiuma, i, 429
uncertain conclusions, i, 79
Undina, i, 204, 605
unicorn-fish, ii, 409, 415
U. S. Fish Commission, ii, 69
Upeneus, ii, 353
Upham,
on glacial effects, i, 275
upland fishes, i, 311
Uranidea, ii, 443, 445
figure of, ii, 445
Uranoplosus, ii, 22
Uranoscopus, i, 259, 260, 393; ii, 361, 364, 503, 504
Uranoscopidæ, ii, 503, 504, 506, 525
Urenchelyidæ, ii, 142
Urenchelys, ii, 142
ureters, ii, 6
Urochordata, i, 460
Urodela, i, 76
Urolophus, i, 555-557
Uronemidæ, i, 612
Page 881
Uronemus, i, 612
Urophycis, i, 187; ii, 538
Uropterygius, ii, 153
urosome, i, 84, 85
Urosphen, ii, 234
Urosphenidæ, ii, 234
urostyle, i, 84
Usinosita, ii, 498
uu, i, 162
vaca, i, 235; ii, 327
Vahl, i, 396
Vaillant, i, 412
portrait of, i, 413
Valenciennellus, ii, 134
Valenciennes, i, 401, 404
Valenciennesia, ii, 460
Valentyn, i, 396
Valisneri, ii, 144
Valisneria, ii, 144
Van Dyke, ii, 93
on Ouananiche, ii, 93
vaqueta de dos colores, ii, 404
variability of instinct,
Whitman on, i, 156
variation in colors, i, 235
variation in fin-rays, i, 211
Urophycis, i, 187; ii, 538
Uropterygius, ii, 153
urosome, i, 84, 85
Urosphen, ii, 234
Urosphenidæ, ii, 234
urostyle, i, 84
Usinosita, ii, 498
uu, i, 162
vaca, i, 235; ii, 327
Vahl, i, 396
Vaillant, i, 412
portrait of, i, 413
Valenciennellus, ii, 134
Valenciennes, i, 401, 404
Valenciennesia, ii, 460
Valentyn, i, 396
Valisneri, ii, 144
Valisneria, ii, 144
Van Dyke, ii, 93
on Ouananiche, ii, 93
vaqueta de dos colores, ii, 404
variability of instinct,
Whitman on, i, 156
variation in colors, i, 235
variation in fin-rays, i, 211
Page 882
Variola, ii, 327
vasa efferentia, ii, 6
vas deferens, i, 28
Velifer, ii, 286
Vellitor, i, 260; ii, 448
vendace, ii, 67
venomous spines,
of catfish, i, 179
of scorpion-fish, i, 180
ventral fins, i, 10
Venustodus, i, 531
Verasper, ii, 492
ver blanc, i, 351
Verilus, ii, 338
vertebræ, i, 203, 205
vertebræ in fishes, i, 212
Boulenger on, i, 213
figure of, i, 510
vertebral column, i, 46-48
figure of, i, 48
vertebral column,
of lancelet, i, 55
of Roccus, i, 48
verrugato, ii, 356
vessels engaged in fish-collecting, i, 408, 410
villiform teeth, i, 29
Vinciguerra, ii, 408
portrait of, i, 413
vasa efferentia, ii, 6
vas deferens, i, 28
Velifer, ii, 286
Vellitor, i, 260; ii, 448
vendace, ii, 67
venomous spines,
of catfish, i, 179
of scorpion-fish, i, 180
ventral fins, i, 10
Venustodus, i, 531
Verasper, ii, 492
ver blanc, i, 351
Verilus, ii, 338
vertebræ, i, 203, 205
vertebræ in fishes, i, 212
Boulenger on, i, 213
figure of, i, 510
vertebral column, i, 46-48
figure of, i, 48
vertebral column,
of lancelet, i, 55
of Roccus, i, 48
verrugato, ii, 356
vessels engaged in fish-collecting, i, 408, 410
villiform teeth, i, 29
Vinciguerra, ii, 408
portrait of, i, 413
Page 883
Vinciguerria, ii, 134
Vinson,
on Gourami, ii, 369
Violante, the, i, 408; ii, 60
viper-fish, ii, 129
Vireosa, ii, 460
figure of, ii, 461
viscera of fish, i, 26, 28
viviparous fishes,
figure of, i, 125, 126, 222; ii, 200
viviparous perch,
figure of, ii, 379
voices of fishes, i, 121
Vogmar, ii, 477
Vogt, i, 428
Volador, ii, 458
Vomer, ii, 276
