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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Handbook of Universal
Literature, From the Best and Latest Authorities
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
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have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using
this eBook.
Title: Handbook of Universal Literature, From the Best and Latest
Authorities
Author: Anne C. Lynch Botta
Release date: May 1, 2005 [eBook #8163]
Most recently updated: December 26, 2020
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8163
Credits: Produced by Anne Soulard, Tiffany Vergon and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HANDBOOK OF
UNIVERSAL LITERATURE, FROM THE BEST AND LATEST
AUTHORITIES ***
Literature, From the Best and Latest Authorities
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will
have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using
this eBook.
Title: Handbook of Universal Literature, From the Best and Latest
Authorities
Author: Anne C. Lynch Botta
Release date: May 1, 2005 [eBook #8163]
Most recently updated: December 26, 2020
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8163
Credits: Produced by Anne Soulard, Tiffany Vergon and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HANDBOOK OF
UNIVERSAL LITERATURE, FROM THE BEST AND LATEST
AUTHORITIES ***
Page 4
Produced by Anne Soulard, Tiffany Vergon
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
Page 5
HANDBOOK OF UNIVERSAL LITERATURE
FROM THE BEST AND LATEST AUTHORITIES
BY ANNE C. LYNCH BOTTA
FROM THE BEST AND LATEST AUTHORITIES
BY ANNE C. LYNCH BOTTA
Page 6
PREFATORY NOTE TO THE REVISED
EDITION.
Since the first publication of this work in 1860, many new names have
appeared in modern literature. Japan, hitherto almost unknown to
Europeans, has taken her place among the nations with a literature of her
own, and the researches and discoveries of scholars in various parts of the
world have thrown much light on the literatures of antiquity. To keep pace
with this advance, a new edition of the work has been called for. Prefixed is
a very brief summary of an important and exhaustive History of the
Alphabet recently published.
EDITION.
Since the first publication of this work in 1860, many new names have
appeared in modern literature. Japan, hitherto almost unknown to
Europeans, has taken her place among the nations with a literature of her
own, and the researches and discoveries of scholars in various parts of the
world have thrown much light on the literatures of antiquity. To keep pace
with this advance, a new edition of the work has been called for. Prefixed is
a very brief summary of an important and exhaustive History of the
Alphabet recently published.
Page 7
PREFACE.
This work was begun many years ago, as a literary exercise, to meet the
personal requirements of the writer, which were such as most persons
experience on leaving school and "completing their education," as the
phrase is. The world of literature lies before them, but where to begin, what
course of study to pursue, in order best to comprehend it, are the problems
which present themselves to the bewildered questioner, who finds himself
in a position not unlike that of a traveler suddenly set down in an unknown
country, without guide-book or map. The most natural course under such
circumstances would be to begin at the beginning, and take a rapid survey
of the entire field of literature, arriving at its details through this general
view. But as this could be accomplished only by subjecting each individual
to a severe and protracted course of systematic study, the idea was
conceived of obviating this necessity to some extent by embodying the
results of such a course in the form of the following work, which, after
being long laid aside, is now at length completed.
In conformity with this design, standard books have been condensed,
with no alterations except such as were required to give unity to the whole
work; and in some instances a few additions have been made. Where
standard works have not been found, the sketches have been made from the
best sources of information, and submitted to the criticism of able scholars.
This work was begun many years ago, as a literary exercise, to meet the
personal requirements of the writer, which were such as most persons
experience on leaving school and "completing their education," as the
phrase is. The world of literature lies before them, but where to begin, what
course of study to pursue, in order best to comprehend it, are the problems
which present themselves to the bewildered questioner, who finds himself
in a position not unlike that of a traveler suddenly set down in an unknown
country, without guide-book or map. The most natural course under such
circumstances would be to begin at the beginning, and take a rapid survey
of the entire field of literature, arriving at its details through this general
view. But as this could be accomplished only by subjecting each individual
to a severe and protracted course of systematic study, the idea was
conceived of obviating this necessity to some extent by embodying the
results of such a course in the form of the following work, which, after
being long laid aside, is now at length completed.
In conformity with this design, standard books have been condensed,
with no alterations except such as were required to give unity to the whole
work; and in some instances a few additions have been made. Where
standard works have not been found, the sketches have been made from the
best sources of information, and submitted to the criticism of able scholars.
Page 8
The literatures of different nations are so related, and have so influenced
each other, that it is only by a survey of all that any single literature, or even
any great literary work, can be fully comprehended, as the various groups
and figures of a historical picture must be viewed as a whole, before they
can assume their true place and proportions.
A.C.L.B.
each other, that it is only by a survey of all that any single literature, or even
any great literary work, can be fully comprehended, as the various groups
and figures of a historical picture must be viewed as a whole, before they
can assume their true place and proportions.
A.C.L.B.
Page 9
CONTENTS.
LIST OF AUTHORITIES
INTRODUCTION.
THE ALPHABET. 1. The Origin of Letters.—2. The Phoenician
Alphabet and Inscriptions.— 3. The Greek Alphabet. Its Three Epochs.—4.
The Mediaeval Scripts. The Irish. The Anglo-Saxon. The Roman. The
Gothic. The Runic. CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES
CHINESE LITERATURE.
1. Chinese Literature.—2. The Language.—3. The Writing.—4. The Five
Classics and Four Books.—5. Chinese Religion and Philosophy. Lao-tsé.
Confucius. Meng-tsé or Mencius.—6. Buddhism.—7. Social Constitution
of
China.—8. Invention of Printing.—9. Science, History, and Geography.
Encyclopaedias.—10. Poetry.—11. Dramatic Literature and Fiction.—12.
Education in China.
JAPANESE LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. The Religion.—3. The Literature. Influence of
Women.—4. History.—5. The Drama and Poetry.—6. Geography.
Newspapers. Novels. Medical Science.—7. Position of Woman.
LIST OF AUTHORITIES
INTRODUCTION.
THE ALPHABET. 1. The Origin of Letters.—2. The Phoenician
Alphabet and Inscriptions.— 3. The Greek Alphabet. Its Three Epochs.—4.
The Mediaeval Scripts. The Irish. The Anglo-Saxon. The Roman. The
Gothic. The Runic. CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES
CHINESE LITERATURE.
1. Chinese Literature.—2. The Language.—3. The Writing.—4. The Five
Classics and Four Books.—5. Chinese Religion and Philosophy. Lao-tsé.
Confucius. Meng-tsé or Mencius.—6. Buddhism.—7. Social Constitution
of
China.—8. Invention of Printing.—9. Science, History, and Geography.
Encyclopaedias.—10. Poetry.—11. Dramatic Literature and Fiction.—12.
Education in China.
JAPANESE LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. The Religion.—3. The Literature. Influence of
Women.—4. History.—5. The Drama and Poetry.—6. Geography.
Newspapers. Novels. Medical Science.—7. Position of Woman.
Page 10
SANSKRIT LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. The Social Constitution of India. Brahmanism.—3.
Characteristics of the Literature and its Divisions.—4. The Vedas and other
Sacred Books.—5. Sanskrit Poetry; Epic; the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Lyric Poetry. Didactic Poetry; the Hitopadesa. Dramatic Poetry.—6. History
and Science.—7. Philosophy.—8. Buddhism.—9. Moral Philosophy. The
Code of Manu.—10. Modern Literatures of India.—11. Education. The
Brahmo Somaj.
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Accadians and Babylonians.—2. The Cuneiform Letters.—3.
Babylonian and Assyrian Remains.
PHOENICIAN LITERATURE.
The Language.—The Remains.
SYRIAC LITERATURE.
The Language.—Influence of the Literature in the Eighth and Ninth
Century.
PERSIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Persian Language and its Divisions.—2. Zendic Literature; the
Zendavesta.—3. Pehlvi and Parsee Literatures.—4. The Ancient Religion of
Persia; Zoroaster.—5. Modern Literature.—6. The Sufis.—7. Persian
Poetry.—8. Persian Poets; Ferdusi; Eesedi of Tus; Togray, etc.—9.
History and Philosophy.—10. Education in Persia.
HEBREW LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. The Social Constitution of India. Brahmanism.—3.
Characteristics of the Literature and its Divisions.—4. The Vedas and other
Sacred Books.—5. Sanskrit Poetry; Epic; the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Lyric Poetry. Didactic Poetry; the Hitopadesa. Dramatic Poetry.—6. History
and Science.—7. Philosophy.—8. Buddhism.—9. Moral Philosophy. The
Code of Manu.—10. Modern Literatures of India.—11. Education. The
Brahmo Somaj.
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Accadians and Babylonians.—2. The Cuneiform Letters.—3.
Babylonian and Assyrian Remains.
PHOENICIAN LITERATURE.
The Language.—The Remains.
SYRIAC LITERATURE.
The Language.—Influence of the Literature in the Eighth and Ninth
Century.
PERSIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Persian Language and its Divisions.—2. Zendic Literature; the
Zendavesta.—3. Pehlvi and Parsee Literatures.—4. The Ancient Religion of
Persia; Zoroaster.—5. Modern Literature.—6. The Sufis.—7. Persian
Poetry.—8. Persian Poets; Ferdusi; Eesedi of Tus; Togray, etc.—9.
History and Philosophy.—10. Education in Persia.
HEBREW LITERATURE.
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1. Hebrew Literature; its Divisions.—2. The Language; its Alphabet; its
Structure; Peculiarities, Formation, and Phases.—3. The Old Testament.—
4. Hebrew Education.—5. Fundamental Idea of Hebrew Literature.—6.
Hebrew Poetry.—7. Lyric Poetry; Songs; the Psalms; the Prophets.—8.
Pastoral Poetry and Didactic Poetry; the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes.—9.
Epic and Dramatic Poetry; the Book of Job.—10. Hebrew History; the
Pentateuch and other Historical Books.—11. Hebrew Philosophy.—12.
Restoration of the Sacred Books.—13. Manuscripts and Translations.—14.
Rabbinical Literature.—15. The New Revision of the Bible, and the New
Biblical Manuscript.
EGYPTIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. The Writing.—3. The Literature.—4. The
Monuments.— 5. The Discovery of Champollion.—6. Literary Remains;
Historical; Religious; Epistolary; Fictitious; Scientific; Epic; Satirical and
Judicial.—7. The Alexandrian Period.—8. The Literary Condition of
Modern Egypt.
GREEK LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Greek Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.— 3. The Religion.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Ante-Homeric Songs and Bards.—2. Poems of
Homer; the
Iliad; the Odyssey.—3. The Cyclic Poets and the Homeric Hymns.—4.
Poems
of Hesiod; the Works and Days; the Theogony.—5. Elegy and Epigram;
Tyrtaeus; Achilochus; Simanides.—6. Iambic Poetry, the Fable, and Parody;
Aesop.—7. Greek Music and Lyric Poetry; Terpander.—8. Aeolic Lyric
Poets; Alcaeus; Sappho; Anacreon.—9. Doric, or Choral Lyric Poets;
Structure; Peculiarities, Formation, and Phases.—3. The Old Testament.—
4. Hebrew Education.—5. Fundamental Idea of Hebrew Literature.—6.
Hebrew Poetry.—7. Lyric Poetry; Songs; the Psalms; the Prophets.—8.
Pastoral Poetry and Didactic Poetry; the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes.—9.
Epic and Dramatic Poetry; the Book of Job.—10. Hebrew History; the
Pentateuch and other Historical Books.—11. Hebrew Philosophy.—12.
Restoration of the Sacred Books.—13. Manuscripts and Translations.—14.
Rabbinical Literature.—15. The New Revision of the Bible, and the New
Biblical Manuscript.
EGYPTIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. The Writing.—3. The Literature.—4. The
Monuments.— 5. The Discovery of Champollion.—6. Literary Remains;
Historical; Religious; Epistolary; Fictitious; Scientific; Epic; Satirical and
Judicial.—7. The Alexandrian Period.—8. The Literary Condition of
Modern Egypt.
GREEK LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Greek Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.— 3. The Religion.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Ante-Homeric Songs and Bards.—2. Poems of
Homer; the
Iliad; the Odyssey.—3. The Cyclic Poets and the Homeric Hymns.—4.
Poems
of Hesiod; the Works and Days; the Theogony.—5. Elegy and Epigram;
Tyrtaeus; Achilochus; Simanides.—6. Iambic Poetry, the Fable, and Parody;
Aesop.—7. Greek Music and Lyric Poetry; Terpander.—8. Aeolic Lyric
Poets; Alcaeus; Sappho; Anacreon.—9. Doric, or Choral Lyric Poets;
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Alcman; Stesichorus; Pindar.—10. The Orphic Doctrines and Poems.—11.
Pre-Socratic Philosophy; Ionian, Eleatic, Pythagorean Schools.—12.
History; Herodotus.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. Literary Predominance of Athens.—2. Greek
Drama.—3.
Tragedy.—4. The Tragic Poets; Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides.—5.
Comedy; Aristophanes; Menander.—6. Oratory, Rhetoric, and History;
Pericles; the Sophists; Lysias; Isocrates; Demosthenes; Thucydides;
Xenophon.—7. Socrates and the Socratic Schools; Plato; Aristotle.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Origin of the Alexandrian Literature.—2. The
Alexandrian Poets; Philetas; Callimachus; Theocritus; Bion; Moschus.—3.
The Prose Writers of Alexandria; Zenodotus; Aristophanes; Aristarchus;
Eratosthenes; Euclid; Archimedes.—4, Philosophy of Alexandria; Neo-
Platonism.—5. Anti-Neo-Platonic Tendencies; Epictetus; Lucian; Longinus.
—6. Greek Literature in Rome; Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Flavius
Josephus; Polybius; Diodorus; Strabo; Plutarch.—7. Continued Decline of
Greek Literature.—8. Last Echoes of the Old Literature; Hypatia; Nonnus;
Musaeus; Byzantine Literature.—9. The New Testament and the Greek
Fathers. Modern Literature; the Brothers Santsos and Alexander Rangabé.
ROMAN LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Roman Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language;
Ethnographical Elements of the Latin Language; the Umbrian; Oscan;
Etruscan; the Old Roman Tongue; Saturnian Verse; Peculiarities of the
Latin Language.—3. The Roman Religion.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early Literature of the Romans; the Fescennine
Songs; the Fabulae Atellanae.—2. Early Latin Poets; Livius Andronicus,
Pre-Socratic Philosophy; Ionian, Eleatic, Pythagorean Schools.—12.
History; Herodotus.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. Literary Predominance of Athens.—2. Greek
Drama.—3.
Tragedy.—4. The Tragic Poets; Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides.—5.
Comedy; Aristophanes; Menander.—6. Oratory, Rhetoric, and History;
Pericles; the Sophists; Lysias; Isocrates; Demosthenes; Thucydides;
Xenophon.—7. Socrates and the Socratic Schools; Plato; Aristotle.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Origin of the Alexandrian Literature.—2. The
Alexandrian Poets; Philetas; Callimachus; Theocritus; Bion; Moschus.—3.
The Prose Writers of Alexandria; Zenodotus; Aristophanes; Aristarchus;
Eratosthenes; Euclid; Archimedes.—4, Philosophy of Alexandria; Neo-
Platonism.—5. Anti-Neo-Platonic Tendencies; Epictetus; Lucian; Longinus.
—6. Greek Literature in Rome; Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Flavius
Josephus; Polybius; Diodorus; Strabo; Plutarch.—7. Continued Decline of
Greek Literature.—8. Last Echoes of the Old Literature; Hypatia; Nonnus;
Musaeus; Byzantine Literature.—9. The New Testament and the Greek
Fathers. Modern Literature; the Brothers Santsos and Alexander Rangabé.
ROMAN LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Roman Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language;
Ethnographical Elements of the Latin Language; the Umbrian; Oscan;
Etruscan; the Old Roman Tongue; Saturnian Verse; Peculiarities of the
Latin Language.—3. The Roman Religion.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early Literature of the Romans; the Fescennine
Songs; the Fabulae Atellanae.—2. Early Latin Poets; Livius Andronicus,
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Naevius, and Ennius.—3. Roman Comedy.—4. Comic Poets; Plautus,
Terence, and Statius.—5. Roman Tragedy.—6. Tragic Poets; Pacuvius and
Attius.—7. Satire; Lucilius.—8. History and Oratory; Fabius Pictor;
Cencius Alimentus; Cato; Varro; M. Antonius; Crassus; Hortensius.—9.
Roman Jurisprudence.—10. Grammarians.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. Development of the Roman Literature.—2.
Mimes, Mimographers, Pantomime; Laberius and P. Lyrus.—3. Epic
Poetry; Virgil; the Aeneid.—4. Didactic Poetry; the Bucolics; the Georgics;
Lucretius. —5. Lyric Poetry; Catullus; Horace.—6. Elegy; Tibullus;
Propertius; Ovid.—7. Oratory and Philosophy; Cicero.—8. History; J.
Caesar; Sallust; Livy.—9. Other Prose Writers.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Decline of Roman Literature.—2. Fable;
Phaedrus.—3.
Satire and Epigram; Persius, Juvenal, Martial.—4. Dramatic Literature;
the Tragedies of Seneca.—5. Epic Poetry; Lucan; Silius Italicus; Valerius
Flaccus; P. Statius.—6. History; Paterculus; Tacitus; Suetonius; Q.
Curtius; Valerius Maximus.—7. Rhetoric and Eloquence; Quintilian; Pliny
the Younger.—8. Philosophy and Science; Seneca; Pliny the Elder; Celsus;
P. Mela; Columella; Frontinus.—9. Roman Literature from Hadrian to
Theodoric; Claudian; Eutropius; A. Marcellinus; S. Sulpicius; Gellius;
Macrobius; L. Apuleius; Boethius: the Latin Fathers.—10. Roman
Jurisprudence.
ARABIAN LITERATURE.
1. European Literature in the Dark Ages.—2. The Arabian Language.—3.
Arabian Mythology and the Koran.—4. Historical Development of Arabian
Literature.—5. Grammar and Rhetoric.—6. Poetry.—7. The Arabian Tales.
—8. History and Science.—9. Education.
Terence, and Statius.—5. Roman Tragedy.—6. Tragic Poets; Pacuvius and
Attius.—7. Satire; Lucilius.—8. History and Oratory; Fabius Pictor;
Cencius Alimentus; Cato; Varro; M. Antonius; Crassus; Hortensius.—9.
Roman Jurisprudence.—10. Grammarians.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. Development of the Roman Literature.—2.
Mimes, Mimographers, Pantomime; Laberius and P. Lyrus.—3. Epic
Poetry; Virgil; the Aeneid.—4. Didactic Poetry; the Bucolics; the Georgics;
Lucretius. —5. Lyric Poetry; Catullus; Horace.—6. Elegy; Tibullus;
Propertius; Ovid.—7. Oratory and Philosophy; Cicero.—8. History; J.
Caesar; Sallust; Livy.—9. Other Prose Writers.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Decline of Roman Literature.—2. Fable;
Phaedrus.—3.
Satire and Epigram; Persius, Juvenal, Martial.—4. Dramatic Literature;
the Tragedies of Seneca.—5. Epic Poetry; Lucan; Silius Italicus; Valerius
Flaccus; P. Statius.—6. History; Paterculus; Tacitus; Suetonius; Q.
Curtius; Valerius Maximus.—7. Rhetoric and Eloquence; Quintilian; Pliny
the Younger.—8. Philosophy and Science; Seneca; Pliny the Elder; Celsus;
P. Mela; Columella; Frontinus.—9. Roman Literature from Hadrian to
Theodoric; Claudian; Eutropius; A. Marcellinus; S. Sulpicius; Gellius;
Macrobius; L. Apuleius; Boethius: the Latin Fathers.—10. Roman
Jurisprudence.
ARABIAN LITERATURE.
1. European Literature in the Dark Ages.—2. The Arabian Language.—3.
Arabian Mythology and the Koran.—4. Historical Development of Arabian
Literature.—5. Grammar and Rhetoric.—6. Poetry.—7. The Arabian Tales.
—8. History and Science.—9. Education.
Page 14
ITALIAN LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Italian Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Dialects. —3. The Italian Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Latin Influence.—2. Early Italian Poetry and Prose.
—3. Dante—4. Petrarch.—5. Boccaccio and other Prose Writers.—6. First
Decline of Italian Literature.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Close of the Fifteenth Century; Lorenzo de'
Medici.—2. The Origin of the Drama and Romantic Epic; Poliziano, Pulci,
Boiardo.—3. Romantic Epic Poetry; Ariosto.—4. Heroic Epic Poetry;
Tasso.—5. Lyric Poetry; Bembo, Molza, Tarsia, V. Colonna.—6. Dramatic
Poetry; Trissino, Rucellai; the Writers of Comedy.—7. Pastoral Drama and
Didactic Poetry; Beccari, Sannazzaro, Tasso, Guarini, Rucellai, Alamanni.
—8. Satirical Poetry, Novels, and Tales; Berni, Grazzini, Firenzuola,
Bandello, and others.—9. History; Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Nardi, and
others.—10. Grammar and Rhetoric; the Academy della Crusca, Della Casa,
Speroni, and others.—11. Science, Philosophy, and Politics; the Academy
del Cimento, Galileo, Torricelli, Borelli, Patrizi, Telesio, Campanella,
Bruno, Castiglione, Machiavelli, and others.—12. Decline of the
Literature in the Seventeenth Century.—13. Epic and Lyric Poetry; Marini,
Filicaja.—14. Mock Heroic Poetry, the Drama, and Satire; Tassoni,
Bracciolini, Anderini, and others.—15. History and Epistolary Writings;
Davila, Bentivoglio, Sarpi, Redi.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Historical Development of the Third Period.—2.
The Melodrama; Rinuccini, Zeno, Metastasio.—3. Comedy; Goldoni, C.
Gozzi, and others.—4. Tragedy; Maffei, Alfieri, Monti, Manzoni, Nicolini,
and others.—5. Lyric, Epic, and Didactic Poetry; Parini, Monti, Ugo
Foscolo, Leopardi, Grossi, Lorenzi, and others.—6. Heroic-Comic Poetry,
Satire, and Fable; Fortiguerri, Passeroni, G. Gozzi, Parini, Ginsti, and
INTRODUCTION.—1. Italian Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Dialects. —3. The Italian Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Latin Influence.—2. Early Italian Poetry and Prose.
—3. Dante—4. Petrarch.—5. Boccaccio and other Prose Writers.—6. First
Decline of Italian Literature.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Close of the Fifteenth Century; Lorenzo de'
Medici.—2. The Origin of the Drama and Romantic Epic; Poliziano, Pulci,
Boiardo.—3. Romantic Epic Poetry; Ariosto.—4. Heroic Epic Poetry;
Tasso.—5. Lyric Poetry; Bembo, Molza, Tarsia, V. Colonna.—6. Dramatic
Poetry; Trissino, Rucellai; the Writers of Comedy.—7. Pastoral Drama and
Didactic Poetry; Beccari, Sannazzaro, Tasso, Guarini, Rucellai, Alamanni.
—8. Satirical Poetry, Novels, and Tales; Berni, Grazzini, Firenzuola,
Bandello, and others.—9. History; Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Nardi, and
others.—10. Grammar and Rhetoric; the Academy della Crusca, Della Casa,
Speroni, and others.—11. Science, Philosophy, and Politics; the Academy
del Cimento, Galileo, Torricelli, Borelli, Patrizi, Telesio, Campanella,
Bruno, Castiglione, Machiavelli, and others.—12. Decline of the
Literature in the Seventeenth Century.—13. Epic and Lyric Poetry; Marini,
Filicaja.—14. Mock Heroic Poetry, the Drama, and Satire; Tassoni,
Bracciolini, Anderini, and others.—15. History and Epistolary Writings;
Davila, Bentivoglio, Sarpi, Redi.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Historical Development of the Third Period.—2.
The Melodrama; Rinuccini, Zeno, Metastasio.—3. Comedy; Goldoni, C.
Gozzi, and others.—4. Tragedy; Maffei, Alfieri, Monti, Manzoni, Nicolini,
and others.—5. Lyric, Epic, and Didactic Poetry; Parini, Monti, Ugo
Foscolo, Leopardi, Grossi, Lorenzi, and others.—6. Heroic-Comic Poetry,
Satire, and Fable; Fortiguerri, Passeroni, G. Gozzi, Parini, Ginsti, and
Page 15
others. —7. Romances; Verri, Manzoni, D'Azeglio, Cantù, Guerrazzi, and
others. —8. History; Muratori, Vico, Giannone, Botta, Colletta, Tiraboschi,
and others.—9. Aesthetics, Criticism, Philology, and Philosophy; Baretti,
Parini, Giordani, Gioja, Romagnosi, Gallupi, Roemini, Gioberti.—From
1860 to 1885.
FRENCH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. French Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language
PERIOD FIRST.—1. The Troubadours.—2. The Trouvères.—3. French
Literature in the Fifteenth Century.—4. The Mysteries and Moralities:
Charles of Orleans, Villon, Ville-Hardouin, Joinville, Froissart, Philippe
de Commines.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Renaissance and the Reformation:
Marguerite de
Valois, Marot, Rabelais, Calvin, Montaigne, Charron, and others.—2. Light
Literature: Ronsard, Jodelle, Hardy, Malherbe, Scarron, Madame de
Rambouillet, and others.—3. The French Academy.—4. The Drama:
Corneille.—5. Philosophy: Descartes, Pascal; Port Royal.—6. The Rise of
the Golden Age of French Literature: Louis XIV.—7. Tragedy: Racine.—8.
Comedy: Molière.—9. Fables, Satires, Mock-Heroic, and other Poetry: La
Fontaine, Boileau.—10. Eloquence of the Pulpit and of the Bar:
Bourdaloue, Bossuet, Massillon, Fléchier, Le Maitre, D'Aguesseau, and
others.—11. Moral Philosophy: Rochefoucault, La Bruyère, Nicole.—12.
History and Memoirs: Mézeray, Fleury, Rollia, Brantôme, the Duke of
Sully,
Cardinal de Retz.—13. Romance and Letter Writing: Fénelon, Madame de
Sévigné.—257
others. —8. History; Muratori, Vico, Giannone, Botta, Colletta, Tiraboschi,
and others.—9. Aesthetics, Criticism, Philology, and Philosophy; Baretti,
Parini, Giordani, Gioja, Romagnosi, Gallupi, Roemini, Gioberti.—From
1860 to 1885.
FRENCH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. French Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language
PERIOD FIRST.—1. The Troubadours.—2. The Trouvères.—3. French
Literature in the Fifteenth Century.—4. The Mysteries and Moralities:
Charles of Orleans, Villon, Ville-Hardouin, Joinville, Froissart, Philippe
de Commines.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Renaissance and the Reformation:
Marguerite de
Valois, Marot, Rabelais, Calvin, Montaigne, Charron, and others.—2. Light
Literature: Ronsard, Jodelle, Hardy, Malherbe, Scarron, Madame de
Rambouillet, and others.—3. The French Academy.—4. The Drama:
Corneille.—5. Philosophy: Descartes, Pascal; Port Royal.—6. The Rise of
the Golden Age of French Literature: Louis XIV.—7. Tragedy: Racine.—8.
Comedy: Molière.—9. Fables, Satires, Mock-Heroic, and other Poetry: La
Fontaine, Boileau.—10. Eloquence of the Pulpit and of the Bar:
Bourdaloue, Bossuet, Massillon, Fléchier, Le Maitre, D'Aguesseau, and
others.—11. Moral Philosophy: Rochefoucault, La Bruyère, Nicole.—12.
History and Memoirs: Mézeray, Fleury, Rollia, Brantôme, the Duke of
Sully,
Cardinal de Retz.—13. Romance and Letter Writing: Fénelon, Madame de
Sévigné.—257
Page 16
PERIOD THIRD.—1. The Dawn of Skepticism: Bayle, J. B. Rousseau,
Fontenelle, Lamotte.—2. Progress of Skepticism: Montesquieu, Voltaire.
—3. French Literature during the Revolution: D'Holbach, D'Alembert,
Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Buffon, Beaumarchais, St. Pierre, and others.
—4. French Literature under the Empire: Madame de Staël, Chateaubriand,
Royer-Collard, Ronald, De Maistre.—5. French Literature from the Age of
the Restoration to the Present Time. History: Thierry, Sismondi, Thiers,
Mignet, Martin, Michelet, and others. Poetry and the Drama; Rise of the
Romantic School: Béranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, and others; Les
Parnassiens. Fiction: Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée, Balzac, Sand,
Sandeau, and others. Criticism: Sainte-Beuve, Taine, and others.
Miscellaneous.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Spanish Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early National Literature; the Poem of the Cid;
Berceo,
Alfonso the Wise, Segura; Don Juan Manuel, the Archpriest of Hita,
Santob,
Ayala.—2. Old Ballads.—3. The Chronicles.-4. Romances of Chivalry.—5.
The Drama.—6. Provençal Literature in Spain.—7. The Influence of Italian
Literature in Spain.—8. The Cancioneros and Prose Writing.—9. The
Inquisition.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Effect of Intolerance on Letters.—2.
Influence of
Italy on Spanish Literature; Boscan, Garcilasso de la Vega, Diego de
Mendoza.—3. History; Cortez, Gomara, Oviedo, Las Casas.—4. The
Fontenelle, Lamotte.—2. Progress of Skepticism: Montesquieu, Voltaire.
—3. French Literature during the Revolution: D'Holbach, D'Alembert,
Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Buffon, Beaumarchais, St. Pierre, and others.
—4. French Literature under the Empire: Madame de Staël, Chateaubriand,
Royer-Collard, Ronald, De Maistre.—5. French Literature from the Age of
the Restoration to the Present Time. History: Thierry, Sismondi, Thiers,
Mignet, Martin, Michelet, and others. Poetry and the Drama; Rise of the
Romantic School: Béranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, and others; Les
Parnassiens. Fiction: Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée, Balzac, Sand,
Sandeau, and others. Criticism: Sainte-Beuve, Taine, and others.
Miscellaneous.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Spanish Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early National Literature; the Poem of the Cid;
Berceo,
Alfonso the Wise, Segura; Don Juan Manuel, the Archpriest of Hita,
Santob,
Ayala.—2. Old Ballads.—3. The Chronicles.-4. Romances of Chivalry.—5.
The Drama.—6. Provençal Literature in Spain.—7. The Influence of Italian
Literature in Spain.—8. The Cancioneros and Prose Writing.—9. The
Inquisition.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Effect of Intolerance on Letters.—2.
Influence of
Italy on Spanish Literature; Boscan, Garcilasso de la Vega, Diego de
Mendoza.—3. History; Cortez, Gomara, Oviedo, Las Casas.—4. The
Page 17
Drama,
Rueda, Lope de Vega, Calderon de la Barca.—5. Romances and Tales;
Cervantes, and other Writers of Fiction.—6. Historical Narrative Poems;
Ercilla.—7. Lyric Poetry; the Argensolas; Luis de Leon, Quevedo, Herrera,
Gongora, and others.—8. Satirical and other Poetry.—9. History and other
Prose Writing; Zurita, Mariana, Sandoval, and others.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. French Influence on the Literature of Spain.—2.
The
Dawn of Spanish Literature in the Eighteenth Century; Feyjoo, Isla,
Moratin the elder, Yriarte, Melendez, Gonzalez, Quintana, Moratin the
younger.—3. Spanish Literature in the Nineteenth Century.
PORTUGUESE LITERATURE.
1. The Portuguese Language.—2. Early Literature of Portugal.—3. Poets
of the Fifteenth Century; Macias, Ribeyro.—4. Introduction of the Italian
Style; Saa de Miranda, Montemayor, Ferreira.—5. Epic Poetry; Camoëns;
the Lusiad.—6. Dramatic Poetry; Gil Vicente.—7. Prose Writing;
Rodriguez Lobo, Barros, Brito, Veira.—8. Portuguese Literature in the
Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries; Antonio José, Manuel
do Nascimento, Manuel de Bocage.
FINNISH LITERATURE.
1. The Finnish Language and Literature: Poetry; the Kalevala; Lönnrot;
Korhonen.—2. The Hungarian Language and Literature: the Age of Stephen
I.; Influence of the House of Anjou; of the Reformation; of the House of
Austria; Kossuth; Josika; Eötvös; Kuthy; Szigligeti; Petöfi.
SLAVIC LITERATURES.
Rueda, Lope de Vega, Calderon de la Barca.—5. Romances and Tales;
Cervantes, and other Writers of Fiction.—6. Historical Narrative Poems;
Ercilla.—7. Lyric Poetry; the Argensolas; Luis de Leon, Quevedo, Herrera,
Gongora, and others.—8. Satirical and other Poetry.—9. History and other
Prose Writing; Zurita, Mariana, Sandoval, and others.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. French Influence on the Literature of Spain.—2.
The
Dawn of Spanish Literature in the Eighteenth Century; Feyjoo, Isla,
Moratin the elder, Yriarte, Melendez, Gonzalez, Quintana, Moratin the
younger.—3. Spanish Literature in the Nineteenth Century.
PORTUGUESE LITERATURE.
1. The Portuguese Language.—2. Early Literature of Portugal.—3. Poets
of the Fifteenth Century; Macias, Ribeyro.—4. Introduction of the Italian
Style; Saa de Miranda, Montemayor, Ferreira.—5. Epic Poetry; Camoëns;
the Lusiad.—6. Dramatic Poetry; Gil Vicente.—7. Prose Writing;
Rodriguez Lobo, Barros, Brito, Veira.—8. Portuguese Literature in the
Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries; Antonio José, Manuel
do Nascimento, Manuel de Bocage.
FINNISH LITERATURE.
1. The Finnish Language and Literature: Poetry; the Kalevala; Lönnrot;
Korhonen.—2. The Hungarian Language and Literature: the Age of Stephen
I.; Influence of the House of Anjou; of the Reformation; of the House of
Austria; Kossuth; Josika; Eötvös; Kuthy; Szigligeti; Petöfi.
SLAVIC LITERATURES.
Page 18
The Slavic Race and Languages; the Eastern and Western Stems; the
Alphabets; the Old or Church Slavic Language; St. Cyril's Bible; the
Pravda Russkaya; the Annals of Nestor.
RUSSIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. Literature in the Reign of Peter the Great; of
Alexander; of Nicholas; Danilof, Lomonosof, Kheraskof, Derzhavin,
Karamzin.—3. History, Poetry, the Drama: Kostrof, Dmitrief, Zhukoffski,
Krylof, Pushkin, Lermontoff, Gogol.—4. Literature in Russia since the
Crimean War: School of Nature; Turguenieff; Ultra-realistic School:
Science; Mendeleéff.
THE SERVIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
THE BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Comenius, and
others.
THE POLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
Rey, Bielski, Copernicus, Czartoryski, Niemcewicz, Mickiewicz, and
others.
ROMANIAN LITERATURE.
Carmen Sylva.
DUTCH LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. Dutch Literature to the Sixteenth Century:
Maerlant;
Melis Stoke; De Weert; the Chambers of Rhetoric; the Flemish Chroniclers;
Alphabets; the Old or Church Slavic Language; St. Cyril's Bible; the
Pravda Russkaya; the Annals of Nestor.
RUSSIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. Literature in the Reign of Peter the Great; of
Alexander; of Nicholas; Danilof, Lomonosof, Kheraskof, Derzhavin,
Karamzin.—3. History, Poetry, the Drama: Kostrof, Dmitrief, Zhukoffski,
Krylof, Pushkin, Lermontoff, Gogol.—4. Literature in Russia since the
Crimean War: School of Nature; Turguenieff; Ultra-realistic School:
Science; Mendeleéff.
THE SERVIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
THE BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Comenius, and
others.
THE POLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
Rey, Bielski, Copernicus, Czartoryski, Niemcewicz, Mickiewicz, and
others.
ROMANIAN LITERATURE.
Carmen Sylva.
DUTCH LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. Dutch Literature to the Sixteenth Century:
Maerlant;
Melis Stoke; De Weert; the Chambers of Rhetoric; the Flemish Chroniclers;
Page 19
the Rise of the Dutch Republic.—3. The Latin Writers: Erasmus; Grotius;
Arminius; Lipsius; the Scaligers, and others; Salmasius; Spinoza;
Boerhaave; Johannes Secundus.—4. Dutch Writers of the Sixteenth
Century:
Anna Byns; Coornhert; Marnix de St. Aldegonde; Bor, Visscher, and
Spieghel.—5. Writers of the Seventeenth Century: Hooft; Vondel; Cats;
Antonides; Brandt, and others; Decline in Dutch Literature.—6. The
Eighteenth Century: Poot; Langendijk; Hoogvliet; De Marre; Feitama;
Huydecoper; the Van Harens; Smits; Ten Kate; Van Winter; Van Merken;
De
Lannoy; Van Alphen; Bellamy; Nieuwland, Styl, and others.—7. The
Nineteenth Century: Feith; Helmers; Bilderdyk; Van der Palm; Loosjes;
Loots, Tollens, Van Kampen, De s'Gravenweert, Hoevill, and others.
SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE.
1. Introduction. The Ancient Scandinavians; their Influence on the
English
Race.—2. The Mythology.—3. The Scandinavian Languages.—4.
Icelandic, or
Old Norse Literature: the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, the Scalds, the
Sagas, the "Heimskringla." The Folks-Sagas and Ballads of the Middle
Ages.—5. Danish Literature: Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric; Arreboe,
Kingo, Tycho Brahe, Holberg, Evald, Baggesen, Oehlenschläger,
Grundtvig,
Blicher, Ingemann, Heiberg, Gyllenbourg, Winther, Hertz, Müller, Hans
Andersen, Plong, Goldschmidt, Hastrup, and others; Malte Brun, Rask,
Rafn,
Magnusen, the brothers Oersted.—6. Swedish Literature: Messenius,
Stjernhjelm, Lucidor, and others. The Gallic period: Dalin, Nordenflycht,
Crutz and Gyllenborg, Gustavus III., Kellgren, Leopold, Oxenstjerna. The
Arminius; Lipsius; the Scaligers, and others; Salmasius; Spinoza;
Boerhaave; Johannes Secundus.—4. Dutch Writers of the Sixteenth
Century:
Anna Byns; Coornhert; Marnix de St. Aldegonde; Bor, Visscher, and
Spieghel.—5. Writers of the Seventeenth Century: Hooft; Vondel; Cats;
Antonides; Brandt, and others; Decline in Dutch Literature.—6. The
Eighteenth Century: Poot; Langendijk; Hoogvliet; De Marre; Feitama;
Huydecoper; the Van Harens; Smits; Ten Kate; Van Winter; Van Merken;
De
Lannoy; Van Alphen; Bellamy; Nieuwland, Styl, and others.—7. The
Nineteenth Century: Feith; Helmers; Bilderdyk; Van der Palm; Loosjes;
Loots, Tollens, Van Kampen, De s'Gravenweert, Hoevill, and others.
SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE.
1. Introduction. The Ancient Scandinavians; their Influence on the
English
Race.—2. The Mythology.—3. The Scandinavian Languages.—4.
Icelandic, or
Old Norse Literature: the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, the Scalds, the
Sagas, the "Heimskringla." The Folks-Sagas and Ballads of the Middle
Ages.—5. Danish Literature: Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric; Arreboe,
Kingo, Tycho Brahe, Holberg, Evald, Baggesen, Oehlenschläger,
Grundtvig,
Blicher, Ingemann, Heiberg, Gyllenbourg, Winther, Hertz, Müller, Hans
Andersen, Plong, Goldschmidt, Hastrup, and others; Malte Brun, Rask,
Rafn,
Magnusen, the brothers Oersted.—6. Swedish Literature: Messenius,
Stjernhjelm, Lucidor, and others. The Gallic period: Dalin, Nordenflycht,
Crutz and Gyllenborg, Gustavus III., Kellgren, Leopold, Oxenstjerna. The
Page 20
New Era: Bellman, Hallman, Kexel, Wallenberg, Lidner, Thorild, Lengren,
Franzen, Wallin. The Phosphorists: Atterbom, Hammarsköld, and Palmblad.
The Gothic School: Geijer, Tegnér, Stagnelius, Almquist, Vitalis,
Runeberg, and others. The Romance Writers: Cederborg, Bremer, Carlén,
Knorring. Science: Swedenborg, Linnaeus, and others.
GERMAN LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. German Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Mythology. —3. The Language.
PERIOD FIRST—1. Early Literature; Translation of the Bible by
Ulphilas; the Hildebrand Lied.—2. The Age of Charlemagne; his
Successors; the Ludwig's Lied; Roswitha; the Lombard Cycle.—3. The
Suabian Age; the Crusades; the Minnesingers; the Romances of Chivalry;
the Heldenbuch; the Nibelungen Lied.—4. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries; the Mastersingers; Satires and Fables; Mysteries and Dramatic
Representations; the Mystics; the Universities; the Invention of Printing.
PERIOD SECOND.—From 1517 to 1700.—1. The Lutheran Period:
Luther,
Melanchthon.—2. Manuel, Zwingle, Fischart, Franck, Arnd, Boehm.—3.
Poetry, Satire, and Demonology; Paracelsus and Agrippa; the Thirty Years'
War.—4. The Seventeenth Century: Opitz, Leibnitz, Puffendorf, Kepler,
Wolf, Thomasius, Gerhard; Silesian Schools; Hoffmannswaldau,
Lohenstein.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. The Swiss and Saxon Schools; Gottsched,
Bodmer, Rabener,
Gellert, Kästner, and others.—2. Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, and Herder.
—3. Goethe and Schiller.—4. The Göttingen School: Voss, Stolberg,
Claudius, Bürger, and others.—5. The Romantic School: the Schlegels,
Franzen, Wallin. The Phosphorists: Atterbom, Hammarsköld, and Palmblad.
The Gothic School: Geijer, Tegnér, Stagnelius, Almquist, Vitalis,
Runeberg, and others. The Romance Writers: Cederborg, Bremer, Carlén,
Knorring. Science: Swedenborg, Linnaeus, and others.
GERMAN LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. German Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Mythology. —3. The Language.
PERIOD FIRST—1. Early Literature; Translation of the Bible by
Ulphilas; the Hildebrand Lied.—2. The Age of Charlemagne; his
Successors; the Ludwig's Lied; Roswitha; the Lombard Cycle.—3. The
Suabian Age; the Crusades; the Minnesingers; the Romances of Chivalry;
the Heldenbuch; the Nibelungen Lied.—4. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries; the Mastersingers; Satires and Fables; Mysteries and Dramatic
Representations; the Mystics; the Universities; the Invention of Printing.
PERIOD SECOND.—From 1517 to 1700.—1. The Lutheran Period:
Luther,
Melanchthon.—2. Manuel, Zwingle, Fischart, Franck, Arnd, Boehm.—3.
Poetry, Satire, and Demonology; Paracelsus and Agrippa; the Thirty Years'
War.—4. The Seventeenth Century: Opitz, Leibnitz, Puffendorf, Kepler,
Wolf, Thomasius, Gerhard; Silesian Schools; Hoffmannswaldau,
Lohenstein.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. The Swiss and Saxon Schools; Gottsched,
Bodmer, Rabener,
Gellert, Kästner, and others.—2. Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, and Herder.
—3. Goethe and Schiller.—4. The Göttingen School: Voss, Stolberg,
Claudius, Bürger, and others.—5. The Romantic School: the Schlegels,
Page 21
Novalis; Tieck, Körner, Arndt, Uhland, Heine, and others.—6. The Drama:
Goethe and Schiller; the Power Men; Müllner, Werner, Howald, and
Grillparzer.—7. Philosophy: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer,
and Hartmann. Science: Liebig, Du Bois-Raymond, Virchow, Helmholst,
Haeckel.—8. Miscellaneous Writings.
ENGLISH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. English Literature. Its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Celtic Literature, Irish, Scotch, and Cymric Celts;
the Chronicles of Ireland; Ossian's Poems; Traditions of Arthur; the
Triads; Tales.—2. Latin Literature, Bede; Alcuin; Erigena.—3. Anglo-
Saxon Literature. Poetry; Prose; Versions of Scripture; the Saxon
Chronicle; Alfred.
PERIOD SECOND.—The Norman Age and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries.—1. Literature in the Latin Tongue.—2. Literature in
Norman-French. Poetry; Romances of Chivalry.—3. Saxon-English.
Metrical Remains.—4. Literature in the fourteenth Century.—Prose
Writers: Occam, Duns Scotus, Wickliffe, Mandeville, Chaucer. Poetry;
Langland, Gower, Chaucer.—5. Literature in the Fifteenth Century.
Ballads.—6. Poets of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries in
Scotland. Wyntoun, Harbour, and others.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Age of the Reformation (1509-1558). Classical,
Theological, and Miscellaneous Literature: Sir Thomas More and others.
Poetry: Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville; the Drama.—2. The Age of
Spenser, Shakespeare, Bacon, and Milton (1558-1660). Scholastic and
Ecclesiastical Literature. Translations of the Bible: Hooker, Andrews,
Donne. Hall, Taylor, Baxter; other Prose Writers: Fuller, Cudworth, Bacon,
Goethe and Schiller; the Power Men; Müllner, Werner, Howald, and
Grillparzer.—7. Philosophy: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer,
and Hartmann. Science: Liebig, Du Bois-Raymond, Virchow, Helmholst,
Haeckel.—8. Miscellaneous Writings.
ENGLISH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. English Literature. Its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Celtic Literature, Irish, Scotch, and Cymric Celts;
the Chronicles of Ireland; Ossian's Poems; Traditions of Arthur; the
Triads; Tales.—2. Latin Literature, Bede; Alcuin; Erigena.—3. Anglo-
Saxon Literature. Poetry; Prose; Versions of Scripture; the Saxon
Chronicle; Alfred.
PERIOD SECOND.—The Norman Age and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries.—1. Literature in the Latin Tongue.—2. Literature in
Norman-French. Poetry; Romances of Chivalry.—3. Saxon-English.
Metrical Remains.—4. Literature in the fourteenth Century.—Prose
Writers: Occam, Duns Scotus, Wickliffe, Mandeville, Chaucer. Poetry;
Langland, Gower, Chaucer.—5. Literature in the Fifteenth Century.
Ballads.—6. Poets of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries in
Scotland. Wyntoun, Harbour, and others.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Age of the Reformation (1509-1558). Classical,
Theological, and Miscellaneous Literature: Sir Thomas More and others.
Poetry: Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville; the Drama.—2. The Age of
Spenser, Shakespeare, Bacon, and Milton (1558-1660). Scholastic and
Ecclesiastical Literature. Translations of the Bible: Hooker, Andrews,
Donne. Hall, Taylor, Baxter; other Prose Writers: Fuller, Cudworth, Bacon,
Page 22
Hobbes, Raleigh, Milton, Sidney, Selden, Burton, Browne, and Cowley.
Dramatic Poetry: Marlowe and Greene, Shakspeare, Beaumont and
Fletcher,
Ben Jonson, and others; Massinger, Ford, and Shirley; Decline of the
Drama. Non-dramatic Poetry: Spenser and the Minor Poets. Lyrical Poets:
Donne, Cowley, Denham, Waller, Milton.—3. The Age of the Restoration
and
Revolution (1660-1702). Prose: Leighton, Tillotson, Barrow, Bunyan,
Locke, and others. The Drama: Dryden, Otway. Comedy: Didactic Poetry:
Roscommon, Marvell, Butler, Pryor, Dryden.—4. The Eighteenth Century.
The First Generation (1702-1727): Pope, Swift, and others; the
Periodical Essayists: Addison, Steele. The Second Generation (1727-
1760); Theology: Warburton, Butler, Watts, Doddridge. Philosophy: Hume.
Miscellaneous Prose: Johnson; the Novelists: Richardson, Fielding,
Smollett, and Sterne. The Drama; Non-dramatic Poetry: Young, Blair,
Akenside, Thomson, Gray, and Collins. The Third Generation (1760-1800);
the Historians: Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Miscellaneous Prose:
Johnson,
Goldsmith, "Junius," Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and Burke, Criticism: Burke,
Reynolds, Campbell, Kames. Political Economy: Adam Smith. Ethics:
Paley,
Smith, Tucker. Metaphysics: Reid. Theological and Religious Writers:
Campbell, Paley, Watson, Newton, Hannah More, and Wilberforce. Poetry:
Comedies of Goldsmith and Sheridan; Minor Poets; Later Poems; Beattie's
Minstrel; Cowper and Burns. 5. The Nineteenth Century. The Poets:
Campbell, Southey, Scott, Byron; Coleridge and Wordsworth; Wilson,
Shelley, Keats; Crabbe, Moore, and others; Tennyson, Browning, Procter,
and others. Fiction: the Waverley and other Novels; Dickens, Thackeray,
and others. History: Arnold, Thirlwall, Grote, Macaulay, Alison, Carlyle,
Freeman, Buckle. Criticism: Hallam, De Quincey, Macaulay, Carlyle,
Dramatic Poetry: Marlowe and Greene, Shakspeare, Beaumont and
Fletcher,
Ben Jonson, and others; Massinger, Ford, and Shirley; Decline of the
Drama. Non-dramatic Poetry: Spenser and the Minor Poets. Lyrical Poets:
Donne, Cowley, Denham, Waller, Milton.—3. The Age of the Restoration
and
Revolution (1660-1702). Prose: Leighton, Tillotson, Barrow, Bunyan,
Locke, and others. The Drama: Dryden, Otway. Comedy: Didactic Poetry:
Roscommon, Marvell, Butler, Pryor, Dryden.—4. The Eighteenth Century.
The First Generation (1702-1727): Pope, Swift, and others; the
Periodical Essayists: Addison, Steele. The Second Generation (1727-
1760); Theology: Warburton, Butler, Watts, Doddridge. Philosophy: Hume.
Miscellaneous Prose: Johnson; the Novelists: Richardson, Fielding,
Smollett, and Sterne. The Drama; Non-dramatic Poetry: Young, Blair,
Akenside, Thomson, Gray, and Collins. The Third Generation (1760-1800);
the Historians: Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Miscellaneous Prose:
Johnson,
Goldsmith, "Junius," Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and Burke, Criticism: Burke,
Reynolds, Campbell, Kames. Political Economy: Adam Smith. Ethics:
Paley,
Smith, Tucker. Metaphysics: Reid. Theological and Religious Writers:
Campbell, Paley, Watson, Newton, Hannah More, and Wilberforce. Poetry:
Comedies of Goldsmith and Sheridan; Minor Poets; Later Poems; Beattie's
Minstrel; Cowper and Burns. 5. The Nineteenth Century. The Poets:
Campbell, Southey, Scott, Byron; Coleridge and Wordsworth; Wilson,
Shelley, Keats; Crabbe, Moore, and others; Tennyson, Browning, Procter,
and others. Fiction: the Waverley and other Novels; Dickens, Thackeray,
and others. History: Arnold, Thirlwall, Grote, Macaulay, Alison, Carlyle,
Freeman, Buckle. Criticism: Hallam, De Quincey, Macaulay, Carlyle,
Page 23
Wilson,
Lamb, and others. Theology: Poster, Hall, Chalmers. Philosophy: Stewart,
Brown, Mackintosh, Bentham, Alison, and others. Political Economy: Mill,
Whewell, Whately, De Morgan, Hamilton. Periodical Writings: the
Edinburgh,
Quarterly, and Westminster Reviews, and Blackwood's Magazine. Physical
Science: Brewster, Herschel, Playfair, Miller, Buckland, Whewell.—Since
1860. I. Poets: Matthew Arnold, Algernon Swinburne, Dante Rossetti,
Robert
Buchanan, Edwin Arnold, "Owen Meredith," William Morris, Jean Ingelow,
Adelaide Procter, Christina Rossetti, Augusta Webster, Mary Robinson, and
others. 2. Fiction: "George Eliot," McDonald, Collins, Black, Blackmore,
Mrs. Oliphant, Yates, McCarthy, Trollope, and others. 3. Scientific
Writers: Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin, Tyndall, Huxley, and others.
4. Miscellaneous.
AMERICAN LITERATURE.
THE COLONIAL PERIOD.—1. The Seventeenth Century. George
Sandys; The Bay Psalm Book; Anne Bradstreet, John Eliot, and Cotton
Mather.—2. From 1700 to 1770. Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin,
Cadwallader Colden.
FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD, FROM 1771 TO 1820.—1. Statesmen and
Political
Writers: Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton; The Federalist; Jay, Madison,
Marshall, Fisher Ames, and others.—2. The Poets: Freneau, Trumbull,
Hopkinson, Barlow, Clifton, and Dwight.—3. Writers in other Departments:
Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop White. Rush, McClurg, Lindley
Murray,
Charles Brockden Brown. Ramsay, Graydon. Count Rumford, Wirt,
Lamb, and others. Theology: Poster, Hall, Chalmers. Philosophy: Stewart,
Brown, Mackintosh, Bentham, Alison, and others. Political Economy: Mill,
Whewell, Whately, De Morgan, Hamilton. Periodical Writings: the
Edinburgh,
Quarterly, and Westminster Reviews, and Blackwood's Magazine. Physical
Science: Brewster, Herschel, Playfair, Miller, Buckland, Whewell.—Since
1860. I. Poets: Matthew Arnold, Algernon Swinburne, Dante Rossetti,
Robert
Buchanan, Edwin Arnold, "Owen Meredith," William Morris, Jean Ingelow,
Adelaide Procter, Christina Rossetti, Augusta Webster, Mary Robinson, and
others. 2. Fiction: "George Eliot," McDonald, Collins, Black, Blackmore,
Mrs. Oliphant, Yates, McCarthy, Trollope, and others. 3. Scientific
Writers: Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin, Tyndall, Huxley, and others.
4. Miscellaneous.
AMERICAN LITERATURE.
THE COLONIAL PERIOD.—1. The Seventeenth Century. George
Sandys; The Bay Psalm Book; Anne Bradstreet, John Eliot, and Cotton
Mather.—2. From 1700 to 1770. Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin,
Cadwallader Colden.
FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD, FROM 1771 TO 1820.—1. Statesmen and
Political
Writers: Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton; The Federalist; Jay, Madison,
Marshall, Fisher Ames, and others.—2. The Poets: Freneau, Trumbull,
Hopkinson, Barlow, Clifton, and Dwight.—3. Writers in other Departments:
Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop White. Rush, McClurg, Lindley
Murray,
Charles Brockden Brown. Ramsay, Graydon. Count Rumford, Wirt,
Page 24
Ledyard,
Pinkney, and Pike.
SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD, FROM 1820 TO 1860.—1. History,
Biography, and
Travels: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Godwin, Ticknor, Schoolcraft,
Hildreth, Sparks, Irving, Headley, Stephens, Kane, Squier, Perry, Lynch,
Taylor, and others.—2. Oratory: Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Everett,
and others.—3. Fiction: Cooper, Irving, Willis, Hawthorne, Poe, Simms,
Mrs. Stowe, and others.—4. Poetry: Bryant, Dana, Halleck, Longfellow,
Willis, Lowell, Allston, Hillhouse, Drake, Whittier, Hoffman, and others.
—5. The Transcendental Movement in New England.—6. Miscellaneous
Writings: Whipple, Tuckerman, Curtis, Brigge, Prentice, and others.—7.
Encyclopaedias, Dictionaries, and Educational Books. The Encyclopaedia
Americana. The New American Cyclopaedia. Allibone, Griswold,
Duyckinck,
Webster, Worcester, Anthon, Felton, Barnard, and others.—8. Theology,
Philosophy, Economy, and Jurisprudence: Stuart, Robinson, Wayland,
Barnes,
Channing, Parker. Tappan, Henry, Hickok, Haven. Carey, Kent, Wheaton,
Story, Livingston, Lawrence, Bouvier.—9. Natural Sciences: Franklin,
Morse, Fulton, Silliman, Dana, Hitchcock, Rogers, Bowditch, Peirce,
Bache,
Holbrook, Audubon, Morton, Gliddon, Maury, and others.—10. Foreign
Writers: Paine, Witherspoon, Rowson, Priestley, Wilson, Agassiz, Guyot,
Mrs. Robinson, Gurowski, and others.—11. Newspapers and Periodicals.
—12. Since 1860.
CONCLUSION.
INDEX.
Pinkney, and Pike.
SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD, FROM 1820 TO 1860.—1. History,
Biography, and
Travels: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Godwin, Ticknor, Schoolcraft,
Hildreth, Sparks, Irving, Headley, Stephens, Kane, Squier, Perry, Lynch,
Taylor, and others.—2. Oratory: Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Everett,
and others.—3. Fiction: Cooper, Irving, Willis, Hawthorne, Poe, Simms,
Mrs. Stowe, and others.—4. Poetry: Bryant, Dana, Halleck, Longfellow,
Willis, Lowell, Allston, Hillhouse, Drake, Whittier, Hoffman, and others.
—5. The Transcendental Movement in New England.—6. Miscellaneous
Writings: Whipple, Tuckerman, Curtis, Brigge, Prentice, and others.—7.
Encyclopaedias, Dictionaries, and Educational Books. The Encyclopaedia
Americana. The New American Cyclopaedia. Allibone, Griswold,
Duyckinck,
Webster, Worcester, Anthon, Felton, Barnard, and others.—8. Theology,
Philosophy, Economy, and Jurisprudence: Stuart, Robinson, Wayland,
Barnes,
Channing, Parker. Tappan, Henry, Hickok, Haven. Carey, Kent, Wheaton,
Story, Livingston, Lawrence, Bouvier.—9. Natural Sciences: Franklin,
Morse, Fulton, Silliman, Dana, Hitchcock, Rogers, Bowditch, Peirce,
Bache,
Holbrook, Audubon, Morton, Gliddon, Maury, and others.—10. Foreign
Writers: Paine, Witherspoon, Rowson, Priestley, Wilson, Agassiz, Guyot,
Mrs. Robinson, Gurowski, and others.—11. Newspapers and Periodicals.
—12. Since 1860.
CONCLUSION.
INDEX.
Page 25
LIST OF AUTHORITIES.
The following works are the sources from which this book is wholly or
chiefly derived:—
Taylor's History of the Alphabet; Dwight's Philology; Herder's Spirit of
Hebrew Poetry; Lowth's Hebrew Poetry; Asiatic Researches; the works of
Gesenius, De Wette, Ewald, Colebrooke, Sir William Jones, Wilson, Ward;
Schlegel's Hindu Language and Literature; Max Müller's History of
Sanskrit
Literature; and What India has taught us; Malcolm's History of Persia;
Richardson on the Language of Eastern Nations; Adelung's Mithridates;
Chodzko's Specimens of the Popular Poetry of Persia; Costello's Rose
Garden of Persia; Rémusat's Mémoire sur l'Ecriture Chinoise; Davis on the
Poetry of the Chinese; Williams's Middle Kingdom; The Mikado's Empire;
Rein's Travels in Japan; Duhalde's Description de la Chine; Champollion's
Letters; Wilkinson's Extracts from Hieroglyphical Subjects; the works of
Bunsen, Müller, and Lane; Müller's History of the Literature of Ancient
Greece, continued by Donaldson; Browne's History of Roman Classical
Literature; Fiske's Manual of Classical Literature; Sismondi's Literature
of the South of Europe; Goodrich's Universal History; Sanford's Rise and
Progress of Literature; Schlegel's Lectures on the History of Literature;
Schlegel's History of Dramatic Art; Tiraboschi's History of Italian
Literature; Maffei, Corniani, and Ugoni on the same subject; Chambers's
The following works are the sources from which this book is wholly or
chiefly derived:—
Taylor's History of the Alphabet; Dwight's Philology; Herder's Spirit of
Hebrew Poetry; Lowth's Hebrew Poetry; Asiatic Researches; the works of
Gesenius, De Wette, Ewald, Colebrooke, Sir William Jones, Wilson, Ward;
Schlegel's Hindu Language and Literature; Max Müller's History of
Sanskrit
Literature; and What India has taught us; Malcolm's History of Persia;
Richardson on the Language of Eastern Nations; Adelung's Mithridates;
Chodzko's Specimens of the Popular Poetry of Persia; Costello's Rose
Garden of Persia; Rémusat's Mémoire sur l'Ecriture Chinoise; Davis on the
Poetry of the Chinese; Williams's Middle Kingdom; The Mikado's Empire;
Rein's Travels in Japan; Duhalde's Description de la Chine; Champollion's
Letters; Wilkinson's Extracts from Hieroglyphical Subjects; the works of
Bunsen, Müller, and Lane; Müller's History of the Literature of Ancient
Greece, continued by Donaldson; Browne's History of Roman Classical
Literature; Fiske's Manual of Classical Literature; Sismondi's Literature
of the South of Europe; Goodrich's Universal History; Sanford's Rise and
Progress of Literature; Schlegel's Lectures on the History of Literature;
Schlegel's History of Dramatic Art; Tiraboschi's History of Italian
Literature; Maffei, Corniani, and Ugoni on the same subject; Chambers's
Page 26
Handbooks of Italian and German Literature; Vilmar's History of German
Literature; Foster's Handbook of French Literature; Nisard's Histoire de
la Littérature Française; Demogeot's Histoire de la Littérature française;
Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature; Talvi's (Mrs. Robinson)
Literature of the Slavic Nations; Mallet's Northern Antiquities; Keyson's
Religion of the Northmen; Pigott's Northern Mythology; William and Mary
Howitt's Literature and Romance of Northern Europe; De s'Gravenweert's
Sur
la Littérature Néerlandaise; Siegenbeck's Histoire Littéraire des Pays-
Bas; Da Pontes' Poets and Poetry of Germany; Menzel's German Literature;
Spaulding's History of English Literature; Chambers's Cyclopaedia of
English Literature; Shaw's English Literature; Stedman's Victorian Poets;
Trübner's guide to American Literature; Duyckinck's Cyclopaedia of
American Literature; Griswold's Poets and Prose Writers of America;
Tuckerman's Sketch of American Literature; Frothingham's Transcendental
Movement in New England. French, English, and American
Encyclopaedias,
Biographies, Dictionaries, and numerous other works of reference have also
been extensively consulted.
Literature; Foster's Handbook of French Literature; Nisard's Histoire de
la Littérature Française; Demogeot's Histoire de la Littérature française;
Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature; Talvi's (Mrs. Robinson)
Literature of the Slavic Nations; Mallet's Northern Antiquities; Keyson's
Religion of the Northmen; Pigott's Northern Mythology; William and Mary
Howitt's Literature and Romance of Northern Europe; De s'Gravenweert's
Sur
la Littérature Néerlandaise; Siegenbeck's Histoire Littéraire des Pays-
Bas; Da Pontes' Poets and Poetry of Germany; Menzel's German Literature;
Spaulding's History of English Literature; Chambers's Cyclopaedia of
English Literature; Shaw's English Literature; Stedman's Victorian Poets;
Trübner's guide to American Literature; Duyckinck's Cyclopaedia of
American Literature; Griswold's Poets and Prose Writers of America;
Tuckerman's Sketch of American Literature; Frothingham's Transcendental
Movement in New England. French, English, and American
Encyclopaedias,
Biographies, Dictionaries, and numerous other works of reference have also
been extensively consulted.
Page 27
INTRODUCTION.
THE ALPHABET.
1. The Origin of Letters.—2. The Phoenician Alphabet and Inscriptions.—
3, The Greek Alphabet. Its Three Epochs.—4. The Medieval Scripts. The
Irish. The Anglo-Saxon. The Roman. The Gothic. The Runic.
1. THE ORIGIN OF LETTERS.—Alphabetic writing is an art easy to
acquire, but its invention has tasked the genius of the three most gifted
nations of the ancient world. All primitive people have begun to record
events and transmit messages by means of rude pictures of objects, intended
to represent things or thoughts, which afterwards became the symbols of
sounds. For instance, the letter M is traced down from the conventionalized
picture of an owl in the ancient language of Egypt, Mulak. This was used
first to denote the bird itself; then it stood for the name of the bird; then
gradually became a syllabic sign to express the sound "mu," the first
syllable of the name, and ultimately to denote "M," the initial sound of that
syllable.
In like manner A can be shown to be originally the picture of an eagle, D
of a hand, F of the horned asp, R, of the mouth, and so on.
THE ALPHABET.
1. The Origin of Letters.—2. The Phoenician Alphabet and Inscriptions.—
3, The Greek Alphabet. Its Three Epochs.—4. The Medieval Scripts. The
Irish. The Anglo-Saxon. The Roman. The Gothic. The Runic.
1. THE ORIGIN OF LETTERS.—Alphabetic writing is an art easy to
acquire, but its invention has tasked the genius of the three most gifted
nations of the ancient world. All primitive people have begun to record
events and transmit messages by means of rude pictures of objects, intended
to represent things or thoughts, which afterwards became the symbols of
sounds. For instance, the letter M is traced down from the conventionalized
picture of an owl in the ancient language of Egypt, Mulak. This was used
first to denote the bird itself; then it stood for the name of the bird; then
gradually became a syllabic sign to express the sound "mu," the first
syllable of the name, and ultimately to denote "M," the initial sound of that
syllable.
In like manner A can be shown to be originally the picture of an eagle, D
of a hand, F of the horned asp, R, of the mouth, and so on.
Page 28
Five systems of picture writing have been independently invented,—the
Egyptian, the Cuneiform, the Chinese, the Mexican, and the Hittite. The
tradition of the ancient world, which assigned to the Phoenicians the glory
of the invention of letters, declared that it was from Egypt that they
originally derived the art of writing, which they afterwards carried into
Greece, and the latest investigations have confirmed this tradition.
2. THE PHOENICIAN ALPHABET.—Of the Phoenician alphabet the
Samaritan is the only living representative, the Sacred Script of the few
families who still worship on Mount Gerizim. With this exception, it is only
known to us by inscriptions, of which several hundred have been
discovered. They form two well-marked varieties, the Moabite and the
Sidonian. The most important monument of the first is the celebrated
Moabite stone, discovered in 1868 on the site of the ancient capital of the
land of Moab, portions of which are preserved in the Louvre. It gives an
account of the revolt of the King of Moab against Jehoram, King of Israel,
890 B.C. The most important inscription of the Sidonian type is that on the
magnificent sarcophagus of a king of Sidon, now one of the glories of the
Louvre.
A monument of the early Hebrew alphabet, another offshoot of the
Phoenician, was discovered in 1880 in an inscription in the ancient tunnel
which conveys water to the pool of Siloam.
3. THE GREEK ALPHABET.—The names, number, order, and forms of
the primitive Greek alphabet attest its Semitic origin. Of the many
inscriptions which remain, the earliest has been discovered, not in Greece,
but upon the colossal portrait statues carved by Rameses the Great, in front
of the stupendous cave temple at Abou-Simbel, at the time when the
Hebrews were still in Egyptian bondage. In the seventh century B. C.,
certain Greek mercenaries in the service of an Egyptian king inscribed a
Egyptian, the Cuneiform, the Chinese, the Mexican, and the Hittite. The
tradition of the ancient world, which assigned to the Phoenicians the glory
of the invention of letters, declared that it was from Egypt that they
originally derived the art of writing, which they afterwards carried into
Greece, and the latest investigations have confirmed this tradition.
2. THE PHOENICIAN ALPHABET.—Of the Phoenician alphabet the
Samaritan is the only living representative, the Sacred Script of the few
families who still worship on Mount Gerizim. With this exception, it is only
known to us by inscriptions, of which several hundred have been
discovered. They form two well-marked varieties, the Moabite and the
Sidonian. The most important monument of the first is the celebrated
Moabite stone, discovered in 1868 on the site of the ancient capital of the
land of Moab, portions of which are preserved in the Louvre. It gives an
account of the revolt of the King of Moab against Jehoram, King of Israel,
890 B.C. The most important inscription of the Sidonian type is that on the
magnificent sarcophagus of a king of Sidon, now one of the glories of the
Louvre.
A monument of the early Hebrew alphabet, another offshoot of the
Phoenician, was discovered in 1880 in an inscription in the ancient tunnel
which conveys water to the pool of Siloam.
3. THE GREEK ALPHABET.—The names, number, order, and forms of
the primitive Greek alphabet attest its Semitic origin. Of the many
inscriptions which remain, the earliest has been discovered, not in Greece,
but upon the colossal portrait statues carved by Rameses the Great, in front
of the stupendous cave temple at Abou-Simbel, at the time when the
Hebrews were still in Egyptian bondage. In the seventh century B. C.,
certain Greek mercenaries in the service of an Egyptian king inscribed a
Page 29
record of their visit in five precious lines of writing, which the dry Nubian
atmosphere has preserved almost in their pristine sharpness.
The legend, according to which Cadmus the Tyrian sailed for Greece in
search of Europa, the damsel who personified the West, designates the
island of Thera as the earliest site of Phoenician colonization in the Aegean,
and from inscriptions found there this may be regarded as the first spot of
European soil on which words were written, and they exhibit better than
any others the progressive form of the Cadmean alphabet. The oldest
inscriptions found on Hellenic soil bearing a definite date are those cut on
the pedestals of the statues which lined the sacred way leading to the temple
of Apollo, near Miletus. Several of those, now in the British Museum, range
in date over the sixth century B.C. They belong, not to the primitive
alphabet, but to the Ionian, one of the local varieties which mark the second
stage, which may be called the epoch of transition, which began in the
seventh and lasted to the close of the fifth century B.C. It is not till the
middle of the fifth century that we have any dated monuments belonging to
the Western types. Among these are the names of the allied states of Hellas,
inscribed on the coils of the three-headed bronze serpent which supported
the gold tripod dedicated to the Delphian Apollo, 476 B.C. This famous
monument was transported to Byzantium by Constantine the Great, and still
stands in the Hippodrome at Constantinople. Of equal interest is the bronze
Etruscan helmet in the British Museum, dedicated to the Olympian Zeus, in
commemoration of the great victory off Cumae, which destroyed the naval
supremacy of the Etruscans, 474 B.C., and is celebrated in an ode by
Pindar.
The third epoch witnessed the emergence of the classical alphabets of
European culture, the Ionian and the Italic.
atmosphere has preserved almost in their pristine sharpness.
The legend, according to which Cadmus the Tyrian sailed for Greece in
search of Europa, the damsel who personified the West, designates the
island of Thera as the earliest site of Phoenician colonization in the Aegean,
and from inscriptions found there this may be regarded as the first spot of
European soil on which words were written, and they exhibit better than
any others the progressive form of the Cadmean alphabet. The oldest
inscriptions found on Hellenic soil bearing a definite date are those cut on
the pedestals of the statues which lined the sacred way leading to the temple
of Apollo, near Miletus. Several of those, now in the British Museum, range
in date over the sixth century B.C. They belong, not to the primitive
alphabet, but to the Ionian, one of the local varieties which mark the second
stage, which may be called the epoch of transition, which began in the
seventh and lasted to the close of the fifth century B.C. It is not till the
middle of the fifth century that we have any dated monuments belonging to
the Western types. Among these are the names of the allied states of Hellas,
inscribed on the coils of the three-headed bronze serpent which supported
the gold tripod dedicated to the Delphian Apollo, 476 B.C. This famous
monument was transported to Byzantium by Constantine the Great, and still
stands in the Hippodrome at Constantinople. Of equal interest is the bronze
Etruscan helmet in the British Museum, dedicated to the Olympian Zeus, in
commemoration of the great victory off Cumae, which destroyed the naval
supremacy of the Etruscans, 474 B.C., and is celebrated in an ode by
Pindar.
The third epoch witnessed the emergence of the classical alphabets of
European culture, the Ionian and the Italic.
Page 30
The Ionian has been the source of the Eastern scripts, Romaic, Coptic,
Slavic, and others. The Italic became the parent of the modern alphabets of
Western Europe.
4. THE MEDIAEVAL SCRIPTS.—A variety of national scripts arose in
the establishment of the Teutonic kingdoms upon the ruins of the Roman
Empire. But the most magnificent of all mediaeval scripts was the Irish,
which exercised a profound influence on the later alphabets of Europe.
From a combination of the Roman and Irish arose the Anglo-Saxon script,
the precursor of that which was developed in the ninth century by Alcuin of
York, the friend and preceptor of Charlemagne. This was the parent of the
Roman alphabet, in which our books are now printed. Among other
deteriorations, there crept in, in the fourteenth century, the Gothic or black
letter character, and these barbarous forms are still essentially retained by
the Teutonic nations though discarded by the English and Latin races; but
from its superior excellences the Roman alphabet is constantly extending its
range and bids fair to become the sole alphabet of the future. In all the lands
that were settled and overrun by the Scandinavians, there are found
multitudes of inscriptions in the ancient alphabet of the Norsemen, which is
called the Runic. The latest modern researches seem to prove that this was
derived from the Greek, and probably dates back as far as the sixth century
B.C.The Goths were early in occupation of the regions south of the Baltic
and east of the Vistula, and in direct commercial intercourse with the Greek
traders, from whom they doubtless obtained a knowledge of the Greek
alphabet, as the Greeks themselves had gained it from the Phoenicians.
CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES.
Slavic, and others. The Italic became the parent of the modern alphabets of
Western Europe.
4. THE MEDIAEVAL SCRIPTS.—A variety of national scripts arose in
the establishment of the Teutonic kingdoms upon the ruins of the Roman
Empire. But the most magnificent of all mediaeval scripts was the Irish,
which exercised a profound influence on the later alphabets of Europe.
From a combination of the Roman and Irish arose the Anglo-Saxon script,
the precursor of that which was developed in the ninth century by Alcuin of
York, the friend and preceptor of Charlemagne. This was the parent of the
Roman alphabet, in which our books are now printed. Among other
deteriorations, there crept in, in the fourteenth century, the Gothic or black
letter character, and these barbarous forms are still essentially retained by
the Teutonic nations though discarded by the English and Latin races; but
from its superior excellences the Roman alphabet is constantly extending its
range and bids fair to become the sole alphabet of the future. In all the lands
that were settled and overrun by the Scandinavians, there are found
multitudes of inscriptions in the ancient alphabet of the Norsemen, which is
called the Runic. The latest modern researches seem to prove that this was
derived from the Greek, and probably dates back as far as the sixth century
B.C.The Goths were early in occupation of the regions south of the Baltic
and east of the Vistula, and in direct commercial intercourse with the Greek
traders, from whom they doubtless obtained a knowledge of the Greek
alphabet, as the Greeks themselves had gained it from the Phoenicians.
CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES.
Page 31
Modern philologists have made different classifications of the various
languages of the world, one of which divides them into three great classes:
the Monosyllabic, the Agglutinated, and the Inflected.
—The first, or Monosyllabic class, contains those languages which
consist only of separate, unvaried monosyllables. The words have no
organization that adapts them for mutual affiliation, and there is in them,
accordingly, an utter absence of all scientific forms and principles of
grammar. The Chinese and a few languages in its vicinity, doubtless
originally identical with it, are all that belong to this class. The languages of
the North American Indians, though differing in many respects, have the
same general grade of character.
The second class consists of those languages which are formed by
agglutination. The words combine only in a mechanical way; they have no
elective affinity, and exhibit toward each other none of the active or
sensitive capabilities of living organisms. Prepositions are joined to
substantives, and pronouns to verbs, but never so as to make a new form of
the original word, as in the inflected languages, and words thus placed in
juxtaposition retain their personal identity unimpaired.
The agglutinative languages are known also as the Turanian, from Turan,
a name of Central Asia, and the principal varieties of this family are the
Tartar, Finnish, Lappish, Hungarian, and Caucasian. They are classed
together almost exclusively on the ground of correspondence in their
grammatical structure, but they are bound together by ties of far less
strength than those which connect the inflected languages. The race by
whom they are spoken has, from the first, occupied more of the surface of
the earth than either of the others, stretching westward from the shores of
the Japan Sea to the neighborhood of Vienna, and southward from the
Arctic Ocean to Afghanistan and the southern coast of Asia Minor.
languages of the world, one of which divides them into three great classes:
the Monosyllabic, the Agglutinated, and the Inflected.
—The first, or Monosyllabic class, contains those languages which
consist only of separate, unvaried monosyllables. The words have no
organization that adapts them for mutual affiliation, and there is in them,
accordingly, an utter absence of all scientific forms and principles of
grammar. The Chinese and a few languages in its vicinity, doubtless
originally identical with it, are all that belong to this class. The languages of
the North American Indians, though differing in many respects, have the
same general grade of character.
The second class consists of those languages which are formed by
agglutination. The words combine only in a mechanical way; they have no
elective affinity, and exhibit toward each other none of the active or
sensitive capabilities of living organisms. Prepositions are joined to
substantives, and pronouns to verbs, but never so as to make a new form of
the original word, as in the inflected languages, and words thus placed in
juxtaposition retain their personal identity unimpaired.
The agglutinative languages are known also as the Turanian, from Turan,
a name of Central Asia, and the principal varieties of this family are the
Tartar, Finnish, Lappish, Hungarian, and Caucasian. They are classed
together almost exclusively on the ground of correspondence in their
grammatical structure, but they are bound together by ties of far less
strength than those which connect the inflected languages. The race by
whom they are spoken has, from the first, occupied more of the surface of
the earth than either of the others, stretching westward from the shores of
the Japan Sea to the neighborhood of Vienna, and southward from the
Arctic Ocean to Afghanistan and the southern coast of Asia Minor.
Page 32
The inflected languages form the third great division. They have all a
complete interior organization, complicated with many mutual relations and
adaptations, and are thoroughly systematic in all their parts. Between this
class and the monosyllabic there is all the difference that there is between
organic and inorganic forms of matter; and between them and the
agglutinative languages there is the same difference that exists in nature
between mineral accretions and vegetable growths. The boundaries of this
class of languages are the boundaries of cultivated humanity, and in their
history lies embosomed that of the civilized portions of the world.
Two great races speaking inflected languages, the Semitic and the Indo-
European, have shared between them the peopling of the historic portions
of the earth; and on this account these two languages have sometimes been
called political or state languages, in contrast with the appellation of the
Turanian as nomadic. The term Semitic is applied to that family of
languages which are native in Southwestern Asia, and which are supposed
to have been spoken by the descendants of Shem, the son of Noah. They are
the Hebrew, Aramaeic, Arabic, the ancient Egyptian or Coptic, the
Chaldaic, and Phoenician. Of these the only living language of note is the
Arabic, which has supplanted all the others, and wonderfully diffused its
elements among the constituents of many of the Asiatic tongues. In Europe
the Arabic has left a deep impress on the Spanish language, and is still
represented in the Maltese, which is one of its dialects.
The Semitic languages differ widely from the Indo-European in reference
to their grammar, vocabulary, and idioms. On account of the great
preponderance of the pictorial element in them, they may be called the
metaphorical languages, while the Indo-European, from the prevailing style
of their higher literature, may be called the philosophical languages. The
Semitic nations also differ from the Indo-European in their national
characteristics; while they have lived with remarkable uniformity on the
complete interior organization, complicated with many mutual relations and
adaptations, and are thoroughly systematic in all their parts. Between this
class and the monosyllabic there is all the difference that there is between
organic and inorganic forms of matter; and between them and the
agglutinative languages there is the same difference that exists in nature
between mineral accretions and vegetable growths. The boundaries of this
class of languages are the boundaries of cultivated humanity, and in their
history lies embosomed that of the civilized portions of the world.
Two great races speaking inflected languages, the Semitic and the Indo-
European, have shared between them the peopling of the historic portions
of the earth; and on this account these two languages have sometimes been
called political or state languages, in contrast with the appellation of the
Turanian as nomadic. The term Semitic is applied to that family of
languages which are native in Southwestern Asia, and which are supposed
to have been spoken by the descendants of Shem, the son of Noah. They are
the Hebrew, Aramaeic, Arabic, the ancient Egyptian or Coptic, the
Chaldaic, and Phoenician. Of these the only living language of note is the
Arabic, which has supplanted all the others, and wonderfully diffused its
elements among the constituents of many of the Asiatic tongues. In Europe
the Arabic has left a deep impress on the Spanish language, and is still
represented in the Maltese, which is one of its dialects.
The Semitic languages differ widely from the Indo-European in reference
to their grammar, vocabulary, and idioms. On account of the great
preponderance of the pictorial element in them, they may be called the
metaphorical languages, while the Indo-European, from the prevailing style
of their higher literature, may be called the philosophical languages. The
Semitic nations also differ from the Indo-European in their national
characteristics; while they have lived with remarkable uniformity on the
Page 33
vast open plains, or wandered over the wide and dreary deserts of their
native region, the Indo-Europeans have spread themselves over both
hemispheres, and carried civilization to its highest development. But the
Semitic mind has not been without influence on human progress. It early
recorded its thoughts, its wants, and achievements in the hieroglyphs of
ancient Egypt; the Phoenicians, foremost in their day in commerce and the
arts, introduced from Egypt alphabetic letters, of which all the world has
since made use. The Jewish portion of the race, long in communication with
Egypt, Phoenicia, Babylonia, and Persia, could not fail to impart to these
nations some knowledge of their religion and literature, and it cannot be
doubted that many new ideas and quickening influences were thus set in
motion, and communicated to the more remote countries both of the East
and West.
The most ancient languages of the Indo-European stock may be grouped
in two distinct family pairs: the Aryan, which comprises two leading
families, the Indian and Iranian, and the Graeco-Italic or Pelasgic, which
comprises the Greek family and its various dialects, and the Italic family,
the chief-subdivisions of which are the Etruscan, the Latin, and the modern
languages derived from the Latin. The other Indo-European families are the
Lettic, Slavic, Gothic, and Celtic, with their various subdivisions.
The word Aryan (Sanskrit, Arya), the oldest known name of the entire
Indo-
European family, signifies well-born, and was applied by the ancient
Hindus to themselves in contradistinction to the rest of the world, whom
they considered base-born and contemptible.
In the country called Aryavarta, lying between the Himalaya and the
Vindhya Mountains, the high table-land of Central Asia, more than two
thousand years before Christ, our Hindu ancestors had their early home.
native region, the Indo-Europeans have spread themselves over both
hemispheres, and carried civilization to its highest development. But the
Semitic mind has not been without influence on human progress. It early
recorded its thoughts, its wants, and achievements in the hieroglyphs of
ancient Egypt; the Phoenicians, foremost in their day in commerce and the
arts, introduced from Egypt alphabetic letters, of which all the world has
since made use. The Jewish portion of the race, long in communication with
Egypt, Phoenicia, Babylonia, and Persia, could not fail to impart to these
nations some knowledge of their religion and literature, and it cannot be
doubted that many new ideas and quickening influences were thus set in
motion, and communicated to the more remote countries both of the East
and West.
The most ancient languages of the Indo-European stock may be grouped
in two distinct family pairs: the Aryan, which comprises two leading
families, the Indian and Iranian, and the Graeco-Italic or Pelasgic, which
comprises the Greek family and its various dialects, and the Italic family,
the chief-subdivisions of which are the Etruscan, the Latin, and the modern
languages derived from the Latin. The other Indo-European families are the
Lettic, Slavic, Gothic, and Celtic, with their various subdivisions.
The word Aryan (Sanskrit, Arya), the oldest known name of the entire
Indo-
European family, signifies well-born, and was applied by the ancient
Hindus to themselves in contradistinction to the rest of the world, whom
they considered base-born and contemptible.
In the country called Aryavarta, lying between the Himalaya and the
Vindhya Mountains, the high table-land of Central Asia, more than two
thousand years before Christ, our Hindu ancestors had their early home.
Page 34
From this source there have been, historically, two great streams of Aryan
migration. One, towards the south, stagnated in the fertile valleys, where
they were walled in from all danger of invasion by the Himalaya Mountains
on the north, the Indian Ocean on the south, and the deserts of Bactria on
the west, and where the people sunk into a life of inglorious ease, or wasted
their powers in the regions of dreamy mysticism. The other migration, at
first northern, and then western, includes the great families of nations in
Northwestern Asia and in Europe. Forced by circumstances into a more
objective life, and under the stimulus of more favorable influences, these
nations have been brought into a marvelous state of individual and social
progress, and to this branch of the human family belongs all the civilization
of the present, and most of that which distinguishes the past.
The Indo-European family of languages far surpasses the Semitic in
variety, flexibility, beauty, and strength. It is remarkable for its vitality, and
has the power of continually regenerating itself and bringing forth new
linguistic creations. It renders most faithfully the various workings of the
human mind, its wants, its aspirations, its passion, imagination, and
reasoning power, and is most in harmony with the ever progressive spirit of
man. In its varied scientific and artistic development it forms the most
perfect family of languages on the globe, and modern civilization, by a
chain reaching through thousands of years, ascends to this primitive source.
migration. One, towards the south, stagnated in the fertile valleys, where
they were walled in from all danger of invasion by the Himalaya Mountains
on the north, the Indian Ocean on the south, and the deserts of Bactria on
the west, and where the people sunk into a life of inglorious ease, or wasted
their powers in the regions of dreamy mysticism. The other migration, at
first northern, and then western, includes the great families of nations in
Northwestern Asia and in Europe. Forced by circumstances into a more
objective life, and under the stimulus of more favorable influences, these
nations have been brought into a marvelous state of individual and social
progress, and to this branch of the human family belongs all the civilization
of the present, and most of that which distinguishes the past.
The Indo-European family of languages far surpasses the Semitic in
variety, flexibility, beauty, and strength. It is remarkable for its vitality, and
has the power of continually regenerating itself and bringing forth new
linguistic creations. It renders most faithfully the various workings of the
human mind, its wants, its aspirations, its passion, imagination, and
reasoning power, and is most in harmony with the ever progressive spirit of
man. In its varied scientific and artistic development it forms the most
perfect family of languages on the globe, and modern civilization, by a
chain reaching through thousands of years, ascends to this primitive source.
Page 35
CHINESE LITERATURE.
1. Chinese literature.—2. The Language.—3. The Writing.—4. The five
Classics and four Books.—5. Chinese Religion and Philosophy, Lao-tsé,
Confucius, Meng-tsé or Mencius.—6. Buddhism.—7. Social Constitution
of
China.—8. Invention of Printing.—9. Science, History, and Geography.
Encyclopaedias.—10. Poetry.—11. Dramatic Literature and Fiction.—12.
Education in China.
1. CHINESE LITERATURE.—The Chinese literature is one of the most
voluminous of all literatures, and among the most important of those of
Asia. Originating in a vast empire, it is diffused among a population
numbering nearly half the inhabitants of the globe. It is expressed by an
original language differing from all others, it refers to a nation whose
history may be traced back nearly five thousand years in an almost
unbroken series of annals, and it illustrates the peculiar character of a
people long unknown to the Western world.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The date of the origin of this language is lost in
antiquity, but there is no doubt that it is the most ancient now spoken, and
probably the oldest written language used by man. It has undergone few
alterations during successive ages, and this fact has served to deepen the
lines of demarkation between the Chinese and other branches of the race
1. Chinese literature.—2. The Language.—3. The Writing.—4. The five
Classics and four Books.—5. Chinese Religion and Philosophy, Lao-tsé,
Confucius, Meng-tsé or Mencius.—6. Buddhism.—7. Social Constitution
of
China.—8. Invention of Printing.—9. Science, History, and Geography.
Encyclopaedias.—10. Poetry.—11. Dramatic Literature and Fiction.—12.
Education in China.
1. CHINESE LITERATURE.—The Chinese literature is one of the most
voluminous of all literatures, and among the most important of those of
Asia. Originating in a vast empire, it is diffused among a population
numbering nearly half the inhabitants of the globe. It is expressed by an
original language differing from all others, it refers to a nation whose
history may be traced back nearly five thousand years in an almost
unbroken series of annals, and it illustrates the peculiar character of a
people long unknown to the Western world.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The date of the origin of this language is lost in
antiquity, but there is no doubt that it is the most ancient now spoken, and
probably the oldest written language used by man. It has undergone few
alterations during successive ages, and this fact has served to deepen the
lines of demarkation between the Chinese and other branches of the race
Page 36
and has resulted in a marked national life. It belongs to the monosyllabic
family; its radical words number 450, but as many of these, by being
pronounced with a different accent convey a different meaning, in reality
they amount to 1,203. Its pronunciation varies in different provinces, but
that of Nanking, the ancient capital of the Empire, is the most pure. Many
dialects are spoken in the different provinces, but the Chinese proper is the
literary tongue of the nation, the language of the court and of polite society,
and it is vernacular in that portion of China called the Middle Kingdom.
3. THE WRITING.—There is an essential difference between the
Chinese language as spoken and written, and the poverty of the former
presents a striking contrast with the exuberance of the latter. Chinese
writing, generally speaking, does not express the sounds of the words, but it
represents the ideas or the objects indicated by them. Its alphabetical
characters are therefore ideographic, and not phonetic. They were originally
rude representations of the thing signified; but they have undergone various
changes from picture-writing to the present more symbolical and more
complete system.
As the alphabetic signs represent objects or ideas, it would follow that
there must be in writing as many characters as words in the spoken
language. Yet many words, which have the same sound, represent different
ideas; and these must be represented also in the written language. Thus the
number of the written words far surpasses that of the spoken language. As
far as they are used in the common writing, they amount to 2,425. The
number of characters in the Chinese dictionary is 40,000, of which,
however, only 10,000 are required for the general purposes of literature.
They are disposed under 214 signs, which serve as keys, and which
correspond to our alphabetic order.
family; its radical words number 450, but as many of these, by being
pronounced with a different accent convey a different meaning, in reality
they amount to 1,203. Its pronunciation varies in different provinces, but
that of Nanking, the ancient capital of the Empire, is the most pure. Many
dialects are spoken in the different provinces, but the Chinese proper is the
literary tongue of the nation, the language of the court and of polite society,
and it is vernacular in that portion of China called the Middle Kingdom.
3. THE WRITING.—There is an essential difference between the
Chinese language as spoken and written, and the poverty of the former
presents a striking contrast with the exuberance of the latter. Chinese
writing, generally speaking, does not express the sounds of the words, but it
represents the ideas or the objects indicated by them. Its alphabetical
characters are therefore ideographic, and not phonetic. They were originally
rude representations of the thing signified; but they have undergone various
changes from picture-writing to the present more symbolical and more
complete system.
As the alphabetic signs represent objects or ideas, it would follow that
there must be in writing as many characters as words in the spoken
language. Yet many words, which have the same sound, represent different
ideas; and these must be represented also in the written language. Thus the
number of the written words far surpasses that of the spoken language. As
far as they are used in the common writing, they amount to 2,425. The
number of characters in the Chinese dictionary is 40,000, of which,
however, only 10,000 are required for the general purposes of literature.
They are disposed under 214 signs, which serve as keys, and which
correspond to our alphabetic order.
Page 37
The Chinese language is written, from right to left, in vertical columns or
in horizontal lines.
4. THE CLASSICS.—The first five canonical books are "The Book of
Transformations," "The Book of History," "The Book of Rites," "The
Spring and Autumn Annals," and "The Book of Odes"
"The Book of Transformations" consists of sixty-four short essays on
important themes, symbolically and enigmatically expressed, based on
linear figures and diagrams. These cabala are held in high esteem by the
learned, and the hundreds of fortune-tellers in the streets of Chinese towns
practice their art on the basis of these mysteries.
"The Book of History" was compiled by Confucius, 551-470 B. C., from
the earliest records of the Empire, and in the estimation of the Chinese it
contains the seeds of all that is valuable in their political system, their
history, and their religious rites, and is the basis of their tactics, music, and
astronomy. It consists mainly of conversations between kings and their
ministers, in which are traced the same patriarchal principles of government
that guide the rulers of the present day.
"The Book of Rites" is still the rule by which the Chinese regulate all the
relations of life. No every-day ceremony is too insignificant to escape
notice, and no social or domestic duty is beyond its scope. No work of the
classics has left such an impression on the manners and customs of the
people. Its rules are still minutely observed, and the office of the Board of
Rites, one of the six governing boards of Peking, is to see that its precepts
are carried out throughout the Empire. According to this system, all the
relations of man to the family, society, the state, to morals, and to religion,
are reduced to ceremonial, but this includes not only the external conduct,
but it involves those right principles from which all true politeness and
etiquette spring.
in horizontal lines.
4. THE CLASSICS.—The first five canonical books are "The Book of
Transformations," "The Book of History," "The Book of Rites," "The
Spring and Autumn Annals," and "The Book of Odes"
"The Book of Transformations" consists of sixty-four short essays on
important themes, symbolically and enigmatically expressed, based on
linear figures and diagrams. These cabala are held in high esteem by the
learned, and the hundreds of fortune-tellers in the streets of Chinese towns
practice their art on the basis of these mysteries.
"The Book of History" was compiled by Confucius, 551-470 B. C., from
the earliest records of the Empire, and in the estimation of the Chinese it
contains the seeds of all that is valuable in their political system, their
history, and their religious rites, and is the basis of their tactics, music, and
astronomy. It consists mainly of conversations between kings and their
ministers, in which are traced the same patriarchal principles of government
that guide the rulers of the present day.
"The Book of Rites" is still the rule by which the Chinese regulate all the
relations of life. No every-day ceremony is too insignificant to escape
notice, and no social or domestic duty is beyond its scope. No work of the
classics has left such an impression on the manners and customs of the
people. Its rules are still minutely observed, and the office of the Board of
Rites, one of the six governing boards of Peking, is to see that its precepts
are carried out throughout the Empire. According to this system, all the
relations of man to the family, society, the state, to morals, and to religion,
are reduced to ceremonial, but this includes not only the external conduct,
but it involves those right principles from which all true politeness and
etiquette spring.
Page 38
The "Book of Odes" consists of national airs, chants, and sacrificial odes
of great antiquity, some of them remarkable for their sublimity. It is difficult
to estimate the power they have exerted over all subsequent generations of
Chinese scholars. They are valuable for their religious character and for
their illustration of early Chinese customs and feelings; but they are crude
in measure, and wanting in that harmony which comes from study and
cultivation.
The "Spring and Autumn Annals" consist of bald statements of historical
facts. Of the Four Books, the first three—the "Great Learning," the "Just
Medium," and the "Confucian Analects"—are by the pupils and followers
of Confucius. The last of the four books consists entirely of the writings of
Mencius (371-288 B. C.). In originality and breadth of view he is superior
to Confucius, and must be regarded as one of the greatest men Asiatic
nations have produced.
The Five Classics and Four Books would scarcely be considered more
than curiosities in literature were it not for the incomparable influence, free
from any debasing character, which they have exerted over so many
millions of minds.
5. CHINESE RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY.—Three periods may be
distinguished in the history of the religious and philosophical progress of
China. The first relates to ancient tradition, to the idea of one supreme God,
to the patriarchal institutions, which were the foundation of the social
organization of the Empire, and to the primitive customs and moral
doctrines. It appears that this religion at length degenerated into that
mingled idolatry and indifference which still characterizes the people of
China.
In the sixth century B.C., the corruption of the ancient religion having
reached its height, a reaction took place which gave birth to the second, or
of great antiquity, some of them remarkable for their sublimity. It is difficult
to estimate the power they have exerted over all subsequent generations of
Chinese scholars. They are valuable for their religious character and for
their illustration of early Chinese customs and feelings; but they are crude
in measure, and wanting in that harmony which comes from study and
cultivation.
The "Spring and Autumn Annals" consist of bald statements of historical
facts. Of the Four Books, the first three—the "Great Learning," the "Just
Medium," and the "Confucian Analects"—are by the pupils and followers
of Confucius. The last of the four books consists entirely of the writings of
Mencius (371-288 B. C.). In originality and breadth of view he is superior
to Confucius, and must be regarded as one of the greatest men Asiatic
nations have produced.
The Five Classics and Four Books would scarcely be considered more
than curiosities in literature were it not for the incomparable influence, free
from any debasing character, which they have exerted over so many
millions of minds.
5. CHINESE RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY.—Three periods may be
distinguished in the history of the religious and philosophical progress of
China. The first relates to ancient tradition, to the idea of one supreme God,
to the patriarchal institutions, which were the foundation of the social
organization of the Empire, and to the primitive customs and moral
doctrines. It appears that this religion at length degenerated into that
mingled idolatry and indifference which still characterizes the people of
China.
In the sixth century B.C., the corruption of the ancient religion having
reached its height, a reaction took place which gave birth to the second, or
Page 39
philosophical period, which produced three systems. Lao-tsé, born 604
B.C., was the founder of the religion of the Tao, or of the external and
supreme reason. The Tao is the primitive existence and intelligence, the
great principle of the spiritual and material world, which must be worshiped
through the purification of the soul, by retirement, abnegation,
contemplation, and metempsychosis. This school gave rise to a sect of
mystics similar to those of India.
Later writers have debased the system of Lao-tsé, and cast aside his
profound speculations for superstitious rituals and the multiplication of
gods and goddesses.
Confucius was the founder of the second school, which has exerted a far
more extensive and beneficial influence on the political and social
institutions of China. Confucius is a Latin name, corresponding to the
original Kung-fu-tsé, Kung being the proper name, and Fu-tsé signifying
reverend teacher or doctor. He was born 551 B.C., and educated by his
mother, who impressed upon him a strong sense of morality. After a careful
study of the ancient writings he decided to undertake the moral reform of
his country, and giving up his high position of prime minister, he traveled
extensively in China, preaching justice and virtue wherever he went. His
doctrines, founded on the unity of God and the necessities of human nature,
bore essentially a moral character, and being of a practical tendency, they
exerted a great influence not only on the morals of the people, but also on
their legislation, and the authority of Confucius became supreme. He died
479 B.C., at the age of seventy-two, eleven years before the birth of
Socrates. He left a grandson, through whom the succession has been
transmitted to the present day, and his descendants constitute a distinct class
in Chinese society.
B.C., was the founder of the religion of the Tao, or of the external and
supreme reason. The Tao is the primitive existence and intelligence, the
great principle of the spiritual and material world, which must be worshiped
through the purification of the soul, by retirement, abnegation,
contemplation, and metempsychosis. This school gave rise to a sect of
mystics similar to those of India.
Later writers have debased the system of Lao-tsé, and cast aside his
profound speculations for superstitious rituals and the multiplication of
gods and goddesses.
Confucius was the founder of the second school, which has exerted a far
more extensive and beneficial influence on the political and social
institutions of China. Confucius is a Latin name, corresponding to the
original Kung-fu-tsé, Kung being the proper name, and Fu-tsé signifying
reverend teacher or doctor. He was born 551 B.C., and educated by his
mother, who impressed upon him a strong sense of morality. After a careful
study of the ancient writings he decided to undertake the moral reform of
his country, and giving up his high position of prime minister, he traveled
extensively in China, preaching justice and virtue wherever he went. His
doctrines, founded on the unity of God and the necessities of human nature,
bore essentially a moral character, and being of a practical tendency, they
exerted a great influence not only on the morals of the people, but also on
their legislation, and the authority of Confucius became supreme. He died
479 B.C., at the age of seventy-two, eleven years before the birth of
Socrates. He left a grandson, through whom the succession has been
transmitted to the present day, and his descendants constitute a distinct class
in Chinese society.
Page 40
At the close of the fourth century B.C., another philosopher appeared by
the name of Meng-tsé, or Mencius (eminent and venerable teacher), whose
method of instruction bore a strong similarity to that of Socrates. His books
rank among the classics, and breathe a spirit of freedom and independence;
they are full of irony on petty sovereigns and on their vices; they establish
moral goodness above social position, and the will of the people above the
arbitrary power of their rulers. He was much revered, and considered bolder
and more eloquent than Confucius.
6. The third period of the intellectual development of the Chinese dates
from the introduction of Buddhism into the country, under the name of the
religion of Fo, 70 A.D. The emperor himself professes this religion, and its
followers have the largest number of temples. The great bulk of Buddhist
literature is of Indian origin. Buddhism, however, has lost in China much of
its originality, and for the mass it has sunk into a low and debasing idolatry.
Recently a new religion has sprung up in China, a mixture of ancient
Chinese and Christian doctrines, which apparently finds great favor in some
portions of the country.
7. SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF CHINA.—The social constitution of
China rests on the ancient traditions preserved in the canonical and classic
books. The Chinese empire is founded on the patriarchal system, in which
all authority over the family belongs to the pater familias. The emperor
represents the great father of the nation, and is the supreme master of the
state and the head of religion. All his subjects being considered as his
children, they are all equal before him, and according to their capacity are
admitted to the public offices. Hence no distinction of castes, no privileged
classes, no nobility of birth; but a general equality under an absolute chief.
The public administration is entirely in the hands of the emperor, who is
assisted by his mandarins, both military and civil. They are admitted to this
rank only after severe examinations, and from them the members of the
the name of Meng-tsé, or Mencius (eminent and venerable teacher), whose
method of instruction bore a strong similarity to that of Socrates. His books
rank among the classics, and breathe a spirit of freedom and independence;
they are full of irony on petty sovereigns and on their vices; they establish
moral goodness above social position, and the will of the people above the
arbitrary power of their rulers. He was much revered, and considered bolder
and more eloquent than Confucius.
6. The third period of the intellectual development of the Chinese dates
from the introduction of Buddhism into the country, under the name of the
religion of Fo, 70 A.D. The emperor himself professes this religion, and its
followers have the largest number of temples. The great bulk of Buddhist
literature is of Indian origin. Buddhism, however, has lost in China much of
its originality, and for the mass it has sunk into a low and debasing idolatry.
Recently a new religion has sprung up in China, a mixture of ancient
Chinese and Christian doctrines, which apparently finds great favor in some
portions of the country.
7. SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF CHINA.—The social constitution of
China rests on the ancient traditions preserved in the canonical and classic
books. The Chinese empire is founded on the patriarchal system, in which
all authority over the family belongs to the pater familias. The emperor
represents the great father of the nation, and is the supreme master of the
state and the head of religion. All his subjects being considered as his
children, they are all equal before him, and according to their capacity are
admitted to the public offices. Hence no distinction of castes, no privileged
classes, no nobility of birth; but a general equality under an absolute chief.
The public administration is entirely in the hands of the emperor, who is
assisted by his mandarins, both military and civil. They are admitted to this
rank only after severe examinations, and from them the members of the
Page 41
different councils of the empire are selected. Among these the Board of
Control, or the all-examining Court, and the Court of History and Literature
deserve particular mention, as being more closely related to the subject of
this work. The duty of this board consists in examining all the official acts
of the government, and in preventing the enacting of those measures which
they may deem detrimental to the best interests of the country. They can
even reprove the personal acts of the emperor, an office which has afforded
many occasions for the display of eloquence. The courage of some of the
members of this board has been indeed sublime, giving to their words
wonderful power.
The Court of History and Literature superintends public education,
examines those who aspire to the degree of mandarins, and decides on the
pecuniary subsidies, which the government usually grants for defraying the
expenses of the publication of great works on history and science.
8. INVENTION OF PRINTING.—At the close of the sixth century B.C.
it was ordained that various texts in circulation should be engraved on wood
to be printed and published. At first comparatively little use seems to have
been made of the invention, which only reached its full development in the
eleventh century, when movable types were first invented by a Chinese
blacksmith, who printed books with them nearly five hundred years before
Gutenberg appeared.
In the third century B.C., one of the emperors conceived the mad scheme
of destroying all existing records, and writing a new set of annals in his own
name, in order that posterity might consider him the founder of the empire.
Sixty years after this barbarous decree had been carried into execution, one
of his successors, who desired as far as possible to repair the injury, caused
these books to be re-written from a copy which had escaped destruction.
Control, or the all-examining Court, and the Court of History and Literature
deserve particular mention, as being more closely related to the subject of
this work. The duty of this board consists in examining all the official acts
of the government, and in preventing the enacting of those measures which
they may deem detrimental to the best interests of the country. They can
even reprove the personal acts of the emperor, an office which has afforded
many occasions for the display of eloquence. The courage of some of the
members of this board has been indeed sublime, giving to their words
wonderful power.
The Court of History and Literature superintends public education,
examines those who aspire to the degree of mandarins, and decides on the
pecuniary subsidies, which the government usually grants for defraying the
expenses of the publication of great works on history and science.
8. INVENTION OF PRINTING.—At the close of the sixth century B.C.
it was ordained that various texts in circulation should be engraved on wood
to be printed and published. At first comparatively little use seems to have
been made of the invention, which only reached its full development in the
eleventh century, when movable types were first invented by a Chinese
blacksmith, who printed books with them nearly five hundred years before
Gutenberg appeared.
In the third century B.C., one of the emperors conceived the mad scheme
of destroying all existing records, and writing a new set of annals in his own
name, in order that posterity might consider him the founder of the empire.
Sixty years after this barbarous decree had been carried into execution, one
of his successors, who desired as far as possible to repair the injury, caused
these books to be re-written from a copy which had escaped destruction.
Page 42
9. SCIENCE, HISTORY, AND GEOGRAPHY.—Comparing the
scientific development of the Chinese with that of the Western world, it may
be said that they have made little progress in any branch of science. There
are, however, to be found in almost every department some works of no
indifferent merit. In mathematics they begin only now to make some
progress, since the mathematical works of Europe have been introduced
into their country. Astrology still takes the place of astronomy, and the
almanacs prepared at the observatory of Peking are made chiefly by
foreigners. Books on natural philosophy abound, some of which are written
by the emperors themselves. Medicine is imperfectly understood. They
possess several valuable works on Chinese jurisprudence, on agriculture,
economy, mechanics, trades, many cyclopaedias and compendia, and
several dictionaries, composed with extraordinary skill and patience.
To this department may be referred all educational books, the most of
them written in rhyme, and according to a system of intellectual gradation.
The historical and geographical works of China are the most valuable and
interesting department of its literature. Each dynasty has its official
chronicle, and the celebrated collection of twenty-one histories forms an
almost unbroken record of the annals from, the third century B.C. to the
middle of the seventeenth century, and contains a vast amount of
information to European readers. The edition of this huge work, in sixty- six
folio volumes, is to be found in the British Museum. This and many similar
works of a general and of a local character unite in rendering this
department rich and important for those who are interested in the history of
Asiatic civilization. "The General Geography of the Chinese Empire" is a
collection of the statistics of the country, with maps and tables, in two
hundred and sixty volumes. The "Statutes of the Reigning Dynasty," from
the year 1818, form more than one thousand volumes. Chinese
scientific development of the Chinese with that of the Western world, it may
be said that they have made little progress in any branch of science. There
are, however, to be found in almost every department some works of no
indifferent merit. In mathematics they begin only now to make some
progress, since the mathematical works of Europe have been introduced
into their country. Astrology still takes the place of astronomy, and the
almanacs prepared at the observatory of Peking are made chiefly by
foreigners. Books on natural philosophy abound, some of which are written
by the emperors themselves. Medicine is imperfectly understood. They
possess several valuable works on Chinese jurisprudence, on agriculture,
economy, mechanics, trades, many cyclopaedias and compendia, and
several dictionaries, composed with extraordinary skill and patience.
To this department may be referred all educational books, the most of
them written in rhyme, and according to a system of intellectual gradation.
The historical and geographical works of China are the most valuable and
interesting department of its literature. Each dynasty has its official
chronicle, and the celebrated collection of twenty-one histories forms an
almost unbroken record of the annals from, the third century B.C. to the
middle of the seventeenth century, and contains a vast amount of
information to European readers. The edition of this huge work, in sixty- six
folio volumes, is to be found in the British Museum. This and many similar
works of a general and of a local character unite in rendering this
department rich and important for those who are interested in the history of
Asiatic civilization. "The General Geography of the Chinese Empire" is a
collection of the statistics of the country, with maps and tables, in two
hundred and sixty volumes. The "Statutes of the Reigning Dynasty," from
the year 1818, form more than one thousand volumes. Chinese
Page 43
topographical works are characterized by a minuteness of detail rarely
equaled.
Historical and literary encyclopaedias form a very notable feature in all
Chinese libraries. These works show great research, clearness, and
precision, and are largely drawn upon by European scholars. Early in the
last century one of the emperors appointed a commission to reprint in one
great collection all the works they might think worthy of preservation. The
result was a compilation of 6,109 volumes, arranged under thirty-two heads,
embracing works on every subject contained in the national literature. This
work is unique of its kind, and the largest in the world.
10. POETRY.—The first development of literary talent in China, as
elsewhere, is found in poetry, and in the earliest days songs and ballads
were brought as offerings from the various principalities to the heads of
government. At the time of Confucius there existed a collection of three
thousand songs, from which he selected those contained in the "Book of
Odes." There is not much sublimity or depth of thought in these odes, but
they abound in touches of nature, and are exceedingly interesting and
curious, as showing how little change time has effected in the manners and
customs of this singular people. Similar in character are the poems of the
Tshian-teng-shi, another collection of lyrics published at the expense of the
emperor, in several thousand volumes. Among modern poets may be
mentioned the Emperor Khian-lung, who died at the close of the last
century.
After the time of Confucius the change in Chinese poetry became very
marked, and, instead of the peaceful tone of his day, it reflected the
unsettled condition of social and political affairs. The simple, monotheistic
faith was exchanged for a superstitious belief in a host of gods and
goddesses, a contempt for life, and an uncertainty of all beyond it. The
equaled.
Historical and literary encyclopaedias form a very notable feature in all
Chinese libraries. These works show great research, clearness, and
precision, and are largely drawn upon by European scholars. Early in the
last century one of the emperors appointed a commission to reprint in one
great collection all the works they might think worthy of preservation. The
result was a compilation of 6,109 volumes, arranged under thirty-two heads,
embracing works on every subject contained in the national literature. This
work is unique of its kind, and the largest in the world.
10. POETRY.—The first development of literary talent in China, as
elsewhere, is found in poetry, and in the earliest days songs and ballads
were brought as offerings from the various principalities to the heads of
government. At the time of Confucius there existed a collection of three
thousand songs, from which he selected those contained in the "Book of
Odes." There is not much sublimity or depth of thought in these odes, but
they abound in touches of nature, and are exceedingly interesting and
curious, as showing how little change time has effected in the manners and
customs of this singular people. Similar in character are the poems of the
Tshian-teng-shi, another collection of lyrics published at the expense of the
emperor, in several thousand volumes. Among modern poets may be
mentioned the Emperor Khian-lung, who died at the close of the last
century.
After the time of Confucius the change in Chinese poetry became very
marked, and, instead of the peaceful tone of his day, it reflected the
unsettled condition of social and political affairs. The simple, monotheistic
faith was exchanged for a superstitious belief in a host of gods and
goddesses, a contempt for life, and an uncertainty of all beyond it. The
Page 44
period between 620 and 907 A.D., was one of great prosperity, and is
looked upon as the golden age.
11. DRAMATIC LITERATURE AND FICTION.—Chinese literature
affords no instance of real dramatic poetry or sustained effort of the
imagination. The "Hundred Plays of the Yuen Dynasty" is the most
celebrated collection, and many have been translated into European
languages. One of them, "The Orphan of China," served as the groundwork
of Voltaire's tragedy of that name. The drama, however, constitutes a large
department in Chinese literature, though there are, properly speaking, no
theatres in China. A platform in the open air is the ordinary stage, the
decorations are hangings of cotton supported by a few poles of bamboo, and
the action is frequently of the coarsest kind. When an actor comes on the
stage, he says, "I am the mandarin so-and-so." If the drama requires the
actor to enter a house, he takes some steps and says, "I have entered;" and if
he is supposed to travel, he does so by rapid running on the stage, cracking
his whip, and saying afterwards, "I have arrived." The dialogue is written
partly in verse and partly in prose, and the poetry is sometimes sung and
sometimes recited. Many of their dramas are full of bustle and abound in
incident. They often contain the life and adventures of an individual, some
great sovereign or general, a history, in fact, thrown into action. Two
thousand volumes of dramatic compositions are known, and the best of
these amount to five hundred pieces. Among them may be mentioned the
"Orphan of the House of Tacho," and the "Heir in Old Age," which have
much force and character, and vividly describe the habits of the people.
The Chinese are fond of historical and moral romances, which, however,
are founded on reason and not on imagination, as are the Hindu and Persian
tales. Their subjects are not submarine abysses, enchanted palaces, giants
and genii, but man as he is in his actual life, as he lives with his fellow-men,
with all his virtues and vices, sufferings and joys. But the Chinese novelists
looked upon as the golden age.
11. DRAMATIC LITERATURE AND FICTION.—Chinese literature
affords no instance of real dramatic poetry or sustained effort of the
imagination. The "Hundred Plays of the Yuen Dynasty" is the most
celebrated collection, and many have been translated into European
languages. One of them, "The Orphan of China," served as the groundwork
of Voltaire's tragedy of that name. The drama, however, constitutes a large
department in Chinese literature, though there are, properly speaking, no
theatres in China. A platform in the open air is the ordinary stage, the
decorations are hangings of cotton supported by a few poles of bamboo, and
the action is frequently of the coarsest kind. When an actor comes on the
stage, he says, "I am the mandarin so-and-so." If the drama requires the
actor to enter a house, he takes some steps and says, "I have entered;" and if
he is supposed to travel, he does so by rapid running on the stage, cracking
his whip, and saying afterwards, "I have arrived." The dialogue is written
partly in verse and partly in prose, and the poetry is sometimes sung and
sometimes recited. Many of their dramas are full of bustle and abound in
incident. They often contain the life and adventures of an individual, some
great sovereign or general, a history, in fact, thrown into action. Two
thousand volumes of dramatic compositions are known, and the best of
these amount to five hundred pieces. Among them may be mentioned the
"Orphan of the House of Tacho," and the "Heir in Old Age," which have
much force and character, and vividly describe the habits of the people.
The Chinese are fond of historical and moral romances, which, however,
are founded on reason and not on imagination, as are the Hindu and Persian
tales. Their subjects are not submarine abysses, enchanted palaces, giants
and genii, but man as he is in his actual life, as he lives with his fellow-men,
with all his virtues and vices, sufferings and joys. But the Chinese novelists
Page 45
show more skill in the details than in the conception of their works; the
characters are finished and developed in every respect. The pictures with
which they adorn their works are minute and the descriptions poetical,
though they often sacrifice to these qualities the unity of the subject. The
characters of their novels are principally drawn from the middle class, as
governors, literary men, etc. The episodes are, generally speaking, ordinary
actions of common life—all the quiet incidents of the phlegmatic life of the
Chinese, coupled with the regular and mechanical movements which
distinguish that people. Among the numberless Chinese romances there are
several which are considered classic. Such are the "Four Great Marvels'
Books," and the "Stories of the Pirates on the Coast of Kiangnan."
12. EDUCATION IN CHINA. Most of the Chinese people have a
knowledge of the rudiments of education. There is scarcely a man who does
not know how to read the hooks of his profession. Public schools are
everywhere established; in the cities there are colleges, in which pupils are
taught the Chinese literature; and in Peking there is an imperial college for
the education of the mandarins. The offices of the empire are only attained
by scholarship. There are four literary degrees, which give title to different
positions in the country. The government fosters the higher branches of
education and patronizes the publication of literary works, which are
distributed among the libraries, colleges, and functionaries. The press is
restricted only from publishing licentious and revolutionary books.
The future literature of China in many branches will be greatly modified
by the introduction of foreign knowledge and influences.
characters are finished and developed in every respect. The pictures with
which they adorn their works are minute and the descriptions poetical,
though they often sacrifice to these qualities the unity of the subject. The
characters of their novels are principally drawn from the middle class, as
governors, literary men, etc. The episodes are, generally speaking, ordinary
actions of common life—all the quiet incidents of the phlegmatic life of the
Chinese, coupled with the regular and mechanical movements which
distinguish that people. Among the numberless Chinese romances there are
several which are considered classic. Such are the "Four Great Marvels'
Books," and the "Stories of the Pirates on the Coast of Kiangnan."
12. EDUCATION IN CHINA. Most of the Chinese people have a
knowledge of the rudiments of education. There is scarcely a man who does
not know how to read the hooks of his profession. Public schools are
everywhere established; in the cities there are colleges, in which pupils are
taught the Chinese literature; and in Peking there is an imperial college for
the education of the mandarins. The offices of the empire are only attained
by scholarship. There are four literary degrees, which give title to different
positions in the country. The government fosters the higher branches of
education and patronizes the publication of literary works, which are
distributed among the libraries, colleges, and functionaries. The press is
restricted only from publishing licentious and revolutionary books.
The future literature of China in many branches will be greatly modified
by the introduction of foreign knowledge and influences.
Page 46
JAPANESE LITERATURE
1. The Language.—2. The Religion.—3. The Literature. Influence of
Women.—4. History.—5. The Drama and Poetry.—6. Geography.
Newspapers. Novels. Medical Science.—7. Position of Woman.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—The Japanese is considered as belonging to the
isolated languages, as philologists have thus far failed to classify it. It is
agglutinative in its syntax, each word consisting of an unchangeable root
and one or several suffixes. Before the art of writing was known, poems,
odes to the gods, and other fragments which still exist had been composed
in this tongue, and it is probable that a much larger literature existed.
During the first centuries of writing in Japan, the spoken and written
language was identical, but with the study of the Chinese literature and the
composition of native works almost exclusively in that language, there grew
up differences between the colloquial and literary idiom, and the infusion of
Chinese words steadily increased. In writing, the Chinese characters occupy
the most important place. But all those words which express the wants,
feelings, and concerns of everyday life, all that is deepest in the human
heart, are for the most part native. If we would trace the fountains of the
musical and beautiful language of Japan, we must seek them in the hearts
and hear them flow from the lips of the mothers of the Island Empire.
Among the anomalies with which Japan has surprised and delighted the
world may be claimed that of woman's achievements in the domain of
1. The Language.—2. The Religion.—3. The Literature. Influence of
Women.—4. History.—5. The Drama and Poetry.—6. Geography.
Newspapers. Novels. Medical Science.—7. Position of Woman.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—The Japanese is considered as belonging to the
isolated languages, as philologists have thus far failed to classify it. It is
agglutinative in its syntax, each word consisting of an unchangeable root
and one or several suffixes. Before the art of writing was known, poems,
odes to the gods, and other fragments which still exist had been composed
in this tongue, and it is probable that a much larger literature existed.
During the first centuries of writing in Japan, the spoken and written
language was identical, but with the study of the Chinese literature and the
composition of native works almost exclusively in that language, there grew
up differences between the colloquial and literary idiom, and the infusion of
Chinese words steadily increased. In writing, the Chinese characters occupy
the most important place. But all those words which express the wants,
feelings, and concerns of everyday life, all that is deepest in the human
heart, are for the most part native. If we would trace the fountains of the
musical and beautiful language of Japan, we must seek them in the hearts
and hear them flow from the lips of the mothers of the Island Empire.
Among the anomalies with which Japan has surprised and delighted the
world may be claimed that of woman's achievements in the domain of
Page 47
letters. It was woman's services, not man's, that made the Japanese a literary
language, and under her influence the mobile forms of speech crystallized
into perennial beauty.
The written language has heretofore consisted mainly of characters
borrowed from the Chinese, each character representing an idea of its own,
so that in order to read and write the student must make himself acquainted
with several thousand characters, and years are required to gain proficiency
in these elementary arts. There also exists in Japan a syllabary alphabet of
forty-seven characters, used at present as an auxiliary to the Chinese.
Within a very recent period, since the acquisition of knowledge has become
a necessity in Japan, a society has been formed by the most prominent men
of the empire, for the purpose of assimilating the spoken and written
language, taking the forty-seven native characters as the basis.
2. RELIGION.—The two great religions of Japan are Shintoism and
Buddhism. The chief characteristic of the Shinto religion is the worship of
ancestors, the deification of emperors, heroes, and scholars, and the
adoration of the personified forces of nature. It lays down no precepts,
teaches no morals or doctrines, and prescribes no ritual.
The number of Shinto deities is enormous. In its higher form the chief
object of the Shinto faith is to enjoy this life; in its lower forms it consists in
a blind obedience to governmental and priestly dictates.
On the recent accession of the Mikado to his former supreme power, an
attempt was made to restore this ancient faith, but it failed, and Japan
continues as it has been for ten centuries in the Buddhist faith.
The religion of Buddha was introduced into Japan 581 A.D., and has
exerted a most potent influence in forming the Japanese character.
language, and under her influence the mobile forms of speech crystallized
into perennial beauty.
The written language has heretofore consisted mainly of characters
borrowed from the Chinese, each character representing an idea of its own,
so that in order to read and write the student must make himself acquainted
with several thousand characters, and years are required to gain proficiency
in these elementary arts. There also exists in Japan a syllabary alphabet of
forty-seven characters, used at present as an auxiliary to the Chinese.
Within a very recent period, since the acquisition of knowledge has become
a necessity in Japan, a society has been formed by the most prominent men
of the empire, for the purpose of assimilating the spoken and written
language, taking the forty-seven native characters as the basis.
2. RELIGION.—The two great religions of Japan are Shintoism and
Buddhism. The chief characteristic of the Shinto religion is the worship of
ancestors, the deification of emperors, heroes, and scholars, and the
adoration of the personified forces of nature. It lays down no precepts,
teaches no morals or doctrines, and prescribes no ritual.
The number of Shinto deities is enormous. In its higher form the chief
object of the Shinto faith is to enjoy this life; in its lower forms it consists in
a blind obedience to governmental and priestly dictates.
On the recent accession of the Mikado to his former supreme power, an
attempt was made to restore this ancient faith, but it failed, and Japan
continues as it has been for ten centuries in the Buddhist faith.
The religion of Buddha was introduced into Japan 581 A.D., and has
exerted a most potent influence in forming the Japanese character.
Page 48
The Protestants of Japanese Buddhism are the followers of Shinran, 1262
A.D., who have wielded a vast influence in the religious development of the
people both for good and evil. In this creed prayer, purity, and earnestness
of life are insisted upon. The Scriptures of other sects are written in Sanskrit
and Chinese which only the learned are able to read, those of the Shin sect
are in the vernacular Japanese idiom. After the death of Shinran, Rennio,
who died in 1500 A.D., produced sacred writings now daily read by the
disciples of this denomination.
Though greatly persecuted, the Shin sect have continually increased in
numbers, wealth, and power, and now lead all in intelligence and influence.
Of late they have organized their theological schools on the model of
foreign countries that their young men may be trained to resist the Shinto
and Christian faiths.
3. THE LITERATURE. INFLUENCE OF WOMEN.—Previous to the
fourteenth century learning in Japan was confined to the court circle. The
fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries are the dark ages when military
domination put a stop to all learning except with, a few priests. With the
seventeenth century begins the modern period of general culture. The
people are all fond of reading, and it is very common to see circulating
libraries carried from house to house on the backs of men.
As early as the tenth century, while the learned affected a pedantic style
so interlarded with Chinese as to be unintelligible, the cultivation of the
native tongue was left to the ladies of the court, a task which they nobly
discharged. It is a remarkable fact, without parallel in the history of letters,
that a very large proportion of the best writings of the best ages was the
work of women, and their achievement in the domain of letters is one of the
anomalies with which Japan has surprised and delighted the world. It was
A.D., who have wielded a vast influence in the religious development of the
people both for good and evil. In this creed prayer, purity, and earnestness
of life are insisted upon. The Scriptures of other sects are written in Sanskrit
and Chinese which only the learned are able to read, those of the Shin sect
are in the vernacular Japanese idiom. After the death of Shinran, Rennio,
who died in 1500 A.D., produced sacred writings now daily read by the
disciples of this denomination.
Though greatly persecuted, the Shin sect have continually increased in
numbers, wealth, and power, and now lead all in intelligence and influence.
Of late they have organized their theological schools on the model of
foreign countries that their young men may be trained to resist the Shinto
and Christian faiths.
3. THE LITERATURE. INFLUENCE OF WOMEN.—Previous to the
fourteenth century learning in Japan was confined to the court circle. The
fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries are the dark ages when military
domination put a stop to all learning except with, a few priests. With the
seventeenth century begins the modern period of general culture. The
people are all fond of reading, and it is very common to see circulating
libraries carried from house to house on the backs of men.
As early as the tenth century, while the learned affected a pedantic style
so interlarded with Chinese as to be unintelligible, the cultivation of the
native tongue was left to the ladies of the court, a task which they nobly
discharged. It is a remarkable fact, without parallel in the history of letters,
that a very large proportion of the best writings of the best ages was the
work of women, and their achievement in the domain of letters is one of the
anomalies with which Japan has surprised and delighted the world. It was
Page 49
their genius that made the Japanese a literary language. The names and
works of these authoresses are quoted at the present day.
4. HISTORY.—The earliest extant Japanese record is a work entitled
"Kojiki," or book of ancient traditions. It treats of the creation, the gods and
goddesses of the mythological period, and gives the history of the Mikados
from the accession of Jimmu, year 1 (660 B.C.), to 1288 of the Japanese
year. It was supposed to date from the first half of the eighth century, and
another work "Nihonghi," a little later, also treats of the mythological
period. It abounds in traces of Chinese influence, and in a measure
supersedes the "Kojiki." These are the oldest books in the language. They
are the chief exponents of the Shinto faith, and form the bases of many
commentaries and subsequent works.
The "History of Great Japan," composed in the latter part of the
seventeenth century, by the Lord of Mito (died 1700), is the standard
history of the present day. The external history of Japan, in twenty-two
volumes, by Rai Sanyo (died 1832), composed in classical Chinese, is most
widely read by men of education.
The Japanese are intensely proud of their history and take great care in
making and preserving records. Memorial stones are among the most
striking sights on the highways and in the towns, villages, and temple yards,
in honor of some noted scholar, ruler, or benefactor. Few people are more
thoroughly informed as to their own history. Every city, town, and village
has its annals. Family records are faithfully copied from generation to
generation. Almost every province has its encyclopaedic history, and every
high-road its itineraries and guide-books, in which famous places and
events are noted. In the large cities professional story-tellers and readers
gain a lucrative livelihood by narrating both legendary and classical history,
and the theatre is often the most faithful mirror of actual history. There are
works of these authoresses are quoted at the present day.
4. HISTORY.—The earliest extant Japanese record is a work entitled
"Kojiki," or book of ancient traditions. It treats of the creation, the gods and
goddesses of the mythological period, and gives the history of the Mikados
from the accession of Jimmu, year 1 (660 B.C.), to 1288 of the Japanese
year. It was supposed to date from the first half of the eighth century, and
another work "Nihonghi," a little later, also treats of the mythological
period. It abounds in traces of Chinese influence, and in a measure
supersedes the "Kojiki." These are the oldest books in the language. They
are the chief exponents of the Shinto faith, and form the bases of many
commentaries and subsequent works.
The "History of Great Japan," composed in the latter part of the
seventeenth century, by the Lord of Mito (died 1700), is the standard
history of the present day. The external history of Japan, in twenty-two
volumes, by Rai Sanyo (died 1832), composed in classical Chinese, is most
widely read by men of education.
The Japanese are intensely proud of their history and take great care in
making and preserving records. Memorial stones are among the most
striking sights on the highways and in the towns, villages, and temple yards,
in honor of some noted scholar, ruler, or benefactor. Few people are more
thoroughly informed as to their own history. Every city, town, and village
has its annals. Family records are faithfully copied from generation to
generation. Almost every province has its encyclopaedic history, and every
high-road its itineraries and guide-books, in which famous places and
events are noted. In the large cities professional story-tellers and readers
gain a lucrative livelihood by narrating both legendary and classical history,
and the theatre is often the most faithful mirror of actual history. There are
Page 50
hundreds of child's histories in Japan. Many of the standard works are
profusely illustrated, are models of style and eloquence, and parents delight
to instruct their children in the national laws and traditions.
5. THE DRAMA.—The theatre is a favorite amusement, especially
among the lower classes; the pieces represented are of a popular character
and written in colloquial language, and generally founded on national
history and tradition, or on the lives and adventures of the heroes and gods;
and the scene is always laid in Japan. The play begins in the morning and
lasts all day, spectators bringing their food with them. No classical dramatic
author is known.
Poetry has always been a favorite study with the Japanese. The most
ancient poetical fragment, called a "Collection of Myriad Leaves," dates
from the eighth century. The collection of "One Hundred Persons" is much
later, and contains many poems written by the emperors themselves. The
Japanese possess no great epic or didactic poems, although some of their
lyrics are happy examples of quaint modes of thought and expression. It is
difficult to translate them into a foreign tongue.
6. GEOGRAPHY. NEWSPAPERS AND NOVELS.—The largest section
of Japanese literature is that treating of the local geography of the country
itself. These works are minute in detail and of great length, describing
events and monuments of historic interest.
Before the recent revolution bat one newspaper existed in Japan, but at
present the list numbers several hundred. Freedom of the press is unknown,
and fines and imprisonment for violation of the stringent laws are very
frequent.
Novels constitute a large section of Japanese literature. Fairy tales and
story books abound. Many of them are translated into English; "The Royal
profusely illustrated, are models of style and eloquence, and parents delight
to instruct their children in the national laws and traditions.
5. THE DRAMA.—The theatre is a favorite amusement, especially
among the lower classes; the pieces represented are of a popular character
and written in colloquial language, and generally founded on national
history and tradition, or on the lives and adventures of the heroes and gods;
and the scene is always laid in Japan. The play begins in the morning and
lasts all day, spectators bringing their food with them. No classical dramatic
author is known.
Poetry has always been a favorite study with the Japanese. The most
ancient poetical fragment, called a "Collection of Myriad Leaves," dates
from the eighth century. The collection of "One Hundred Persons" is much
later, and contains many poems written by the emperors themselves. The
Japanese possess no great epic or didactic poems, although some of their
lyrics are happy examples of quaint modes of thought and expression. It is
difficult to translate them into a foreign tongue.
6. GEOGRAPHY. NEWSPAPERS AND NOVELS.—The largest section
of Japanese literature is that treating of the local geography of the country
itself. These works are minute in detail and of great length, describing
events and monuments of historic interest.
Before the recent revolution bat one newspaper existed in Japan, but at
present the list numbers several hundred. Freedom of the press is unknown,
and fines and imprisonment for violation of the stringent laws are very
frequent.
Novels constitute a large section of Japanese literature. Fairy tales and
story books abound. Many of them are translated into English; "The Royal
Page 51
Ronans" and other works have recently been published in New York.
Medical science was borrowed from China, but upon this, as upon other
matters, the Japanese improved. Acupuncture, or the introduction of needles
into the living tissues for remedial purposes, was invented by the Japanese,
as was the moxa, or the burning of the flesh for the same purpose.
7. POSITION OF WOMAN.—Women in Japan are treated with far more
respect and consideration than elsewhere in the East. According to Japanese
history the women of the early centuries were possessed of more
intellectual and physical vigor, filling the offices of state and religion, and
reaching a high plane of social dignity and honor. Of the one hundred and
twenty-three Japanese sovereigns, nine have been women. The great
heroine of Japanese history and tradition was the Empress Jingu, renowned
for her beauty, piety, intelligence, and martial valor, who, about 200 A.D.,
invaded and conquered Corea.
The female children of the lower classes receive tuition in private schools
so generally established during the last two centuries throughout the
country, and those of the higher classes at the hands of private tutors or
governesses; and in every household may be found a great number of books
exclusively on the duties of women.
Medical science was borrowed from China, but upon this, as upon other
matters, the Japanese improved. Acupuncture, or the introduction of needles
into the living tissues for remedial purposes, was invented by the Japanese,
as was the moxa, or the burning of the flesh for the same purpose.
7. POSITION OF WOMAN.—Women in Japan are treated with far more
respect and consideration than elsewhere in the East. According to Japanese
history the women of the early centuries were possessed of more
intellectual and physical vigor, filling the offices of state and religion, and
reaching a high plane of social dignity and honor. Of the one hundred and
twenty-three Japanese sovereigns, nine have been women. The great
heroine of Japanese history and tradition was the Empress Jingu, renowned
for her beauty, piety, intelligence, and martial valor, who, about 200 A.D.,
invaded and conquered Corea.
The female children of the lower classes receive tuition in private schools
so generally established during the last two centuries throughout the
country, and those of the higher classes at the hands of private tutors or
governesses; and in every household may be found a great number of books
exclusively on the duties of women.
Page 52
SANSKRIT LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. The Social Constitution of India. Brahmanism.—3.
Characteristics of the Literature and its Divisions.—4. The Vedas and other
Sacred Books.—5. Sanskrit Poetry; Epic; The Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Lyric Poetry. Didactic Poetry; the Hitopadesa. Dramatic Poetry.—6..
History and Science.—7. Philosophy. 8. Buddhism.—9. Moral Philosophy.
The Code of Manu.—10. Modern Literatures of India.—11. Education. The
Brahmo Somaj.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—Sanskrit is the literary language of the Hindus,
and for two thousand years has served as the means of learned intercourse
and composition. The name denotes cultivated or perfected, in distinction to
the Prakrit or uncultivated, which sprang from it and was contemporary
with it.
The study of Sanskrit by European scholars dates less than a century
back, and it is important as the vehicle of an immense literature which lays
open the outward and inner life of a remarkable people from a remote epoch
nearly to the present day, and as being the most ancient and original of the
Indo-European languages, throwing light upon them all. The Aryan or Indo-
European race had its ancient home in Central Asia. Colonies migrated to
the west and founded the Persian, Greek, and Roman civilization, and
settled in Spain and England. Other branches found their way through the
1. The Language.—2. The Social Constitution of India. Brahmanism.—3.
Characteristics of the Literature and its Divisions.—4. The Vedas and other
Sacred Books.—5. Sanskrit Poetry; Epic; The Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Lyric Poetry. Didactic Poetry; the Hitopadesa. Dramatic Poetry.—6..
History and Science.—7. Philosophy. 8. Buddhism.—9. Moral Philosophy.
The Code of Manu.—10. Modern Literatures of India.—11. Education. The
Brahmo Somaj.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—Sanskrit is the literary language of the Hindus,
and for two thousand years has served as the means of learned intercourse
and composition. The name denotes cultivated or perfected, in distinction to
the Prakrit or uncultivated, which sprang from it and was contemporary
with it.
The study of Sanskrit by European scholars dates less than a century
back, and it is important as the vehicle of an immense literature which lays
open the outward and inner life of a remarkable people from a remote epoch
nearly to the present day, and as being the most ancient and original of the
Indo-European languages, throwing light upon them all. The Aryan or Indo-
European race had its ancient home in Central Asia. Colonies migrated to
the west and founded the Persian, Greek, and Roman civilization, and
settled in Spain and England. Other branches found their way through the
Page 53
passes of the Himalayas and spread themselves over India. Wherever they
went they asserted their superiority over the earlier people whom they
found in possession of the soil, and the history of civilization is everywhere
the history of the Aryan race. The forefathers of the Greek and Roman, of
the Englishman and the Hindu, dwelt together in India, spoke the same
language, and worshiped the same gods. The languages of Europe and India
are merely different forms of the original Aryan speech. This is especially
true of the words of common family life. Father, mother, brother, sister, and
widow, are substantially the same in most of the Aryan languages, whether
spoken on the banks of the Ganges, the Tiber, or the Thames. The word
daughter, which occurs in nearly all of them, is derived from the Sanskrit
word signifying to draw milk, and preserves the memory of the time when
the daughter was the little milkmaid in the primitive Aryan household.
It is probable that as late as the third or fourth century B.C. it was still
spoken. New dialects were engrafted upon it which at length superseded it,
though it has continued to be revered as the sacred and literary language of
the country. Among the modern tongues of India, the Hindui and the
Hindustani may be mentioned; the former, the language of the pure Hindu
population, is written in Sanskrit characters; the latter is the language of the
Mohammedan Hindus, in which Arabic letters are used. Many of the other
dialects spoken and written in Northern India are derived from the Sanskrit.
Of the more important among them there are English grammars and
dictionaries.
2. SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF INDIA.—Hindu literature takes its
character both from the social and the religious institutions of the country.
The social constitution is based on the distinction of classes into which the
people, from the earliest times, have been divided, and which were the
natural effect of the long struggle between the aboriginal tribes and the new
race which had invaded India. These castes are four: 1st. The Brahmins or
went they asserted their superiority over the earlier people whom they
found in possession of the soil, and the history of civilization is everywhere
the history of the Aryan race. The forefathers of the Greek and Roman, of
the Englishman and the Hindu, dwelt together in India, spoke the same
language, and worshiped the same gods. The languages of Europe and India
are merely different forms of the original Aryan speech. This is especially
true of the words of common family life. Father, mother, brother, sister, and
widow, are substantially the same in most of the Aryan languages, whether
spoken on the banks of the Ganges, the Tiber, or the Thames. The word
daughter, which occurs in nearly all of them, is derived from the Sanskrit
word signifying to draw milk, and preserves the memory of the time when
the daughter was the little milkmaid in the primitive Aryan household.
It is probable that as late as the third or fourth century B.C. it was still
spoken. New dialects were engrafted upon it which at length superseded it,
though it has continued to be revered as the sacred and literary language of
the country. Among the modern tongues of India, the Hindui and the
Hindustani may be mentioned; the former, the language of the pure Hindu
population, is written in Sanskrit characters; the latter is the language of the
Mohammedan Hindus, in which Arabic letters are used. Many of the other
dialects spoken and written in Northern India are derived from the Sanskrit.
Of the more important among them there are English grammars and
dictionaries.
2. SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF INDIA.—Hindu literature takes its
character both from the social and the religious institutions of the country.
The social constitution is based on the distinction of classes into which the
people, from the earliest times, have been divided, and which were the
natural effect of the long struggle between the aboriginal tribes and the new
race which had invaded India. These castes are four: 1st. The Brahmins or
Page 54
priests; 2d. The warriors and princes; 3d. The husbandmen; 4th. The
laborers. There are, besides, several impure classes, the result of an
intermingling of the different castes. Of these lower classes some are
considered utterly abominable—as that of the Pariahs. The different castes
are kept distinct from each other by the most rigorous laws; though in
modern times the system has been somewhat modified.
THE RELIGION.
In the period of the Vedas the religion of the Hindus was founded on the
simple worship of Nature. But the Pantheism of this age was gradually
superseded by the worship of the one Brahm, from which, according to this
belief, the soul emanated, and to which it seeks to return. Brahm is an
impersonality, the sum of all nature, the germ of all that is. Existence has no
purpose, the world is wholly evil, and all good persons should desire to be
taken out of it and to return to Brahm. This end is to be attained only by
transmigration of the soul through all previous stages of life, migrating into
the body of a higher or lower being according to the sins or merits of its
former existence, either to finish or begin anew its purification. This
religion of the Hindus led to the growth of a philosophy the precursor of
that of Greece, whose aims were loftier and whose methods more
ingenious.
From Brahm, the impersonal soul of the universe, emanated the personal
and active Brahma, who with Siva and Vishnu constitute the Trimurti or
god under three forms.
Siva is the second of the Hindu deities, and represents the primitive
animating and destroying forces of nature. His symbols relate to these
powers, and are worshiped more especially by the Sivaites—a numerous
sect of this religion. The worshipers of Vishnu, called the Preserver, the
laborers. There are, besides, several impure classes, the result of an
intermingling of the different castes. Of these lower classes some are
considered utterly abominable—as that of the Pariahs. The different castes
are kept distinct from each other by the most rigorous laws; though in
modern times the system has been somewhat modified.
THE RELIGION.
In the period of the Vedas the religion of the Hindus was founded on the
simple worship of Nature. But the Pantheism of this age was gradually
superseded by the worship of the one Brahm, from which, according to this
belief, the soul emanated, and to which it seeks to return. Brahm is an
impersonality, the sum of all nature, the germ of all that is. Existence has no
purpose, the world is wholly evil, and all good persons should desire to be
taken out of it and to return to Brahm. This end is to be attained only by
transmigration of the soul through all previous stages of life, migrating into
the body of a higher or lower being according to the sins or merits of its
former existence, either to finish or begin anew its purification. This
religion of the Hindus led to the growth of a philosophy the precursor of
that of Greece, whose aims were loftier and whose methods more
ingenious.
From Brahm, the impersonal soul of the universe, emanated the personal
and active Brahma, who with Siva and Vishnu constitute the Trimurti or
god under three forms.
Siva is the second of the Hindu deities, and represents the primitive
animating and destroying forces of nature. His symbols relate to these
powers, and are worshiped more especially by the Sivaites—a numerous
sect of this religion. The worshipers of Vishnu, called the Preserver, the
Page 55
first-born of Brahma, constitute the most extensive sect of India, and their
ideas relating to this form of the Divinity are represented by tradition and
poetry, and are particularly developed in the great monuments of Sanskrit
literature. The myths connected with Vishnu refer especially to his
incarnations or corporeal apparitions both in men and animals, which he
submits to in order to conquer the spirit of evil.
These incarnations are called Avatars, or descendings, and form an
important part of Hindu epic poetry. Of the ten Avatars which are attributed
to Vishnu, nine have already taken place; the last is yet to come, when the
god shall descend again from heaven, to destroy the present world, and to
restore peace and parity. The three forms of the Deity, emanating mutually
from each other, are expressed by the three symbols, A U M, three letters in
Sanskrit having but one sound, forming the mystical name Om, which never
escapes the lips of the Hindus, but is meditated on in silence. The
predominant worship of one or the other of these forms constitutes the
peculiarities of the numerous sects of this religion.
There are other inferior divinities, symbols of the forces of nature,
guardians of the world, demi-gods, demons, and heroes, whose worship,
however, is considered as a mode of reaching that divine rest, immersion
and absorption in Brahm. To this end are directed the sacrifices, the prayers,
the ablutions, the pilgrimages, and the penances, which occupy so large a
place in the Hindu worship.
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LITERATURE AND ITS
DIVISIONS.—A greater part of the Sanskrit literature, which counts its
works by thousands, still remains in manuscript. It was nearly all composed
in metre, even works of law, morality, and science. Every department of
knowledge and every branch of inquiry is represented, with the single
exception of history, and this forms the most striking general characteristic
ideas relating to this form of the Divinity are represented by tradition and
poetry, and are particularly developed in the great monuments of Sanskrit
literature. The myths connected with Vishnu refer especially to his
incarnations or corporeal apparitions both in men and animals, which he
submits to in order to conquer the spirit of evil.
These incarnations are called Avatars, or descendings, and form an
important part of Hindu epic poetry. Of the ten Avatars which are attributed
to Vishnu, nine have already taken place; the last is yet to come, when the
god shall descend again from heaven, to destroy the present world, and to
restore peace and parity. The three forms of the Deity, emanating mutually
from each other, are expressed by the three symbols, A U M, three letters in
Sanskrit having but one sound, forming the mystical name Om, which never
escapes the lips of the Hindus, but is meditated on in silence. The
predominant worship of one or the other of these forms constitutes the
peculiarities of the numerous sects of this religion.
There are other inferior divinities, symbols of the forces of nature,
guardians of the world, demi-gods, demons, and heroes, whose worship,
however, is considered as a mode of reaching that divine rest, immersion
and absorption in Brahm. To this end are directed the sacrifices, the prayers,
the ablutions, the pilgrimages, and the penances, which occupy so large a
place in the Hindu worship.
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LITERATURE AND ITS
DIVISIONS.—A greater part of the Sanskrit literature, which counts its
works by thousands, still remains in manuscript. It was nearly all composed
in metre, even works of law, morality, and science. Every department of
knowledge and every branch of inquiry is represented, with the single
exception of history, and this forms the most striking general characteristic
Page 56
of the literature, and one which robs it of a great share of worth and interest.
Its place is in the intellectual rather than in the political history of the world.
The literary monuments of the Sanskrit language correspond to the great
eras in the history of India. The first period reaches back to that remote age,
when those tribes of the Aryan race speaking Sanskrit emigrated to the
northwestern portion of the Indian Peninsula, and established themselves
there, an agricultural and pastoral people. That was the age in which were
composed the prayers, hymns, and precepts afterwards collected in the form
of the Vedas, the sacred books of the country. In the second period, the
people, incited by the desire of conquest, penetrated into the fertile valleys
lying between the Indus and the Ganges; and the struggle with the
aboriginal inhabitants, which followed their invasion, gave birth to epic
poetry, in which the wars of the different races were celebrated and the
extension of Hindu civilization related. The third period embraces the
successive ages of the formation and development of a learned and artistic
literature. It contains collections of the ancient traditions, expositions of the
Vedas, works on grammar, lexicography, and science; and its conclusion
forms the golden age of Sanskrit literature, when, the country being ruled
by liberal princes, poetry, and especially the drama, reached its highest
degree of perfection.
The chronology of these periods varies according to the systems of
different orientalists. It is, however, admitted that the Vedas are the first
literary productions of India, and that their origin cannot be later than the
fifteenth century B.C. The period of the Vedas embraces the other sacred
books, or commentaries founded upon them, though written several
centuries afterwards. The second period, to which belong the two great epic
poems, the "Ramayana" and the "Mahabharata," according to the best
authorities ends with the sixth or seventh century B.C. The third period
embraces all the poetical and scientific works written from that time to the
Its place is in the intellectual rather than in the political history of the world.
The literary monuments of the Sanskrit language correspond to the great
eras in the history of India. The first period reaches back to that remote age,
when those tribes of the Aryan race speaking Sanskrit emigrated to the
northwestern portion of the Indian Peninsula, and established themselves
there, an agricultural and pastoral people. That was the age in which were
composed the prayers, hymns, and precepts afterwards collected in the form
of the Vedas, the sacred books of the country. In the second period, the
people, incited by the desire of conquest, penetrated into the fertile valleys
lying between the Indus and the Ganges; and the struggle with the
aboriginal inhabitants, which followed their invasion, gave birth to epic
poetry, in which the wars of the different races were celebrated and the
extension of Hindu civilization related. The third period embraces the
successive ages of the formation and development of a learned and artistic
literature. It contains collections of the ancient traditions, expositions of the
Vedas, works on grammar, lexicography, and science; and its conclusion
forms the golden age of Sanskrit literature, when, the country being ruled
by liberal princes, poetry, and especially the drama, reached its highest
degree of perfection.
The chronology of these periods varies according to the systems of
different orientalists. It is, however, admitted that the Vedas are the first
literary productions of India, and that their origin cannot be later than the
fifteenth century B.C. The period of the Vedas embraces the other sacred
books, or commentaries founded upon them, though written several
centuries afterwards. The second period, to which belong the two great epic
poems, the "Ramayana" and the "Mahabharata," according to the best
authorities ends with the sixth or seventh century B.C. The third period
embraces all the poetical and scientific works written from that time to the
Page 57
third or fourth century B.C., when the language, having been progressively
refined, became fixed in the writings of Kalidasa, Jayadeva, and other
poets. A fourth period, including the tenth century A.D., may be added,
distinguished by its erudition, grammatical, rhetorical, and scientific
disquisitions, which, however, is not considered as belonging to the
classical age. From the Hindu languages, originating in the Sanskrit, new
literatures have sprung; but they are essentially founded on the ancient
literature, which far surpasses them in extent and importance, and is the
great model of them all. Indeed, its influence has not been limited to India;
all the poetical and scientific works of Asia, China, and Japan included,
have borrowed largely from it, and in Southern Russia the scanty literature
of the Kalmucks is derived entirely from Hindu sources. The Sanskrit
literature, known to Europe only recently, through the researches of the
English and German orientalists, has now become the auxiliary and
foundation of all philological studies.
4. THE VEDAS AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS.—The Vedas
(knowledge or science) are the Bible of the Hindus, the most ancient book
of the Aryan family, and contain the revelation of Brahm which was
preserved by tradition and collected by Vyasa, a name which means
compiler. The word Veda, however, should be taken, as a collective name
for the sacred literature of the Vedic age which forms the background of the
whole Indian world. Many works belonging to that age are lost, though a
large number still exists.
The most important of the Vedas are three in number. First, The "Rig-
Veda," which is the great literary memorial of the settlement of the
Aryans in the Punjaub, and of their religious hymns and songs. Second, The
"Yajur-Veda." Third, The "Sama-Veda."
refined, became fixed in the writings of Kalidasa, Jayadeva, and other
poets. A fourth period, including the tenth century A.D., may be added,
distinguished by its erudition, grammatical, rhetorical, and scientific
disquisitions, which, however, is not considered as belonging to the
classical age. From the Hindu languages, originating in the Sanskrit, new
literatures have sprung; but they are essentially founded on the ancient
literature, which far surpasses them in extent and importance, and is the
great model of them all. Indeed, its influence has not been limited to India;
all the poetical and scientific works of Asia, China, and Japan included,
have borrowed largely from it, and in Southern Russia the scanty literature
of the Kalmucks is derived entirely from Hindu sources. The Sanskrit
literature, known to Europe only recently, through the researches of the
English and German orientalists, has now become the auxiliary and
foundation of all philological studies.
4. THE VEDAS AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS.—The Vedas
(knowledge or science) are the Bible of the Hindus, the most ancient book
of the Aryan family, and contain the revelation of Brahm which was
preserved by tradition and collected by Vyasa, a name which means
compiler. The word Veda, however, should be taken, as a collective name
for the sacred literature of the Vedic age which forms the background of the
whole Indian world. Many works belonging to that age are lost, though a
large number still exists.
The most important of the Vedas are three in number. First, The "Rig-
Veda," which is the great literary memorial of the settlement of the
Aryans in the Punjaub, and of their religious hymns and songs. Second, The
"Yajur-Veda." Third, The "Sama-Veda."
Page 58
Each Veda divided into two parts: the first contains prayers and
invocations, most of which are of a rhythmical character; the second
records the precepts relative to those prayers and to the ceremonies of the
sacrifices, and describes the religious myths and symbols.
There are many commentaries on the Vedas of an ancient date, which are
considered as sacred books, and relate to medicine, music, astronomy,
astrology, grammar, philosophy, jurisprudence, and, indeed, to the whole
circle of Hindu science.
They represent a period of unknown antiquity, when the Aryans were
divided into tribes of which the chieftain was the father and priest, and
when women held a high position. Some of the most beautiful hymns of
this age were composed by ladies and queens. The morals of Avyan, a
woman of an early age, are still taught in the Hindu schools as the golden
rule of life.
India to-day acknowledges no higher authority in matters of religion,
ceremonial, customs, and law than the Vedas, and the spirit of Vedantism,
which is breathed by every Hindu from his earliest youth, pervades the
prayers of the idolater, the speculations of the philosopher, and the proverbs
of the beggar.
The "Puranas" (ancient writings) hold an eminent rank in the religion and
literature of the Hindus. Though of a more recent date than the Vedas, they
possess the credit of an ancient and divine origin, and exercise an extensive
and practical influence upon the people. They comprise vast collections of
ancient traditions relating to theology, cosmology, and to the genealogy of
gods and heroes. There are eighteen acknowledged Puranas, which
altogether contain 400,000 stanzas. The "Upapuranas," also eighteen in
number, are commentaries on the Puranas. Finally, to the sacred books, and
invocations, most of which are of a rhythmical character; the second
records the precepts relative to those prayers and to the ceremonies of the
sacrifices, and describes the religious myths and symbols.
There are many commentaries on the Vedas of an ancient date, which are
considered as sacred books, and relate to medicine, music, astronomy,
astrology, grammar, philosophy, jurisprudence, and, indeed, to the whole
circle of Hindu science.
They represent a period of unknown antiquity, when the Aryans were
divided into tribes of which the chieftain was the father and priest, and
when women held a high position. Some of the most beautiful hymns of
this age were composed by ladies and queens. The morals of Avyan, a
woman of an early age, are still taught in the Hindu schools as the golden
rule of life.
India to-day acknowledges no higher authority in matters of religion,
ceremonial, customs, and law than the Vedas, and the spirit of Vedantism,
which is breathed by every Hindu from his earliest youth, pervades the
prayers of the idolater, the speculations of the philosopher, and the proverbs
of the beggar.
The "Puranas" (ancient writings) hold an eminent rank in the religion and
literature of the Hindus. Though of a more recent date than the Vedas, they
possess the credit of an ancient and divine origin, and exercise an extensive
and practical influence upon the people. They comprise vast collections of
ancient traditions relating to theology, cosmology, and to the genealogy of
gods and heroes. There are eighteen acknowledged Puranas, which
altogether contain 400,000 stanzas. The "Upapuranas," also eighteen in
number, are commentaries on the Puranas. Finally, to the sacred books, and
Page 59
next to the Vedas both in antiquity and authority, belong the
"Manavadharmasastra," or the ordinances of Manu, spoken of hereafter.
5. SANSKRIT POETRY.—This poetry, springing from the lively and
powerful imagination of the Hindus, is inspired by their religious doctrines,
and embodied in the most harmonious language. Exalted by their peculiar
belief in pantheism and metempsychosis, they consider the universe and
themselves as directly emanating from Brahm, and they strive to lose their
own individuality, in its infinite essence. Yet, as impure beings, they feel
their incapacity to obtain the highest moral perfection, except through a
continual atonement, to which all nature is condemned. Hence Hindu poetry
expresses a profound melancholy, which pervades the character as well as
the literature of that people. This poetry breathes a spirit of perpetual
sacrifice of the individual self, as the ideal of human life. The bards of
India, inspired by this predominant feeling, have given to poetry nearly
every form it has assumed in the Western world, and in each and all they
have excelled.
Sanskrit poetry is both metrical and rhythmical, equally free from the
confused strains of unmoulded genius and from the servile pedantry of
conventional rules. The verse of eight syllables is the source of all other
metres, and the sloka or double distich is the stanza most frequently used.
Though this poetry presents too often extravagance of ideas, incumbrance
of episodes, and monstrosity of images, as a general rule it is endowed with
simplicity of style, pure coloring, sublime ideas, rare figures, and chaste
epithets. Its exuberance must be attributed to the strange mythology of the
Hindus, to the immensity of the fables which constitute the groundwork of
their poems, and to the gigantic strength of their poetical imaginations. A
striking peculiarity of Sanskrit poetry is its extensive use in treating of those
subjects apparently the most difficult to reduce to a metrical form—not only
the Vedas and Manu's code are composed in verse, but the sciences are
"Manavadharmasastra," or the ordinances of Manu, spoken of hereafter.
5. SANSKRIT POETRY.—This poetry, springing from the lively and
powerful imagination of the Hindus, is inspired by their religious doctrines,
and embodied in the most harmonious language. Exalted by their peculiar
belief in pantheism and metempsychosis, they consider the universe and
themselves as directly emanating from Brahm, and they strive to lose their
own individuality, in its infinite essence. Yet, as impure beings, they feel
their incapacity to obtain the highest moral perfection, except through a
continual atonement, to which all nature is condemned. Hence Hindu poetry
expresses a profound melancholy, which pervades the character as well as
the literature of that people. This poetry breathes a spirit of perpetual
sacrifice of the individual self, as the ideal of human life. The bards of
India, inspired by this predominant feeling, have given to poetry nearly
every form it has assumed in the Western world, and in each and all they
have excelled.
Sanskrit poetry is both metrical and rhythmical, equally free from the
confused strains of unmoulded genius and from the servile pedantry of
conventional rules. The verse of eight syllables is the source of all other
metres, and the sloka or double distich is the stanza most frequently used.
Though this poetry presents too often extravagance of ideas, incumbrance
of episodes, and monstrosity of images, as a general rule it is endowed with
simplicity of style, pure coloring, sublime ideas, rare figures, and chaste
epithets. Its exuberance must be attributed to the strange mythology of the
Hindus, to the immensity of the fables which constitute the groundwork of
their poems, and to the gigantic strength of their poetical imaginations. A
striking peculiarity of Sanskrit poetry is its extensive use in treating of those
subjects apparently the most difficult to reduce to a metrical form—not only
the Vedas and Manu's code are composed in verse, but the sciences are
Page 60
expressed in this form. Even in the few works which may be called prose,
the style is so modulated and bears so great a resemblance to the language
of poetry as scarcely to be distinguished from it. The history of Sanskrit
poetry is, in reality, the history of Sanskrit literature.
The subjects of the epic poems of the Hindus are derived chiefly from
their religious tenets, and relate to the incarnations of the gods, who, in their
human forms, become the heroes of this poetry. The idea of an Almighty
power warring against the spirit of evil destroys the possibility of struggle,
and impairs the character of epic poetry; but the Hindu poets, by submitting
their gods both to fate and to the condition of men, diminish their power
and give them the character of epic heroes.
The Hindu mythology, however, is the great obstacle which must ever
prevent this poetry from becoming popular in the Western world. The great
personifications of the Deity have not been softened down, as in the
mythology of the Greeks, to the perfection of human symmetry, but are here
exhibited in their original gigantic forms. Majesty is often expressed by
enormous stature; power, by multitudinous hands; providence, by countless
eyes; and omnipresence, by innumerable bodies.
In addition to this, Hindu epic poetry departs so far from what may be
called the vernacular idiom of thought and feeling, and refers to a people
whose political and religious institutions, as well as moral habits, are so
much at variance with our own, that no labor or skill could render its
associations familiar.
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the most important and sublime
creations of Hindu literature, and the most colossal epic poems to be found
in the literature of the world. They surpass in magnitude the Iliad and
Odyssey, the Jerusalem Delivered and the Lusiad, as the pyramids of Egypt
tower above the temples of Greece.
the style is so modulated and bears so great a resemblance to the language
of poetry as scarcely to be distinguished from it. The history of Sanskrit
poetry is, in reality, the history of Sanskrit literature.
The subjects of the epic poems of the Hindus are derived chiefly from
their religious tenets, and relate to the incarnations of the gods, who, in their
human forms, become the heroes of this poetry. The idea of an Almighty
power warring against the spirit of evil destroys the possibility of struggle,
and impairs the character of epic poetry; but the Hindu poets, by submitting
their gods both to fate and to the condition of men, diminish their power
and give them the character of epic heroes.
The Hindu mythology, however, is the great obstacle which must ever
prevent this poetry from becoming popular in the Western world. The great
personifications of the Deity have not been softened down, as in the
mythology of the Greeks, to the perfection of human symmetry, but are here
exhibited in their original gigantic forms. Majesty is often expressed by
enormous stature; power, by multitudinous hands; providence, by countless
eyes; and omnipresence, by innumerable bodies.
In addition to this, Hindu epic poetry departs so far from what may be
called the vernacular idiom of thought and feeling, and refers to a people
whose political and religious institutions, as well as moral habits, are so
much at variance with our own, that no labor or skill could render its
associations familiar.
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the most important and sublime
creations of Hindu literature, and the most colossal epic poems to be found
in the literature of the world. They surpass in magnitude the Iliad and
Odyssey, the Jerusalem Delivered and the Lusiad, as the pyramids of Egypt
tower above the temples of Greece.
Page 61
The Ramayana (Rama and yana, expedition) describes the exploits of
Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, and the son of Dasaratha, king of Oude.
Ravana, the prince of demons, bad stolen from the gods the privilege of
being invulnerable, and had thus acquired an equality with them. He could
not be overcome except by a man, and the gods implored Vishnu to become
incarnate in order that Ravana might be conquered. The origin and the
development of this Avatar, the departing of Rama for the battlefield, the
divine signs of his mission, his love and marriage with Sita, the daughter of
the king Janaka, the persecution of his step-mother, by which the hero is
sent into exile, his penance in the desert, the abduction of his bride by
Ravana, the gigantic battles that ensue, the rescue of Sita, and the triumph
of Rama constitute the principal plot of this wonderful poem, full of
incidents and episodes of the most singular and beautiful character. Among
these may be mentioned the descent of the goddess Ganga, which relates to
the mythological origin of the river Ganges, and the story of Yajnadatta, a
young penitent, who through mistake was killed by Dasaratha; the former
splendid for its rich imagery, the latter incomparable for its elegiac
character, and for its expression of the passionate sorrow of parental
affection.
The Ramayana was written by Valmiki, a poet belonging to an unknown
period. It consists of seven cantos, and contains twenty-five thousand
verses. The original, with its translation into Italian, was published in Paris
by the government of Sardinia about the middle of this century.
The Mahabharata (the great Bharata) has nearly the same antiquity as the
Ramayana. It describes the greatest Avatar of Vishnu, the incarnation of the
god in Krishna, and it presents a vast picture of the Hindu religion. It relates
to the legendary history of the Bharata dynasty, especially to the wars
between the Pandus and Kurus, two branches of a princely family of ancient
India. Five sons of Pandu, having been unjustly exiled by their uncle,
Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, and the son of Dasaratha, king of Oude.
Ravana, the prince of demons, bad stolen from the gods the privilege of
being invulnerable, and had thus acquired an equality with them. He could
not be overcome except by a man, and the gods implored Vishnu to become
incarnate in order that Ravana might be conquered. The origin and the
development of this Avatar, the departing of Rama for the battlefield, the
divine signs of his mission, his love and marriage with Sita, the daughter of
the king Janaka, the persecution of his step-mother, by which the hero is
sent into exile, his penance in the desert, the abduction of his bride by
Ravana, the gigantic battles that ensue, the rescue of Sita, and the triumph
of Rama constitute the principal plot of this wonderful poem, full of
incidents and episodes of the most singular and beautiful character. Among
these may be mentioned the descent of the goddess Ganga, which relates to
the mythological origin of the river Ganges, and the story of Yajnadatta, a
young penitent, who through mistake was killed by Dasaratha; the former
splendid for its rich imagery, the latter incomparable for its elegiac
character, and for its expression of the passionate sorrow of parental
affection.
The Ramayana was written by Valmiki, a poet belonging to an unknown
period. It consists of seven cantos, and contains twenty-five thousand
verses. The original, with its translation into Italian, was published in Paris
by the government of Sardinia about the middle of this century.
The Mahabharata (the great Bharata) has nearly the same antiquity as the
Ramayana. It describes the greatest Avatar of Vishnu, the incarnation of the
god in Krishna, and it presents a vast picture of the Hindu religion. It relates
to the legendary history of the Bharata dynasty, especially to the wars
between the Pandus and Kurus, two branches of a princely family of ancient
India. Five sons of Pandu, having been unjustly exiled by their uncle,
Page 62
return, after many wonderful adventures, with a powerful army to oppose
the Kurus, and being aided by Krishna, the incarnated Vishnu, defeat their
enemies and become lords of all the country. The poem describes the birth
of Krishna, his escape from the dangers which surrounded his cradle, his
miracles, his pastoral life, his rescue of sixteen thousand young girls who
had become prisoners of a giant, his heroic deeds in the war of the Pandus,
and finally his ascent to heaven, where he still leads the round dances of the
spheres. This work is not more remarkable for the grandeur of its
conceptions than for the information it affords respecting the social and
religious systems of the ancient Hindus, which are here revealed with
majestic and sublime eloquence. Five of its most esteemed episodes are
called the Five Precious Stones. First among these may be mentioned the
"Bhagavad-Gita," or the Divine Song, containing the revelation of Krishna,
in the form of a dialogue between the god and his pupil Arjuna. Schlegel
calls this episode the most beautiful, and perhaps the most truly
philosophical, poem that the whole range of literature has produced.
The Mahabharata is divided into eighteen cantos, and it contains two
hundred thousand verses. It is attributed to Vyasa, the compiler of the
Vedas, but it appears that it was the result of a period of literature rather
than the work of a single poet. Its different incidents and episodes were
probably separate poems, which from the earliest age were sung by the
people, and later, by degrees, collected in one complete work. Of the
Mahabharata we possess only a few episodes translated into English, such
as the Bhagavad-Gita, by Wilkins.
At a later period other epic poems were written, either as abridgments of
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, or founded on episodes contained in
them. These, however, belong to a lower order of composition, and cannot
be compared with the great works of Valmiki and Vyasa.
the Kurus, and being aided by Krishna, the incarnated Vishnu, defeat their
enemies and become lords of all the country. The poem describes the birth
of Krishna, his escape from the dangers which surrounded his cradle, his
miracles, his pastoral life, his rescue of sixteen thousand young girls who
had become prisoners of a giant, his heroic deeds in the war of the Pandus,
and finally his ascent to heaven, where he still leads the round dances of the
spheres. This work is not more remarkable for the grandeur of its
conceptions than for the information it affords respecting the social and
religious systems of the ancient Hindus, which are here revealed with
majestic and sublime eloquence. Five of its most esteemed episodes are
called the Five Precious Stones. First among these may be mentioned the
"Bhagavad-Gita," or the Divine Song, containing the revelation of Krishna,
in the form of a dialogue between the god and his pupil Arjuna. Schlegel
calls this episode the most beautiful, and perhaps the most truly
philosophical, poem that the whole range of literature has produced.
The Mahabharata is divided into eighteen cantos, and it contains two
hundred thousand verses. It is attributed to Vyasa, the compiler of the
Vedas, but it appears that it was the result of a period of literature rather
than the work of a single poet. Its different incidents and episodes were
probably separate poems, which from the earliest age were sung by the
people, and later, by degrees, collected in one complete work. Of the
Mahabharata we possess only a few episodes translated into English, such
as the Bhagavad-Gita, by Wilkins.
At a later period other epic poems were written, either as abridgments of
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, or founded on episodes contained in
them. These, however, belong to a lower order of composition, and cannot
be compared with the great works of Valmiki and Vyasa.
Page 63
In the development of lyric poetry the Hindu bards, particularly those of
the third period, have been eminently successful; their power is great in the
sublime and the pathetic, and manifests itself more particularly in
awakening the tender sympathies of our nature. Here we find many poems
full of grace and delicacy, and splendid for their charming descriptions of
nature. Such are the "Meghaduta" and the "Ritusanhara" of Kalidasa, the
"Madhava and Radha" of Jayadeva, and especially the "Gita-Govinda" of
the same poet, or the adventures of Krishna as a shepherd, a poem in which
the soft languors of love are depicted in enchanting colors, and which is
adorned with all the magnificence of language and sentiment.
Hindu poetry has a particular tendency to the didactic style and to
embody religious and historical knowledge; every subject is treated in the
form of verse, such as inscriptions, deeds, and dictionaries. Splendid
examples of didactic poetry may be found in the episodes of the epic
poems, and more particularly in the collections of fables and apologues in
which the Sanskrit literature abounds. Among these the Hitopadesa is the
most celebrated, in which Vishnu-saima instructs the sons of a king
committed to his care. Perhaps there is no book, except the Bible, which has
been translated into so many languages as these fables. They have spread in
two branches over nearly the whole civilized world. The one, under the
original name of the Hitopadesa, remains almost confined to India, while
the other, under the title of "Calila and Dimna," has become famous over all
western Asia and in all the countries of Europe, and has served as the model
of the fables of all languages. To this department belong also the
"Adventures of the Ten Princes," by Dandin, which, in an artistic point of
view, is far superior to any other didactic writings of Hindu literature.
The drama is the most interesting branch of Hindu literature. No other
ancient people, except the Greeks, has brought forth anything so admirable
in this department. It had its most flourishing period probably in the third or
the third period, have been eminently successful; their power is great in the
sublime and the pathetic, and manifests itself more particularly in
awakening the tender sympathies of our nature. Here we find many poems
full of grace and delicacy, and splendid for their charming descriptions of
nature. Such are the "Meghaduta" and the "Ritusanhara" of Kalidasa, the
"Madhava and Radha" of Jayadeva, and especially the "Gita-Govinda" of
the same poet, or the adventures of Krishna as a shepherd, a poem in which
the soft languors of love are depicted in enchanting colors, and which is
adorned with all the magnificence of language and sentiment.
Hindu poetry has a particular tendency to the didactic style and to
embody religious and historical knowledge; every subject is treated in the
form of verse, such as inscriptions, deeds, and dictionaries. Splendid
examples of didactic poetry may be found in the episodes of the epic
poems, and more particularly in the collections of fables and apologues in
which the Sanskrit literature abounds. Among these the Hitopadesa is the
most celebrated, in which Vishnu-saima instructs the sons of a king
committed to his care. Perhaps there is no book, except the Bible, which has
been translated into so many languages as these fables. They have spread in
two branches over nearly the whole civilized world. The one, under the
original name of the Hitopadesa, remains almost confined to India, while
the other, under the title of "Calila and Dimna," has become famous over all
western Asia and in all the countries of Europe, and has served as the model
of the fables of all languages. To this department belong also the
"Adventures of the Ten Princes," by Dandin, which, in an artistic point of
view, is far superior to any other didactic writings of Hindu literature.
The drama is the most interesting branch of Hindu literature. No other
ancient people, except the Greeks, has brought forth anything so admirable
in this department. It had its most flourishing period probably in the third or
Page 64
fourth century B.C. Its origin is attributed to Brahm, and its subjects are
selected from the mythology. Whether the drama represents the legends of
the gods, or the simple circumstances of ordinary life; whether it describes
allegorical or historical subjects, it bears always the same character of its
origin and of its tendency. Simplicity of plot, unity of episodes, and purity
of language, unite in the formation of the Hindu dramas. Prose and verse,
the serious and the comic, pantomime and music are intermingled in their
representations. Only the principal characters, the gods, the Brahmins, and
the kings, speak Sanskrit; women and the less important characters speak
Prakrit, more or less refined according to their rank. Whatever may offend
propriety, whatever may produce an unwholesome excitement, is excluded;
for the hilarity of the audience, there is an occasional introduction on the
stage of a parasite or a buffoon. The representation is usually opened by an
apologue and always concluded with a prayer.
Kalidasa, the Hindu Shakespeare, has been called by his countrymen the
Bridegroom of Poetry. His language is harmonious and elevated, and in his
compositions he unites grace and tenderness with grandeur and sublimity.
Many of his dramas contain episodes selected from the epic poems, and are
founded on the principles of Brahmanism. The "Messenger Cloud" of this
author, a monologue rather than a drama, is unsurpassed in beauty of
sentiment by any European poet. "Sakuntala," or the Fatal Ring, is
considered one of the best dramas of Kalidasa. It has been translated into
English by Sir W. Jones.
Bhavabhuti, a Brahmin by birth, was called by his contemporaries the
Sweet Speaking. He was the author of many dramas of distinguished merit,
which rank next to those of Kalidasa.
6. HISTORY AND SCIENCE.—History, considered as the development
of mankind in relation to its ideal, is unknown to Sanskrit literature. Indeed,
selected from the mythology. Whether the drama represents the legends of
the gods, or the simple circumstances of ordinary life; whether it describes
allegorical or historical subjects, it bears always the same character of its
origin and of its tendency. Simplicity of plot, unity of episodes, and purity
of language, unite in the formation of the Hindu dramas. Prose and verse,
the serious and the comic, pantomime and music are intermingled in their
representations. Only the principal characters, the gods, the Brahmins, and
the kings, speak Sanskrit; women and the less important characters speak
Prakrit, more or less refined according to their rank. Whatever may offend
propriety, whatever may produce an unwholesome excitement, is excluded;
for the hilarity of the audience, there is an occasional introduction on the
stage of a parasite or a buffoon. The representation is usually opened by an
apologue and always concluded with a prayer.
Kalidasa, the Hindu Shakespeare, has been called by his countrymen the
Bridegroom of Poetry. His language is harmonious and elevated, and in his
compositions he unites grace and tenderness with grandeur and sublimity.
Many of his dramas contain episodes selected from the epic poems, and are
founded on the principles of Brahmanism. The "Messenger Cloud" of this
author, a monologue rather than a drama, is unsurpassed in beauty of
sentiment by any European poet. "Sakuntala," or the Fatal Ring, is
considered one of the best dramas of Kalidasa. It has been translated into
English by Sir W. Jones.
Bhavabhuti, a Brahmin by birth, was called by his contemporaries the
Sweet Speaking. He was the author of many dramas of distinguished merit,
which rank next to those of Kalidasa.
6. HISTORY AND SCIENCE.—History, considered as the development
of mankind in relation to its ideal, is unknown to Sanskrit literature. Indeed,
Page 65
the only historical work thus far discovered is the "History of Cashmere," a
series of poetical compositions, written by different authors at different
periods, the last of which brings down the annals to the sixteenth century
A.D., when Cashmere became a province of the Mogul empire.
In the scientific department, the works on Sanskrit grammar and
lexicography are models of logical and analytical research. There are also
valuable works on jurisprudence, on rhetoric, poetry, music, and other arts.
The Hindu system of decimal notation made its way through the Arabs to
modern nations, our usual figures being, in their origin, letters of the
Sanskrit alphabet. Their medical and surgical knowledge is deserving of
study.
7. PHILOSOPHY.—The object of Hindu philosophy consists in
obtaining emancipation from metempsychosis, through the absorption of
the soul into Brahm, or the universal being. According to the different
principles which philosophers adopt in attaining this supreme object, their
doctrines are divided into the four following systems: 1st, Sensualism; 2d,
Idealism; 3d, Mysticism; 4th, Eclecticism.
Sensualism is represented in the school of Kapila, according to whose
doctrine the purification of the soul must be effected through knowledge,
the only source of which lies in sensual perception. In this system, nature,
eternal and universal, is considered as the first cause, which produces
intelligence and all the other principles of knowledge and existence. This
philosophy of nature leads some of its followers to seek their purification in
the sensual pleasures of this life, and in the loss of their own individuality in
nature itself, in which they strive to be absorbed. Materialism, fatalism, and
atheism are the natural consequences of the system of Kapila.