vomer, i, 6
Vomeropsis, ii, 278
wachna cod, ii, 537
Wagner, i, 427
Waha Lake, ii, 104
Waite, i, 408, 416
portrait of, i, 409
Walbaum, i, 397; ii, 68
Walcott, i, 428, 603
on fossil chimæroids, i, 565
Vinson,
on Gourami, ii, 369
Violante, the, i, 408; ii, 60
viper-fish, ii, 129
Vireosa, ii, 460
figure of, ii, 461
viscera of fish, i, 26, 28
viviparous fishes,
figure of, i, 125, 126, 222; ii, 200
viviparous perch,
figure of, ii, 379
voices of fishes, i, 121
Vogmar, ii, 477
Vogt, i, 428
Volador, ii, 458
Vomer, ii, 276
vomer, i, 6
Vomeropsis, ii, 278
wachna cod, ii, 537
Wagner, i, 427
Waha Lake, ii, 104
Waite, i, 408, 416
portrait of, i, 409
Walbaum, i, 397; ii, 68
Walcott, i, 428, 603
on fossil chimæroids, i, 565
Page 884
on oldest forms, i, 435
walking-fish, i, 167
wall-eye, ii, 307
wall-eyed surf-fish, ii, 375
Walton, i, 336, 337
Ward,
on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344
Wardichthys, ii, 15
water-beetle, ii, 144
water-pig, ii, 369
watersheds, i, 305
the Cassiquiare, i, 307
how fishes cross, i, 306
the Suletind, i, 306
swampy, i, 314
Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307
weakfish, ii, 353
Weber, i, 428
on swim-bladder, i, 96
Weberian apparatus, i, 93, 96, 97; ii, 160
figure of, i, 93; ii, 160
weevers, ii, 500
Gill on, i, 500
weissfelchen, ii, 65
weissfisch, ii, 65
wels, ii, 182
welshmen, ii, 253
West Indian fish, i, 235
whale-shark, i, 540
walking-fish, i, 167
wall-eye, ii, 307
wall-eyed surf-fish, ii, 375
Walton, i, 336, 337
Ward,
on parasitic diseases, i, 343, 344
Wardichthys, ii, 15
water-beetle, ii, 144
water-pig, ii, 369
watersheds, i, 305
the Cassiquiare, i, 307
how fishes cross, i, 306
the Suletind, i, 306
swampy, i, 314
Two-Ocean Pass, i, 307
weakfish, ii, 353
Weber, i, 428
on swim-bladder, i, 96
Weberian apparatus, i, 93, 96, 97; ii, 160
figure of, i, 93; ii, 160
weevers, ii, 500
Gill on, i, 500
weissfelchen, ii, 65
weissfisch, ii, 65
wels, ii, 182
welshmen, ii, 253
West Indian fish, i, 235
whale-shark, i, 540
Page 885
whiff, ii, 488, 489
whips, i, 206
whiptail rays, i, 549
Whiteaves, i, 427
whitebait, ii, 123, 127, 216
white bass, ii, 321
white bullhead, ii, 180
white catfish,
figure of, i, 344
white channel-cat, ii, 180
white chub,
figure of, ii, 165
whitefish, i, 62-64, 305, 322; ii, 115, 362, 467
figure of, i, 321
white-mouthed drummers, ii, 356
white perch, ii, 321
figure of, ii, 322
white sea-bass, ii, 354
white sharks, i, 534
white shiner,
figure showing parasites, i, 343
white surf-fish,
figure of, ii, 374
with young figured, i, 125; ii, 372
whiting, ii, 537
Whitman, i, 428
on instincts, i, 156
Whitmee,
on aquarium fishes, i, 165
whips, i, 206
whiptail rays, i, 549
Whiteaves, i, 427
whitebait, ii, 123, 127, 216
white bass, ii, 321
white bullhead, ii, 180
white catfish,
figure of, i, 344
white channel-cat, ii, 180
white chub,
figure of, ii, 165
whitefish, i, 62-64, 305, 322; ii, 115, 362, 467
figure of, i, 321
white-mouthed drummers, ii, 356
white perch, ii, 321
figure of, ii, 322
white sea-bass, ii, 354
white sharks, i, 534
white shiner,
figure showing parasites, i, 343
white surf-fish,