Idealism is the foundation of three philosophical schools: the Dialectic,
the Atomic, and the Vedanta. The Dialectic school considers the principles
series of poetical compositions, written by different authors at different
periods, the last of which brings down the annals to the sixteenth century
A.D., when Cashmere became a province of the Mogul empire.
In the scientific department, the works on Sanskrit grammar and
lexicography are models of logical and analytical research. There are also
valuable works on jurisprudence, on rhetoric, poetry, music, and other arts.
The Hindu system of decimal notation made its way through the Arabs to
modern nations, our usual figures being, in their origin, letters of the
Sanskrit alphabet. Their medical and surgical knowledge is deserving of
study.
7. PHILOSOPHY.—The object of Hindu philosophy consists in
obtaining emancipation from metempsychosis, through the absorption of
the soul into Brahm, or the universal being. According to the different
principles which philosophers adopt in attaining this supreme object, their
doctrines are divided into the four following systems: 1st, Sensualism; 2d,
Idealism; 3d, Mysticism; 4th, Eclecticism.
Sensualism is represented in the school of Kapila, according to whose
doctrine the purification of the soul must be effected through knowledge,
the only source of which lies in sensual perception. In this system, nature,
eternal and universal, is considered as the first cause, which produces
intelligence and all the other principles of knowledge and existence. This
philosophy of nature leads some of its followers to seek their purification in
the sensual pleasures of this life, and in the loss of their own individuality in
nature itself, in which they strive to be absorbed. Materialism, fatalism, and
atheism are the natural consequences of the system of Kapila.
Idealism is the foundation of three philosophical schools: the Dialectic,
the Atomic, and the Vedanta. The Dialectic school considers the principles
Page 66
of knowledge as entirely distinct from nature; it admits the existence of
universal ideas in the human mind; it establishes the syllogistic form as the
complete method of reasoning, and finally, it holds as fundamental the
duality of intelligence and nature. In this theory, the soul is considered as
distinct from Brahm and also from the body. Man can approach Brahm, can
unite himself to the universal soul, but can never lose his own individuality.
The Atomic doctrine explains the origin of the world through the
combination of eternal, simple atoms. It belongs to Idealism, for the
predominance which it gives to ideas over sensation, and for the
individuality and consciousness which it recognizes in man.
The Vedanta is the true ideal pantheistic philosophy of India. It considers
Brahm in two different states: first, as a pure, simple, abstract, and inert
essence; secondly, as an active individuality. Nature in this system is only a
special quality or quantity of Brahm, having no actual reality, and he who
turns away from ail that is unreal and changeable and contemplates Brahm
unceasingly, becomes one with it, and attains liberation.
Mysticism comprehends all doctrines which deny authority to reason,
and admit no other principles of knowledge or rule of life than supernatural
or direct revelation. To this system belong the doctrines of Patanjali, which
teach that man must emancipate himself from metempsychosis through
contemplation and ecstasy to be attained by the calm of the senses, by
corporeal penance, suspension of breath, and immobility of position. The
followers of this school pass their lives in solitude, absorbed in this mystic
contemplation. The forests, the deserts, and the environs of the temples are
filled with these mystics, who, thus separated from external life, believe
themselves the subjects of supernatural illumination and power. The
Bhagavad-Gita, already spoken of, is the best exposition of this doctrine.
universal ideas in the human mind; it establishes the syllogistic form as the
complete method of reasoning, and finally, it holds as fundamental the
duality of intelligence and nature. In this theory, the soul is considered as
distinct from Brahm and also from the body. Man can approach Brahm, can
unite himself to the universal soul, but can never lose his own individuality.
The Atomic doctrine explains the origin of the world through the
combination of eternal, simple atoms. It belongs to Idealism, for the
predominance which it gives to ideas over sensation, and for the
individuality and consciousness which it recognizes in man.
The Vedanta is the true ideal pantheistic philosophy of India. It considers
Brahm in two different states: first, as a pure, simple, abstract, and inert
essence; secondly, as an active individuality. Nature in this system is only a
special quality or quantity of Brahm, having no actual reality, and he who
turns away from ail that is unreal and changeable and contemplates Brahm
unceasingly, becomes one with it, and attains liberation.
Mysticism comprehends all doctrines which deny authority to reason,
and admit no other principles of knowledge or rule of life than supernatural
or direct revelation. To this system belong the doctrines of Patanjali, which
teach that man must emancipate himself from metempsychosis through
contemplation and ecstasy to be attained by the calm of the senses, by
corporeal penance, suspension of breath, and immobility of position. The
followers of this school pass their lives in solitude, absorbed in this mystic
contemplation. The forests, the deserts, and the environs of the temples are
filled with these mystics, who, thus separated from external life, believe
themselves the subjects of supernatural illumination and power. The
Bhagavad-Gita, already spoken of, is the best exposition of this doctrine.
Page 67
The Eclectic school comprises all theories which deny the authority of
the Vedas, and admit rational principles borrowed both from sensualism and
idealism. Among these doctrines Buddhism is the principal.
8. BUDDHISM.—Buddhism is so called from Buddha, a name meaning
deified teacher, which was given to Sakyamuni, or Saint Sakya, a reformer
of Brahmanism, who introduced into the Hindu religion a more simple
creed, and a milder and more humane code of morality. The date of the
origin of this reform is uncertain. It is probably not earlier than the sixth
century B.C. Buddhism, essentially a proselyting religion, spread over
Central Asia and through the island of Ceylon. Its followers in India being
persecuted and expelled from the country, penetrated into Thibet, and
pushing forward into the wilderness of the Kalmucks and Mongols, entered
China and Japan, where they introduced their warship under the name of the
religion of Fo. Buddhism is more extensively diffused than any other form
of religion in the world. Though it has never extended beyond the limits of
Asia, its followers number over four hundred millions.
As a philosophical school, Buddhism partakes both of sensualism and
idealism; it admits sensual perception as the source of knowledge, but it
grants to nature only an apparent existence. On this universal illusion,
Buddhism founded a gigantic system of cosmogony, establishing an infinity
of degrees in the scale of existences from that of pure being without form or
quality to the lowest emanations. According to Buddha, the object of
philosophy, as well as of religion, is the deliverance of the soul from
metempsychosis, and therefore from all pain and illusion. He teaches that to
break the endless rotation of transmigration the soul must be prevented
from being born again, by purifying it even from the desire of existence. He
denied the authority of the Vedas, and abolished or ignored the division of
the people into castes, admitting whoever desired it to the priesthood.
Notwithstanding the doctrine of metempsychosis, and the belief that life is
the Vedas, and admit rational principles borrowed both from sensualism and
idealism. Among these doctrines Buddhism is the principal.
8. BUDDHISM.—Buddhism is so called from Buddha, a name meaning
deified teacher, which was given to Sakyamuni, or Saint Sakya, a reformer
of Brahmanism, who introduced into the Hindu religion a more simple
creed, and a milder and more humane code of morality. The date of the
origin of this reform is uncertain. It is probably not earlier than the sixth
century B.C. Buddhism, essentially a proselyting religion, spread over
Central Asia and through the island of Ceylon. Its followers in India being
persecuted and expelled from the country, penetrated into Thibet, and
pushing forward into the wilderness of the Kalmucks and Mongols, entered
China and Japan, where they introduced their warship under the name of the
religion of Fo. Buddhism is more extensively diffused than any other form
of religion in the world. Though it has never extended beyond the limits of
Asia, its followers number over four hundred millions.
As a philosophical school, Buddhism partakes both of sensualism and
idealism; it admits sensual perception as the source of knowledge, but it
grants to nature only an apparent existence. On this universal illusion,
Buddhism founded a gigantic system of cosmogony, establishing an infinity
of degrees in the scale of existences from that of pure being without form or
quality to the lowest emanations. According to Buddha, the object of
philosophy, as well as of religion, is the deliverance of the soul from
metempsychosis, and therefore from all pain and illusion. He teaches that to
break the endless rotation of transmigration the soul must be prevented
from being born again, by purifying it even from the desire of existence. He
denied the authority of the Vedas, and abolished or ignored the division of
the people into castes, admitting whoever desired it to the priesthood.
Notwithstanding the doctrine of metempsychosis, and the belief that life is
Page 68
only an endless round of birth and death, sin and suffering, the most sacred
Buddhistic books teach a pure and elevated morality, and that the highest
happiness is only to be reached through self-abnegation, universal
benevolence, humility, patience, courage, self-knowledge, and
contemplation. Much has been added to the original doctrines of Buddha in
the way of mythology, sacrifices, penances, mysticism, and hierarchy.
Buddhism possesses a literature of its own; its language and style are
simple and intelligible to the common people, to whom it is particularly
addressed. For this reason the priests of this religion prefer to write in the
dialects used by the people, and indeed some of their principal works are
written in Prakrit or in Pali. Among these are many legends, and chronicles,
and books on theology and jurisprudence. The literary men of Buddhism are
generally the priests, who receive different names in different countries. A
complete collection of the sacred books of Buddhism forms a theological
body of one hundred and eight volumes.
9. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.—The moral philosophy of India is contained
in the Sacred Book of Manavadharmasastra, or Code of Manu. This
embraces a poetical account of Brahma and other gods, of the origin of the
world and man, and of the duties arising from the relation of man towards
Brahma and towards his fellow-men. Whether regarded for its great
antiquity and classic beauty, or for its importance as being considered of
divine revelation by the Hindu people, this Code must ever claim the
attention of those who devote themselves to the study of the Sanskrit
literature. Though inferior to the Vedas in antiquity, it is held to be equally
sacred; and being more closely connected with the business of life, it has
done so much towards moulding the opinions of the Hindus that it would be
impossible to comprehend the literature or local usages of India without
being master of its contents.
Buddhistic books teach a pure and elevated morality, and that the highest
happiness is only to be reached through self-abnegation, universal
benevolence, humility, patience, courage, self-knowledge, and
contemplation. Much has been added to the original doctrines of Buddha in
the way of mythology, sacrifices, penances, mysticism, and hierarchy.
Buddhism possesses a literature of its own; its language and style are
simple and intelligible to the common people, to whom it is particularly
addressed. For this reason the priests of this religion prefer to write in the
dialects used by the people, and indeed some of their principal works are
written in Prakrit or in Pali. Among these are many legends, and chronicles,
and books on theology and jurisprudence. The literary men of Buddhism are
generally the priests, who receive different names in different countries. A
complete collection of the sacred books of Buddhism forms a theological
body of one hundred and eight volumes.
9. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.—The moral philosophy of India is contained
in the Sacred Book of Manavadharmasastra, or Code of Manu. This
embraces a poetical account of Brahma and other gods, of the origin of the
world and man, and of the duties arising from the relation of man towards
Brahma and towards his fellow-men. Whether regarded for its great
antiquity and classic beauty, or for its importance as being considered of
divine revelation by the Hindu people, this Code must ever claim the
attention of those who devote themselves to the study of the Sanskrit
literature. Though inferior to the Vedas in antiquity, it is held to be equally
sacred; and being more closely connected with the business of life, it has
done so much towards moulding the opinions of the Hindus that it would be
impossible to comprehend the literature or local usages of India without
being master of its contents.
Page 69
It is believed by the Hindus that Brahma taught his laws to Manu in one
hundred thousand verses, and that they were afterwards abridged for the use
of mankind to four thousand. It is most probable that the work attributed to
Manu is a collection made from various sources and at different periods.
Among the duties prescribed by the laws of Manu man is enjoined to
exert a full dominion over his senses, to study sacred science, to keep his
heart pure, without which sacrifices are useless, to speak only when
necessity requires, and to despise worldly honors. His principal duties
toward his neighbor are to honor old age, to respect parents, the mother
more than a thousand fathers, and the Brahmins more than father or mother,
to injure no one, even in wish. Woman is taught that she cannot aspire to
freedom, a girl is to depend on her father, a wife on her husband, and a
widow on her son. The law forbids her to marry a second time.
The Code of Manu is divided into twelve books or chapters, in which are
treated separately the subjects of creation, education, marriage, domestic
economy, the art of living, penal and civil laws, of punishments and
atonements, of transmigration, and of the final blessed state. These
ordinances or institutes contain much to be admired and much to be
condemned. They form a system of despotism and priestcraft, both limited
by law, but artfully conspiring to give mutual support, though with mutual
checks. A spirit of sublime elevation and amiable benevolence pervades the
whole work, sufficient to prove the author to have adored not the visible
sun, but the incomparably greater light, according to the Vedas, which
illuminates all, delights all, from which all proceed, to which all must
return, and which alone can irradiate our souls.
10. MODERN LITERATURES OF INDIA.—The literature of the
modern tongues of the Hindus consists chiefly of imitations and translations
from the Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and from European languages. There is,
hundred thousand verses, and that they were afterwards abridged for the use
of mankind to four thousand. It is most probable that the work attributed to
Manu is a collection made from various sources and at different periods.
Among the duties prescribed by the laws of Manu man is enjoined to
exert a full dominion over his senses, to study sacred science, to keep his
heart pure, without which sacrifices are useless, to speak only when
necessity requires, and to despise worldly honors. His principal duties
toward his neighbor are to honor old age, to respect parents, the mother
more than a thousand fathers, and the Brahmins more than father or mother,
to injure no one, even in wish. Woman is taught that she cannot aspire to
freedom, a girl is to depend on her father, a wife on her husband, and a
widow on her son. The law forbids her to marry a second time.
The Code of Manu is divided into twelve books or chapters, in which are
treated separately the subjects of creation, education, marriage, domestic
economy, the art of living, penal and civil laws, of punishments and
atonements, of transmigration, and of the final blessed state. These
ordinances or institutes contain much to be admired and much to be
condemned. They form a system of despotism and priestcraft, both limited
by law, but artfully conspiring to give mutual support, though with mutual
checks. A spirit of sublime elevation and amiable benevolence pervades the
whole work, sufficient to prove the author to have adored not the visible
sun, but the incomparably greater light, according to the Vedas, which
illuminates all, delights all, from which all proceed, to which all must
return, and which alone can irradiate our souls.
10. MODERN LITERATURES OF INDIA.—The literature of the
modern tongues of the Hindus consists chiefly of imitations and translations
from the Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and from European languages. There is,
Page 70
however, an original epic poem, written in Hindui by Tshand, under the title
of the "Adventures of Prithivi Raja," which is second only to the great
Sanskrit poems. This work, which relates to the twelfth century A.D.,
describes the struggle of the Hindus against their Mohammedan conquerors.
The poem of "Ramayana," by Tulsi-Das, and that of the "Ocean of Love,"
are extremely popular in India. The modern dialects contain many religious
and national songs of exquisite beauty and delicacy. Among the poets of
India, who have written in these dialects, Sauday, Mir-Mohammed Taqui,
Wali, and Azad are the principal.
The Hindi, which dates from the eleventh century A.D., is one of the
languages of Aryan stock still spoken in Northern India. One of its principal
dialects is the Hindustani, which is employed in the literature of the
northern country. Its two divisions are the Hindi and Urdu, which represent
the popular side of the national culture, and are almost exclusively used at
the present day; the first chiefly by writers not belonging to the Brahminical
order, while those of the Urdu dialect follow Persian models. The writings
in each, though numerous, and not without pretension, have little interest
for the European reader.
11. EDUCATION IN INDIA.—For the education of the Brahmins and of
the higher classes, there was founded, in 1792, a Sanskrit College at
Benares, the Hindu capital. The course of instruction embraces Persian,
English, and Hindu law, and general literature. In 1854 universities were
established at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. Of late public instruction has
become a department of the government, and schools and colleges for
higher instruction have been established in various parts of the country, and
books and newspapers in English and in the vernacular are everywhere
increasing. As far back as 1824 the American and English missionaries
were the pioneers of female education. The recent report of the Indian
Commission of Education deals particularly with this question, and
of the "Adventures of Prithivi Raja," which is second only to the great
Sanskrit poems. This work, which relates to the twelfth century A.D.,
describes the struggle of the Hindus against their Mohammedan conquerors.
The poem of "Ramayana," by Tulsi-Das, and that of the "Ocean of Love,"
are extremely popular in India. The modern dialects contain many religious
and national songs of exquisite beauty and delicacy. Among the poets of
India, who have written in these dialects, Sauday, Mir-Mohammed Taqui,
Wali, and Azad are the principal.
The Hindi, which dates from the eleventh century A.D., is one of the
languages of Aryan stock still spoken in Northern India. One of its principal
dialects is the Hindustani, which is employed in the literature of the
northern country. Its two divisions are the Hindi and Urdu, which represent
the popular side of the national culture, and are almost exclusively used at
the present day; the first chiefly by writers not belonging to the Brahminical
order, while those of the Urdu dialect follow Persian models. The writings
in each, though numerous, and not without pretension, have little interest
for the European reader.
11. EDUCATION IN INDIA.—For the education of the Brahmins and of
the higher classes, there was founded, in 1792, a Sanskrit College at
Benares, the Hindu capital. The course of instruction embraces Persian,
English, and Hindu law, and general literature. In 1854 universities were
established at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. Of late public instruction has
become a department of the government, and schools and colleges for
higher instruction have been established in various parts of the country, and
books and newspapers in English and in the vernacular are everywhere
increasing. As far back as 1824 the American and English missionaries
were the pioneers of female education. The recent report of the Indian
Commission of Education deals particularly with this question, and
Page 71
attributes the wide difference between the extent of male and female
acquirements to no inferiority in the mental capacities of women; on the
contrary, they find their intellectual activity very keen, and often outlasting
the mental energies of men. According to the traditions of pre-historic
times, women occupied a high place in the early civilization of India, and
their capacity to govern is shown by the fact, that at the present day one of
the best administered States has been ruled by native ladies during two
generations, and that the most ably managed of the great landed properties
are entirely in the hands of women. The chief causes which retard their
education are to be found in the social customs of the country, the seclusion
in which women live, the appropriation of the educational fund to the
schools for boys, and the need of trained teachers.
Notwithstanding all these disadvantages, the first Asiatic writer in the
languages of the West who has made a literary fame in Europe is a young
Hindu girl, Tora Dutt (1856-1877), whose writings in prose and verse in
English, as well as in French, have called forth admiration and astonishment
from the critics, and a sincere lament for her early death.
12. THE BRAMO-SOMAJ.—In 1830, under this name (Worshiping
Assembly), Rammohun Roy founded a religious society in India, of which,
after him, Keshub Chunder Sen (died 1884) was the most eminent member.
Their aim is to establish a new religion for India and the world, founded on
a belief in one God, which shall be freed from all the errors and corruptions
of the past. They propose many important reforms, such as the abolition of
caste, the remodeling of marriage customs, the emancipation and education
of women, the abolition of infanticide and the worship of ancestors, and a
general moral regeneration. Their chief aid to spiritual growth may be
summed up in four words, self-culture, meditation, personal purity, and
universal beneficence. Their influence has been already felt in the
legislative affairs of India.
acquirements to no inferiority in the mental capacities of women; on the
contrary, they find their intellectual activity very keen, and often outlasting
the mental energies of men. According to the traditions of pre-historic
times, women occupied a high place in the early civilization of India, and
their capacity to govern is shown by the fact, that at the present day one of
the best administered States has been ruled by native ladies during two
generations, and that the most ably managed of the great landed properties
are entirely in the hands of women. The chief causes which retard their
education are to be found in the social customs of the country, the seclusion
in which women live, the appropriation of the educational fund to the
schools for boys, and the need of trained teachers.
Notwithstanding all these disadvantages, the first Asiatic writer in the
languages of the West who has made a literary fame in Europe is a young
Hindu girl, Tora Dutt (1856-1877), whose writings in prose and verse in
English, as well as in French, have called forth admiration and astonishment
from the critics, and a sincere lament for her early death.
12. THE BRAMO-SOMAJ.—In 1830, under this name (Worshiping
Assembly), Rammohun Roy founded a religious society in India, of which,
after him, Keshub Chunder Sen (died 1884) was the most eminent member.
Their aim is to establish a new religion for India and the world, founded on
a belief in one God, which shall be freed from all the errors and corruptions
of the past. They propose many important reforms, such as the abolition of
caste, the remodeling of marriage customs, the emancipation and education
of women, the abolition of infanticide and the worship of ancestors, and a
general moral regeneration. Their chief aid to spiritual growth may be
summed up in four words, self-culture, meditation, personal purity, and
universal beneficence. Their influence has been already felt in the
legislative affairs of India.
Page 72
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN LITERATURE
1. The Accadians and Babylonians.—2. The Cuneiform Letters.—3.
Babylonian and Assyrian Remains.
1. ACCADIANS AND BABYLONIANS.—Geographically, as well as
historically and ethnographically, the district lying between the Tigris and
Euphrates forms but one country, though the rival kingdoms of Assyria and
Babylonia became, each in turn, superior to the other. The primitive
inhabitants of this district were called Accadians, or Chaldeans, but little or
nothing was known of them until within the last fifteen or twenty years.
Their language was agglutinative, and they were the inventors of the
cuneiform system of writing. The Babylonians conquered this people,
borrowed their signs, and incorporated their literature. Soon after their
conquest by the Babylonians, they established priestly caste in the state and
assumed the worship, laws, and manners of their conquerors. They were
devoted to the science of the stars, and determined the equinoctial and
solstitial points, divided the ecliptic into twelve parts and the day into
hours. The signs, names, and figures of the Zodiac, and the invention of the
dial are some of the improvements in astronomy attributed to this people.
With the decline of Babylon their influence declined, and they were
afterwards known to the Greeks and Romans only as astrologers,
magicians, and soothsayers.
1. The Accadians and Babylonians.—2. The Cuneiform Letters.—3.
Babylonian and Assyrian Remains.
1. ACCADIANS AND BABYLONIANS.—Geographically, as well as
historically and ethnographically, the district lying between the Tigris and
Euphrates forms but one country, though the rival kingdoms of Assyria and
Babylonia became, each in turn, superior to the other. The primitive
inhabitants of this district were called Accadians, or Chaldeans, but little or
nothing was known of them until within the last fifteen or twenty years.
Their language was agglutinative, and they were the inventors of the
cuneiform system of writing. The Babylonians conquered this people,
borrowed their signs, and incorporated their literature. Soon after their
conquest by the Babylonians, they established priestly caste in the state and
assumed the worship, laws, and manners of their conquerors. They were
devoted to the science of the stars, and determined the equinoctial and
solstitial points, divided the ecliptic into twelve parts and the day into
hours. The signs, names, and figures of the Zodiac, and the invention of the
dial are some of the improvements in astronomy attributed to this people.
With the decline of Babylon their influence declined, and they were
afterwards known to the Greeks and Romans only as astrologers,
magicians, and soothsayers.
Page 73
2. THE CUNEIFORM LETTERS.—These characters, borrowed by the
Semitic conquerors of the Accadians, the Babylonians, and Assyrians, were
originally hieroglyphics, each denoting an object or an idea, but they were
gradually corrupted into the forms we see on Assyrian monuments. They
underwent many changes, and the various periods are distinguished as
Archaic, hieratic, Assyrian, and later Babylonian.
3. BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN REMAINS.—The origin and
history of this civilization have only been made known to us by the very
recent decipherment of native monuments. Before these discoveries the
principal source of information was found in the writings of Borosus, a
priest of Babylon, who lived about 300 B.C., and who translated the records
of astronomy into Greek. Though his works have perished, we have
quotations from them in Eusebius and other writers, which have been
strikingly verified by the inscriptions. The chief work on astronomy,
compiled for Sargon, one of the earliest Babylonian monarchs, is inscribed
on seventy tablets, a copy of which is in the British Museum. The
Babylonians understood the movements of the heavenly bodies, and
Calisthenes, who accompanied Alexander on his eastern expedition,
brought with him on his return the observations of 1903 years. The main
purpose of all Babylonian astronomical observation, however, was
astrological, to cast horoscopes, or to predict the weather. Babylon retained
for a long time its ancient splendor after the conquest by Cyrus and the final
fall of the empire, and in the first period of the Macedonian sway. But soon
after that time its fame was extinguished, and its monuments, arts, and
sciences perished.
Assyria was a land of soldiers and possessed little native literature. The
more peaceful pursuits had their home in Babylonia, where the universities
of Erech and Borsippa were renowned down to classical times. The larger
part of this literature was stamped in clay tablets and baked, and these were
Semitic conquerors of the Accadians, the Babylonians, and Assyrians, were
originally hieroglyphics, each denoting an object or an idea, but they were
gradually corrupted into the forms we see on Assyrian monuments. They
underwent many changes, and the various periods are distinguished as
Archaic, hieratic, Assyrian, and later Babylonian.
3. BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN REMAINS.—The origin and
history of this civilization have only been made known to us by the very
recent decipherment of native monuments. Before these discoveries the
principal source of information was found in the writings of Borosus, a
priest of Babylon, who lived about 300 B.C., and who translated the records
of astronomy into Greek. Though his works have perished, we have
quotations from them in Eusebius and other writers, which have been
strikingly verified by the inscriptions. The chief work on astronomy,
compiled for Sargon, one of the earliest Babylonian monarchs, is inscribed
on seventy tablets, a copy of which is in the British Museum. The
Babylonians understood the movements of the heavenly bodies, and
Calisthenes, who accompanied Alexander on his eastern expedition,
brought with him on his return the observations of 1903 years. The main
purpose of all Babylonian astronomical observation, however, was
astrological, to cast horoscopes, or to predict the weather. Babylon retained
for a long time its ancient splendor after the conquest by Cyrus and the final
fall of the empire, and in the first period of the Macedonian sway. But soon
after that time its fame was extinguished, and its monuments, arts, and
sciences perished.
Assyria was a land of soldiers and possessed little native literature. The
more peaceful pursuits had their home in Babylonia, where the universities
of Erech and Borsippa were renowned down to classical times. The larger
part of this literature was stamped in clay tablets and baked, and these were
Page 74
numbered and arranged in order. Papyrus was also used, but none of this
fragile material has been preserved.
In the reign of Sardanapalus (660-647 B.C.) Assyrian art and literature
reached their highest point. In the ruins of his palace have been found three
chambers the floors of which were covered a foot deep with tablets of all
sizes, from an inch to nine inches long, bearing inscriptions many of them
so minute as to be read only by the aid of a magnifying glass. Though
broken they have been partially restored and are among the most precious
cuneiform inscriptions. They have only been deciphered within the present
century, and thousands of inscriptions are yet buried among the ruins of
Assyria. The most interesting of these remains yet discovered are the hymns
to the gods, some of which strikingly resemble the Hebrew Psalms. Of
older date is the collection of formulas which consists of omens and hymns
and tablets relating to astronomy. Later than the hymns are the mythological
poems, two of which are preserved intact. They are "The Deluge" and "The
Descent of Istar into Hades." They form part of a very remarkable epic
which centred round the adventures of a solar hero, and into which older
and independent lays were woven as episodes. Copies are preserved in the
British Museum. The literature on the subject of these remains is very
extensive and rapidly increasing.
fragile material has been preserved.
In the reign of Sardanapalus (660-647 B.C.) Assyrian art and literature
reached their highest point. In the ruins of his palace have been found three
chambers the floors of which were covered a foot deep with tablets of all
sizes, from an inch to nine inches long, bearing inscriptions many of them
so minute as to be read only by the aid of a magnifying glass. Though
broken they have been partially restored and are among the most precious
cuneiform inscriptions. They have only been deciphered within the present
century, and thousands of inscriptions are yet buried among the ruins of
Assyria. The most interesting of these remains yet discovered are the hymns
to the gods, some of which strikingly resemble the Hebrew Psalms. Of
older date is the collection of formulas which consists of omens and hymns
and tablets relating to astronomy. Later than the hymns are the mythological
poems, two of which are preserved intact. They are "The Deluge" and "The
Descent of Istar into Hades." They form part of a very remarkable epic
which centred round the adventures of a solar hero, and into which older
and independent lays were woven as episodes. Copies are preserved in the
British Museum. The literature on the subject of these remains is very
extensive and rapidly increasing.
Page 75
PHOENICIAN LITERATURE.
The Language.—The Remains.
The Phoenician language bore a strong affinity to the Hebrew, through
which alone the inscriptions on coins and monuments can be interpreted,
and these constitute the entire literary remains, though the Phoenicians had
doubtless their archives and written laws. The inscriptions engraved on
stone or metal are found chiefly in places once colonies, remote from
Phoenicia itself. The Phoenician alphabet forms the basis of the Semitic and
Indo-European graphic systems, and was itself doubtless based on the
Egyptian hieratic writing. Sanchuniathon is the name given as that of the
author of a history of Phoenicia which was translated into Greek and
published by Philo, a grammarian of the second century A.D. A
considerable fragment of this work is preserved in Eusebius, but after much
learned controversy it is now believed that it was the work of Philo himself.
The Language.—The Remains.
The Phoenician language bore a strong affinity to the Hebrew, through
which alone the inscriptions on coins and monuments can be interpreted,
and these constitute the entire literary remains, though the Phoenicians had
doubtless their archives and written laws. The inscriptions engraved on
stone or metal are found chiefly in places once colonies, remote from
Phoenicia itself. The Phoenician alphabet forms the basis of the Semitic and
Indo-European graphic systems, and was itself doubtless based on the
Egyptian hieratic writing. Sanchuniathon is the name given as that of the
author of a history of Phoenicia which was translated into Greek and
published by Philo, a grammarian of the second century A.D. A
considerable fragment of this work is preserved in Eusebius, but after much
learned controversy it is now believed that it was the work of Philo himself.
Page 76
SYRIAC LITERATURE.
The Language.—Influence of the Literature In the Eighth and Ninth
Century.
THE LANGUAGE.—The Aramaic language, early spoken in Syria and
Mesopotamia, is a branch of the Semitic, and of this tongue the Chaldaic
and Syriac were dialects. Chaldaic is supposed to be the language of
Babylonia at the time of the captivity, and the earliest remains are a part of
the Books of Daniel and Ezra, and the paraphrases or free translations of the
Old Testament. The Hebrews having learned this language during the
Babylonian exile, it continued in use for some time after their return,
though the Hebrew remained the written and sacred tongue. Gradually,
however, it lost this prerogative, and in the second century A.D. the
Chaldaic was the only spoken language of Palestine. It is still used by the
Nestorians and Maronites in their religious services and in their literary
works. The spoken language of Syria has undergone many changes
corresponding to the political changes of the country.
The most prominent Syriac author is St. Ephraem, or Ephraem Syrus
(350 A.D.), with whom begins the best period of Syriac literature, which
continued until the ninth century. A great part of this literature has been lost,
and what remains is only partially accessible. Its principal work was in the
eighth and ninth centuries in introducing classical learning to the
The Language.—Influence of the Literature In the Eighth and Ninth
Century.
THE LANGUAGE.—The Aramaic language, early spoken in Syria and
Mesopotamia, is a branch of the Semitic, and of this tongue the Chaldaic
and Syriac were dialects. Chaldaic is supposed to be the language of
Babylonia at the time of the captivity, and the earliest remains are a part of
the Books of Daniel and Ezra, and the paraphrases or free translations of the
Old Testament. The Hebrews having learned this language during the
Babylonian exile, it continued in use for some time after their return,
though the Hebrew remained the written and sacred tongue. Gradually,
however, it lost this prerogative, and in the second century A.D. the
Chaldaic was the only spoken language of Palestine. It is still used by the
Nestorians and Maronites in their religious services and in their literary
works. The spoken language of Syria has undergone many changes
corresponding to the political changes of the country.
The most prominent Syriac author is St. Ephraem, or Ephraem Syrus
(350 A.D.), with whom begins the best period of Syriac literature, which
continued until the ninth century. A great part of this literature has been lost,
and what remains is only partially accessible. Its principal work was in the
eighth and ninth centuries in introducing classical learning to the
Page 77
knowledge of the Arabs. In the seventh century, Jacob of Edessa gave the
classical and sacred dialect its final form, and from this time the series of
native grammarians and lexicographers continued unbroken to the time of
its decline. The study of Syriac was introduced into Europe in the fifteenth
century. Valuable collections of MSS., in this language, are to be found in
the British Museum, and grammars and dictionaries have been published in
Germany and in New York.
classical and sacred dialect its final form, and from this time the series of
native grammarians and lexicographers continued unbroken to the time of
its decline. The study of Syriac was introduced into Europe in the fifteenth
century. Valuable collections of MSS., in this language, are to be found in
the British Museum, and grammars and dictionaries have been published in
Germany and in New York.
Page 78
PERSIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Persian language and its Divisions.—2. Zendic Literature; The
Zendavesta.—3. Pehlvi and Parsee Literatures.—4. The Ancient Religion of
Persia; Zoroaster.—5. Modern Literature.—6. The Sufis.—7. Persian
Poetry.—8. Persian Poets; Ferdasi; Essedi of Tus; Togray, etc.—9.
History and Philosophy.—10. Education in Persia.
1. THE PERSIAN LANGUAGE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—The Persian
language and its varieties, as far as they are known, belong to the great
Indo-European family, and this common origin explains the affinities that
exist between them and those of the ancient and modern languages of
Europe. During successive ages, four idioms have prevailed in Persia, and
Persian literature may be divided into four corresponding periods.
First. The period of the Zend (living), the most ancient of the Persian
languages; it was from a remote, unknown age spoken in Media, Bactria,
and in the northern part of Persia. This language partakes of the character
both of the Sanskrit and of the Chaldaic. It is written from right to left, and
it possesses, in its grammatical construction and its radical words, many
elements in common with the Sanskrit and the German languages.
Second. The period of the Pehlvi, or language of heroes, anciently spoken
in the western part of the country. Its alphabet is closely allied with the
1. The Persian language and its Divisions.—2. Zendic Literature; The
Zendavesta.—3. Pehlvi and Parsee Literatures.—4. The Ancient Religion of
Persia; Zoroaster.—5. Modern Literature.—6. The Sufis.—7. Persian
Poetry.—8. Persian Poets; Ferdasi; Essedi of Tus; Togray, etc.—9.
History and Philosophy.—10. Education in Persia.
1. THE PERSIAN LANGUAGE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—The Persian
language and its varieties, as far as they are known, belong to the great
Indo-European family, and this common origin explains the affinities that
exist between them and those of the ancient and modern languages of
Europe. During successive ages, four idioms have prevailed in Persia, and
Persian literature may be divided into four corresponding periods.
First. The period of the Zend (living), the most ancient of the Persian
languages; it was from a remote, unknown age spoken in Media, Bactria,
and in the northern part of Persia. This language partakes of the character
both of the Sanskrit and of the Chaldaic. It is written from right to left, and
it possesses, in its grammatical construction and its radical words, many
elements in common with the Sanskrit and the German languages.
Second. The period of the Pehlvi, or language of heroes, anciently spoken
in the western part of the country. Its alphabet is closely allied with the
Page 79
Zendic, to which it bears a great resemblance. It attained a high degree of
perfection under the Parthian kings, 246 B.C. to 229 A.D.
Third. The period of the Parsee or the dialect of the southwestern part of
the country. It reached its perfection under the dynasty of the
Sassanides, 229-636 A.D. It has great analogy with the Zend, Pehlvi, and
Sanskrit, and is endowed with peculiar grace and sweetness.
Fourth. The period of the modern Persian. After the conquest of Persia,
and the introduction of the Mohammedan faith in the seventh century A.D.,
the ancient Parsee language became greatly modified by the Arabic. It
adopted its alphabet, adding to it, however, four letters and three points, and
borrowed from it not only words but whole phrases, and thus from the
union of the Parsee and the Arabic was formed the modern Persian. Of its
various dialects, the Deri is the language of the court and of literature.
2. ZENDIC LITERATURE.—To the first period belong the ancient
sacred books of Persia, collected under the name of Zendavesta (living
word), which contain the doctrines of Zoroaster, the prophet and lawgiver
of ancient Persia. The Zendavesta is divided into two parts, one written in
Zend, the other in Pehlvi; it contains traditions relating to the primitive
condition and colonization of Persia, moral precepts, theological dogmas,
prayers, and astronomical observations. The collection originally consisted
of twenty-one chapters or treatises, of which only three have been
preserved. Besides the Zendavesta there are two other sacred books, one
containing prayers and hymns, and the other prayers to the Genii who
preside over the days of the month. To this first period some writers refer
the fables of Lokman, who is supposed to have lived in the tenth century
B.C., and to have been a slave of Ethiopic origin; his apologues have been
considered the model on which Greek fable was constructed. The work of
Lokman, however, existing now only in the Arabic language, is believed by
perfection under the Parthian kings, 246 B.C. to 229 A.D.
Third. The period of the Parsee or the dialect of the southwestern part of
the country. It reached its perfection under the dynasty of the
Sassanides, 229-636 A.D. It has great analogy with the Zend, Pehlvi, and
Sanskrit, and is endowed with peculiar grace and sweetness.
Fourth. The period of the modern Persian. After the conquest of Persia,
and the introduction of the Mohammedan faith in the seventh century A.D.,
the ancient Parsee language became greatly modified by the Arabic. It
adopted its alphabet, adding to it, however, four letters and three points, and
borrowed from it not only words but whole phrases, and thus from the
union of the Parsee and the Arabic was formed the modern Persian. Of its
various dialects, the Deri is the language of the court and of literature.
2. ZENDIC LITERATURE.—To the first period belong the ancient
sacred books of Persia, collected under the name of Zendavesta (living
word), which contain the doctrines of Zoroaster, the prophet and lawgiver
of ancient Persia. The Zendavesta is divided into two parts, one written in
Zend, the other in Pehlvi; it contains traditions relating to the primitive
condition and colonization of Persia, moral precepts, theological dogmas,
prayers, and astronomical observations. The collection originally consisted
of twenty-one chapters or treatises, of which only three have been
preserved. Besides the Zendavesta there are two other sacred books, one
containing prayers and hymns, and the other prayers to the Genii who
preside over the days of the month. To this first period some writers refer
the fables of Lokman, who is supposed to have lived in the tenth century
B.C., and to have been a slave of Ethiopic origin; his apologues have been
considered the model on which Greek fable was constructed. The work of
Lokman, however, existing now only in the Arabic language, is believed by
Page 80
other writers to be of Arabic origin. It has been translated into the European
languages, and is still read in the Persian schools. Among the Zendic books
preserved in Arabic translations may also be mentioned the "Giavidan
Kird," or the Eternal Reason, the work of Hushang, an ancient priest of
Persia, a book full of beautiful and sublime maxims.
3. PEHLVI AHD PARSEE LITERATURES.—The second period of
Persian literature includes all the books written in Pehlvic, and especially
all the translations and paraphrases of the works of the first period. There
are also in this language a manual of the religion of Zoroaster, dictionaries
of Pehlvi explained by the Parsee, inscriptions, and legends.
When the seat of the Persian empire was transferred to the southern states
under the Sassanides, the Pehlvi gave way to the Parsee, which became the
prevailing language of Persia in the third period of its literature. The sacred
books were translated into this tongue, in which many records, annals, and
treatises on astronomy and medicine were also written. But all these
monuments of Persian literature were destroyed by the conquest of
Alexander the Great, and by the fury of the Mongols and Arabs. This
language, however, has been immortalized by Ferdusi, whose poems
contain little of that admixture of Arabic which characterizes the writings of
the modern poets of Persia.
4. THE ANCIENT RELIGION OF PERSIA.—The ancient literature of
Persia is mainly the exposition of its religion. Persia, Media, and Bactria
acknowledged as their first religious prophet Honover, or Hom, symbolized
in the star Sirius, and himself the symbol of the first eternal word, and of
the tree of knowledge. In the numberless astronomical and mystic
personifications under which Hom was represented, his individuality was
lost, and little is known of his history or of his doctrines. It appears,
however, that he was the founder of the magi (priests), the conservators and
languages, and is still read in the Persian schools. Among the Zendic books
preserved in Arabic translations may also be mentioned the "Giavidan
Kird," or the Eternal Reason, the work of Hushang, an ancient priest of
Persia, a book full of beautiful and sublime maxims.
3. PEHLVI AHD PARSEE LITERATURES.—The second period of
Persian literature includes all the books written in Pehlvic, and especially
all the translations and paraphrases of the works of the first period. There
are also in this language a manual of the religion of Zoroaster, dictionaries
of Pehlvi explained by the Parsee, inscriptions, and legends.
When the seat of the Persian empire was transferred to the southern states
under the Sassanides, the Pehlvi gave way to the Parsee, which became the
prevailing language of Persia in the third period of its literature. The sacred
books were translated into this tongue, in which many records, annals, and
treatises on astronomy and medicine were also written. But all these
monuments of Persian literature were destroyed by the conquest of
Alexander the Great, and by the fury of the Mongols and Arabs. This
language, however, has been immortalized by Ferdusi, whose poems
contain little of that admixture of Arabic which characterizes the writings of
the modern poets of Persia.
4. THE ANCIENT RELIGION OF PERSIA.—The ancient literature of
Persia is mainly the exposition of its religion. Persia, Media, and Bactria
acknowledged as their first religious prophet Honover, or Hom, symbolized
in the star Sirius, and himself the symbol of the first eternal word, and of
the tree of knowledge. In the numberless astronomical and mystic
personifications under which Hom was represented, his individuality was
lost, and little is known of his history or of his doctrines. It appears,
however, that he was the founder of the magi (priests), the conservators and
Page 81
teachers of his doctrine, who formed a particular order, like that of the
Levites of Israel and of the Chaldeans of Assyria. They did not constitute a
hereditary caste like the Brahmins of India, but they were chosen from
among the people. They claimed to foretell future events. They worshiped
fire and the stars, and believed in two principles of good and evil, of which
light and darkness were the symbols.
Zoroaster, one of these magi, who probably lived in the eighth century
B.C., undertook to elevate and reform this religion, which had then fallen
from its primitive purity. Availing himself of the doctrines of the Chaldeans
and of the Hebrews, Zoroaster, endowed by nature with extraordinary
powers, sustained by popular enthusiasm, and aided by the favor of
powerful princes, extended his reform throughout the country, and founded
a new religion on the ancient worship. According to this religion the two
great principles of the world were represented by Ormuzd and Ahriman,
both born from eternity, and both contending for the dominion of the world.
Ormuzd, the principle of good, is represented by light, and Ahriman, the
principle of evil, by darkness. Light, then, being the body or symbol of
Ormuzd, is worshiped in the sun and stars, in fire, and wherever it is found.
Men are either the servants of Ormuzd, through virtue and wisdom, or the
slaves of Ahriman, through folly and vice. Zoroaster explained the history
of the world as the long contest of these two principles, which was to close
with the conquest of Ormuzd over Ahriman.
The moral code of Zoroaster is pure and elevated. It aims to assimilate
the character of man to light, to dissipate the darkness of ignorance; it
acknowledges Ormuzd as the ruler of the universe; it seeks to extend the
triumph of virtue over the material and spiritual world.
The religion of Zoroaster prevailed for many centuries in Persia. The
Greeks adopted some of its ideas into their philosophy, and through the
Levites of Israel and of the Chaldeans of Assyria. They did not constitute a
hereditary caste like the Brahmins of India, but they were chosen from
among the people. They claimed to foretell future events. They worshiped
fire and the stars, and believed in two principles of good and evil, of which
light and darkness were the symbols.
Zoroaster, one of these magi, who probably lived in the eighth century
B.C., undertook to elevate and reform this religion, which had then fallen
from its primitive purity. Availing himself of the doctrines of the Chaldeans
and of the Hebrews, Zoroaster, endowed by nature with extraordinary
powers, sustained by popular enthusiasm, and aided by the favor of
powerful princes, extended his reform throughout the country, and founded
a new religion on the ancient worship. According to this religion the two
great principles of the world were represented by Ormuzd and Ahriman,
both born from eternity, and both contending for the dominion of the world.
Ormuzd, the principle of good, is represented by light, and Ahriman, the
principle of evil, by darkness. Light, then, being the body or symbol of
Ormuzd, is worshiped in the sun and stars, in fire, and wherever it is found.
Men are either the servants of Ormuzd, through virtue and wisdom, or the
slaves of Ahriman, through folly and vice. Zoroaster explained the history
of the world as the long contest of these two principles, which was to close
with the conquest of Ormuzd over Ahriman.
The moral code of Zoroaster is pure and elevated. It aims to assimilate
the character of man to light, to dissipate the darkness of ignorance; it
acknowledges Ormuzd as the ruler of the universe; it seeks to extend the
triumph of virtue over the material and spiritual world.
The religion of Zoroaster prevailed for many centuries in Persia. The
Greeks adopted some of its ideas into their philosophy, and through the
Page 82
schools of the Gnostics and Neo-Platonists, its influence extended over
Europe. After the conquest of Persia by the Mohammedans, the Fire-
worshipers were driven to the deserts of Kerman, or took refuge in India,
where, under the name of Parsees or Guebers, they still keep alive the
sacred fire, and preserve the code of Zoroaster.
5. MODERN LITERATURE.—Some traces of the modern literature of
Persia appeared shortly after the conquest of the country by the Arabians in
the seventh century A.D.; but the true era dates from the ninth or tenth
century. It may be divided into the departments of Poetry, History, and
Philosophy.
6. THE SUFIS.—After the introduction of Mohammedanism into Persia,
there arose a sect of pantheistic mystics called Sufis, to which most of the
Persian poets belong. They teach their doctrine under the images of love,
wine, intoxication, etc., by which, with them, a divine sentiment is always
understood. The doctrines of the Sufis are undoubtedly of Hindu origin.
Their fundamental tenets are, that nothing exists absolutely but God; that
the human soul is an emanation from his essence and will finally be
restored to him; that the great object of life should be a constant approach to
the eternal spirit, to form as perfect a union with the divine nature as
possible. Hence all worldly attachments should be avoided, and in all that
we do a spiritual object should be kept in view. The great end with these
philosophers is to attain to a state of perfection in spirituality and to be
absorbed in holy contemplation, to the exclusion of all worldly recollections
or interests.
7. PERSIAN POETRY.—The Persian tongue is peculiarly adapted to the
purposes of poetry, which in that language is rich in forcible expressions, in
bold metaphors, in ardent sentiments, and in descriptions animated with the
most lively coloring. In poetical composition there is much art exercised by
Europe. After the conquest of Persia by the Mohammedans, the Fire-
worshipers were driven to the deserts of Kerman, or took refuge in India,
where, under the name of Parsees or Guebers, they still keep alive the
sacred fire, and preserve the code of Zoroaster.
5. MODERN LITERATURE.—Some traces of the modern literature of
Persia appeared shortly after the conquest of the country by the Arabians in
the seventh century A.D.; but the true era dates from the ninth or tenth
century. It may be divided into the departments of Poetry, History, and
Philosophy.
6. THE SUFIS.—After the introduction of Mohammedanism into Persia,
there arose a sect of pantheistic mystics called Sufis, to which most of the
Persian poets belong. They teach their doctrine under the images of love,
wine, intoxication, etc., by which, with them, a divine sentiment is always
understood. The doctrines of the Sufis are undoubtedly of Hindu origin.
Their fundamental tenets are, that nothing exists absolutely but God; that
the human soul is an emanation from his essence and will finally be
restored to him; that the great object of life should be a constant approach to
the eternal spirit, to form as perfect a union with the divine nature as
possible. Hence all worldly attachments should be avoided, and in all that
we do a spiritual object should be kept in view. The great end with these
philosophers is to attain to a state of perfection in spirituality and to be
absorbed in holy contemplation, to the exclusion of all worldly recollections
or interests.
7. PERSIAN POETRY.—The Persian tongue is peculiarly adapted to the
purposes of poetry, which in that language is rich in forcible expressions, in
bold metaphors, in ardent sentiments, and in descriptions animated with the
most lively coloring. In poetical composition there is much art exercised by
Page 83
the Persian poets, and the arrangement of their language is a work of great
care. One favorite measure which frequently ends a poem is called the Suja,
literally the cooing of doves.
The poetical compositions of the Persians are of several kinds; the gazel
or ode usually treats of love, beauty, or friendship. The poet generally
introduces his name in the last couplet. The idyl resembles the gazel, except
that it is longer. Poetry enters as a universal element into all compositions;
physics, mathematics, medicine, ethics, natural history, astronomy,
grammar—all lend themselves to verse in Persia.
The works of favorite poets are generally written on fine, silky paper, the
ground of which is often powdered with gold or silver dust, the margins
illuminated, and the whole perfumed with some costly essence. The
magnificent volume containing the poem of Tussuf and Zuleika in the
public library at Oxford affords a proof of the honors accorded to poetical
composition. One of the finest specimens of caligraphy and illumination is
the exordium to the life of Shah Jehan, for which the writer, besides the
stipulated remuneration, had his mouth stuffed with pearls.
There are three principal love stories in Persia which, from the earliest
times, have been the themes of every poet. Scarcely one of the great masters
of Persian literature but has adopted and added celebrity to these beautiful
and interesting legends, which can never be too often repeated to an
Oriental ear. They are, the "History of Khosru and Shireen," the "Loves of
Yussuf and Zuleika," and the "Misfortunes of Mejnoun and Leila." So
powerful is the charm attached to these stories, that it appears to have been
considered almost the imperative duty of all the poets to compose a new
version of the old, familiar, and beloved traditions. Even down to a modern
date, the Persians have not deserted their favorites, and these celebrated
themes of verse reappear, from time to time, under new auspices. Each of
care. One favorite measure which frequently ends a poem is called the Suja,
literally the cooing of doves.
The poetical compositions of the Persians are of several kinds; the gazel
or ode usually treats of love, beauty, or friendship. The poet generally
introduces his name in the last couplet. The idyl resembles the gazel, except
that it is longer. Poetry enters as a universal element into all compositions;
physics, mathematics, medicine, ethics, natural history, astronomy,
grammar—all lend themselves to verse in Persia.
The works of favorite poets are generally written on fine, silky paper, the
ground of which is often powdered with gold or silver dust, the margins
illuminated, and the whole perfumed with some costly essence. The
magnificent volume containing the poem of Tussuf and Zuleika in the
public library at Oxford affords a proof of the honors accorded to poetical
composition. One of the finest specimens of caligraphy and illumination is
the exordium to the life of Shah Jehan, for which the writer, besides the
stipulated remuneration, had his mouth stuffed with pearls.
There are three principal love stories in Persia which, from the earliest
times, have been the themes of every poet. Scarcely one of the great masters
of Persian literature but has adopted and added celebrity to these beautiful
and interesting legends, which can never be too often repeated to an
Oriental ear. They are, the "History of Khosru and Shireen," the "Loves of
Yussuf and Zuleika," and the "Misfortunes of Mejnoun and Leila." So
powerful is the charm attached to these stories, that it appears to have been
considered almost the imperative duty of all the poets to compose a new
version of the old, familiar, and beloved traditions. Even down to a modern
date, the Persians have not deserted their favorites, and these celebrated
themes of verse reappear, from time to time, under new auspices. Each of
Page 84
these poems is expressive of a peculiar character. That of Khosru and
Shireen may be considered exclusively the Persian romance; that of
Mejnoun the Arabian; and that of Yussuf and Zuleika the sacred. The first
presents a picture of happy love and female excellence in Shireen; Mejnoun
is a representation of unfortunate love carried to madness; the third romance
contains the ideal of perfection in Yussuf (Joseph) and the most passionate
and imprudent love in Zuleika (the wife of Potiphar), and exhibits in strong
relief the power of love and beauty, the mastery of mind, the weakness of
overwhelming passion, and the victorious spirit of holiness.
8. PERSIAN POETS.—The first of Persian poets, the Homer of his
country, is Abul Kasim Mansur, called Ferdusi or "Paradise," from the
exquisite beauty of his compositions. He flourished in the reign of the Shah
Mahmud (940-1020 A.D.). Mahmud commissioned him to write in his
faultless verse a history of the monarchs of Persia, promising that for every
thousand couplets he should receive a thousand pieces of gold. For thirty
years he studied and labored on his epic poem, "the Shah Namah," or Book
of Kings, and when it was completed he sent a copy of it, exquisitely
written, to the sultan, who received it coldly, and treated the work of the
aged poet with contempt. Disappointed at the ingratitude of the Shah,
Ferdusi wrote some satirical lines, which soon reached the ear of Mahmud,
who, piqued and offended at the freedom of the poet, ordered sixty
thousand small pieces of money to be sent to him, instead of the gold which
he had promised. Ferdusi was in the public bath when the money was given
to him, and his rage and amazement exceeded all bounds when he found
himself thus insulted. He distributed the paltry sum among the attendants of
the bath and the slaves who brought it.
He soon after avenged himself by writing a satire full of stinging
invective, which he caused to be transmitted to the favorite vizier who had
instigated the sultan against him. It was carefully sealed up, with directions
Shireen may be considered exclusively the Persian romance; that of
Mejnoun the Arabian; and that of Yussuf and Zuleika the sacred. The first
presents a picture of happy love and female excellence in Shireen; Mejnoun
is a representation of unfortunate love carried to madness; the third romance
contains the ideal of perfection in Yussuf (Joseph) and the most passionate
and imprudent love in Zuleika (the wife of Potiphar), and exhibits in strong
relief the power of love and beauty, the mastery of mind, the weakness of
overwhelming passion, and the victorious spirit of holiness.
8. PERSIAN POETS.—The first of Persian poets, the Homer of his
country, is Abul Kasim Mansur, called Ferdusi or "Paradise," from the
exquisite beauty of his compositions. He flourished in the reign of the Shah
Mahmud (940-1020 A.D.). Mahmud commissioned him to write in his
faultless verse a history of the monarchs of Persia, promising that for every
thousand couplets he should receive a thousand pieces of gold. For thirty
years he studied and labored on his epic poem, "the Shah Namah," or Book
of Kings, and when it was completed he sent a copy of it, exquisitely
written, to the sultan, who received it coldly, and treated the work of the
aged poet with contempt. Disappointed at the ingratitude of the Shah,
Ferdusi wrote some satirical lines, which soon reached the ear of Mahmud,
who, piqued and offended at the freedom of the poet, ordered sixty
thousand small pieces of money to be sent to him, instead of the gold which
he had promised. Ferdusi was in the public bath when the money was given
to him, and his rage and amazement exceeded all bounds when he found
himself thus insulted. He distributed the paltry sum among the attendants of
the bath and the slaves who brought it.
He soon after avenged himself by writing a satire full of stinging
invective, which he caused to be transmitted to the favorite vizier who had
instigated the sultan against him. It was carefully sealed up, with directions
Page 85
that it should be read to Mahmud on some occasion when his mind was
perturbed with affairs of state, and his temper ruffled, as it was a poem
likely to afford him entertainment. Ferdusi having thus prepared his
vengeance, quitted the ungrateful court without leave-taking, and was at a
safe distance when news reached him that his lines had fully answered their
intended purpose. Mahmud had heard and trembled, and too late discovered
that he had ruined his own reputation forever. After the satire had been read
by Shah Mahmud, the poet sought shelter in the court of the caliph of
Bagdad, in whose honor he added a thousand couplets to the poem of the
Shah Namah, and who rewarded him with the sixty thousand gold pieces,
which had been withheld by Mahmud. Meantime, Ferdusi's poem of Yussuf,
and his magnificent verses on several subjects, had received the fame they
deserved. Shah Mahmud's late remorse awoke. Thinking by a tardy act of
liberality to repair his former meanness, he dispatched to the author of the
Shah Namah the sixty thousand pieces he had promised, a robe of state, and
many apologies and expressions of friendship and admiration, requesting
his return, and professing great sorrow for the past. But when the message
arrived, Ferdusi was dead, and his family devoted the whole sum to the
benevolent purpose he had intended,—the erection of public buildings, and
the general improvement of his native village, Tus. He died at the age of
eighty. The Shah Namah contains the history of the kings of Persia down to
the death of the last of the Sassanide race, who was deprived of his
kingdom by the invasion of the Arabs during the caliphat of Omar, 636 A.D.
The language of Ferdusi may be considered as the purest specimen of the
ancient Parsee: Arabic words are seldom introduced. There are many
episodes in the Shah Namah of great beauty, and the power and elegance of
its verse are unrivaled.
Essedi of Tus is distinguished as having been the master of Ferdusi, and
as having aided his illustrious pupil in the completion of his great work.
perturbed with affairs of state, and his temper ruffled, as it was a poem
likely to afford him entertainment. Ferdusi having thus prepared his
vengeance, quitted the ungrateful court without leave-taking, and was at a
safe distance when news reached him that his lines had fully answered their
intended purpose. Mahmud had heard and trembled, and too late discovered
that he had ruined his own reputation forever. After the satire had been read
by Shah Mahmud, the poet sought shelter in the court of the caliph of
Bagdad, in whose honor he added a thousand couplets to the poem of the
Shah Namah, and who rewarded him with the sixty thousand gold pieces,
which had been withheld by Mahmud. Meantime, Ferdusi's poem of Yussuf,
and his magnificent verses on several subjects, had received the fame they
deserved. Shah Mahmud's late remorse awoke. Thinking by a tardy act of
liberality to repair his former meanness, he dispatched to the author of the
Shah Namah the sixty thousand pieces he had promised, a robe of state, and
many apologies and expressions of friendship and admiration, requesting
his return, and professing great sorrow for the past. But when the message
arrived, Ferdusi was dead, and his family devoted the whole sum to the
benevolent purpose he had intended,—the erection of public buildings, and
the general improvement of his native village, Tus. He died at the age of
eighty. The Shah Namah contains the history of the kings of Persia down to
the death of the last of the Sassanide race, who was deprived of his
kingdom by the invasion of the Arabs during the caliphat of Omar, 636 A.D.
The language of Ferdusi may be considered as the purest specimen of the
ancient Parsee: Arabic words are seldom introduced. There are many
episodes in the Shah Namah of great beauty, and the power and elegance of
its verse are unrivaled.
Essedi of Tus is distinguished as having been the master of Ferdusi, and
as having aided his illustrious pupil in the completion of his great work.
Page 86
Among many poems which he wrote, the "Dispute between Day and Night"
is the most celebrated.
Togray was a native of Ispahan and contemporary with Ferdusi. He
became so celebrated as a writer, that the title of Honor of Writers was
given him. He was an alchemist, and wrote a treatise on the philosopher's
stone.
Moasi, called King of Poets, lived about the middle of the eleventh
century. He obtained his title at the court of Ispahan, and rose to high
dignity and honor. So renowned were his odes, that more than a hundred
poets endeavored to imitate his style.
Omar Kheyam, who was one of the most distinguished of the poets of
Persia, lived toward the close of the eleventh century. He was remarkable
for the freedom of his religious opinions and the boldness with which he
denounced hypocrisy and intolerance. He particularly directed his satire
against the mystic poets.
Nizami, the first of the romantic poets, flourished in the latter part of the
twelfth century A.D. His principal works are called the "Five Treasures," of
which the "Loves of Khosru and Shireen" is the most celebrated, and in the
treatment of which he has succeeded beyond all other poets.
Sadi (1194-1282) is esteemed among the Persians as a master in poetry
and in morality. He is better known in Europe than any other Eastern author,
except Hafiz, and has been more frequently translated. Jami calls him the
nightingale of the groves of Shiraz, of which city he was a native. He spent
a part of his long life in travel and in the acquisition of knowledge, and the
remainder in retirement and devotion. His works are termed the salt-mine of
poets, being revered as unrivaled models of the first genius in the world.
His philosophy enabled him to support all the ills of life with patience and
is the most celebrated.
Togray was a native of Ispahan and contemporary with Ferdusi. He
became so celebrated as a writer, that the title of Honor of Writers was
given him. He was an alchemist, and wrote a treatise on the philosopher's
stone.
Moasi, called King of Poets, lived about the middle of the eleventh
century. He obtained his title at the court of Ispahan, and rose to high
dignity and honor. So renowned were his odes, that more than a hundred
poets endeavored to imitate his style.
Omar Kheyam, who was one of the most distinguished of the poets of
Persia, lived toward the close of the eleventh century. He was remarkable
for the freedom of his religious opinions and the boldness with which he
denounced hypocrisy and intolerance. He particularly directed his satire
against the mystic poets.
Nizami, the first of the romantic poets, flourished in the latter part of the
twelfth century A.D. His principal works are called the "Five Treasures," of
which the "Loves of Khosru and Shireen" is the most celebrated, and in the
treatment of which he has succeeded beyond all other poets.
Sadi (1194-1282) is esteemed among the Persians as a master in poetry
and in morality. He is better known in Europe than any other Eastern author,
except Hafiz, and has been more frequently translated. Jami calls him the
nightingale of the groves of Shiraz, of which city he was a native. He spent
a part of his long life in travel and in the acquisition of knowledge, and the
remainder in retirement and devotion. His works are termed the salt-mine of
poets, being revered as unrivaled models of the first genius in the world.
His philosophy enabled him to support all the ills of life with patience and
Page 87
fortitude, and one of his remarks, arising from the destitute condition in
which he once found himself, deserves preservation: "I never complained of
my condition but once, when my feet were bare, and I had not money to
buy shoes; but I met a man without feet, and I became contented with my
lot." The works of Sadi are very numerous, and are popular and familiar
everywhere in the East. His two greatest works are the "Bostan" and
"Gulistan" (Bostan, the rose garden, and Gulistan, the fruit garden). They
abound in striking beauties, and show great knowledge of human nature.
Attar (1119-1233) was one of the great Sufi masters, and spent his life in
devotion and contemplation. He died at the advanced age of 114. It would
seem that poetry in the East was favorable to human life, so many of its
professors attained to a great age, particularly those who professed the Sufi
doctrine. The great work of Attar is a poem containing useful moral
maxims.
Roumi (1203-1272), usually called the Mulah, was an enthusiastic
follower of the doctrine of the Sufis. His son succeeded him at the head of
the sect, and surpassed his father not only in the virtues and attainments of
the Sufis, but by his splendid poetical genius. His poems are regarded as the
most perfect models of the mystic style. Sir William Jones says, "There is a
depth and solemnity in his works unequaled by any poet of this class; even
Hafiz must be considered inferior to him."
Among the poets of Persia the name of Hafiz (d. 1389), the prince of
Persian lyric poets, is most familiar to the English reader. He was born at
Shiraz. Leading a life of poverty, of which he was proud, for he considered
poverty the companion of genius, he constantly refused the invitation, of
monarchs to visit their courts. There is endless variety in the poems of
Hafiz, and they are replete with surpassing beauty of thought, feeling, and
expression. The grace, ease, and fancy of his numbers are inimitable, and
which he once found himself, deserves preservation: "I never complained of
my condition but once, when my feet were bare, and I had not money to
buy shoes; but I met a man without feet, and I became contented with my
lot." The works of Sadi are very numerous, and are popular and familiar
everywhere in the East. His two greatest works are the "Bostan" and
"Gulistan" (Bostan, the rose garden, and Gulistan, the fruit garden). They
abound in striking beauties, and show great knowledge of human nature.
Attar (1119-1233) was one of the great Sufi masters, and spent his life in
devotion and contemplation. He died at the advanced age of 114. It would
seem that poetry in the East was favorable to human life, so many of its
professors attained to a great age, particularly those who professed the Sufi
doctrine. The great work of Attar is a poem containing useful moral
maxims.
Roumi (1203-1272), usually called the Mulah, was an enthusiastic
follower of the doctrine of the Sufis. His son succeeded him at the head of
the sect, and surpassed his father not only in the virtues and attainments of
the Sufis, but by his splendid poetical genius. His poems are regarded as the
most perfect models of the mystic style. Sir William Jones says, "There is a
depth and solemnity in his works unequaled by any poet of this class; even
Hafiz must be considered inferior to him."
Among the poets of Persia the name of Hafiz (d. 1389), the prince of
Persian lyric poets, is most familiar to the English reader. He was born at
Shiraz. Leading a life of poverty, of which he was proud, for he considered
poverty the companion of genius, he constantly refused the invitation, of
monarchs to visit their courts. There is endless variety in the poems of
Hafiz, and they are replete with surpassing beauty of thought, feeling, and
expression. The grace, ease, and fancy of his numbers are inimitable, and
Page 88
there is a magic in his lays which few even of his professed enemies have
been able to resist. To the young, the gay, and the enthusiastic his verses are
ever welcome, and the sage discovers in them a hidden mystery which
reconciles him to their subjects. His tomb, near Shiraz, is visited as a sacred
spot by pilgrims of all ages. The place of his birth is held in veneration, and
there is not a Persian whose heart does not echo his strains.
Jami (d. 1492) was born in Khorassan, in the village of Jam, from
whence he is named,—his proper appellation being Abd Arahman. He was a
Sufi, and preferred, like many of his fellow-poets, the meditations and
ecstasies of mysticism to the pleasures of a court. His writings are very
voluminous; he composed nearly forty volumes, all of great length, of
which twenty-two are preserved at Oxford. The greater part of them treat of
Mohammedan theology, and are written in the mystic style. He collected the
most interesting under the name of the "Seven Stars of the Bear," or the
"Seven Brothers," and among these is the famous poem of Yussuf and
Zuleika. This favorite subject, which every Persian poet has touched with
more or less success, has never been so beautifully rendered as by Jami.
Nothing can exceed the admiration which this poem inspires in the East.
Hatifi (d. 1520) was the nephew of the great poet Jami. It was his
ambition to enter the lists with his uncle, by composing poems on similar
subjects. Opinions are divided as to whether he succeeded as well as his
master, but none can exceed him in sweetness and pathos. His version of the
sad tale of Mejnoun and Leila, the Romeo and Juliet of the East, is
confessedly superior to that of Nizami.
The lyrical compositions of Sheik Feizi (d. 1575) are highly valued. In
his mystic poems he approaches to the sublimity of Attar. His ideas are
tinged with the belief of the Hindus, in which he was educated. When a boy
he was introduced to the Brahmins by the Sultan Mohammed Akbar, as an
been able to resist. To the young, the gay, and the enthusiastic his verses are
ever welcome, and the sage discovers in them a hidden mystery which
reconciles him to their subjects. His tomb, near Shiraz, is visited as a sacred
spot by pilgrims of all ages. The place of his birth is held in veneration, and
there is not a Persian whose heart does not echo his strains.
Jami (d. 1492) was born in Khorassan, in the village of Jam, from
whence he is named,—his proper appellation being Abd Arahman. He was a
Sufi, and preferred, like many of his fellow-poets, the meditations and
ecstasies of mysticism to the pleasures of a court. His writings are very
voluminous; he composed nearly forty volumes, all of great length, of
which twenty-two are preserved at Oxford. The greater part of them treat of
Mohammedan theology, and are written in the mystic style. He collected the
most interesting under the name of the "Seven Stars of the Bear," or the
"Seven Brothers," and among these is the famous poem of Yussuf and
Zuleika. This favorite subject, which every Persian poet has touched with
more or less success, has never been so beautifully rendered as by Jami.
Nothing can exceed the admiration which this poem inspires in the East.
Hatifi (d. 1520) was the nephew of the great poet Jami. It was his
ambition to enter the lists with his uncle, by composing poems on similar
subjects. Opinions are divided as to whether he succeeded as well as his
master, but none can exceed him in sweetness and pathos. His version of the
sad tale of Mejnoun and Leila, the Romeo and Juliet of the East, is
confessedly superior to that of Nizami.
The lyrical compositions of Sheik Feizi (d. 1575) are highly valued. In
his mystic poems he approaches to the sublimity of Attar. His ideas are
tinged with the belief of the Hindus, in which he was educated. When a boy
he was introduced to the Brahmins by the Sultan Mohammed Akbar, as an
Page 89
orphan of their tribe, in order that he might learn their language and obtain
possession of their religions secrets. He became attached to the daughter of
the Brahmin who protected him, and she was offered to him—in marriage
by the unsuspecting parent. After a struggle between inclination and honor,
the latter prevailed, and he confessed the fraud. The Brahmin, struck with
horror, attempted to put an end to his own existence, fearing that he had
betrayed his oath and brought danger and disgrace on his sect. Feizi, with
tears—and protestations, besought him to forbear, promising to submit to
any command he might impose on him. The Brahmin consented to live, on
condition that Feizi should take an oath never to translate the Vedas nor to
repeat to any one the creed of the Hindus. Feizi entered into the desired
obligations, parted with his adopted father, bade adieu to his love, and with
a sinking heart returned home. Among his works the most important is the
"Mahabarit," which contains the chronicles of the Hindu princes, and
abounds in romantic episodes.
The most celebrated recent Persian poet is Blab Phelair (1729-1825). He
left many astronomical, moral, political, and literary works. He is called the
Persian Voltaire.
Among the collections of novels and fables, the "Lights of Canope" may
be mentioned, imitated from the Hitopadesa. Persian literature is also
enriched by translations of the standard works in Sanskrit, among which are
the epic poems of Valmiki and Vyasa.
9. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY.—Among the most celebrated of the
Persian historians is Mirkhond, who lived in the middle of the fifteenth
century. His great work on universal history contains an account of the
origin of the world, the life of the patriarchs, prophets, and philosophers of
Persia, and affords valuable materials, especially for the history of the
Middle Ages. His son, Khondemir, distinguished himself in the same
possession of their religions secrets. He became attached to the daughter of
the Brahmin who protected him, and she was offered to him—in marriage
by the unsuspecting parent. After a struggle between inclination and honor,
the latter prevailed, and he confessed the fraud. The Brahmin, struck with
horror, attempted to put an end to his own existence, fearing that he had
betrayed his oath and brought danger and disgrace on his sect. Feizi, with
tears—and protestations, besought him to forbear, promising to submit to
any command he might impose on him. The Brahmin consented to live, on
condition that Feizi should take an oath never to translate the Vedas nor to
repeat to any one the creed of the Hindus. Feizi entered into the desired
obligations, parted with his adopted father, bade adieu to his love, and with
a sinking heart returned home. Among his works the most important is the
"Mahabarit," which contains the chronicles of the Hindu princes, and
abounds in romantic episodes.
The most celebrated recent Persian poet is Blab Phelair (1729-1825). He
left many astronomical, moral, political, and literary works. He is called the
Persian Voltaire.
Among the collections of novels and fables, the "Lights of Canope" may
be mentioned, imitated from the Hitopadesa. Persian literature is also
enriched by translations of the standard works in Sanskrit, among which are
the epic poems of Valmiki and Vyasa.
9. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY.—Among the most celebrated of the
Persian historians is Mirkhond, who lived in the middle of the fifteenth
century. His great work on universal history contains an account of the
origin of the world, the life of the patriarchs, prophets, and philosophers of
Persia, and affords valuable materials, especially for the history of the
Middle Ages. His son, Khondemir, distinguished himself in the same
Page 90
branch of literature, and wrote two works which, for their historical
correctness and elegance of style, are in great favor among the Persians.
Ferischta, who flourished in the beginning of the seventeenth century, is the
author of a valuable history of India. Mirgholah, a historian of the
eighteenth century, gives a contemporary history of Hindustan and of his
own country, under the title of "A Glance at Recent Affairs," and in another
work he treats of the causes which, at some future time, will probably lead
to the fall of the British power in India. The "History of the Reigning
Dynasty" is among the principal modern historical works of Persia.
The Persians possess numerous works on rhetoric, geography, medicine,
mathematics, and astronomy, few of which are entitled to much
consideration. In philosophy may be mentioned the "Essence of Logic," an
exposition in the Arabic language of the doctrines of Aristotle on logic; and
the "Moral System of Nasir," published in the thirteenth century A.D., a
valuable treatise on morals, economy, and politics.
10. EDUCATION IN PERSIA.—There are established, in every town
and city, schools in which the poorer children can be instructed in the
rudiments of the Persian and Arabic languages. The pupil, after he has
learned the alphabet, reads the Koran in Arabic; next, fables in Persian; and
lastly is taught to write a beautiful hand, which is considered a great
accomplishment. The Persians are fond of poetry, and the lowest artisans
can read or repeat the finest passages of their most admired poets. For the
education of the higher classes there are in Persia many colleges and
universities where the pupils are taught grammar, the Turkish and Arabic
languages, rhetoric, philosophy, and poetry. The literary men are numerous;
they pursue their studies till they are entitled to the honors of the colleges;
afterwards they devote themselves to copying and illuminating manuscripts.
correctness and elegance of style, are in great favor among the Persians.
Ferischta, who flourished in the beginning of the seventeenth century, is the
author of a valuable history of India. Mirgholah, a historian of the
eighteenth century, gives a contemporary history of Hindustan and of his
own country, under the title of "A Glance at Recent Affairs," and in another
work he treats of the causes which, at some future time, will probably lead
to the fall of the British power in India. The "History of the Reigning
Dynasty" is among the principal modern historical works of Persia.
The Persians possess numerous works on rhetoric, geography, medicine,
mathematics, and astronomy, few of which are entitled to much
consideration. In philosophy may be mentioned the "Essence of Logic," an
exposition in the Arabic language of the doctrines of Aristotle on logic; and
the "Moral System of Nasir," published in the thirteenth century A.D., a
valuable treatise on morals, economy, and politics.
10. EDUCATION IN PERSIA.—There are established, in every town
and city, schools in which the poorer children can be instructed in the
rudiments of the Persian and Arabic languages. The pupil, after he has
learned the alphabet, reads the Koran in Arabic; next, fables in Persian; and
lastly is taught to write a beautiful hand, which is considered a great
accomplishment. The Persians are fond of poetry, and the lowest artisans
can read or repeat the finest passages of their most admired poets. For the
education of the higher classes there are in Persia many colleges and
universities where the pupils are taught grammar, the Turkish and Arabic
languages, rhetoric, philosophy, and poetry. The literary men are numerous;
they pursue their studies till they are entitled to the honors of the colleges;
afterwards they devote themselves to copying and illuminating manuscripts.
Page 91
Of late many celebrated European works have been translated and
published in Persia.
published in Persia.
Page 92
HEBREW LITERATURE.
1. Hebrew Literature; its Divisions.—2. The Language; its Alphabet; its
Structure; Peculiarities, Formation, and Phases.—3. The Old Testament.—
4. Hebrew Education.—5. Fundamental Idea of Hebrew Literature.—6.
Hebrew Poetry.—7. Lyric Poetry; Songs; the Psalms; the Prophets.—8.
Pastoral Poetry and Didactic Poetry; the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes.—9.
Epic and Dramatic Poetry; the Book of Job.—10. Hebrew History; the
Pentateuch and other Historical Books.—11. Hebrew Philosophy.—12.
Restoration of the Sacred Books.—13. Manuscripts and Translations.—14.
Rabbinical Literature.—15. The New Revision of the Bible, and the New
Biblical Manuscript.
1. HEBREW LITERATURE.—In the Hebrew literature we find
expressed the national character of that ancient people who, for a period of
four thousand years, through captivity, dispersion, and persecution of every
kind, present the wonderful spectacle of a race preserving its nationality, its
peculiarities of worship, of doctrine, and of literature. Its history reaches
back to an early period of the world, its code of laws has been studied and
imitated by the legislators of all ages and countries, and its literary
monuments surpass in originality, poetic strength, and religious importance
those of any other nation before the Christian era.
The literature of the Hebrews may be divided into the four following
periods:—
1. Hebrew Literature; its Divisions.—2. The Language; its Alphabet; its
Structure; Peculiarities, Formation, and Phases.—3. The Old Testament.—
4. Hebrew Education.—5. Fundamental Idea of Hebrew Literature.—6.
Hebrew Poetry.—7. Lyric Poetry; Songs; the Psalms; the Prophets.—8.
Pastoral Poetry and Didactic Poetry; the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes.—9.
Epic and Dramatic Poetry; the Book of Job.—10. Hebrew History; the
Pentateuch and other Historical Books.—11. Hebrew Philosophy.—12.
Restoration of the Sacred Books.—13. Manuscripts and Translations.—14.
Rabbinical Literature.—15. The New Revision of the Bible, and the New
Biblical Manuscript.
1. HEBREW LITERATURE.—In the Hebrew literature we find
expressed the national character of that ancient people who, for a period of
four thousand years, through captivity, dispersion, and persecution of every
kind, present the wonderful spectacle of a race preserving its nationality, its
peculiarities of worship, of doctrine, and of literature. Its history reaches
back to an early period of the world, its code of laws has been studied and
imitated by the legislators of all ages and countries, and its literary
monuments surpass in originality, poetic strength, and religious importance
those of any other nation before the Christian era.
The literature of the Hebrews may be divided into the four following
periods:—
Page 93
The first, extending from remote antiquity to the time of David, 1010
B.C., includes all the records of patriarchal civilization transmitted by
tradition previous to the age of Moses, and contained in the Pentateuch or
five books attributed to him after he had delivered the people from the
bondage of Egypt.
The second period extends from the time of David to the death of
Solomon, 1010-940 B.C., and to this are referred some of the Psalms,
Joshua, the Judges, and the Chronicles.
The third period extends from the death of Solomon to the return from
the Babylonian captivity, 940-532 B.C., and to this age belong the writings
of most of the Prophets, The Song of Solomon, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the
books of Samuel, of Kings, and of Ruth.
The fourth period extends from their return from the Babylonian
Captivity to the present time, and to this belong some of the Prophets, the
Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, the final completion of the Psalms, the
Septuagint translation of the Bible, the writings of Josephus, of Philo of
Alexandria, and the rabbinical literature.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The Hebrew language is of Semitic origin; its
alphabet consists of twenty-two letters. The number of accents is nearly
forty, some of which distinguish the sentences like the punctuation of our
language, and others serve to determine the number of syllables, or to mark
the tone with which they are to be sung or spoken.
The Hebrew character is of two kinds, the ancient or square, and the
modern or rabbinical. In the first of these the Scriptures were originally
written. The last is deprived of most of its angles, and is more easy and
flowing. The Hebrew words as well as letters are written from right to left
in common with, the Semitic tongues generally, and the language is regular,
B.C., includes all the records of patriarchal civilization transmitted by
tradition previous to the age of Moses, and contained in the Pentateuch or
five books attributed to him after he had delivered the people from the
bondage of Egypt.
The second period extends from the time of David to the death of
Solomon, 1010-940 B.C., and to this are referred some of the Psalms,
Joshua, the Judges, and the Chronicles.
The third period extends from the death of Solomon to the return from
the Babylonian captivity, 940-532 B.C., and to this age belong the writings
of most of the Prophets, The Song of Solomon, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the
books of Samuel, of Kings, and of Ruth.
The fourth period extends from their return from the Babylonian
Captivity to the present time, and to this belong some of the Prophets, the
Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, the final completion of the Psalms, the
Septuagint translation of the Bible, the writings of Josephus, of Philo of
Alexandria, and the rabbinical literature.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The Hebrew language is of Semitic origin; its
alphabet consists of twenty-two letters. The number of accents is nearly
forty, some of which distinguish the sentences like the punctuation of our
language, and others serve to determine the number of syllables, or to mark
the tone with which they are to be sung or spoken.
The Hebrew character is of two kinds, the ancient or square, and the
modern or rabbinical. In the first of these the Scriptures were originally
written. The last is deprived of most of its angles, and is more easy and
flowing. The Hebrew words as well as letters are written from right to left
in common with, the Semitic tongues generally, and the language is regular,
Page 94
particularly in its conjugations. Indeed, it has but one conjugation, but with
seven or eight variations, having the effect of as many different
conjugations, and giving great variety of expression. The predominance of
these modifications over the noun, the idea of time contained in the roots of
almost all its verbs, so expressive and so picturesque, and even the scarcity
of its prepositions, adjectives, and adverbs, make this language in its
organic structure breathe life, vigor, and emotion. If it lacks the flowery and
luxuriant elements of the other oriental idioms, no one of these can be
compared with the Hebrew tongue for the richness of its figures and
imagery, for its depth, and for its majestic and imposing features.
In the formation, development, and decay of this language, the following
periods may be distinguished:—
First. From Abraham to Moses, when the old stock was changed by the
infusion of the Egyptian and Arabic. Abraham, residing in Chaldea, spoke
the Chaldaic language, then traveling through Egypt, and establishing
himself in Canaan or Palestine, his language mingled its elements with the
tongues spoken by those nations, and perhaps also with that of the
Phoenicians, who early established commercial intercourse with him and
his descendants. It is probable that the Hebrew language sprung from the
mixture of these elements.
Second. From Moses and the composition of the Pentateuch to Solomon,
when it attained its perfection, not without being influenced by the
Phoenician. This is the Golden Age of the Hebrew language.
Third. From Solomon to Ezra, when, although increasing in beauty and
sweetness, it became less pure by the adoption of foreign ideas and idioms.
Fourth. From Ezra to the end of the reign of the Maccabees, when it was
gradually lost in the Aramaean or Chaldaic tongue, and became a dead
seven or eight variations, having the effect of as many different
conjugations, and giving great variety of expression. The predominance of
these modifications over the noun, the idea of time contained in the roots of
almost all its verbs, so expressive and so picturesque, and even the scarcity
of its prepositions, adjectives, and adverbs, make this language in its
organic structure breathe life, vigor, and emotion. If it lacks the flowery and
luxuriant elements of the other oriental idioms, no one of these can be
compared with the Hebrew tongue for the richness of its figures and
imagery, for its depth, and for its majestic and imposing features.
In the formation, development, and decay of this language, the following
periods may be distinguished:—
First. From Abraham to Moses, when the old stock was changed by the
infusion of the Egyptian and Arabic. Abraham, residing in Chaldea, spoke
the Chaldaic language, then traveling through Egypt, and establishing
himself in Canaan or Palestine, his language mingled its elements with the
tongues spoken by those nations, and perhaps also with that of the
Phoenicians, who early established commercial intercourse with him and
his descendants. It is probable that the Hebrew language sprung from the
mixture of these elements.
Second. From Moses and the composition of the Pentateuch to Solomon,
when it attained its perfection, not without being influenced by the
Phoenician. This is the Golden Age of the Hebrew language.
Third. From Solomon to Ezra, when, although increasing in beauty and
sweetness, it became less pure by the adoption of foreign ideas and idioms.
Fourth. From Ezra to the end of the reign of the Maccabees, when it was
gradually lost in the Aramaean or Chaldaic tongue, and became a dead
Page 95
language.
The Jews of the Middle Ages, incited by the learning of the Arabs in
Spain, among whom they received the protection denied them by Christian
nations, endeavored to restore their language to something of its original
purity, and to render the Biblical Hebrew again a written language; but the
Chaldaic idioms had taken too deep root to be eradicated, and besides, the
ancient language was found insufficient for the necessities of an advancing
civilization. Hence arose a new form of written Hebrew, called rabbinical
from its origin and use among the rabbins. It borrowed largely from many
contemporary languages, and though it became richer and more regular in
its structure, it retained little of the strength and purity of the ancient
Hebrew.
3. THE OLD TESTAMENT.—The literary productions of the Hebrews
are collected in the sacred books of the Old Testament, in which, according
to the celebrated orientalist, Sir William Jones, we can find more eloquence,
more historical and moral truth, more poetry,—in a word, more beauties
than we could gather from all other books together, of whatever country or
language. Aside from its supernatural claims, this book stands alone among
the literary monuments of other nations, for the sublimity of its doctrine, as
well as for the simplicity of its style.
It is the book of all centuries, countries, and conditions, and affords the
best solution of the most mysterious problems concerning God and the
world. It cultivates the taste, it elevates the mind, it nurses the soul with the
word of life, and it has inspired the best productions of human genius.
4. HEBREW EDUCATION.—Religion, morals, legislation, history,
poetry, and music were the special objects to which the attention of the
Levites and Prophets was particularly directed. The general education of the
people, however, was rather simple and domestic. They were trained in
The Jews of the Middle Ages, incited by the learning of the Arabs in
Spain, among whom they received the protection denied them by Christian
nations, endeavored to restore their language to something of its original
purity, and to render the Biblical Hebrew again a written language; but the
Chaldaic idioms had taken too deep root to be eradicated, and besides, the
ancient language was found insufficient for the necessities of an advancing
civilization. Hence arose a new form of written Hebrew, called rabbinical
from its origin and use among the rabbins. It borrowed largely from many
contemporary languages, and though it became richer and more regular in
its structure, it retained little of the strength and purity of the ancient
Hebrew.
3. THE OLD TESTAMENT.—The literary productions of the Hebrews
are collected in the sacred books of the Old Testament, in which, according
to the celebrated orientalist, Sir William Jones, we can find more eloquence,
more historical and moral truth, more poetry,—in a word, more beauties
than we could gather from all other books together, of whatever country or
language. Aside from its supernatural claims, this book stands alone among
the literary monuments of other nations, for the sublimity of its doctrine, as
well as for the simplicity of its style.
It is the book of all centuries, countries, and conditions, and affords the
best solution of the most mysterious problems concerning God and the
world. It cultivates the taste, it elevates the mind, it nurses the soul with the
word of life, and it has inspired the best productions of human genius.
4. HEBREW EDUCATION.—Religion, morals, legislation, history,
poetry, and music were the special objects to which the attention of the
Levites and Prophets was particularly directed. The general education of the
people, however, was rather simple and domestic. They were trained in
Page 96
husbandry, and in military and gymnastic exercises, and they applied their
minds almost exclusively to religious and moral doctrines and to divine
worship; they learned to read and write their own language correctly, but
they seldom learned foreign languages or read foreign books, and they
carefully prevented strangers from obtaining a knowledge of their own.
5. FUNDAMENTAL IDEA OF HEBREW LITERATURE.—
Monotheism was the fundamental idea of the Hebrew literature, as well as
of the Hebrew religion, legislation, morals, politics, and philosophy. The
idea of the unity of God constitutes the most striking characteristic of
Hebrew poetry, and chiefly distinguishes it from that of all mythological
nations. Other ancient literatures have created their divinities, endowed
them with human passions, and painted their achievements in the glowing
colors of poetry. The Hebrew poetry, on the contrary, makes no attempt to
portray the Deity by the instruments of sensuous representation, but simple,
majestic, and severe, it pours forth a perpetual anthem of praise and
thanksgiving. The attributes of God, his power, his paternal love and
wisdom, are described in the most sublime language of any age or nation.
His seat is the heavens, the earth is his footstool, the heavenly hosts his
servants; the sea is his, and he made it, and his hands prepared the dry land.
Placed under the immediate government of Jehovah, having with Him
common objects of aversion and love, the Hebrews reached the very source
of enthusiasm, the fire of which burned in the hearts of the prophets so
fervently as to cause them to utter the denunciations and the promises of the
Eternal in a tone suited to the inspired of God, and to sing his attributes and
glories with a dignity and authority becoming them, as the vicegerents of
God upon earth.