figure of, ii, 374
with young figured, i, 125; ii, 372
whiting, ii, 537
Whitman, i, 428
on instincts, i, 156
Whitmee,
on aquarium fishes, i, 165
Page 886
Whitney, ii, 116
wide-eyed flounder,
figure of, ii, 488
wide-gape, ii, 545
wide-mouthed flounder,
figure of, ii, 493
Wiedersheim, i, 513
Williams,
on eye of flounder, i, 174-178
Williamson, i, 423
Williston, i, 427
willow-cat, ii, 180
Willughby, i, 390
Winckler, i, 427
window-pane fish, ii, 488
figure of, ii, 487
wine-colored eel, ii, 153
wolf-eel, ii, 517
wolf-fish, ii, 517
figure of, ii, 517
Wolffian duct, i, 28
Woodward, i, 426, 428, 519, 543, 554, 582, 584, 591, 594, 602; ii, 4, 13, 24,
26, 34, 36, 43, 48, 140, 425, 514, 522
on Acanthodei, i, 514, 516
on Chondrostei, ii, 17
on Dorypterus, ii, 16
on eels, ii, 140
on fossil fishes, i, 439
on fossil garpike, ii, 32
on Isospondyli, ii, 38
wide-eyed flounder,
figure of, ii, 488
wide-gape, ii, 545
wide-mouthed flounder,
figure of, ii, 493
Wiedersheim, i, 513
Williams,
on eye of flounder, i, 174-178
Williamson, i, 423
Williston, i, 427
willow-cat, ii, 180
Willughby, i, 390
Winckler, i, 427
window-pane fish, ii, 488
figure of, ii, 487
wine-colored eel, ii, 153
wolf-eel, ii, 517
wolf-fish, ii, 517
figure of, ii, 517
Wolffian duct, i, 28
Woodward, i, 426, 428, 519, 543, 554, 582, 584, 591, 594, 602; ii, 4, 13, 24,
26, 34, 36, 43, 48, 140, 425, 514, 522
on Acanthodei, i, 514, 516
on Chondrostei, ii, 17
on Dorypterus, ii, 16
on eels, ii, 140
on fossil fishes, i, 439
on fossil garpike, ii, 32
on Isospondyli, ii, 38
Page 887
portrait of, i, 425
on Pycnodonti, ii, 23
Woolman, i, 422
worm-like eels, ii, 150
worm of the Yellowstone, i, 345
Worthen, i, 426
wrasse, i, 203; ii, 385, 387
wreckfish, ii, 323
Wright, i, 427, 428
on fishes of Panama, i, 275
wrymouths,
figure of, ii, 516
Wyman,
on month gestation, i, 170
on protocercal tail, i, 81
Xanthichthys, ii, 413
Xererpes, ii, 512
figure of, ii, 511
Xenichthys, i, 271; ii, 338
Xenistius, i, 271; ii, 338
figure of, ii, 338
Xenocephalidæ, ii, 520
Xenocephalus, ii, 520
Xenocys, i, 271; ii, 338
Xenomi, i, 405; ii, 157
order of, ii, 206
Xenopterygii, ii, 499
suborder of, ii, 529
on Pycnodonti, ii, 23
Woolman, i, 422
worm-like eels, ii, 150
worm of the Yellowstone, i, 345
Worthen, i, 426
wrasse, i, 203; ii, 385, 387
wreckfish, ii, 323
Wright, i, 427, 428
on fishes of Panama, i, 275
wrymouths,
figure of, ii, 516
Wyman,
on month gestation, i, 170
on protocercal tail, i, 81
Xanthichthys, ii, 413
Xererpes, ii, 512
figure of, ii, 511
Xenichthys, i, 271; ii, 338
Xenistius, i, 271; ii, 338
figure of, ii, 338
Xenocephalidæ, ii, 520
Xenocephalus, ii, 520
Xenocys, i, 271; ii, 338
Xenomi, i, 405; ii, 157
order of, ii, 206
Xenopterygii, ii, 499
suborder of, ii, 529
Page 888
Xesurus, ii, 409
Xiphasia,
figure of, ii, 515
Xiphasiidæ, ii, 513
Xiphias, i, 210, 329, 391; ii, 269
figure of, ii, 270
Xiphidiinæ, ii, 511
Xiphidion, ii, 512
Xiphiidæ,
family of, ii, 269
Xiphiorhynchus, ii, 269
Xiphorphorus,
figure of, i, 124; ii, 199
Xiphistes,
figure of, ii, 512
Xyrauchen, ii, 172, 174
figure of, ii, 175
Xyrias,