6. HEBREW POETRY.—The character of the people and their language,
its mission, the pastoral life of the patriarchs, the beautiful and grand
minds almost exclusively to religious and moral doctrines and to divine
worship; they learned to read and write their own language correctly, but
they seldom learned foreign languages or read foreign books, and they
carefully prevented strangers from obtaining a knowledge of their own.
5. FUNDAMENTAL IDEA OF HEBREW LITERATURE.—
Monotheism was the fundamental idea of the Hebrew literature, as well as
of the Hebrew religion, legislation, morals, politics, and philosophy. The
idea of the unity of God constitutes the most striking characteristic of
Hebrew poetry, and chiefly distinguishes it from that of all mythological
nations. Other ancient literatures have created their divinities, endowed
them with human passions, and painted their achievements in the glowing
colors of poetry. The Hebrew poetry, on the contrary, makes no attempt to
portray the Deity by the instruments of sensuous representation, but simple,
majestic, and severe, it pours forth a perpetual anthem of praise and
thanksgiving. The attributes of God, his power, his paternal love and
wisdom, are described in the most sublime language of any age or nation.
His seat is the heavens, the earth is his footstool, the heavenly hosts his
servants; the sea is his, and he made it, and his hands prepared the dry land.
Placed under the immediate government of Jehovah, having with Him
common objects of aversion and love, the Hebrews reached the very source
of enthusiasm, the fire of which burned in the hearts of the prophets so
fervently as to cause them to utter the denunciations and the promises of the
Eternal in a tone suited to the inspired of God, and to sing his attributes and
glories with a dignity and authority becoming them, as the vicegerents of
God upon earth.
6. HEBREW POETRY.—The character of the people and their language,
its mission, the pastoral life of the patriarchs, the beautiful and grand
Page 97
scenery of the country, the wonderful history of the nation, the feeling of
divine inspiration, the promise of a Messiah who should raise the nation to
glory, the imposing solemnities of the divine worship, and finally, the
special order of the prophets, gave a strong impulse to the poetical genius of
the nation, and concurred in producing a form of poetry which cannot be
compared with any other for its simplicity and clearness, for its depth and
majesty.
These features of Hebrew poetry, however, spring from its internal force
rather than from any external form. Indeed, the Hebrew poets soar far above
all others in that energy of feeling, impetuous and irresistible, which
penetrates, warms, and moves the very soul. They reveal their anxieties as
well as their hopes; they paint with truth and love the actual condition of the
human race, with its sorrows and consolations, its hopes and fears, its love
and hate. They select their images from the habitual ideas of the people, and
personify inanimate objects—the mountains tremble and exult, deep cries
unto deep. Another characteristic of Hebrew poetry is the strong feeling of
nationality it expresses. Of their two most sublime poets, one was their
legislator, the other their greatest king.
7. LYRIC POETRY.—In their national festivals the Hebrews sang the
hymns of their lyric poets, accompanied by musical instruments. The art of
singing, as connected with poetry, flourished especially under David, who
instituted twenty-four choruses, composed of four thousand Levites, whose
duty it was to sing in the public solemnities. It is generally believed that the
Hebrew lyric poetry was not ruled by any measure, either of syllables or of
time. Its predominant form was a succession of thoughts and a rhythmic
movement, less of syllables and words than of ideas and images
systematically arranged. The Psalms, especially, are essentially
symmetrical, according to the Hebrew ritual, their verses being sung
alternately by Levites and people, both in the synagogues and more
divine inspiration, the promise of a Messiah who should raise the nation to
glory, the imposing solemnities of the divine worship, and finally, the
special order of the prophets, gave a strong impulse to the poetical genius of
the nation, and concurred in producing a form of poetry which cannot be
compared with any other for its simplicity and clearness, for its depth and
majesty.
These features of Hebrew poetry, however, spring from its internal force
rather than from any external form. Indeed, the Hebrew poets soar far above
all others in that energy of feeling, impetuous and irresistible, which
penetrates, warms, and moves the very soul. They reveal their anxieties as
well as their hopes; they paint with truth and love the actual condition of the
human race, with its sorrows and consolations, its hopes and fears, its love
and hate. They select their images from the habitual ideas of the people, and
personify inanimate objects—the mountains tremble and exult, deep cries
unto deep. Another characteristic of Hebrew poetry is the strong feeling of
nationality it expresses. Of their two most sublime poets, one was their
legislator, the other their greatest king.
7. LYRIC POETRY.—In their national festivals the Hebrews sang the
hymns of their lyric poets, accompanied by musical instruments. The art of
singing, as connected with poetry, flourished especially under David, who
instituted twenty-four choruses, composed of four thousand Levites, whose
duty it was to sing in the public solemnities. It is generally believed that the
Hebrew lyric poetry was not ruled by any measure, either of syllables or of
time. Its predominant form was a succession of thoughts and a rhythmic
movement, less of syllables and words than of ideas and images
systematically arranged. The Psalms, especially, are essentially
symmetrical, according to the Hebrew ritual, their verses being sung
alternately by Levites and people, both in the synagogues and more
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frequently in the open air. The song of Moses after the passage of the Bed
Sea is the most sublime triumphal hymn in any language, and of equal merit
is his song of thanksgiving in Deuteronomy. Beautiful examples of the
same order of poetry may be found in the song of Judith (though not
canonical), and the songs of Deborah and Balaam. But Hebrew poetry
attained its meridian splendor in the Psalms of David. The works of God in
the creation of the world, and in the government of men; the illustrious
deeds of the House of Jacob; the wonders and mysteries of the new
Covenant are sung by David in a fervent out-pouring of an impulsive,
passionate spirit, that alternately laments and exults, bows in contrition, or
soars to the sublimest heights of devotion. The Psalms, even now, reduced
to prose, after three thousand years, present the best and most sublime
collection of lyrical poems, unequaled for their aspiration, their living
imagery, their grand ideas, and majesty of style.
When at length the Hebrews, forgetful of their high duties and calling,
trampled on their institutions and laws, prophets were raised up to recall the
wandering people to their allegiance. ISAIAH, whether he foretells the
future destiny of the nation, or the coming of the Messiah, in his majestic
eloquence, sweetness, and simplicity, gives us the most perfect model of
lyric poetry. He prophesied during the reigns of Azariah and Hezekiah, and
his writings bear the mark of true inspiration.
JEREMIAH flourished during the darkest period in the history of the
kingdom of Judah, and under the last four kings, previous to the Captivity.
The Lamentations, in which he pours forth his grief for the fate of his
country, are full of touching melancholy and pious resignation, and, in their
harmonious and beautiful tone, show his ardent patriotism and his unshaken
trust in the God of his fathers. He does not equal Isaiah in the sublimity of
his conceptions and the variety of his imagery, but whatever may be the
Sea is the most sublime triumphal hymn in any language, and of equal merit
is his song of thanksgiving in Deuteronomy. Beautiful examples of the
same order of poetry may be found in the song of Judith (though not
canonical), and the songs of Deborah and Balaam. But Hebrew poetry
attained its meridian splendor in the Psalms of David. The works of God in
the creation of the world, and in the government of men; the illustrious
deeds of the House of Jacob; the wonders and mysteries of the new
Covenant are sung by David in a fervent out-pouring of an impulsive,
passionate spirit, that alternately laments and exults, bows in contrition, or
soars to the sublimest heights of devotion. The Psalms, even now, reduced
to prose, after three thousand years, present the best and most sublime
collection of lyrical poems, unequaled for their aspiration, their living
imagery, their grand ideas, and majesty of style.
When at length the Hebrews, forgetful of their high duties and calling,
trampled on their institutions and laws, prophets were raised up to recall the
wandering people to their allegiance. ISAIAH, whether he foretells the
future destiny of the nation, or the coming of the Messiah, in his majestic
eloquence, sweetness, and simplicity, gives us the most perfect model of
lyric poetry. He prophesied during the reigns of Azariah and Hezekiah, and
his writings bear the mark of true inspiration.
JEREMIAH flourished during the darkest period in the history of the
kingdom of Judah, and under the last four kings, previous to the Captivity.
The Lamentations, in which he pours forth his grief for the fate of his
country, are full of touching melancholy and pious resignation, and, in their
harmonious and beautiful tone, show his ardent patriotism and his unshaken
trust in the God of his fathers. He does not equal Isaiah in the sublimity of
his conceptions and the variety of his imagery, but whatever may be the
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imperfections of his style, they are lost in the passion and vehemence of his
poems.
DANIEL, after having straggled against the corruptions of Babylon,
boldly foretells the decay of that empire with terrible power. His
conceptions and images are truly sublime; but his style is less correct and
regular than that of his predecessors, his language being a mixture of
Hebrew and Chaldaic.
Such is also the style of EZEKIEL, who sings the development of the
obscure prophesies of his master. His writings abound in dreams and
visions, and convey rather the idea of the terrible than of the sublime.
These four, from the length of their writings, are called the Greater
Prophets, to distinguish them from the twelve Minor Prophets: HOSEA,
JOEL, AMOS, OBADIAH, JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, HABAKKUK,
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, and MALACHI, all of whom,
though endowed with different characteristics and genius, show in their
writings more or less of that fire and vigor which can only be found in
writers who were moved and warmed by the very spirit of God.
8. PASTORAL POETRY AND DIDACTIC POETRY.—The Song of
Solomon and the history of Ruth are the best specimens of the Hebrew idyl,
and breathe all the simplicity of pastoral life.
The books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes contain treatises on moral
philosophy, or rather, are didactic poems. The Proverb, which is a maxim of
wisdom, greatly used by the ancients before the introduction of dissertation,
is, as the name indicates, the prevalent form of the first of these books. In
Ecclesiastes we have described the trials of a mind which has lost itself in
undefined wishes and in despair, and the efficacious remedies for these
mental diseases are shown in the pictures of the vanity of the world and in
poems.
DANIEL, after having straggled against the corruptions of Babylon,
boldly foretells the decay of that empire with terrible power. His
conceptions and images are truly sublime; but his style is less correct and
regular than that of his predecessors, his language being a mixture of
Hebrew and Chaldaic.
Such is also the style of EZEKIEL, who sings the development of the
obscure prophesies of his master. His writings abound in dreams and
visions, and convey rather the idea of the terrible than of the sublime.
These four, from the length of their writings, are called the Greater
Prophets, to distinguish them from the twelve Minor Prophets: HOSEA,
JOEL, AMOS, OBADIAH, JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, HABAKKUK,
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, and MALACHI, all of whom,
though endowed with different characteristics and genius, show in their
writings more or less of that fire and vigor which can only be found in
writers who were moved and warmed by the very spirit of God.
8. PASTORAL POETRY AND DIDACTIC POETRY.—The Song of
Solomon and the history of Ruth are the best specimens of the Hebrew idyl,
and breathe all the simplicity of pastoral life.
The books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes contain treatises on moral
philosophy, or rather, are didactic poems. The Proverb, which is a maxim of
wisdom, greatly used by the ancients before the introduction of dissertation,
is, as the name indicates, the prevalent form of the first of these books. In
Ecclesiastes we have described the trials of a mind which has lost itself in
undefined wishes and in despair, and the efficacious remedies for these
mental diseases are shown in the pictures of the vanity of the world and in
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the final divine judgment, in which the problem of this life will have its
complete solution. SOLOMON, the author of these works, adds splendor to
the sublimity of his doctrines by the dignity of his style.
9. EPIC AND DRAMATIC POETRY.—The Book of Job may be
considered as belonging either to epic or to dramatic poetry. Its exact date is
uncertain; some writers refer it to the primitive period of Hebrew literature,
and others to a later age; and, while some contend that Job was but an ideal,
representing human suffering, whose story was sung by an anonymous poet,
others, with more probability, regard him as an actual person, exposed to
the trials and temptations described in this wonderful book. However this
may be, it is certain that this monument of wisdom stands alone, and that it
can be compared to no other production for the sublimity of its ideas, the
vivacity and force of its expressions, the grandeur of its imagery, and the
variety of its characters. No other work represents, in more true and vivid
colors, the nobility and misery of humanity, the laws of necessity and
Providence, and the trials to which the good are subjected for their moral
improvement. Here the great straggle between evil and good appears in its
true light, and human virtue heroically submits itself to the ordeal of
misfortune. Here we learn that the evil and good of this life are by no means
the measure of morality, and here we witness the final triumph of justice.
10. HEBREW HISTORY.—Moses, the most ancient of all historians, was
also the first leader and legislator of the Hebrews. When at length the
traditions of the patriarchs had become obscured and confused among the
different nations of the earth, Moses was inspired to write the history of the
human race, and especially of the chosen people, in order to bequeath to
coming centuries a memorial of revealed truths and of the divine works of
eternal Wisdom. Thus in the first chapters of Genesis, without aiming to
write the complete annals of the first period of the world, he summed up the
complete solution. SOLOMON, the author of these works, adds splendor to
the sublimity of his doctrines by the dignity of his style.
9. EPIC AND DRAMATIC POETRY.—The Book of Job may be
considered as belonging either to epic or to dramatic poetry. Its exact date is
uncertain; some writers refer it to the primitive period of Hebrew literature,
and others to a later age; and, while some contend that Job was but an ideal,
representing human suffering, whose story was sung by an anonymous poet,
others, with more probability, regard him as an actual person, exposed to
the trials and temptations described in this wonderful book. However this
may be, it is certain that this monument of wisdom stands alone, and that it
can be compared to no other production for the sublimity of its ideas, the
vivacity and force of its expressions, the grandeur of its imagery, and the
variety of its characters. No other work represents, in more true and vivid
colors, the nobility and misery of humanity, the laws of necessity and
Providence, and the trials to which the good are subjected for their moral
improvement. Here the great straggle between evil and good appears in its
true light, and human virtue heroically submits itself to the ordeal of
misfortune. Here we learn that the evil and good of this life are by no means
the measure of morality, and here we witness the final triumph of justice.
10. HEBREW HISTORY.—Moses, the most ancient of all historians, was
also the first leader and legislator of the Hebrews. When at length the
traditions of the patriarchs had become obscured and confused among the
different nations of the earth, Moses was inspired to write the history of the
human race, and especially of the chosen people, in order to bequeath to
coming centuries a memorial of revealed truths and of the divine works of
eternal Wisdom. Thus in the first chapters of Genesis, without aiming to
write the complete annals of the first period of the world, he summed up the
Page 101
general history of man, and described, more especially, the genealogy of the
patriarchs and of the generations previous to the time of the dispersion.
The subject of the book of Exodus is the delivery of the people from the
Egyptian bondage, and it is not less admirable for the importance of the
events which it describes, than for the manner in which they are related. In
this, and in the following book of Numbers, the record of patriarchal life
gives place to the teachings of Moses and to the history of the wanderings
in the deserts of Arabia.
In Leviticus the constitution of the priesthood is described, as well as the
peculiarities of a worship.
Deuteronomy records the laws of Moses, and concludes with his sublime
hymn of thanksgiving.
The historical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra,
etc., contain the history of the Hebrew nation for nearly a thousand years,
and relate the prosperity and the disasters of the chosen people. Here are
recorded the deeds of Joshua, of Samson, of Samuel, of David, and of
Solomon, the building of the Temple, the division of the tribes into two
kingdoms, the prodigies of Elijah and Elisha, the impieties of Ahab, the
calamities of Jedekiah, the destruction of Jerusalem and of the first Temple,
the dispersion and the Babylonish captivity, the deliverance under Cyrus,
and the rebuilding of the city and Temple under Ezra, and other great events
in Hebrew history.
The internal evidence derived from the peculiar character of each of the
historical books is decisive of their genuineness, which is supported above
all suspicion of alteration or addition by the scrupulous conscientiousness
and veneration with which the Hebrews regarded their sacred writings.
Their authenticity is also proved by the uniformity of doctrine which
patriarchs and of the generations previous to the time of the dispersion.
The subject of the book of Exodus is the delivery of the people from the
Egyptian bondage, and it is not less admirable for the importance of the
events which it describes, than for the manner in which they are related. In
this, and in the following book of Numbers, the record of patriarchal life
gives place to the teachings of Moses and to the history of the wanderings
in the deserts of Arabia.
In Leviticus the constitution of the priesthood is described, as well as the
peculiarities of a worship.
Deuteronomy records the laws of Moses, and concludes with his sublime
hymn of thanksgiving.
The historical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra,
etc., contain the history of the Hebrew nation for nearly a thousand years,
and relate the prosperity and the disasters of the chosen people. Here are
recorded the deeds of Joshua, of Samson, of Samuel, of David, and of
Solomon, the building of the Temple, the division of the tribes into two
kingdoms, the prodigies of Elijah and Elisha, the impieties of Ahab, the
calamities of Jedekiah, the destruction of Jerusalem and of the first Temple,
the dispersion and the Babylonish captivity, the deliverance under Cyrus,
and the rebuilding of the city and Temple under Ezra, and other great events
in Hebrew history.
The internal evidence derived from the peculiar character of each of the
historical books is decisive of their genuineness, which is supported above
all suspicion of alteration or addition by the scrupulous conscientiousness
and veneration with which the Hebrews regarded their sacred writings.
Their authenticity is also proved by the uniformity of doctrine which
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pervades them all, though written at different periods, by the simplicity and
naturalness of the narrations, and by the sincerity of the writers.
These histories display neither vanity nor adulation, nor do they attempt
to conceal from the reader whatever might be considered as faults in their
authors or their heroes. While they select facts with a nice judgment, and
present the most luminous picture of events and of their causes, they abstain
from reasoning or speculation in regard to them.
11. HEBREW PHILOSOPHY.—Although the Hebrews, in their different
sacred writings, have transmitted to us the best solution of the ancient
philosophical questions on the creation of the world, on the Providence
which rules it, on monotheism, and on the origin of sin, yet they have
nowhere presented us with a complete system of philosophy.
During the Captivity, their doctrines were influenced by those of
Zoroaster, and later, when many of the Jews established themselves in
Egypt, they acquired some knowledge of the Greek philosophy, and the
tenets of the sects of the Essenes bear a strong resemblance to the
Pythagorean and Platonic schools. This resemblance appears most clearly in
the writings of Philo of Alexandria, a Jew, born a few years before the birth
of our Saviour. Though not belonging to the sect of the Essenes, he
followed their example in adopting the doctrines of Plato and taking them
as the criterion in the interpretation of the Scriptures. So, also, Flavius
Josephus, born in Jerusalem, 37 A.D., and Numenius, born in Syria, in the
second century A.D., adopted the Greek philosophy, and by its doctrines
amplified and expanded the tenets of Judaism.
12. RESTORATION OF THE SACRED BOOKS.—One of the most
important eras in Hebrew literature is the period of the restoration of the
Mosaic institutions, after the return from the Captivity. According to
tradition, at that time Ezra established the great Synagogue, a college of one
naturalness of the narrations, and by the sincerity of the writers.
These histories display neither vanity nor adulation, nor do they attempt
to conceal from the reader whatever might be considered as faults in their
authors or their heroes. While they select facts with a nice judgment, and
present the most luminous picture of events and of their causes, they abstain
from reasoning or speculation in regard to them.
11. HEBREW PHILOSOPHY.—Although the Hebrews, in their different
sacred writings, have transmitted to us the best solution of the ancient
philosophical questions on the creation of the world, on the Providence
which rules it, on monotheism, and on the origin of sin, yet they have
nowhere presented us with a complete system of philosophy.
During the Captivity, their doctrines were influenced by those of
Zoroaster, and later, when many of the Jews established themselves in
Egypt, they acquired some knowledge of the Greek philosophy, and the
tenets of the sects of the Essenes bear a strong resemblance to the
Pythagorean and Platonic schools. This resemblance appears most clearly in
the writings of Philo of Alexandria, a Jew, born a few years before the birth
of our Saviour. Though not belonging to the sect of the Essenes, he
followed their example in adopting the doctrines of Plato and taking them
as the criterion in the interpretation of the Scriptures. So, also, Flavius
Josephus, born in Jerusalem, 37 A.D., and Numenius, born in Syria, in the
second century A.D., adopted the Greek philosophy, and by its doctrines
amplified and expanded the tenets of Judaism.
12. RESTORATION OF THE SACRED BOOKS.—One of the most
important eras in Hebrew literature is the period of the restoration of the
Mosaic institutions, after the return from the Captivity. According to
tradition, at that time Ezra established the great Synagogue, a college of one
Page 103
hundred and twenty learned men, who were appointed to collect copies of
the ancient sacred books, the originals of which had been lost in the capture
of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and Nehemiah soon after placed this, or a
new collection, in the Temple. The design of these reformers to give the
people a religious canon in their ancient tongue induces the belief that they
engaged in the work with the strictest fidelity to the old Mosaic institutions,
and it is certain that the canon of the Old Testament, in the time of the
Maccabees, was the same as that which we have at present.
13. MANUSCRIPTS AND TRANSLATIONS.—Of the canonical books
of the Old Testament we have Hebrew manuscripts, printed editions, and
translations. The most esteemed manuscripts are those of the Spanish Jews,
of which the most ancient belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The
printed editions of the Bible in Hebrew are numerous. The earliest are those
of Italy. Luther made his German translation from the edition of Brescia,
printed in 1494. The earliest and most famous translation of the Old
Testament is the Septuagint, or Greek translation, which was made about
283 B.C. It may, probably, be attributed to the Alexandrian Jews, who,
having lost the knowledge of the Hebrew, caused the translation to be made
by some of their learned countrymen for the use of the Synagogues of
Egypt. It was probably accomplished under the authority of the Sanhedrim,
composed of seventy elders, and therefore called the Septuagint version,
and from it the quotations in the New Testament are chiefly taken. It was
regarded as canonical by the Jews to the exclusion of other books written in
Greek, but not translated from the Hebrew, which we now call, by the
Greek name, the Apocrypha.
The Vulgate or Latin translation, which has official authority in the
Catholic Church, was made gradually from the eighth to the sixteenth
century, partly from an old translation which was made from the Greek in
the ancient sacred books, the originals of which had been lost in the capture
of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and Nehemiah soon after placed this, or a
new collection, in the Temple. The design of these reformers to give the
people a religious canon in their ancient tongue induces the belief that they
engaged in the work with the strictest fidelity to the old Mosaic institutions,
and it is certain that the canon of the Old Testament, in the time of the
Maccabees, was the same as that which we have at present.
13. MANUSCRIPTS AND TRANSLATIONS.—Of the canonical books
of the Old Testament we have Hebrew manuscripts, printed editions, and
translations. The most esteemed manuscripts are those of the Spanish Jews,
of which the most ancient belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The
printed editions of the Bible in Hebrew are numerous. The earliest are those
of Italy. Luther made his German translation from the edition of Brescia,
printed in 1494. The earliest and most famous translation of the Old
Testament is the Septuagint, or Greek translation, which was made about
283 B.C. It may, probably, be attributed to the Alexandrian Jews, who,
having lost the knowledge of the Hebrew, caused the translation to be made
by some of their learned countrymen for the use of the Synagogues of
Egypt. It was probably accomplished under the authority of the Sanhedrim,
composed of seventy elders, and therefore called the Septuagint version,
and from it the quotations in the New Testament are chiefly taken. It was
regarded as canonical by the Jews to the exclusion of other books written in
Greek, but not translated from the Hebrew, which we now call, by the
Greek name, the Apocrypha.
The Vulgate or Latin translation, which has official authority in the
Catholic Church, was made gradually from the eighth to the sixteenth
century, partly from an old translation which was made from the Greek in
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the early history of the Church, and partly from translations from the
Hebrew made by St. Jerome.
The English version of the Bible now in use in England and America was
made by order of James I. It was accomplished by forty-seven distinguished
scholars, divided into six classes, to each of which a part of the work was
assigned. This translation occupied three years, and was printed in 1611.
14. RABBINICAL LITERATURE.—Rabbinical literature includes all
the writings of the rabbins, or teachers of the Jews in the later period of
Hebrew letters, who have interpreted and developed the literature of the
earlier ages. The language made use of by them has its foundation in the
Hebrew and Chaldaic, with various alterations and modifications in the use
of words, the meaning of which they have considerably enlarged and
extended. They have frequently borrowed from the Arabic, Greek, and
Latin, and from those modern tongues spoken where they severally resided.
The Talmud, from the Hebrew word signifying he has learned, is a
collection of traditions illustrative of the laws and usages of the Jews. The
Talmud consists of two parts, the Mishna and the Gemara. The Mishna, or
second law, is a collection of rabbinical rules and precepts made in the
second century. The Gemara (completion or doctrine) was composed in the
third century. It is a collection of commentaries and explanations of the
Mishna, and both together formed the Jerusalem Talmud.
The Babylonian rabbins composed new commentaries on the Mishna,
and this formed the Babylonian Talmud. Both Talmuds were first
committed to writing about 500 A.D. At the period of the Christian Era, the
civil constitution, language, and mode of thinking among the Jews had
undergone a complete revolution, and were entirely different from what
they had been in the early period of the commonwealth. The Mosaic books
contained rules no longer adapted to the situation of the nation, and many
Hebrew made by St. Jerome.
The English version of the Bible now in use in England and America was
made by order of James I. It was accomplished by forty-seven distinguished
scholars, divided into six classes, to each of which a part of the work was
assigned. This translation occupied three years, and was printed in 1611.
14. RABBINICAL LITERATURE.—Rabbinical literature includes all
the writings of the rabbins, or teachers of the Jews in the later period of
Hebrew letters, who have interpreted and developed the literature of the
earlier ages. The language made use of by them has its foundation in the
Hebrew and Chaldaic, with various alterations and modifications in the use
of words, the meaning of which they have considerably enlarged and
extended. They have frequently borrowed from the Arabic, Greek, and
Latin, and from those modern tongues spoken where they severally resided.
The Talmud, from the Hebrew word signifying he has learned, is a
collection of traditions illustrative of the laws and usages of the Jews. The
Talmud consists of two parts, the Mishna and the Gemara. The Mishna, or
second law, is a collection of rabbinical rules and precepts made in the
second century. The Gemara (completion or doctrine) was composed in the
third century. It is a collection of commentaries and explanations of the
Mishna, and both together formed the Jerusalem Talmud.
The Babylonian rabbins composed new commentaries on the Mishna,
and this formed the Babylonian Talmud. Both Talmuds were first
committed to writing about 500 A.D. At the period of the Christian Era, the
civil constitution, language, and mode of thinking among the Jews had
undergone a complete revolution, and were entirely different from what
they had been in the early period of the commonwealth. The Mosaic books
contained rules no longer adapted to the situation of the nation, and many
Page 105
difficult questions arose to which their law afforded no satisfactory
solution. The rabbins undertook to supply this defect, partly by
commentaries on the Mosaic precepts, and partly by the composition of
new rules.
The Talmud requires that wherever twelve adults reside together in one
place, they shall erect a synagogue and serve the God of their fathers by a
multitude of prayers and formalities, amidst the daily occupations of life. It
allows usury, treats agricultural pursuits with contempt, and requires strict
separation from the other races, and commits the government to the rabbins.
The Talmud is followed by the Rabbinites, to which sect nearly all the
European and American Jews belong. The sect of the Caraites rejects the
Talmud and holds to the law of Moses only. It is less numerous, and its
members are found chiefly in the East, or in Turkey and Eastern Russia.
The Cabala, or oral tradition, is, according to the Jews, a perpetual divine
revelation, preserved among the Jewish people by secret transmission. It
sometimes denotes the doctrines of the prophets, but most commonly the
mystical philosophy, which was probably introduced into Palestine from
Egypt and Persia. It was first committed to writing in the second century
A.D. The Cabala is divided into the symbolical and the real, of which the
former gives a mystical signification to letters. The latter comprehends
doctrines, and is divided into the theoretical and practical. The first aims to
explain the Scriptures according to the secret traditions, while the last
pretends to teach the art of performing miracles by an artificial use of the
divine names and sentences of the sacred Scriptures.
The Jews of the Middle Ages acquired great reputation for learning,
especially in Spain, where they were allowed to study astronomy,
mathematics, and medicine in the schools of the Moors. Granada and
Cordova became the centres of rabbinical literature, which was also
solution. The rabbins undertook to supply this defect, partly by
commentaries on the Mosaic precepts, and partly by the composition of
new rules.
The Talmud requires that wherever twelve adults reside together in one
place, they shall erect a synagogue and serve the God of their fathers by a
multitude of prayers and formalities, amidst the daily occupations of life. It
allows usury, treats agricultural pursuits with contempt, and requires strict
separation from the other races, and commits the government to the rabbins.
The Talmud is followed by the Rabbinites, to which sect nearly all the
European and American Jews belong. The sect of the Caraites rejects the
Talmud and holds to the law of Moses only. It is less numerous, and its
members are found chiefly in the East, or in Turkey and Eastern Russia.
The Cabala, or oral tradition, is, according to the Jews, a perpetual divine
revelation, preserved among the Jewish people by secret transmission. It
sometimes denotes the doctrines of the prophets, but most commonly the
mystical philosophy, which was probably introduced into Palestine from
Egypt and Persia. It was first committed to writing in the second century
A.D. The Cabala is divided into the symbolical and the real, of which the
former gives a mystical signification to letters. The latter comprehends
doctrines, and is divided into the theoretical and practical. The first aims to
explain the Scriptures according to the secret traditions, while the last
pretends to teach the art of performing miracles by an artificial use of the
divine names and sentences of the sacred Scriptures.
The Jews of the Middle Ages acquired great reputation for learning,
especially in Spain, where they were allowed to study astronomy,
mathematics, and medicine in the schools of the Moors. Granada and
Cordova became the centres of rabbinical literature, which was also
Page 106
cultivated in France, Italy, Portugal, and Germany. In the sixteenth century
the study of Hebrew and rabbinical literature became common among
Christian scholars, and in the following centuries it became more interesting
and important from the introduction of comparative philology in the
department of languages. Rabbinical literature still has its students and
interpreters. In Padua, Berlin, and Metz there are seminaries for the
education of rabbins, which supply with able doctors the synagogues of
Italy, Germany, and France. There is also a rabbinical school in Cincinnati,
Ohio. The Polish rabbins and Talmudists, however, are the most celebrated.
15. THE NEW REVISION OF THE BIBLE.—The convocation of the
English House of Bishops, which met at Canterbury in 1870, recommended
a revised version of the Scriptures, and appointed a committee for the work
of sixty-seven members from various ecclesiastical bodies of England, to
which an American committee of thirty-five was added, and by their joint
labors the revised edition of the New Testament was issued in 1881. The
revised Old Testament is expected to appear during 1884. The advantages
claimed for these new versions are: a more accurate rendering of the text, a
correction of the errors of former translations, the removal of misleading
archaisms and obsolete terms, better punctuation, arrangement in sections
as well as chapters and verses, the metrical arrangement of poetry, and an
increased number of marginal readings.
In 1875, Bryennios, a metropolitan of the Greek Church, discovered in
the library of the Most Holy Sepulchre at Constantinople a manuscript
belonging to the second century A.D., which contains, among other
valuable and interesting documents, one on the "Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles," many points of which bear on the usages of the church, such as
the mode of baptism, the celebration of the Eucharist, and the orders of the
ministry. It was at first considered authentic and highly important, but more
deliberate study tends to discredit its authority.
the study of Hebrew and rabbinical literature became common among
Christian scholars, and in the following centuries it became more interesting
and important from the introduction of comparative philology in the
department of languages. Rabbinical literature still has its students and
interpreters. In Padua, Berlin, and Metz there are seminaries for the
education of rabbins, which supply with able doctors the synagogues of
Italy, Germany, and France. There is also a rabbinical school in Cincinnati,
Ohio. The Polish rabbins and Talmudists, however, are the most celebrated.
15. THE NEW REVISION OF THE BIBLE.—The convocation of the
English House of Bishops, which met at Canterbury in 1870, recommended
a revised version of the Scriptures, and appointed a committee for the work
of sixty-seven members from various ecclesiastical bodies of England, to
which an American committee of thirty-five was added, and by their joint
labors the revised edition of the New Testament was issued in 1881. The
revised Old Testament is expected to appear during 1884. The advantages
claimed for these new versions are: a more accurate rendering of the text, a
correction of the errors of former translations, the removal of misleading
archaisms and obsolete terms, better punctuation, arrangement in sections
as well as chapters and verses, the metrical arrangement of poetry, and an
increased number of marginal readings.
In 1875, Bryennios, a metropolitan of the Greek Church, discovered in
the library of the Most Holy Sepulchre at Constantinople a manuscript
belonging to the second century A.D., which contains, among other
valuable and interesting documents, one on the "Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles," many points of which bear on the usages of the church, such as
the mode of baptism, the celebration of the Eucharist, and the orders of the
ministry. It was at first considered authentic and highly important, but more
deliberate study tends to discredit its authority.
Page 107
EGYPTIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. The Writing.—3. The Literature.—4. The
Monuments. —5. The Discovery of Champollion.—6. Literary Remains;
Historical; Religious; Epistolary; Fictitious; Scientific; Epic; Satirical and
Judicial.—7. The Alexandrian Period.—8. The Literary Condition of
Modern Egypt.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—From the earliest times the language of Egypt
was divided into three dialects: the Memphitic, spoken in Memphis and
Lower Egypt; the Theban, or Sahidic, spoken in Upper Egypt; and the
Bashmuric, a provincial variety belonging to the oases of the Lybian Desert.
The Coptic tongue, which arose from a union of ancient Egyptian with
the vulgar vernacular, later became mingled with Greek and Arabic words,
and was written in the Greek alphabet. It was used in Egypt until the tenth
century A.D., when it gave way to the Arabic; but the Christians still
preserve it in their worship and in their translation of the Bible. By rejecting
its foreign elements Egyptologists have been enabled to study this language
in its purity, and to establish its grammar and construction. It is the
exclusive character of the Christian Egyptian literature, and marks the last
development and final decay of the Egyptian language.
1. The Language.—2. The Writing.—3. The Literature.—4. The
Monuments. —5. The Discovery of Champollion.—6. Literary Remains;
Historical; Religious; Epistolary; Fictitious; Scientific; Epic; Satirical and
Judicial.—7. The Alexandrian Period.—8. The Literary Condition of
Modern Egypt.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—From the earliest times the language of Egypt
was divided into three dialects: the Memphitic, spoken in Memphis and
Lower Egypt; the Theban, or Sahidic, spoken in Upper Egypt; and the
Bashmuric, a provincial variety belonging to the oases of the Lybian Desert.
The Coptic tongue, which arose from a union of ancient Egyptian with
the vulgar vernacular, later became mingled with Greek and Arabic words,
and was written in the Greek alphabet. It was used in Egypt until the tenth
century A.D., when it gave way to the Arabic; but the Christians still
preserve it in their worship and in their translation of the Bible. By rejecting
its foreign elements Egyptologists have been enabled to study this language
in its purity, and to establish its grammar and construction. It is the
exclusive character of the Christian Egyptian literature, and marks the last
development and final decay of the Egyptian language.
Page 108
2. THE WRITING.—Four distinct graphic systems were in use in ancient
Egypt: the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, the demotic, and Coptic. The first
expresses words partly by representation of the object and partly by signs
indicating sounds, and was used chiefly for inscriptions. The hieratic
characters presented a flowing and abbreviated form of the hieroglyphic,
and were used more particularly in the papyri. The great body of Egyptian
literature has reached us through this character, the reading of which can
only be determined by resolving it into its prototype, hieroglyphics.
The demotic writing indicates the rise of the vulgar tongue, which took
place about the beginning of the seventh century B.C. It was used to
transcribe hieroglyphic and hieratic inscriptions and papyri into the
common idiom until the second century A.D., when the Coptic generally
superseded it.
3. THE LITERATURE.—The literary history of ancient Egypt presents a
remarkable exception to that of any other country. While the language
underwent various modifications, and the written characters changed, the
literature remained the same in all its principal features. This literature
consists solely of inscriptions painted or engraved on monuments, or of
written manuscripts on papyrus buried in the tombs or beneath the ruins of
temples. It is so deficient in style, and so unsystematic in its construction,
that it has taxed the labors of the ablest critics for the last fifty years to
construct a whole from its disjointed materials, and these are so imperfect
that many periods of Egyptian history are complete literary blanks. In the
great period of the Rameses, novels or works of amusement predominated;
under the Ptolemies, historical records, and in the Coptic or Christian stage,
homolies and church rituals prevailed; but through every epoch the same
general type appears. Notwithstanding these deficiencies, however, Egypt
offers a most attractive field for the archaeologist, and new discoveries are
constantly adding to our knowledge of this interesting country.
Egypt: the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, the demotic, and Coptic. The first
expresses words partly by representation of the object and partly by signs
indicating sounds, and was used chiefly for inscriptions. The hieratic
characters presented a flowing and abbreviated form of the hieroglyphic,
and were used more particularly in the papyri. The great body of Egyptian
literature has reached us through this character, the reading of which can
only be determined by resolving it into its prototype, hieroglyphics.
The demotic writing indicates the rise of the vulgar tongue, which took
place about the beginning of the seventh century B.C. It was used to
transcribe hieroglyphic and hieratic inscriptions and papyri into the
common idiom until the second century A.D., when the Coptic generally
superseded it.
3. THE LITERATURE.—The literary history of ancient Egypt presents a
remarkable exception to that of any other country. While the language
underwent various modifications, and the written characters changed, the
literature remained the same in all its principal features. This literature
consists solely of inscriptions painted or engraved on monuments, or of
written manuscripts on papyrus buried in the tombs or beneath the ruins of
temples. It is so deficient in style, and so unsystematic in its construction,
that it has taxed the labors of the ablest critics for the last fifty years to
construct a whole from its disjointed materials, and these are so imperfect
that many periods of Egyptian history are complete literary blanks. In the
great period of the Rameses, novels or works of amusement predominated;
under the Ptolemies, historical records, and in the Coptic or Christian stage,
homolies and church rituals prevailed; but through every epoch the same
general type appears. Notwithstanding these deficiencies, however, Egypt
offers a most attractive field for the archaeologist, and new discoveries are
constantly adding to our knowledge of this interesting country.
Page 109
4. THE MONUMENTS.—The monuments of Egypt are religious, as the
temples, sepulchral, as the necropoles, or triumphal, as the obelisks. The
temples were the principal structures of the Egyptian cities, and their
splendid ruins, covered with inscriptions, are among the most interesting
remains of antiquity. Life after death, the leading idea of the religion of
Egypt, was expressed in the construction of the tombs, so numerous in the
vicinity of all the large cities. These necropoles, excavated in the rocks or
hillsides, or built within the pyramids, consist of rows of chambers with
halls supported by columns, which, with the walls, are often covered with
paintings, historical or monumental, representing scenes from domestic or
civil life. The great pyramids were probably built for the sepulchres of
kings and their families, and the smaller ones for persons of inferior rank.
The most magnificent of the triumphal monuments are the obelisks,
gigantic monoliths of red or white granite, some of which are more than
two hundred feet high, covered with inscriptions, and bearing the image of
the triumphant king, painted or engraved. The splendid obelisk in the Place
de la Concorde, at Paris, celebrates the glories of Rameses II.
The obelisk now in New York is one of a pair erected at Heliopolis,
before the Temple of the Sun, about 1600 B.C. In the reign of Augustus
both were removed to Alexandria, and were known in modern times as
Cleopatra's Needles. One was presented by the Khedive to the city of
London in 1877, and the other to the city of New York the same year. The
shaft on the latter bears two inscriptions, one celebrating Thothmes III., and
the other Rameses II.
One of the most characteristic monuments of Egypt is the statue of the
Sphinx, so often found in the temples and necropoles. It is a recumbent
figure, having a human head and breast and the body of a lion. Whatever
idea the Egyptians may have attached to this symbol, it represents most
temples, sepulchral, as the necropoles, or triumphal, as the obelisks. The
temples were the principal structures of the Egyptian cities, and their
splendid ruins, covered with inscriptions, are among the most interesting
remains of antiquity. Life after death, the leading idea of the religion of
Egypt, was expressed in the construction of the tombs, so numerous in the
vicinity of all the large cities. These necropoles, excavated in the rocks or
hillsides, or built within the pyramids, consist of rows of chambers with
halls supported by columns, which, with the walls, are often covered with
paintings, historical or monumental, representing scenes from domestic or
civil life. The great pyramids were probably built for the sepulchres of
kings and their families, and the smaller ones for persons of inferior rank.
The most magnificent of the triumphal monuments are the obelisks,
gigantic monoliths of red or white granite, some of which are more than
two hundred feet high, covered with inscriptions, and bearing the image of
the triumphant king, painted or engraved. The splendid obelisk in the Place
de la Concorde, at Paris, celebrates the glories of Rameses II.
The obelisk now in New York is one of a pair erected at Heliopolis,
before the Temple of the Sun, about 1600 B.C. In the reign of Augustus
both were removed to Alexandria, and were known in modern times as
Cleopatra's Needles. One was presented by the Khedive to the city of
London in 1877, and the other to the city of New York the same year. The
shaft on the latter bears two inscriptions, one celebrating Thothmes III., and
the other Rameses II.
One of the most characteristic monuments of Egypt is the statue of the
Sphinx, so often found in the temples and necropoles. It is a recumbent
figure, having a human head and breast and the body of a lion. Whatever
idea the Egyptians may have attached to this symbol, it represents most
Page 110
truly the character of that people and the struggle of mind to free itself from
the instincts of brutal nature.
5. THE DISCOVERY OF CHAMPOLLION.—During the expedition
into Egypt, in 1799, in throwing up some earthworks near Rosetta, a town
on the western arm of the Nile, an officer of the French army discovered a
block or tablet of black basalt, upon which were engraved inscriptions in
Egyptian and Greek characters. This tablet, called the Rosetta Stone, was
sent to France and submitted to the orientalists for interpretation. The
inscription was found to be a decree of the Egyptian priests in honor of
Ptolemy Epiphanes (196 B.C.), which was ordered to be engraved on stone
in sacred (hieroglyphic), common (demotic), and in Greek characters.
Through this interpretation, Champollion (1790-1832), after much study,
discovered and established the alphabetic system of Egyptian writing, and
applying his discovery more extensively, he was able to decipher the names
of the kings of Egypt from the Roman emperors back, through the
Ptolemies, to the Pharaohs of the elder dynasties. This discovery was the
key to the interpretation of all the ancient monuments of Egypt; by it the
history of the country was thrown open for a period of twenty-six centuries,
the annals of the neighboring nations were rendered more intelligible, the
religion, arts, sciences, life, and manners of the ancient Egyptians were
revealed to the modern world, and the obelisks, the innumerable papyri, and
the walls of the temples and tombs were transformed into inexhaustible
mines of historical and scientific knowledge.
6. LITERARY REMAINS; HISTORICAL; RELIGIOUS;
EPISTOLARY; FICTITIOUS; SCIENTIFIC; EPIC; SATIRICAL AND
JUDICIAL.—The Egyptian priests from the earliest times must have
preserved the annals of their country, though obscured by myths and
symbols. These annals, however, were destroyed by Cambyses (500 B.C.),
who, during his invasion of the country, burned the temples where they
the instincts of brutal nature.
5. THE DISCOVERY OF CHAMPOLLION.—During the expedition
into Egypt, in 1799, in throwing up some earthworks near Rosetta, a town
on the western arm of the Nile, an officer of the French army discovered a
block or tablet of black basalt, upon which were engraved inscriptions in
Egyptian and Greek characters. This tablet, called the Rosetta Stone, was
sent to France and submitted to the orientalists for interpretation. The
inscription was found to be a decree of the Egyptian priests in honor of
Ptolemy Epiphanes (196 B.C.), which was ordered to be engraved on stone
in sacred (hieroglyphic), common (demotic), and in Greek characters.
Through this interpretation, Champollion (1790-1832), after much study,
discovered and established the alphabetic system of Egyptian writing, and
applying his discovery more extensively, he was able to decipher the names
of the kings of Egypt from the Roman emperors back, through the
Ptolemies, to the Pharaohs of the elder dynasties. This discovery was the
key to the interpretation of all the ancient monuments of Egypt; by it the
history of the country was thrown open for a period of twenty-six centuries,
the annals of the neighboring nations were rendered more intelligible, the
religion, arts, sciences, life, and manners of the ancient Egyptians were
revealed to the modern world, and the obelisks, the innumerable papyri, and
the walls of the temples and tombs were transformed into inexhaustible
mines of historical and scientific knowledge.
6. LITERARY REMAINS; HISTORICAL; RELIGIOUS;
EPISTOLARY; FICTITIOUS; SCIENTIFIC; EPIC; SATIRICAL AND
JUDICIAL.—The Egyptian priests from the earliest times must have
preserved the annals of their country, though obscured by myths and
symbols. These annals, however, were destroyed by Cambyses (500 B.C.),
who, during his invasion of the country, burned the temples where they
Page 111
were preserved, although they were soon rewritten, according to the
testimony of Herodotus, who visited Egypt 450 B.C. In the third century
B.C., Manetho, a priest and librarian of Heliopolis, wrote the succession of
kings, and though the original work was lost, important fragments of it have
been preserved by other writers. There seem to have been four periods in
this history of ancient Egypt, marked by great changes in the social and
political constitution of the country. In the first epoch, under the rule of the
gods, demigods, and heroes, according to Manetho, it was probably
colonized and ruled by the priests, in the name of the gods. The second
period extends from Menes, the supposed founder of the monarchy, to the
invasion of the Shepherd Kings, about 2000 B.C. In the third period, under
this title, the Phoenicians probably ruled Egypt for three centuries, and it
was one of these kings or Pharaohs of whom Joseph was the prime minister.
In the fourth period, from 1180 to 350 B.C., the invaders were expelled and
native rule restored, until the country was again conquered, first by the
Persians, about 500 B.C., and again by the Greeks under Alexander, 350
B.C. From that time to the present no native ruler has sat on the throne of
that country. After the conquest by Alexander the Great, who left it to the
sway of the Ptolemies, it was successively conquered by the Romans, the
Saracens, the Mamelukes, and the Turks. Since 1841 it has been governed
by a viceroy under nominal allegiance to the Sultan of Turkey. In 1865 the
title of khedive was substituted for that of viceroy.
Early Egyptian chronology is in a great measure merely conjectural, and
new information from the monuments only adds to the obscurity. The
historical papyri are records of the kings or accounts of contemporary
events. These, as well as the inscriptions on the monuments, generally in
the form of panegyric, are inflated records of the successes of the heroes
they celebrate, or explanations of the historical scenes painted or sculptured
on the monuments.
testimony of Herodotus, who visited Egypt 450 B.C. In the third century
B.C., Manetho, a priest and librarian of Heliopolis, wrote the succession of
kings, and though the original work was lost, important fragments of it have
been preserved by other writers. There seem to have been four periods in
this history of ancient Egypt, marked by great changes in the social and
political constitution of the country. In the first epoch, under the rule of the
gods, demigods, and heroes, according to Manetho, it was probably
colonized and ruled by the priests, in the name of the gods. The second
period extends from Menes, the supposed founder of the monarchy, to the
invasion of the Shepherd Kings, about 2000 B.C. In the third period, under
this title, the Phoenicians probably ruled Egypt for three centuries, and it
was one of these kings or Pharaohs of whom Joseph was the prime minister.
In the fourth period, from 1180 to 350 B.C., the invaders were expelled and
native rule restored, until the country was again conquered, first by the
Persians, about 500 B.C., and again by the Greeks under Alexander, 350
B.C. From that time to the present no native ruler has sat on the throne of
that country. After the conquest by Alexander the Great, who left it to the
sway of the Ptolemies, it was successively conquered by the Romans, the
Saracens, the Mamelukes, and the Turks. Since 1841 it has been governed
by a viceroy under nominal allegiance to the Sultan of Turkey. In 1865 the
title of khedive was substituted for that of viceroy.
Early Egyptian chronology is in a great measure merely conjectural, and
new information from the monuments only adds to the obscurity. The
historical papyri are records of the kings or accounts of contemporary
events. These, as well as the inscriptions on the monuments, generally in
the form of panegyric, are inflated records of the successes of the heroes
they celebrate, or explanations of the historical scenes painted or sculptured
on the monuments.
Page 112
The early religion of Egypt was founded on a personification of the laws
of Nature, centred in a mysterious unity. Egyptian nature, however, supplied
but few great objects of worship as symbols of divine power, the desert, a
natural enemy, the fertilizing river, and the sun, the all-pervading presence,
worshiped as the source of life, the lord of time, and author of eternity.
Three great realms composed the Egyptian cosmos; the heavens, where the
sun, moon, and stars paced their daily round, the abode of the invisible
king, typified by the sun and worshiped as Ammon Ra, the earth and the
under-world, the abode of the dead. Here, too, reigned the universal lord
under the name of Osiris, whose material manifestation, the sun, as he
passed beneath the earth, lightened up the under-world, where the dead
were judged, the just recompensed, and the guilty punished.
Innumerable minor divinities, which originally personified attributes of
the one Supreme Deity, were represented under the form of such animals as
were endowed with like qualities. Every god was symbolized by some
animal, which thus became an object of worship; but by confounding
symbols with realities this worship soon degenerated into gross materialism
and idolatry.
The most important religious work in this literature is the "Book of the
Dead," a funeral ritual. The earliest known copy is in hieratic writing of the
oldest type, and was found in the tomb of a queen, who lived probably
about 3000 B.C. The latest copy is of the second century A.D., and is
written in pure Coptic. This work, consisting of one hundred and sixty-six
chapters, is a collection of prayers of a magical character, an account of the
adventures of the soul after death, and directions for reaching the Hall of
Osiris. It is a marvel of confusion and poverty of thought. A complete
translation may be found in "Egypt's Place in Universal History," by
Bunsen (second edition), and specimens in almost every museum of
Europe. There are other theological remains, such as the Metamorphoses of
of Nature, centred in a mysterious unity. Egyptian nature, however, supplied
but few great objects of worship as symbols of divine power, the desert, a
natural enemy, the fertilizing river, and the sun, the all-pervading presence,
worshiped as the source of life, the lord of time, and author of eternity.
Three great realms composed the Egyptian cosmos; the heavens, where the
sun, moon, and stars paced their daily round, the abode of the invisible
king, typified by the sun and worshiped as Ammon Ra, the earth and the
under-world, the abode of the dead. Here, too, reigned the universal lord
under the name of Osiris, whose material manifestation, the sun, as he
passed beneath the earth, lightened up the under-world, where the dead
were judged, the just recompensed, and the guilty punished.
Innumerable minor divinities, which originally personified attributes of
the one Supreme Deity, were represented under the form of such animals as
were endowed with like qualities. Every god was symbolized by some
animal, which thus became an object of worship; but by confounding
symbols with realities this worship soon degenerated into gross materialism
and idolatry.
The most important religious work in this literature is the "Book of the
Dead," a funeral ritual. The earliest known copy is in hieratic writing of the
oldest type, and was found in the tomb of a queen, who lived probably
about 3000 B.C. The latest copy is of the second century A.D., and is
written in pure Coptic. This work, consisting of one hundred and sixty-six
chapters, is a collection of prayers of a magical character, an account of the
adventures of the soul after death, and directions for reaching the Hall of
Osiris. It is a marvel of confusion and poverty of thought. A complete
translation may be found in "Egypt's Place in Universal History," by
Bunsen (second edition), and specimens in almost every museum of
Europe. There are other theological remains, such as the Metamorphoses of
Page 113
the gods and the Lament of Isis, but their meaning is disguised in allegory.
The hymns and addresses to the sun abound in pure and lofty sentiment.
The epistolary writings are the best known and understood branch of
Egyptian literature. From the Ramesid era, the most literary of all, we have
about eighty letters on various subjects, interesting as illustrations of
manners and specimens of style. The most important of these is the
"Anastasi Papyri" in the British Museum, written about the time of the
Exodus.
Two valuable and tolerably complete relics represent the fictitious
writing of Egyptian literature; they are "The Tale of Two Brothers," now in
the British Museum, and "The Romance of Setna," recently discovered in
the tomb of a Coptic monk. The former was evidently intended for the
amusement of a royal prince. One of its most striking features is the low
moral tone of the women introduced. "The Romance of Setna" turns upon
the danger of acquiring possession of the sacred books. The opening and
date of the story are missing.
Fresh information is being constantly acquired as to the knowledge of
science possessed by the ancient Egyptians. Geometry originated with
them, or from remote ages they were acquainted with the principles of this
science, as well as with those of hydrostatics and mechanics, as is proved
by the immense structures which remain the wonder of the modern world.
They cultivated astronomy from the earliest times, and they have
transmitted to us their observations on the movements of the sun, the stars,
the earth, and other planets. The obelisks served them as sun dials, and the
pyramids as astronomical observatories. They had great skill in medicine
and much knowledge of anatomy. The most remarkable medical papyri are
to be found in the Berlin Museum.
The hymns and addresses to the sun abound in pure and lofty sentiment.
The epistolary writings are the best known and understood branch of
Egyptian literature. From the Ramesid era, the most literary of all, we have
about eighty letters on various subjects, interesting as illustrations of
manners and specimens of style. The most important of these is the
"Anastasi Papyri" in the British Museum, written about the time of the
Exodus.
Two valuable and tolerably complete relics represent the fictitious
writing of Egyptian literature; they are "The Tale of Two Brothers," now in
the British Museum, and "The Romance of Setna," recently discovered in
the tomb of a Coptic monk. The former was evidently intended for the
amusement of a royal prince. One of its most striking features is the low
moral tone of the women introduced. "The Romance of Setna" turns upon
the danger of acquiring possession of the sacred books. The opening and
date of the story are missing.
Fresh information is being constantly acquired as to the knowledge of
science possessed by the ancient Egyptians. Geometry originated with
them, or from remote ages they were acquainted with the principles of this
science, as well as with those of hydrostatics and mechanics, as is proved
by the immense structures which remain the wonder of the modern world.
They cultivated astronomy from the earliest times, and they have
transmitted to us their observations on the movements of the sun, the stars,
the earth, and other planets. The obelisks served them as sun dials, and the
pyramids as astronomical observatories. They had great skill in medicine
and much knowledge of anatomy. The most remarkable medical papyri are
to be found in the Berlin Museum.
Page 114
The epics and biographical sketches are narratives of personal adventure
in war or travel, and are distinguished by some effort at grace of style. The
epic of Pentaur, or the achievements of Rameses II., has been called the
Egyptian Iliad. It is several centuries older than the Greek Iliad, and
deserves admiration for its rapid narrative and epic unity.
The history of Mohan (by some thought to be Moses) has been called the
Egyptian Odyssey, in contrast to the preceding. Mohan was a high official,
and this narrative describes his travels in Syria and Palestine. This papyrus
is in the British Museum, and both epics have been translated.
The satirical writings and beast fables of the Egyptians caricature the
foibles of all classes, not sparing the sacred person of the king, and are
often illustrated with satirical pictures. Besides these strictly literary
remains, a large number of judicial documents, petitions, decrees, and
treaties has been recovered.
7. THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.—Egypt, in its flourishing period,
having contributed to the civilization of Greece, became, in its turn, the
pupil of that country. In the century following the age of Alexander the
Great, under the rule of the Ptolemies, the philosophy and literature of
Athens were transferred to Alexandria. Ptolemy Philadelphus, in the third
century B.C., completed the celebrated Alexandrian Library, formed for the
most part of Greek books, and presided over by Greek librarians. The
school of Alexandria had its poets, its grammarians, and philosophers; but
its poetry lacked the fire of genius, and its grammatical productions were
more remarkable for sophistry and subtlety, than for soundness and depth of
research. In the philosophy of Alexandria, the Eastern and Western systems
combined, and this school had many distinguished disciples.
In the first century of the Christian era, Egypt passed from the Greek
kings to the Roman emperors, and the Alexandrian school continued to be
in war or travel, and are distinguished by some effort at grace of style. The
epic of Pentaur, or the achievements of Rameses II., has been called the
Egyptian Iliad. It is several centuries older than the Greek Iliad, and
deserves admiration for its rapid narrative and epic unity.
The history of Mohan (by some thought to be Moses) has been called the
Egyptian Odyssey, in contrast to the preceding. Mohan was a high official,
and this narrative describes his travels in Syria and Palestine. This papyrus
is in the British Museum, and both epics have been translated.
The satirical writings and beast fables of the Egyptians caricature the
foibles of all classes, not sparing the sacred person of the king, and are
often illustrated with satirical pictures. Besides these strictly literary
remains, a large number of judicial documents, petitions, decrees, and
treaties has been recovered.
7. THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.—Egypt, in its flourishing period,
having contributed to the civilization of Greece, became, in its turn, the
pupil of that country. In the century following the age of Alexander the
Great, under the rule of the Ptolemies, the philosophy and literature of
Athens were transferred to Alexandria. Ptolemy Philadelphus, in the third
century B.C., completed the celebrated Alexandrian Library, formed for the
most part of Greek books, and presided over by Greek librarians. The
school of Alexandria had its poets, its grammarians, and philosophers; but
its poetry lacked the fire of genius, and its grammatical productions were
more remarkable for sophistry and subtlety, than for soundness and depth of
research. In the philosophy of Alexandria, the Eastern and Western systems
combined, and this school had many distinguished disciples.
In the first century of the Christian era, Egypt passed from the Greek
kings to the Roman emperors, and the Alexandrian school continued to be
Page 115
adorned by the first men of the age. This splendor, more Grecian than
Egyptian, was extinguished in the seventh century by the Saracens, who
conquered the country, and, it is believed, burned the great Alexandrian
Library. After the wars of the immediate successors of Mohammed, the
Arabian princes protected literature, Alexandria recovered its schools, and
other institutions of learning were established; but in the conquest of the
country by the Turks, in the thirteenth century, all literary light was
extinguished.
8. LITERARY CONDITION OF MODERN EGYPT.—For more than
nine hundred years Cairo has possessed a university of high rank, which
greatly increased in importance on the accession of Mehemet Ali, in 1805,
who established many other schools, primary, scientific, medical, and
military, though they were suffered to languish under his two successors. In
1865, when Ismail- Pacha mounted the throne as Khedive (tributary king),
he gave powerful aid to the university and to public instruction everywhere.
The number of students at the University of Cairo advanced to eleven
thousand. The wife of the Khedive, the Princess Cachma-Afet, founded in
1873, and maintained from her privy purse, a school for the thorough
instruction of girls, which led to the establishment of a similar institution by
the Ministry of Public Instruction. This princess is the first in the history of
Islam who, from the interior of the harem, has exerted her influence to
educate and enlighten her sex.
When the Khedive was driven into exile in 1879, the number of schools,
nearly all the result of his energetic rule, was 4,817 and of pupils 170,000.
Since the European intervention and domination the number of both has
sensibly diminished, and a serious retrograde movement has taken place.
The higher literature of Egypt at the present time is written in pure
Arabic. The popular writing in magazines, periodicals, etc., is in Arabic
Egyptian, was extinguished in the seventh century by the Saracens, who
conquered the country, and, it is believed, burned the great Alexandrian
Library. After the wars of the immediate successors of Mohammed, the
Arabian princes protected literature, Alexandria recovered its schools, and
other institutions of learning were established; but in the conquest of the
country by the Turks, in the thirteenth century, all literary light was
extinguished.
8. LITERARY CONDITION OF MODERN EGYPT.—For more than
nine hundred years Cairo has possessed a university of high rank, which
greatly increased in importance on the accession of Mehemet Ali, in 1805,
who established many other schools, primary, scientific, medical, and
military, though they were suffered to languish under his two successors. In
1865, when Ismail- Pacha mounted the throne as Khedive (tributary king),
he gave powerful aid to the university and to public instruction everywhere.
The number of students at the University of Cairo advanced to eleven
thousand. The wife of the Khedive, the Princess Cachma-Afet, founded in
1873, and maintained from her privy purse, a school for the thorough
instruction of girls, which led to the establishment of a similar institution by
the Ministry of Public Instruction. This princess is the first in the history of
Islam who, from the interior of the harem, has exerted her influence to
educate and enlighten her sex.
When the Khedive was driven into exile in 1879, the number of schools,
nearly all the result of his energetic rule, was 4,817 and of pupils 170,000.
Since the European intervention and domination the number of both has
sensibly diminished, and a serious retrograde movement has taken place.
The higher literature of Egypt at the present time is written in pure
Arabic. The popular writing in magazines, periodicals, etc., is in Arabic
Page 116
mixed with Syriac and Egyptian dialects. Newspaper literature has greatly
increased during the past eight years.
increased during the past eight years.
Page 117
GREEK LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Greek Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.— 3. The Religion.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Ante-Homeric Songs and Bards.—2. Poems of
Homer; the
Iliad; the Odyssey.—3. The Cyclic Poets and the Homeric Hymns.—4.
Poems
of Hesiod; the Works and Days; the Theogony.—5. Elegy and Epigram;
Tyrtaeus; Archilochus; Simonides.—6. Iambic Poetry, the Fable, and
Parody; Aesop.—7. Greek Music and Lyric Poetry; Terpander.—8. Aeolic
Lyric Poets; Alcasus; Sappho; Anacreon.—9. Doric, or Choral Lyric Poets;
Alcman; Stesichorus; Pindar.—10. The Orphic Doctrines and Poems.—11.
Pre-Socratic Philosophy; Ionian, Eleatic, Pythagorean Schools.—12.
History; Herodotus.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. Literary Predominance of Athens.—2. Greek
Drama.—3.
Tragedy.—4. The Tragic Poets; Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides.—5.
Comedy; Aristophanes; Menander.—6. Oratory, Rhetoric, and History;
Pericles; the Sophists; Lysias; Isocrates; Demosthenes; Thucydides;
Xenophon.—7. Socrates and the Socratic Schools; Plato; Aristotle.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Greek Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.— 3. The Religion.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Ante-Homeric Songs and Bards.—2. Poems of
Homer; the
Iliad; the Odyssey.—3. The Cyclic Poets and the Homeric Hymns.—4.
Poems
of Hesiod; the Works and Days; the Theogony.—5. Elegy and Epigram;
Tyrtaeus; Archilochus; Simonides.—6. Iambic Poetry, the Fable, and
Parody; Aesop.—7. Greek Music and Lyric Poetry; Terpander.—8. Aeolic
Lyric Poets; Alcasus; Sappho; Anacreon.—9. Doric, or Choral Lyric Poets;
Alcman; Stesichorus; Pindar.—10. The Orphic Doctrines and Poems.—11.
Pre-Socratic Philosophy; Ionian, Eleatic, Pythagorean Schools.—12.
History; Herodotus.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. Literary Predominance of Athens.—2. Greek
Drama.—3.
Tragedy.—4. The Tragic Poets; Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides.—5.
Comedy; Aristophanes; Menander.—6. Oratory, Rhetoric, and History;
Pericles; the Sophists; Lysias; Isocrates; Demosthenes; Thucydides;
Xenophon.—7. Socrates and the Socratic Schools; Plato; Aristotle.
Page 118
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Origin of the Alexandrian Literature.—2. The
Alexandrian Poets; Philetas; Callimachus; Theocritus; Bion; Moschus.—3.
The Prose Writers of Alexandria; Zenodotus; Aristophanes; Aristarchus;
Eratosthenes; Euclid; Archimedes.—4. Philosophy of Alexandria; Neo-
Platonism.—5. Anti-Neo-Platonic Tendencies; Epictetus; Lucian; Longinus.
—6. Greek Literature in Rome; Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Flavius
Josephus; Polybius; Diodorus; Strabo; Plutarch.—7. Continued Decline of
Greek Literature.—8. Last Echoes of the Old Literature; Hypatia; Nonnus;
Musaeus; Byzantine Literature.—9. The New Testament and the Greek
Fathers. Modern Literature; the Brothers Santsos and Alexander Rangabé.
INTRODUCTION.
1. GREEK LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—The literary histories
thus far sketched, with the exception of the Hebrew, occupy a subordinate
position, and constitute but a small part of the general and continuous
history of literature. As there are states whose interests are so detached from
foreign nations and so centred in themselves that their history seems to
form no link in the great chain of political events, so there are bodies of
literature cut off from all connection with the course of general refinement,
and bearing no relation to the development of mental power in the most
civilized portions of the globe. Thus, the literature of India, with its great
antiquity, its language, which, in fullness of expression, sweetness of tone,
and regularity of structure, rivals the most perfect of those Western tongues
to which it bears such an affinity, with all its affluence of imagery and its
treasures of thought, has hitherto been destitute of any direct influence on
the progress of general literature, and China has contributed still less to its
advancement. Other branches of Oriental literature, as the Persian and
Arabian, were equally isolated, until they were brought into contact with the
Alexandrian Poets; Philetas; Callimachus; Theocritus; Bion; Moschus.—3.
The Prose Writers of Alexandria; Zenodotus; Aristophanes; Aristarchus;
Eratosthenes; Euclid; Archimedes.—4. Philosophy of Alexandria; Neo-
Platonism.—5. Anti-Neo-Platonic Tendencies; Epictetus; Lucian; Longinus.
—6. Greek Literature in Rome; Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Flavius
Josephus; Polybius; Diodorus; Strabo; Plutarch.—7. Continued Decline of
Greek Literature.—8. Last Echoes of the Old Literature; Hypatia; Nonnus;
Musaeus; Byzantine Literature.—9. The New Testament and the Greek
Fathers. Modern Literature; the Brothers Santsos and Alexander Rangabé.
INTRODUCTION.
1. GREEK LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—The literary histories
thus far sketched, with the exception of the Hebrew, occupy a subordinate
position, and constitute but a small part of the general and continuous
history of literature. As there are states whose interests are so detached from
foreign nations and so centred in themselves that their history seems to
form no link in the great chain of political events, so there are bodies of
literature cut off from all connection with the course of general refinement,
and bearing no relation to the development of mental power in the most
civilized portions of the globe. Thus, the literature of India, with its great
antiquity, its language, which, in fullness of expression, sweetness of tone,
and regularity of structure, rivals the most perfect of those Western tongues
to which it bears such an affinity, with all its affluence of imagery and its
treasures of thought, has hitherto been destitute of any direct influence on
the progress of general literature, and China has contributed still less to its
advancement. Other branches of Oriental literature, as the Persian and
Arabian, were equally isolated, until they were brought into contact with the
Page 119
European mind through the medium of the Crusaders and of the Moorish
empire in Spain.
We come now to speak of the literature of the Greeks; a literature whose
continuous current has rolled down from remote ages to our own day, and
whose influence has been more extensive and lasting than that of any other
nation of the ancient or modern world. Endowed with profound sensibility
and a lively imagination, surrounded by all the circumstances that could aid
in perfecting the physical and intellectual powers, the Greeks early acquired
that essentially literary and artistic character which became the source of
the greatest productions of literature and art. This excellence was, also, in
some measure due to their institutions; free from the system of castes which
prevailed in India and Egypt, and which confined all learning by a sort of
hereditary right to the priests, the tendency of the Greek mind was from the
first liberal, diffusive, and aesthetic. The manifestation of their genius, from
the first dawn of their intellectual culture, was of an original and peculiar
character, and their plastic minds gave a new shape and value to whatever
materials they drew from foreign sources. The ideas of the Egyptians and
Orientals, which they adopted into their mythology, they cast in new
moulds, and reproduced in more beautiful forms. The monstrous they
subdued into the vast, the grotesque they softened into the graceful, and
they diffused a fine spirit of humanity over the rude proportions of the
primeval figures. So with the dogmas of their philosophy, borrowed from
the same sources; all that could beautify the meagre, harmonize the
incongruous, enliven the dull, or convert the crude materials of metaphysics
into an elegant department of literature, belongs to the Greeks themselves.
The Grecian mind became the foundation of the Roman and of all modern
literatures, and its master- pieces afford the most splendid examples of
artistic beauty and perfection that the world has ever seen.
empire in Spain.
We come now to speak of the literature of the Greeks; a literature whose
continuous current has rolled down from remote ages to our own day, and
whose influence has been more extensive and lasting than that of any other
nation of the ancient or modern world. Endowed with profound sensibility
and a lively imagination, surrounded by all the circumstances that could aid
in perfecting the physical and intellectual powers, the Greeks early acquired
that essentially literary and artistic character which became the source of
the greatest productions of literature and art. This excellence was, also, in
some measure due to their institutions; free from the system of castes which
prevailed in India and Egypt, and which confined all learning by a sort of
hereditary right to the priests, the tendency of the Greek mind was from the
first liberal, diffusive, and aesthetic. The manifestation of their genius, from
the first dawn of their intellectual culture, was of an original and peculiar
character, and their plastic minds gave a new shape and value to whatever
materials they drew from foreign sources. The ideas of the Egyptians and
Orientals, which they adopted into their mythology, they cast in new
moulds, and reproduced in more beautiful forms. The monstrous they
subdued into the vast, the grotesque they softened into the graceful, and
they diffused a fine spirit of humanity over the rude proportions of the
primeval figures. So with the dogmas of their philosophy, borrowed from
the same sources; all that could beautify the meagre, harmonize the
incongruous, enliven the dull, or convert the crude materials of metaphysics
into an elegant department of literature, belongs to the Greeks themselves.
The Grecian mind became the foundation of the Roman and of all modern
literatures, and its master- pieces afford the most splendid examples of
artistic beauty and perfection that the world has ever seen.
Page 120
The history of Greek literature may be divided into three periods. The
first, extending from remote antiquity to the age of Herodotus (484 B.C.),
includes the earliest poetry of Greece, the ante-Homeric and the Homeric
eras, the origin of Greek elegy, epigram, iambic, and lyric poetry, and the
first development of Greek philosophy.
The second, or Athenian period, the golden age of Greek literature,
extends from the age of Herodotus (484 B.C.) to the death of Alexander the
Great (323 B.C.), and comprehends the development of the Greek drama in
the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and of political oratory,
history, and philosophy, in the works of Demosthenes, Thucydides,
Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle.
The third, or the period of the decline of Greek literature, extending from
the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) to the fall of the Byzantine
empire (1453 A.D.), is characterized by the removal of Greek learning and
literature from Athens to Alexandria, and by its gradual decline and
extinction.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—Of all known languages none has attained so
high a degree of perfection as that of the Greeks. Belonging to the great
Indo- European family, it is rich in significant words, strong and elegant in
its combinations and phrases, and extremely musical, not only in its poetry,
but in its prose. The Greek language must have attained great excellence at
a very early period, for it existed in its essential perfection in the time of
Homer. It was, also, early divided into dialects, as spoken by the various
Hellenic tribes that inhabited different parts of the country. The principal of
these found in written composition are the Aeolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic,
of which the Aeolic, the most ancient, was spoken north of the Isthmus, in
the Aeolic colonies of Asia Minor, and in the northern islands of the Aegean
Sea. It was chiefly cultivated by the lyric poets. The Doric, a variety of the
first, extending from remote antiquity to the age of Herodotus (484 B.C.),
includes the earliest poetry of Greece, the ante-Homeric and the Homeric
eras, the origin of Greek elegy, epigram, iambic, and lyric poetry, and the
first development of Greek philosophy.
The second, or Athenian period, the golden age of Greek literature,
extends from the age of Herodotus (484 B.C.) to the death of Alexander the
Great (323 B.C.), and comprehends the development of the Greek drama in
the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and of political oratory,
history, and philosophy, in the works of Demosthenes, Thucydides,
Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle.
The third, or the period of the decline of Greek literature, extending from
the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) to the fall of the Byzantine
empire (1453 A.D.), is characterized by the removal of Greek learning and
literature from Athens to Alexandria, and by its gradual decline and
extinction.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—Of all known languages none has attained so
high a degree of perfection as that of the Greeks. Belonging to the great
Indo- European family, it is rich in significant words, strong and elegant in
its combinations and phrases, and extremely musical, not only in its poetry,
but in its prose. The Greek language must have attained great excellence at
a very early period, for it existed in its essential perfection in the time of
Homer. It was, also, early divided into dialects, as spoken by the various
Hellenic tribes that inhabited different parts of the country. The principal of
these found in written composition are the Aeolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic,
of which the Aeolic, the most ancient, was spoken north of the Isthmus, in
the Aeolic colonies of Asia Minor, and in the northern islands of the Aegean
Sea. It was chiefly cultivated by the lyric poets. The Doric, a variety of the
Page 121
Aeolic, characterized by its strength, was spoken in Peloponnesus, and in
the Doric colonies of Asia Minor, Lower Italy, and Sicily. The Ionic, the
most soft and liquid of all the dialects, belonged to the Ionian colonies of
Asia Minor and the islands of the Archipelago. It was the language of
Homer, Hesiod, and Herodotus. The Attic, which was the Ionic developed,
enriched, and refined, was spoken in Attica, and prevailed in the flourishing
period of Greek literature.
After the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, the Greek language, which had
been gradually declining, became entirely extinct, and a dialect, which had
long before sprung up among the common people, took the place of the
ancient, majestic, and refined tongue. This popular dialect in turn continued
to degenerate until the middle of the last century. Recently institutions of
learning have been established, and a new impulse given to improvement in
Greece. Great progress has been made in the cultivation of the language,
and great care is taken by modern Greek writers to avoid the use of foreign
idioms and to preserve the ancient orthography. Many newspapers,
periodicals, original works, and translations are published every year in
Greece. The name Romaic, which has been applied to modern Greek, is
now almost superseded by that of Neo-Hellenic.
3. THE RELIGION.—In the development of the Greek religion two
periods may be distinguished, the ante-Homeric and the Homeric. As the
heroic age of the Greek nation was preceded by one in which the cultivation
of the land chiefly occupied the attention of the inhabitants, so there are
traces and remnants of a state of the Greek religion, in which the gods were
considered as exhibiting their power chiefly in the changes of the seasons,
and in the operations and phenomena of outward nature. Imagination led
these early inhabitants to discover, not only in the general phenomena of
vegetation, the unfolding and death of the leaf and flower, and in the moist
and dry seasons of the year, but also in the peculiar physical character of
the Doric colonies of Asia Minor, Lower Italy, and Sicily. The Ionic, the
most soft and liquid of all the dialects, belonged to the Ionian colonies of
Asia Minor and the islands of the Archipelago. It was the language of
Homer, Hesiod, and Herodotus. The Attic, which was the Ionic developed,
enriched, and refined, was spoken in Attica, and prevailed in the flourishing
period of Greek literature.
After the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, the Greek language, which had
been gradually declining, became entirely extinct, and a dialect, which had
long before sprung up among the common people, took the place of the
ancient, majestic, and refined tongue. This popular dialect in turn continued
to degenerate until the middle of the last century. Recently institutions of
learning have been established, and a new impulse given to improvement in
Greece. Great progress has been made in the cultivation of the language,
and great care is taken by modern Greek writers to avoid the use of foreign
idioms and to preserve the ancient orthography. Many newspapers,
periodicals, original works, and translations are published every year in
Greece. The name Romaic, which has been applied to modern Greek, is
now almost superseded by that of Neo-Hellenic.
3. THE RELIGION.—In the development of the Greek religion two
periods may be distinguished, the ante-Homeric and the Homeric. As the
heroic age of the Greek nation was preceded by one in which the cultivation
of the land chiefly occupied the attention of the inhabitants, so there are
traces and remnants of a state of the Greek religion, in which the gods were
considered as exhibiting their power chiefly in the changes of the seasons,
and in the operations and phenomena of outward nature. Imagination led
these early inhabitants to discover, not only in the general phenomena of
vegetation, the unfolding and death of the leaf and flower, and in the moist
and dry seasons of the year, but also in the peculiar physical character of
Page 122
certain districts, a sign of the alternately hostile or peaceful, happy or ill-
omened interference of certain deities. There are still preserved in the Greek
mythology many legends of charming and touching simplicity, which had
their origin at this period, when the Greek religion bore the character of a
worship of the powers of nature.
Though founded on the same ideas as most of the religions of the East,
and particularly of Asia Minor, the earliest religion of the Greeks was richer
and more various in its forms, and took a loftier and a wider range. The
Grecian worship of nature, in all the various forms which it assumed,
recognized one deity, as the highest of all, the head of the entire system,
Zeus, the god of heaven and light; with him, and dwelling in the pure
expanse of ether, is associated the goddess of the earth, who, in different
temples, was worshiped under different names, as Hera, Demeter, and
Dione. Besides this goddess, other beings are united with the supreme god,
who are personifications of certain of his energies powerful deities who
carry the influence of light over the earth, and destroy the opposing powers
of darkness and confusion as Athena, born from the head of her father, and
Apollo, the pure and shining god of light. There are other deities allied with
earth and dwelling in her dark recesses; and as life appears not only to
spring from the earth, but to return whence it sprung, these deities are, for
the most part, also connected with death; as Hermes, who brings up the
treasures of fruitfulness from the depths of the earth, and Cora, the child,
now lost and now recovered by her mother, Demeter, the goddess both of
reviving and of decaying nature. The element of water, Poseidon, was also
introduced into this assemblage of the personified powers of nature, and
peculiarly connected with the goddess of the earth; fire, Hephaestus, was
represented as a powerful principle derived from heaven, having dominion
over the earth, and closely allied with the goddess who sprang from the
head of the supreme god. Other deities form less important parts of this
system, as Dionysus, whose alternate joys and sufferings show a strong
omened interference of certain deities. There are still preserved in the Greek
mythology many legends of charming and touching simplicity, which had
their origin at this period, when the Greek religion bore the character of a
worship of the powers of nature.
Though founded on the same ideas as most of the religions of the East,
and particularly of Asia Minor, the earliest religion of the Greeks was richer
and more various in its forms, and took a loftier and a wider range. The
Grecian worship of nature, in all the various forms which it assumed,
recognized one deity, as the highest of all, the head of the entire system,
Zeus, the god of heaven and light; with him, and dwelling in the pure
expanse of ether, is associated the goddess of the earth, who, in different
temples, was worshiped under different names, as Hera, Demeter, and
Dione. Besides this goddess, other beings are united with the supreme god,
who are personifications of certain of his energies powerful deities who
carry the influence of light over the earth, and destroy the opposing powers
of darkness and confusion as Athena, born from the head of her father, and
Apollo, the pure and shining god of light. There are other deities allied with
earth and dwelling in her dark recesses; and as life appears not only to
spring from the earth, but to return whence it sprung, these deities are, for
the most part, also connected with death; as Hermes, who brings up the
treasures of fruitfulness from the depths of the earth, and Cora, the child,
now lost and now recovered by her mother, Demeter, the goddess both of
reviving and of decaying nature. The element of water, Poseidon, was also
introduced into this assemblage of the personified powers of nature, and
peculiarly connected with the goddess of the earth; fire, Hephaestus, was
represented as a powerful principle derived from heaven, having dominion
over the earth, and closely allied with the goddess who sprang from the
head of the supreme god. Other deities form less important parts of this
system, as Dionysus, whose alternate joys and sufferings show a strong
Page 123
resemblance to the form which religious notions assumed in Asia Minor.
Though not, like the gods of Olympus, recognized by all the races of the
Greeks, Dionysus exerted an important influence on the spirit of the Greek
nation, and in sculpture and poetry gave rise to bold flights of imagination,
and to powerful emotions, both of joy and sorrow.
These notions concerning the gods must have undergone many changes
before they assumed the form under which they appear in the poems of
Homer and Hesiod. The Greek religion, as manifested through them,
reached the second period of its development, belonging to that time when
the most distinguished and prominent part of the people devoted their lives
to the affairs of the state and the occupation of arms, and in which the
heroic spirit was manifested according to these ideas. On Olympus, lying
near the northern boundary of Greece, the highest mountain of that country,
whose summit seems to touch the heavens, there rules the assembly or
family of the gods; the chief of which, Zeus, summons at his pleasure the
other gods to council, as Agamemnon summons the other princes. He is
acquainted with the decrees of fate, and able to control them, and being
himself king among the gods, he gives the kings of the earth their powers
and dignity. By his side his wife, Hera, whose station entitles her to a large
share of his rank and dominion; and a daughter of masculine character,
Athena, a leader of battles and a protectress of citadels, who, by her wise
counsels, deserves the confidence which her father bestows on her; besides
these, there are a number of gods with various degrees of kindred, who have
each their proper place and allotted duty on Olympus. The attention of this
divine council is chiefly turned to the fortunes of nations and cities, and
especially to the adventures and enterprises of the heroes, who being
themselves, for the most part, sprung from the blood of the gods, form the
connecting link between them and the ordinary herd of mankind. At this
stage the ancient religion of nature had disappeared, and the gods who
dwelt on Olympus scarcely manifested any connection with natural
Though not, like the gods of Olympus, recognized by all the races of the
Greeks, Dionysus exerted an important influence on the spirit of the Greek
nation, and in sculpture and poetry gave rise to bold flights of imagination,
and to powerful emotions, both of joy and sorrow.
These notions concerning the gods must have undergone many changes
before they assumed the form under which they appear in the poems of
Homer and Hesiod. The Greek religion, as manifested through them,
reached the second period of its development, belonging to that time when
the most distinguished and prominent part of the people devoted their lives
to the affairs of the state and the occupation of arms, and in which the
heroic spirit was manifested according to these ideas. On Olympus, lying
near the northern boundary of Greece, the highest mountain of that country,
whose summit seems to touch the heavens, there rules the assembly or
family of the gods; the chief of which, Zeus, summons at his pleasure the
other gods to council, as Agamemnon summons the other princes. He is
acquainted with the decrees of fate, and able to control them, and being
himself king among the gods, he gives the kings of the earth their powers
and dignity. By his side his wife, Hera, whose station entitles her to a large
share of his rank and dominion; and a daughter of masculine character,
Athena, a leader of battles and a protectress of citadels, who, by her wise
counsels, deserves the confidence which her father bestows on her; besides
these, there are a number of gods with various degrees of kindred, who have
each their proper place and allotted duty on Olympus. The attention of this
divine council is chiefly turned to the fortunes of nations and cities, and
especially to the adventures and enterprises of the heroes, who being
themselves, for the most part, sprung from the blood of the gods, form the
connecting link between them and the ordinary herd of mankind. At this
stage the ancient religion of nature had disappeared, and the gods who
dwelt on Olympus scarcely manifested any connection with natural
Page 124
phenomena. Zeus exercises his power as a ruler and a king; Hera, Athena,
and Apollo no longer symbolize the fertility of the earth, the clearness of
the atmosphere, and the arrival of the serene spring; Hephaestus has passed
from the powerful god of fire in heaven and earth into a laborious smith and
worker of metals; Hermes is transformed into the messenger of Zeus; and
the other deities which stood at a greater distance from the affairs of men
are entirely forgotten, or scarcely mentioned in the Homeric mythology.
These deities are known to us chiefly through the names given to them by
the Romans, who adopted them at a later period, or identified them with
deities of their own. Zeus was called by them Jupiter; Hera; Juno; Athena,
Minerva; Ares, Mars; Artemis, Diana; Hermes, Mercury; Cora, Proserpine;
Hephaestus, Vulcan; Poseidon, Neptune; Aphrodite, Venus; Dionysus,
Bacchus.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM REMOTE ANTIQUITY TO HERODOTUS (484 B.C.),
1. ANTE-HOMERIC SONGS AND BARDS.—Many centuries must
have elapsed before the poetical language of the Greeks could have attained
the splendor, copiousness, and fluency found in the poems of Homer. The
first outpourings of poetical enthusiasm were, doubtless, songs describing,
in few and simple verses, events which powerfully affected the feelings of
the hearers. It is probable that the earliest were those that referred to the
seasons and their phenomena, and that they were sung by the peasants at
their corn and wine harvests, and had their origin in times of ancient rural
simplicity. Songs of this kind had often a plaintive and melancholy
character. Such was the song "Linus" mentioned by Homer, which was
frequently sung at the grape-picking. This Linus evidently belongs to a class
of heroes or demi-gods, of which many instances occur in the religions of
and Apollo no longer symbolize the fertility of the earth, the clearness of
the atmosphere, and the arrival of the serene spring; Hephaestus has passed
from the powerful god of fire in heaven and earth into a laborious smith and
worker of metals; Hermes is transformed into the messenger of Zeus; and
the other deities which stood at a greater distance from the affairs of men
are entirely forgotten, or scarcely mentioned in the Homeric mythology.
These deities are known to us chiefly through the names given to them by
the Romans, who adopted them at a later period, or identified them with
deities of their own. Zeus was called by them Jupiter; Hera; Juno; Athena,
Minerva; Ares, Mars; Artemis, Diana; Hermes, Mercury; Cora, Proserpine;
Hephaestus, Vulcan; Poseidon, Neptune; Aphrodite, Venus; Dionysus,
Bacchus.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM REMOTE ANTIQUITY TO HERODOTUS (484 B.C.),
1. ANTE-HOMERIC SONGS AND BARDS.—Many centuries must
have elapsed before the poetical language of the Greeks could have attained
the splendor, copiousness, and fluency found in the poems of Homer. The
first outpourings of poetical enthusiasm were, doubtless, songs describing,
in few and simple verses, events which powerfully affected the feelings of
the hearers. It is probable that the earliest were those that referred to the
seasons and their phenomena, and that they were sung by the peasants at
their corn and wine harvests, and had their origin in times of ancient rural
simplicity. Songs of this kind had often a plaintive and melancholy
character. Such was the song "Linus" mentioned by Homer, which was
frequently sung at the grape-picking. This Linus evidently belongs to a class
of heroes or demi-gods, of which many instances occur in the religions of
Page 125
Asia Minor. Boys of extraordinary beauty and in the flower of youth were
supposed to have been drowned, or devoured by raging dogs, and their
death was lamented at the harvests and other periods of the hot season.
According to the tradition, Linus sprang from a divine origin, grew up with
the shepherds among the lambs, and was torn in pieces by wild dogs,
whence arose the festival of the lambs, at which many dogs were slain. The
real object of lamentation was the tender beauty of spring, destroyed by the
summer heat, and other phenomena of the same kind which the imagination
of those times invested with a personal form, and represented as beings of a
divine nature. Of similar meaning are many other songs, which were sung
at the time of the summer heat or at the cutting of the corn. Such was the
song called "Bormus" from its subject, a beautiful boy of that name, who,
having gone to fetch water for the reapers, was, while drawing it, borne
down by the nymphs of the stream. Such were the cries for the youth Hylas,
swallowed up by the waters of a fountain, and the lament for Adonis, whose
untimely death was celebrated by Sappho.
The Paeans were songs originally dedicated to Apollo, and afterwards to
other gods; their tune and words expressed hope and confidence to
overcome, by the help of the god, great and imminent danger, or gratitude
and thanksgiving for victory and safety. To this class belonged the vernal
Paeans, which were sung at the termination of winter, and those sung in war
before the attack on the enemy. The Threnos, or lamentations for the dead,
were songs containing vehement expressions of grief, sung by professional
singers standing near the bed upon which the body was laid, and
accompanied by the cries and groans of women. The Hymenaeos was the
joyful bridal song of the wedding festivals, in which there were ordinarily
two choruses, one of boys bearing burning torches and singing the
hymenaeos to the clear sound of the pipe, and another of young girls
dancing to the notes of the harp. The Chorus originally referred chiefly to
dancing. The most ancient sense of the word is a place for dancing, and in
supposed to have been drowned, or devoured by raging dogs, and their
death was lamented at the harvests and other periods of the hot season.
According to the tradition, Linus sprang from a divine origin, grew up with
the shepherds among the lambs, and was torn in pieces by wild dogs,
whence arose the festival of the lambs, at which many dogs were slain. The
real object of lamentation was the tender beauty of spring, destroyed by the
summer heat, and other phenomena of the same kind which the imagination
of those times invested with a personal form, and represented as beings of a
divine nature. Of similar meaning are many other songs, which were sung
at the time of the summer heat or at the cutting of the corn. Such was the
song called "Bormus" from its subject, a beautiful boy of that name, who,
having gone to fetch water for the reapers, was, while drawing it, borne
down by the nymphs of the stream. Such were the cries for the youth Hylas,
swallowed up by the waters of a fountain, and the lament for Adonis, whose
untimely death was celebrated by Sappho.
The Paeans were songs originally dedicated to Apollo, and afterwards to
other gods; their tune and words expressed hope and confidence to
overcome, by the help of the god, great and imminent danger, or gratitude
and thanksgiving for victory and safety. To this class belonged the vernal
Paeans, which were sung at the termination of winter, and those sung in war
before the attack on the enemy. The Threnos, or lamentations for the dead,
were songs containing vehement expressions of grief, sung by professional
singers standing near the bed upon which the body was laid, and
accompanied by the cries and groans of women. The Hymenaeos was the
joyful bridal song of the wedding festivals, in which there were ordinarily
two choruses, one of boys bearing burning torches and singing the
hymenaeos to the clear sound of the pipe, and another of young girls
dancing to the notes of the harp. The Chorus originally referred chiefly to
dancing. The most ancient sense of the word is a place for dancing, and in
Page 126
these choruses young persons of both sexes danced together in rows,
holding one another by the hand, while the citharist, or the player on the
lyre, sitting in their midst, accompanied the sound of his instrument with
songs, which took their name from the choruses in which they were sung.
Besides these popular songs, there were the religious and heroic poems
of the bards, who were, for the most part, natives of that portion of the
country which surrounds the mountains of Helicon and Parnassus,
distinguished as the home of the Muses. Among the bards devoted to the
worship of Apollo and other deities, were Marsyas, the inventor of the flute,
Musaeus and Orpheus. Many names of these ancient poets are recorded, but
of their poetry, previous to Homer, not even a fragment remains.
The bards or chanters of epic poetry were called Rhapsodists, from the
manner in which they delivered their compositions; this name was applied
equally to the minstrel who recited his own poems, and to him who
declaimed anew songs that had been heard a thousand times before. The
form of these heroic songs, probably settled and fixed by tradition, was the
hexameter, as this metre gave to the epic poetry repose, majesty, a lofty and
solemn tone, and rendered it equally adapted to the pythoness who
announced the decrees of the deity, and to the rhapsodist who recited the
battles of heroes. The bards held an important post in the festal banquets,
where they flattered the pride of the princes by singing the exploits of their
forefathers.
2. POEMS OF HOMER.—Although seven cities contended for the honor
of giving birth to Homer, it was the prevalent belief, in the flourishing times
of Greece, that he was a native of Smyrna. He was probably born in that
city about 1000 B.C. Little is known of his life, but the power of his
transcendent genius is deeply impressed upon his works. He was called by
the Greeks themselves, the poet; and the Iliad and the Odyssey were with
holding one another by the hand, while the citharist, or the player on the
lyre, sitting in their midst, accompanied the sound of his instrument with
songs, which took their name from the choruses in which they were sung.
Besides these popular songs, there were the religious and heroic poems
of the bards, who were, for the most part, natives of that portion of the
country which surrounds the mountains of Helicon and Parnassus,
distinguished as the home of the Muses. Among the bards devoted to the
worship of Apollo and other deities, were Marsyas, the inventor of the flute,
Musaeus and Orpheus. Many names of these ancient poets are recorded, but
of their poetry, previous to Homer, not even a fragment remains.
The bards or chanters of epic poetry were called Rhapsodists, from the
manner in which they delivered their compositions; this name was applied
equally to the minstrel who recited his own poems, and to him who
declaimed anew songs that had been heard a thousand times before. The
form of these heroic songs, probably settled and fixed by tradition, was the
hexameter, as this metre gave to the epic poetry repose, majesty, a lofty and
solemn tone, and rendered it equally adapted to the pythoness who
announced the decrees of the deity, and to the rhapsodist who recited the
battles of heroes. The bards held an important post in the festal banquets,
where they flattered the pride of the princes by singing the exploits of their
forefathers.
2. POEMS OF HOMER.—Although seven cities contended for the honor
of giving birth to Homer, it was the prevalent belief, in the flourishing times
of Greece, that he was a native of Smyrna. He was probably born in that
city about 1000 B.C. Little is known of his life, but the power of his
transcendent genius is deeply impressed upon his works. He was called by
the Greeks themselves, the poet; and the Iliad and the Odyssey were with
Page 127
them the ultimate standard of appeal on all matters of religious doctrine and
early history. They were learned by boys at school, and became the study of
men in their riper years, and in the time of Socrates there were Athenians
who could repeat both poems by heart. In whatever part of the world a
Greek settled, he carried with him a love for the great poet, and long after
the Greek people had lost their independence, the Iliad and the Odyssey
continued to maintain an undiminished hold upon their affections. The
peculiar excellence of these poems lies in their sublimity and pathos, in
their tenderness and simplicity, and they show in their author an
inexhaustible vigor, that seems to revel in an endless display of prodigious
energies. The universality of the powers of Homer is their most astonishing
attribute. He is not great in any one thing; he is greatest in all things. He
imagines with equal ease the terrible, the beautiful, the mean, the
loathsome, and he paints them all with equal force. In his descriptions of
external nature, in his exhibitions of human character and passion, no
matter what the subject, he exhausts its capabilities. His pictures are true to
the minutest touch; his men and women are made of flesh and blood. They
lose nothing of their humanity for being cast in a heroic mould. He transfers
himself into the identity of those whom he brings into action; masters the
interior springs of their spiritual mechanism; and makes them move, look,
speak, and do exactly as they would in real life.
In the legends connected with the Trojan war, the anger of Achilles and
the return of Ulysses, Homer found the subjects of the Iliad and Odyssey.
The former relates that Agamemnon had stolen from Achilles, Briseis, his
beloved slave, and describes the fatal consequences which the subsequent
anger of Achilles brought upon the Greeks; and how the loss of his dearest
friend, Patroclus, suddenly changed his hostile attitude, and brought about
the destruction of Troy and of Hector, its magnanimous defender. The
Odyssey is composed on a more artificial and complicated plan than the
Iliad. The subject is the return of Ulysses from a land beyond the range of
early history. They were learned by boys at school, and became the study of
men in their riper years, and in the time of Socrates there were Athenians
who could repeat both poems by heart. In whatever part of the world a
Greek settled, he carried with him a love for the great poet, and long after
the Greek people had lost their independence, the Iliad and the Odyssey
continued to maintain an undiminished hold upon their affections. The
peculiar excellence of these poems lies in their sublimity and pathos, in
their tenderness and simplicity, and they show in their author an
inexhaustible vigor, that seems to revel in an endless display of prodigious
energies. The universality of the powers of Homer is their most astonishing
attribute. He is not great in any one thing; he is greatest in all things. He
imagines with equal ease the terrible, the beautiful, the mean, the
loathsome, and he paints them all with equal force. In his descriptions of
external nature, in his exhibitions of human character and passion, no
matter what the subject, he exhausts its capabilities. His pictures are true to
the minutest touch; his men and women are made of flesh and blood. They
lose nothing of their humanity for being cast in a heroic mould. He transfers
himself into the identity of those whom he brings into action; masters the
interior springs of their spiritual mechanism; and makes them move, look,
speak, and do exactly as they would in real life.
In the legends connected with the Trojan war, the anger of Achilles and
the return of Ulysses, Homer found the subjects of the Iliad and Odyssey.
The former relates that Agamemnon had stolen from Achilles, Briseis, his
beloved slave, and describes the fatal consequences which the subsequent
anger of Achilles brought upon the Greeks; and how the loss of his dearest
friend, Patroclus, suddenly changed his hostile attitude, and brought about
the destruction of Troy and of Hector, its magnanimous defender. The
Odyssey is composed on a more artificial and complicated plan than the
Iliad. The subject is the return of Ulysses from a land beyond the range of
Page 128
human knowledge to a home invaded by bands of insolent intruders, who
seek to kill his son and rob him of his wife. The poem begins at that point
where the hero is considered to be farthest from his home, in the central
portion of the sea, where the nymph Calypso has kept him hidden from all
mankind for seven years. Having by the help of the gods passed through
innumerable dangers, after many adventures he reaches Ithaca, and is
finally introduced into his own house as a beggar, where he is made to
suffer the harshest treatment from the suitors of his wife, in order that he
may afterwards appear with the stronger right as a terrible avenger. In this
simple story a second was interwoven by the poet, which renders it richer
and more complete, though more intricate and less natural. It is probable
that Homer, after having sung the Iliad in the vigor of his youthful years,
either composed the Odyssey in his old age, or communicated to some
devoted disciple the plan of this poem.
In the age immediately succeeding Homer, his great poems were
doubtless recited as complete wholes, at the festivals of the princes; but
when the contests of the rhapsodists became more animated, and more
weight was laid on the art of the reciter than on the beauty of the poem he
recited, and when other musical and poetical performances claimed a place,
then they were permitted to repeat separate parts of poems, and the Iliad
and Odyssey, as they had not yet been reduced to writing, existed for a time
only as scattered and unconnected fragments; and we are still indebted to
the regulator of the poetical contests (either Solon or Pisistratus) for having
compelled the rhapsodists to follow one another according to the order of
'the poem, and for having thus restored these great works to their pristine
integrity. The poets, who either recited the poems of Homer or imitated him
in their compositions, were called Homerides.
3. THE CYCLIC POETS AND THE HOMERIC HYMNS.—The poems
of Homer, as they became the foundation of all Grecian literature, are
seek to kill his son and rob him of his wife. The poem begins at that point
where the hero is considered to be farthest from his home, in the central
portion of the sea, where the nymph Calypso has kept him hidden from all
mankind for seven years. Having by the help of the gods passed through
innumerable dangers, after many adventures he reaches Ithaca, and is
finally introduced into his own house as a beggar, where he is made to
suffer the harshest treatment from the suitors of his wife, in order that he
may afterwards appear with the stronger right as a terrible avenger. In this
simple story a second was interwoven by the poet, which renders it richer
and more complete, though more intricate and less natural. It is probable
that Homer, after having sung the Iliad in the vigor of his youthful years,
either composed the Odyssey in his old age, or communicated to some
devoted disciple the plan of this poem.
In the age immediately succeeding Homer, his great poems were
doubtless recited as complete wholes, at the festivals of the princes; but
when the contests of the rhapsodists became more animated, and more
weight was laid on the art of the reciter than on the beauty of the poem he
recited, and when other musical and poetical performances claimed a place,
then they were permitted to repeat separate parts of poems, and the Iliad
and Odyssey, as they had not yet been reduced to writing, existed for a time
only as scattered and unconnected fragments; and we are still indebted to
the regulator of the poetical contests (either Solon or Pisistratus) for having
compelled the rhapsodists to follow one another according to the order of
'the poem, and for having thus restored these great works to their pristine
integrity. The poets, who either recited the poems of Homer or imitated him
in their compositions, were called Homerides.
3. THE CYCLIC POETS AND THE HOMERIC HYMNS.—The poems
of Homer, as they became the foundation of all Grecian literature, are
Page 129
likewise the central point of the epic poetry of Greece. All that is most
excellent in this line originated from them, and was connected with them in
the way of completion or continuation. After the time of Homer, a class of
poets arose who, from their constant endeavor to connect their poems with
those of this master, so that they might form a great cycle, were called the
Cyclic Poets. They were probably Homeric rhapsodists by profession, to
whom the constant recitation of the ancient Homeric poems would naturally
suggest the idea of continuing them by essays of their own. The poems
known as Homeric hymns formed an essential part of the epic style. They
were hymns to the gods, bearing an epic character, and were called
proemia, or preludes, and served the rhapsodists either as introductory
strains for their recitation, or as a transition from the festivals of the gods to
the competition of the singers of heroic poetry.
4. POEMS OF HESIOD.—Nothing certain can be affirmed respecting
the date of Hesiod; a Boeotian by birth, he is considered by some ancient
authorities as contemporary with Homer, while others suppose him to have
flourished two or three generations later. The poetry of Hesiod is a faithful
transcript of the whole condition of Boeotian life. It has nothing of that
youthful and inexhaustible fancy of Homer which lights up the sublime
images of a heroic age and moulds them into forms of surpassing beauty.
The poetry of Hesiod appears struggling to emerge out of the narrow
bounds of common life, which he strives to ennoble and to render more
endurable. It is purely didactic, and its object is to disseminate knowledge,
by which life may be improved, or to diffuse certain religious notions as to
the influence of a superior destiny. His poem entitled "Works and Days" is
so entirely occupied with the events of common life, that the author would
not seem to have been a poet by profession, but some Boeotian husbandman
whose mind had been moved by circumstances to give a poetical tone to the
course of his thoughts and feelings. The unjust claim of Perses, the brother
of Hesiod, to the small portion of their father's land which had been allotted
excellent in this line originated from them, and was connected with them in
the way of completion or continuation. After the time of Homer, a class of
poets arose who, from their constant endeavor to connect their poems with
those of this master, so that they might form a great cycle, were called the
Cyclic Poets. They were probably Homeric rhapsodists by profession, to
whom the constant recitation of the ancient Homeric poems would naturally
suggest the idea of continuing them by essays of their own. The poems
known as Homeric hymns formed an essential part of the epic style. They
were hymns to the gods, bearing an epic character, and were called
proemia, or preludes, and served the rhapsodists either as introductory
strains for their recitation, or as a transition from the festivals of the gods to
the competition of the singers of heroic poetry.
4. POEMS OF HESIOD.—Nothing certain can be affirmed respecting
the date of Hesiod; a Boeotian by birth, he is considered by some ancient
authorities as contemporary with Homer, while others suppose him to have
flourished two or three generations later. The poetry of Hesiod is a faithful
transcript of the whole condition of Boeotian life. It has nothing of that
youthful and inexhaustible fancy of Homer which lights up the sublime
images of a heroic age and moulds them into forms of surpassing beauty.
The poetry of Hesiod appears struggling to emerge out of the narrow
bounds of common life, which he strives to ennoble and to render more
endurable. It is purely didactic, and its object is to disseminate knowledge,
by which life may be improved, or to diffuse certain religious notions as to
the influence of a superior destiny. His poem entitled "Works and Days" is
so entirely occupied with the events of common life, that the author would
not seem to have been a poet by profession, but some Boeotian husbandman
whose mind had been moved by circumstances to give a poetical tone to the
course of his thoughts and feelings. The unjust claim of Perses, the brother
of Hesiod, to the small portion of their father's land which had been allotted
Page 130
to him, called forth this poem, in which he seeks to improve the character
and habits of Perses, to deter him from acquiring riches by litigation, and to
incite him to a life of labor, as the only source of permanent prosperity. He
points out the succession in which his labors must follow if he determines
to lead a life of industry, and gives wise rules of economy for the
management of a family; and to illustrate and enforce the principal idea, he
ingeniously combines with his precepts mythical narratives, fables, and
descriptions. The "Theogony" of Hesiod is a production of the highest
importance, as it contains the religious faith of Greece. It was through it that
Greece first obtained a religious code, which, although without external
sanction or priestly guardians and interpreters, must have produced the
greatest influence on the religious condition of the Greeks.
5. ELEGY AND EPIGRAM.—Until the beginning of the seventh century
B.C., the epic was the only kind of poetry cultivated in Greece, with the
exception of the early songs and hymns, and the hexameter the only metre
used by the poets. This exclusive prevalence of epic poetry was doubtless
connected with the political state of the country. The ordinary subjects of
these poems must have been highly acceptable to the princes who derived
their race from the heroes, as was the case with all the royal families of
early times. The republican movements, which deprived these families of
their privileges, were favorable to the stronger development of each man's
individuality, and the poet, who in the most perfect form of the epos was
completely lost in his subject, now came before the people as a man with
thoughts and objects of his own, and gave free vent to the emotions of his
soul in elegiac and iambic strains. The word elegeion means nothing more
than the combination of a hexameter and a pentameter, making together a
distich, and an elegy is a poem of such verses. It was usually sung at the
Symposia or literary festivals of the Greeks; in most cases its main subject
was political; it afterwards assumed a plaintive or amatory tone. The elegy
is the first regularly cultivated branch of Greek poetry, in which the flute
and habits of Perses, to deter him from acquiring riches by litigation, and to
incite him to a life of labor, as the only source of permanent prosperity. He
points out the succession in which his labors must follow if he determines
to lead a life of industry, and gives wise rules of economy for the
management of a family; and to illustrate and enforce the principal idea, he
ingeniously combines with his precepts mythical narratives, fables, and
descriptions. The "Theogony" of Hesiod is a production of the highest
importance, as it contains the religious faith of Greece. It was through it that
Greece first obtained a religious code, which, although without external
sanction or priestly guardians and interpreters, must have produced the
greatest influence on the religious condition of the Greeks.
5. ELEGY AND EPIGRAM.—Until the beginning of the seventh century
B.C., the epic was the only kind of poetry cultivated in Greece, with the
exception of the early songs and hymns, and the hexameter the only metre
used by the poets. This exclusive prevalence of epic poetry was doubtless
connected with the political state of the country. The ordinary subjects of
these poems must have been highly acceptable to the princes who derived
their race from the heroes, as was the case with all the royal families of
early times. The republican movements, which deprived these families of
their privileges, were favorable to the stronger development of each man's
individuality, and the poet, who in the most perfect form of the epos was
completely lost in his subject, now came before the people as a man with
thoughts and objects of his own, and gave free vent to the emotions of his
soul in elegiac and iambic strains. The word elegeion means nothing more
than the combination of a hexameter and a pentameter, making together a
distich, and an elegy is a poem of such verses. It was usually sung at the
Symposia or literary festivals of the Greeks; in most cases its main subject
was political; it afterwards assumed a plaintive or amatory tone. The elegy
is the first regularly cultivated branch of Greek poetry, in which the flute
Page 131
alone and neither the cithara nor lyre was employed. It was not necessary
that lamentations should form the subject of it, but emotion was essential,
and excited by events or circumstances of the time or place the poet poured
forth his heart in the unreserved expression of his fears and hopes.
Tyrtaeus (fl. 694 B.C.), who went from Athens to Sparta, composed the
most celebrated of his elegies on the occasion of the Messenian war, and
when the Spartans were on a campaign, it was their custom after the
evening meal, when the paean had been sung in honor of the gods, to recite
these poems. From this time we find a union between the elegiac and
iambic poetry; the same poet, who employs the elegy to express his joyous
and melancholy emotions, has recourse to the iambus when his cool sense
prompts him to censure the follies of mankind. The relation between these
two metres is observable in Archilochus (fl. 688 B.C.) and Simonides (fl.
664 B.C.). The elegies of Archilochus, of which many fragments are extant
(while of Simonides we only know that he composed elegies), had nothing
of that spirit of which his iambics were full, but they contain the frank
expression of a mind powerfully affected by outward circumstances. With
the Spartans, wine and the pleasures of the feast became the subject of the
elegy, and it was also recited at the solemnities held in honor of all who had
fallen for their country. The elegies of Solon (592-559 B.C.) were pure
expressions of his political feelings. Simonides of Scios, the renowned lyric
poet, the contemporary of Pindar and Aeschylus, was one of the great
masters of elegiac song.
The epigram was originally an inscription on a tombstone, or a votive
offering in a temple, or on any other thing which required explanation. The
unexpected turn of thought and pointedness of expression, which the
moderns consider the essence of this species of composition, were not
required in the ancient Greek epigram, where nothing was wanted but that
the entire thought should be conveyed within the limit of a few distichs, and
that lamentations should form the subject of it, but emotion was essential,
and excited by events or circumstances of the time or place the poet poured
forth his heart in the unreserved expression of his fears and hopes.
Tyrtaeus (fl. 694 B.C.), who went from Athens to Sparta, composed the
most celebrated of his elegies on the occasion of the Messenian war, and
when the Spartans were on a campaign, it was their custom after the
evening meal, when the paean had been sung in honor of the gods, to recite
these poems. From this time we find a union between the elegiac and
iambic poetry; the same poet, who employs the elegy to express his joyous
and melancholy emotions, has recourse to the iambus when his cool sense
prompts him to censure the follies of mankind. The relation between these
two metres is observable in Archilochus (fl. 688 B.C.) and Simonides (fl.
664 B.C.). The elegies of Archilochus, of which many fragments are extant
(while of Simonides we only know that he composed elegies), had nothing
of that spirit of which his iambics were full, but they contain the frank
expression of a mind powerfully affected by outward circumstances. With
the Spartans, wine and the pleasures of the feast became the subject of the
elegy, and it was also recited at the solemnities held in honor of all who had
fallen for their country. The elegies of Solon (592-559 B.C.) were pure
expressions of his political feelings. Simonides of Scios, the renowned lyric
poet, the contemporary of Pindar and Aeschylus, was one of the great
masters of elegiac song.
The epigram was originally an inscription on a tombstone, or a votive
offering in a temple, or on any other thing which required explanation. The
unexpected turn of thought and pointedness of expression, which the
moderns consider the essence of this species of composition, were not
required in the ancient Greek epigram, where nothing was wanted but that
the entire thought should be conveyed within the limit of a few distichs, and
Page 132
thus, in the hands of the early poets, the epigram was remarkable for the
conciseness and expressiveness of its language and differed in this respect
from the elegy, in which full expression was given to the feelings of the
poet.
It was Simonides who first gave to the epigram all the perfection of
which it was capable, and he was frequently employed by the states which
fought against the Persians to adorn with inscriptions the tombs of their
fallen warriors. The most celebrated of these is the inimitable inscription on
the Spartans who died at Thermopylae: "Foreigner, tell the Lacedaemonians
that we are lying here in obedience to their laws." On the Rhodian lyric
poet, Timocreon, an opponent of Simonides in his art, he wrote the
following in the form of an epitaph: "Having eaten much and drank much
and said much evil of other men, here I lie, Timocreon the Rhodian."
6. IAMBIC POETRY, THE FABLE AND PARODY.—The kind of
poetry known by the ancients as Iambic was created among the Athenians
by Archilochus at the same time as the elegy. It arose at a period when the
Greeks, accustomed only to the calm, unimpassioned tone of the epos, had
but just found a temperate expression of lively emotion in the elegy. It was
a light, tripping measure, sometimes loosely constructed, or purposely
halting and broken, well adapted to vituperation, unrestrained by any regard
to morality and decency. At the public tables of Sparta keen and pointed
raillery was permitted, and some of the most venerable and sacred of their
religious rites afforded occasion for their unsparing and audacious jests.
This raillery was so ancient and inveterate a custom, that it had given rise to
a peculiar word, which originally denoted nothing but the jests and banter
used at these festivals, namely, Iambus. All the wanton extravagance which
was elsewhere repressed by law or custom, here, under the protection of
religion, burst forth with boundless license, and these scurrilous effusions
conciseness and expressiveness of its language and differed in this respect
from the elegy, in which full expression was given to the feelings of the
poet.
It was Simonides who first gave to the epigram all the perfection of
which it was capable, and he was frequently employed by the states which
fought against the Persians to adorn with inscriptions the tombs of their
fallen warriors. The most celebrated of these is the inimitable inscription on
the Spartans who died at Thermopylae: "Foreigner, tell the Lacedaemonians
that we are lying here in obedience to their laws." On the Rhodian lyric
poet, Timocreon, an opponent of Simonides in his art, he wrote the
following in the form of an epitaph: "Having eaten much and drank much
and said much evil of other men, here I lie, Timocreon the Rhodian."
6. IAMBIC POETRY, THE FABLE AND PARODY.—The kind of
poetry known by the ancients as Iambic was created among the Athenians
by Archilochus at the same time as the elegy. It arose at a period when the
Greeks, accustomed only to the calm, unimpassioned tone of the epos, had
but just found a temperate expression of lively emotion in the elegy. It was
a light, tripping measure, sometimes loosely constructed, or purposely
halting and broken, well adapted to vituperation, unrestrained by any regard
to morality and decency. At the public tables of Sparta keen and pointed
raillery was permitted, and some of the most venerable and sacred of their
religious rites afforded occasion for their unsparing and audacious jests.
This raillery was so ancient and inveterate a custom, that it had given rise to
a peculiar word, which originally denoted nothing but the jests and banter
used at these festivals, namely, Iambus. All the wanton extravagance which
was elsewhere repressed by law or custom, here, under the protection of
religion, burst forth with boundless license, and these scurrilous effusions
Page 133
were at length reduced by Archilochus into the systematic form of iambic
metre.
Akin to the iambic are two sorts of poetry, the fable and the parody,
which, though differing widely from each other, have both their source in
the turn for the delineation of the ludicrous, and both stand in close
historical relation to the iambic. The fable in Greece originated in an
intentional travesty of human affairs. It is probable that the taste for fables
of beasts and numerous similar inventions found its way from the East,
since this sort of symbolical narrative is more in accordance with the
Oriental than with the Greek character. Aesop (fl. 572 B.C.) was very far
from being regarded by the Greeks as one of their poets, and still less as a
writer. They considered him merely as an ingenious fabulist, to whom, at a
later period, nearly all fables, that were invented or derived from any other
source, were attributed. He was a slave, whose wit and pleasantry procured
him his freedom, and who finally perished in Delphi, where the people,
exasperated by his sarcastic fables, put him to death on a charge of robbing
the temple. No metrical versions of these fables are known to have existed
in early times.
The word "parody" means an adoption of the form of some celebrated
poem with such changes as to produce a totally different effect, and
generally to substitute mean and ridiculous for elevated and poetical
sentiments. "The Battle of the Frogs and Mice," attributed to Homer, but
bearing evident traces of a later age, belongs to this species of poetry.
7. GREEK MUSIC AND LYRIC POETRY.—It was not until the minds
of the Greeks had been elevated by the productions of the epic muse, that
the genius of original poets broke loose from the dominion of the epic style,
and invented new forms for expressing the emotions of a mind profoundly
agitated by passing events; with few innovations in the elegy, but with
metre.
Akin to the iambic are two sorts of poetry, the fable and the parody,
which, though differing widely from each other, have both their source in
the turn for the delineation of the ludicrous, and both stand in close
historical relation to the iambic. The fable in Greece originated in an
intentional travesty of human affairs. It is probable that the taste for fables
of beasts and numerous similar inventions found its way from the East,
since this sort of symbolical narrative is more in accordance with the
Oriental than with the Greek character. Aesop (fl. 572 B.C.) was very far
from being regarded by the Greeks as one of their poets, and still less as a
writer. They considered him merely as an ingenious fabulist, to whom, at a
later period, nearly all fables, that were invented or derived from any other
source, were attributed. He was a slave, whose wit and pleasantry procured
him his freedom, and who finally perished in Delphi, where the people,
exasperated by his sarcastic fables, put him to death on a charge of robbing
the temple. No metrical versions of these fables are known to have existed
in early times.
The word "parody" means an adoption of the form of some celebrated
poem with such changes as to produce a totally different effect, and
generally to substitute mean and ridiculous for elevated and poetical
sentiments. "The Battle of the Frogs and Mice," attributed to Homer, but
bearing evident traces of a later age, belongs to this species of poetry.
7. GREEK MUSIC AND LYRIC POETRY.—It was not until the minds
of the Greeks had been elevated by the productions of the epic muse, that
the genius of original poets broke loose from the dominion of the epic style,
and invented new forms for expressing the emotions of a mind profoundly
agitated by passing events; with few innovations in the elegy, but with
Page 134
greater boldness in the iambic metre. In these two forms, Greek poetry
entered the domain of real life. The elegy and iambus contain the germ of
the lyric style, though they do not themselves come under that head. The
Greek lyric poetry was characterized by the expression of deeper and more
impassioned feeling, and a more impetuous tone than the elegy and iambus,
and at the same time the effect was heightened by appropriate vocal and
instrumental music, and often by the figures of the dance. In this union of
the sister arts, poetry was indeed predominant, yet music, in its turn,
exercised a reciprocal influence on poetry, so that as it became more
cultivated, the choice of the musical measure decided the tone of the whole
poem.
The history of Greek music begins with Terpander the Lesbian (fl. 670
B.C.), who was many times the victor in the musical contests at the Pythian
temple of Delphi. He added three new strings to the cithara, which had
consisted only of four, and this heptachord was employed by Pindar, and
remained long in high repute; he was also the first who marked the different
tones in music. With other musicians, he united the music of Asia Minor
with that of the ancient Greeks, and founded on it a system in which each
style had its appropriate character. By the efforts of Terpander and one or
two other masters, music was brought to a high degree of excellence, and
adapted to express any feeling to which the poet could give a more definite
character and meaning, and thus they had solved the great problem of their
art. It was in Greece the constant endeavor of the great poets, thinkers, and
statesmen who interested themselves in the education of youth, to give a
good direction to this art; they all dreaded the increasing prevalence of a
luxuriant style of instrumental music and an unrestricted flight into the
boundless realms of harmony.
The lyric poetry of the Greeks was of two kinds, and cultivated by two
different schools of poets. One, called the Aeolic, flourished among the
entered the domain of real life. The elegy and iambus contain the germ of
the lyric style, though they do not themselves come under that head. The
Greek lyric poetry was characterized by the expression of deeper and more
impassioned feeling, and a more impetuous tone than the elegy and iambus,
and at the same time the effect was heightened by appropriate vocal and
instrumental music, and often by the figures of the dance. In this union of
the sister arts, poetry was indeed predominant, yet music, in its turn,
exercised a reciprocal influence on poetry, so that as it became more
cultivated, the choice of the musical measure decided the tone of the whole
poem.
The history of Greek music begins with Terpander the Lesbian (fl. 670
B.C.), who was many times the victor in the musical contests at the Pythian
temple of Delphi. He added three new strings to the cithara, which had
consisted only of four, and this heptachord was employed by Pindar, and
remained long in high repute; he was also the first who marked the different
tones in music. With other musicians, he united the music of Asia Minor
with that of the ancient Greeks, and founded on it a system in which each
style had its appropriate character. By the efforts of Terpander and one or
two other masters, music was brought to a high degree of excellence, and
adapted to express any feeling to which the poet could give a more definite
character and meaning, and thus they had solved the great problem of their
art. It was in Greece the constant endeavor of the great poets, thinkers, and
statesmen who interested themselves in the education of youth, to give a
good direction to this art; they all dreaded the increasing prevalence of a
luxuriant style of instrumental music and an unrestricted flight into the
boundless realms of harmony.
The lyric poetry of the Greeks was of two kinds, and cultivated by two
different schools of poets. One, called the Aeolic, flourished among the
Page 135
Aeolians of Asia Minor, and particularly in the island of Lesbos; the other,
the Doric, which, although diffused over the whole of Greece, was at first
principally cultivated by the Dorians. These two schools differed essentially
in the subjects, as in the form and style of their poems. The Doric was
intended to be executed by choruses', and to be sung to choral dances; while
the Aeolic was recited by a single person, who accompanied his recitation
with a stringed instrument, generally the lyre.
8. AEOLIC LYRIC POETS.—Alcaeus (fl. 611 B.C.), born in Mytilene in
the island of Lesbos, being driven out of his native city for political reasons,
wandered about the world, and, in the midst of troubles and perils, struck
the lyre and gave utterance to the passionate emotions of his mind. His war-
songs express a stirring, martial spirit; and a noble nature, accompanied
with strong passions, appears in all his poems, especially in those in which
he sings the praises of love and wine, though little of his erotic poetry has
reached our time. It is evident that poetry was not with him a mere pastime
or exercise of skill, but a means of pouring out the inmost feelings of the
soul. Sappho (fl. 600 B.C.) the other leader of the Aeolic school of poetry,
was the object of the admiration of all antiquity. She was contemporary
with Alcaeus, and in her verses to him we plainly discern the feeling of
unimpeached honor proper to a free-born and well-educated maiden.
Alcaeus testifies that the attractions and loveliness of Sappho did not
derogate from her moral worth when he calls her "violet-crowned, pure,
sweetly smiling Sappho." This testimony is, indeed, opposed to the
accounts of later writers, but the probable cause of the false imputations in
reference to Sappho seems to be that the refined Athenians were incapable
of appreciating the frank simplicity with which she poured forth her
feelings, and therefore they confounded them with unblushing immodesty.
While the men of Athens were distinguished for their perfection in every
branch of art, none of their women emerged from the obscurity of domestic
life. "That woman is the best," says Pericles, "of whom the least is said
the Doric, which, although diffused over the whole of Greece, was at first
principally cultivated by the Dorians. These two schools differed essentially
in the subjects, as in the form and style of their poems. The Doric was
intended to be executed by choruses', and to be sung to choral dances; while
the Aeolic was recited by a single person, who accompanied his recitation
with a stringed instrument, generally the lyre.
8. AEOLIC LYRIC POETS.—Alcaeus (fl. 611 B.C.), born in Mytilene in
the island of Lesbos, being driven out of his native city for political reasons,
wandered about the world, and, in the midst of troubles and perils, struck
the lyre and gave utterance to the passionate emotions of his mind. His war-
songs express a stirring, martial spirit; and a noble nature, accompanied
with strong passions, appears in all his poems, especially in those in which
he sings the praises of love and wine, though little of his erotic poetry has
reached our time. It is evident that poetry was not with him a mere pastime
or exercise of skill, but a means of pouring out the inmost feelings of the
soul. Sappho (fl. 600 B.C.) the other leader of the Aeolic school of poetry,
was the object of the admiration of all antiquity. She was contemporary
with Alcaeus, and in her verses to him we plainly discern the feeling of
unimpeached honor proper to a free-born and well-educated maiden.
Alcaeus testifies that the attractions and loveliness of Sappho did not
derogate from her moral worth when he calls her "violet-crowned, pure,
sweetly smiling Sappho." This testimony is, indeed, opposed to the
accounts of later writers, but the probable cause of the false imputations in
reference to Sappho seems to be that the refined Athenians were incapable
of appreciating the frank simplicity with which she poured forth her
feelings, and therefore they confounded them with unblushing immodesty.
While the men of Athens were distinguished for their perfection in every
branch of art, none of their women emerged from the obscurity of domestic
life. "That woman is the best," says Pericles, "of whom the least is said
Page 136
among men, whether for good or for evil." But the Aeolians had in some
degree preserved the ancient Greek manners, and their women enjoyed a
distinct individual existence and moral character. They doubtless
participated in the general high state of civilization, which not only fostered
poetical talents of a high order among women, but produced in them a turn
for philosophical reflection. This was so utterly inconsistent with Athenian
manners, that we cannot wonder that women, who had in any degree
overstepped the bounds prescribed to their sex at Athens, should be
represented by the licentious pen of Athenian comic writers as lost to every
sense of shame and decency. Sappho, in her odes, made frequent mention of
a youth to whom she gave her whole heart, while he requited her love with
cold indifference; but there is no trace of her having named the object of her
passion. She may have celebrated the beautiful and mythical Phaon in such
a manner that the verses were supposed to refer to a lover of her own. The
account of her leap from the Leucadian rock is rather a poetical image, than
a real event in the life of the poetess. The true conception of the erotic
poetry of Sappho can only be drawn from the fragments of her odes, which,
though numerous, are for the most part very short. Among them, we must
distinguish the Epithalamia or hymeneals, which were peculiarly adapted to
the genius of the poetess from the exquisite perception she seems to have
had of whatever was attractive in either sex. From the numerous fragments
that remain, these poems appear to have had great beauty and much of that
expression which the simple and natural manners of the times allowed, and
the warm and sensitive heart of the poetess suggested. That Sappho's fame
was spread throughout Greece, may be seen from the history of Solon, who
was her contemporary. Hearing his nephew recite one of her poems, he said
that he would not willingly die until he had learned it by heart. And,
doubtless, from that circle of accomplished women, of whom she formed
the brilliant centre, a flood of poetic light was poured forth on every side.
degree preserved the ancient Greek manners, and their women enjoyed a
distinct individual existence and moral character. They doubtless
participated in the general high state of civilization, which not only fostered
poetical talents of a high order among women, but produced in them a turn
for philosophical reflection. This was so utterly inconsistent with Athenian
manners, that we cannot wonder that women, who had in any degree
overstepped the bounds prescribed to their sex at Athens, should be
represented by the licentious pen of Athenian comic writers as lost to every
sense of shame and decency. Sappho, in her odes, made frequent mention of
a youth to whom she gave her whole heart, while he requited her love with
cold indifference; but there is no trace of her having named the object of her
passion. She may have celebrated the beautiful and mythical Phaon in such
a manner that the verses were supposed to refer to a lover of her own. The
account of her leap from the Leucadian rock is rather a poetical image, than
a real event in the life of the poetess. The true conception of the erotic
poetry of Sappho can only be drawn from the fragments of her odes, which,
though numerous, are for the most part very short. Among them, we must
distinguish the Epithalamia or hymeneals, which were peculiarly adapted to
the genius of the poetess from the exquisite perception she seems to have
had of whatever was attractive in either sex. From the numerous fragments
that remain, these poems appear to have had great beauty and much of that
expression which the simple and natural manners of the times allowed, and
the warm and sensitive heart of the poetess suggested. That Sappho's fame
was spread throughout Greece, may be seen from the history of Solon, who
was her contemporary. Hearing his nephew recite one of her poems, he said
that he would not willingly die until he had learned it by heart. And,
doubtless, from that circle of accomplished women, of whom she formed
the brilliant centre, a flood of poetic light was poured forth on every side.
Page 137
Among them may be mentioned the names of Damophila and Erinna,
whose poem, "The Spindle," was highly esteemed by the ancients.
The genius of Anacreon (fl. 540 B.C.), though akin to that of Alcaeus and
Sappho, had an entirely different bent. He seems to consider life as valuable
only so far as it can be spent in wine, love, and social enjoyment. The Ionic
softness and departure from strict rule may also be perceived in his
versification. The different odes preserved under his name are the
productions of poets of a much later date. With Anacreon ceased the species
of lyric poetry in which he excelled; indeed, he stands alone in it, and the
tender softness of his song was soon drowned by the louder tones of the
choral poetry.
The Scolia were a kind of lyric songs sung at social meals, when the
spirit was raised by wine and conversation to a lyrical pitch. The lyre or a
sprig of myrtle was handed round the table and presented to any one who
could amuse the company by a song or even a good sentence in a lyrical
form.
9. DORIC, OR CHORAL LYRIC POETS.—The chorus was in general
use in Greece before the time of Homer, and nearly every variety of the
choral poetry, which was afterwards so brilliantly developed, existed at that
remote period in a rude, unfinished state. After the improvements made by
Terpander and others in musical art, choral poetry rapidly progressed
towards perfection. The poets during the period of progress were Alcman
and Stesichorus, while finished lyric poetry is represented by Ibycus,
Simonides, his disciple Bacchylides and Pindar. These great poets were
only the representatives of the fervor with which the religious festivals
inspired all classes. Choral dances were performed by the whole people
with great ardor and enthusiasm; every considerable town had its poet, who
devoted his whole life to the training and exhibition of choruses.
whose poem, "The Spindle," was highly esteemed by the ancients.
The genius of Anacreon (fl. 540 B.C.), though akin to that of Alcaeus and
Sappho, had an entirely different bent. He seems to consider life as valuable
only so far as it can be spent in wine, love, and social enjoyment. The Ionic
softness and departure from strict rule may also be perceived in his
versification. The different odes preserved under his name are the
productions of poets of a much later date. With Anacreon ceased the species
of lyric poetry in which he excelled; indeed, he stands alone in it, and the
tender softness of his song was soon drowned by the louder tones of the
choral poetry.
The Scolia were a kind of lyric songs sung at social meals, when the
spirit was raised by wine and conversation to a lyrical pitch. The lyre or a
sprig of myrtle was handed round the table and presented to any one who
could amuse the company by a song or even a good sentence in a lyrical
form.
9. DORIC, OR CHORAL LYRIC POETS.—The chorus was in general
use in Greece before the time of Homer, and nearly every variety of the
choral poetry, which was afterwards so brilliantly developed, existed at that
remote period in a rude, unfinished state. After the improvements made by
Terpander and others in musical art, choral poetry rapidly progressed
towards perfection. The poets during the period of progress were Alcman
and Stesichorus, while finished lyric poetry is represented by Ibycus,
Simonides, his disciple Bacchylides and Pindar. These great poets were
only the representatives of the fervor with which the religious festivals
inspired all classes. Choral dances were performed by the whole people
with great ardor and enthusiasm; every considerable town had its poet, who
devoted his whole life to the training and exhibition of choruses.
Page 138
Alcman (b. 660 B.C.) was a Lydian of Sardis, and an emancipated slave.
His poems exhibit a great variety of metre, of dialect, and of poetic tone. He
is regarded as having overcome the difficulties presented by the rough
dialect of Sparta, and as having succeeded in investing it with a certain
grace. He is one of the poets whose image is most effaced by time, and of
whom we can obtain little accurate knowledge. The admiration awarded
him by antiquity is scarcely justified by the extant remains of his poems.
Stesichorus (fl. 611 B.C.) lived at a time when the predominant tendency
of the Greek mind was towards lyric poetry. His special business was the
training and direction of the choruses, and he assumed the name of
Stesichorus, or leader of choruses, his real name being Tesias. His metres
approach more nearly to the epos than those of Aleman. As Quintilian says,
he sustained the weight of epic poetry with the lyre. His language accorded
with the tone of his poetry, and he is not less remarkable in himself, than as
the precursor of the perfect lyric poetry of Pindar.
Arion (625-585 B.C.) was chiefly known in Greece as the perfecter of the
"Dithyramb," a song of Bacchanalian festivals, doubtless of great antiquity.
Its character, like the worship to which it belonged, was always
impassioned and enthusiastic; the extremes of feeling, rapturous pleasure,
and wild lamentation were both expressed in it.
Ibycus (b. 528 B.C.) was a wandering poet, as is attested by the story of
his death having been avenged by the cranes. His poetical style resembles
that of Stesichorus, as also his subjects. The erotic poetry of Ibycus is most
celebrated, and breathes a fervor of passion far exceeding that of any
similar production of Greek literature.
Simonides (556-468 B.C.) has already been described as one of the great
masters of the elegy and epigram. In depth and novelty of ideas, and in the
fervor of poetic feeling, he was far inferior to his contemporary Pindar, but
His poems exhibit a great variety of metre, of dialect, and of poetic tone. He
is regarded as having overcome the difficulties presented by the rough
dialect of Sparta, and as having succeeded in investing it with a certain
grace. He is one of the poets whose image is most effaced by time, and of
whom we can obtain little accurate knowledge. The admiration awarded
him by antiquity is scarcely justified by the extant remains of his poems.
Stesichorus (fl. 611 B.C.) lived at a time when the predominant tendency
of the Greek mind was towards lyric poetry. His special business was the
training and direction of the choruses, and he assumed the name of
Stesichorus, or leader of choruses, his real name being Tesias. His metres
approach more nearly to the epos than those of Aleman. As Quintilian says,
he sustained the weight of epic poetry with the lyre. His language accorded
with the tone of his poetry, and he is not less remarkable in himself, than as
the precursor of the perfect lyric poetry of Pindar.
Arion (625-585 B.C.) was chiefly known in Greece as the perfecter of the
"Dithyramb," a song of Bacchanalian festivals, doubtless of great antiquity.
Its character, like the worship to which it belonged, was always
impassioned and enthusiastic; the extremes of feeling, rapturous pleasure,
and wild lamentation were both expressed in it.
Ibycus (b. 528 B.C.) was a wandering poet, as is attested by the story of
his death having been avenged by the cranes. His poetical style resembles
that of Stesichorus, as also his subjects. The erotic poetry of Ibycus is most
celebrated, and breathes a fervor of passion far exceeding that of any
similar production of Greek literature.
Simonides (556-468 B.C.) has already been described as one of the great
masters of the elegy and epigram. In depth and novelty of ideas, and in the
fervor of poetic feeling, he was far inferior to his contemporary Pindar, but
Page 139
he was probably the most prolific lyric poet of Greece. According to the
frequent reproach of the ancients, he was the first that sold his poems for
money. His style was not as lofty as that of Pindar, hut what he lost in
sublimity he gained in pathos.
Bacchylides (fl. 450 B.C.), the nephew of Simonides, devoted his genius
chiefly to the pleasures of private life, love, and wine, and his productions,
when compared with those of Simonides, are marked by less moral
elevation.
Timocreon the Rhodian (fl. 471 B.C.) owes his chief celebrity among the
ancients to the hate he bore to Themistocles in political life, and to
Simonides on the field of poetry.
Pindar (522-435 B.C.) was the contemporary of Aeschylus, but as the
causes which determined his poetical character are to be sought in an earlier
age, and in the Doric and Aeolic parts of Greece, he may properly be placed
at the close of the early period, while Aeschylus stands at the head of the
new epoch of literature. Like Hesiod, Pindar was a native of Boeotia, and
that there was still much love for music and poetry there is proved by the
fact that two women, Myrtis and Corinna, had obtained great celebrity in
these arts during the youth of this poet. Myrtis (fl. 490 B.C.) strove with
him for the prize at the public games, and Corinna (fl. 490 B.C.) is said to
have gained the victory over him five times. Too little of the poetry of
Corinna has been preserved to allow a judgment on her style of
composition. Pindar made the arts of poetry and music the business of his
life, and his fame soon spread throughout Greece and the neighboring
countries. He excelled in all the known varieties of choral poetry, but the
only class of poems that enable us to judge of his general style is his
triumphal odes. When a victory was gained in a contest at a festival by the
speed of horses, the strength and dexterity of the human body, or by skill in
frequent reproach of the ancients, he was the first that sold his poems for
money. His style was not as lofty as that of Pindar, hut what he lost in
sublimity he gained in pathos.
Bacchylides (fl. 450 B.C.), the nephew of Simonides, devoted his genius
chiefly to the pleasures of private life, love, and wine, and his productions,
when compared with those of Simonides, are marked by less moral
elevation.
Timocreon the Rhodian (fl. 471 B.C.) owes his chief celebrity among the
ancients to the hate he bore to Themistocles in political life, and to
Simonides on the field of poetry.
Pindar (522-435 B.C.) was the contemporary of Aeschylus, but as the
causes which determined his poetical character are to be sought in an earlier
age, and in the Doric and Aeolic parts of Greece, he may properly be placed
at the close of the early period, while Aeschylus stands at the head of the
new epoch of literature. Like Hesiod, Pindar was a native of Boeotia, and
that there was still much love for music and poetry there is proved by the
fact that two women, Myrtis and Corinna, had obtained great celebrity in
these arts during the youth of this poet. Myrtis (fl. 490 B.C.) strove with
him for the prize at the public games, and Corinna (fl. 490 B.C.) is said to
have gained the victory over him five times. Too little of the poetry of
Corinna has been preserved to allow a judgment on her style of
composition. Pindar made the arts of poetry and music the business of his
life, and his fame soon spread throughout Greece and the neighboring
countries. He excelled in all the known varieties of choral poetry, but the
only class of poems that enable us to judge of his general style is his
triumphal odes. When a victory was gained in a contest at a festival by the
speed of horses, the strength and dexterity of the human body, or by skill in
Page 140
music, such a victory, which shed honor not only on the victor, but also on
his family, and even on his native city, demanded a public celebration. An
occasion of this kind had always a religious character, and often began with
a procession to an altar or temple, where a sacrifice was offered, followed
by a banquet, and the solemnity concluded with a merry and boisterous
revel. At this sacred and at the same time joyous festival, the chorus
appeared and recited the triumphal hymn, which was considered the fairest
ornament of the triumph. Such an occasion, a victory in the sacred games
and its end, the ennobling of a ceremony connected with the worship of the
gods, required that the ode should be composed in a lofty and dignified
style. Pindar does not content himself with celebrating the bodily prowess
of the victor alone, but he usually adds some moral virtue which he has
shown, and which he recommends and extols. Sometimes this virtue is
moderation, wisdom, or filial love, more often piety to the gods, and he
expounds to the victor his destiny, by showing him the dependence of his
exploits on the higher order of things. Mythical narratives occupy much
space in these odes, for in the time of Pindar the mythical past was invested
with a splendor and sublimity, of which even the faint reflection was
sufficient to embellish the present.
10. ORPHIC DOCTRINES AND POEMS.—The interval between
Homer and Pindar is an important period in the history of Greek
civilization. In Homer we perceive that infancy of the mind which lives in
seeing and imagining, and whose moral judgments are determined by
impulses of feeling rather than by rules of conduct, while with Pindar the
chief effort of his genius is to discover the true standard of moral
government. This great change of opinion must have been affected by the
efforts of many sages and poets. All the Greek religious poetry, treating of
death and of the world beyond the grave, refers to the deities whose
influence was supposed to be exercised in the dark regions at the centre of
the earth, and who had little connection with the political and social
his family, and even on his native city, demanded a public celebration. An
occasion of this kind had always a religious character, and often began with
a procession to an altar or temple, where a sacrifice was offered, followed
by a banquet, and the solemnity concluded with a merry and boisterous
revel. At this sacred and at the same time joyous festival, the chorus
appeared and recited the triumphal hymn, which was considered the fairest
ornament of the triumph. Such an occasion, a victory in the sacred games
and its end, the ennobling of a ceremony connected with the worship of the
gods, required that the ode should be composed in a lofty and dignified
style. Pindar does not content himself with celebrating the bodily prowess
of the victor alone, but he usually adds some moral virtue which he has
shown, and which he recommends and extols. Sometimes this virtue is
moderation, wisdom, or filial love, more often piety to the gods, and he
expounds to the victor his destiny, by showing him the dependence of his
exploits on the higher order of things. Mythical narratives occupy much
space in these odes, for in the time of Pindar the mythical past was invested
with a splendor and sublimity, of which even the faint reflection was
sufficient to embellish the present.
10. ORPHIC DOCTRINES AND POEMS.—The interval between
Homer and Pindar is an important period in the history of Greek
civilization. In Homer we perceive that infancy of the mind which lives in
seeing and imagining, and whose moral judgments are determined by
impulses of feeling rather than by rules of conduct, while with Pindar the
chief effort of his genius is to discover the true standard of moral
government. This great change of opinion must have been affected by the
efforts of many sages and poets. All the Greek religious poetry, treating of
death and of the world beyond the grave, refers to the deities whose
influence was supposed to be exercised in the dark regions at the centre of
the earth, and who had little connection with the political and social
Page 141
relations of human life. They formed a class apart from the gods of
Olympus; the mysteries of the Greeks were connected with their worship
alone, and the love of immortality first found support in a belief in these
deities. The mysteries of Demeter, especially those celebrated at Eleusis,
inspired the most animating hopes with regard to the soul after death. These
mysteries, however, had little influence on the literature of the nation; but
there was a society of persons called the followers of Orpheus, who
published their notions and committed them to literary works. Under the
guidance of the ancient mystical poet, Orpheus, they dedicated themselves
to the worship of Bacchus or Dionysus, in which they sought satisfaction
for an ardent longing after the soothing and elevating influences of religion,
and upon the worship of this deity they founded their hopes of an ultimate
immortality of the soul. Unlike the popular worshipers of Bacchus, they did
not indulge in unrestrained pleasure or frantic enthusiasm, but rather aimed
at an ascetic purity of life and manners. It is difficult to tell when this
association was formed in Greece, but we find in Hesiod something of the
Orphic spirit, and the beginning of higher and more hopeful views of death.
The endeavor to obtain a knowledge of divine and human things was in
Greece slowly and with difficulty evolved from their religious notions, and
it was for a long time confined to the refining and rationalizing of their
mythology. An extensive Orphic literature first appeared at the time of the
Persian war, when the remains of the Pythagorean order in Magna Graecia
united themselves to the Orphic associations. The philosophy of
Pythagoras, however, had no analogy with the spirit of the Orphic
mysteries, in which the worship of Dionysus was the centre of all religious
ideas, while the Pythagorean philosophers preferred the worship of Apollo
and the Muses. In the Orphic theogony we find, for the first time, the idea
of creation. Another difference between the notions of the Orphic poets and
those of the early Greeks was that the former did not limit their views to the
present state of mankind, still less did they acquiesce in Hesiod's
Olympus; the mysteries of the Greeks were connected with their worship
alone, and the love of immortality first found support in a belief in these
deities. The mysteries of Demeter, especially those celebrated at Eleusis,
inspired the most animating hopes with regard to the soul after death. These
mysteries, however, had little influence on the literature of the nation; but
there was a society of persons called the followers of Orpheus, who
published their notions and committed them to literary works. Under the
guidance of the ancient mystical poet, Orpheus, they dedicated themselves
to the worship of Bacchus or Dionysus, in which they sought satisfaction
for an ardent longing after the soothing and elevating influences of religion,
and upon the worship of this deity they founded their hopes of an ultimate
immortality of the soul. Unlike the popular worshipers of Bacchus, they did
not indulge in unrestrained pleasure or frantic enthusiasm, but rather aimed
at an ascetic purity of life and manners. It is difficult to tell when this
association was formed in Greece, but we find in Hesiod something of the
Orphic spirit, and the beginning of higher and more hopeful views of death.
The endeavor to obtain a knowledge of divine and human things was in
Greece slowly and with difficulty evolved from their religious notions, and
it was for a long time confined to the refining and rationalizing of their
mythology. An extensive Orphic literature first appeared at the time of the
Persian war, when the remains of the Pythagorean order in Magna Graecia
united themselves to the Orphic associations. The philosophy of
Pythagoras, however, had no analogy with the spirit of the Orphic
mysteries, in which the worship of Dionysus was the centre of all religious
ideas, while the Pythagorean philosophers preferred the worship of Apollo
and the Muses. In the Orphic theogony we find, for the first time, the idea
of creation. Another difference between the notions of the Orphic poets and
those of the early Greeks was that the former did not limit their views to the
present state of mankind, still less did they acquiesce in Hesiod's
Page 142
melancholy doctrine of successive ages, each one worse than the preceding;
but they looked for a cessation of strife, a state of happiness and beatitude at
the end of all things. Their hopes of this result were founded on Dionysus,
from the worship of whom all their peculiar religious ideas were derived.
This god, the son of Zeus, is to succeed him in the government of the world,
to restore the Golden Age, and to liberate human souls, who, according to
an Orphic notion, are punished by being confined in the body as in a prison.
The sufferings of the soul in its prison, the steps and transitions by which it
passes to a higher state of existence, and its gradual purification and
enlightenment, were all fully described in these poems. Thus, in the poetry
of the first five centuries of Greek literature, especially at the close of this
period, we find, instead of the calm enjoyment of outward nature which
characterized the early epic poetry, a profound sense of the misery of
human life, and an ardent longing for a condition of greater happiness. This
feeling, indeed, was not so extended as to become common to the whole
Greek nation, but it took deep root in individual minds, and was connected
with more serious and spiritual views of human nature.
11. PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY.—Philosophy was early cultivated
by the Greeks, who first among all nations distinguished it from religion
and mythology. For some time, however, after its origin, it was as far
removed from the ordinary thoughts and occupations of the people as
poetry was intimately connected with them. Poetry idealizes all that is most
characteristic of a nation; its religion, mythology, political and social
institutions, and manners. Philosophy, on the other hand, begins by
detaching the mind from the opinions and habits in which it has been bred
up, from the national conceptions of the gods and the universe, and from
traditionary maxims of ethics and politics. The philosophy of Greece,
antecedent to the time of Socrates, is contained in the doctrines of the Ionic,
Eleatic, and Pythagorean. schools. Thales of Miletus (639-548 B.C.) was
the first in the series of the Ionic philosophers. He was one of the Seven
but they looked for a cessation of strife, a state of happiness and beatitude at
the end of all things. Their hopes of this result were founded on Dionysus,
from the worship of whom all their peculiar religious ideas were derived.
This god, the son of Zeus, is to succeed him in the government of the world,
to restore the Golden Age, and to liberate human souls, who, according to
an Orphic notion, are punished by being confined in the body as in a prison.
The sufferings of the soul in its prison, the steps and transitions by which it
passes to a higher state of existence, and its gradual purification and
enlightenment, were all fully described in these poems. Thus, in the poetry
of the first five centuries of Greek literature, especially at the close of this
period, we find, instead of the calm enjoyment of outward nature which
characterized the early epic poetry, a profound sense of the misery of
human life, and an ardent longing for a condition of greater happiness. This
feeling, indeed, was not so extended as to become common to the whole
Greek nation, but it took deep root in individual minds, and was connected
with more serious and spiritual views of human nature.
11. PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY.—Philosophy was early cultivated
by the Greeks, who first among all nations distinguished it from religion
and mythology. For some time, however, after its origin, it was as far
removed from the ordinary thoughts and occupations of the people as
poetry was intimately connected with them. Poetry idealizes all that is most
characteristic of a nation; its religion, mythology, political and social
institutions, and manners. Philosophy, on the other hand, begins by
detaching the mind from the opinions and habits in which it has been bred
up, from the national conceptions of the gods and the universe, and from
traditionary maxims of ethics and politics. The philosophy of Greece,
antecedent to the time of Socrates, is contained in the doctrines of the Ionic,
Eleatic, and Pythagorean. schools. Thales of Miletus (639-548 B.C.) was
the first in the series of the Ionic philosophers. He was one of the Seven
Page 143
Sages, who by their practical wisdom nobly contributed to the flourishing
condition of Greece. Thales, Solon, Bion (fl. 570 B.C.), Cleobulus (fl. 542
B.C.), Periander (fl. 598 B.C.), Pittacus of Mytilene (579 B.C.), and Chilon
(fl. 542 B.C.), were the seven philosophers called the seven sages by their
countrymen. Thales is said to have foretold an eclipse of the sun, for which
he doubtless employed astronomical formulae, which he had obtained from
the Chaldeans. His tendency was practical, and where his own knowledge
was insufficient, he applied the discoveries of other nations more advanced
than his own. He considered all nature as endowed with life, and sought to
discover the principles of external forms in the powers which lie beneath;
he taught that water was the principle of things. Anaximander (fl. 547 B.C.),
and Anaximenes (fl. 548 B.C.) were the other two most distinguished
representatives of the Ionic school. The former believed that chaotic matter
was the principle of all things, the latter taught that it was air. The Eleatic
school is represented by Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno. As the
philosophers of the first school were called Ionians from the country in
which they resided, so these were named from Elea, a Greek colony of Italy.
Xenophanes (fl. 538 B.C.), the founder of this school, adopted a different
principle from that of the Ionic philosophers, and proceeded upon an ideal
system, while that of the latter was exclusively founded upon experience.
He began with the idea of the godhead, and showed the necessity of
considering it as an eternal and unchanging existence, and represented the
anthropomorphic conceptions of the Greeks concerning their gods as mere
prejudices. In his works he retained the poetic form of composition, some
fragments of which he himself recited at public festivals, after the manner
of the rhapsodists. Parmenides flourished 504 years B.C. His philosophy
rested upon the idea of existence which excluded the idea of creation, and
thus fell into pantheism. His poem on "Nature" was composed in the epic
metre, and in it he expressed in beautiful forms the most abstract ideas.
Zeno of Elea (fl. 500 B.C.) was a pupil of Parmenides, and the earliest
condition of Greece. Thales, Solon, Bion (fl. 570 B.C.), Cleobulus (fl. 542
B.C.), Periander (fl. 598 B.C.), Pittacus of Mytilene (579 B.C.), and Chilon
(fl. 542 B.C.), were the seven philosophers called the seven sages by their
countrymen. Thales is said to have foretold an eclipse of the sun, for which
he doubtless employed astronomical formulae, which he had obtained from
the Chaldeans. His tendency was practical, and where his own knowledge
was insufficient, he applied the discoveries of other nations more advanced
than his own. He considered all nature as endowed with life, and sought to
discover the principles of external forms in the powers which lie beneath;
he taught that water was the principle of things. Anaximander (fl. 547 B.C.),
and Anaximenes (fl. 548 B.C.) were the other two most distinguished
representatives of the Ionic school. The former believed that chaotic matter
was the principle of all things, the latter taught that it was air. The Eleatic
school is represented by Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno. As the
philosophers of the first school were called Ionians from the country in
which they resided, so these were named from Elea, a Greek colony of Italy.
Xenophanes (fl. 538 B.C.), the founder of this school, adopted a different
principle from that of the Ionic philosophers, and proceeded upon an ideal
system, while that of the latter was exclusively founded upon experience.
He began with the idea of the godhead, and showed the necessity of
considering it as an eternal and unchanging existence, and represented the
anthropomorphic conceptions of the Greeks concerning their gods as mere
prejudices. In his works he retained the poetic form of composition, some
fragments of which he himself recited at public festivals, after the manner
of the rhapsodists. Parmenides flourished 504 years B.C. His philosophy
rested upon the idea of existence which excluded the idea of creation, and
thus fell into pantheism. His poem on "Nature" was composed in the epic
metre, and in it he expressed in beautiful forms the most abstract ideas.
Zeno of Elea (fl. 500 B.C.) was a pupil of Parmenides, and the earliest
Page 144
prose writer among the Greek philosophers. He developed the doctrines of
his master by showing the absurdities involved in the ideas of variety and of
creation, as opposed to one and universal substance. Other philosophers
belonging to Iona or Elea may be referred to these schools, as Heraclitus,
Empedocles, Democritus, and Anaxagoras, whose doctrines, however, vary
from those of the representatives of the philosophical systems above named.
Heraclitus (fl. 505 B.C.) dealt rather in intimations of important truths than
in popular exposition of them; his cardinal doctrine seems to have been that
everything is in perpetual motion, that nothing has any permanent
existence, and that everything is assuming a new form or perishing: the
principle of this perpetual motion he supposed to be fixe, though probably
he did not mean material fire, but some higher and more universal agent.
Like nearly all the philosophers, he despised the popular religion.
Empedocles (fl. 440 B.C.) wrote a doctrinal poem concerning nature,
fragments of which have been preserved. He denied the possibility of
creation, and held the doctrine of an eternal and imperishable existence; but
he considered this existence as having different natures, and admitted that
fire, earth, air, and water were the four elements of all things. These
elements he supposed to be governed by two principles, one positive and
one negative, that is to say, connecting love and dissolving discord.
Democritus (fl. 460 B.C.) embodied his extensive knowledge in a series of
writings, of which only a few fragments have been preserved. Cicero
compared him with Plato for rhythm and elegance of language. He derived
the manifold phenomena of the world from the different form, disposition,
and arrangement of the innumerable elements or atoms as they become
united. He is the founder of the atomic doctrine. Anaxagoras (fl. 456 B.C.)
rejected all popular notions of religion, excluded the idea of creation and
destruction, and taught that atoms were unchangeable and imperishable;
that spirit, the purest and subtlest of all things, gave to these atoms the
impulse by which they took the forms of individual things and beings; and
his master by showing the absurdities involved in the ideas of variety and of
creation, as opposed to one and universal substance. Other philosophers
belonging to Iona or Elea may be referred to these schools, as Heraclitus,
Empedocles, Democritus, and Anaxagoras, whose doctrines, however, vary
from those of the representatives of the philosophical systems above named.
Heraclitus (fl. 505 B.C.) dealt rather in intimations of important truths than
in popular exposition of them; his cardinal doctrine seems to have been that
everything is in perpetual motion, that nothing has any permanent
existence, and that everything is assuming a new form or perishing: the
principle of this perpetual motion he supposed to be fixe, though probably
he did not mean material fire, but some higher and more universal agent.
Like nearly all the philosophers, he despised the popular religion.
Empedocles (fl. 440 B.C.) wrote a doctrinal poem concerning nature,
fragments of which have been preserved. He denied the possibility of
creation, and held the doctrine of an eternal and imperishable existence; but
he considered this existence as having different natures, and admitted that
fire, earth, air, and water were the four elements of all things. These
elements he supposed to be governed by two principles, one positive and
one negative, that is to say, connecting love and dissolving discord.
Democritus (fl. 460 B.C.) embodied his extensive knowledge in a series of
writings, of which only a few fragments have been preserved. Cicero
compared him with Plato for rhythm and elegance of language. He derived
the manifold phenomena of the world from the different form, disposition,
and arrangement of the innumerable elements or atoms as they become
united. He is the founder of the atomic doctrine. Anaxagoras (fl. 456 B.C.)
rejected all popular notions of religion, excluded the idea of creation and
destruction, and taught that atoms were unchangeable and imperishable;
that spirit, the purest and subtlest of all things, gave to these atoms the
impulse by which they took the forms of individual things and beings; and
Page 145
that this impulse was given in circular motion, which kept the heavenly
bodies in their courses. But none of his doctrines gave so much offence or
was considered so clear a proof of his atheism as his opinion that the sun,
the bountiful god Helios, who shines both upon mortals and immortals, was
a mass of red-hot iron. His doctrines tended powerfully by their rapid
diffusion to undermine the principles on which the worship of the ancient
gods rested, and they therefore prepared the way for the subsequent triumph
of Christianity.
The Pythagorean or Italic School was founded by Pythagoras, who is said
to have flourished between 540 and 500 B.C. Pythagoras was probably an
Ionian who emigrated to Italy, and there established his school. His
principal efforts were directed to practical life, especially to the regulation
of political institutions, and his influence was exercised by means of
lectures, or sayings, or by the establishment and direction of the
Pythagorean associations. He encouraged the study of mathematics and
music, and considered singing to the cithara as best fitted to produce that
mental repose and harmony of soul which he regarded as the highest object
of education.
12. HISTORY.—It is remarkable that a people so cultivated as the Greeks
should have been so long without feeling the want of a correct record of
their transactions in war and peace. The difference between this nation and
the Orientals, in this respect, is very great. But the division of the country
into numerous small states, and the republican form of the governments,
prevented a concentration of interest on particular events and persons, and
owing to the dissensions between the republics, their historical traditions
could not but offend some while they flattered others; it was not until a late
period that the Greeks considered contemporary events as worthy of being
thought or written of. But for this absence of authentic history, Greek
literature could never have become what it was. By the purely fictitious
bodies in their courses. But none of his doctrines gave so much offence or
was considered so clear a proof of his atheism as his opinion that the sun,
the bountiful god Helios, who shines both upon mortals and immortals, was
a mass of red-hot iron. His doctrines tended powerfully by their rapid
diffusion to undermine the principles on which the worship of the ancient
gods rested, and they therefore prepared the way for the subsequent triumph
of Christianity.
The Pythagorean or Italic School was founded by Pythagoras, who is said
to have flourished between 540 and 500 B.C. Pythagoras was probably an
Ionian who emigrated to Italy, and there established his school. His
principal efforts were directed to practical life, especially to the regulation
of political institutions, and his influence was exercised by means of
lectures, or sayings, or by the establishment and direction of the
Pythagorean associations. He encouraged the study of mathematics and
music, and considered singing to the cithara as best fitted to produce that
mental repose and harmony of soul which he regarded as the highest object
of education.
12. HISTORY.—It is remarkable that a people so cultivated as the Greeks
should have been so long without feeling the want of a correct record of
their transactions in war and peace. The difference between this nation and
the Orientals, in this respect, is very great. But the division of the country
into numerous small states, and the republican form of the governments,
prevented a concentration of interest on particular events and persons, and
owing to the dissensions between the republics, their historical traditions
could not but offend some while they flattered others; it was not until a late
period that the Greeks considered contemporary events as worthy of being
thought or written of. But for this absence of authentic history, Greek
literature could never have become what it was. By the purely fictitious
Page 146
character of its poetry, and its freedom from the shackles of particular
truths, it acquired that general probability which led Aristotle to consider
poetry as more philosophical than history. Greek art, likewise, from the
lateness of the period at which it descended from the representation of gods
and heroes to the portraits of real men, acquired a nobleness and beauty of
form which it could not otherwise have obtained. This poetical basis gave
the literature of the Greeks a noble and liberal turn.
Writing was probably known in Greece some centuries before the time of
Cadmus of Miletus (fl. 522 B.C.), but it had not been employed for the
purpose of preserving any detailed historical record, and even when,
towards the end of the age of the Seven Sages (550 B.C.), some writers of
historical narratives began to appear, they did not select recent historical
events, but those of distant times and countries; so entirely did they believe
that oral tradition and the daily discussions of common life were sufficient
records of the events of their own time and country. Cadmus of Miletus is
mentioned as the first historian, but his works seem to have been early lost.
To him, and other Greek historians before the time of Herodotus, scholars
have given the name of Logographers, from Logos, signifying any
discourse in prose.
The first Greek to whom it occurred that a narrative of facts might be
made intensely interesting was Herodotus (484-432 B.C.), a native of
Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, the Homer of Greek history. Obliged, for
political reasons, to leave his native land, he visited many countries, such as
Egypt, Babylon, and Persia, and spent the latter years of his life in one of
the Grecian settlements in Italy, where he devoted himself to the
composition of his work. His travels were undertaken from the pure spirit of
inquiry, and for that age they were very extensive and important. It is
probable that his great and intricate plan, hitherto unknown in the historical
writings of the Greeks, did not at first occur to him, and that it was only in
truths, it acquired that general probability which led Aristotle to consider
poetry as more philosophical than history. Greek art, likewise, from the
lateness of the period at which it descended from the representation of gods
and heroes to the portraits of real men, acquired a nobleness and beauty of
form which it could not otherwise have obtained. This poetical basis gave
the literature of the Greeks a noble and liberal turn.
Writing was probably known in Greece some centuries before the time of
Cadmus of Miletus (fl. 522 B.C.), but it had not been employed for the
purpose of preserving any detailed historical record, and even when,
towards the end of the age of the Seven Sages (550 B.C.), some writers of
historical narratives began to appear, they did not select recent historical
events, but those of distant times and countries; so entirely did they believe
that oral tradition and the daily discussions of common life were sufficient
records of the events of their own time and country. Cadmus of Miletus is
mentioned as the first historian, but his works seem to have been early lost.
To him, and other Greek historians before the time of Herodotus, scholars
have given the name of Logographers, from Logos, signifying any
discourse in prose.
The first Greek to whom it occurred that a narrative of facts might be
made intensely interesting was Herodotus (484-432 B.C.), a native of
Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, the Homer of Greek history. Obliged, for
political reasons, to leave his native land, he visited many countries, such as
Egypt, Babylon, and Persia, and spent the latter years of his life in one of
the Grecian settlements in Italy, where he devoted himself to the
composition of his work. His travels were undertaken from the pure spirit of
inquiry, and for that age they were very extensive and important. It is
probable that his great and intricate plan, hitherto unknown in the historical
writings of the Greeks, did not at first occur to him, and that it was only in
Page 147
his later years that he conceived the complete idea of a work so far beyond
those of his predecessors and contemporaries. It is stated that he recited his
history at different festivals, which is quite credible, though there is little
authority for the story that at one of these Thucydides was present as a boy,
and shed tears, drawn forth by his own desire for knowledge and his intense
interest in the narrative. His work comprehends a history of nearly all the
nations of the world at that time known. It has an epic character, not only
from the equable and uninterrupted flow of the narrative, but also from
certain pervading ideas which give a tone to the whole. The principal of
these is the idea of a fixed destiny, of a wise arrangement of the world,
which has prescribed to every being his path, and which allots ruin and
destruction not only to crime and violence, but to excessive power and
riches and the overweening pride which is their companion. In this consists
the envy of the gods so often mentioned by Herodotus, and usually called
by the other Greeks the divine Nemesis. He constantly adverts in his
narrative to the influence of this divine power, the Daemonion, as he calls
it. He shows how the Deity visits the sins of the ancestors upon their
descendants, how man rushes, as it were, wilfully upon his own destruction,
and how oracles mislead by their ambiguity, when interpreted by blind
passion. He shows his awe of the divine Nemesis by his moderation and the
firmness with which he keeps down the ebullitions of national pride. He
points out traits of greatness of character in the hostile kings of Persia, and
shows his countrymen how often they owed their successes to Providence
and external advantages rather than to their own valor and ability. Since
Herodotus saw the working of a divine agency in all human events, and
considered the exhibition of it as the main object of his history, his aim is
totally different from that of a historian who regards the events of life
merely with reference to men. He is, in truth, a theologian and a poet as
well as a historian. It is, however, vain to deny that when Herodotus did not
see himself the events which he describes, he is often deceived by the
those of his predecessors and contemporaries. It is stated that he recited his
history at different festivals, which is quite credible, though there is little
authority for the story that at one of these Thucydides was present as a boy,
and shed tears, drawn forth by his own desire for knowledge and his intense
interest in the narrative. His work comprehends a history of nearly all the
nations of the world at that time known. It has an epic character, not only
from the equable and uninterrupted flow of the narrative, but also from
certain pervading ideas which give a tone to the whole. The principal of
these is the idea of a fixed destiny, of a wise arrangement of the world,
which has prescribed to every being his path, and which allots ruin and
destruction not only to crime and violence, but to excessive power and
riches and the overweening pride which is their companion. In this consists
the envy of the gods so often mentioned by Herodotus, and usually called
by the other Greeks the divine Nemesis. He constantly adverts in his
narrative to the influence of this divine power, the Daemonion, as he calls
it. He shows how the Deity visits the sins of the ancestors upon their
descendants, how man rushes, as it were, wilfully upon his own destruction,
and how oracles mislead by their ambiguity, when interpreted by blind
passion. He shows his awe of the divine Nemesis by his moderation and the
firmness with which he keeps down the ebullitions of national pride. He
points out traits of greatness of character in the hostile kings of Persia, and
shows his countrymen how often they owed their successes to Providence
and external advantages rather than to their own valor and ability. Since
Herodotus saw the working of a divine agency in all human events, and
considered the exhibition of it as the main object of his history, his aim is
totally different from that of a historian who regards the events of life
merely with reference to men. He is, in truth, a theologian and a poet as
well as a historian. It is, however, vain to deny that when Herodotus did not
see himself the events which he describes, he is often deceived by the
Page 148
misrepresentations of others; yet, without his single-hearted simplicity, his
disposition to listen to every remarkable account, and his admiration for the
wonders of the Eastern world, Herodotus would never have imparted to us
many valuable accounts. Modern travelers, naturalists, and geographers
have often had occasion to admire the truth, and correctness of the
information contained in his simple and marvelous narratives. But no
dissertation on this writer can convey any idea of the impression made by
reading his work; his language closely approximates to oral narration; it is
like hearing a person speak who has seen and lived through a variety of
remarkable things, and whose greatest delight consists in recalling these
images of the past. Though a Dorian by birth, he adopted the Ionic dialect,
with its uncontracted terminations, its accumulated vowels, and its soft
forms. These various elements conspire to render the work of Herodotus a
production as perfect in its kind as any human work can be.
PERIOD SECOND.
THE EPOCH OF THE ATHENIAN LITERATURE (484-322 B.C.).
1. LITERARY PREDOMINANCE OF ATHENS.—Among the Greeks a
national literature was early formed. Every literary work in the Greek
language, in whatever dialect it might be composed, was enjoyed by the
whole nation, and the fame of remarkable writers soon spread throughout
Greece. Certain cities were considered almost as theatres, where the poets
and sages could bring their powers and acquirements into public notice.
Among these, Sparta stood highest down to the time of the Persian war. But
when Athens, raised by her political power and the mental qualities of her
citizens, acquired the rank of the capital of Greece, literature assumed a
different form, and there is no more important epoch in the history of the
Greek intellect than the time when she obtained this pre-eminence over her
sister states. The character of the Athenians peculiarly fitted them to take
disposition to listen to every remarkable account, and his admiration for the
wonders of the Eastern world, Herodotus would never have imparted to us
many valuable accounts. Modern travelers, naturalists, and geographers
have often had occasion to admire the truth, and correctness of the
information contained in his simple and marvelous narratives. But no
dissertation on this writer can convey any idea of the impression made by
reading his work; his language closely approximates to oral narration; it is
like hearing a person speak who has seen and lived through a variety of
remarkable things, and whose greatest delight consists in recalling these
images of the past. Though a Dorian by birth, he adopted the Ionic dialect,
with its uncontracted terminations, its accumulated vowels, and its soft
forms. These various elements conspire to render the work of Herodotus a
production as perfect in its kind as any human work can be.
PERIOD SECOND.
THE EPOCH OF THE ATHENIAN LITERATURE (484-322 B.C.).
1. LITERARY PREDOMINANCE OF ATHENS.—Among the Greeks a
national literature was early formed. Every literary work in the Greek
language, in whatever dialect it might be composed, was enjoyed by the
whole nation, and the fame of remarkable writers soon spread throughout
Greece. Certain cities were considered almost as theatres, where the poets
and sages could bring their powers and acquirements into public notice.
Among these, Sparta stood highest down to the time of the Persian war. But
when Athens, raised by her political power and the mental qualities of her
citizens, acquired the rank of the capital of Greece, literature assumed a
different form, and there is no more important epoch in the history of the
Greek intellect than the time when she obtained this pre-eminence over her
sister states. The character of the Athenians peculiarly fitted them to take
Page 149
this lead; they were Ionians, and the boundless resources and mobility of
the Ionian spirit are shown by their astonishing productions in Asia Minor
and in the islands, in the two centuries previous to the Persian war; in their
iambic and elegiac poetry, and in the germs of philosophic inquiry and
historical composition. The literature of those who remained in Attica
seemed poor and meagre when compared with that luxuriant outburst; nor
did it appear, till a later period, that the progress of the Athenian intellect
was the more sound and lasting. The Ionians of Asia Minor, becoming at
length enfeebled and corrupted by the luxuries of the East, passed easily
under the power of the Persians, while the inhabitants of Attica,
encompassed and oppressed by the manly tribes of Greece, and forced to
keep the sword constantly in their hands, exerted all their talents and thus
developed all their extraordinary powers.
Solon, the great lawgiver, arose to combine moral strictness and order
with freedom of action. After Solon came the dominion of the Pisistratidae,
which lasted from about 560 to 510 B.C. They showed a fondness for art,
diffused a taste for poetry among the Athenians, and naturalized at Athens
the best literary productions of Greece. They were unquestionably the first
to introduce the entire recital of the Iliad and Odyssey; they also brought to
Athens the most distinguished lyric poets of the time, Anacreon, Simonides,
and others. But, notwithstanding their patronage of literature and art, it was
not till after the fall of their dynasty that Athens shot up with a vigor that
can only be derived from the consciousness of every citizen that he has a
share in the common weal.
It is a remarkable fact that Athens produced her most excellent works in
literature and art in the midst of the greatest political convulsions, and of
her utmost efforts for conquest and self-preservation. The long dominion of
the Pisistratids produced nothing more important than the first rudiments of
the tragic drama, for the origin of comedy at the country festivals of
the Ionian spirit are shown by their astonishing productions in Asia Minor
and in the islands, in the two centuries previous to the Persian war; in their
iambic and elegiac poetry, and in the germs of philosophic inquiry and
historical composition. The literature of those who remained in Attica
seemed poor and meagre when compared with that luxuriant outburst; nor
did it appear, till a later period, that the progress of the Athenian intellect
was the more sound and lasting. The Ionians of Asia Minor, becoming at
length enfeebled and corrupted by the luxuries of the East, passed easily
under the power of the Persians, while the inhabitants of Attica,
encompassed and oppressed by the manly tribes of Greece, and forced to
keep the sword constantly in their hands, exerted all their talents and thus
developed all their extraordinary powers.
Solon, the great lawgiver, arose to combine moral strictness and order
with freedom of action. After Solon came the dominion of the Pisistratidae,
which lasted from about 560 to 510 B.C. They showed a fondness for art,
diffused a taste for poetry among the Athenians, and naturalized at Athens
the best literary productions of Greece. They were unquestionably the first
to introduce the entire recital of the Iliad and Odyssey; they also brought to
Athens the most distinguished lyric poets of the time, Anacreon, Simonides,
and others. But, notwithstanding their patronage of literature and art, it was
not till after the fall of their dynasty that Athens shot up with a vigor that
can only be derived from the consciousness of every citizen that he has a
share in the common weal.
It is a remarkable fact that Athens produced her most excellent works in
literature and art in the midst of the greatest political convulsions, and of
her utmost efforts for conquest and self-preservation. The long dominion of
the Pisistratids produced nothing more important than the first rudiments of
the tragic drama, for the origin of comedy at the country festivals of
Page 150
Bacchus falls in the time before Pisistratus. On the other hand, the thirty
years between the expulsion of Hippias, the last of the Pisistratids, and the
battle of Salamis (510-480 B.C.), was a period marked by great events both
in politics and literature. Athens contended with success against her warlike
neighbors, supported the Ionians in their revolt against Persia, and warded
off the first powerful attack of the Persians upon Greece. During the same
period, the pathetic tragedies of Phrynichus and the lofty tragedies of
Aeschylus appeared on the stage, political eloquence was awakened in
Themistocles, and everything seemed to give promise of future greatness.
The political events which followed the Persian war gradually gave to
Athens the dominion over her allies, so that she became the sovereign of a
large and flourishing empire, comprehending the islands and coasts of the
Aegean and a part of the Euxine sea. In this manner was gained a wide
basis for the lofty edifice of political glory, which was raised by her
statesmen. The completion of this splendid structure was due to Pericles
(500-429 B.C.). Through his influence Athens became a dominant
community, whose chief business it was to administer the affairs of an
extensive empire, flourishing in agriculture, industry, and commerce.
Pericles, however, did not make the acquisition of power the highest object
of his exertions; his aim was to realize in Athens the idea which he had
conceived of human greatness, that great and noble thoughts should pervade
the whole mass of the ruling people; and this was, in fact, the case as long
as his influence lasted, to a greater degree than has occurred in any other
period of history. The objects to which Pericles directed the people, and for
which he accumulated so much power and wealth at Athens, may be best
seen in the still extant works of architecture and sculpture which originated
under his administration. He induced the Athenian people to expend on the
decoration of Athens a larger part of its ample revenues than was ever
applied to this purpose in any other state, either republican or monarchical.
Of the surpassing skill with which he collected into one focus the rays of
years between the expulsion of Hippias, the last of the Pisistratids, and the
battle of Salamis (510-480 B.C.), was a period marked by great events both
in politics and literature. Athens contended with success against her warlike
neighbors, supported the Ionians in their revolt against Persia, and warded
off the first powerful attack of the Persians upon Greece. During the same
period, the pathetic tragedies of Phrynichus and the lofty tragedies of
Aeschylus appeared on the stage, political eloquence was awakened in
Themistocles, and everything seemed to give promise of future greatness.
The political events which followed the Persian war gradually gave to
Athens the dominion over her allies, so that she became the sovereign of a
large and flourishing empire, comprehending the islands and coasts of the
Aegean and a part of the Euxine sea. In this manner was gained a wide
basis for the lofty edifice of political glory, which was raised by her
statesmen. The completion of this splendid structure was due to Pericles
(500-429 B.C.). Through his influence Athens became a dominant
community, whose chief business it was to administer the affairs of an
extensive empire, flourishing in agriculture, industry, and commerce.
Pericles, however, did not make the acquisition of power the highest object
of his exertions; his aim was to realize in Athens the idea which he had
conceived of human greatness, that great and noble thoughts should pervade
the whole mass of the ruling people; and this was, in fact, the case as long
as his influence lasted, to a greater degree than has occurred in any other
period of history. The objects to which Pericles directed the people, and for
which he accumulated so much power and wealth at Athens, may be best
seen in the still extant works of architecture and sculpture which originated
under his administration. He induced the Athenian people to expend on the
decoration of Athens a larger part of its ample revenues than was ever
applied to this purpose in any other state, either republican or monarchical.
Of the surpassing skill with which he collected into one focus the rays of
Page 151
artistic genius at Athens, no stronger proof can be afforded, than the fact
that no subsequent period, through the patronage of Macedonian or Roman
princes, produced works of equal excellence, Indeed, it may be said that the
creations of the age of Pericles are the only works of art which completely
satisfy the most refined and cultivated taste.
But this brilliant exhibition of human excellence was not without its dark
side, nor the flourishing state of Athenian civilization exempt from the
elements of decay. The political position of Athens soon led to a conflict
between the patriotism and moderation of her citizens, and their interests
and passions. From the earliest times, this city had stood in an unfriendly
relation to the rest of Greece, and her policy of compelling so many cities to
contribute their wealth in order to make her the focus of art and civilization
was accompanied with offensive pride and selfish patriotism. The energy in
action, which distinguished the Athenians, degenerated into a restless love
of adventure; and that dexterity in the use of words, which they cultivated
more than the other Greeks, induced them to subject everything to
discussion, and destroyed the habits founded on unreasoning faith. The
principles of the policy of Pericles were closely connected with the
demoralization which followed his administration. By founding the power
of the Athenians on the dominion of the sea, he led them to abandon land
war and the military exercises requisite for it, which had hardened the old
warriors at Marathon. As he made them a dominant people, whose time was
chiefly devoted to the business of governing their widely-extended empire,
it was necessary for him to provide that the common citizens of Athens
should be able to gain a livelihood by their attention to public business, and
accordingly, a large revenue was distributed among them in the form of
wages for attendance in the courts of justice and other public assemblies.
These payments to citizens for their share in the public business were quite
new in Greece, and many considered the sitting and listening in these
assemblies as an idle life in comparison with the labor of the plowman and
that no subsequent period, through the patronage of Macedonian or Roman
princes, produced works of equal excellence, Indeed, it may be said that the
creations of the age of Pericles are the only works of art which completely
satisfy the most refined and cultivated taste.