figure of, ii, 151
Xyrichthys, i, 207; ii, 388-390
figure of, ii, 388
Xystæma, ii, 348
figure of, ii, 347
Xystreurys, ii, 492
Xystrodus, i, 531
yamabe, i, 327; ii, 95
yamanokami, ii, 445
Yarrell, i, 410
Xiphasia,
figure of, ii, 515
Xiphasiidæ, ii, 513
Xiphias, i, 210, 329, 391; ii, 269
figure of, ii, 270
Xiphidiinæ, ii, 511
Xiphidion, ii, 512
Xiphiidæ,
family of, ii, 269
Xiphiorhynchus, ii, 269
Xiphorphorus,
figure of, i, 124; ii, 199
Xiphistes,
figure of, ii, 512
Xyrauchen, ii, 172, 174
figure of, ii, 175
Xyrias,
figure of, ii, 151
Xyrichthys, i, 207; ii, 388-390
figure of, ii, 388
Xystæma, ii, 348
figure of, ii, 347
Xystreurys, ii, 492
Xystrodus, i, 531
yamabe, i, 327; ii, 95
yamanokami, ii, 445
Yarrell, i, 410
Page 889
on fishing-frog, i, 169
on sounds, i, 168
yellowback rockfish,
figure of, i, 218
yellow bass, ii, 321
yellow catfish, ii, 182
yellow-fin grouper, ii, 325
figure of, ii, 327
yellow-fin trout, ii, 105
figure of, ii, 105
yellow-fish, ii, 324
yellow goatfish, ii, 352
yellow grunt, ii, 340
yellow mackerel, ii, 276
yellow perch, ii, 307
Yellowstone Lake,
trout of, i, 310, 345-347
Yellowstone Miller's Thumb,
figure of, ii, 444
yellow-tail, ii, 273
yellow-tail roncador, ii, 356
figure of, ii, 357
yellow-tail snapper,
figure of, ii, 337
yezomasu, ii, 71, 72
Young, i, 426
on angling, i, 337-339
Zacalles,
on sounds, i, 168
yellowback rockfish,
figure of, i, 218
yellow bass, ii, 321
yellow catfish, ii, 182
yellow-fin grouper, ii, 325
figure of, ii, 327
yellow-fin trout, ii, 105
figure of, ii, 105
yellow-fish, ii, 324
yellow goatfish, ii, 352
yellow grunt, ii, 340
yellow mackerel, ii, 276
yellow perch, ii, 307
Yellowstone Lake,
trout of, i, 310, 345-347
Yellowstone Miller's Thumb,
figure of, ii, 444
yellow-tail, ii, 273
yellow-tail roncador, ii, 356
figure of, ii, 357
yellow-tail snapper,
figure of, ii, 337
yezomasu, ii, 71, 72
Young, i, 426
on angling, i, 337-339
Zacalles,
Page 890
figure of, ii, 511
Zacco, ii, 164
zakko, ii, 117, 120
Zalarges, ii, 134
Zalembrius, ii, 374, 376
Zalieutes, ii, 552
Zalises,
figure of, ii, 240
Zanclidæ, ii, 406
family of, ii, 406
Zanclus, i, 240, 268; ii, 406
figure of, ii, 406
Zaniolepis, ii, 440
Zander, ii, 309
Zaprora, ii, 286
Zaproridæ, ii, 286
Zebrasoma, ii, 408, 409
Zebrias, ii, 497
Zeidæ, ii, 398
family of, ii, 247
Zenarchopterus, ii, 212
Zenion, ii, 249
Zenopsis, ii, 249
Zeoidea, i, 241-249
suborder of, ii, 245
Zeoidei, ii, 484
zeoid fishes, ii, 245
Zeorhombi, ii, 245
Zacco, ii, 164
zakko, ii, 117, 120
Zalarges, ii, 134
Zalembrius, ii, 374, 376
Zalieutes, ii, 552
Zalises,
figure of, ii, 240
Zanclidæ, ii, 406
family of, ii, 406
Zanclus, i, 240, 268; ii, 406
figure of, ii, 406
Zaniolepis, ii, 440
Zander, ii, 309
Zaprora, ii, 286
Zaproridæ, ii, 286
Zebrasoma, ii, 408, 409
Zebrias, ii, 497
Zeidæ, ii, 398
family of, ii, 247
Zenarchopterus, ii, 212
Zenion, ii, 249
Zenopsis, ii, 249
Zeoidea, i, 241-249
suborder of, ii, 245
Zeoidei, ii, 484
zeoid fishes, ii, 245
Zeorhombi, ii, 245
Page 891
Zesticelus, ii, 447
Zeugopterus, ii, 488
Zeus, i, 259, 263, 267, 391; ii, 243, 249, 398
figure of, ii, 248
Zigno, i, 427
Zingel, ii, 307
figure of, ii, 310
Zittel, i, 427; ii, 13, 514
on Lepidostei, ii, 23
on Ostracophores, i, 569
portrait of, i, 425
Zoarces, ii, 144, 518
figure of, ii, 518
Zoarcidæ, ii, 518, 522
zoogeography, i, 237
zooids, i, 479
zootomists, i, 90
Zostera, i, 476
Zuieuw, i, 396
Zygonectes, ii, 199
figure of, ii, 198
Zeugopterus, ii, 488
Zeus, i, 259, 263, 267, 391; ii, 243, 249, 398
figure of, ii, 248
Zigno, i, 427
Zingel, ii, 307
figure of, ii, 310
Zittel, i, 427; ii, 13, 514
on Lepidostei, ii, 23
on Ostracophores, i, 569
portrait of, i, 425
Zoarces, ii, 144, 518
figure of, ii, 518
Zoarcidæ, ii, 518, 522
zoogeography, i, 237
zooids, i, 479
zootomists, i, 90
Zostera, i, 476
Zuieuw, i, 396
Zygonectes, ii, 199
figure of, ii, 198
Page 892
FERNS
A MANUAL FOR THE NORTHEASTERN STATES
WITH ANALYTICAL KEYS BASED ON THE
STALKS AND ON THE FRUCTIFICATION
With over two hundred illustrations from original drawings and
photographs
By CAMPBELL E. WATERS
302 pages, square 8vo. Boxed, $3.00 net; by mail, $3.34
This book is thoroughly authoritative, and is written in popular style. It
covers all the ferns in the region embraced either in Britton's or in Gray's
Manuals.
"This book is likely to prove the leading popular work on ferns. No finer
examples of fern photography have ever been produced. Dr. Waters
brings to his work fifteen years of experience in field and herbarium study,
and the book may be expected to prove of permanent scientific value, as
well as to satisfy a want which existing treatises have but imperfectly
filled."—Plant World.
"For all who study or wish to study our native ferns Dr. Waters has prepared
a book which is sure to prove both helpful and inspiring. Especially
charming and significant are the views showing typical habits and
habitats."—The American Naturalist.
"There could hardly be a better book for those interested in the subject."—
Boston Literary World.
OUR NATIVE FERNS
AND THEIR ALLIES
A MANUAL FOR THE NORTHEASTERN STATES
WITH ANALYTICAL KEYS BASED ON THE
STALKS AND ON THE FRUCTIFICATION
With over two hundred illustrations from original drawings and
photographs
By CAMPBELL E. WATERS
302 pages, square 8vo. Boxed, $3.00 net; by mail, $3.34
This book is thoroughly authoritative, and is written in popular style. It
covers all the ferns in the region embraced either in Britton's or in Gray's
Manuals.
"This book is likely to prove the leading popular work on ferns. No finer
examples of fern photography have ever been produced. Dr. Waters
brings to his work fifteen years of experience in field and herbarium study,
and the book may be expected to prove of permanent scientific value, as
well as to satisfy a want which existing treatises have but imperfectly
filled."—Plant World.
"For all who study or wish to study our native ferns Dr. Waters has prepared
a book which is sure to prove both helpful and inspiring. Especially
charming and significant are the views showing typical habits and
habitats."—The American Naturalist.
"There could hardly be a better book for those interested in the subject."—
Boston Literary World.