But this brilliant exhibition of human excellence was not without its dark
side, nor the flourishing state of Athenian civilization exempt from the
elements of decay. The political position of Athens soon led to a conflict
between the patriotism and moderation of her citizens, and their interests
and passions. From the earliest times, this city had stood in an unfriendly
relation to the rest of Greece, and her policy of compelling so many cities to
contribute their wealth in order to make her the focus of art and civilization
was accompanied with offensive pride and selfish patriotism. The energy in
action, which distinguished the Athenians, degenerated into a restless love
of adventure; and that dexterity in the use of words, which they cultivated
more than the other Greeks, induced them to subject everything to
discussion, and destroyed the habits founded on unreasoning faith. The
principles of the policy of Pericles were closely connected with the
demoralization which followed his administration. By founding the power
of the Athenians on the dominion of the sea, he led them to abandon land
war and the military exercises requisite for it, which had hardened the old
warriors at Marathon. As he made them a dominant people, whose time was
chiefly devoted to the business of governing their widely-extended empire,
it was necessary for him to provide that the common citizens of Athens
should be able to gain a livelihood by their attention to public business, and
accordingly, a large revenue was distributed among them in the form of
wages for attendance in the courts of justice and other public assemblies.
These payments to citizens for their share in the public business were quite
new in Greece, and many considered the sitting and listening in these
assemblies as an idle life in comparison with the labor of the plowman and
Page 152
vine-grower in the country, and for a long time the industrious cultivators,
the brave warriors, and the men of old-fashioned morality were opposed,
among the citizens of Athens, to the loquacious, luxurious, and dissolute
generation who passed their whole time in the market-place and courts of
justice. The contests between these two parties are the main subject of the
early Attic comedy.
Literature and art, however, were not, during the Peloponnesian war,
affected by the corruption of morals. The works of this period exhibit not
only a perfection of form but also an elevation of soul and a grandeur of
conception, which fill us with admiration not only for those who produced
them, but for those who could enjoy such works of art. A step farther, and
the love of genuine beauty gave place to a desire for evil pleasures, and the
love of wisdom degenerated into an idle use of words.
2. THE DRAMA.—The spirit of an age is more completely represented
by its poetry than by its prose composition, and accordingly we may best
trace the character of the three different stages of civilization among the
Greeks in the three grand divisions of their poetry. The epic belongs to their
monarchical period, when the minds of the people were impregnated and
swayed by legends handed down from antiquity. Elegiac, iambic, and lyric
poetry arose in the more stirring and agitated times which accompanied the
development of republican governments, times in which each individual
gave vent to his personal aims and wishes, and all the depths of the human
breast were unlocked by the inspirations of poetry. And now, when at the
summit of Greek civilization, in the very prime of Athenian power and
freedom, we see dramatic poetry spring up as the organ of the prevailing
thoughts and feelings of the time, we are naturally led to ask how it comes
that this style of poetry agreed so well with the spirit of the age, and so far
outstripped its competitors in the contest for public favor.
the brave warriors, and the men of old-fashioned morality were opposed,
among the citizens of Athens, to the loquacious, luxurious, and dissolute
generation who passed their whole time in the market-place and courts of
justice. The contests between these two parties are the main subject of the
early Attic comedy.
Literature and art, however, were not, during the Peloponnesian war,
affected by the corruption of morals. The works of this period exhibit not
only a perfection of form but also an elevation of soul and a grandeur of
conception, which fill us with admiration not only for those who produced
them, but for those who could enjoy such works of art. A step farther, and
the love of genuine beauty gave place to a desire for evil pleasures, and the
love of wisdom degenerated into an idle use of words.
2. THE DRAMA.—The spirit of an age is more completely represented
by its poetry than by its prose composition, and accordingly we may best
trace the character of the three different stages of civilization among the
Greeks in the three grand divisions of their poetry. The epic belongs to their
monarchical period, when the minds of the people were impregnated and
swayed by legends handed down from antiquity. Elegiac, iambic, and lyric
poetry arose in the more stirring and agitated times which accompanied the
development of republican governments, times in which each individual
gave vent to his personal aims and wishes, and all the depths of the human
breast were unlocked by the inspirations of poetry. And now, when at the
summit of Greek civilization, in the very prime of Athenian power and
freedom, we see dramatic poetry spring up as the organ of the prevailing
thoughts and feelings of the time, we are naturally led to ask how it comes
that this style of poetry agreed so well with the spirit of the age, and so far
outstripped its competitors in the contest for public favor.
Page 153
Dramatic poetry, as its name implies, represents actions, which are not,
as in the epos, merely narrated, but seem to take place before the eyes of the
spectator. The epic poet appears to regard the events, which he relates from
afar, as objects of calm contemplation and admiration, and is always
conscious of the great interval between him and them, while the dramatist
plunges with his entire soul into the scenes of human life, and seems
himself to experience the events which he exhibits to our view. The drama
comprehends and develops the events of human life with a force and depth
which no other style of poetry can reach.
If we carry ourselves in imagination back to a time when dramatic
composition was unknown, we must acknowledge that its creation required
great boldness of mind. Hitherto the bard had only sung of gods and heroes;
it was, therefore, a great change for the poet himself to come forward all at
once in the character of the god or hero, in a nation which, even in its
amusements, had always adhered closely to established usages. It is true
that there is much in human nature which impels it to dramatic
representations, such as the universal love of imitating other persons, and
the child-like liveliness with which a narrator, strongly impressed with his
subject, delivers a speech which he has heard or perhaps only imagined. Yet
there is a wide step from these disjointed elements to the genuine drama,
and it seems that no nation, except the Greeks, ever made this step. The
dramatic poetry of the Hindus belongs to a time when there had been much
intercourse between Greece and India; even in ancient Greece and Italy,
dramatic poetry, and especially tragedy, attained to perfection only in
Athens, and here it was exhibited only at a few festivals of a single god,
Dionysus, while epic rhapsodies and lyric odes were recited on various
occasions. All this is incomprehensible, if we suppose dramatic poetry to
have originated in causes independent of the peculiar circumstances of time
and place. If a love of imitation and a delight in disguising the real person
under a mask were the basis upon which this style of poetry was raised, the
as in the epos, merely narrated, but seem to take place before the eyes of the
spectator. The epic poet appears to regard the events, which he relates from
afar, as objects of calm contemplation and admiration, and is always
conscious of the great interval between him and them, while the dramatist
plunges with his entire soul into the scenes of human life, and seems
himself to experience the events which he exhibits to our view. The drama
comprehends and develops the events of human life with a force and depth
which no other style of poetry can reach.
If we carry ourselves in imagination back to a time when dramatic
composition was unknown, we must acknowledge that its creation required
great boldness of mind. Hitherto the bard had only sung of gods and heroes;
it was, therefore, a great change for the poet himself to come forward all at
once in the character of the god or hero, in a nation which, even in its
amusements, had always adhered closely to established usages. It is true
that there is much in human nature which impels it to dramatic
representations, such as the universal love of imitating other persons, and
the child-like liveliness with which a narrator, strongly impressed with his
subject, delivers a speech which he has heard or perhaps only imagined. Yet
there is a wide step from these disjointed elements to the genuine drama,
and it seems that no nation, except the Greeks, ever made this step. The
dramatic poetry of the Hindus belongs to a time when there had been much
intercourse between Greece and India; even in ancient Greece and Italy,
dramatic poetry, and especially tragedy, attained to perfection only in
Athens, and here it was exhibited only at a few festivals of a single god,
Dionysus, while epic rhapsodies and lyric odes were recited on various
occasions. All this is incomprehensible, if we suppose dramatic poetry to
have originated in causes independent of the peculiar circumstances of time
and place. If a love of imitation and a delight in disguising the real person
under a mask were the basis upon which this style of poetry was raised, the
Page 154
drama would have been as natural and as universal among men as these
qualities are common to their nature.
A more satisfactory explanation of the origin of the Greek drama may be
found in its connection with the worship of the gods, and particularly that of
Bacchus. The gods were supposed to dwell in their temples and to
participate in their festivals, and it was not considered presumptuous or
unbecoming to represent them as acting like human beings, as was
frequently done by mimic representations. The worship of Bacchus had one
quality which was more than any other calculated to give birth to the drama,
and particularly to tragedy, namely, the enthusiasm which formed an
essential part of it, and which proceeded from an impassioned sympathy
with the events of nature in connection with the course of the seasons. The
original participators in these festivals believed that they perceived the god
to be really affected by the changes of nature, killed or dying, flying and
rescued, or reanimated, victorious, and dominant. Although the great
changes, which took place in the religion and cultivation of the Greeks,
banished from their minds the conviction that these events really occurred,
yet an enthusiastic sympathy with the god and his fortunes, as with real
events, always remained. The swarm of subordinate beings by whom
Bacchus was surrounded—satyrs, nymphs, and a variety of beautiful and
grotesque forms—were ever present to the fancy of the Greeks, and it was
not necessary to depart very widely from the ordinary course of ideas to
imagine them visible to human eyes among the solitary woods and rocks.
The custom, so prevalent at the festivals of Bacchus, of taking the disguise
of satyrs, doubtless originated in the desire to approach more nearly to the
presence of their divinity. The desire of escaping from self into something
new and strange, of living in an imaginary world, broke forth in a thousand
instances in those festivals. It was seen in the coloring of the body, the
wearing of skins and masks of wood or bark, and in the complete costume
belonging to the character.
qualities are common to their nature.
A more satisfactory explanation of the origin of the Greek drama may be
found in its connection with the worship of the gods, and particularly that of
Bacchus. The gods were supposed to dwell in their temples and to
participate in their festivals, and it was not considered presumptuous or
unbecoming to represent them as acting like human beings, as was
frequently done by mimic representations. The worship of Bacchus had one
quality which was more than any other calculated to give birth to the drama,
and particularly to tragedy, namely, the enthusiasm which formed an
essential part of it, and which proceeded from an impassioned sympathy
with the events of nature in connection with the course of the seasons. The
original participators in these festivals believed that they perceived the god
to be really affected by the changes of nature, killed or dying, flying and
rescued, or reanimated, victorious, and dominant. Although the great
changes, which took place in the religion and cultivation of the Greeks,
banished from their minds the conviction that these events really occurred,
yet an enthusiastic sympathy with the god and his fortunes, as with real
events, always remained. The swarm of subordinate beings by whom
Bacchus was surrounded—satyrs, nymphs, and a variety of beautiful and
grotesque forms—were ever present to the fancy of the Greeks, and it was
not necessary to depart very widely from the ordinary course of ideas to
imagine them visible to human eyes among the solitary woods and rocks.
The custom, so prevalent at the festivals of Bacchus, of taking the disguise
of satyrs, doubtless originated in the desire to approach more nearly to the
presence of their divinity. The desire of escaping from self into something
new and strange, of living in an imaginary world, broke forth in a thousand
instances in those festivals. It was seen in the coloring of the body, the
wearing of skins and masks of wood or bark, and in the complete costume
belonging to the character.
Page 155
The learned writers of antiquity agree in stating that tragedy, as well as
comedy, was originally a choral song. The action, the adventures of the
gods, was presupposed or only symbolically indicated; the chorus expressed
their feelings upon it. This choral song belonged to the class of the
dithyramb, an enthusiastic ode to Bacchus, capable of expressing every
variety of feeling excited by the worship of that god. It was first sung by
revelers at convivial meetings, afterwards it was regularly executed by a
chorus. The subject of these tragic choruses sometimes changed from
Bacchus to other heroes distinguished for their misfortunes and suffering.
The reason why the dithyramb and afterwards tragedy was transferred from
that god to heroes and not to other gods of the Greek Olympus, was that the
latter were elevated above the chances of fortune and the alternations of joy
and grief to which both Bacchus and the heroes were subject.
It is stated by Aristotle, that tragedy originated with the chief singers of
the dithyramb. It is probable that they represented Bacchus himself or his
messengers, that they came forward and narrated his perils and escapes, and
that the chorus then expressed their feeling, as at passing events. The chorus
thus naturally assumed the character of satellites of Bacchus, whence they
easily fell into the parts of satyrs, who were his companions in sportive
adventures, as well as in combats and misfortunes. The name of tragedy, or
goat's song, was derived from the resemblance of the singers, in their
character of satyrs, to goats.
Thus far tragedy had advanced among the Dorians, who, therefore,
considered themselves the inventors of it. All its further development
belongs to the Athenians. In the time of Pisistratus, Thespis (506 B.C.) first
caused tragedy to become a drama, though a very simple one. He connected
with the choral representation a regular dialogue, by joining one person to
the chorus who was the first actor. He introduced linen masks, and thus the
one actor might appear in several characters. In the drama of Thespis we
comedy, was originally a choral song. The action, the adventures of the
gods, was presupposed or only symbolically indicated; the chorus expressed
their feelings upon it. This choral song belonged to the class of the
dithyramb, an enthusiastic ode to Bacchus, capable of expressing every
variety of feeling excited by the worship of that god. It was first sung by
revelers at convivial meetings, afterwards it was regularly executed by a
chorus. The subject of these tragic choruses sometimes changed from
Bacchus to other heroes distinguished for their misfortunes and suffering.
The reason why the dithyramb and afterwards tragedy was transferred from
that god to heroes and not to other gods of the Greek Olympus, was that the
latter were elevated above the chances of fortune and the alternations of joy
and grief to which both Bacchus and the heroes were subject.
It is stated by Aristotle, that tragedy originated with the chief singers of
the dithyramb. It is probable that they represented Bacchus himself or his
messengers, that they came forward and narrated his perils and escapes, and
that the chorus then expressed their feeling, as at passing events. The chorus
thus naturally assumed the character of satellites of Bacchus, whence they
easily fell into the parts of satyrs, who were his companions in sportive
adventures, as well as in combats and misfortunes. The name of tragedy, or
goat's song, was derived from the resemblance of the singers, in their
character of satyrs, to goats.
Thus far tragedy had advanced among the Dorians, who, therefore,
considered themselves the inventors of it. All its further development
belongs to the Athenians. In the time of Pisistratus, Thespis (506 B.C.) first
caused tragedy to become a drama, though a very simple one. He connected
with the choral representation a regular dialogue, by joining one person to
the chorus who was the first actor. He introduced linen masks, and thus the
one actor might appear in several characters. In the drama of Thespis we
Page 156
find the satyric drama confounded with tragedy, and the persons of the
chorus frequently representing satyrs. The dances of the chorus were still a
principal part of the performance; the ancient tragedians, in general, were
teachers of dancing, as well as poets and musicians.
In Phrynichus (fl. 512 B.C.) the lyric predominated over the dramatic
element. Like Thespis, he had only one actor, but he used this actor for
different characters, and he was the first who brought female parts upon the
stage, which, according to the manners of the ancients, could be acted only
by men. In several instances it is remarkable that Phrynichus deviated from
mythical subjects to those taken from contemporary history.
3. TRAGEDY.—The tragedy of antiquity was entirely different from that
which, in progress of time, arose among other nations; a picture of human
life, agitated by the passions, and corresponding as accurately as possible to
its original in all its features. Ancient tragedy departs entirely from ordinary
life; its character is in the highest degree ideal, and its development
necessary, and essentially directed by the fate to which gods and men were
subjected. As tragedy and dramatic exhibitions, generally, were seen only at
the festivals of Bacchus, they retained a sort of Bacchic coloring, and the
extraordinary excitement of all minds at these festivals, by raising them
above the tone of every-day existence, gave both to the tragic and comic
muse unwonted energy and fire.
The Bacchic festal costume, which the actors wore, consisted of long
striped garments reaching to the ground, over which were thrown upper
garments of some brilliant color, with gay trimmings and gold ornaments.
The choruses also vied with each other in the splendor of their dress, as well
as in the excellence of their singing and dancing. The chorus, which always
bore a subordinate part in the action of the tragedy, was in no respect
distinguished from the stature and appearance of ordinary men, while the
chorus frequently representing satyrs. The dances of the chorus were still a
principal part of the performance; the ancient tragedians, in general, were
teachers of dancing, as well as poets and musicians.
In Phrynichus (fl. 512 B.C.) the lyric predominated over the dramatic
element. Like Thespis, he had only one actor, but he used this actor for
different characters, and he was the first who brought female parts upon the
stage, which, according to the manners of the ancients, could be acted only
by men. In several instances it is remarkable that Phrynichus deviated from
mythical subjects to those taken from contemporary history.
3. TRAGEDY.—The tragedy of antiquity was entirely different from that
which, in progress of time, arose among other nations; a picture of human
life, agitated by the passions, and corresponding as accurately as possible to
its original in all its features. Ancient tragedy departs entirely from ordinary
life; its character is in the highest degree ideal, and its development
necessary, and essentially directed by the fate to which gods and men were
subjected. As tragedy and dramatic exhibitions, generally, were seen only at
the festivals of Bacchus, they retained a sort of Bacchic coloring, and the
extraordinary excitement of all minds at these festivals, by raising them
above the tone of every-day existence, gave both to the tragic and comic
muse unwonted energy and fire.
The Bacchic festal costume, which the actors wore, consisted of long
striped garments reaching to the ground, over which were thrown upper
garments of some brilliant color, with gay trimmings and gold ornaments.
The choruses also vied with each other in the splendor of their dress, as well
as in the excellence of their singing and dancing. The chorus, which always
bore a subordinate part in the action of the tragedy, was in no respect
distinguished from the stature and appearance of ordinary men, while the
Page 157
actor, who represented the god or hero, required to be raised above the usual
dimensions of mortals. A tragic actor was a strange, and, according to the
taste of the ancients themselves at a later period, a very monstrous being.
His person was lengthened out considerably beyond the proportions of the
human figure by the very high soles of the tragic shoe, and by the length of
the tragic mask, and the chest, body, legs, and arms were stuffed and
padded to a corresponding size; the body thus lost much of its natural
flexibility, and the gesticulation consisted of stiff, angular movements, in
which little was left to the emotion or the inspiration of the moment. Masks,
which had originated in the taste for mumming and disguises of all sorts,
prevalent at the Bacchic festivals, were an indispensable accompaniment to
tragedy. They not only concealed the individual features of well-known
actors, and enabled the spectators entirely to forget the performer in his
part, but gave to his whole aspect that ideal character which the tragedy of
antiquity demanded. The tragic mask was not intentionally ugly and
caricatured like the comic, but the half-open mouth, the large eye-sockets,
and sharply-defined features, in which every characteristic was presented in
its utmost strength, and the bright and hard coloring were calculated to
make the impression of a being agitated by the emotions and passions of
human nature in a degree far above the standard of common life. The masks
could, however, be changed between the acts, so as to represent the
necessary changes in the state or emotions of the persons.
The ancient theatres were stone buildings of enormous size, calculated to
accommodate the whole free and adult population of a great city at the
spectacles and festal games. These theatres were not designed exclusively
for dramatic poetry; choral dances, processions, revels, and all sorts of
representations were held in them. We find theatres in every part of Greece,
though dramatic poetry was the peculiar growth of Athens.
dimensions of mortals. A tragic actor was a strange, and, according to the
taste of the ancients themselves at a later period, a very monstrous being.
His person was lengthened out considerably beyond the proportions of the
human figure by the very high soles of the tragic shoe, and by the length of
the tragic mask, and the chest, body, legs, and arms were stuffed and
padded to a corresponding size; the body thus lost much of its natural
flexibility, and the gesticulation consisted of stiff, angular movements, in
which little was left to the emotion or the inspiration of the moment. Masks,
which had originated in the taste for mumming and disguises of all sorts,
prevalent at the Bacchic festivals, were an indispensable accompaniment to
tragedy. They not only concealed the individual features of well-known
actors, and enabled the spectators entirely to forget the performer in his
part, but gave to his whole aspect that ideal character which the tragedy of
antiquity demanded. The tragic mask was not intentionally ugly and
caricatured like the comic, but the half-open mouth, the large eye-sockets,
and sharply-defined features, in which every characteristic was presented in
its utmost strength, and the bright and hard coloring were calculated to
make the impression of a being agitated by the emotions and passions of
human nature in a degree far above the standard of common life. The masks
could, however, be changed between the acts, so as to represent the
necessary changes in the state or emotions of the persons.
The ancient theatres were stone buildings of enormous size, calculated to
accommodate the whole free and adult population of a great city at the
spectacles and festal games. These theatres were not designed exclusively
for dramatic poetry; choral dances, processions, revels, and all sorts of
representations were held in them. We find theatres in every part of Greece,
though dramatic poetry was the peculiar growth of Athens.
Page 158
The whole structure of the theatre, as well as the drama itself, may be
traced to the chorus, whose station was the original centre of the whole
performance. The orchestra, which occupied a circular level space in the
centre of the building, grew out of the chorus or dancing-place of the
Homeric times. The altar of Bacchus, around which the dithyrambic chorus
danced in a circle, had given rise to a sort of raised platform in the centre of
the orchestra, which served as a resting-place for the chorus.
The chorus sang alone when the actors had quitted the stage, or
alternately with the persons of the drama, and sometimes entered into
dialogues with them. These persons represented heroes of the mythical
world, whose whole aspect bespoke something mightier and more sublime
than ordinary humanity, and it was the part of the chorus to show the
impression made by the incidents of the drama on lower and feebler minds,
and thus, as it were, to interpret them to the audience, with whom they
owned a more kindred nature. The ancient stage was remarkably long, and
of little depth; it was called the proscenium, because it was in front of the
scene. Scene properly means tent or hut, such as originally marked the
dwelling of the principal person. This hut at length gave place to a stately
scene, enriched with architectural decorations, yet its purpose remained the
same.
We have seen how a single actor was added to the chorus by Thespis,
who caused him to represent in succession all the persons of the drama.
Aeschylus added a second actor in order to obtain the contrast of two acting
persons on the stage; even Sophocles did not venture beyond the
introduction of a third. But the ancients laid more stress upon the precise
number and mutual relations of these actors than can here be explained.
4. THE TRAGIC POETS.—Aeschylus (525-477 B.C.), like almost all
the great masters of poetry in ancient Greece, was a poet by profession, and
traced to the chorus, whose station was the original centre of the whole
performance. The orchestra, which occupied a circular level space in the
centre of the building, grew out of the chorus or dancing-place of the
Homeric times. The altar of Bacchus, around which the dithyrambic chorus
danced in a circle, had given rise to a sort of raised platform in the centre of
the orchestra, which served as a resting-place for the chorus.
The chorus sang alone when the actors had quitted the stage, or
alternately with the persons of the drama, and sometimes entered into
dialogues with them. These persons represented heroes of the mythical
world, whose whole aspect bespoke something mightier and more sublime
than ordinary humanity, and it was the part of the chorus to show the
impression made by the incidents of the drama on lower and feebler minds,
and thus, as it were, to interpret them to the audience, with whom they
owned a more kindred nature. The ancient stage was remarkably long, and
of little depth; it was called the proscenium, because it was in front of the
scene. Scene properly means tent or hut, such as originally marked the
dwelling of the principal person. This hut at length gave place to a stately
scene, enriched with architectural decorations, yet its purpose remained the
same.
We have seen how a single actor was added to the chorus by Thespis,
who caused him to represent in succession all the persons of the drama.
Aeschylus added a second actor in order to obtain the contrast of two acting
persons on the stage; even Sophocles did not venture beyond the
introduction of a third. But the ancients laid more stress upon the precise
number and mutual relations of these actors than can here be explained.
4. THE TRAGIC POETS.—Aeschylus (525-477 B.C.), like almost all
the great masters of poetry in ancient Greece, was a poet by profession, and
Page 159
from the great improvements which he introduced into tragedy he was
regarded by the Athenians as its founder. Of the seventy tragedies which he
is said to have written, only seven are extant. Of these, the "Prometheus" is
beyond all question his greatest work. The genius of Aeschylus inclined
rather to the awful and sublime, than to the tender and pathetic. He excels in
representing the superhuman, in depicting demigods and heroes, and in
tracing the irresistible march of fate. The depth of poetical feeling in him is
accompanied with intense and philosophical thought; he does not merely
represent individual tragical events, but he recurs to the greater elements of
tragedy—the subjection of the gods and Titans, and the original dignity and
greatness of nature and of man. He delights to portray this gigantic strength,
as in his Prometheus chained and tortured, but invincible; and these
representations have a moral sublimity far above mere poetic beauty. His
tragedies were at once political, patriotic, and religious.
Sophocles (495-406 B.C.), as a poet, is universally allowed to have
brought the drama to the highest degree of perfection of which it was
susceptible. Indeed, the Greek mind may be said to have culminated in him;
his writings overflow with that indescribable charm which only flashes
through those of other poets. His plots are worked up with more skill and
care than those of either of his great rivals, Aeschylus or Euripides, and he
added the last improvement to the form of the drama by the introduction of
a third actor,—a change which greatly enlarged the scope of the action. Of
the many tragedies which he is said to have written, only seven are extant.
Of these, the "Oedipus Tyrannus" is particularly remarkable for its skillful
development, and for the manner in which the interest of the piece increases
through each succeeding act. Of all the poets of antiquity, Sophocles has
penetrated most deeply into the recesses of the human heart. His tragedies
appear to us as pictures of the mind, as poetical developments of the secrets
of our souls, and of the laws to which their nature makes them amenable.
regarded by the Athenians as its founder. Of the seventy tragedies which he
is said to have written, only seven are extant. Of these, the "Prometheus" is
beyond all question his greatest work. The genius of Aeschylus inclined
rather to the awful and sublime, than to the tender and pathetic. He excels in
representing the superhuman, in depicting demigods and heroes, and in
tracing the irresistible march of fate. The depth of poetical feeling in him is
accompanied with intense and philosophical thought; he does not merely
represent individual tragical events, but he recurs to the greater elements of
tragedy—the subjection of the gods and Titans, and the original dignity and
greatness of nature and of man. He delights to portray this gigantic strength,
as in his Prometheus chained and tortured, but invincible; and these
representations have a moral sublimity far above mere poetic beauty. His
tragedies were at once political, patriotic, and religious.
Sophocles (495-406 B.C.), as a poet, is universally allowed to have
brought the drama to the highest degree of perfection of which it was
susceptible. Indeed, the Greek mind may be said to have culminated in him;
his writings overflow with that indescribable charm which only flashes
through those of other poets. His plots are worked up with more skill and
care than those of either of his great rivals, Aeschylus or Euripides, and he
added the last improvement to the form of the drama by the introduction of
a third actor,—a change which greatly enlarged the scope of the action. Of
the many tragedies which he is said to have written, only seven are extant.
Of these, the "Oedipus Tyrannus" is particularly remarkable for its skillful
development, and for the manner in which the interest of the piece increases
through each succeeding act. Of all the poets of antiquity, Sophocles has
penetrated most deeply into the recesses of the human heart. His tragedies
appear to us as pictures of the mind, as poetical developments of the secrets
of our souls, and of the laws to which their nature makes them amenable.
Page 160
In Euripides (480-407 B.C.) we discover the first traces of decline in the
Greek tragedy. He diminished its dignity by depriving it of its ideal
character, and by bringing it down to the level of every-day life. All the
characters of Euripides have that loquacity and dexterity in the use of words
which distinguished the Athenians of his day; yet in spite of all these faults
he has many beauties, and is particularly remarkable for pathos, so that
Aristotle calls him the most tragic of poets. Eighteen of his tragedies are
still extant.
The contemporaries of the three great tragic poets, Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides, must be regarded for the most part as far from insignificant,
since they maintained their place on the stage beside them, and not
unfrequently gained the tragic prize in competition with them; yet the
general character of these poets must have been deficient in that depth and
peculiar force of genius by which these great tragedians were distinguished.
If this had not been the case, their works would assuredly have attracted
greater attention, and would have been read mere frequently in later times.
5. COMEDY.—Greek comedy was distinguished as the Old, the Middle,
and the New. As tragedy arose from the winter feast of Bacchus, which
fostered an enthusiastic sympathy with the apparent sorrows of the god of
nature, comedy arose from the concluding feast of the vintage, at which an
exulting joy over the inexhaustible riches of nature manifested itself in
wantonness of every kind. In such a feast, the Comus, or Bacchanalian
procession, was a principal ingredient. This was a tumultuous mixture of
the wild carouse, the noisy song, and the drunken dance; and the meaning
of the word comedy is a comus song. It was from this lyric comedy that the
dramatic comedy was gradually produced. It received its full development
from Cratinus, who lived in the age of Pericles. Cratinus and his younger
contemporaries, Eupolis (431 B.C.) and Aristophanes (452-380 B.C.), were
the great poets of the old Attic comedy. Of their works, only eleven dramas
Greek tragedy. He diminished its dignity by depriving it of its ideal
character, and by bringing it down to the level of every-day life. All the
characters of Euripides have that loquacity and dexterity in the use of words
which distinguished the Athenians of his day; yet in spite of all these faults
he has many beauties, and is particularly remarkable for pathos, so that
Aristotle calls him the most tragic of poets. Eighteen of his tragedies are
still extant.
The contemporaries of the three great tragic poets, Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides, must be regarded for the most part as far from insignificant,
since they maintained their place on the stage beside them, and not
unfrequently gained the tragic prize in competition with them; yet the
general character of these poets must have been deficient in that depth and
peculiar force of genius by which these great tragedians were distinguished.
If this had not been the case, their works would assuredly have attracted
greater attention, and would have been read mere frequently in later times.
5. COMEDY.—Greek comedy was distinguished as the Old, the Middle,
and the New. As tragedy arose from the winter feast of Bacchus, which
fostered an enthusiastic sympathy with the apparent sorrows of the god of
nature, comedy arose from the concluding feast of the vintage, at which an
exulting joy over the inexhaustible riches of nature manifested itself in
wantonness of every kind. In such a feast, the Comus, or Bacchanalian
procession, was a principal ingredient. This was a tumultuous mixture of
the wild carouse, the noisy song, and the drunken dance; and the meaning
of the word comedy is a comus song. It was from this lyric comedy that the
dramatic comedy was gradually produced. It received its full development
from Cratinus, who lived in the age of Pericles. Cratinus and his younger
contemporaries, Eupolis (431 B.C.) and Aristophanes (452-380 B.C.), were
the great poets of the old Attic comedy. Of their works, only eleven dramas
Page 161
of Aristophanes are extant. The chief object of these comedies was to excite
laughter by the boldest and most ludicrous caricature, and, provided that
end was obtained, the poet seems to have cared little about the justice of the
picture. It is scarcely possible to imagine the unmeasured and unsparing
license of attack assumed by these comedies upon the gods, the institutions,
the politicians, philosophers, poets, private citizens, and women of Athens.
With this universal liberty of subject there is combined a poignancy of
derision and satire, a fecundity of imagination, and a richness of poetical
expression such as cannot be surpassed. Towards the end of the career of
Aristophanes, however, this unrestricted license of the comedy began
gradually to disappear.
The Old comedy was succeeded by the Middle Attic comedy, in which
the satire was no longer directed against the influential men or rulers of the
people, but was rich in ridicule of the Platonic Academy, of the newly
revived sect of the Pythagoreans, and of the orators, rhetoricians, and poets
of the day. In this transition from the Old to the Middle comedy, we may
discern at once the great revolution that had taken place in the domestic
history of Athens, when the Athenians, from a nation of politicians, became
a nation of literary men; when it was no longer the opposition of political
ideas, but the contest of opposing schools of philosophers and rhetoricians,
which set all heads in motion. The poets of this comedy were very
numerous.
The last poets of the Middle comedy were contemporaries of the writers
of the New, who rose up as their rivals, and who were only distinguished
from them by following the new tendency more decidedly and exclusively.
Menander (342-293 B.C.) was one of the first of these poets, and he is also
the most perfect of them. The Athens of his day differed from that of the
time of Pericles, in the same way that an old man, weak in body but fond of
life, good-humored and self-indulgent, differs from the vigorous, middle-
laughter by the boldest and most ludicrous caricature, and, provided that
end was obtained, the poet seems to have cared little about the justice of the
picture. It is scarcely possible to imagine the unmeasured and unsparing
license of attack assumed by these comedies upon the gods, the institutions,
the politicians, philosophers, poets, private citizens, and women of Athens.
With this universal liberty of subject there is combined a poignancy of
derision and satire, a fecundity of imagination, and a richness of poetical
expression such as cannot be surpassed. Towards the end of the career of
Aristophanes, however, this unrestricted license of the comedy began
gradually to disappear.
The Old comedy was succeeded by the Middle Attic comedy, in which
the satire was no longer directed against the influential men or rulers of the
people, but was rich in ridicule of the Platonic Academy, of the newly
revived sect of the Pythagoreans, and of the orators, rhetoricians, and poets
of the day. In this transition from the Old to the Middle comedy, we may
discern at once the great revolution that had taken place in the domestic
history of Athens, when the Athenians, from a nation of politicians, became
a nation of literary men; when it was no longer the opposition of political
ideas, but the contest of opposing schools of philosophers and rhetoricians,
which set all heads in motion. The poets of this comedy were very
numerous.
The last poets of the Middle comedy were contemporaries of the writers
of the New, who rose up as their rivals, and who were only distinguished
from them by following the new tendency more decidedly and exclusively.
Menander (342-293 B.C.) was one of the first of these poets, and he is also
the most perfect of them. The Athens of his day differed from that of the
time of Pericles, in the same way that an old man, weak in body but fond of
life, good-humored and self-indulgent, differs from the vigorous, middle-
Page 162
aged man at the summit of his mental strength and bodily energy. Since
there was so little in politics to interest or to employ the mind, the
Athenians found an object in the occurrences of social life and the charm of
dissolute enjoyment. Dramatic poetry now, for the first time, centred in
love, as it has since done among all nations to whom the Greek cultivation
has descended. But it certainly was not love in those nobler forms to which
it has since elevated itself. Menander painted truly the degenerate world in
which he lived, actuated by no mighty impulses, no noble aspirations. He
was contemporary with Epicurus, and their characters had much in
common; both were deficient in the inspiration of high moral ideas.
The comedy of Menander and his contemporaries completed what
Euripides had begun on the tragic stage a hundred years before their time.
They deprived their characters of that ideal grandeur which had been most
conspicuous in the creations of Aeschylus and the earlier poets, and thus
tragedy and comedy, which had started from such different beginnings, here
met as at the same point. The comedies of Menander may be considered as
almost the conclusion of Attic literature; he was the last original poet of
Athens; those who arose at a later period were but gleaners after the rich
harvest of Greek poetry had been gathered.
6. ORATORY, RHETORIC, AND HISTORY.—We may distinguish three
epochs in the history of Attic prose from Pericles to Alexander the Great:
first, that of Pericles and Thucydides; second, that of Lysias, Socrates, and
Plato; and, third, that of Demosthenes and Aeschines. Public speaking had
been common in Greece from the earliest times, but as the works of
Athenian orators alone have come down to us, we may conclude that
oratory was cultivated in a much higher degree at Athens than elsewhere.
No speech of Pericles has been preserved in writing; only a few of his
emphatic and nervous expressions were kept in remembrance; but a general
impression of the grandeur of his oratory long prevailed among the Greeks,
there was so little in politics to interest or to employ the mind, the
Athenians found an object in the occurrences of social life and the charm of
dissolute enjoyment. Dramatic poetry now, for the first time, centred in
love, as it has since done among all nations to whom the Greek cultivation
has descended. But it certainly was not love in those nobler forms to which
it has since elevated itself. Menander painted truly the degenerate world in
which he lived, actuated by no mighty impulses, no noble aspirations. He
was contemporary with Epicurus, and their characters had much in
common; both were deficient in the inspiration of high moral ideas.
The comedy of Menander and his contemporaries completed what
Euripides had begun on the tragic stage a hundred years before their time.
They deprived their characters of that ideal grandeur which had been most
conspicuous in the creations of Aeschylus and the earlier poets, and thus
tragedy and comedy, which had started from such different beginnings, here
met as at the same point. The comedies of Menander may be considered as
almost the conclusion of Attic literature; he was the last original poet of
Athens; those who arose at a later period were but gleaners after the rich
harvest of Greek poetry had been gathered.
6. ORATORY, RHETORIC, AND HISTORY.—We may distinguish three
epochs in the history of Attic prose from Pericles to Alexander the Great:
first, that of Pericles and Thucydides; second, that of Lysias, Socrates, and
Plato; and, third, that of Demosthenes and Aeschines. Public speaking had
been common in Greece from the earliest times, but as the works of
Athenian orators alone have come down to us, we may conclude that
oratory was cultivated in a much higher degree at Athens than elsewhere.
No speech of Pericles has been preserved in writing; only a few of his
emphatic and nervous expressions were kept in remembrance; but a general
impression of the grandeur of his oratory long prevailed among the Greeks,
Page 163
from which we may form a clear conception of his style. The sole object of
the oratory of Pericles was to produce conviction; he did not aim to excite
any sudden or transient burst of passion by working on the emotions of the
heart; nor did he use any of those means employed by the orators of a later
age to set in motion the unruly impulses of the multitude. His manner was
tranquil, with hardly any change of feature; his garments were undisturbed
by any oratorical gesticulations, and his voice was equable and sustained.
He never condescended to flatter the people, and his dignity never stooped
to merriment. Although there was more of reasoning than imagination in his
speeches, he gave a vivid and impressive coloring to his language by the
use of striking metaphors and comparisons, as when, at the funeral of a
number of young persons who had fallen in battle, he used the beautiful
figure, that "the year had lost its spring."
The cultivation of the art of oratory among the Athenians was due to a
combination of the natural eloquence displayed by the Athenian statesmen,
and especially by Pericles, with the rhetorical studies of the sophists, who
exercised a greater influence on the culture of the Greek mind than any
other class of men, the poets excepted. The sophists, as their name
indicates, were persons who made knowledge their profession, and
undertook to impart it to every one who was willing to place himself under
their guidance; they were reproached with being the first to sell knowledge
for money, for they not only demanded pay from those who came to hear
their lectures, but they undertook, for a certain sum, to give young men a
complete sophistical education. Pupils flocked to them in crowds, and they
acquired such riches as neither art nor science had ever before earned
among the Greeks. If we consider their doctrines philosophically, they
amounted to a denial or renunciation of all true science. They were able to
speak with equal plausibility for and against the same position; not in order
to discover the truth, but to show the nothingness of truth. In the
improvement of written composition, however, a high value must be set on
the oratory of Pericles was to produce conviction; he did not aim to excite
any sudden or transient burst of passion by working on the emotions of the
heart; nor did he use any of those means employed by the orators of a later
age to set in motion the unruly impulses of the multitude. His manner was
tranquil, with hardly any change of feature; his garments were undisturbed
by any oratorical gesticulations, and his voice was equable and sustained.
He never condescended to flatter the people, and his dignity never stooped
to merriment. Although there was more of reasoning than imagination in his
speeches, he gave a vivid and impressive coloring to his language by the
use of striking metaphors and comparisons, as when, at the funeral of a
number of young persons who had fallen in battle, he used the beautiful
figure, that "the year had lost its spring."
The cultivation of the art of oratory among the Athenians was due to a
combination of the natural eloquence displayed by the Athenian statesmen,
and especially by Pericles, with the rhetorical studies of the sophists, who
exercised a greater influence on the culture of the Greek mind than any
other class of men, the poets excepted. The sophists, as their name
indicates, were persons who made knowledge their profession, and
undertook to impart it to every one who was willing to place himself under
their guidance; they were reproached with being the first to sell knowledge
for money, for they not only demanded pay from those who came to hear
their lectures, but they undertook, for a certain sum, to give young men a
complete sophistical education. Pupils flocked to them in crowds, and they
acquired such riches as neither art nor science had ever before earned
among the Greeks. If we consider their doctrines philosophically, they
amounted to a denial or renunciation of all true science. They were able to
speak with equal plausibility for and against the same position; not in order
to discover the truth, but to show the nothingness of truth. In the
improvement of written composition, however, a high value must be set on
Page 164
their services. They made language the object of their study; they aimed at
correctness and beauty of style, and they laid the foundation for the
polished diction of Plato and Demosthenes. They taught that the sole aim of
the orator is to turn the minds of his hearers into such a train as may best
suit his own interest; that, consequently, rhetoric is the agent of persuasion,
the art of all arts, because the rhetorician is able to speak well and
convincingly on every subject, though he may have no accurate knowledge
respecting it.
The Peloponnesian war, which terminated in the downfall of Athens, was
succeeded by a period of exhaustion and repose. The fine arts were checked
in their progress, and poetry degenerated into empty bombast. Yet at this
very time prose literature began a new career, which led to its fairest
development.
Lysias and Isocrates gave an entirely new form to oratory by the happy
alterations which they in different ways introduced into the old prose style.
Lysias (fl. 359 B.C.), in the fiftieth year of his age, began to follow the trade
of writing speeches for such private individuals as could not trust their own
skill in addressing a court; for this object, a plain, unartificial style was best
suited, because citizens who called in the aid of the speech-writer had no
knowledge of rhetoric, and thus Lysias was obliged to originate a style,
which became more and more confirmed by habit. The consequence was,
that for his contemporaries and for all ages he stands forth as the first and in
many respects the perfect pattern of a plain style. The narrative part of the
speech, for which he was particularly famous, is always natural, interesting,
and lively, and often relieved by mimic touches which give it a wonderful
air of reality. The proofs and confutations are distinguished by a clearness
of reasoning and a boldness of argument which leave no room for doubt; in
a word, the speeches are just what they ought to be in order to obtain a
correctness and beauty of style, and they laid the foundation for the
polished diction of Plato and Demosthenes. They taught that the sole aim of
the orator is to turn the minds of his hearers into such a train as may best
suit his own interest; that, consequently, rhetoric is the agent of persuasion,
the art of all arts, because the rhetorician is able to speak well and
convincingly on every subject, though he may have no accurate knowledge
respecting it.
The Peloponnesian war, which terminated in the downfall of Athens, was
succeeded by a period of exhaustion and repose. The fine arts were checked
in their progress, and poetry degenerated into empty bombast. Yet at this
very time prose literature began a new career, which led to its fairest
development.
Lysias and Isocrates gave an entirely new form to oratory by the happy
alterations which they in different ways introduced into the old prose style.
Lysias (fl. 359 B.C.), in the fiftieth year of his age, began to follow the trade
of writing speeches for such private individuals as could not trust their own
skill in addressing a court; for this object, a plain, unartificial style was best
suited, because citizens who called in the aid of the speech-writer had no
knowledge of rhetoric, and thus Lysias was obliged to originate a style,
which became more and more confirmed by habit. The consequence was,
that for his contemporaries and for all ages he stands forth as the first and in
many respects the perfect pattern of a plain style. The narrative part of the
speech, for which he was particularly famous, is always natural, interesting,
and lively, and often relieved by mimic touches which give it a wonderful
air of reality. The proofs and confutations are distinguished by a clearness
of reasoning and a boldness of argument which leave no room for doubt; in
a word, the speeches are just what they ought to be in order to obtain a
Page 165
favorable decision, an object in which, it seems, he often succeeded. Of his
many orations, thirty-five have come down to us.
Isocrates (fl. 338 B.C.) established a school for political oratory, which
became the first and most flourishing in Greece. His orations were mostly
destined for this school. Though neither a great statesman nor philosopher
in himself, Isocrates constitutes an epoch as a rhetorician or artist of
language. His influence extended far beyond the limits of his own school,
and without his reconstruction of the style of Attic oratory we could have
had no Demosthenes and no Cicero; through these, the school of Isocrates
has extended its influence even to the oratory of our own day.
The verdict of his contemporaries, ratified by posterity, has pronounced
Demosthenes (380-322 B.C.) the greatest orator that has ever lived, yet he
had no natural advantages for oratory. A feeble frame and a weak voice, a
shy and awkward manner, the ungraceful gesticulations of one whose limbs
had never been duly exercised, and a defective articulation, would have
deterred most men from even attempting to address an Athenian assembly;
but the ambition and perseverance of Demosthenes enabled him to triumph
over every disadvantage. He improved his bodily powers by running, his
voice by speaking aloud as he walked up hill, or declaimed against the roar
of the sea; he practiced graceful delivery before a looking-glass, and
controlled his unruly articulation by speaking with pebbles in his mouth.
His want of fluency he remedied by diligent composition, and by copying
and committing to memory the works of the best authors. By these means
he came forth as the acknowledged leader of the assembly, and, even by the
confession of his deadliest enemies, the first orator of Greece. His
harangues to the people, and his speeches on public and private causes,
which have been preserved, form a collection of sixty-one orations. The
most important efforts of Demosthenes, however, were the series of public
speeches referring to Philip of Macedon, and known as the twelve
many orations, thirty-five have come down to us.
Isocrates (fl. 338 B.C.) established a school for political oratory, which
became the first and most flourishing in Greece. His orations were mostly
destined for this school. Though neither a great statesman nor philosopher
in himself, Isocrates constitutes an epoch as a rhetorician or artist of
language. His influence extended far beyond the limits of his own school,
and without his reconstruction of the style of Attic oratory we could have
had no Demosthenes and no Cicero; through these, the school of Isocrates
has extended its influence even to the oratory of our own day.
The verdict of his contemporaries, ratified by posterity, has pronounced
Demosthenes (380-322 B.C.) the greatest orator that has ever lived, yet he
had no natural advantages for oratory. A feeble frame and a weak voice, a
shy and awkward manner, the ungraceful gesticulations of one whose limbs
had never been duly exercised, and a defective articulation, would have
deterred most men from even attempting to address an Athenian assembly;
but the ambition and perseverance of Demosthenes enabled him to triumph
over every disadvantage. He improved his bodily powers by running, his
voice by speaking aloud as he walked up hill, or declaimed against the roar
of the sea; he practiced graceful delivery before a looking-glass, and
controlled his unruly articulation by speaking with pebbles in his mouth.
His want of fluency he remedied by diligent composition, and by copying
and committing to memory the works of the best authors. By these means
he came forth as the acknowledged leader of the assembly, and, even by the
confession of his deadliest enemies, the first orator of Greece. His
harangues to the people, and his speeches on public and private causes,
which have been preserved, form a collection of sixty-one orations. The
most important efforts of Demosthenes, however, were the series of public
speeches referring to Philip of Macedon, and known as the twelve
Page 166
Philippics, a name which has become a general designation for spirited
invectives. The main characteristic of his eloquence consisted in the use of
the common language of his age and country. He took great pains in the
choice and arrangement of his words, and aimed at the utmost conciseness,
making epithets, even common adjectives, do the work of a whole sentence,
and thus, by his perfect delivery and action, a sentence composed of
ordinary terms sometimes smote with the weight of a sledge- hammer. In
his orations there is not any long or close train of reasoning, still less any
profound observations or remote and ingenious allusions, but a constant
succession of remarks, bearing immediately on the matter in hand, perfectly
plain, and as readily admitted as easily understood. These are intermingled
with the most striking appeals either to feelings which all were conscious
of, and deeply agitated by, though ashamed to own, or to sentiments which
every man was panting to utter and delighted to hear thundered forth,—
bursts of oratory, which either overwhelmed or relieved the audience. Such
characteristics constituted the principal glory of the great orator.
The most eminent of the contemporaries of Demosthenes were Isaeus
(420-348 B.C.), an artificial and elaborate orator; Lycurgus (393-328 B.C.),
a celebrated civil reformer of Athens; Hypereides, contemporary of
Lycurgus; and, above all, Aeschines (389-314 B.C.), the great rival of
Demosthenes, of whose numerous speeches only three have been preserved.
At a later period we find two schools of rhetoric, the Attic, founded by
Aeschines, and the Asiatic, established by Hegesias of Magnesia. The
former proposed as models of oratory the great Athenian orators, the latter
depended on artificial manners, and produced speeches distinguished rather
by rhetorical ornaments and a rapid flow of diction than by weight and
force of style.
In the historical department, Thucydides (471-391 B.C.) began an
entirely new class of historical writing. While Herodotus aimed at giving a
invectives. The main characteristic of his eloquence consisted in the use of
the common language of his age and country. He took great pains in the
choice and arrangement of his words, and aimed at the utmost conciseness,
making epithets, even common adjectives, do the work of a whole sentence,
and thus, by his perfect delivery and action, a sentence composed of
ordinary terms sometimes smote with the weight of a sledge- hammer. In
his orations there is not any long or close train of reasoning, still less any
profound observations or remote and ingenious allusions, but a constant
succession of remarks, bearing immediately on the matter in hand, perfectly
plain, and as readily admitted as easily understood. These are intermingled
with the most striking appeals either to feelings which all were conscious
of, and deeply agitated by, though ashamed to own, or to sentiments which
every man was panting to utter and delighted to hear thundered forth,—
bursts of oratory, which either overwhelmed or relieved the audience. Such
characteristics constituted the principal glory of the great orator.
The most eminent of the contemporaries of Demosthenes were Isaeus
(420-348 B.C.), an artificial and elaborate orator; Lycurgus (393-328 B.C.),
a celebrated civil reformer of Athens; Hypereides, contemporary of
Lycurgus; and, above all, Aeschines (389-314 B.C.), the great rival of
Demosthenes, of whose numerous speeches only three have been preserved.
At a later period we find two schools of rhetoric, the Attic, founded by
Aeschines, and the Asiatic, established by Hegesias of Magnesia. The
former proposed as models of oratory the great Athenian orators, the latter
depended on artificial manners, and produced speeches distinguished rather
by rhetorical ornaments and a rapid flow of diction than by weight and
force of style.
In the historical department, Thucydides (471-391 B.C.) began an
entirely new class of historical writing. While Herodotus aimed at giving a
Page 167
vivid picture of all that fell under the cognizance of the senses, and
endeavored to represent a superior power ruling over the destinies of
princes and people, the attention of Thucydides was directed to human
action, as it is developed from the character and situation of the individual.
His history, from its unity of action, may be considered as a historical
drama, the subject being the Athenian domination over Greece, and the
parties the belligerent republics. Clearness in the narrative, harmony and
consistency of the details with the general history, are the characteristics of
his work; and in his style he combines the concise and pregnant oratory of
Pericles with the vigorous but artificial style of the rhetoricians.
Demosthenes was so diligent a student of Thucydides that he copied out his
history eight times.
Xenophon (445-391 B.C.) may also be classed among the great
historians, his name being most favorably known from the "Anabasis," in
which he describes the retreat of the ten thousand Greek mercenaries in the
service of Cyrus, the Persian king, among whom he himself played a
prominent part. The minuteness of detail, the picturesque simplicity of the
style, and the air of reality which pervades it, have made it a favorite with
every age. In his memorials of Socrates, he records the conversations of a
man whom he had admired and listened to, but whom he did not
understand. In the language of Xenophon we find the first approximation to
the common dialect, which became afterwards the universal language of
Greece. He wrote several other works, in which, however, no development
of one great and pervading idea can be found; but in all of them there is a
singular clearness and beauty of description.
7. SOCRATES AND THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.—Although Socrates
(468-399 B.C.) left no writings behind him, yet the intellect of Greece was
powerfully affected by the principles of his philosophy, and the greatest
literary genius that ever appeared in Hellas owed most of his mental
endeavored to represent a superior power ruling over the destinies of
princes and people, the attention of Thucydides was directed to human
action, as it is developed from the character and situation of the individual.
His history, from its unity of action, may be considered as a historical
drama, the subject being the Athenian domination over Greece, and the
parties the belligerent republics. Clearness in the narrative, harmony and
consistency of the details with the general history, are the characteristics of
his work; and in his style he combines the concise and pregnant oratory of
Pericles with the vigorous but artificial style of the rhetoricians.
Demosthenes was so diligent a student of Thucydides that he copied out his
history eight times.
Xenophon (445-391 B.C.) may also be classed among the great
historians, his name being most favorably known from the "Anabasis," in
which he describes the retreat of the ten thousand Greek mercenaries in the
service of Cyrus, the Persian king, among whom he himself played a
prominent part. The minuteness of detail, the picturesque simplicity of the
style, and the air of reality which pervades it, have made it a favorite with
every age. In his memorials of Socrates, he records the conversations of a
man whom he had admired and listened to, but whom he did not
understand. In the language of Xenophon we find the first approximation to
the common dialect, which became afterwards the universal language of
Greece. He wrote several other works, in which, however, no development
of one great and pervading idea can be found; but in all of them there is a
singular clearness and beauty of description.
7. SOCRATES AND THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.—Although Socrates
(468-399 B.C.) left no writings behind him, yet the intellect of Greece was
powerfully affected by the principles of his philosophy, and the greatest
literary genius that ever appeared in Hellas owed most of his mental
Page 168
training to his early intercourse with him. It was by means of conversation,
by a searching process of question and answer, that Socrates endeavored to
lead his pupils to a consciousness of their own ignorance, and thus to
awaken in their minds an anxiety to obtain more exact views. This method
of questioning he reduced to a scientific process, and "dialectics" became a
name for the art of reasoning and the science of logic. The subject-matter of
this method was moral science considered with special reference to politics.
To him may be justly attributed induction and general definitions, and he
applied this practical logic to a common-sense estimate of the duties of man
both as a moral being and as a member of a community, and thus he first
treated moral philosophy according to scientific principles. No less than ten
schools of philosophers claimed him as their head, though the majority of
them imperfectly represented his doctrines. By his influence on Plato, and
through him on Aristotle, he constituted himself the founder of the
philosophy which is still recognized in the civilized world.
From the doctrine held by Socrates, that virtue was dependent on
knowledge, Eucleides of Megara (fl. 398 B.C.), the founder of the Megaric
school, submitted moral philosophy to dialectical reasoning and logical
refinements; and from the Socratic principle of the union between virtue
and happiness, Aristippus of Cyrene (fl. 396 B.C.) deduced the doctrine
which became the characteristic of the Cyrenian school, affirming that
pleasure was the ultimate end of life and the higher good; while Antisthenes
(fl. 396 B.C.) constructed the Cynic philosophy, which placed the ideal of
virtue in the absence of every need, and hence in the disregarding of every
interest, wealth, honor, and enjoyment, and in the independence of any
restraints of life and society. Diogenes of Sinope (fl. 300 B.C.) was one of
the most prominent followers of this school. He, like his master,
Antisthenes, always appeared in the most beggarly clothing, with the staff
and wallet of mendicancy; and this ostentation of self-denial drew from
by a searching process of question and answer, that Socrates endeavored to
lead his pupils to a consciousness of their own ignorance, and thus to
awaken in their minds an anxiety to obtain more exact views. This method
of questioning he reduced to a scientific process, and "dialectics" became a
name for the art of reasoning and the science of logic. The subject-matter of
this method was moral science considered with special reference to politics.
To him may be justly attributed induction and general definitions, and he
applied this practical logic to a common-sense estimate of the duties of man
both as a moral being and as a member of a community, and thus he first
treated moral philosophy according to scientific principles. No less than ten
schools of philosophers claimed him as their head, though the majority of
them imperfectly represented his doctrines. By his influence on Plato, and
through him on Aristotle, he constituted himself the founder of the
philosophy which is still recognized in the civilized world.
From the doctrine held by Socrates, that virtue was dependent on
knowledge, Eucleides of Megara (fl. 398 B.C.), the founder of the Megaric
school, submitted moral philosophy to dialectical reasoning and logical
refinements; and from the Socratic principle of the union between virtue
and happiness, Aristippus of Cyrene (fl. 396 B.C.) deduced the doctrine
which became the characteristic of the Cyrenian school, affirming that
pleasure was the ultimate end of life and the higher good; while Antisthenes
(fl. 396 B.C.) constructed the Cynic philosophy, which placed the ideal of
virtue in the absence of every need, and hence in the disregarding of every
interest, wealth, honor, and enjoyment, and in the independence of any
restraints of life and society. Diogenes of Sinope (fl. 300 B.C.) was one of
the most prominent followers of this school. He, like his master,
Antisthenes, always appeared in the most beggarly clothing, with the staff
and wallet of mendicancy; and this ostentation of self-denial drew from
Page 169
Socrates the exclamation, that he saw the vanity of Antisthenes through the
holes in his garments.
Plato (429-348 B.C.) was the only—one of the disciples of Socrates who
represented the whole doctrines of his teacher. We owe to him that the ideas
which Socrates awakened have been made the germ of one of the grandest
systems of speculation that the world has ever seen, and that it has been
conveyed to us in literary compositions which are unequaled in refinement
of conception, or in vigor and gracefulness of style. At the age of nineteen
he became one of the pupils and associates of Socrates, and did not leave
him until that martyr of intellectual freedom drank the fatal cup of hemlock.
He afterwards traveled in Asia Minor, in Egypt, in Italy, and Sicily, and
made himself acquainted with all contemporary philosophy. During the
latter part of his life he was engaged as a public lecturer on philosophy. His
lectures were delivered in the gardens of the Academia, and they have left
proof of their celebrity in the structure of language, which has derived from
them a term now common to all places of instruction. Of the importance of
the Socratic and Pythagorean elements in Plato's philosophy there can be no
doubt; but he transmuted all he touched into his own forms of thought and
language, and there was no branch of speculative literature which he had
not mastered. By adopting the form of dialogue, in which all his extant
works have come down to us, he was enabled to criticise the various
systems of philosophy then current in Greece, and also to gratify his own
dramatic genius, and his almost unrivaled power of keeping up an assumed
character. The works of Plato have been divided into three classes: first, the
elementary dialogues, or those which contain the germs of all that follows,
of logic as the instrument of philosophy, and of ideas as its proper object;
second, progressive dialogues, which treat of the distinction between
philosophical and common knowledge, in their united application to the
proposed and real sciences, ethics, and physics; third, the constructive
holes in his garments.
Plato (429-348 B.C.) was the only—one of the disciples of Socrates who
represented the whole doctrines of his teacher. We owe to him that the ideas
which Socrates awakened have been made the germ of one of the grandest
systems of speculation that the world has ever seen, and that it has been
conveyed to us in literary compositions which are unequaled in refinement
of conception, or in vigor and gracefulness of style. At the age of nineteen
he became one of the pupils and associates of Socrates, and did not leave
him until that martyr of intellectual freedom drank the fatal cup of hemlock.
He afterwards traveled in Asia Minor, in Egypt, in Italy, and Sicily, and
made himself acquainted with all contemporary philosophy. During the
latter part of his life he was engaged as a public lecturer on philosophy. His
lectures were delivered in the gardens of the Academia, and they have left
proof of their celebrity in the structure of language, which has derived from
them a term now common to all places of instruction. Of the importance of
the Socratic and Pythagorean elements in Plato's philosophy there can be no
doubt; but he transmuted all he touched into his own forms of thought and
language, and there was no branch of speculative literature which he had
not mastered. By adopting the form of dialogue, in which all his extant
works have come down to us, he was enabled to criticise the various
systems of philosophy then current in Greece, and also to gratify his own
dramatic genius, and his almost unrivaled power of keeping up an assumed
character. The works of Plato have been divided into three classes: first, the
elementary dialogues, or those which contain the germs of all that follows,
of logic as the instrument of philosophy, and of ideas as its proper object;
second, progressive dialogues, which treat of the distinction between
philosophical and common knowledge, in their united application to the
proposed and real sciences, ethics, and physics; third, the constructive
Page 170
dialogues, in which the practical is completely united with the speculative,
with an appendix containing laws, epistles, etc.
The fundamental principle of Plato's philosophy is the belief in an eternal
and self-existent cause, the origin of all things. From this divine Being
emanate not only the souls of men, which are immortal, but that of the
universe itself, which is supposed to be animated by a divine spirit. The
material objects of our sight, and other senses, are mere fleeting emanations
of the divine idea; it is only this idea itself that is really existent; the objects
of sensuous perception are mere appearances, taking their forms by
participation in the idea; hence it follows, that in Plato's philosophy all
knowledge is innate, and acquired by the soul before birth, when it was able
to contemplate real existences, and all our ideas of this world are mere
reminiscences of their true and eternal patterns. The belief of Plato in the
immortality of the soul naturally led him to establish a high standard of
moral excellence, and, like his great teacher, he constantly inculcates
temperance, justice, and purity of life. His political views are developed in
the "Republic" and in the "Laws," in which the main feature of his system is
the subordination, or rather the entire sacrifice of the individual to the state.
The style of Plato is in every way worthy of his position in universal
literature, and modern scholars have confirmed the encomium of Aristotle,
that all his dialogues exhibit extraordinary acuteness, elaborate elegance,
bold originality, and curious speculation. In Plato, the powers of
imagination were just as conspicuous as those of reasoning and reflection;
he had all the chief characteristics of a poet, especially of a dramatic poet,
and if his rank as a philosopher had been lower than it is, he would still
have ranked high among dramatic writers for his life- like representations of
the personages whose opinions he wished to combat or to defend.
with an appendix containing laws, epistles, etc.
The fundamental principle of Plato's philosophy is the belief in an eternal
and self-existent cause, the origin of all things. From this divine Being
emanate not only the souls of men, which are immortal, but that of the
universe itself, which is supposed to be animated by a divine spirit. The
material objects of our sight, and other senses, are mere fleeting emanations
of the divine idea; it is only this idea itself that is really existent; the objects
of sensuous perception are mere appearances, taking their forms by
participation in the idea; hence it follows, that in Plato's philosophy all
knowledge is innate, and acquired by the soul before birth, when it was able
to contemplate real existences, and all our ideas of this world are mere
reminiscences of their true and eternal patterns. The belief of Plato in the
immortality of the soul naturally led him to establish a high standard of
moral excellence, and, like his great teacher, he constantly inculcates
temperance, justice, and purity of life. His political views are developed in
the "Republic" and in the "Laws," in which the main feature of his system is
the subordination, or rather the entire sacrifice of the individual to the state.
The style of Plato is in every way worthy of his position in universal
literature, and modern scholars have confirmed the encomium of Aristotle,
that all his dialogues exhibit extraordinary acuteness, elaborate elegance,
bold originality, and curious speculation. In Plato, the powers of
imagination were just as conspicuous as those of reasoning and reflection;
he had all the chief characteristics of a poet, especially of a dramatic poet,
and if his rank as a philosopher had been lower than it is, he would still
have ranked high among dramatic writers for his life- like representations of
the personages whose opinions he wished to combat or to defend.
Page 171
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) occupies a position among the leaders of human
thought not inferior to that of his teacher, Plato. He was a native of Stagyra,
in Macedonia, and is hence often called the Stagyrite. He early repaired to
Athens, and became a pupil of Plato, who called him the soul of his school.
He was afterwards invited by Philip of Macedon to undertake the literary
education of Alexander, at that time thirteen years old. This charge
continued about three years. He afterwards returned to Athens, where he
opened his school in a gymnasium called the Lyceum, delivering his lessons
as he walked to and fro, and from these saunters his scholars were called
Peripatetics, or saunterers. During this period he composed most of his
extant works. Alexander placed at his disposal a large sum for his
collections in natural history, and employed some thousands of men in
procuring specimens for his museum. After the death of Alexander, he was
accused of blasphemy to the gods, and, warned by the fate of Socrates, he
withdrew from Athens to Chalcis, where he afterwards died.
In looking at the mere catalogue of the works of Aristotle, we are struck
with his vast range of knowledge. He aimed at nothing less than the
completion of a general encyclopedia of philosophy. He was the author of
the first scientific cultivation of each science, and there was hardly any
quality distinguishing a philosopher as such, which he did not possess in an
eminent degree. Of all the philosophical systems of antiquity, that of
Aristotle was the best adapted to the physical wants of mankind. His works
consisted of treatises on natural, moral, and political philosophy, history,
rhetoric, criticism,—indeed, there was scarcely a branch of knowledge
which his vast and comprehensive genius did not embrace. His greatest
claim to our admiration is as a logician. He perfected and brought into form
those elements of the dialectic art which had been struck out by Socrates
and Plato, and wrought them, by his additions, into so complete a system,
that he may be regarded as, at once, the founder and perfecter of logic as an
art, which has since, even down to our own days, been but very little
thought not inferior to that of his teacher, Plato. He was a native of Stagyra,
in Macedonia, and is hence often called the Stagyrite. He early repaired to
Athens, and became a pupil of Plato, who called him the soul of his school.
He was afterwards invited by Philip of Macedon to undertake the literary
education of Alexander, at that time thirteen years old. This charge
continued about three years. He afterwards returned to Athens, where he
opened his school in a gymnasium called the Lyceum, delivering his lessons
as he walked to and fro, and from these saunters his scholars were called
Peripatetics, or saunterers. During this period he composed most of his
extant works. Alexander placed at his disposal a large sum for his
collections in natural history, and employed some thousands of men in
procuring specimens for his museum. After the death of Alexander, he was
accused of blasphemy to the gods, and, warned by the fate of Socrates, he
withdrew from Athens to Chalcis, where he afterwards died.
In looking at the mere catalogue of the works of Aristotle, we are struck
with his vast range of knowledge. He aimed at nothing less than the
completion of a general encyclopedia of philosophy. He was the author of
the first scientific cultivation of each science, and there was hardly any
quality distinguishing a philosopher as such, which he did not possess in an
eminent degree. Of all the philosophical systems of antiquity, that of
Aristotle was the best adapted to the physical wants of mankind. His works
consisted of treatises on natural, moral, and political philosophy, history,
rhetoric, criticism,—indeed, there was scarcely a branch of knowledge
which his vast and comprehensive genius did not embrace. His greatest
claim to our admiration is as a logician. He perfected and brought into form
those elements of the dialectic art which had been struck out by Socrates
and Plato, and wrought them, by his additions, into so complete a system,
that he may be regarded as, at once, the founder and perfecter of logic as an
art, which has since, even down to our own days, been but very little
Page 172
improved. The style of Aristotle has nothing to attract those who prefer the
embellishments of a work to its subject- matter and the scientific results
which it presents.
PERIOD THIRD.
EPOCH OF THE DECLINE OF GREEK LITERATURE, 322 B.C.-1453 A.D.
1. ORIGIN OF THE ALEXANDRIAN LITERATURE.—As the literary
predominance of Athens was due mainly to the political importance of
Attica, the downfall of Athenian independence brought with it a
deterioration, and ultimately an extinction of that intellectual centralization
which for more than a century had fostered and developed the highest
efforts of the genius and culture of the Greeks. While the living literature of
Greece was thus dying away, the conquests of Alexander prepared a new
home for the muses on the coast of that wonderful country, to which all the
nations of antiquity had owed a part of their science and religious belief. In
Egypt, as in other regions, Alexander gave directions for the foundation of a
city to be called after his own name, which became the magnificent
metropolis of the Hellenic world. This capital was the residence of a family
who attracted to their court all the living representatives of the literature of
Greece, and stored up in their enormous library all the best works of the
classical period. It was chiefly during the reigns of the first three Ptolemies
that Alexandria was made the new home of Greek literature. Ptolemy Soter
(306-285 B.C.) laid the foundations of the library, and instituted the
museum, or temple of the muses, where the literary men of the age were
maintained by endowments. This encouragement of literature was
continued by Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). He had the celebrated
Callimachus for his librarian, who bought up not only the whole of
Aristotle's great collection of works, but transferred the native annals of
Egypt and Judea to the domain of Greek literature by employing the priest
embellishments of a work to its subject- matter and the scientific results
which it presents.
PERIOD THIRD.
EPOCH OF THE DECLINE OF GREEK LITERATURE, 322 B.C.-1453 A.D.
1. ORIGIN OF THE ALEXANDRIAN LITERATURE.—As the literary
predominance of Athens was due mainly to the political importance of
Attica, the downfall of Athenian independence brought with it a
deterioration, and ultimately an extinction of that intellectual centralization
which for more than a century had fostered and developed the highest
efforts of the genius and culture of the Greeks. While the living literature of
Greece was thus dying away, the conquests of Alexander prepared a new
home for the muses on the coast of that wonderful country, to which all the
nations of antiquity had owed a part of their science and religious belief. In
Egypt, as in other regions, Alexander gave directions for the foundation of a
city to be called after his own name, which became the magnificent
metropolis of the Hellenic world. This capital was the residence of a family
who attracted to their court all the living representatives of the literature of
Greece, and stored up in their enormous library all the best works of the
classical period. It was chiefly during the reigns of the first three Ptolemies
that Alexandria was made the new home of Greek literature. Ptolemy Soter
(306-285 B.C.) laid the foundations of the library, and instituted the
museum, or temple of the muses, where the literary men of the age were
maintained by endowments. This encouragement of literature was
continued by Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). He had the celebrated
Callimachus for his librarian, who bought up not only the whole of
Aristotle's great collection of works, but transferred the native annals of
Egypt and Judea to the domain of Greek literature by employing the priest
Page 173
Manetho to translate the hieroglyphics of his own temple- archives into the
language of the court, and by procuring from the Sanhedrim of Jerusalem
the first part of that celebrated version of the Hebrew sacred books, which
was afterwards completed and known as the Septuagint, or version of the
Seventy. Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B.C.) increased the library by
depriving the Athenians of their authentic editions of the great dramatists.
In the course of time the library founded at Pergamos was transferred to
Egypt, and thus we are indebted to the Ptolemies for preserving to our times
all the best specimens of Greek literature which have come down to us. This
encouragement of letters, however, called forth no great original genius; but
a few eminent men of science, many second-rate and artificial poets, and a
host of grammarians and literary pedants.
2. THE ALEXANDRIAN POETS.—Among the poets of the period,
Philetas, Callimachus, Lycophron, Apollonius, and the writers of idyls,
Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus are the most eminent. The founder of a
school of poetry at Alexandria, and the model for imitation with the Roman
writers of elegiac poetry, was Philetas of Cos (fl. 260 B. C), whose extreme
emaciation of person exposed him to the imputation of wearing lead in the
soles of his shoes, lest he should be blown away. He was chiefly celebrated
as an elegiac poet, in whom ingenious, elegant, and harmonious
versification took the place of higher poetry. Callimachus (fl. 260 B.C.) was
the type of an Alexandrian man of letters, distinguished by skill rather than
genius, the most finished specimen of what might be effected by talent,
learning, and ambition, backed by the patronage of a court. He was a living
representative of the great library over which he presided; he was not only a
writer of all kinds of poetry, but a critic, grammarian, historian, and
geographer. Of his writings, a few poems only are extant. Next to
Callimachus, as a representative of the learned poetry of Alexandria, stands
the dramatist Lycophron (fl. 250 B.C.). All his works are lost, with the
exception of the oracular poem called the "Alexandra," or "'Cassandra," on
language of the court, and by procuring from the Sanhedrim of Jerusalem
the first part of that celebrated version of the Hebrew sacred books, which
was afterwards completed and known as the Septuagint, or version of the
Seventy. Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B.C.) increased the library by
depriving the Athenians of their authentic editions of the great dramatists.
In the course of time the library founded at Pergamos was transferred to
Egypt, and thus we are indebted to the Ptolemies for preserving to our times
all the best specimens of Greek literature which have come down to us. This
encouragement of letters, however, called forth no great original genius; but
a few eminent men of science, many second-rate and artificial poets, and a
host of grammarians and literary pedants.
2. THE ALEXANDRIAN POETS.—Among the poets of the period,
Philetas, Callimachus, Lycophron, Apollonius, and the writers of idyls,
Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus are the most eminent. The founder of a
school of poetry at Alexandria, and the model for imitation with the Roman
writers of elegiac poetry, was Philetas of Cos (fl. 260 B. C), whose extreme
emaciation of person exposed him to the imputation of wearing lead in the
soles of his shoes, lest he should be blown away. He was chiefly celebrated
as an elegiac poet, in whom ingenious, elegant, and harmonious
versification took the place of higher poetry. Callimachus (fl. 260 B.C.) was
the type of an Alexandrian man of letters, distinguished by skill rather than
genius, the most finished specimen of what might be effected by talent,
learning, and ambition, backed by the patronage of a court. He was a living
representative of the great library over which he presided; he was not only a
writer of all kinds of poetry, but a critic, grammarian, historian, and
geographer. Of his writings, a few poems only are extant. Next to
Callimachus, as a representative of the learned poetry of Alexandria, stands
the dramatist Lycophron (fl. 250 B.C.). All his works are lost, with the
exception of the oracular poem called the "Alexandra," or "'Cassandra," on
Page 174
the merits of which very opposite opinions are entertained. Apollonius,
known as the Rhodian (fl. 240 B.C.), was a native of Alexandria, and a
pupil of Callimachus, through whose influence he was driven from his
native city, when he established himself in the island of Rhodes, where he
was so honored and distinguished that he took the name of the Rhodian. On
the death of Callimachus, he was appointed to succeed him as librarian at
Alexandria. His reputation depends on his epic poem, the "Argonautic
Expedition."
Of all the writers of the Alexandrian period, the bucolic poets have
enjoyed the most popularity. Their pastoral poems were called Idyls, from
their pictorial and descriptive character, that is, little pictures of common
life, a name for which the later writers have sometimes substituted the term
Eclogues, that is, selections, which is applicable to any short poem, whether
complete and original, or appearing as an extract. The name of Idyls,
however, was afterwards applicable to pastoral poems. Theocritus (fl. 272
B.C.) gives his name to the most important of these extant bucolics. He had
an original genius for poetry of the highest kind; the absence of the usual
affectation of the Alexandrian school, constant appeals to nature, a fine
perception of character, and a keen sense of both the beautiful and the
ludicrous, indicate the high order of his literary talent, and account for his
universal and undiminished popularity. The two other bucolic poets of the
Alexandrian school were Bion (fl. 275 B.C.), born near Smyrna, and his
pupil Moschus of Syracuse (fl. 273 B.C.). It appears, from an elegy by
Moschus, that Bion migrated from Asia Minor to Sicily, where he was
poisoned. He wrote harmonious verses with a good deal of pathos and
tenderness, but he is as inferior to Theocritus as he is superior to Moschus,
whose artificial style characterizes him rather as a learned versifier than a
true poet.
known as the Rhodian (fl. 240 B.C.), was a native of Alexandria, and a
pupil of Callimachus, through whose influence he was driven from his
native city, when he established himself in the island of Rhodes, where he
was so honored and distinguished that he took the name of the Rhodian. On
the death of Callimachus, he was appointed to succeed him as librarian at
Alexandria. His reputation depends on his epic poem, the "Argonautic
Expedition."
Of all the writers of the Alexandrian period, the bucolic poets have
enjoyed the most popularity. Their pastoral poems were called Idyls, from
their pictorial and descriptive character, that is, little pictures of common
life, a name for which the later writers have sometimes substituted the term
Eclogues, that is, selections, which is applicable to any short poem, whether
complete and original, or appearing as an extract. The name of Idyls,
however, was afterwards applicable to pastoral poems. Theocritus (fl. 272
B.C.) gives his name to the most important of these extant bucolics. He had
an original genius for poetry of the highest kind; the absence of the usual
affectation of the Alexandrian school, constant appeals to nature, a fine
perception of character, and a keen sense of both the beautiful and the
ludicrous, indicate the high order of his literary talent, and account for his
universal and undiminished popularity. The two other bucolic poets of the
Alexandrian school were Bion (fl. 275 B.C.), born near Smyrna, and his
pupil Moschus of Syracuse (fl. 273 B.C.). It appears, from an elegy by
Moschus, that Bion migrated from Asia Minor to Sicily, where he was
poisoned. He wrote harmonious verses with a good deal of pathos and
tenderness, but he is as inferior to Theocritus as he is superior to Moschus,
whose artificial style characterizes him rather as a learned versifier than a
true poet.
Page 175
3. PROSE WRITERS OF ALEXANDRIA.—Many of the most eminent
poets were also prose writers, and they exhibited their versatility by writing
on almost every subject of literary interest. The progress of prose writing
manifested itself from grammar and criticism to the more elaborate and
learned treatment of history and chronology, and to observations and
speculations in pure and mixed mathematics. Demetrius the Phalerian (fl.
295 B.C.), Zenodotus (fl. 279 B.C.), Aristophanes (fl. 200 B.C.), and
Aristarchus (fl. 156 B.C.), the three last of whom were successively
intrusted with the management of the Library, were the representatives of
the Alexandrian school of grammar and criticism. They devoted themselves
chiefly to the revision of the text of Homer, which was finally established
by Aristarchus.
In the historical department may be mentioned Ptolemy Soter, who wrote
the history of the wars of Alexander the Great; Apollodorus (fl. 200 B.C.),
whose "Bibliotheca" contains a general sketch of the mystic legends of the
Greeks; Eratosthenes (fl. 235 B.C.), the founder of scientific chronology in
Greek history; Manetho (fl. 280 B.C.), who introduced the Greeks to a
knowledge of the Egyptian religion and annals; and Berosus of Babylon, his
contemporary, whose work, fragments of which were preserved by
Josephus, was known as the "Babylonian Annals." While the Greeks of
Alexandria thus gained a knowledge of the religious books of the nations
conquered by Alexander, the same curiosity, combined with the necessities
of the Jews of Alexandria, gave birth to the translation of the Bible into
Greek, known under the name of Septuagint, which has exercised a more
lasting influence on the civilized world than that of any book that has ever
appeared in a new tongue. The beginning of that translation was probably
made in the reigns of the first Ptolemies (320-249 B.C.), while the
remainder was completed at a later period.
poets were also prose writers, and they exhibited their versatility by writing
on almost every subject of literary interest. The progress of prose writing
manifested itself from grammar and criticism to the more elaborate and
learned treatment of history and chronology, and to observations and
speculations in pure and mixed mathematics. Demetrius the Phalerian (fl.
295 B.C.), Zenodotus (fl. 279 B.C.), Aristophanes (fl. 200 B.C.), and
Aristarchus (fl. 156 B.C.), the three last of whom were successively
intrusted with the management of the Library, were the representatives of
the Alexandrian school of grammar and criticism. They devoted themselves
chiefly to the revision of the text of Homer, which was finally established
by Aristarchus.
In the historical department may be mentioned Ptolemy Soter, who wrote
the history of the wars of Alexander the Great; Apollodorus (fl. 200 B.C.),
whose "Bibliotheca" contains a general sketch of the mystic legends of the
Greeks; Eratosthenes (fl. 235 B.C.), the founder of scientific chronology in
Greek history; Manetho (fl. 280 B.C.), who introduced the Greeks to a
knowledge of the Egyptian religion and annals; and Berosus of Babylon, his
contemporary, whose work, fragments of which were preserved by
Josephus, was known as the "Babylonian Annals." While the Greeks of
Alexandria thus gained a knowledge of the religious books of the nations
conquered by Alexander, the same curiosity, combined with the necessities
of the Jews of Alexandria, gave birth to the translation of the Bible into
Greek, known under the name of Septuagint, which has exercised a more
lasting influence on the civilized world than that of any book that has ever
appeared in a new tongue. The beginning of that translation was probably
made in the reigns of the first Ptolemies (320-249 B.C.), while the
remainder was completed at a later period.
Page 176
The wonderful advance, which took place in pure and applied
mathematics, is chiefly due to the learned men who settled in Alexandria;
the greatest mathematicians and the most eminent founders of scientific
geography were all either immediately or indirectly connected with the
school of Alexandria. Euclid (fl. 300 B.C.) founded a famous school of
geometry in that city, in the reign of the first Ptolemy. Almost the only
incident of his life which is known to us is a conversation between him and
that king, who, having asked if there was no easier method of learning the
science, is said to have been told by Euclid, that "there was no royal path to
geometry." His most famous work is his "Elements of Pure Mathematics,"
at the present time a manual of instruction and the foundation of all
geometrical treatises. Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) was a native of Syracuse,
in Sicily, but he traveled to Egypt at an early age, and studied mathematics
there in the school of Euclid. He not only distinguished himself as a pure
mathematician and astronomer, and as the founder of the theory of statics,
but he discovered the law of specific gravity, and constructed some of the
most useful machines in the mechanic arts, such as the pulley and the
hydraulic screw. His works are written in the Doric dialect. Apollonius of
Perga (221-204 B.C.) distinguished himself in the mathematical department
by his work on "Conic Elements." Eratosthenes was not only prominent in
the science of chronology, but was also the founder of astronomical
geography, and the author of many valuable works in various branches of
philosophy. Hipparchus (fl. 150 B.C.) is considered the founder of the
science of exact astronomy, from his great work, the "Catalogue of the
Fixed Stars," his discovery of the precession of the equinoxes, and many
other valuable astronomical observations and calculations.
4. ALEXANDRIAN PHILOSOPHY.—Athens, which had been the
centre of Greek literature during the second or classical period of its
development, had now, in all respects but one, resigned the intellectual
leadership to the city of the Ptolemies. While Alexandria was producing a
mathematics, is chiefly due to the learned men who settled in Alexandria;
the greatest mathematicians and the most eminent founders of scientific
geography were all either immediately or indirectly connected with the
school of Alexandria. Euclid (fl. 300 B.C.) founded a famous school of
geometry in that city, in the reign of the first Ptolemy. Almost the only
incident of his life which is known to us is a conversation between him and
that king, who, having asked if there was no easier method of learning the
science, is said to have been told by Euclid, that "there was no royal path to
geometry." His most famous work is his "Elements of Pure Mathematics,"
at the present time a manual of instruction and the foundation of all
geometrical treatises. Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) was a native of Syracuse,
in Sicily, but he traveled to Egypt at an early age, and studied mathematics
there in the school of Euclid. He not only distinguished himself as a pure
mathematician and astronomer, and as the founder of the theory of statics,
but he discovered the law of specific gravity, and constructed some of the
most useful machines in the mechanic arts, such as the pulley and the
hydraulic screw. His works are written in the Doric dialect. Apollonius of
Perga (221-204 B.C.) distinguished himself in the mathematical department
by his work on "Conic Elements." Eratosthenes was not only prominent in
the science of chronology, but was also the founder of astronomical
geography, and the author of many valuable works in various branches of
philosophy. Hipparchus (fl. 150 B.C.) is considered the founder of the
science of exact astronomy, from his great work, the "Catalogue of the
Fixed Stars," his discovery of the precession of the equinoxes, and many
other valuable astronomical observations and calculations.
4. ALEXANDRIAN PHILOSOPHY.—Athens, which had been the
centre of Greek literature during the second or classical period of its
development, had now, in all respects but one, resigned the intellectual
leadership to the city of the Ptolemies. While Alexandria was producing a
Page 177
series of learned poets, scholars, and discoverers in science, Athenian
literature was mainly represented by the establishment of certain forms of
mental and moral philosophy founded on the various Socratic schools. Two
schools of philosophy were established at Athens at the time of the death of
Aristotle: that of the Academy, in which he himself had studied, and that of
the Lyceum, which he had founded, as the seat of his peripatetic system.
But the older schools soon reappeared under new names: the Megarics, with
an infusion of the doctrines of Democritus, revived in the skeptic
philosophy of Pyrrhon (375-285 B.C.). Epicurus (342-370 B.C.) founded
the school to which he gave his name, by a similar combination of
Democritean philosophy with the doctrines of the Cyrenaics; the Cynics
were developed into Stoics by Zeno (341-260 B.C.), who borrowed much
from the Megaric school and from the Old Academy; and, finally, the
Middle and New Academy arose from a combination of doctrines which
were peculiar to many of these sects.
Though these different schools, which flourished at Athens, had early
representatives in Alexandria, their different doctrines, coming in contact
with the ancient religious systems of the Persians, Jews, and Hindus,
underwent essential modifications, and gave birth to a kind of electicism,
which became later an important element in the development of Christian
history. The rationalism of the Platonic school and the supernaturalism of
the Jewish Scriptures were chiefly mingled together, and from this
amalgamation sprang the system of Neo-Platonism. When the early teachers
of Christianity at Alexandria strove to show the harmony of the Gospel with
the great principles of the Greco-Jewish philosophy, it underwent new
modifications, and the Neo-Platonic school, which sprang up in Alexandria
three centuries B.C., was completed in the first and second centuries of the
Christian era. The common characteristic of the Neo- Platonists was a
tendency to mysticism. Some of them believed that they were the subjects
of divine inspiration and illumination; able to look into the future and to
literature was mainly represented by the establishment of certain forms of
mental and moral philosophy founded on the various Socratic schools. Two
schools of philosophy were established at Athens at the time of the death of
Aristotle: that of the Academy, in which he himself had studied, and that of
the Lyceum, which he had founded, as the seat of his peripatetic system.
But the older schools soon reappeared under new names: the Megarics, with
an infusion of the doctrines of Democritus, revived in the skeptic
philosophy of Pyrrhon (375-285 B.C.). Epicurus (342-370 B.C.) founded
the school to which he gave his name, by a similar combination of
Democritean philosophy with the doctrines of the Cyrenaics; the Cynics
were developed into Stoics by Zeno (341-260 B.C.), who borrowed much
from the Megaric school and from the Old Academy; and, finally, the
Middle and New Academy arose from a combination of doctrines which
were peculiar to many of these sects.
Though these different schools, which flourished at Athens, had early
representatives in Alexandria, their different doctrines, coming in contact
with the ancient religious systems of the Persians, Jews, and Hindus,
underwent essential modifications, and gave birth to a kind of electicism,
which became later an important element in the development of Christian
history. The rationalism of the Platonic school and the supernaturalism of
the Jewish Scriptures were chiefly mingled together, and from this
amalgamation sprang the system of Neo-Platonism. When the early teachers
of Christianity at Alexandria strove to show the harmony of the Gospel with
the great principles of the Greco-Jewish philosophy, it underwent new
modifications, and the Neo-Platonic school, which sprang up in Alexandria
three centuries B.C., was completed in the first and second centuries of the
Christian era. The common characteristic of the Neo- Platonists was a
tendency to mysticism. Some of them believed that they were the subjects
of divine inspiration and illumination; able to look into the future and to
Page 178
work miracles. Philo-Judaeus (fl. 20 B.C.), Numenius (fl. 150 A.D.),
Ammonius Saccas (fl. 200 A.D.), Plotinus (fl, 260 A.D.), Porphyry (fl. 260
A.D.), and several fathers of the Greek Church are among the principal
disciples of this school.