OUR NATIVE FERNS
AND THEIR ALLIES
Page 893
WITH SYNOPTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AMERICAN
PTERIDOPHYTA
NORTH OF MEXICO
By LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD
Professor in Columbia University
Revised. xii + 156 pages, 12mo $1.00
"The elementary part is clear and well calculated to introduce beginners to
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ferns comparatively easy. The writer cordially commends the book. It
should be in the hands of all who are especially interested in the vascular
cryptogams of the United States."—Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club,
N. Y.
Henry Holt and Company
29 West 23d Street, New
York
GEOLOGY
Vol I. "Geologic Processes and Their Results"
By Prof. THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN
AND
Prof. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY
Heads of the Departments of Geology and Geography, University of
Chicago; Members of the United
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With numerous illustrations, including 24 colored maps and
3 tables. 654 pages, 8vo, $4.00 net
PTERIDOPHYTA
NORTH OF MEXICO
By LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD
Professor in Columbia University
Revised. xii + 156 pages, 12mo $1.00
"The elementary part is clear and well calculated to introduce beginners to
the study of the plants treated of. The excellent key makes the analysis of
ferns comparatively easy. The writer cordially commends the book. It
should be in the hands of all who are especially interested in the vascular
cryptogams of the United States."—Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club,
N. Y.
Henry Holt and Company
29 West 23d Street, New
York
GEOLOGY
Vol I. "Geologic Processes and Their Results"
By Prof. THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN
AND
Prof. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY
Heads of the Departments of Geology and Geography, University of
Chicago; Members of the United
States Geological Survey; Editors of the Journal of Geology
With numerous illustrations, including 24 colored maps and
3 tables. 654 pages, 8vo, $4.00 net
Page 894
Vol. II. "Earth History." In preparation
Chas. D. Walcott, Director of U. S. Geological Survey: "I am impressed
with the admirable plan of the work and with the thorough manner in which
geological principles and processes and their results have been presented.
The text is written in an entertaining style and is supplemented by
admirable illustrations, so that the student cannot fail to obtain a clear idea
of nature and the work of geological agencies, of the present status of the
science, and of the spirit which actuates the working geologist."
T. A. Jaggar, Jr., Harvard University: "An excellent statement of modern
American geology, with abundant new illustrative material based upon the
most recent work of government and other surveys."
Henry S. Williams, Yale University: "It is the best treatise on this part of the
subject which we have seen in America."
R. S. Woodward, Columbia University: "It is admirable for its science,
admirable for its literary perfection, and admirable for its unequalled
illustrations."
Israel C. Russell, University of Michigan. "I deem it an epoch-making
book and one that will vastly extend the study of geology."
BUTTERFLIES
By S. H. SCUDDER
THEIR STRUCTURE, CHANGES, AND LIFE-HISTORIES
With Special Reference to American Forms. Being an Application of the
"Doctrine of
Descent" to the Study of Butterflies. With an Appendix of Practical
Instruction
12mo $1.50
net
Brief Guide to the Commoner Butterflies of the Northern
Chas. D. Walcott, Director of U. S. Geological Survey: "I am impressed
with the admirable plan of the work and with the thorough manner in which
geological principles and processes and their results have been presented.
The text is written in an entertaining style and is supplemented by
admirable illustrations, so that the student cannot fail to obtain a clear idea
of nature and the work of geological agencies, of the present status of the
science, and of the spirit which actuates the working geologist."
T. A. Jaggar, Jr., Harvard University: "An excellent statement of modern
American geology, with abundant new illustrative material based upon the
most recent work of government and other surveys."
Henry S. Williams, Yale University: "It is the best treatise on this part of the
subject which we have seen in America."
R. S. Woodward, Columbia University: "It is admirable for its science,
admirable for its literary perfection, and admirable for its unequalled
illustrations."
Israel C. Russell, University of Michigan. "I deem it an epoch-making
book and one that will vastly extend the study of geology."