5. ANTI-NEO-PLATONIC TENDENCIES.—While the Neo-Platonism
of Alexandria introduced into Greek philosophy Oriental ideas and
tendencies, other positive and practical doctrines also prevailed, founded on
common sense and conscience. First among these were the tenets of the
Stoics, who owed their system mainly and immediately to the teaching of
Epictetus (fl. 60 A.D.), who opposed the Oriental enthusiasm of the Neo-
Platonists. He was originally a slave, and became a prominent teacher of
philosophy in Rome, in the reign of Domitian. He left nothing in writing,
and we are indebted for a knowledge of his doctrines to Arrian, who
compiled his lectures or philosophical dissertations in eight books, of which
only four are preserved, and the "Manual of Epictetus," a valuable
compendium of the doctrines of the Stoics. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius
not only lectured at Rome on the principles of Epictetus, but he left us his
private meditations, composed in the midst of a camp, and exhibiting the
serenity of a mind which had made itself independent of outward actions
and warring passions within. Lucian (fl. 150 A.D.) may be compared to
Voltaire, whom he equaled in his powers both of rhetoric and ridicule, and
surpassed in his more conscientious and courageous love of truth. Though
the results of his efforts against heathenism were merely negative, he
prepared the way for Christianity by giving the death-blow to declining
idolatry. Lucian, as a man of letters, is on many accounts interesting, and in
reference to his own age and to the literature of Greece he is entitled to an
important position both with regard to the religious and philosophical
results of his works, and to the introduction of a purer Greek style, which he
taught and exemplified. Longinus (fl. 230 A.D.), both as an opponent of
Neo- Platonism and as a sound and sensible critic, occupies a position
Ammonius Saccas (fl. 200 A.D.), Plotinus (fl, 260 A.D.), Porphyry (fl. 260
A.D.), and several fathers of the Greek Church are among the principal
disciples of this school.
5. ANTI-NEO-PLATONIC TENDENCIES.—While the Neo-Platonism
of Alexandria introduced into Greek philosophy Oriental ideas and
tendencies, other positive and practical doctrines also prevailed, founded on
common sense and conscience. First among these were the tenets of the
Stoics, who owed their system mainly and immediately to the teaching of
Epictetus (fl. 60 A.D.), who opposed the Oriental enthusiasm of the Neo-
Platonists. He was originally a slave, and became a prominent teacher of
philosophy in Rome, in the reign of Domitian. He left nothing in writing,
and we are indebted for a knowledge of his doctrines to Arrian, who
compiled his lectures or philosophical dissertations in eight books, of which
only four are preserved, and the "Manual of Epictetus," a valuable
compendium of the doctrines of the Stoics. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius
not only lectured at Rome on the principles of Epictetus, but he left us his
private meditations, composed in the midst of a camp, and exhibiting the
serenity of a mind which had made itself independent of outward actions
and warring passions within. Lucian (fl. 150 A.D.) may be compared to
Voltaire, whom he equaled in his powers both of rhetoric and ridicule, and
surpassed in his more conscientious and courageous love of truth. Though
the results of his efforts against heathenism were merely negative, he
prepared the way for Christianity by giving the death-blow to declining
idolatry. Lucian, as a man of letters, is on many accounts interesting, and in
reference to his own age and to the literature of Greece he is entitled to an
important position both with regard to the religious and philosophical
results of his works, and to the introduction of a purer Greek style, which he
taught and exemplified. Longinus (fl. 230 A.D.), both as an opponent of
Neo- Platonism and as a sound and sensible critic, occupies a position
Page 179
similar to that of Lucian, in the declining period of Greek literary history.
During a visit to the East, he became known to Zenobia, queen of Palmyra,
who adopted the celebrated scholar as her instructor in the language and
literature of Greece, her adviser and chief minister; and when Palmyra fell
before the Roman power he was put to death by the Roman emperor. To his
treatise on "The Sublime" he is chiefly indebted for his fame. When France,
in the reign of Louis XIV., gave a tone to the literary judgments of Europe,
this work was translated by Boileau, and received by the wits of Paris as an
established manual in all that related to the sublime and beautiful.
6. GREEK LITERATURE IN ROME.—After the subjugation of Greece
by the Romans, Greek authors wrote in their own language and published
their works in Rome; illustrious Romans chose the idiom of Plato as the
best medium for the expression of their own thoughts; dramatic poets
gained a reputation by imitating the tragedies and comedies of Athens, and
every versifier felt compelled by fashion to revive the metres of ancient
Greece. This naturalization of Greek literature at Rome was due to the
rudeness and poverty of the national literature of Italy, to the influence
exerted by the Greek colonies, and to the political subjugation of Greece. In
Rome, Greek libraries were established by the Emperor Augustus and his
successors; and the knowledge of the Greek language was considered a
necessary accomplishment. Cicero made his countrymen acquainted with
the philosophical schools of Athens, and Rome became more and more the
rival of Alexandria, both as a receptacle for the best Greek writings and as a
seat of learning, where Greek authors found appreciation and patronage.
The Greek poets, who were fostered and encouraged at Rome, were chiefly
writers of epigrams, and their poems are preserved in the collections called
"Anthologies." The growing demand for forensic eloquence naturally led
the Roman orators to find their examples in those of Athens, and to the
study of rhetoric in the Grecian writers.
During a visit to the East, he became known to Zenobia, queen of Palmyra,
who adopted the celebrated scholar as her instructor in the language and
literature of Greece, her adviser and chief minister; and when Palmyra fell
before the Roman power he was put to death by the Roman emperor. To his
treatise on "The Sublime" he is chiefly indebted for his fame. When France,
in the reign of Louis XIV., gave a tone to the literary judgments of Europe,
this work was translated by Boileau, and received by the wits of Paris as an
established manual in all that related to the sublime and beautiful.
6. GREEK LITERATURE IN ROME.—After the subjugation of Greece
by the Romans, Greek authors wrote in their own language and published
their works in Rome; illustrious Romans chose the idiom of Plato as the
best medium for the expression of their own thoughts; dramatic poets
gained a reputation by imitating the tragedies and comedies of Athens, and
every versifier felt compelled by fashion to revive the metres of ancient
Greece. This naturalization of Greek literature at Rome was due to the
rudeness and poverty of the national literature of Italy, to the influence
exerted by the Greek colonies, and to the political subjugation of Greece. In
Rome, Greek libraries were established by the Emperor Augustus and his
successors; and the knowledge of the Greek language was considered a
necessary accomplishment. Cicero made his countrymen acquainted with
the philosophical schools of Athens, and Rome became more and more the
rival of Alexandria, both as a receptacle for the best Greek writings and as a
seat of learning, where Greek authors found appreciation and patronage.
The Greek poets, who were fostered and encouraged at Rome, were chiefly
writers of epigrams, and their poems are preserved in the collections called
"Anthologies." The growing demand for forensic eloquence naturally led
the Roman orators to find their examples in those of Athens, and to the
study of rhetoric in the Grecian writers.
Page 180
Among the writers on rhetoric whose works seem to have produced the,
greatest effect at the beginning of the Roman period, we mention Dionysius
of Halicarnassus (fl. 7 B.C.). As a critic, he occupies the first rank among
the ancients. Besides his rhetorical treatises, he wrote a work on "Roman
Archaeology," the object of which was to show that the Romans were not,
after all, barbarians, as was generally supposed, but a pure Greek race,
whose institutions, religion, and manners were traceable to an identity with
those of the noblest Hellenes.
What Dionysius endeavored to do for the gratification of his own
countrymen, by giving them a Greek version of Roman history, an
accomplished Jew, who lived about a century later, attempted, from the
opposite point of view, for his own fallen race, in a work which was a direct
imitation of that just described. Flavius Josephus (fl. 60 A.D.) wrote the
"Jewish Archaeology" in order to show the Roman conquerors of Jerusalem
that the Jews did not deserve the contempt with which they were
universally regarded. His "History of the Jewish Wars" is an able and
valuable work.
At an earlier period, Polybius (204-122 B.C.) wrote to explain to the
Greeks how the power of the Romans had established itself in Greece. His
great work was a universal history, but of the forty books of which it
consisted only five have been preserved; perhaps no historical work has
ever been written with such definiteness of purpose or unity of plan, or with
such self-consciousness on the part of the writer. The object to which he
directs attention is the manner in which fortune or providence uses the
ability and energy of man as instruments in carrying out what is
predetermined, and specially the exemplification of these principles in the
wonderful growth of the Roman power during the fifty-three years of which
he treats. Taking his history as a whole, it is hardly possible to speak in too
high terms of it, though the style has many blemishes, such as endless
greatest effect at the beginning of the Roman period, we mention Dionysius
of Halicarnassus (fl. 7 B.C.). As a critic, he occupies the first rank among
the ancients. Besides his rhetorical treatises, he wrote a work on "Roman
Archaeology," the object of which was to show that the Romans were not,
after all, barbarians, as was generally supposed, but a pure Greek race,
whose institutions, religion, and manners were traceable to an identity with
those of the noblest Hellenes.
What Dionysius endeavored to do for the gratification of his own
countrymen, by giving them a Greek version of Roman history, an
accomplished Jew, who lived about a century later, attempted, from the
opposite point of view, for his own fallen race, in a work which was a direct
imitation of that just described. Flavius Josephus (fl. 60 A.D.) wrote the
"Jewish Archaeology" in order to show the Roman conquerors of Jerusalem
that the Jews did not deserve the contempt with which they were
universally regarded. His "History of the Jewish Wars" is an able and
valuable work.
At an earlier period, Polybius (204-122 B.C.) wrote to explain to the
Greeks how the power of the Romans had established itself in Greece. His
great work was a universal history, but of the forty books of which it
consisted only five have been preserved; perhaps no historical work has
ever been written with such definiteness of purpose or unity of plan, or with
such self-consciousness on the part of the writer. The object to which he
directs attention is the manner in which fortune or providence uses the
ability and energy of man as instruments in carrying out what is
predetermined, and specially the exemplification of these principles in the
wonderful growth of the Roman power during the fifty-three years of which
he treats. Taking his history as a whole, it is hardly possible to speak in too
high terms of it, though the style has many blemishes, such as endless
Page 181
digressions, wearisome repetition of his own principles and colloquial
vulgarisms.
Diodorus, a native of Sicily, generally known as the Sicilian (Siculus),
flourished in the time of the first two Caesars. In his great work, the
"Historical Library," it was his object to write a history of the world down
to the commencement of Caesar's Gallic wars. He is content to give a bare
recital of the facts, which crowded upon him and left him no time to be
diffuse or ornamental.
The geography of Strabo (fl. 10 A.D.), which has made his name familiar
to modern scholars, has come down to us very nearly complete. Its merits
are literary rather than scientific. His object was to give an instructive and
readable account of the known world, from the point of view taken by a
Greek man of letters. His style is simple, unadorned, and unaffected.
Plutarch (40-120 A.D.) may be classed among the philosophers as well as
among the historians. Though he has left many essays and works on
different subjects, he is best known as a biographer. His lives of celebrated
Greeks and Romans have made his name familiar to the readers of every
country. The universal popularity of his biographies is due to the fact that
they are dramatic pictures, in which each personage is represented as acting
according to his leading characteristics.
Pausanias (fl. 184 A.D.), a professed describer of countries and of their
antiquities and works of art, in his "Gazetteer of Hellas" has left the best
repertory of information for the topography, local history, religious
observances, architecture, and sculpture of the different states of Greece.
Among the scientific men of this period we find Ptolemy, whose name
for more than a thousand years was coextensive with the sciences of
astronomy and geography. He was a native of Alexandria, and flourished
vulgarisms.
Diodorus, a native of Sicily, generally known as the Sicilian (Siculus),
flourished in the time of the first two Caesars. In his great work, the
"Historical Library," it was his object to write a history of the world down
to the commencement of Caesar's Gallic wars. He is content to give a bare
recital of the facts, which crowded upon him and left him no time to be
diffuse or ornamental.
The geography of Strabo (fl. 10 A.D.), which has made his name familiar
to modern scholars, has come down to us very nearly complete. Its merits
are literary rather than scientific. His object was to give an instructive and
readable account of the known world, from the point of view taken by a
Greek man of letters. His style is simple, unadorned, and unaffected.
Plutarch (40-120 A.D.) may be classed among the philosophers as well as
among the historians. Though he has left many essays and works on
different subjects, he is best known as a biographer. His lives of celebrated
Greeks and Romans have made his name familiar to the readers of every
country. The universal popularity of his biographies is due to the fact that
they are dramatic pictures, in which each personage is represented as acting
according to his leading characteristics.
Pausanias (fl. 184 A.D.), a professed describer of countries and of their
antiquities and works of art, in his "Gazetteer of Hellas" has left the best
repertory of information for the topography, local history, religious
observances, architecture, and sculpture of the different states of Greece.
Among the scientific men of this period we find Ptolemy, whose name
for more than a thousand years was coextensive with the sciences of
astronomy and geography. He was a native of Alexandria, and flourished
Page 182
about the latter part of the second century. The best known of his works is
his "Great Construction of Astronomy." He was the first to indicate the true
shape of Spain, Gaul, and Ireland; as a writer, he deserves to be held in high
estimation. Galen (fl. 130 A.D.) was a writer on philosophy and medicine,
with whom few could vie in productiveness. It was his object to combine
philosophy with medical science, and his works for fifteen centuries were
received as oracular authorities throughout the civilized world.
7. CONTINUED DECLINE OF GREEK LITERATURE.—The adoption
of the Christian religion by Constantine, and his establishment of the seat of
government in his new city of Constantinople, concurred in causing the
rapid decline of Greek literature in the fourth and following centuries.
Christianity, no longer the object of persecution, became the dominant
religion of the state, and the profession of its tenets was the shortest road to
influence and honor. The old literature, with its mythological allusions,
became less and less fashionable, and the Greek poets, philosophers, and
orators of the better periods gradually lost their attractions. Greek, the
official language of Constantinople, was spoken there, with different
degrees of corruption, by Syrians, Bulgarians, and Goths; and thus, as
Christianity undermined the old classical literature, the political condition
of the capital deteriorated the language itself. Other causes accelerated the
decadence of Greek learning: the great library at Alexandria, and the school
which had been established in connection with it, were destroyed at the end
of the fourth century by the edict of Theodosius, and the conquest of Egypt
by the Saracens in the seventh century only completed the work of
destruction. Justinian closed the schools of Athens, and prohibited the
teaching of philosophy; the Arabs overthrew those established elsewhere,
and there remained only the institutions of Constantinople. But long before
the establishment of the Turks on the ruins of the Byzantine empire, Greek
literature had ceased to claim any original or independent existence. The
opposition between the literary spirit of heathen Greece and the Christian
his "Great Construction of Astronomy." He was the first to indicate the true
shape of Spain, Gaul, and Ireland; as a writer, he deserves to be held in high
estimation. Galen (fl. 130 A.D.) was a writer on philosophy and medicine,
with whom few could vie in productiveness. It was his object to combine
philosophy with medical science, and his works for fifteen centuries were
received as oracular authorities throughout the civilized world.
7. CONTINUED DECLINE OF GREEK LITERATURE.—The adoption
of the Christian religion by Constantine, and his establishment of the seat of
government in his new city of Constantinople, concurred in causing the
rapid decline of Greek literature in the fourth and following centuries.
Christianity, no longer the object of persecution, became the dominant
religion of the state, and the profession of its tenets was the shortest road to
influence and honor. The old literature, with its mythological allusions,
became less and less fashionable, and the Greek poets, philosophers, and
orators of the better periods gradually lost their attractions. Greek, the
official language of Constantinople, was spoken there, with different
degrees of corruption, by Syrians, Bulgarians, and Goths; and thus, as
Christianity undermined the old classical literature, the political condition
of the capital deteriorated the language itself. Other causes accelerated the
decadence of Greek learning: the great library at Alexandria, and the school
which had been established in connection with it, were destroyed at the end
of the fourth century by the edict of Theodosius, and the conquest of Egypt
by the Saracens in the seventh century only completed the work of
destruction. Justinian closed the schools of Athens, and prohibited the
teaching of philosophy; the Arabs overthrew those established elsewhere,
and there remained only the institutions of Constantinople. But long before
the establishment of the Turks on the ruins of the Byzantine empire, Greek
literature had ceased to claim any original or independent existence. The
opposition between the literary spirit of heathen Greece and the Christian
Page 183
scholarship of the time of Constantine and his immediate successors, which
grew up very gradually, was the result of the Oriental superstitions which
distorted Christianity and disturbed the old philosophy. The abortive
attempt of the Emperor Julian to create a reaction in favor of heathenism
was the cause of the open antagonism between the classical and Christian
forms of literature. The church, however, was soon enabled not only to
dictate its own rules of literary criticism, but to destroy the writings of its
most formidable antagonists. The last rays of heathen cultivation in Italy
were extinguished in the gloomy dungeon of Boethius, and the period so
justly designated as the Dark Ages began both in eastern and western
Europe.
8. LAST ECHOES OF THE OLD LITERATURE—From the time when
Christianity placed itself in opposition to the old culture of heathen Greece
and Rome, down to the period of the revival of classical literature in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the classical spirit was nearly extinct both
in eastern and western Europe. In Italy, the triumph of barbarism was more
sudden and complete. In the eastern empire there was a certain literary
activity, and in the department of history, Byzantine literature was
conspicuously prolific.
The imperial family of the Comneni, in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, and the Palaeologi, who reigned from the thirteenth century to the
end of the eastern empire, endeavored to revive the taste for literature and
learning. But the echoes of the past became fainter and fainter, and when
Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, 1453 A.D., the wandering
Greeks who found their way into Italy could only serve as language-masters
to a race of scholars, who thus recovered the learning that had ceased to
exist among the Greeks themselves.
grew up very gradually, was the result of the Oriental superstitions which
distorted Christianity and disturbed the old philosophy. The abortive
attempt of the Emperor Julian to create a reaction in favor of heathenism
was the cause of the open antagonism between the classical and Christian
forms of literature. The church, however, was soon enabled not only to
dictate its own rules of literary criticism, but to destroy the writings of its
most formidable antagonists. The last rays of heathen cultivation in Italy
were extinguished in the gloomy dungeon of Boethius, and the period so
justly designated as the Dark Ages began both in eastern and western
Europe.
8. LAST ECHOES OF THE OLD LITERATURE—From the time when
Christianity placed itself in opposition to the old culture of heathen Greece
and Rome, down to the period of the revival of classical literature in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the classical spirit was nearly extinct both
in eastern and western Europe. In Italy, the triumph of barbarism was more
sudden and complete. In the eastern empire there was a certain literary
activity, and in the department of history, Byzantine literature was
conspicuously prolific.
The imperial family of the Comneni, in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, and the Palaeologi, who reigned from the thirteenth century to the
end of the eastern empire, endeavored to revive the taste for literature and
learning. But the echoes of the past became fainter and fainter, and when
Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, 1453 A.D., the wandering
Greeks who found their way into Italy could only serve as language-masters
to a race of scholars, who thus recovered the learning that had ceased to
exist among the Greeks themselves.
Page 184
The last manifestations of the old classical learning by the Alexandrian
school, which had done so much in the second and first centuries before our
era, may he divided into three classes. In the first are placed the
mathematical and geographical studies, which had been brought to such
perfection by Euclid, his successors, and after them by Ptolemy. In the
second class we have the substitution of prose romances for the bucolic and
erotic poetry of the Alexandrian and Sicilian writers. In the third class the
revival, by Nonnus and his followers, of a learned epos, of much the same
kind as the poems of Callimachus. Among the representatives of the
mathematical school of Alexandria was Theon, whose celebrity is obscured
by that of his daughter Hypatia (fl. 415 A.D.), whose sex, youth, beauty,
and cruel fate have made her a most interesting martyr of philosophy. She
presided in the public school at Alexandria, where she taught mathematics
and the philosophy of Ammonius and Plotinus. Her influence over the
educated classes of that city excited the jealousy of the archbishop. She was
given up to the violence of a superstitious and brutal mob, attacked as she
was passing through the streets in her chariot, torn in pieces, and her
mutilated body thrown to the flames.
When rhetorical prose superseded composition in verse, the greater
facility of style naturally led to more detailed narratives, and the sophist
who would have been a poet in the time of Callimachus, became a writer of
prose romances in the final period of Greek literature. The first ascertained
beginning of this style of light reading, which occupies so large a space in
the catalogues of modern libraries, was in the time of the Emperor Trajan,
when a Syrian or Babylonian freedman, named Iamblichus, published a
love story called the "Babylonian Adventures." Among his successors is
Longus, of whose work, "The Lesbian Adventure," it is sufficient to say,
that it was the model of the "Diana" of Montemayor, the "Aminta" of Tasso,
the "Pastor Fido" of Guarini, and the "Gentle Shepherd" of Allan Ramsay.
school, which had done so much in the second and first centuries before our
era, may he divided into three classes. In the first are placed the
mathematical and geographical studies, which had been brought to such
perfection by Euclid, his successors, and after them by Ptolemy. In the
second class we have the substitution of prose romances for the bucolic and
erotic poetry of the Alexandrian and Sicilian writers. In the third class the
revival, by Nonnus and his followers, of a learned epos, of much the same
kind as the poems of Callimachus. Among the representatives of the
mathematical school of Alexandria was Theon, whose celebrity is obscured
by that of his daughter Hypatia (fl. 415 A.D.), whose sex, youth, beauty,
and cruel fate have made her a most interesting martyr of philosophy. She
presided in the public school at Alexandria, where she taught mathematics
and the philosophy of Ammonius and Plotinus. Her influence over the
educated classes of that city excited the jealousy of the archbishop. She was
given up to the violence of a superstitious and brutal mob, attacked as she
was passing through the streets in her chariot, torn in pieces, and her
mutilated body thrown to the flames.
When rhetorical prose superseded composition in verse, the greater
facility of style naturally led to more detailed narratives, and the sophist
who would have been a poet in the time of Callimachus, became a writer of
prose romances in the final period of Greek literature. The first ascertained
beginning of this style of light reading, which occupies so large a space in
the catalogues of modern libraries, was in the time of the Emperor Trajan,
when a Syrian or Babylonian freedman, named Iamblichus, published a
love story called the "Babylonian Adventures." Among his successors is
Longus, of whose work, "The Lesbian Adventure," it is sufficient to say,
that it was the model of the "Diana" of Montemayor, the "Aminta" of Tasso,
the "Pastor Fido" of Guarini, and the "Gentle Shepherd" of Allan Ramsay.
Page 185
While the sophists were amusing themselves by clothing erotic and
bucolic subjects in rhetorical prose, an Egyptian boldly revived the epos
which had been cultivated at Alexandria in the earliest days of the Museum.
Nonnus probably flourished at the commencement of the fifth century A.D.
His epic poem, which, in accordance with the terminology of the age, is
called "Dionysian Adventures," is an enormous farrago of learning on the
well-worked subject of Bacchus. The most interesting of the epic
productions of the school of Nonnus is the story of "Hero and Leander," in
340 verses, which bears the name of Musaeus. For grace of diction, metrical
elegance, and simple pathos, this little canto stands far before the other
poems of the same age. The Hero and Leander of Musaeus is the dying
swan-note of Greek poetry, the last distinct note of the old music of Hellas.
In the Byzantine literature, there are works which claim no originality,
but have a higher value than their contemporaries, because they give
extracts or fragments of the lost writings of the best days of Greece. Next in
value follow the lexicographers, the grammarians, and commentators. The
most voluminous department, however, of Byzantine literature, was that of
the historians, annalists, chroniclers, biographers, and antiquarians, whose
works form a continuous series of Byzantine annals from the time of
Constantine the Great to the taking of the capital by the Turks. This
literature was also enlivened by several poets, and enriched by some writers
on natural history and medicine.
9. THE NEW TESTAMENT AND THE GREEK FATHERS.—The
history of Greek literature would be imperfect without some allusion to a
class of writings not usually included in the range of classical studies. The
first of these works, the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, before
mentioned, and the Greek Apocrypha, may properly be termed Hebrew-
Grecian. Their spirit is wholly at variance with that of pagan literature, and
it cannot be doubted that they exerted great influence when made known to
bucolic subjects in rhetorical prose, an Egyptian boldly revived the epos
which had been cultivated at Alexandria in the earliest days of the Museum.
Nonnus probably flourished at the commencement of the fifth century A.D.
His epic poem, which, in accordance with the terminology of the age, is
called "Dionysian Adventures," is an enormous farrago of learning on the
well-worked subject of Bacchus. The most interesting of the epic
productions of the school of Nonnus is the story of "Hero and Leander," in
340 verses, which bears the name of Musaeus. For grace of diction, metrical
elegance, and simple pathos, this little canto stands far before the other
poems of the same age. The Hero and Leander of Musaeus is the dying
swan-note of Greek poetry, the last distinct note of the old music of Hellas.
In the Byzantine literature, there are works which claim no originality,
but have a higher value than their contemporaries, because they give
extracts or fragments of the lost writings of the best days of Greece. Next in
value follow the lexicographers, the grammarians, and commentators. The
most voluminous department, however, of Byzantine literature, was that of
the historians, annalists, chroniclers, biographers, and antiquarians, whose
works form a continuous series of Byzantine annals from the time of
Constantine the Great to the taking of the capital by the Turks. This
literature was also enlivened by several poets, and enriched by some writers
on natural history and medicine.
9. THE NEW TESTAMENT AND THE GREEK FATHERS.—The
history of Greek literature would be imperfect without some allusion to a
class of writings not usually included in the range of classical studies. The
first of these works, the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, before
mentioned, and the Greek Apocrypha, may properly be termed Hebrew-
Grecian. Their spirit is wholly at variance with that of pagan literature, and
it cannot be doubted that they exerted great influence when made known to
Page 186
the pagans of Alexandria. Many of the books termed the Apocrypha were
originally written in Greek, and mostly before the Christian era. Many of
them contain authentic narratives, and are valuable as illustrating the
circumstances of the age to which they refer. The other class of writings
alluded to comprehends the works of the Christian authors. As the influence
of Christianity became more diffused during the first and second centuries,
its regenerating power became visible. After the time of Christ, there
appeared, in both the Greek and Latin tongues, works wholly different in
their spirit and character from all that is found in pagan literature. The
collection of sacred writings contained in the New Testament and the works
of the early fathers constitute a distinct and interesting feature in the
literature of the age in which they appeared. The writings of the New
Testament, considered simply in their literary aspect, are distinguished by a
simplicity, earnestness, naturalness, and beauty that find no parallel in the
literature of the world. But the consideration must not be overlooked, that
they were the work of those men who wrote as they were moved of the
Holy Ghost, that they contain the life and the teachings of the great Founder
of our faith, and that they come to us invested with divine authority. Their
influence upon the ages which have succeeded them is incalculable, and it
is still widening as the knowledge of Christianity increases. The
composition of the New Testament is historical, epistolary, and prophetic.
The first five books, or the historical division, contain an account of the life
and death of our Saviour, and some account of the first movements of the
Apostles. The epistolary division consists of letters addressed by the
Apostles to the different churches or to individuals. The last, the book of
Revelation, the only part that is considered prophetic, differs from the
others in its use of that symbolical language which had been common to the
Hebrew prophets, in the sublimity and majesty of its imagery, and in its
prediction of the final and universal triumph of Christianity.
originally written in Greek, and mostly before the Christian era. Many of
them contain authentic narratives, and are valuable as illustrating the
circumstances of the age to which they refer. The other class of writings
alluded to comprehends the works of the Christian authors. As the influence
of Christianity became more diffused during the first and second centuries,
its regenerating power became visible. After the time of Christ, there
appeared, in both the Greek and Latin tongues, works wholly different in
their spirit and character from all that is found in pagan literature. The
collection of sacred writings contained in the New Testament and the works
of the early fathers constitute a distinct and interesting feature in the
literature of the age in which they appeared. The writings of the New
Testament, considered simply in their literary aspect, are distinguished by a
simplicity, earnestness, naturalness, and beauty that find no parallel in the
literature of the world. But the consideration must not be overlooked, that
they were the work of those men who wrote as they were moved of the
Holy Ghost, that they contain the life and the teachings of the great Founder
of our faith, and that they come to us invested with divine authority. Their
influence upon the ages which have succeeded them is incalculable, and it
is still widening as the knowledge of Christianity increases. The
composition of the New Testament is historical, epistolary, and prophetic.
The first five books, or the historical division, contain an account of the life
and death of our Saviour, and some account of the first movements of the
Apostles. The epistolary division consists of letters addressed by the
Apostles to the different churches or to individuals. The last, the book of
Revelation, the only part that is considered prophetic, differs from the
others in its use of that symbolical language which had been common to the
Hebrew prophets, in the sublimity and majesty of its imagery, and in its
prediction of the final and universal triumph of Christianity.
Page 187
The writings of the Apostolic Fathers, or the immediate successors of the
Apostles, were held in high estimation by the primitive Christians. Of those
who wrote under this denomination, the venerable Polycarp and Ignatius,
after they had both attained the age of eighty years, sealed their faith in the
blood of martyrdom. The former was burned at the stake in Smyrna, and the
latter devoured by lions in the amphitheatre of Rome, In the second and
third centuries, Christianity numbered among its advocates many
distinguished scholars and philosophers, particularly among the Greeks.
Their productions may be classed under the heads of biblical, controversial,
doctrinal, historical, and homiletical. Among the most distinguished of the
Greek fathers were Justin Martyr (fl. 89 A.D.), an eminent Christian
philosopher and speculative thinker; Clement of Alexandria (fl. 190 A.D.),
who has left us a collection of works, which, for learning and literary talent,
stand unrivaled among the writings of the early Christian fathers; Origen
(184-253 A.D.), who, in his numerous works, attempted to reconcile
philosophy with Christianity; Eusebius (fl. 325 A.D.), whose ecclesiastical
history is ranked among the most valuable remains of Christian antiquity;
Athanasius, famous for his controversy with Arius; Gregory Nazianzen
(329-390 A.D.), distinguished for his rare union of eloquence and piety, a
great orator and theologian; Basil (329- 379 A.D.) whose works, mostly of a
purely theological character, exhibit occasionally decided proofs of his
strong feeling for the beauties of nature; and John Chrysostom (347-407
A.D.), the founder of the art of preaching, whose extant homilies breathe a
spirit of sincere earnestness and of true genius. To these may be added
Nemesius (fl. 400 A.D.), whose work on the "Nature of Man" is
distinguished by the purity of its style and by the traces of a careful study of
classical authors, and Synesius (378-430 A.D.), who maintained the parallel
importance of pagan and Christian literature, and who has always been held
in high estimation for his epistles, hymns, and dramas.
Apostles, were held in high estimation by the primitive Christians. Of those
who wrote under this denomination, the venerable Polycarp and Ignatius,
after they had both attained the age of eighty years, sealed their faith in the
blood of martyrdom. The former was burned at the stake in Smyrna, and the
latter devoured by lions in the amphitheatre of Rome, In the second and
third centuries, Christianity numbered among its advocates many
distinguished scholars and philosophers, particularly among the Greeks.
Their productions may be classed under the heads of biblical, controversial,
doctrinal, historical, and homiletical. Among the most distinguished of the
Greek fathers were Justin Martyr (fl. 89 A.D.), an eminent Christian
philosopher and speculative thinker; Clement of Alexandria (fl. 190 A.D.),
who has left us a collection of works, which, for learning and literary talent,
stand unrivaled among the writings of the early Christian fathers; Origen
(184-253 A.D.), who, in his numerous works, attempted to reconcile
philosophy with Christianity; Eusebius (fl. 325 A.D.), whose ecclesiastical
history is ranked among the most valuable remains of Christian antiquity;
Athanasius, famous for his controversy with Arius; Gregory Nazianzen
(329-390 A.D.), distinguished for his rare union of eloquence and piety, a
great orator and theologian; Basil (329- 379 A.D.) whose works, mostly of a
purely theological character, exhibit occasionally decided proofs of his
strong feeling for the beauties of nature; and John Chrysostom (347-407
A.D.), the founder of the art of preaching, whose extant homilies breathe a
spirit of sincere earnestness and of true genius. To these may be added
Nemesius (fl. 400 A.D.), whose work on the "Nature of Man" is
distinguished by the purity of its style and by the traces of a careful study of
classical authors, and Synesius (378-430 A.D.), who maintained the parallel
importance of pagan and Christian literature, and who has always been held
in high estimation for his epistles, hymns, and dramas.
Page 188
MODERN LITERATURE.
At the time of the fall of Constantinople, ancient Greek was still the vehicle
of literature, and as such it has been preserved to our day. After the political
changes of the present century, however, it was felt by the best Greek
writers that the old forms were no longer fitted to express modern ideas,
and hence it has become transfused with those better adapted to the clear
and rapid expression of modern literature, though at the same time the body
and substance, as well as the grammar, of the language have been retained.
From an early age, along with the literary language of Greece, there
existed a conversational language, which varied in different localities, and
out of this grew the Modern Greek or Neo-Hellenic.
After the fall of Constantinople, the Greeks were prominent in spreading
a knowledge of their language through Europe, and but few works of
importance were produced. During the eighteenth century a revival of
enthusiasm for education and literature took place, and a period of great
literary activity has since followed. Perhaps no nation now produces so
much literature in proportion to its numbers, although the number of readers
is small and there are great difficulties in publishing. In these
circumstances, the Ralli and other distinguished Greeks have nobly come
forward and published books at their own expense, and great activity
prevails in every department of letters.
Since the establishment of Greek independence, three writers have
secured for themselves a permanent place in literature as men of true
genius: the two brothers Panagiotis and Alexander Santsos, and Alexander
Rangabé. The brothers Santsos threw all their energies into the war for
independence and sang of its glories. Panagiotis (d. 1868) was always
lyrical, and Alexander (d. 1863) always satirical. Both were highly ideal in
At the time of the fall of Constantinople, ancient Greek was still the vehicle
of literature, and as such it has been preserved to our day. After the political
changes of the present century, however, it was felt by the best Greek
writers that the old forms were no longer fitted to express modern ideas,
and hence it has become transfused with those better adapted to the clear
and rapid expression of modern literature, though at the same time the body
and substance, as well as the grammar, of the language have been retained.
From an early age, along with the literary language of Greece, there
existed a conversational language, which varied in different localities, and
out of this grew the Modern Greek or Neo-Hellenic.
After the fall of Constantinople, the Greeks were prominent in spreading
a knowledge of their language through Europe, and but few works of
importance were produced. During the eighteenth century a revival of
enthusiasm for education and literature took place, and a period of great
literary activity has since followed. Perhaps no nation now produces so
much literature in proportion to its numbers, although the number of readers
is small and there are great difficulties in publishing. In these
circumstances, the Ralli and other distinguished Greeks have nobly come
forward and published books at their own expense, and great activity
prevails in every department of letters.
Since the establishment of Greek independence, three writers have
secured for themselves a permanent place in literature as men of true
genius: the two brothers Panagiotis and Alexander Santsos, and Alexander
Rangabé. The brothers Santsos threw all their energies into the war for
independence and sang of its glories. Panagiotis (d. 1868) was always
lyrical, and Alexander (d. 1863) always satirical. Both were highly ideal in
Page 189
their conceptions, and both had a rich command of musical language. The
other great poet of regenerated Greece is Alexander Rangabé, whose works
range through almost every department of literature, though it is on his
poems that his claim to remembrance will specially rest. They are
distinguished by fine poetic feeling, rare command of exquisite and
harmonious language, and singular beauty and purity of thought. His
poetical works consist of hymns, odes, songs, narrative poems, ballads,
tragedies, comedies, and translations. There is no department in prose
literature which is not well represented in modern Greek, and many women
have particularly distinguished themselves.
other great poet of regenerated Greece is Alexander Rangabé, whose works
range through almost every department of literature, though it is on his
poems that his claim to remembrance will specially rest. They are
distinguished by fine poetic feeling, rare command of exquisite and
harmonious language, and singular beauty and purity of thought. His
poetical works consist of hymns, odes, songs, narrative poems, ballads,
tragedies, comedies, and translations. There is no department in prose
literature which is not well represented in modern Greek, and many women
have particularly distinguished themselves.
Page 190
ROMAN LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Roman Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language;
Ethnographical Elements of the Latin Language; the Umbrian; Oscan;
Etruscan; the Old Roman Tongue; Saturnian Verse; Peculiarities of the
Latin Language.—3. The Roman Religion.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early Literature of the Romans; the Fescennine
Songs; the Fabulae Atellanae.—2. Early Latin Poets; Livius Andronicus,
Naevius, and Ennius.—3. Roman Comedy.—4. Comic Poets; Plautus,
Terence, and Statius.—5. Roman Tragedy.—6. Tragic Poets; Pacuvius and
Attius.—7. Satire; Lucilius.—8. History and Oratory; Fabius Pictor;
Cencius Alimentus; Cato; Varro; M. Antonius; Crassus; Hortensius.—9.
Roman Jurisprudence.—10. Grammarians.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. Development of the Roman Literature.—2.
Mimes, Mimographers, Pantomime; Laberius and P. Lyrus.—3. Epic
Poetry; Virgil; The Aeneid.—4. Didactic Poetry; the Bucolics; the Georgics;
Lucretius.— 5. Lyric Poetry; Catullus; Horace.—6. Elegy; Tibullus;
Propertius; Ovid. —7. Oratory and Philosophy; Cicero.—8. History; J.
Caesar; Sallust; Livy.—9. Other Prose Writers.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Decline of Roman Literature.—2. Fable;
Phaedrus.—3.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Roman Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language;
Ethnographical Elements of the Latin Language; the Umbrian; Oscan;
Etruscan; the Old Roman Tongue; Saturnian Verse; Peculiarities of the
Latin Language.—3. The Roman Religion.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early Literature of the Romans; the Fescennine
Songs; the Fabulae Atellanae.—2. Early Latin Poets; Livius Andronicus,
Naevius, and Ennius.—3. Roman Comedy.—4. Comic Poets; Plautus,
Terence, and Statius.—5. Roman Tragedy.—6. Tragic Poets; Pacuvius and
Attius.—7. Satire; Lucilius.—8. History and Oratory; Fabius Pictor;
Cencius Alimentus; Cato; Varro; M. Antonius; Crassus; Hortensius.—9.
Roman Jurisprudence.—10. Grammarians.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. Development of the Roman Literature.—2.
Mimes, Mimographers, Pantomime; Laberius and P. Lyrus.—3. Epic
Poetry; Virgil; The Aeneid.—4. Didactic Poetry; the Bucolics; the Georgics;
Lucretius.— 5. Lyric Poetry; Catullus; Horace.—6. Elegy; Tibullus;
Propertius; Ovid. —7. Oratory and Philosophy; Cicero.—8. History; J.
Caesar; Sallust; Livy.—9. Other Prose Writers.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Decline of Roman Literature.—2. Fable;
Phaedrus.—3.
Page 191
Satire and Epigram; Persius, Juvenal, Martial.—4. Dramatic Literature;
the Tragedies of Seneca.—5. Epic Poetry; Lucan; Silius Italicus; Valerius
Flaccus; P. Statius.—6. History; Paterculus; Tacitus; Suetonius; Q.
Curtius; Valerius Maximus.—7. Rhetoric and Eloquence; Quintilian; Pliny
the Younger.—8. Philosophy and Science; Seneca; Pliny the Elder; Celsus;
P. Mela; Columella; Frontinus.—9. Roman Literature from Hadrian to
Theodoric; Claudian; Eutropius; A. Marcellinus; S. Sulpicius; Gellius;
Macrobius; L. Apuleius; Boethius; the Latin Fathers.—10. Roman
Jurisprudence.
INTRODUCTION.
1. ROMAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—Inferior to Greece in
the genius of its inhabitants, and, perhaps, in the intrinsic greatness of the
events of which it was the theatre, unquestionably inferior in the fruits of
intellectual activity, Italy holds the second place in the classic literature of
antiquity. Etruria could boast of arts, legislation, scientific knowledge, a
fanciful mythology, and a form of dramatic spectacle, before the
foundations of Rome were laid. But, like the ancient Egyptians, the
Etrurians made no progress in composition. Verses of an irregular structure
and rude in sense and harmony appear to have formed the highest limit of
their literary achievements. Nor did even the opulent and luxurious Greeks
of Southern Italy, while they retained their independence, contribute much
to the glory of letters in the West. It was only in their fall that they did good
service to the cause, when they redeemed the disgrace of their political
humiliation by the honor of communicating the first impulse towards
intellectual refinement to the bosoms of their conquerors. When, in the
process of time, Sicily, Macedonia, and Achaia had become Roman
provinces, some acquaintance with the language of their new subjects
proved to be a matter almost of necessity to the victorious people; but the
the Tragedies of Seneca.—5. Epic Poetry; Lucan; Silius Italicus; Valerius
Flaccus; P. Statius.—6. History; Paterculus; Tacitus; Suetonius; Q.
Curtius; Valerius Maximus.—7. Rhetoric and Eloquence; Quintilian; Pliny
the Younger.—8. Philosophy and Science; Seneca; Pliny the Elder; Celsus;
P. Mela; Columella; Frontinus.—9. Roman Literature from Hadrian to
Theodoric; Claudian; Eutropius; A. Marcellinus; S. Sulpicius; Gellius;
Macrobius; L. Apuleius; Boethius; the Latin Fathers.—10. Roman
Jurisprudence.
INTRODUCTION.
1. ROMAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—Inferior to Greece in
the genius of its inhabitants, and, perhaps, in the intrinsic greatness of the
events of which it was the theatre, unquestionably inferior in the fruits of
intellectual activity, Italy holds the second place in the classic literature of
antiquity. Etruria could boast of arts, legislation, scientific knowledge, a
fanciful mythology, and a form of dramatic spectacle, before the
foundations of Rome were laid. But, like the ancient Egyptians, the
Etrurians made no progress in composition. Verses of an irregular structure
and rude in sense and harmony appear to have formed the highest limit of
their literary achievements. Nor did even the opulent and luxurious Greeks
of Southern Italy, while they retained their independence, contribute much
to the glory of letters in the West. It was only in their fall that they did good
service to the cause, when they redeemed the disgrace of their political
humiliation by the honor of communicating the first impulse towards
intellectual refinement to the bosoms of their conquerors. When, in the
process of time, Sicily, Macedonia, and Achaia had become Roman
provinces, some acquaintance with the language of their new subjects
proved to be a matter almost of necessity to the victorious people; but the
Page 192
first impression made at Rome by the productions of the Grecian Muse, and
the first efforts to create a similar literature, must be traced to the conquest
of Tarentum (272 B.C.). From that memorable period, the versatile talents
which distinguished the Greeks in every stage of national decline began to
exercise a powerful influence on the Roman mind, which was particularly
felt in the departments of education and amusement. The instruction of the
Roman youth was committed to the skill and learning of Greek slaves; the
spirit of the Greek drama was transferred into the Latin tongue, and,
somewhat later, Roman genius and ambition devoted their united energies
to the study of Greek rhetoric, which long continued to be the guide and
model of those schools, in whose exercises the abilities of Cicero himself
were trained. Prejudice and patriotism were powerless to resist this flood of
foreign innovation; and for more than a century after the Tarentine war,
legislative influence strove in vain to counteract the predominance of Greek
philosophy and eloquence. But this imitative tendency was tempered by the
pride of Roman citizenship. That sentiment breaks out, not merely in the
works of great statesmen and warriors, but quite as strikingly in the
productions of those in whom the literary character was all in all. It is as
prominent in Virgil and Horace as in Cicero and Caesar; and if the language
of Rome, in other respects so inferior to that of Greece, has any advantage
over the sister tongue, it lies in that accent of dignity and command which
seems inherent in its tones. The austerity of power is not shaded down by
those graceful softenings so agreeable to the disposition of the most
polished Grecian communities. In the Latin forms and syntax we are
everywhere conscious of a certain energetic majesty and forcible
compression. We hear, as it were, the voice of one who claims to be
respected, and resolves to be obeyed.
The Roman classical literature may be divided into three periods. The
first embraces its rise and progress, oral and traditional compositions, the
rude elements of the drama, the introduction of Greek literature, and the
the first efforts to create a similar literature, must be traced to the conquest
of Tarentum (272 B.C.). From that memorable period, the versatile talents
which distinguished the Greeks in every stage of national decline began to
exercise a powerful influence on the Roman mind, which was particularly
felt in the departments of education and amusement. The instruction of the
Roman youth was committed to the skill and learning of Greek slaves; the
spirit of the Greek drama was transferred into the Latin tongue, and,
somewhat later, Roman genius and ambition devoted their united energies
to the study of Greek rhetoric, which long continued to be the guide and
model of those schools, in whose exercises the abilities of Cicero himself
were trained. Prejudice and patriotism were powerless to resist this flood of
foreign innovation; and for more than a century after the Tarentine war,
legislative influence strove in vain to counteract the predominance of Greek
philosophy and eloquence. But this imitative tendency was tempered by the
pride of Roman citizenship. That sentiment breaks out, not merely in the
works of great statesmen and warriors, but quite as strikingly in the
productions of those in whom the literary character was all in all. It is as
prominent in Virgil and Horace as in Cicero and Caesar; and if the language
of Rome, in other respects so inferior to that of Greece, has any advantage
over the sister tongue, it lies in that accent of dignity and command which
seems inherent in its tones. The austerity of power is not shaded down by
those graceful softenings so agreeable to the disposition of the most
polished Grecian communities. In the Latin forms and syntax we are
everywhere conscious of a certain energetic majesty and forcible
compression. We hear, as it were, the voice of one who claims to be
respected, and resolves to be obeyed.
The Roman classical literature may be divided into three periods. The
first embraces its rise and progress, oral and traditional compositions, the
rude elements of the drama, the introduction of Greek literature, and the
Page 193
construction and perfection of comedy. To this period the first five centuries
of the republic may be considered as introductory, for Rome had, properly
speaking, no literature until the conclusion of the first Punic war (241 B.C.),
and the first period, commencing at that time, extends through 160 years—
that is, to the first appearance of Cicero in public life, 74 B.C.
The second period ends with the death of Augustus, 14 A.D. It
comprehends the age of which Cicero is the representative as the most
accomplished orator, philosopher, and prose-writer of his time, as well as
that of Augustus, which is commonly called the Golden Age of Latin
poetry.
The third and last period terminates with the death of Theodoric, 526
A.D. Notwithstanding the numerous excellences which distinguished the
literature of this time, its decline had evidently commenced, and, as the age
of Augustus has been distinguished by the epithet "golden," the succeeding
period, to the death of Hadrian, 138 A.D., on account of its comparative
inferiority, has been designated "the Silver Age." From this time to the close
of the reign of Theodoric, only a few distinguished names are to be found.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The origin of the Latin language is necessarily
connected with that of the Romans themselves. In the most distant ages to
which tradition extends, Italy appears to have been inhabited by three
stocks or tribes of the great Indo-European family. One of these is
commonly known by the name of Oscans; another consisted of two
branches, the Sabelians or Sabines, and the Umbrians; the third was called
Sikeli, sometimes Vituli or Itali.
The original settlements of the Umbrians extended over the district
bounded on one side by the Tiber, and on the other by the Po. All the
country to the south was in possession of the Oscans, with the exception of
Latium, which was inhabited by the Sikeli. But, in process of time, the
of the republic may be considered as introductory, for Rome had, properly
speaking, no literature until the conclusion of the first Punic war (241 B.C.),
and the first period, commencing at that time, extends through 160 years—
that is, to the first appearance of Cicero in public life, 74 B.C.
The second period ends with the death of Augustus, 14 A.D. It
comprehends the age of which Cicero is the representative as the most
accomplished orator, philosopher, and prose-writer of his time, as well as
that of Augustus, which is commonly called the Golden Age of Latin
poetry.
The third and last period terminates with the death of Theodoric, 526
A.D. Notwithstanding the numerous excellences which distinguished the
literature of this time, its decline had evidently commenced, and, as the age
of Augustus has been distinguished by the epithet "golden," the succeeding
period, to the death of Hadrian, 138 A.D., on account of its comparative
inferiority, has been designated "the Silver Age." From this time to the close
of the reign of Theodoric, only a few distinguished names are to be found.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The origin of the Latin language is necessarily
connected with that of the Romans themselves. In the most distant ages to
which tradition extends, Italy appears to have been inhabited by three
stocks or tribes of the great Indo-European family. One of these is
commonly known by the name of Oscans; another consisted of two
branches, the Sabelians or Sabines, and the Umbrians; the third was called
Sikeli, sometimes Vituli or Itali.
The original settlements of the Umbrians extended over the district
bounded on one side by the Tiber, and on the other by the Po. All the
country to the south was in possession of the Oscans, with the exception of
Latium, which was inhabited by the Sikeli. But, in process of time, the
Page 194
Oscans, pressed upon by the Sabines, invaded the abodes of this peaceful
and rural people, some of whom submitted, and amalgamated with their
conquerors; the rest were driven across the narrow sea into Sicily, and gave
their name to the island.
These tribes were not left in undisturbed possession of their rich
inheritance. More than 1000 B.C. there arrived in the northern part of Italy
the Pelasgians (or dark Asiatics), an enterprising race, famed for their
warlike spirit and their skill in the arts of peace, who became the civilizers
of Italy. They were far advanced in the arts of civilization and refinement,
and in the science of politics and social life. They enriched their newly
acquired country with commerce, and filled it with strongly fortified and
populous cities, and their dominion rapidly spread over the whole
peninsula. Entering the territory of the Umbrians, they drove them into the
mountainous districts, or compelled them to live among them as a subject
people, while they possessed themselves of the rich and fertile plains. The
headquarters of the invaders was Etruria, and that portion of them who
settled there were known as Etrurians. Marching southward, they
vanquished the Oscans and occupied the plains of Latium. They did not,
however, remain long at peace in the districts which they had conquered.
The old inhabitants returned from the neighboring highlands to which they
had been driven, and subjugated the northern part of Latium, and
established a federal anion between the towns of the north, of which Alba
was the capital, while of the southern confederacy the chief city was
Lavinium.
At a later period, a Latin tribe, belonging to the Alban federation,
established itself on the Mount Palatine, and founded Rome, while a Sabine
community occupied the neighboring heights of the Quirinal. Mutual
jealousy of race kept them, for some time, separate from each other; but at
length the two communities became one people, called the Romans. These
and rural people, some of whom submitted, and amalgamated with their
conquerors; the rest were driven across the narrow sea into Sicily, and gave
their name to the island.
These tribes were not left in undisturbed possession of their rich
inheritance. More than 1000 B.C. there arrived in the northern part of Italy
the Pelasgians (or dark Asiatics), an enterprising race, famed for their
warlike spirit and their skill in the arts of peace, who became the civilizers
of Italy. They were far advanced in the arts of civilization and refinement,
and in the science of politics and social life. They enriched their newly
acquired country with commerce, and filled it with strongly fortified and
populous cities, and their dominion rapidly spread over the whole
peninsula. Entering the territory of the Umbrians, they drove them into the
mountainous districts, or compelled them to live among them as a subject
people, while they possessed themselves of the rich and fertile plains. The
headquarters of the invaders was Etruria, and that portion of them who
settled there were known as Etrurians. Marching southward, they
vanquished the Oscans and occupied the plains of Latium. They did not,
however, remain long at peace in the districts which they had conquered.
The old inhabitants returned from the neighboring highlands to which they
had been driven, and subjugated the northern part of Latium, and
established a federal anion between the towns of the north, of which Alba
was the capital, while of the southern confederacy the chief city was
Lavinium.
At a later period, a Latin tribe, belonging to the Alban federation,
established itself on the Mount Palatine, and founded Rome, while a Sabine
community occupied the neighboring heights of the Quirinal. Mutual
jealousy of race kept them, for some time, separate from each other; but at
length the two communities became one people, called the Romans. These
Page 195
were, at an early period, subjected to Etruscan rule, and when the Etruscan
dynasty passed away, its influence still remained, and permanently affected
the Roman language.
The Etruscan tongue being a compound of Pelasgian and Umbrian, the
language of Latium may be considered as the result of those two elements
combined with the Oscan, and brought together by the mingling of those
different tribes. These elements, which entered into the formation of the
Latin, may be classified under two heads: the one which has, the other
which has not a resemblance to the Greek. All Latin words which resemble
the Greek are Pelasgian, and all which do not are Etruscan, Oscan, or
Umbrian. From the first of these classes must be excepted those words
which are directly derived from the Greek, the origin of which dates partly
from the time when Rome began to have intercourse with the Greek
colonies of Magna Graecia, partly after the Greeks exercised a direct
influence on Roman literature.
Of the ancient languages of Italy, which concurred in the formation of the
Latin, little is known. The Eugubine Tables are the only extant fragments of
the Umbrian language. These were found in the neighborhood of Ugubio, in
the year 1414 A.D.; they date as early as 354 B.C., and contain prayers and
rules for religious ceremonies. Some of these tables were engraved in
Etruscan or Umbrian characters, others in Latin letters. The remains which
have come down to us of the Oscan language belong to a composite idiom
made up of the Sabine and Oscan, and consist chiefly of an inscription
engraved on a brass plate, discovered in 1793 A.D. As the word Bansae
occurs in this inscription, it has been supposed to refer to the town of
Bantia, which was situated not far from the spot where the tablet was found,
and it is, therefore, called the Bantine Table. The similarity between some
of the words found in the Eugubine Tables and in Etruscan inscriptions,
shows that the Etruscan language was composed of the Pelasgian and
dynasty passed away, its influence still remained, and permanently affected
the Roman language.
The Etruscan tongue being a compound of Pelasgian and Umbrian, the
language of Latium may be considered as the result of those two elements
combined with the Oscan, and brought together by the mingling of those
different tribes. These elements, which entered into the formation of the
Latin, may be classified under two heads: the one which has, the other
which has not a resemblance to the Greek. All Latin words which resemble
the Greek are Pelasgian, and all which do not are Etruscan, Oscan, or
Umbrian. From the first of these classes must be excepted those words
which are directly derived from the Greek, the origin of which dates partly
from the time when Rome began to have intercourse with the Greek
colonies of Magna Graecia, partly after the Greeks exercised a direct
influence on Roman literature.
Of the ancient languages of Italy, which concurred in the formation of the
Latin, little is known. The Eugubine Tables are the only extant fragments of
the Umbrian language. These were found in the neighborhood of Ugubio, in
the year 1414 A.D.; they date as early as 354 B.C., and contain prayers and
rules for religious ceremonies. Some of these tables were engraved in
Etruscan or Umbrian characters, others in Latin letters. The remains which
have come down to us of the Oscan language belong to a composite idiom
made up of the Sabine and Oscan, and consist chiefly of an inscription
engraved on a brass plate, discovered in 1793 A.D. As the word Bansae
occurs in this inscription, it has been supposed to refer to the town of
Bantia, which was situated not far from the spot where the tablet was found,
and it is, therefore, called the Bantine Table. The similarity between some
of the words found in the Eugubine Tables and in Etruscan inscriptions,
shows that the Etruscan language was composed of the Pelasgian and
Page 196
Umbrian, and from the examples given by ethnographers, it is evident that
the Etruscan element was most influential in the formation of the Latin
language.
The old Roman tongue, or lingua prisca, as it was composed of these
materials, and as it existed previous to coming in contact with the Greek,
has almost entirely perished; it did not grow into the new, like the Greek, by
a process of intrinsic development, but it was remoulded by external and
foreign influences. So different was the old Roman from the classical Latin,
that some of those ancient fragments were with difficulty intelligible to the
cleverest and best educated scholars of the Augustan age.
An example of the oldest Latin extant is contained in the sacred chant of
the Fratres Arvales. These were a college of priests, whose function was to
offer prayers for plenteous harvests, in solemn dances and processions at
the opening of spring. Their song was chanted in the temple with closed
doors, accompanied by that peculiar dance which was termed the tripudium,
from its containing three beats. The inscription which embodied this litany
was discovered in Rome in 1778 A.D. The monument belongs to the reign
of Heliogabalus, 218 A.D., but although the date is so recent, the
permanence of religious formulas renders it probable that the inscription
contains the exact words sung by this priesthood in the earliest times. The
"Carmen Saliare," or the Salian hymn, the leges regiae, the Tiburtine
inscription, the inscription on the sarcophagus of L. Cornelius Scipio
Barbatus, the great-grandfather of the conqueror of Hannibal, the epitaph of
Lucius Scipio, his son, and, above all, the Twelve Tables, are the other
principal extant monuments of ancient Latin. The laws of the Twelve Tables
were engraven on tablets of brass, and publicly set up in the comitium; they
were first made public 449 B.C.
the Etruscan element was most influential in the formation of the Latin
language.
The old Roman tongue, or lingua prisca, as it was composed of these
materials, and as it existed previous to coming in contact with the Greek,
has almost entirely perished; it did not grow into the new, like the Greek, by
a process of intrinsic development, but it was remoulded by external and
foreign influences. So different was the old Roman from the classical Latin,
that some of those ancient fragments were with difficulty intelligible to the
cleverest and best educated scholars of the Augustan age.
An example of the oldest Latin extant is contained in the sacred chant of
the Fratres Arvales. These were a college of priests, whose function was to
offer prayers for plenteous harvests, in solemn dances and processions at
the opening of spring. Their song was chanted in the temple with closed
doors, accompanied by that peculiar dance which was termed the tripudium,
from its containing three beats. The inscription which embodied this litany
was discovered in Rome in 1778 A.D. The monument belongs to the reign
of Heliogabalus, 218 A.D., but although the date is so recent, the
permanence of religious formulas renders it probable that the inscription
contains the exact words sung by this priesthood in the earliest times. The
"Carmen Saliare," or the Salian hymn, the leges regiae, the Tiburtine
inscription, the inscription on the sarcophagus of L. Cornelius Scipio
Barbatus, the great-grandfather of the conqueror of Hannibal, the epitaph of
Lucius Scipio, his son, and, above all, the Twelve Tables, are the other
principal extant monuments of ancient Latin. The laws of the Twelve Tables
were engraven on tablets of brass, and publicly set up in the comitium; they
were first made public 449 B.C.
Page 197
Most of these literary monuments were written in Saturnian verse, the
oldest measure used by the Latin poets. It was probably derived from the
Etruscans, and until Ennius introduced the heroic hexameter, the strains of
the Italian bards flowed in this metre. The structure of the Saturnian is very
simple, and its rhythmical arrangement is found in the poetry of every age
and country. Macaulay adduces, as an example of this measure, the
following line from the well-known nursery song,——
"The queén was ín her párlor, | eáting breád and hóney."
From this species of verse, which probably prevailed among the natives
of Provence (the Roman Provincia), and into which, at a later period, rhyme
was introduced as an embellishment, the Troubadours derived the metre of
their ballad poetry, and thence introduced it into the rest of Europe.
A wide gap separates this old Latin from the Latin of Ennius, whose style
was formed by Greek taste; another not so wide is interposed between the
age of Ennius and that of Plautus and Terence, and lastly, Cicero and the
Augustan poets mark another age. But in all its periods of development, the
Latin bears a most intimate relation with the Greek. This similarity is the
result both of their common origin from the primitive Pelasgian and of the
intercourse which the Romans at a later period held with the Greeks. Latin,
however, had not the plastic property of the Greek, the faculty of
transforming itself into every variety of form and shape conceived by the
fancy and imagination; it partook of the spirit of Roman nationality, of the
conscious dignity of the Roman citizen, of the indomitable will that led that
people to the conquest of the world. In its construction, instead of
conforming to the thought, it bends the thought to its own genius. It is a fit
language for expressing the thoughts of an active and practical, but not of
an imaginative and speculative people. It was propagated, like the dominion
of Rome, by conquest. It either took the place of the language of the
oldest measure used by the Latin poets. It was probably derived from the
Etruscans, and until Ennius introduced the heroic hexameter, the strains of
the Italian bards flowed in this metre. The structure of the Saturnian is very
simple, and its rhythmical arrangement is found in the poetry of every age
and country. Macaulay adduces, as an example of this measure, the
following line from the well-known nursery song,——
"The queén was ín her párlor, | eáting breád and hóney."
From this species of verse, which probably prevailed among the natives
of Provence (the Roman Provincia), and into which, at a later period, rhyme
was introduced as an embellishment, the Troubadours derived the metre of
their ballad poetry, and thence introduced it into the rest of Europe.
A wide gap separates this old Latin from the Latin of Ennius, whose style
was formed by Greek taste; another not so wide is interposed between the
age of Ennius and that of Plautus and Terence, and lastly, Cicero and the
Augustan poets mark another age. But in all its periods of development, the
Latin bears a most intimate relation with the Greek. This similarity is the
result both of their common origin from the primitive Pelasgian and of the
intercourse which the Romans at a later period held with the Greeks. Latin,
however, had not the plastic property of the Greek, the faculty of
transforming itself into every variety of form and shape conceived by the
fancy and imagination; it partook of the spirit of Roman nationality, of the
conscious dignity of the Roman citizen, of the indomitable will that led that
people to the conquest of the world. In its construction, instead of
conforming to the thought, it bends the thought to its own genius. It is a fit
language for expressing the thoughts of an active and practical, but not of
an imaginative and speculative people. It was propagated, like the dominion
of Rome, by conquest. It either took the place of the language of the
Page 198
conquered nation, or became ingrafted upon it, and gradually pervaded its
composition; hence its presence is discernible in all European languages.
3. THE RELIGION.—The religion and mythology of Etruria left an
indelible stamp on the rites and ceremonies of the Roman people. At first
they worshiped heaven and earth, personified in Saturn and Ops, by whom
Juno, Vesta, and Ceres were generated, symbolizing marriage, family, and
fertility; soon after, other Etruscan divinities were introduced, such as
Jupiter, Minerva, and Janus; and Sylvanus and Faunus, who delighted in the
simple occupations of rural and pastoral life. From the Etrurians the
Romans borrowed, also, the institution of the Vestals, whose duty was to
watch and keep alive the sacred fire of Vesta; the Lares and Penates, the
domestic gods, which presided over the dwelling and family; Terminus, the
god of property and the rites connected with possession; and the orders of
Augurs and Aruspices, whose office was to consult the flight of birds or to
inspect the entrails of animals offered in sacrifice, in order to ascertain
future events. The family of the Roman gods continued to increase by
adopting the divinities of the conquered nations, and more particularly by
the introduction of those of Greece. The general division of the gods was
twofold,—the superior and inferior deities. The first class contained the
Consentes and the Selecti; the second, the Indigetes and Semones. The
Consentes, so called because they were supposed to form the great council
of heaven, consisted of twelve: Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury,
Vulcan, Juno, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, and Vesta. The Selecti were
nearly equal to them in rank, and consisted of eight: Saturn, Pluto, Bacchus,
Janus, Sol, Genius, Rhea, and Luna. The Indigites were heroes who were
ranked among the gods, and included particularly Hercules, Castor and
Pollux, and Quirinus or Romulus. The Semones comprehended those deities
that presided over particular objects, as Pan, the god of shepherds; Flora,
the goddess of flowers, etc. Besides these, there were among the inferior
composition; hence its presence is discernible in all European languages.
3. THE RELIGION.—The religion and mythology of Etruria left an
indelible stamp on the rites and ceremonies of the Roman people. At first
they worshiped heaven and earth, personified in Saturn and Ops, by whom
Juno, Vesta, and Ceres were generated, symbolizing marriage, family, and
fertility; soon after, other Etruscan divinities were introduced, such as
Jupiter, Minerva, and Janus; and Sylvanus and Faunus, who delighted in the
simple occupations of rural and pastoral life. From the Etrurians the
Romans borrowed, also, the institution of the Vestals, whose duty was to
watch and keep alive the sacred fire of Vesta; the Lares and Penates, the
domestic gods, which presided over the dwelling and family; Terminus, the
god of property and the rites connected with possession; and the orders of
Augurs and Aruspices, whose office was to consult the flight of birds or to
inspect the entrails of animals offered in sacrifice, in order to ascertain
future events. The family of the Roman gods continued to increase by
adopting the divinities of the conquered nations, and more particularly by
the introduction of those of Greece. The general division of the gods was
twofold,—the superior and inferior deities. The first class contained the
Consentes and the Selecti; the second, the Indigetes and Semones. The
Consentes, so called because they were supposed to form the great council
of heaven, consisted of twelve: Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury,
Vulcan, Juno, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, and Vesta. The Selecti were
nearly equal to them in rank, and consisted of eight: Saturn, Pluto, Bacchus,
Janus, Sol, Genius, Rhea, and Luna. The Indigites were heroes who were
ranked among the gods, and included particularly Hercules, Castor and
Pollux, and Quirinus or Romulus. The Semones comprehended those deities
that presided over particular objects, as Pan, the god of shepherds; Flora,
the goddess of flowers, etc. Besides these, there were among the inferior
Page 199
gods a numerous class of deities, including the virtues and vices and other
objects personified.
The religion of the Romans was essentially political, and employed as a
means of promoting the designs of the state. It was prosaic in its character,
and in this respect differed essentially from the artistic and poetical religion
of the Greeks. The Greeks conceived religion as a free and joyous worship
of nature, a centre of individuality, beauty, and grace, as well as a source of
poetry, art, and independence. With the Romans, on the contrary, religion
conveyed a mysterious and hidden idea, which gave to this sentiment a
gloomy and unattractive character, without either moral or artistic influence.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR TO THE AGE OF CICERO (241-
74 B.C.)
1. EARLY LITERATURE OF THE ROMANS.—The Romans, like all
other nations, had oral poetical compositions before they possessed any
written literature. Cicero speaks of the banquet being enlivened by the
songs of bards, in which the exploits of heroes were recited and celebrated.
By these lays national pride and family vanity were gratified, and the
anecdotes, thus preserved, furnished sources of early legendary history. But
these legends must not be compared to those of Greece, in which the
religious sentiment gave a supernatural glory to the effusions of the bard,
painted men as heroes and heroes as deities, and, while it was the natural
growth of the Greek intellect, twined itself around the affections of the
people. The Roman religion was a ceremonial for the priests, and not for the
people, and in Roman tradition there are no traces of elevated genius or
poetical inspiration. The Romans possessed the germs of those faculties
which admit of cultivation and improvement, such as taste and genius, and
objects personified.
The religion of the Romans was essentially political, and employed as a
means of promoting the designs of the state. It was prosaic in its character,
and in this respect differed essentially from the artistic and poetical religion
of the Greeks. The Greeks conceived religion as a free and joyous worship
of nature, a centre of individuality, beauty, and grace, as well as a source of
poetry, art, and independence. With the Romans, on the contrary, religion
conveyed a mysterious and hidden idea, which gave to this sentiment a
gloomy and unattractive character, without either moral or artistic influence.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR TO THE AGE OF CICERO (241-
74 B.C.)
1. EARLY LITERATURE OF THE ROMANS.—The Romans, like all
other nations, had oral poetical compositions before they possessed any
written literature. Cicero speaks of the banquet being enlivened by the
songs of bards, in which the exploits of heroes were recited and celebrated.
By these lays national pride and family vanity were gratified, and the
anecdotes, thus preserved, furnished sources of early legendary history. But
these legends must not be compared to those of Greece, in which the
religious sentiment gave a supernatural glory to the effusions of the bard,
painted men as heroes and heroes as deities, and, while it was the natural
growth of the Greek intellect, twined itself around the affections of the
people. The Roman religion was a ceremonial for the priests, and not for the
people, and in Roman tradition there are no traces of elevated genius or
poetical inspiration. The Romans possessed the germs of those faculties
which admit of cultivation and improvement, such as taste and genius, and
Page 200
the appreciation of the beautiful; but they did not possess those natural gifts
of fancy and imagination which formed part of the Greek mind, and which
made that nation in a state of infancy, almost of barbarism, a poetical
people. With them literature was not of spontaneous growth; it was chiefly
the result of the influence exerted by the Etruscans, who were their teachers
in everything mental and spiritual.
The tendency of the Roman mind was essentially utilitarian. Even
Cicero, with all his varied accomplishments, will recognize but one end and
object of all study, namely, those sciences which will render man useful to
his country, and the law of literary development is modified according to
this ruling principle. From the very beginning, the first cause of Roman
literature will be found to have been a view to utility and not to the
satisfaction of an impulsive feeling.
In other nations, poetry has been the first spontaneous production. With
the Romans, the first written literary effort was history; but even their early
history was a simple record of facts, not of ideas or sentiments, and
valuable only for its truth and accuracy. Their original documents, mere
records of memorable events anterior to the capture of Rome by the Gauls,
perished in the conflagration of the city.
The earliest attempt at versification made by the rude inhabitants of
Latium was satire in a somewhat dramatic form. The Fescennine songs
were metrical, for the accompaniments of music and dancing necessarily
restricted them to measure, and, like the dramatic exhibitions of the Greeks,
they had their origin among the rural population, not like them in any
religious ceremonial, but in the pastimes of the village festival. At first they
were innocent and gay, but liberty at length degenerated into license, and
gave birth to malicious and libelous attacks upon persons of irreproachable
character. This infancy of song illustrates the character of the Romans in its
of fancy and imagination which formed part of the Greek mind, and which
made that nation in a state of infancy, almost of barbarism, a poetical
people. With them literature was not of spontaneous growth; it was chiefly
the result of the influence exerted by the Etruscans, who were their teachers
in everything mental and spiritual.
The tendency of the Roman mind was essentially utilitarian. Even
Cicero, with all his varied accomplishments, will recognize but one end and
object of all study, namely, those sciences which will render man useful to
his country, and the law of literary development is modified according to
this ruling principle. From the very beginning, the first cause of Roman
literature will be found to have been a view to utility and not to the
satisfaction of an impulsive feeling.
In other nations, poetry has been the first spontaneous production. With
the Romans, the first written literary effort was history; but even their early
history was a simple record of facts, not of ideas or sentiments, and
valuable only for its truth and accuracy. Their original documents, mere
records of memorable events anterior to the capture of Rome by the Gauls,
perished in the conflagration of the city.
The earliest attempt at versification made by the rude inhabitants of
Latium was satire in a somewhat dramatic form. The Fescennine songs
were metrical, for the accompaniments of music and dancing necessarily
restricted them to measure, and, like the dramatic exhibitions of the Greeks,
they had their origin among the rural population, not like them in any
religious ceremonial, but in the pastimes of the village festival. At first they
were innocent and gay, but liberty at length degenerated into license, and
gave birth to malicious and libelous attacks upon persons of irreproachable
character. This infancy of song illustrates the character of the Romans in its
Page 201
rudest and coarsest form. They loved strife, both bodily and mental, and
they thus early displayed that taste which, in more polished ages, and in the
hands of cultivated poets, was developed in the sharp, cutting wit, and the
lively but piercing points of Roman satire.
In the Fescennine songs the Etruscans probably furnished the spectacle,
all that which addresses itself to the eye, while the habits of Italian rural life
supplied the sarcastic humor and ready extemporaneous gibe, which are the
essence of the true comic. The next advance in point of art must be
attributed to the Oscans, whose entertainments were most popular among
the Italian nations. They represented in broad caricature national
peculiarities. Their language was, originally, Oscan, as well as the
characters represented. The principal one resembled the clown of modern
pantomime; another was a kind of pantaloon or charlatan, and much of the
rest consisted of practical jokes, like that of the Italian Polincinella. After
their introduction at Rome, they received many improvements; they lost
their native rusticity; their satire was good-natured; their jests were seemly,
and kept in check by the laws of good taste. They were not acted by
common professional performers, and even a Roman citizen might take part
in them without disgrace. They were known by the name of "Fabulae
Atellanae," from Attela, a town in Campania, where they were first
performed. They remained in favor with the Roman people for centuries.
Sylla amused his leisure hours in writing them, and Suetonius bears
testimony to their having been a popular amusement under the empire.
Towards the close of the fourth century, the Etruscan histriones were
introduced, whose entertainments consisted of graceful national dances,
accompanied with the music of the flute, but without either songs or
dramatic action. With these dances the Romans combined the old
Fescennine songs, and the varied metres, which their verse permitted to the
they thus early displayed that taste which, in more polished ages, and in the
hands of cultivated poets, was developed in the sharp, cutting wit, and the
lively but piercing points of Roman satire.
In the Fescennine songs the Etruscans probably furnished the spectacle,
all that which addresses itself to the eye, while the habits of Italian rural life
supplied the sarcastic humor and ready extemporaneous gibe, which are the
essence of the true comic. The next advance in point of art must be
attributed to the Oscans, whose entertainments were most popular among
the Italian nations. They represented in broad caricature national
peculiarities. Their language was, originally, Oscan, as well as the
characters represented. The principal one resembled the clown of modern
pantomime; another was a kind of pantaloon or charlatan, and much of the
rest consisted of practical jokes, like that of the Italian Polincinella. After
their introduction at Rome, they received many improvements; they lost
their native rusticity; their satire was good-natured; their jests were seemly,
and kept in check by the laws of good taste. They were not acted by
common professional performers, and even a Roman citizen might take part
in them without disgrace. They were known by the name of "Fabulae
Atellanae," from Attela, a town in Campania, where they were first
performed. They remained in favor with the Roman people for centuries.
Sylla amused his leisure hours in writing them, and Suetonius bears
testimony to their having been a popular amusement under the empire.
Towards the close of the fourth century, the Etruscan histriones were
introduced, whose entertainments consisted of graceful national dances,
accompanied with the music of the flute, but without either songs or
dramatic action. With these dances the Romans combined the old
Fescennine songs, and the varied metres, which their verse permitted to the
Page 202
vocal parts, gave to this mixed entertainment the name of Satura (a hodge-
podge or potpourri), from which, in after times, the word satire was derived.
2. EARLY LATIN POETS.—At the conclusion, of the first Punic war,
when the influence of Greek intellect, which had already long been felt in
Italy, had extended to the capital, the Romans were prepared for the
reception of a more regular drama. But not only did they owe to Greece the
principles of literary taste; their earliest poet was one of that nation. Livius
Andronicus (fl. 240 B.C.), though born in Italy, and educated at Rome, is
supposed to have been a native of the Greek colony of Tarentum. He was at
first a slave, probably a captive taken in war, but was finally emancipated
by his master, in whose family he occupied the position of instructor to his
children. He wrote a translation, or perhaps an imitation of the Odyssey, in
the old Saturnian metre, and also a few hymns. His principal works,
however, were tragedies; but, from the few fragments of his writings extant,
it is impossible to form an estimate of his ability as a poet. According to
Livy, Andronicus was the first who substituted, for the rude
extemporaneous effusions of the Fescennine verse, plays with a regular plot
and fable. In consequence of losing his voice, from being frequently
encored, he obtained permission to introduce a boy to sing the ode or air to
the accompaniment of the flute, while he himself represented the action of
the song by his gestures and dancing.
Naevius (fl. 235 B.C.) was the first poet who really deserves the name of
Roman. He was not a servile imitator, but applied Greek taste and
cultivation to the development of Roman sentiments, and was a true Roman
in heart, unsparing in his censure of immorality and his admiration for
heroic self-devotion. His honest principles cemented the strong friendship
between him and the upright and unbending Cato, a friendship which
probably contributed to form the political and literary character of that stern
old Roman. The comedies of Naevius had undoubted pretensions to
podge or potpourri), from which, in after times, the word satire was derived.
2. EARLY LATIN POETS.—At the conclusion, of the first Punic war,
when the influence of Greek intellect, which had already long been felt in
Italy, had extended to the capital, the Romans were prepared for the
reception of a more regular drama. But not only did they owe to Greece the
principles of literary taste; their earliest poet was one of that nation. Livius
Andronicus (fl. 240 B.C.), though born in Italy, and educated at Rome, is
supposed to have been a native of the Greek colony of Tarentum. He was at
first a slave, probably a captive taken in war, but was finally emancipated
by his master, in whose family he occupied the position of instructor to his
children. He wrote a translation, or perhaps an imitation of the Odyssey, in
the old Saturnian metre, and also a few hymns. His principal works,
however, were tragedies; but, from the few fragments of his writings extant,
it is impossible to form an estimate of his ability as a poet. According to
Livy, Andronicus was the first who substituted, for the rude
extemporaneous effusions of the Fescennine verse, plays with a regular plot
and fable. In consequence of losing his voice, from being frequently
encored, he obtained permission to introduce a boy to sing the ode or air to
the accompaniment of the flute, while he himself represented the action of
the song by his gestures and dancing.
Naevius (fl. 235 B.C.) was the first poet who really deserves the name of
Roman. He was not a servile imitator, but applied Greek taste and
cultivation to the development of Roman sentiments, and was a true Roman
in heart, unsparing in his censure of immorality and his admiration for
heroic self-devotion. His honest principles cemented the strong friendship
between him and the upright and unbending Cato, a friendship which
probably contributed to form the political and literary character of that stern
old Roman. The comedies of Naevius had undoubted pretensions to
Page 203
originality; he held up to public scorn the vices and follies of his day, and,
being a warm supporter of the people against the encroachments of the
nobility, and unable to resist indulgence in his satiric vein, he was exiled to
Utica, where he died. He was the author of an epic poem on the Punic war.
Ennius and Virgil unscrupulously copied and imitated him, and Horace
writes that in his day the poems of Naevius were in the hands and hearts of
everybody. The fragments of his writings extant are not more numerous
than those of Livius.
Naevius, the last of the older school of writers, by introducing new
principles of taste to his countrymen, altered their standards; and Greek
literature having now driven out its predecessor, a new school of poetry
arose, of which Ennius (239-169 B.C.) was the founder. He earned a
subsistence as a teacher of Greek, was the friend of Scipio, and, at his
death, was buried in the family tomb of the Scipio, at the request of the
great conqueror of Hannibal, whose fame he contributed to hand down to
posterity. Cicero always uses the appellation, "our own Ennius," when he
quotes his poetry. Horace calls him "Father Ennius," a term which implies
reverence and regard, and that he was the founder of Latin poetry. He was,
like his friends Cato the censor, and Scipio Africanus the elder, a man of
action as well as philosophical thought, and not only a poet, but a brave
soldier, with all the singleness of heart and simplicity of manners which
marked the old times of Roman virtue. Ennius possessed great power over
words, and wielded that power skillfully. He improved the language in its
harmony and its grammatical forms, and increased its copiousness and
power. What he did was improved upon, but was never undone; and upon
the foundations he laid, the taste of succeeding ages erected an elegant and
beautiful superstructure. His great epic poem, the "Annals," gained him the
attachment and admiration of his countrymen. In this he first introduced the
hexameter to the notice of the Romans, and detailed the rise and progress of
their national glory, from the earliest legendary period down to his own
being a warm supporter of the people against the encroachments of the
nobility, and unable to resist indulgence in his satiric vein, he was exiled to
Utica, where he died. He was the author of an epic poem on the Punic war.
Ennius and Virgil unscrupulously copied and imitated him, and Horace
writes that in his day the poems of Naevius were in the hands and hearts of
everybody. The fragments of his writings extant are not more numerous
than those of Livius.
Naevius, the last of the older school of writers, by introducing new
principles of taste to his countrymen, altered their standards; and Greek
literature having now driven out its predecessor, a new school of poetry
arose, of which Ennius (239-169 B.C.) was the founder. He earned a
subsistence as a teacher of Greek, was the friend of Scipio, and, at his
death, was buried in the family tomb of the Scipio, at the request of the
great conqueror of Hannibal, whose fame he contributed to hand down to
posterity. Cicero always uses the appellation, "our own Ennius," when he
quotes his poetry. Horace calls him "Father Ennius," a term which implies
reverence and regard, and that he was the founder of Latin poetry. He was,
like his friends Cato the censor, and Scipio Africanus the elder, a man of
action as well as philosophical thought, and not only a poet, but a brave
soldier, with all the singleness of heart and simplicity of manners which
marked the old times of Roman virtue. Ennius possessed great power over
words, and wielded that power skillfully. He improved the language in its
harmony and its grammatical forms, and increased its copiousness and
power. What he did was improved upon, but was never undone; and upon
the foundations he laid, the taste of succeeding ages erected an elegant and
beautiful superstructure. His great epic poem, the "Annals," gained him the
attachment and admiration of his countrymen. In this he first introduced the
hexameter to the notice of the Romans, and detailed the rise and progress of
their national glory, from the earliest legendary period down to his own
Page 204
times. The fragments of this work which remain are amply sufficient to
show that he possessed picturesque power, both in sketching his narratives
and in portraying his characters, which seem to live and breathe; his
language, dignified, chaste, and severe, rises as high as the most majestic
eloquence, but it does not soar to the sublimity of poetry. As a dramatic
poet, Ennius does not deserve a high reputation. In comedy, as in tragedy,
he never emancipated himself from the Greek originals.
3. ROMAN COMEDY.—The rude comedy of the early Romans made
little progress beyond personal satire, burlesque extravagance and licentious
jesting, but upon this was ingrafted the new Greek comedy, and hence arose
that phase of the drama, of which the representatives were Plautus, Statius,
and Terence. The Roman comedy was calculated to produce a moral result,
although the morality it inculcated was extremely low. Its standard was
worldly prudence, its lessons utilitarian, and its philosophy Epicurean.
There is a want of variety in the plots, but this defect is owing to the social
and political condition of ancient Greece, which was represented in the
Greek comedies and copied by the Romans. There is also a sameness in the
dramatis personae, the principal characters being always a morose or a
gentle father, who is sometimes also the henpecked husband of a rich wife,
an affectionate or domineering wife, a good-natured profligate, a roguish
servant, a calculating slave-dealer and some others.
The actors wore appropriate masks, the features of which were not only
grotesque, but much exaggerated and magnified. This was rendered
necessary by the immense size of the theatre and stage, and the mouth of
the mask answered the purpose of a speaking trumpet, to assist in
conveying the voice to every part of the vast building. The characters were
known by a conventional costume; old men wore robes of white, young
men were attired in gay clothes, rich men in purple, soldiers in scarlet, poor
show that he possessed picturesque power, both in sketching his narratives
and in portraying his characters, which seem to live and breathe; his
language, dignified, chaste, and severe, rises as high as the most majestic
eloquence, but it does not soar to the sublimity of poetry. As a dramatic
poet, Ennius does not deserve a high reputation. In comedy, as in tragedy,
he never emancipated himself from the Greek originals.
3. ROMAN COMEDY.—The rude comedy of the early Romans made
little progress beyond personal satire, burlesque extravagance and licentious
jesting, but upon this was ingrafted the new Greek comedy, and hence arose
that phase of the drama, of which the representatives were Plautus, Statius,
and Terence. The Roman comedy was calculated to produce a moral result,
although the morality it inculcated was extremely low. Its standard was
worldly prudence, its lessons utilitarian, and its philosophy Epicurean.
There is a want of variety in the plots, but this defect is owing to the social
and political condition of ancient Greece, which was represented in the
Greek comedies and copied by the Romans. There is also a sameness in the
dramatis personae, the principal characters being always a morose or a
gentle father, who is sometimes also the henpecked husband of a rich wife,
an affectionate or domineering wife, a good-natured profligate, a roguish
servant, a calculating slave-dealer and some others.
The actors wore appropriate masks, the features of which were not only
grotesque, but much exaggerated and magnified. This was rendered
necessary by the immense size of the theatre and stage, and the mouth of
the mask answered the purpose of a speaking trumpet, to assist in
conveying the voice to every part of the vast building. The characters were
known by a conventional costume; old men wore robes of white, young
men were attired in gay clothes, rich men in purple, soldiers in scarlet, poor
Page 205
men and slaves in dark and scanty dresses. The comedy had always a
musical accompaniment of flutes of different kinds.
In order to understand the principles which regulated the Roman comic
metres, it is necessary to observe the manner in which the language itself
was affected by the common conversational pronunciation. Latin, as it was
pronounced, was very different from Latin as it is written; this difference
consisted in abbreviation, either by the omission of sounds altogether, or by
the contraction of two sounds into one, and in this respect the
conversational language of the Romans resembled that of modern nations;
with them, as with us, the mark of good taste was ease and the absence of
pedantry and affectation. In the comic writers we have a complete
representation of Latin as it was commonly pronounced and spoken, and
but little trammeled or confined by a rigid adhesion to Greek metrical laws.
4. COMIC POETS.—Plautus (227-184 B.C.) was a contemporary of
Ennius; he was a native of Umbria, and of humble origin. Education did not
overcome his vulgarity, although it produced a great effect upon his
language and style. He must have lived and associated with the people
whose manners he describes, hence his pictures are correct and truthful. The
class from which his representations are taken consisted of clients, the sons
of freedmen and the half-enfranchised natives of Italian towns. He had no
aristocratic friends, like Ennius and Terence; the Roman public were his
patrons, and notwithstanding their faults, his comedies retained their
popularity even in the Augustan age, and were acted as late as the reign of
Diocletian. Life, bustle, surprise, unexpected situations, sharp, sparkling
raillery that knew no restraint nor bound, left his audience no time for
dullness or weariness. Although Greek was the fountain from which he
drew his stores, his wit, thought, and language were entirely Roman, and
his style was Latin of the purest and most elegant kind—not, indeed,
controlled by much deference to the laws of metrical harmony, but full of
musical accompaniment of flutes of different kinds.
In order to understand the principles which regulated the Roman comic
metres, it is necessary to observe the manner in which the language itself
was affected by the common conversational pronunciation. Latin, as it was
pronounced, was very different from Latin as it is written; this difference
consisted in abbreviation, either by the omission of sounds altogether, or by
the contraction of two sounds into one, and in this respect the
conversational language of the Romans resembled that of modern nations;
with them, as with us, the mark of good taste was ease and the absence of
pedantry and affectation. In the comic writers we have a complete
representation of Latin as it was commonly pronounced and spoken, and
but little trammeled or confined by a rigid adhesion to Greek metrical laws.
4. COMIC POETS.—Plautus (227-184 B.C.) was a contemporary of
Ennius; he was a native of Umbria, and of humble origin. Education did not
overcome his vulgarity, although it produced a great effect upon his
language and style. He must have lived and associated with the people
whose manners he describes, hence his pictures are correct and truthful. The
class from which his representations are taken consisted of clients, the sons
of freedmen and the half-enfranchised natives of Italian towns. He had no
aristocratic friends, like Ennius and Terence; the Roman public were his
patrons, and notwithstanding their faults, his comedies retained their
popularity even in the Augustan age, and were acted as late as the reign of
Diocletian. Life, bustle, surprise, unexpected situations, sharp, sparkling
raillery that knew no restraint nor bound, left his audience no time for
dullness or weariness. Although Greek was the fountain from which he
drew his stores, his wit, thought, and language were entirely Roman, and
his style was Latin of the purest and most elegant kind—not, indeed,
controlled by much deference to the laws of metrical harmony, but full of
Page 206
pith and sprightliness, bearing the stamp of colloquial vivacity, and suitable
to the general briskness of his scenes. Yet in the tone of his dialogue we
miss all symptoms of deference to the taste of the more polished classes of
society. Almost all his comedies were adopted from the new comedy of the
Greeks, and though he had studied both the old and the middle comedy,
Menander and others of the same school furnished him the originals of his
plots. The popularity of Plautus was not confined to Rome, either
republican or imperial. Dramatic writers of modern times, as Shakspeare,
Dryden, and Molière, have recognized the effectiveness of his plots, and
have adopted or imitated them. About twenty of his plays are extant, among
which the Captivi, the Epidicus, the Cistellaria, the Aulularia, and the
Rudens are considered the best.