BUTTERFLIES
By S. H. SCUDDER
THEIR STRUCTURE, CHANGES, AND LIFE-HISTORIES
With Special Reference to American Forms. Being an Application of the
"Doctrine of
Descent" to the Study of Butterflies. With an Appendix of Practical
Instruction
12mo $1.50
net
Brief Guide to the Commoner Butterflies of the Northern
Page 895
United States and Canada
Being an Introduction to the Knowledge of their Life-Histories
New edition. With 21 plates, containing in all 97 illustrations
12mo $1.50
THE LIFE OF A BUTTERFLY
A CHAPTER IN NATURAL HISTORY FOR THE GENERAL READER
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Henry Holt and Company
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The Natural History of Plants
THEIR FORMS, GROWTH, REPRODUCTION
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FROM THE GERMAN OF
ANTON KERNER VON MARILAUN
Professor of Botany in the University of Vienna
By F. W. OLIVER
Quain Professor of Botany in University College, London
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
MARIAN BUSH AND MARY E. EWART
Being an Introduction to the Knowledge of their Life-Histories
New edition. With 21 plates, containing in all 97 illustrations
12mo $1.50
THE LIFE OF A BUTTERFLY
A CHAPTER IN NATURAL HISTORY FOR THE GENERAL READER
16mo $1.00
Henry Holt and Company
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The Natural History of Plants
THEIR FORMS, GROWTH, REPRODUCTION
AND DISTRIBUTION
FROM THE GERMAN OF
ANTON KERNER VON MARILAUN
Professor of Botany in the University of Vienna
By F. W. OLIVER
Quain Professor of Botany in University College, London
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
MARIAN BUSH AND MARY E. EWART
Page 896
4to. New edition. 2 vols. The set $11.00
A work for reference or continuous reading, at once popular and, in the
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Prof. John M. Coulter, in The Dial: "Prof. Kerner has brought the most
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Prof. Chas. R. Barnes, in The Botanical Gazette: "This lucidity, and the
excellent illustrations, not only will introduce the non-botanical reader to
the science of botany, but should serve as a lesson to the professional
botanist in the art of presentation."
The Nation: "He has succeeded in constructing a popular work on the
phenomena of vegetation which is practically without any rival."
GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS
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With 685 illustrations. Ninth edition. xii + 715 pp., 8vo, $5.00 net
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
By GEORGE J. PEIRCE
A work for reference or continuous reading, at once popular and, in the
modern sense, thoroughly scientific. The new edition is practically identical
with the former four-volume edition except that the colored plates in the
latter have been omitted. The wood-engravings, over two thousand in
number, have been retained.
Prof. John M. Coulter, in The Dial: "Prof. Kerner has brought the most
recent researches within reach of the intelligent reader, and in a style so
charming that even the professional teacher may learn a lesson in the art of
presentation.... It is such books as this that will bring botany fairly
before the public as a subject of absorbing interest; that will illuminate
the botanical lecture-room."
Prof. Chas. R. Barnes, in The Botanical Gazette: "This lucidity, and the
excellent illustrations, not only will introduce the non-botanical reader to
the science of botany, but should serve as a lesson to the professional
botanist in the art of presentation."
The Nation: "He has succeeded in constructing a popular work on the
phenomena of vegetation which is practically without any rival."
GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS
AND A TREATISE ON THOSE
INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO CROPS
FOR THE USE OF
COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS AND AGRICULTURISTS
By ALPHEUS S. PACKARD, M.D.
With 685 illustrations. Ninth edition. xii + 715 pp., 8vo, $5.00 net
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
By GEORGE J. PEIRCE
Page 897
Professor in Leland Stanford University
vi + 291 pages, 8vo $2.00
A modern and thoroughly scientific discussion of the general principles of
plant physiology, intended for the student or general reader acquainted with
the elements of botany.
Science: "The volume is full of original suggestions and differs quite
markedly from the old-time works devoted to plant physiology."
William F. Ganong, Professor in Smith College: "I am much pleased with
the clearness, proportion, and vigor with which it treats the subject. It seems
to me an admirable exposition of the principles of plant physiology as
they are understood at the present day, and it should have a wide use."
Henry Holt and Company
29 West 23d Street, New
York
MUSHROOMS
By GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON
Professor of Botany in Cornell University, and Botanist of
the Cornell University
Experiment Station
Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms. By Mrs. SARAH TYSON RORER
Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms. By J. F. CLARK
With 230 illustrations from photographs, including 15 colored plates
320 pages, 8vo. $3.00 net; by mail, $3.23
Educational Review:—"It would be difficult to conceive of a more
attractive and useful book.... In addition to its general attractiveness and the
vi + 291 pages, 8vo $2.00
A modern and thoroughly scientific discussion of the general principles of
plant physiology, intended for the student or general reader acquainted with
the elements of botany.
Science: "The volume is full of original suggestions and differs quite
markedly from the old-time works devoted to plant physiology."
William F. Ganong, Professor in Smith College: "I am much pleased with
the clearness, proportion, and vigor with which it treats the subject. It seems
to me an admirable exposition of the principles of plant physiology as
they are understood at the present day, and it should have a wide use."
Henry Holt and Company
29 West 23d Street, New
York
MUSHROOMS
By GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON
Professor of Botany in Cornell University, and Botanist of
the Cornell University
Experiment Station
Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms. By Mrs. SARAH TYSON RORER
Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms. By J. F. CLARK
With 230 illustrations from photographs, including 15 colored plates
320 pages, 8vo. $3.00 net; by mail, $3.23
Educational Review:—"It would be difficult to conceive of a more
attractive and useful book.... In addition to its general attractiveness and the
Page 898
beauty of its illustrations, it is written in a style well calculated to win the
merest tyro."
Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms
By LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD
Professor in Columbia University
iv + 236 pages, 12mo $1.50
Bradley M. Davis, in the Botanical Gazette:—"Wonderfully free from the
dry diagnoses of most systematic descriptions, and everywhere combined
with interesting accounts of life-habits and activities.... A marvel in its
compactness, with a wonderfully uniform tone throughout, condensed and
yet very clear."
Flora of the Northern States and Canada
By PROFESSOR N. L. BRITTON
Director of the New York Botanical Garden
x + 1080 pages, large 12mo $2.25
This manual is published in response to a demand for a handbook suitable
for ordinary school use, which shall meet modern requirements and outline
modern conceptions of the science. It is based on An Illustrated Flora
prepared by Professor Britton in co-operation with Judge Addison Brown,
in three volumes. The text has been revised and brought up to date, and
much of novelty has been added, but all illustrations are omitted.
Conway MacMillan, Professor in the University of Minnesota, in Science:—"There is no
work extant in the whole series of American botanical publications which deals with
descriptions of the flowering plants that can for a moment be compared with it, either for a
skillful and delightful presentation of the subject-matter or for modern, scientific, and accurate
mastery of the thousandfold mass of detail of which such a work must consist."
V. M. Spalding, Professor in the University of Michigan:—"I regard the book as one that we
cannot do without and one that will henceforth take its place as a necessary means of
merest tyro."
Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms
By LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD
Professor in Columbia University
iv + 236 pages, 12mo $1.50
Bradley M. Davis, in the Botanical Gazette:—"Wonderfully free from the
dry diagnoses of most systematic descriptions, and everywhere combined
with interesting accounts of life-habits and activities.... A marvel in its
compactness, with a wonderfully uniform tone throughout, condensed and
yet very clear."
Flora of the Northern States and Canada
By PROFESSOR N. L. BRITTON
Director of the New York Botanical Garden
x + 1080 pages, large 12mo $2.25
This manual is published in response to a demand for a handbook suitable
for ordinary school use, which shall meet modern requirements and outline
modern conceptions of the science. It is based on An Illustrated Flora
prepared by Professor Britton in co-operation with Judge Addison Brown,
in three volumes. The text has been revised and brought up to date, and
much of novelty has been added, but all illustrations are omitted.
Conway MacMillan, Professor in the University of Minnesota, in Science:—"There is no
work extant in the whole series of American botanical publications which deals with
descriptions of the flowering plants that can for a moment be compared with it, either for a
skillful and delightful presentation of the subject-matter or for modern, scientific, and accurate
mastery of the thousandfold mass of detail of which such a work must consist."
V. M. Spalding, Professor in the University of Michigan:—"I regard the book as one that we
cannot do without and one that will henceforth take its place as a necessary means of
Page 899
determination of the plant species within its range."
Henry Holt and Company
29 West 23d Street, New
York
Henry Holt and Company
29 West 23d Street, New
York
Page 900
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
1. Corrected the ERRATA listed on p. xxiii with the
exception of the table of changes in generic names.
2. Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and
typographical errors.
3. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as
printed.
1. Corrected the ERRATA listed on p. xxiii with the
exception of the table of changes in generic names.
2. Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and
typographical errors.
3. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as
printed.
Page 901
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