Terence (193-158 B.C.) was a slave in the family of a Roman senator,
and was probably a native of Carthage. His genius presented the rare
combination of all the fine and delicate qualities which characterized Attic
sentiment, without corrupting the native purity of the Latin language. The
elegance and gracefulness of his style show that the conversation of the
accomplished society, in which he was a welcome guest, was not lost upon
his correct ear and quick intuition. So far as it can be so, comedy was, in the
hands of Terence, an instrument of moral teaching. Six of his comedies only
remain, of which the Andrian and the Adelphi are the most interesting. If
Terence was inferior to Plautus in life, bustle, and intrigue, and in the
delineation of national character, he is superior in elegance of language and
refinement of taste. The justness of his reflections more than compensates
for the absence of his predecessor's humor; he touches the heart as well as
gratifies the intellect.
Of the few other writers of comedy among the Romans, Statius may be
mentioned, who flourished between Plautus and Terence. He was an
emancipated slave, born in Milan. Cicero and Varro have pronounced
to the general briskness of his scenes. Yet in the tone of his dialogue we
miss all symptoms of deference to the taste of the more polished classes of
society. Almost all his comedies were adopted from the new comedy of the
Greeks, and though he had studied both the old and the middle comedy,
Menander and others of the same school furnished him the originals of his
plots. The popularity of Plautus was not confined to Rome, either
republican or imperial. Dramatic writers of modern times, as Shakspeare,
Dryden, and Molière, have recognized the effectiveness of his plots, and
have adopted or imitated them. About twenty of his plays are extant, among
which the Captivi, the Epidicus, the Cistellaria, the Aulularia, and the
Rudens are considered the best.
Terence (193-158 B.C.) was a slave in the family of a Roman senator,
and was probably a native of Carthage. His genius presented the rare
combination of all the fine and delicate qualities which characterized Attic
sentiment, without corrupting the native purity of the Latin language. The
elegance and gracefulness of his style show that the conversation of the
accomplished society, in which he was a welcome guest, was not lost upon
his correct ear and quick intuition. So far as it can be so, comedy was, in the
hands of Terence, an instrument of moral teaching. Six of his comedies only
remain, of which the Andrian and the Adelphi are the most interesting. If
Terence was inferior to Plautus in life, bustle, and intrigue, and in the
delineation of national character, he is superior in elegance of language and
refinement of taste. The justness of his reflections more than compensates
for the absence of his predecessor's humor; he touches the heart as well as
gratifies the intellect.
Of the few other writers of comedy among the Romans, Statius may be
mentioned, who flourished between Plautus and Terence. He was an
emancipated slave, born in Milan. Cicero and Varro have pronounced
Page 207
judgment upon his merits, the substance of which appears to be, that his
excellences consisted in the conduct of the plot, in dignity, and in pathos,
while his fault was too little care in preserving the purity of the Latin style.
The fragments, however, of his works, which remain are not sufficient to
test the opinion of the ancient critics.
5. ROMAN TRAGEDY.—While Roman comedy was brought to
perfection under the influence of Greek literature, Roman tragedy, on the
other hand, was transplanted from Athens, and, with few exceptions, was
never anything more than translation or imitation. In the century during
which, together with comedy, it flourished and decayed, it boasted of five
distinguished writers, Livius, Naevius, Ennius (already spoken of),
Pacuvius, and Attius. In after ages, Rome did not produce one tragic poet,
unless Varius be considered an exception. The tragedies attributed to Seneca
were never acted, and were only composed for reading and recitation.
Among the causes which prevented tragedy from flourishing at Rome
was the little influence the national legends exerted over the people. These
legends were more often private than public property, and ministered more
to the glory of private families than to that of the nation at large. They were
embalmed by their poets as curious records of antiquity, but they did not,
like the venerable traditions of Greece, twine themselves around the heart
of the nation. Another reason why Roman legends had not the power to
move the affections of the Roman populace is to be found in the changes
the masses had undergone. The Roman people were no longer the
descendants of those who had maintained the national glory in the early
period; the patrician families were almost extinct; war and poverty had
extinguished the middle classes and miserably thinned the lower orders.
Into the vacancy thus caused, poured thousands of slaves, captives in the
bloody wars of Gaul, Spain, Greece, and Africa. These and their
descendants replaced the ancient people, and while many of them by their
excellences consisted in the conduct of the plot, in dignity, and in pathos,
while his fault was too little care in preserving the purity of the Latin style.
The fragments, however, of his works, which remain are not sufficient to
test the opinion of the ancient critics.
5. ROMAN TRAGEDY.—While Roman comedy was brought to
perfection under the influence of Greek literature, Roman tragedy, on the
other hand, was transplanted from Athens, and, with few exceptions, was
never anything more than translation or imitation. In the century during
which, together with comedy, it flourished and decayed, it boasted of five
distinguished writers, Livius, Naevius, Ennius (already spoken of),
Pacuvius, and Attius. In after ages, Rome did not produce one tragic poet,
unless Varius be considered an exception. The tragedies attributed to Seneca
were never acted, and were only composed for reading and recitation.
Among the causes which prevented tragedy from flourishing at Rome
was the little influence the national legends exerted over the people. These
legends were more often private than public property, and ministered more
to the glory of private families than to that of the nation at large. They were
embalmed by their poets as curious records of antiquity, but they did not,
like the venerable traditions of Greece, twine themselves around the heart
of the nation. Another reason why Roman legends had not the power to
move the affections of the Roman populace is to be found in the changes
the masses had undergone. The Roman people were no longer the
descendants of those who had maintained the national glory in the early
period; the patrician families were almost extinct; war and poverty had
extinguished the middle classes and miserably thinned the lower orders.
Into the vacancy thus caused, poured thousands of slaves, captives in the
bloody wars of Gaul, Spain, Greece, and Africa. These and their
descendants replaced the ancient people, and while many of them by their
Page 208
talents and energy arrived at wealth and station, they could not possibly be
Romans at heart, or consider the past glories of their adopted country as
their own. It was to the rise of this new element of population, and the
displacement or absorption of the old race, that the decline of patriotism
was owing, and the disregard of everything except daily sustenance and
daily amusement, which paved the way for the empire and marked the
downfall of liberty. With the people of Athens, tragedy formed a part of the
national religion. By it the people were taught to sympathize with their
heroic ancestors; the poet was held to be inspired, and poetry the tongue in
which the natural held communion with the supernatural. With the Romans,
the theatre was merely a place for secular amusement, and poetry only an
exercise of the fancy. Again, the religion of the Romans was not ideal, like
that of the Greeks. The old national faith of Italy, not being rooted in the
heart, soon became obsolete, and readily admitted the ingrafting of foreign
superstitions, which had no hold on the belief or love of the people. Nor
was the genius of the Roman people such as to sympathize with the legends
of the past; they lived only in the present and the future; they did not look
back on their national heroes as demigods; they were pressing forward to
extend the frontiers of their empire, to bring under their yoke nations which
their forefathers had not known. If they regarded their ancestors at all, it
was not in the light of men of heroic stature as compared with themselves,
but as those whom they could equal or even surpass.
The scenes of real life, the bloody combats of the gladiators, the captives,
and malefactors stretched on crosses, expiring in excruciating agonies or
mangled by wild beasts, were the tragedies which most deeply interested a
Roman audience.
The Romans were a rough people, full of physical rather than of
intellectual energy, courting peril and setting no value on human life or
suffering. Their very virtues were stern and severe; they were strangers to
Romans at heart, or consider the past glories of their adopted country as
their own. It was to the rise of this new element of population, and the
displacement or absorption of the old race, that the decline of patriotism
was owing, and the disregard of everything except daily sustenance and
daily amusement, which paved the way for the empire and marked the
downfall of liberty. With the people of Athens, tragedy formed a part of the
national religion. By it the people were taught to sympathize with their
heroic ancestors; the poet was held to be inspired, and poetry the tongue in
which the natural held communion with the supernatural. With the Romans,
the theatre was merely a place for secular amusement, and poetry only an
exercise of the fancy. Again, the religion of the Romans was not ideal, like
that of the Greeks. The old national faith of Italy, not being rooted in the
heart, soon became obsolete, and readily admitted the ingrafting of foreign
superstitions, which had no hold on the belief or love of the people. Nor
was the genius of the Roman people such as to sympathize with the legends
of the past; they lived only in the present and the future; they did not look
back on their national heroes as demigods; they were pressing forward to
extend the frontiers of their empire, to bring under their yoke nations which
their forefathers had not known. If they regarded their ancestors at all, it
was not in the light of men of heroic stature as compared with themselves,
but as those whom they could equal or even surpass.
The scenes of real life, the bloody combats of the gladiators, the captives,
and malefactors stretched on crosses, expiring in excruciating agonies or
mangled by wild beasts, were the tragedies which most deeply interested a
Roman audience.
The Romans were a rough people, full of physical rather than of
intellectual energy, courting peril and setting no value on human life or
suffering. Their very virtues were stern and severe; they were strangers to
Page 209
both the passions which it was the object of tragedy to excite—pity and
terror. In the public games of Greece, the refinements of poetry mingled
with those exercises which were calculated to invigorate the physical
powers, and develop manly beauty. Those of Rome were sanguinary and
brutalizing, the amusements of a nation to whom war was a pleasure and a
pastime.
It cannot be asserted, however, that tragedy was never to a certain extent
an acceptable entertainment at Rome, but only that it never flourished there
as it did at Athens, and that no Roman tragedies can be compared with those
of Greece.
6. TRAGIC POETS.—Three separate eras produced tragic poets. In the
first flourished Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Ennius; in the second,
Pacuvius and Attius; in the third, Asinius Pollio wrote tragedies, the plots of
which seem to have been taken from Roman history. Ovid attempted a
"Medea," and even the Emperor Augustus, with other men of genius, tried
his hand, though unsuccessfully, at tragedy.
In the second of the eras mentioned, Roman tragedy reached its highest
degree of perfection simultaneously with that of comedy. While Terence
was successfully reproducing the wit and manners of the new Attic comedy,
Pacuvius (220-130 B.C.) was enriching the Roman drama with free
translations of the Greek tragedians. He was a native of Brundusium and a
grandson of the poet Ennius. At Rome he distinguished himself as a painter
as well as a dramatic poet. His tragedies were not mere translations, but
adaptations of Greek tragedies to the Roman stage. The fragments which
are extant are full of new and original thoughts, and the very roughness of
his style and audacity of his expressions have somewhat of the solemn
grandeur and picturesque boldness which distinguish the father of Attic
tragedy.
terror. In the public games of Greece, the refinements of poetry mingled
with those exercises which were calculated to invigorate the physical
powers, and develop manly beauty. Those of Rome were sanguinary and
brutalizing, the amusements of a nation to whom war was a pleasure and a
pastime.
It cannot be asserted, however, that tragedy was never to a certain extent
an acceptable entertainment at Rome, but only that it never flourished there
as it did at Athens, and that no Roman tragedies can be compared with those
of Greece.
6. TRAGIC POETS.—Three separate eras produced tragic poets. In the
first flourished Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Ennius; in the second,
Pacuvius and Attius; in the third, Asinius Pollio wrote tragedies, the plots of
which seem to have been taken from Roman history. Ovid attempted a
"Medea," and even the Emperor Augustus, with other men of genius, tried
his hand, though unsuccessfully, at tragedy.
In the second of the eras mentioned, Roman tragedy reached its highest
degree of perfection simultaneously with that of comedy. While Terence
was successfully reproducing the wit and manners of the new Attic comedy,
Pacuvius (220-130 B.C.) was enriching the Roman drama with free
translations of the Greek tragedians. He was a native of Brundusium and a
grandson of the poet Ennius. At Rome he distinguished himself as a painter
as well as a dramatic poet. His tragedies were not mere translations, but
adaptations of Greek tragedies to the Roman stage. The fragments which
are extant are full of new and original thoughts, and the very roughness of
his style and audacity of his expressions have somewhat of the solemn
grandeur and picturesque boldness which distinguish the father of Attic
tragedy.
Page 210
Attius (fl. 138 B.C.), though born later than Pacuvius, was almost his
contemporary, and a competitor for popular applause. He is said to have
written more than fifty tragedies, of which fragments only remain. His taste
is chastened, his sentiments noble, and his versification elegant. With him,
Latin tragedy disappeared. The tragedies of the third period were written
expressly for reading and recitation, and not for the stage: they were
dramatic poems, not dramas. Amidst the scenes of horror and violence
which followed, the voice of the tragic muse was hushed. Massacre and
rapine raged through the streets of Rome, itself a theatre where the most
terrible scenes were daily enacted.
7. SATIRE.—The invention of satire is universally attributed to the
Romans, and this is true as far as the external form is concerned, but the
spirit is found in many parts of the literature of Greece. Ennius was the
inventor of the name, but Lucilius (148-102 B.C.) was the father of satire,
in the proper sense. His satires mark an era in Roman literature, and prove
that a love for this species of poetry had already made great progress.
Hitherto, literature, science, and art had been considered the province of
slaves and freedmen. The stern old Roman virtue despised such sedentary
employment as intellectual cultivation, and thought it unworthy of the
warrior and statesman. Some of the higher classes loved literature and
patronized it, but did not make it their pursuit. Lucilius was a Roman
knight, as well as a poet. His satires were comprised in thirty books,
numerous fragments of which are still extant. He was a man of high moral
principle, though stern and stoical; a relentless enemy of vice and
profligacy, and a gallant and fearless defender of truth and honesty. After
the death of Lucilius satire languished, until half a century later, when it
assumed a new garb in the descriptive scenes of Horace, and put forth its
original vigor in the burning thoughts of Persius and Juvenal.
contemporary, and a competitor for popular applause. He is said to have
written more than fifty tragedies, of which fragments only remain. His taste
is chastened, his sentiments noble, and his versification elegant. With him,
Latin tragedy disappeared. The tragedies of the third period were written
expressly for reading and recitation, and not for the stage: they were
dramatic poems, not dramas. Amidst the scenes of horror and violence
which followed, the voice of the tragic muse was hushed. Massacre and
rapine raged through the streets of Rome, itself a theatre where the most
terrible scenes were daily enacted.
7. SATIRE.—The invention of satire is universally attributed to the
Romans, and this is true as far as the external form is concerned, but the
spirit is found in many parts of the literature of Greece. Ennius was the
inventor of the name, but Lucilius (148-102 B.C.) was the father of satire,
in the proper sense. His satires mark an era in Roman literature, and prove
that a love for this species of poetry had already made great progress.
Hitherto, literature, science, and art had been considered the province of
slaves and freedmen. The stern old Roman virtue despised such sedentary
employment as intellectual cultivation, and thought it unworthy of the
warrior and statesman. Some of the higher classes loved literature and
patronized it, but did not make it their pursuit. Lucilius was a Roman
knight, as well as a poet. His satires were comprised in thirty books,
numerous fragments of which are still extant. He was a man of high moral
principle, though stern and stoical; a relentless enemy of vice and
profligacy, and a gallant and fearless defender of truth and honesty. After
the death of Lucilius satire languished, until half a century later, when it
assumed a new garb in the descriptive scenes of Horace, and put forth its
original vigor in the burning thoughts of Persius and Juvenal.
Page 211
8. HISTORY AND ORATORY.—Prose was far more in accordance with
the genius of the Romans than poetry. As a nation, they had little or no
imaginative power, no enthusiastic love of natural beauty, and no acute
perception of the sympathy between man and the external world. The
favorite civil pursuit of an enlightened Roman was statesmanship, and the
subjects akin to it, history, jurisprudence, and oratory, the natural language
of which was prose, not poetry. And their practical statesmanship gave an
early encouragement to oratory, which is peculiarly the literature of active
life. As matter was more valued than manner by this utilitarian people, it
was long before it was thought necessary to embellish prose composition
with the graces of rhetoric. The fact that Roman literature was imitative
rather than inventive, gave a historical bias to the Roman intellect, and a
tendency to study subjects from an historical point of view. But even in
history, they never attained that comprehensive and philosophical spirit
which distinguished the Greek historians.
The most ancient writer of Roman history was Fabius Pictor (fl. 219
B.C.). His principal work, written in Greek, was a history of the first and
second Punic war, to which subsequent writers were much indebted.
Contemporary with Fabius was Cincius Alimentus, also an annalist of the
Punic war, in which he was personally engaged. He was a prisoner of
Hannibal, who delighted in the society of literary men, and treated him with
great kindness and consideration, and himself communicated to him the
details of his passage across the Alps. Like Fabius, he wrote his work in
Greek, and prefixed to it a brief abstract of Roman history. Though the
works of these annalists are valuable as furnishing materials for more
philosophical minds, they are such as could have existed only in the infancy
of a national literature. They were a bare compilation of facts— the mere
framework of history—diversified by no critical remarks or political
reflections, and meagre and insipid in style.
the genius of the Romans than poetry. As a nation, they had little or no
imaginative power, no enthusiastic love of natural beauty, and no acute
perception of the sympathy between man and the external world. The
favorite civil pursuit of an enlightened Roman was statesmanship, and the
subjects akin to it, history, jurisprudence, and oratory, the natural language
of which was prose, not poetry. And their practical statesmanship gave an
early encouragement to oratory, which is peculiarly the literature of active
life. As matter was more valued than manner by this utilitarian people, it
was long before it was thought necessary to embellish prose composition
with the graces of rhetoric. The fact that Roman literature was imitative
rather than inventive, gave a historical bias to the Roman intellect, and a
tendency to study subjects from an historical point of view. But even in
history, they never attained that comprehensive and philosophical spirit
which distinguished the Greek historians.
The most ancient writer of Roman history was Fabius Pictor (fl. 219
B.C.). His principal work, written in Greek, was a history of the first and
second Punic war, to which subsequent writers were much indebted.
Contemporary with Fabius was Cincius Alimentus, also an annalist of the
Punic war, in which he was personally engaged. He was a prisoner of
Hannibal, who delighted in the society of literary men, and treated him with
great kindness and consideration, and himself communicated to him the
details of his passage across the Alps. Like Fabius, he wrote his work in
Greek, and prefixed to it a brief abstract of Roman history. Though the
works of these annalists are valuable as furnishing materials for more
philosophical minds, they are such as could have existed only in the infancy
of a national literature. They were a bare compilation of facts— the mere
framework of history—diversified by no critical remarks or political
reflections, and meagre and insipid in style.
Page 212
The versatility of talent displayed by Cato the censor (224-144 B.C.)
entitles him to a place among orators, jurists, economists, and historians.
His life extends over a wide and important period of literary history, when
everything was in a state of change,—morals, social habits, and literary
taste. Cato was born in Tusculum, and passed his boyhood in the pursuits of
rural life at a small Sabine farm belonging to his father. The skill with
which he pleaded the causes of his clients before the rural magistracy made
his abilities known, and he rose rapidly to eminence as a pleader. He filled
many high offices of state. His energies were not weakened by advancing
age, and he was always ready as the advocate of virtue, the champion of the
oppressed, and the punisher of vice. With many defects, Cato was morally
and intellectually one of the greatest men Rome ever produced. He had the
ability and the determination to excel in everything which he undertook.
His style is rude, unpolished, ungraceful, because to him polish was
superficial, and, therefore, unreal. His statements, however, were clear, his
illustrations striking; the words with which he enriched his native tongue
were full of meaning; his wit was keen and lively, and his arguments went
straight to the intellect, and carried conviction with them.
Cato's great historical and antiquarian work, "The Origins," was a history
of Italy and Rome from the earliest times to the latest events which
occurred in his own lifetime. It was a work of great research and originality,
but only brief fragments of it remain. In the "De Re Rustica," which has
come down to us in form and substance as it was written, Cato maintains, in
the introduction, the superiority of agriculture over other modes of gaining
a livelihood. The work itself is a commonplace book of agriculture and
domestic economy; its object is utility, not science: it serves the purpose of
a farmer's and gardener's manual, a domestic medicine, herbal, and cookery
book. Cato teaches his readers, for example, how to plant osier beds, to
cultivate vegetables, to preserve the health of cattle, to pickle pork, and to
make savory dishes.
entitles him to a place among orators, jurists, economists, and historians.
His life extends over a wide and important period of literary history, when
everything was in a state of change,—morals, social habits, and literary
taste. Cato was born in Tusculum, and passed his boyhood in the pursuits of
rural life at a small Sabine farm belonging to his father. The skill with
which he pleaded the causes of his clients before the rural magistracy made
his abilities known, and he rose rapidly to eminence as a pleader. He filled
many high offices of state. His energies were not weakened by advancing
age, and he was always ready as the advocate of virtue, the champion of the
oppressed, and the punisher of vice. With many defects, Cato was morally
and intellectually one of the greatest men Rome ever produced. He had the
ability and the determination to excel in everything which he undertook.
His style is rude, unpolished, ungraceful, because to him polish was
superficial, and, therefore, unreal. His statements, however, were clear, his
illustrations striking; the words with which he enriched his native tongue
were full of meaning; his wit was keen and lively, and his arguments went
straight to the intellect, and carried conviction with them.
Cato's great historical and antiquarian work, "The Origins," was a history
of Italy and Rome from the earliest times to the latest events which
occurred in his own lifetime. It was a work of great research and originality,
but only brief fragments of it remain. In the "De Re Rustica," which has
come down to us in form and substance as it was written, Cato maintains, in
the introduction, the superiority of agriculture over other modes of gaining
a livelihood. The work itself is a commonplace book of agriculture and
domestic economy; its object is utility, not science: it serves the purpose of
a farmer's and gardener's manual, a domestic medicine, herbal, and cookery
book. Cato teaches his readers, for example, how to plant osier beds, to
cultivate vegetables, to preserve the health of cattle, to pickle pork, and to
make savory dishes.
Page 213
Of the "Orations" of Cato, ninety titles are extant, together with
numerous fragments. In style he despised art. He was too fearless and
upright, too confident in the justness of his cause to be a rhetorician; he
imitated no one, and no one was ever able to imitate him. Niebuhr
pronounces him to be the only great man in his generation, and one of the
greatest and most honorable characters in Roman history.
Varro (116-28 B.C.) was an agriculturist, a grammarian, a critic, a
theologian, a historian, a philosopher, a satirist. Of his miscellaneous works
considerable portions are extant, sufficient to display his erudition and
acuteness, yet, in themselves, more curious than attractive.
Eloquence, though of a rude, unpolished kind, must have been, in the
very earliest times, a characteristic of the Roman people. It is a plant
indigenous to a free soil. As in modern times it has flourished especially in
England and America, fostered by the unfettered freedom of debate, so it
found a congenial home in free Greece and republican Rome. Oratory was,
in Rome, the unwritten literature of active life, and recommended itself to a
warlike and utilitarian people by its utility and its antagonistic spirit. Long
before the art of the historian was sufficiently advanced to record a speech,
the forum, the senate, the battlefield, and the threshold of the jurisconsult
had been nurseries of Roman eloquence, or schools in which oratory
attained a vigorous youth, and prepared for its subsequent maturity.
While the legal and political constitution of the Roman people gave
direct encouragement to deliberative and judicial oratory, respect for the
illustrious dead furnished opportunities for panegyric. The song of the bard
in honor of the departed warrior gave place to the funeral oration. Among
the orators of this time were the two Scipios, and Galba, whom Cicero
praises as having been the first Roman who understood how to apply the
theoretical principles of Greek rhetoric.
numerous fragments. In style he despised art. He was too fearless and
upright, too confident in the justness of his cause to be a rhetorician; he
imitated no one, and no one was ever able to imitate him. Niebuhr
pronounces him to be the only great man in his generation, and one of the
greatest and most honorable characters in Roman history.
Varro (116-28 B.C.) was an agriculturist, a grammarian, a critic, a
theologian, a historian, a philosopher, a satirist. Of his miscellaneous works
considerable portions are extant, sufficient to display his erudition and
acuteness, yet, in themselves, more curious than attractive.
Eloquence, though of a rude, unpolished kind, must have been, in the
very earliest times, a characteristic of the Roman people. It is a plant
indigenous to a free soil. As in modern times it has flourished especially in
England and America, fostered by the unfettered freedom of debate, so it
found a congenial home in free Greece and republican Rome. Oratory was,
in Rome, the unwritten literature of active life, and recommended itself to a
warlike and utilitarian people by its utility and its antagonistic spirit. Long
before the art of the historian was sufficiently advanced to record a speech,
the forum, the senate, the battlefield, and the threshold of the jurisconsult
had been nurseries of Roman eloquence, or schools in which oratory
attained a vigorous youth, and prepared for its subsequent maturity.
While the legal and political constitution of the Roman people gave
direct encouragement to deliberative and judicial oratory, respect for the
illustrious dead furnished opportunities for panegyric. The song of the bard
in honor of the departed warrior gave place to the funeral oration. Among
the orators of this time were the two Scipios, and Galba, whom Cicero
praises as having been the first Roman who understood how to apply the
theoretical principles of Greek rhetoric.
Page 214
All periods of political disquiet are necessarily favorable to eloquence,
and the era of the Gracchi was especially so. After a struggle of nearly four
centuries the old distinction of plebeian and patrician no longer existed.
Plebeians held high offices, and patricians, like the Gracchi, stood forward
as champions of popular rights. These stirring times produced many
celebrated orators. The Gracchi themselves were both eloquent and
possessed of those qualities and endowments which would recommend their
eloquence to their countrymen. Oratory began now to be studied more as an
art, and the interval between the Gracchi and Cicero boasted of many
distinguished names; the most illustrious among them are M. Antonius,
Crassus, and Cicero's contemporary and most formidable rival, Hortensius.
M. Antonius (fl. 119 B.C.) entered public life as a pleader, and thus laid
the foundation of his brilliant career; but he was through life greater as a
judicial than as a deliberative orator. He was indefatigable in preparing his
case, and made every point tell. He was a great master of the pathetic, and
knew the way to the heart. Although he did not himself give his speeches to
posterity, some of his most pointed expressions and favorite passages left an
indelible impression on the memories of his hearers, and many of them
were preserved by Cicero. In the prime of life he fell a victim to political
fury, and his bleeding head was placed upon the rostrum, which was so
frequently the scene of his eloquent triumphs.
L. Licinius Crassus was four years younger than Antonius, and acquired
great reputation for his knowledge of jurisprudence, for his eminence as a
pleader, and, above all, for his powerful and triumphant orations in support
of the restoration of the judicial office to the senators. From among the
crowd of orators, who were then flourishing in the last days of expiring
Roman liberty, Cicero selected Crassus to be the representative of his
sentiments in his imaginary conversation in "The Orator." Like Lord
and the era of the Gracchi was especially so. After a struggle of nearly four
centuries the old distinction of plebeian and patrician no longer existed.
Plebeians held high offices, and patricians, like the Gracchi, stood forward
as champions of popular rights. These stirring times produced many
celebrated orators. The Gracchi themselves were both eloquent and
possessed of those qualities and endowments which would recommend their
eloquence to their countrymen. Oratory began now to be studied more as an
art, and the interval between the Gracchi and Cicero boasted of many
distinguished names; the most illustrious among them are M. Antonius,
Crassus, and Cicero's contemporary and most formidable rival, Hortensius.
M. Antonius (fl. 119 B.C.) entered public life as a pleader, and thus laid
the foundation of his brilliant career; but he was through life greater as a
judicial than as a deliberative orator. He was indefatigable in preparing his
case, and made every point tell. He was a great master of the pathetic, and
knew the way to the heart. Although he did not himself give his speeches to
posterity, some of his most pointed expressions and favorite passages left an
indelible impression on the memories of his hearers, and many of them
were preserved by Cicero. In the prime of life he fell a victim to political
fury, and his bleeding head was placed upon the rostrum, which was so
frequently the scene of his eloquent triumphs.
L. Licinius Crassus was four years younger than Antonius, and acquired
great reputation for his knowledge of jurisprudence, for his eminence as a
pleader, and, above all, for his powerful and triumphant orations in support
of the restoration of the judicial office to the senators. From among the
crowd of orators, who were then flourishing in the last days of expiring
Roman liberty, Cicero selected Crassus to be the representative of his
sentiments in his imaginary conversation in "The Orator." Like Lord
Page 215
Chatham, Crassus almost died on the floor of the Senate house, and his last
effort was in support of the aristocratic party.
Q. Hortensius was born 114 B.C. He was only eight years senior to the
greatest of all Roman orators. He early commenced his career as a pleader,
and he was the acknowledged leader of the Roman bar, until the star of
Cicero arose. His political connection with the faction of Sylla, and his
unscrupulous support of the profligate corruption which characterized that
administration, both at home and abroad, enlisted his legal talents in
defense of the infamous Verres; but the eloquence of Cicero, together with
the justice of the cause which he espoused, prevailed; and from that time
forward his superiority over Hortensius was established and complete. The
style of Hortensius was Asiatic—more florid and ornate than polished and
refined.
9. ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE.—The framework of their jurisprudence
the Romans derived from Athens, but the complete structure was built up by
their own hands. They were the authors of a system possessing such
stability that they bequeathed it, as an inheritance, to modern Europe, and
traces of Roman law are visible in the legal systems of the whole civilized
world.
The complicated principles of jurisprudence of the Roman constitution
became, in Rome, a necessary part of a liberal education. When a Roman
youth had completed his studies, under his teacher of rhetoric, he not only
frequented the forum, in order to learn the application of the rhetorical
principles he had acquired, and frequently took some celebrated orator as a
model, but also studied the principles of jurisprudence under eminent
jurists, and attended the consultations in which they gave to their clients
their expositions of law.
effort was in support of the aristocratic party.
Q. Hortensius was born 114 B.C. He was only eight years senior to the
greatest of all Roman orators. He early commenced his career as a pleader,
and he was the acknowledged leader of the Roman bar, until the star of
Cicero arose. His political connection with the faction of Sylla, and his
unscrupulous support of the profligate corruption which characterized that
administration, both at home and abroad, enlisted his legal talents in
defense of the infamous Verres; but the eloquence of Cicero, together with
the justice of the cause which he espoused, prevailed; and from that time
forward his superiority over Hortensius was established and complete. The
style of Hortensius was Asiatic—more florid and ornate than polished and
refined.
9. ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE.—The framework of their jurisprudence
the Romans derived from Athens, but the complete structure was built up by
their own hands. They were the authors of a system possessing such
stability that they bequeathed it, as an inheritance, to modern Europe, and
traces of Roman law are visible in the legal systems of the whole civilized
world.
The complicated principles of jurisprudence of the Roman constitution
became, in Rome, a necessary part of a liberal education. When a Roman
youth had completed his studies, under his teacher of rhetoric, he not only
frequented the forum, in order to learn the application of the rhetorical
principles he had acquired, and frequently took some celebrated orator as a
model, but also studied the principles of jurisprudence under eminent
jurists, and attended the consultations in which they gave to their clients
their expositions of law.
Page 216
The earliest systematic works on Roman law were the "Manual" of
Pomponius, and the "Institutes" of Gaius, who flourished in the time of
Hadrian and the Antonines. Both of these works were, for a long time, lost,
though fragments were preserved in the pandects of Justinian. In 1816,
however, Niebuhr discovered a palimpsest MS., in which the epistles of St.
Jerome were written over the erased "Institutes" of Gaius. From the
numerous misunderstandings of the Roman historians respecting the laws
and constitutional history of their country, the subject continued long in a
state of confusion, until Vico, in his "Scienza nuova," dispelled the clouds
of error, and reduced it to a system; and he was followed so successfully by
Niebuhr, that modern students can have a more comprehensive and
antiquarian knowledge of the subject than the writers of the Augustan age.
The earliest Roman laws were the "Leges Regiae," which were collected
and codified by Sextus Papirius, and were hence called the Papirian code;
but these were rude and unconnected—simply a collection of isolated
enactments. The laws of the "Twelve Tables" stand next in point of
antiquity. They exhibited the first attempt at regular system, and embodied
not only legislative enactments, but legal principles. So popular were they
that when Cicero was a child every Roman boy committed them to memory,
as our children do their catechism, and the great orator laments that in the
course of his lifetime this practice had become obsolete.
The oral traditional expositions of these laws formed the groundwork of
the Roman civil law. To these were added, from time to time, the decrees of
the people, the acts of the senate, and praetorian edicts, and from these
various elements the whole body of Roman law was composed. So early
was the subject diligently studied, that the age preceding the first two
centuries of our era was rich in jurists whose powers are celebrated in
history.
Pomponius, and the "Institutes" of Gaius, who flourished in the time of
Hadrian and the Antonines. Both of these works were, for a long time, lost,
though fragments were preserved in the pandects of Justinian. In 1816,
however, Niebuhr discovered a palimpsest MS., in which the epistles of St.
Jerome were written over the erased "Institutes" of Gaius. From the
numerous misunderstandings of the Roman historians respecting the laws
and constitutional history of their country, the subject continued long in a
state of confusion, until Vico, in his "Scienza nuova," dispelled the clouds
of error, and reduced it to a system; and he was followed so successfully by
Niebuhr, that modern students can have a more comprehensive and
antiquarian knowledge of the subject than the writers of the Augustan age.
The earliest Roman laws were the "Leges Regiae," which were collected
and codified by Sextus Papirius, and were hence called the Papirian code;
but these were rude and unconnected—simply a collection of isolated
enactments. The laws of the "Twelve Tables" stand next in point of
antiquity. They exhibited the first attempt at regular system, and embodied
not only legislative enactments, but legal principles. So popular were they
that when Cicero was a child every Roman boy committed them to memory,
as our children do their catechism, and the great orator laments that in the
course of his lifetime this practice had become obsolete.
The oral traditional expositions of these laws formed the groundwork of
the Roman civil law. To these were added, from time to time, the decrees of
the people, the acts of the senate, and praetorian edicts, and from these
various elements the whole body of Roman law was composed. So early
was the subject diligently studied, that the age preceding the first two
centuries of our era was rich in jurists whose powers are celebrated in
history.
Page 217
The most eminent jurists who adorned this period were the Scaevolae, a
family in whom the profession seems to have been hereditary. After them
flourished Aelius Gallus (123-67 B.C.), eminent as a law reformer, C.
Juventius, Sextus Papirius, and L. Lucilius Balbus, three distinguished
jurists, who were a few years senior to Cicero.
10. GRAMMARIANS.—Towards the conclusion of this literary period a
great increase took place in the numbers of those learned men whom the
Romans at first termed literati, but afterwards, following the custom of the
Greeks, grammarians. To them literature was under great obligations.
Although few of them were authors, and all of them possessed acquired
learning rather than original genius, they exercised a powerful influence
over the public mind as professors, lecturers, critics, and schoolmasters. By
them the youths of the best families not only were imbued with a taste for
Greek philosophy and poetry, but were also taught to appreciate the
literature of their own country. Livius Andronicus and Ennius may be
placed at the head of this class, followed by Crates Mallotes, C. Octavius
Lampadio, Laelius, Archelaus, and others, most of whom were emancipated
slaves, either from Greece or from other foreign countries.
PERIOD SECOND.
FROM THE AGE OF CICERO TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS (74 B.C.-14 A.D.)
1. DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN LITERATURE.—Latin
literature, at first rude, and, for five centuries, unable to reach any high
excellence, was, as we have seen, gradually developed by the example and
tendency of the Greek mind, which moulded Roman civilization anew. The
earliest Latin poets, historians, and grammarians were Greeks. The metre
which was brought to such perfection by the Latin poets was formed from
family in whom the profession seems to have been hereditary. After them
flourished Aelius Gallus (123-67 B.C.), eminent as a law reformer, C.
Juventius, Sextus Papirius, and L. Lucilius Balbus, three distinguished
jurists, who were a few years senior to Cicero.
10. GRAMMARIANS.—Towards the conclusion of this literary period a
great increase took place in the numbers of those learned men whom the
Romans at first termed literati, but afterwards, following the custom of the
Greeks, grammarians. To them literature was under great obligations.
Although few of them were authors, and all of them possessed acquired
learning rather than original genius, they exercised a powerful influence
over the public mind as professors, lecturers, critics, and schoolmasters. By
them the youths of the best families not only were imbued with a taste for
Greek philosophy and poetry, but were also taught to appreciate the
literature of their own country. Livius Andronicus and Ennius may be
placed at the head of this class, followed by Crates Mallotes, C. Octavius
Lampadio, Laelius, Archelaus, and others, most of whom were emancipated
slaves, either from Greece or from other foreign countries.
PERIOD SECOND.
FROM THE AGE OF CICERO TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS (74 B.C.-14 A.D.)
1. DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN LITERATURE.—Latin
literature, at first rude, and, for five centuries, unable to reach any high
excellence, was, as we have seen, gradually developed by the example and
tendency of the Greek mind, which moulded Roman civilization anew. The
earliest Latin poets, historians, and grammarians were Greeks. The metre
which was brought to such perfection by the Latin poets was formed from
Page 218
the Greek, and the Latin language more and more assimilated to the
Hellenic tongue.
As civilization advanced, the rude literature of Rome was compared with
the great monuments of Greek genius, their superiority was acknowledged,
and the study of them encouraged. The Roman youth not only attended the
schools of the Greeks, in Rome, but their education was considered
incomplete, unless they repaired to those of Athens, Rhodes, and Mytilene.
Thus, whatever of national character existed in the literature was gradually
obliterated, and what it gained in harmony and finish it lost in originality.
The Roman writers imitated more particularly the writers of the
Alexandrian school, who, being more artificial, were more congenial than
the great writers of the age of Pericles.
Roman genius, serious, majestic, and perhaps more original than at a
later period, was manifest even at the time of the Punic wars, but it had not
yet taken form; and while thought was vigorous and powerful, expression
remained weak and uncertain. But, under the Greek influence, and aided by
the vigor imparted by free institutions, the union of thought and form was at
length consummated, and the literature reached its culminating point in the
great Roman orator. The fruits which had grown and matured in the
centuries preceding were gathered by Augustus; but the influences that
contributed to the splendor of his age belong rather to the republic than the
empire, and with the fall of the liberties of Rome, Roman literature
declined.
2. MIMES, MIMOGRAPHERS, AND PANTOMIME.—Amidst all the
splendor of the Latin literature of this period, dramatic poetry never
recovered from the trance into which it had fallen, though the stage had not
altogether lost its popularity. Aesopus and Roscius, the former the great
tragic actor, and the latter the favorite comedian, in the time of Cicero,
Hellenic tongue.
As civilization advanced, the rude literature of Rome was compared with
the great monuments of Greek genius, their superiority was acknowledged,
and the study of them encouraged. The Roman youth not only attended the
schools of the Greeks, in Rome, but their education was considered
incomplete, unless they repaired to those of Athens, Rhodes, and Mytilene.
Thus, whatever of national character existed in the literature was gradually
obliterated, and what it gained in harmony and finish it lost in originality.
The Roman writers imitated more particularly the writers of the
Alexandrian school, who, being more artificial, were more congenial than
the great writers of the age of Pericles.
Roman genius, serious, majestic, and perhaps more original than at a
later period, was manifest even at the time of the Punic wars, but it had not
yet taken form; and while thought was vigorous and powerful, expression
remained weak and uncertain. But, under the Greek influence, and aided by
the vigor imparted by free institutions, the union of thought and form was at
length consummated, and the literature reached its culminating point in the
great Roman orator. The fruits which had grown and matured in the
centuries preceding were gathered by Augustus; but the influences that
contributed to the splendor of his age belong rather to the republic than the
empire, and with the fall of the liberties of Rome, Roman literature
declined.
2. MIMES, MIMOGRAPHERS, AND PANTOMIME.—Amidst all the
splendor of the Latin literature of this period, dramatic poetry never
recovered from the trance into which it had fallen, though the stage had not
altogether lost its popularity. Aesopus and Roscius, the former the great
tragic actor, and the latter the favorite comedian, in the time of Cicero,
Page 219
enjoyed his friendship and that of other great men, and both amassed large
fortunes. But although the standard Roman plays were constantly
represented, dramatic literature had become extinct. The entertainments,
which had now taken the place of comedy and tragedy, were termed mimes.
These were laughable imitations of manners and persons, combining the
features of comedy and farce, for comedy represents the characters of a
class, farce those of individuals. Their essence was that of the modern
pantomime, and their coarseness, and even indecency, gratified the love of
broad humor which characterized the Roman people. After a time, when
they became established as popular favorites, the dialogue occupied a more
prominent position, and was written in verse, like that of tragedy and
comedy. During the dictatorship of Caesar, a Roman knight named Laberius
(107-45 B.C.) became famous for his mimes. The profession of an actor of
mimes was infamous, but Laberius was a writer, not an actor. On one
occasion, Caesar offered him a large sum of money to enter the lists in a
trial of his improvisatorial skill. Laberius did not submit to the degradation
for the sake of the money, but he was afraid to refuse. The only method of
retaliation in his power was sarcasm. His part was that of a slave; and when
his master scourged him, he exclaimed: "Porro, Quirites, libertatem
perdimus!" His words were received with a round of applause, and all eyes
were fixed on Caesar. The dictator restored him to the rank of which his act
had deprived him, but he could never recover the respect of his countrymen.
As he passed the orchestra, on his way to the stalls of the knights, Cicero
cried out: "If we were not so crowded, I would make room for you here."
Laberius replied, alluding to Cicero's lukewarmness as a political partisan:
"I am astonished that you should be crowded, as you generally sit on two
stools."
Another writer and actor of mimes was Publius Syrus, originally a Syrian
slave. Tradition has recorded a bon mot of his which is as witty as it is
severe. Seeing an ill-tempered man named Mucius in low spirits, he
fortunes. But although the standard Roman plays were constantly
represented, dramatic literature had become extinct. The entertainments,
which had now taken the place of comedy and tragedy, were termed mimes.
These were laughable imitations of manners and persons, combining the
features of comedy and farce, for comedy represents the characters of a
class, farce those of individuals. Their essence was that of the modern
pantomime, and their coarseness, and even indecency, gratified the love of
broad humor which characterized the Roman people. After a time, when
they became established as popular favorites, the dialogue occupied a more
prominent position, and was written in verse, like that of tragedy and
comedy. During the dictatorship of Caesar, a Roman knight named Laberius
(107-45 B.C.) became famous for his mimes. The profession of an actor of
mimes was infamous, but Laberius was a writer, not an actor. On one
occasion, Caesar offered him a large sum of money to enter the lists in a
trial of his improvisatorial skill. Laberius did not submit to the degradation
for the sake of the money, but he was afraid to refuse. The only method of
retaliation in his power was sarcasm. His part was that of a slave; and when
his master scourged him, he exclaimed: "Porro, Quirites, libertatem
perdimus!" His words were received with a round of applause, and all eyes
were fixed on Caesar. The dictator restored him to the rank of which his act
had deprived him, but he could never recover the respect of his countrymen.
As he passed the orchestra, on his way to the stalls of the knights, Cicero
cried out: "If we were not so crowded, I would make room for you here."
Laberius replied, alluding to Cicero's lukewarmness as a political partisan:
"I am astonished that you should be crowded, as you generally sit on two
stools."
Another writer and actor of mimes was Publius Syrus, originally a Syrian
slave. Tradition has recorded a bon mot of his which is as witty as it is
severe. Seeing an ill-tempered man named Mucius in low spirits, he
Page 220
exclaimed: "Either some ill fortune has happened to Mucius, or some good
fortune to one of his friends!"
The Roman pantomime differed somewhat from the mime. It was a ballet
of action, performed by a single dancer, who not only exhibited the human
figure in its most graceful attitudes, but represented every passion and
emotion with such truth that the spectators could, without difficulty,
understand the story. The pantomime was licentious in its character, and the
actors were forbidden by Tiberius to hold any intercourse with Romans of
equestrian or senatorial dignity.
These were the exhibitions which threw such discredit on the stage,
which called forth the well-deserved attacks of the early Christian fathers,
and caused them to declare that whoever attended them was unworthy of
the name of Christian. Had the drama not been so abused, had it retained its
original purity, and carried out the object attributed to it by Aristotle, they
would have seen it, not a nursery of vice, but a school of virtue; not only an
innocent amusement, but a powerful engine to form the taste, to improve
the morals, and to purify the feelings of a people.
3. EPIC POETRY.—The epic poets of this period selected their subjects
either from the heroic age and the mythology of Greece, or from their own
national history. The Augustan age abounds in representatives of these two
poetical schools, though possessing little merit. But the Romans, essentially
practical and positive in their character, felt little interest in the descriptions
of manners and events remote from their associations, and poetry, restrained
within the limits of their history, could not rise to that height of imagination
demanded by the epic muse. Virgil united the two forms by selecting his
subject from the national history, and adorning the ancient traditions of
Rome with the splendor of Greek imagination.
fortune to one of his friends!"
The Roman pantomime differed somewhat from the mime. It was a ballet
of action, performed by a single dancer, who not only exhibited the human
figure in its most graceful attitudes, but represented every passion and
emotion with such truth that the spectators could, without difficulty,
understand the story. The pantomime was licentious in its character, and the
actors were forbidden by Tiberius to hold any intercourse with Romans of
equestrian or senatorial dignity.
These were the exhibitions which threw such discredit on the stage,
which called forth the well-deserved attacks of the early Christian fathers,
and caused them to declare that whoever attended them was unworthy of
the name of Christian. Had the drama not been so abused, had it retained its
original purity, and carried out the object attributed to it by Aristotle, they
would have seen it, not a nursery of vice, but a school of virtue; not only an
innocent amusement, but a powerful engine to form the taste, to improve
the morals, and to purify the feelings of a people.
3. EPIC POETRY.—The epic poets of this period selected their subjects
either from the heroic age and the mythology of Greece, or from their own
national history. The Augustan age abounds in representatives of these two
poetical schools, though possessing little merit. But the Romans, essentially
practical and positive in their character, felt little interest in the descriptions
of manners and events remote from their associations, and poetry, restrained
within the limits of their history, could not rise to that height of imagination
demanded by the epic muse. Virgil united the two forms by selecting his
subject from the national history, and adorning the ancient traditions of
Rome with the splendor of Greek imagination.
Page 221
Virgil (70-19 B.C.) was born at Andes, near Mantua; he was educated at
Cremona and at Naples, where he studied Greek literature and philosophy.
After this he came to Rome, where, through Maecenas, he became known
to Octavius, and basked in the sunshine of court favor. His favorite
residence was Naples. On his return from Athens, in company with
Augustus, he was seized with an illness of which he died. He was buried
about a mile from Naples, on the road to Pozzuoli; and a tomb is still
pointed out to the traveler which is said to be that of the poet. Virgil was
deservedly popular both as a poet and as a man. The emperor esteemed him
and people respected him; he was constitutionally pensive and melancholy,
temperate, and pure-minded in a profligate age, and his popularity never
spoiled his simplicity and modesty. In his last moments he was anxious to
burn the whole manuscript of the Aeneid, and directed his executors either
to improve it or commit it to the flames.
The idea and plan of the Aeneid are derived from Homer. As the wrath of
Achilles is the mainspring of the Iliad, so the unity of the Aeneid results
from the anger of Juno. The arrival of Aeneas in Italy after the destruction
of Troy, the obstacles that opposed him through the intervention of Juno,
and the adventures and the victories of the hero form the subject of the
poem. Leaving Sicily for Latium, Aeneas is driven on the coast of Africa by
a tempest raised against him by Juno; at Carthage he is welcomed by the
queen, Dido, to whom he relates his past adventures and sufferings. By his
narrative he wins her love, but at the command of Jupiter abandons her.
Unable to retain him, Dido, in the despair of her passion, destroys herself.
After passing through many dangers, under the guidance of the Sibyl of
Cumae, he descends into the kingdom of the dead to consult the shade of
his father. There appear to him the souls of the future heroes of Rome. On
his return, he becomes a friend of the king of Latium, who promises to him
the hand of his daughter, which is eagerly sought by King Turnus. A fearful
war ensues between the rival lovers, which ends in the victory of Aeneas.
Cremona and at Naples, where he studied Greek literature and philosophy.
After this he came to Rome, where, through Maecenas, he became known
to Octavius, and basked in the sunshine of court favor. His favorite
residence was Naples. On his return from Athens, in company with
Augustus, he was seized with an illness of which he died. He was buried
about a mile from Naples, on the road to Pozzuoli; and a tomb is still
pointed out to the traveler which is said to be that of the poet. Virgil was
deservedly popular both as a poet and as a man. The emperor esteemed him
and people respected him; he was constitutionally pensive and melancholy,
temperate, and pure-minded in a profligate age, and his popularity never
spoiled his simplicity and modesty. In his last moments he was anxious to
burn the whole manuscript of the Aeneid, and directed his executors either
to improve it or commit it to the flames.
The idea and plan of the Aeneid are derived from Homer. As the wrath of
Achilles is the mainspring of the Iliad, so the unity of the Aeneid results
from the anger of Juno. The arrival of Aeneas in Italy after the destruction
of Troy, the obstacles that opposed him through the intervention of Juno,
and the adventures and the victories of the hero form the subject of the
poem. Leaving Sicily for Latium, Aeneas is driven on the coast of Africa by
a tempest raised against him by Juno; at Carthage he is welcomed by the
queen, Dido, to whom he relates his past adventures and sufferings. By his
narrative he wins her love, but at the command of Jupiter abandons her.
Unable to retain him, Dido, in the despair of her passion, destroys herself.
After passing through many dangers, under the guidance of the Sibyl of
Cumae, he descends into the kingdom of the dead to consult the shade of
his father. There appear to him the souls of the future heroes of Rome. On
his return, he becomes a friend of the king of Latium, who promises to him
the hand of his daughter, which is eagerly sought by King Turnus. A fearful
war ensues between the rival lovers, which ends in the victory of Aeneas.
Page 222
Though the poem of Virgil is in many passages an imitation from the
Iliad and the Odyssey, the Roman element predominates in it, and the
Aeneid is the true national poem of Rome. There was no subject more
adapted to flatter the vanity of the Romans, than the splendor and antiquity
of their origin. Augustus is evidently typified under the character of Aeneas;
Cleopatra is boldly sketched as Dido; and Turnus as the popular Antony.
The love and death of Dido, the passionate victim of an unrequited love,
give occasion to the poet to sing the victories of his countrymen over their
Carthaginian rivals; the Pythagorean metempsychosis, which he adopts in
the description of Elysium, affords an opportunity to exalt the heroes of
Rome; and the wars of Aeneas allow him to describe the localities and the
manners of ancient Latium with such truthfulness as to give to his verses
the authority of historical quotations. In style, the Aeneid is a model of
purity and elegance, and for the variety and the harmony of its incidents, for
the power of its descriptions, and for the interest of its plot and episodes,
second only to the Iliad. It has been observed that Virgil's descriptions are
more like landscape painting than those of any of his predecessors, whether
Greek or Roman, and it is a remarkable fact, that landscape painting was
first introduced in his time.
4. DIDACTIC POETRY.—The poems, which first established the
reputation of Virgil as a poet, belong to didactic poetry. They are his
Bucolics and Georgics. The Bucolics are pastoral idyls; the characters are
Italian in all their sentiments and feelings, acting, however, the unreal and
assumed part of Greek shepherds. The Italians never possessed the elements
of pastoral life, and could not furnish the poet with originals and models
from which to draw his portraits. When represented as Virgil represents
them in his Bucolics, they are in masquerade, and the drama in which they
form the characters is of an allegorical kind. Even the scenery is Sicilian,
and does not truthfully describe the tame neighborhood of Mantua. In fact,
these poems are imitations of Theocritus; but, divesting ourselves of the
Iliad and the Odyssey, the Roman element predominates in it, and the
Aeneid is the true national poem of Rome. There was no subject more
adapted to flatter the vanity of the Romans, than the splendor and antiquity
of their origin. Augustus is evidently typified under the character of Aeneas;
Cleopatra is boldly sketched as Dido; and Turnus as the popular Antony.
The love and death of Dido, the passionate victim of an unrequited love,
give occasion to the poet to sing the victories of his countrymen over their
Carthaginian rivals; the Pythagorean metempsychosis, which he adopts in
the description of Elysium, affords an opportunity to exalt the heroes of
Rome; and the wars of Aeneas allow him to describe the localities and the
manners of ancient Latium with such truthfulness as to give to his verses
the authority of historical quotations. In style, the Aeneid is a model of
purity and elegance, and for the variety and the harmony of its incidents, for
the power of its descriptions, and for the interest of its plot and episodes,
second only to the Iliad. It has been observed that Virgil's descriptions are
more like landscape painting than those of any of his predecessors, whether
Greek or Roman, and it is a remarkable fact, that landscape painting was
first introduced in his time.
4. DIDACTIC POETRY.—The poems, which first established the
reputation of Virgil as a poet, belong to didactic poetry. They are his
Bucolics and Georgics. The Bucolics are pastoral idyls; the characters are
Italian in all their sentiments and feelings, acting, however, the unreal and
assumed part of Greek shepherds. The Italians never possessed the elements
of pastoral life, and could not furnish the poet with originals and models
from which to draw his portraits. When represented as Virgil represents
them in his Bucolics, they are in masquerade, and the drama in which they
form the characters is of an allegorical kind. Even the scenery is Sicilian,
and does not truthfully describe the tame neighborhood of Mantua. In fact,
these poems are imitations of Theocritus; but, divesting ourselves of the
Page 223
idea of the outward form which the poet has chosen to adopt, we are
touched by the simple narrative of disappointed loves and childlike woes;
we appreciate the delicately-veiled compliments paid by the poet to his
patron; we enjoy the inventive genius and poetical power which they
display, and we are elevated by the exalted sentiments which they
sometimes breathe.
The Georgics are poems on the labors and enjoyments of rural life, a
subject for which Rome offered a favorable field. Though in this style
Hesiod was the model of Virgil, his system is perfectly Italian, so much so,
that many of his rules may be traced in modern Italian husbandry, just as the
descriptions of implements in the Greek poet are frequently found to agree
with those in use in modern Greece. The great merit of the Georgics
consists in their varied digressions, interesting episodes, and in the sublime
bursts of descriptive vigor which are interspersed throughout them. They
have frequently been taken as models for imitation by the didactic poets of
all nations, and more particularly of England. The "Seasons," for instance,
is a thoroughly Virgilian poem.
Lucretius (95-51 B.C.) belongs to the class of didactic poets. He might
claim a place among philosophers as well as poets, for his poem marks an
epoch both in poetry and philosophy. But his philosophy is a mere
reflection from that of Greece, while his poetry is bright with the rays of
original genius. His poem on "The Nature of Things" is in imitation of that
of Empedocles. Its subject is philosophical and its purpose didactic; but its
unity of design gives to it almost the rank of an epic. Its structure prevents it
from being a complete and systematic survey of the whole Epicurean
philosophy, but as far as the form of the poem permitted, it presents an
accurate view of the philosophy which then enjoyed the highest popularity.
touched by the simple narrative of disappointed loves and childlike woes;
we appreciate the delicately-veiled compliments paid by the poet to his
patron; we enjoy the inventive genius and poetical power which they
display, and we are elevated by the exalted sentiments which they
sometimes breathe.
The Georgics are poems on the labors and enjoyments of rural life, a
subject for which Rome offered a favorable field. Though in this style
Hesiod was the model of Virgil, his system is perfectly Italian, so much so,
that many of his rules may be traced in modern Italian husbandry, just as the
descriptions of implements in the Greek poet are frequently found to agree
with those in use in modern Greece. The great merit of the Georgics
consists in their varied digressions, interesting episodes, and in the sublime
bursts of descriptive vigor which are interspersed throughout them. They
have frequently been taken as models for imitation by the didactic poets of
all nations, and more particularly of England. The "Seasons," for instance,
is a thoroughly Virgilian poem.
Lucretius (95-51 B.C.) belongs to the class of didactic poets. He might
claim a place among philosophers as well as poets, for his poem marks an
epoch both in poetry and philosophy. But his philosophy is a mere
reflection from that of Greece, while his poetry is bright with the rays of
original genius. His poem on "The Nature of Things" is in imitation of that
of Empedocles. Its subject is philosophical and its purpose didactic; but its
unity of design gives to it almost the rank of an epic. Its structure prevents it
from being a complete and systematic survey of the whole Epicurean
philosophy, but as far as the form of the poem permitted, it presents an
accurate view of the philosophy which then enjoyed the highest popularity.
Page 224
The object of the poem of Lucretius is to emancipate mankind from the
debasing effects of superstition by an exposition of philosophy, and though
a follower of Epicurus, he is not entirely destitute of the religious sentiment,
for he deifies nature and has a veneration for her laws. His infidelity must
be viewed rather in the light of a philosophical protest against the results of
heathen superstition, than a total rejection of the principles of religious
faith.
Lucretius valued the capabilities of the Latin language. He wielded at
will its power of embodying the noblest thoughts, and showed how its
copious and flexible properties could overcome the hard technicalities of
science. The great beauty of his poetry is its variety; his fancy is always
lively, his imagination has always free scope. He is sublime, as a
philosopher who penetrates the secrets of the natural world, and discloses to
the eyes of man the hidden causes of its wonderful phenomena. His object
was a lofty one; for although the absurdities of the national creed drove him
into skepticism, his aim was to set the intellect free from the trammels of
superstition. But besides grandeur and sublimity, we find the totally
different qualities of softness and tenderness. Rome had long known
nothing but war, and was now rent by civil dissension. Lucretius yearned
for peace; and his prayer, that the fabled goddess of all that is beautiful in
nature would heal the wounds which discord had made, is distinguished by
tenderness and pathos even more than by sublimity. He is superior to Ovid
in force, though inferior in facility; not so smooth or harmonious as Virgil,
his poetry always falls upon the ear with a swelling and sonorous melody.
Virgil appreciated his excellence, and imitated not only single expressions,
but almost entire verses and passages; and Ovid exclaims, that the sublime
strains of Lucretius shall never perish until the world shall be given up to
destruction.
debasing effects of superstition by an exposition of philosophy, and though
a follower of Epicurus, he is not entirely destitute of the religious sentiment,
for he deifies nature and has a veneration for her laws. His infidelity must
be viewed rather in the light of a philosophical protest against the results of
heathen superstition, than a total rejection of the principles of religious
faith.
Lucretius valued the capabilities of the Latin language. He wielded at
will its power of embodying the noblest thoughts, and showed how its
copious and flexible properties could overcome the hard technicalities of
science. The great beauty of his poetry is its variety; his fancy is always
lively, his imagination has always free scope. He is sublime, as a
philosopher who penetrates the secrets of the natural world, and discloses to
the eyes of man the hidden causes of its wonderful phenomena. His object
was a lofty one; for although the absurdities of the national creed drove him
into skepticism, his aim was to set the intellect free from the trammels of
superstition. But besides grandeur and sublimity, we find the totally
different qualities of softness and tenderness. Rome had long known
nothing but war, and was now rent by civil dissension. Lucretius yearned
for peace; and his prayer, that the fabled goddess of all that is beautiful in
nature would heal the wounds which discord had made, is distinguished by
tenderness and pathos even more than by sublimity. He is superior to Ovid
in force, though inferior in facility; not so smooth or harmonious as Virgil,
his poetry always falls upon the ear with a swelling and sonorous melody.
Virgil appreciated his excellence, and imitated not only single expressions,
but almost entire verses and passages; and Ovid exclaims, that the sublime
strains of Lucretius shall never perish until the world shall be given up to
destruction.
Page 225
5. LYRIC POETRY.—The Romans had not the ideality and the
enthusiasm which are the elements of lyric poetry, and in all the range of
their literature there are only two poets who, greatly inferior to the lyric
poets of Greece, have a positive claim to a place in this department,
Catullus and Horace. Catullus (86-46 B.C.) was born near Verona. At an
early age he went to Rome, where he plunged into all the excesses of the
capital, and where his sole occupation was the cultivation of his literary
tastes and talents. A career of extravagance and debauchery terminated in
the ruin of his fortune, and he died at the age of forty. The works of Catullus
consist of numerous short pieces of a lyrical character, elegies and other
poems. He was one of the most popular of the Roman poets, because he
possessed those qualities which the literary society at Rome most valued,
polish and learning, and because, although an imitator, there was a truly
Roman nationality in all that he wrote. His satire was the bitter resentment
of a vindictive spirit; his love and his hate were both purely selfish, but his
excellences were of the most alluring and captivating kind. He has never
been surpassed in gracefulness, melody, and tenderness.
Horace (65-8 B.C.), like Virgil and other poets of his time, enjoyed the
friendship and intimacy of Maecenas, who procured for him the public
grant of his Sabine farm, situated about fifteen miles from Tivoli. At Rome
he occupied a house on the beautiful heights of the Esquiline. The rapid
alternation of town and country life, which the fickle poet indulged in, gives
a peculiar charm to his poetry. His "Satires" were followed by the
publication of the "Odes" and the "Epistles." The satires of Horace occupied
the position of the fashionable novel of our day. In them is sketched boldly,
but good-humoredly, a picture of Roman social life, with its vices and
follies. They have nothing of the bitterness of Lucilius, the love of purity
and honor that adorns Persius, or the burning indignation of Juvenal at the
loathsome corruption of morals. Vice, in his day, had not reached that
appalling height which it attained in the time of the emperors who
enthusiasm which are the elements of lyric poetry, and in all the range of
their literature there are only two poets who, greatly inferior to the lyric
poets of Greece, have a positive claim to a place in this department,
Catullus and Horace. Catullus (86-46 B.C.) was born near Verona. At an
early age he went to Rome, where he plunged into all the excesses of the
capital, and where his sole occupation was the cultivation of his literary
tastes and talents. A career of extravagance and debauchery terminated in
the ruin of his fortune, and he died at the age of forty. The works of Catullus
consist of numerous short pieces of a lyrical character, elegies and other
poems. He was one of the most popular of the Roman poets, because he
possessed those qualities which the literary society at Rome most valued,
polish and learning, and because, although an imitator, there was a truly
Roman nationality in all that he wrote. His satire was the bitter resentment
of a vindictive spirit; his love and his hate were both purely selfish, but his
excellences were of the most alluring and captivating kind. He has never
been surpassed in gracefulness, melody, and tenderness.
Horace (65-8 B.C.), like Virgil and other poets of his time, enjoyed the
friendship and intimacy of Maecenas, who procured for him the public
grant of his Sabine farm, situated about fifteen miles from Tivoli. At Rome
he occupied a house on the beautiful heights of the Esquiline. The rapid
alternation of town and country life, which the fickle poet indulged in, gives
a peculiar charm to his poetry. His "Satires" were followed by the
publication of the "Odes" and the "Epistles." The satires of Horace occupied
the position of the fashionable novel of our day. In them is sketched boldly,
but good-humoredly, a picture of Roman social life, with its vices and
follies. They have nothing of the bitterness of Lucilius, the love of purity
and honor that adorns Persius, or the burning indignation of Juvenal at the
loathsome corruption of morals. Vice, in his day, had not reached that
appalling height which it attained in the time of the emperors who
Page 226
succeeded Augustus. Deficient in moral purity, nothing would strike him as
deserving censure, except such excess as would actually defeat the object
which he proposed to himself, namely, the utmost enjoyment of life. In the
"Epistles," he lays aside the character of a moral teacher or censor, and
writes with the freedom with which he would converse with an intimate
friend. But it is in his inimitable "Odes" that the genius of Horace as a poet
is especially displayed; they have never been equaled in beauty of
sentiment, gracefulness of language, and melody of versification; they
comprehend every variety of subject suitable to the lyric muse; they rise
without effort to the most elevated topics; and they descend to the simplest
joys and sorrows of every-day life.
The life of Horace is especially instructive, as a mirror in which is
reflected a faithful image of the manners of his day. He is the representative
of Roman refined society, as Virgil is of the national mind. His morals were
lax, but not worse than those of his contemporaries. He looked at virtue and
vice from a worldly, not from a moral point of view, and with him the one
was prudence and the other folly.
In connection with Horace, we may mention Maecenas, who, by his good
taste and munificence, exercised a great influence upon literature, and
literary men of Rome were much indebted to him for the use he made of his
friendship with Augustus, to whom, probably, his love of literature and of
pleasure and his imperturbable temper recommended him as an agreeable
companion. He had wealth enough to gratify his utmost wishes, and his
mind was so full of the delights of refined society, of palaces, gardens, wit,
poetry, and art, that there was no room in it for ambition. All the most
brilliant men of Rome were found at his table,—Virgil, Horace, Propertius,
and Varius were among his friends and constant associates. He was a fair
specimen of the man of pleasure and society,—liberal, kind- hearted, clever,
deserving censure, except such excess as would actually defeat the object
which he proposed to himself, namely, the utmost enjoyment of life. In the
"Epistles," he lays aside the character of a moral teacher or censor, and
writes with the freedom with which he would converse with an intimate
friend. But it is in his inimitable "Odes" that the genius of Horace as a poet
is especially displayed; they have never been equaled in beauty of
sentiment, gracefulness of language, and melody of versification; they
comprehend every variety of subject suitable to the lyric muse; they rise
without effort to the most elevated topics; and they descend to the simplest
joys and sorrows of every-day life.
The life of Horace is especially instructive, as a mirror in which is
reflected a faithful image of the manners of his day. He is the representative
of Roman refined society, as Virgil is of the national mind. His morals were
lax, but not worse than those of his contemporaries. He looked at virtue and
vice from a worldly, not from a moral point of view, and with him the one
was prudence and the other folly.
In connection with Horace, we may mention Maecenas, who, by his good
taste and munificence, exercised a great influence upon literature, and
literary men of Rome were much indebted to him for the use he made of his
friendship with Augustus, to whom, probably, his love of literature and of
pleasure and his imperturbable temper recommended him as an agreeable
companion. He had wealth enough to gratify his utmost wishes, and his
mind was so full of the delights of refined society, of palaces, gardens, wit,
poetry, and art, that there was no room in it for ambition. All the most
brilliant men of Rome were found at his table,—Virgil, Horace, Propertius,
and Varius were among his friends and constant associates. He was a fair
specimen of the man of pleasure and society,—liberal, kind- hearted, clever,
Page 227
refined, but luxurious, self-indulgent, indolent, and volatile, with good
impulses, but without principle.
6. ELEGY.—Tibullus (b. 54 B.C.) was the father of the Roman elegy. He
was a contemporary of Virgil and Horace. The style of his poems and their
tone of thought are like his character, deficient in vigor and manliness, but
sweet, smooth, polished, tender, and never disfigured by bad taste. He
passed his short life in peaceful retirement, and died soon after Virgil. The
poems ascribed to Tibullus consist of four books, of which only two are
genuine.
Propertius (b. 150 B.C.), although a contemporary and friend of the
Augustan poets, may be considered as belonging to a somewhat different
school of poetry. While Horace, Virgil, and Tibullus imitated the noblest
poets of the Greek age, Propertius, like the minor Roman poets, aspired to
nothing more than the imitation of the graceful, but feeble strains of the
Alexandrian poets. If he excels Tibullus in vigor of fancy, expression, and
coloring, he is inferior to him in grace, spontaneity, and delicacy; he cannot,
also, be compared with Catullus, who greatly surpasses him in his easy and
effective style.
Ovid (43 B.C.-6 A.D.), the most fertile of the Latin poets, not only in
elegy, but also in other kinds of poetry, was enabled by his rank, fortune,
and talents to cultivate the society of men of congenial tastes. A skeptic and
an epicurean, he lived a life of continual indulgence and intrigue. He was a
universal admirer of the female sex, and a favorite among women. He was
popular as a poet, successful in society, and possessed all the enjoyments
that wealth could bestow; but later in life he incurred the anger of Augustus,
and was banished to the very frontier of the Roman empire, where he
lingered for a few years and died in great misery. The "Epistles to and from
Women of the Heroic Age" are a series of love-letters; with the exception of
impulses, but without principle.
6. ELEGY.—Tibullus (b. 54 B.C.) was the father of the Roman elegy. He
was a contemporary of Virgil and Horace. The style of his poems and their
tone of thought are like his character, deficient in vigor and manliness, but
sweet, smooth, polished, tender, and never disfigured by bad taste. He
passed his short life in peaceful retirement, and died soon after Virgil. The
poems ascribed to Tibullus consist of four books, of which only two are
genuine.
Propertius (b. 150 B.C.), although a contemporary and friend of the
Augustan poets, may be considered as belonging to a somewhat different
school of poetry. While Horace, Virgil, and Tibullus imitated the noblest
poets of the Greek age, Propertius, like the minor Roman poets, aspired to
nothing more than the imitation of the graceful, but feeble strains of the
Alexandrian poets. If he excels Tibullus in vigor of fancy, expression, and
coloring, he is inferior to him in grace, spontaneity, and delicacy; he cannot,
also, be compared with Catullus, who greatly surpasses him in his easy and
effective style.
Ovid (43 B.C.-6 A.D.), the most fertile of the Latin poets, not only in
elegy, but also in other kinds of poetry, was enabled by his rank, fortune,
and talents to cultivate the society of men of congenial tastes. A skeptic and
an epicurean, he lived a life of continual indulgence and intrigue. He was a
universal admirer of the female sex, and a favorite among women. He was
popular as a poet, successful in society, and possessed all the enjoyments
that wealth could bestow; but later in life he incurred the anger of Augustus,
and was banished to the very frontier of the Roman empire, where he
lingered for a few years and died in great misery. The "Epistles to and from
Women of the Heroic Age" are a series of love-letters; with the exception of
Page 228
the "Metamorphoses," they have been greater favorites than any other of his
works. Love, in the days of Ovid, had in it nothing pure or chivalrous. The
age in which he lived was morally polluted, and he was neither better nor
worse than his contemporaries; hence grossness is the characteristic of his
"Art of Love." His "Metamorphoses" contain a series of mythological
narratives from the earliest times to the translation of the soul of Julius
Caesar from earth to heaven, and his metamorphosis into a star. In this
poem especially may be traced that study and learning by which the Roman
poets made all the treasures of Greek literature their own. "The Fasti," a
poem on the Roman calendar, is a beautiful specimen of simple narrative in
verse, and displays, more than any of his works, his power of telling a story
without the slightest effort, in poetry as well as prose. The five books of the
"Tristia," and the "Epistles from Pontus," were the outpourings of his
sorrowful heart during the gloomy evening of his days.
7. ORATORY AND PHILOSOPHY.—As oratory gave to Latin prose-
writing its elegance and dignity, Cicero (106-43 B.C.) is not only the
representative of the flourishing period of the language, but also the
instrumental cause of its arriving at perfection. He gave a fixed character to
the Latin tongue; showed his countrymen what vigor it possessed, and of
what elegance and polish it was susceptible. The influence of Cicero on the
language and literature of his day was not only extensive, but permanent,
and it survived almost until the language was corrupted by barbarism. After
traveling in Greece and Asia, and holding a high office in Sicily, he returned
to Rome, resumed his forensic practice, and was made consul. The
conspiracy of Catiline was the great event of his consulship. The prudence
and tact with which he crushed this gained him the applause and gratitude
of his fellow-citizens, who hailed him as the father of his country; but he
was obliged, by the intrigues of his enemies, to fly from Rome; his exile
was decreed, and his town and country houses given up to plunder. He was,
however, recalled, and appointed to a seat in the college of Augurs. In the
works. Love, in the days of Ovid, had in it nothing pure or chivalrous. The
age in which he lived was morally polluted, and he was neither better nor
worse than his contemporaries; hence grossness is the characteristic of his
"Art of Love." His "Metamorphoses" contain a series of mythological
narratives from the earliest times to the translation of the soul of Julius
Caesar from earth to heaven, and his metamorphosis into a star. In this
poem especially may be traced that study and learning by which the Roman
poets made all the treasures of Greek literature their own. "The Fasti," a
poem on the Roman calendar, is a beautiful specimen of simple narrative in
verse, and displays, more than any of his works, his power of telling a story
without the slightest effort, in poetry as well as prose. The five books of the
"Tristia," and the "Epistles from Pontus," were the outpourings of his
sorrowful heart during the gloomy evening of his days.
7. ORATORY AND PHILOSOPHY.—As oratory gave to Latin prose-
writing its elegance and dignity, Cicero (106-43 B.C.) is not only the
representative of the flourishing period of the language, but also the
instrumental cause of its arriving at perfection. He gave a fixed character to
the Latin tongue; showed his countrymen what vigor it possessed, and of
what elegance and polish it was susceptible. The influence of Cicero on the
language and literature of his day was not only extensive, but permanent,
and it survived almost until the language was corrupted by barbarism. After
traveling in Greece and Asia, and holding a high office in Sicily, he returned
to Rome, resumed his forensic practice, and was made consul. The
conspiracy of Catiline was the great event of his consulship. The prudence
and tact with which he crushed this gained him the applause and gratitude
of his fellow-citizens, who hailed him as the father of his country; but he
was obliged, by the intrigues of his enemies, to fly from Rome; his exile
was decreed, and his town and country houses given up to plunder. He was,
however, recalled, and appointed to a seat in the college of Augurs. In the
Page 229
struggle between Pompey and Caesar, he followed the fortunes of the
former; but Caesar, after his triumph, granted him a full and free pardon.
After the assassination of Caesar, Cicero delivered that torrent of indignant
and eloquent invective, his twelve Philippic orations, and became again the
popular idol; but when the second triumvirate was formed, and each
member gave up his friends to the vengeance of his colleagues, Octavius
did not hesitate to sacrifice Cicero. Betrayed by a treacherous freedman, he
would not permit his attendants to make any resistance, but courageously
submitted to the sword of the assassins, who cut off his head and hands, and
carried them to Antony, whose wife, Julia, gloated with inhuman delight
upon the pallid features, and in petty spite pierced with a needle the once
eloquent tongue. Cicero had numerous faults; he was vain, vacillating,
inconstant, timid, and the victim of morbid sensibility; but he was candid,
truthful, just, generous, pure-minded, and warm-hearted. Gentle,
sympathizing, and affectionate, he lived as a patriot and died as a
philosopher.
The place which Cicero occupies in the history of Roman literature is
that of an orator and philosopher. The effectiveness of his oratory was
mainly owing to his knowledge of the human heart, and of the national
peculiarities of his countrymen. Its charm was owing to his extensive
acquaintance with the stores of literature and philosophy, which his
sprightly wit moulded at will; to the varied learning, which his unpedantic
mind made so pleasant and popular; and to his fund of illustration, at once
interesting and convincing. He carried his hearers with him; senate, judges,
and people understood his arguments, and felt his passionate appeals.
Compared with the dignified energy and majestic vigor of Demosthenes,
the Asiatic exuberance of some of his orations may be fatiguing to the more
sober and chaste taste of modern scholars; but in order to form a just
appreciation, we must transport ourselves mentally to the excitements of the
thronged forum, to the senate, composed of statesmen and warriors in the
former; but Caesar, after his triumph, granted him a full and free pardon.
After the assassination of Caesar, Cicero delivered that torrent of indignant
and eloquent invective, his twelve Philippic orations, and became again the
popular idol; but when the second triumvirate was formed, and each
member gave up his friends to the vengeance of his colleagues, Octavius
did not hesitate to sacrifice Cicero. Betrayed by a treacherous freedman, he
would not permit his attendants to make any resistance, but courageously
submitted to the sword of the assassins, who cut off his head and hands, and
carried them to Antony, whose wife, Julia, gloated with inhuman delight
upon the pallid features, and in petty spite pierced with a needle the once
eloquent tongue. Cicero had numerous faults; he was vain, vacillating,
inconstant, timid, and the victim of morbid sensibility; but he was candid,
truthful, just, generous, pure-minded, and warm-hearted. Gentle,
sympathizing, and affectionate, he lived as a patriot and died as a
philosopher.
The place which Cicero occupies in the history of Roman literature is
that of an orator and philosopher. The effectiveness of his oratory was
mainly owing to his knowledge of the human heart, and of the national
peculiarities of his countrymen. Its charm was owing to his extensive
acquaintance with the stores of literature and philosophy, which his
sprightly wit moulded at will; to the varied learning, which his unpedantic
mind made so pleasant and popular; and to his fund of illustration, at once
interesting and convincing. He carried his hearers with him; senate, judges,
and people understood his arguments, and felt his passionate appeals.
Compared with the dignified energy and majestic vigor of Demosthenes,
the Asiatic exuberance of some of his orations may be fatiguing to the more
sober and chaste taste of modern scholars; but in order to form a just
appreciation, we must transport ourselves mentally to the excitements of the
thronged forum, to the senate, composed of statesmen and warriors in the
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prime of life, maddened with the party- spirit of revolutionary times.
Viewed in this light, his most florid passages will appear free from
affectation—the natural flow of a speaker carried away with the torrent of
his enthusiasm. Among his numerous orations, in which, according to the
criticisms of Quintilian, he combined the force of Demosthenes, the
copiousness of Plato, and the elegance of Isocrates, we mention the six
celebrated Verrian harangues, which are considered masterpieces of Tullian
eloquence. In the speech for the poet Archias, he had evidently expended all
his resources of art, taste, and skill; and his oration in defense of Milo, for
force, pathos, and the externals of eloquence, deserves to be reckoned
among his most wonderful efforts. The oratory of Cicero was essentially
judicial; even his political orations are rather judicial than deliberative. He
was not born for a politician; he did not possess that analytical character of
mind which penetrates into the remote causes of human action, nor the
synthetical power which enables a man to follow them out to their farthest
consequences. Of the three qualities necessary for a statesman, he possessed
only two,—honesty and patriotism; he had not political wisdom. Hence, in
the finest specimens of his political orations, his Catilinarians and
Philippics, we look in vain for the calm, practical weighing of the subject
which is necessary in addressing a deliberative assembly. Nevertheless, so
irresistible was the influence which he exercised upon the minds of his
hearers, that all his political speeches were triumphs. His panegyric on
Pompey carried his appointment as commander-in-chief of the armies of the
East; he crushed in Catiline one of the most formidable traitors that had
ever menaced the safety of the republic, and Antony's fall followed the
complete exposure of his debauchery in private life, and the factiousness of
his public career.
In his rhetorical works, Cicero left a legacy of practical instruction to
posterity. The treatise "On Invention" is merely interesting as the juvenile
production of a future great man. "The Orator," "Brutus, or the illustrious
Viewed in this light, his most florid passages will appear free from
affectation—the natural flow of a speaker carried away with the torrent of
his enthusiasm. Among his numerous orations, in which, according to the
criticisms of Quintilian, he combined the force of Demosthenes, the
copiousness of Plato, and the elegance of Isocrates, we mention the six
celebrated Verrian harangues, which are considered masterpieces of Tullian
eloquence. In the speech for the poet Archias, he had evidently expended all
his resources of art, taste, and skill; and his oration in defense of Milo, for
force, pathos, and the externals of eloquence, deserves to be reckoned
among his most wonderful efforts. The oratory of Cicero was essentially
judicial; even his political orations are rather judicial than deliberative. He
was not born for a politician; he did not possess that analytical character of
mind which penetrates into the remote causes of human action, nor the
synthetical power which enables a man to follow them out to their farthest
consequences. Of the three qualities necessary for a statesman, he possessed
only two,—honesty and patriotism; he had not political wisdom. Hence, in
the finest specimens of his political orations, his Catilinarians and
Philippics, we look in vain for the calm, practical weighing of the subject
which is necessary in addressing a deliberative assembly. Nevertheless, so
irresistible was the influence which he exercised upon the minds of his
hearers, that all his political speeches were triumphs. His panegyric on
Pompey carried his appointment as commander-in-chief of the armies of the
East; he crushed in Catiline one of the most formidable traitors that had
ever menaced the safety of the republic, and Antony's fall followed the
complete exposure of his debauchery in private life, and the factiousness of
his public career.
In his rhetorical works, Cicero left a legacy of practical instruction to
posterity. The treatise "On Invention" is merely interesting as the juvenile
production of a future great man. "The Orator," "Brutus, or the illustrious
Page 231
Orators," and "The Orator to Marius Brutus," are the results of his matured
experience. They form together one series, in which the principles are laid
down, and their development carried out and illustrated; and in the "Orator"
he places before the eyes of Brutus the model of ideal perfection. In his
treatment of that subject, he shows a mind imbued with the spirit of Plato;
he invests it with dramatic interest, and transports the reader into the scene
which he so graphically describes.
Roman philosophy was neither the result of original investigation, nor the
gradual development of the Greek system. It arose rather from a study of
ancient philosophical literature, than from an emanation of philosophical
principles. It consisted in a kind of eclecticism with an ethical tendency,
bringing together doctrines and opinions scattered over a wide field in
reference to the political and social relations of man. Greek philosophy was
probably first introduced into Rome 166 B.C. But although the Romans
could appreciate the majestic dignity and poetical beauty of the style of
Plato, they were not equal to the task of penetrating his hidden meaning;
neither did the peripatetic doctrines meet with much favor. The
philosophical system which first arrested the attention of the Romans, and
gained an influence over their minds, was the Epicurean. That of the Stoics
also, the severe principles of which were in harmony with the stern old
Roman virtues, had distinguished disciples. The part which Cicero's
character qualified him to perform in the philosophical instruction of his
countrymen was scarcely that of a guide; he could give them a lively
interest in the subject, but he could not mould and form their belief, and
train them in the work of original investigation. Not being devoutly
attached to any system of philosophical belief, he would be cautious of
offending the philosophical prejudices of others. He was essentially an
eclectic in accumulating stores of Greek erudition, while his mind had a
tendency, in the midst of a variety of inconsistent doctrines, to leave the
conclusion undetermined. He brought everything to a practical standard; he
experience. They form together one series, in which the principles are laid
down, and their development carried out and illustrated; and in the "Orator"
he places before the eyes of Brutus the model of ideal perfection. In his
treatment of that subject, he shows a mind imbued with the spirit of Plato;
he invests it with dramatic interest, and transports the reader into the scene
which he so graphically describes.
Roman philosophy was neither the result of original investigation, nor the
gradual development of the Greek system. It arose rather from a study of
ancient philosophical literature, than from an emanation of philosophical
principles. It consisted in a kind of eclecticism with an ethical tendency,
bringing together doctrines and opinions scattered over a wide field in
reference to the political and social relations of man. Greek philosophy was
probably first introduced into Rome 166 B.C. But although the Romans
could appreciate the majestic dignity and poetical beauty of the style of
Plato, they were not equal to the task of penetrating his hidden meaning;
neither did the peripatetic doctrines meet with much favor. The
philosophical system which first arrested the attention of the Romans, and
gained an influence over their minds, was the Epicurean. That of the Stoics
also, the severe principles of which were in harmony with the stern old
Roman virtues, had distinguished disciples. The part which Cicero's
character qualified him to perform in the philosophical instruction of his
countrymen was scarcely that of a guide; he could give them a lively
interest in the subject, but he could not mould and form their belief, and
train them in the work of original investigation. Not being devoutly
attached to any system of philosophical belief, he would be cautious of
offending the philosophical prejudices of others. He was essentially an
eclectic in accumulating stores of Greek erudition, while his mind had a
tendency, in the midst of a variety of inconsistent doctrines, to leave the
conclusion undetermined. He brought everything to a practical standard; he
Page 232
admired the exalted purity of stoical morality, but he feared that it was
impractical. He believed in the existence of one supreme creator, in his
spiritual nature, and the immortality of the soul; but his belief was rather the
result of instinctive conviction, than of proof derived from philosophy.
impractical. He believed in the existence of one supreme creator, in his
spiritual nature, and the immortality of the soul; but his belief was rather the
result of instinctive conviction, than of proof derived from philosophy.
Page 233
The study of Cicero's philosophical works is invaluable, in order to
understand the minds of those who came after him. Not only all Roman
philosophy after his time, but a great part of that of the Middle Ages, was
Greek philosophy filtered through Latin, and mainly founded on that of
Cicero. Among his works on speculative philosophy are "The Academics,
or a history and defense of the belief of the new Academy;" "Dialogues on
the Supreme Good, the end of all moral action;" "The Tusculan
Disputations," containing five treatises on the fear of death, the endurance
of pain, power of wisdom over sorrow, the morbid passions, and the relation
of virtue to happiness. His moral philosophy comprehends the "Duties," a
stoical treatise on moral obligations, and the unequaled little essays on
"Friendship and Old Age." His political works are "The Republic" and "The
Law;" but these remains are fragmentary.
The extent of Cicero's correspondence is almost incredible. Even those
epistles which remain number more than eight hundred. In them we find the
eloquence of the heart, not of the rhetorical school. They are models of pure
Latinity, elegant without stiffness, the natural outpourings of a mind which
could not give birth to an ungraceful idea. In his letters to Atticus he lays
bare the secret of his heart; he trusts his life in his hands; he is not only his
friend but his confidant, his second self. In the letters of Cicero we have the
description of the period of Roman history, and the portrait of the inner life
of Roman society in his day.
8. HISTORY.—In their historical literature the Romans exhibited a
faithful transcript of their mind and character. History at once gratified their
patriotism, and its investigations were in accordance with their love of the
real and the practical. In this department, they were enabled to emulate the
Greeks and to be their rivals, and sometimes their superiors. The elegant
simplicity of Caesar is as attractive as that of Herodotus; none of the Greek
understand the minds of those who came after him. Not only all Roman
philosophy after his time, but a great part of that of the Middle Ages, was
Greek philosophy filtered through Latin, and mainly founded on that of
Cicero. Among his works on speculative philosophy are "The Academics,
or a history and defense of the belief of the new Academy;" "Dialogues on
the Supreme Good, the end of all moral action;" "The Tusculan
Disputations," containing five treatises on the fear of death, the endurance
of pain, power of wisdom over sorrow, the morbid passions, and the relation
of virtue to happiness. His moral philosophy comprehends the "Duties," a
stoical treatise on moral obligations, and the unequaled little essays on
"Friendship and Old Age." His political works are "The Republic" and "The
Law;" but these remains are fragmentary.
The extent of Cicero's correspondence is almost incredible. Even those
epistles which remain number more than eight hundred. In them we find the
eloquence of the heart, not of the rhetorical school. They are models of pure
Latinity, elegant without stiffness, the natural outpourings of a mind which
could not give birth to an ungraceful idea. In his letters to Atticus he lays
bare the secret of his heart; he trusts his life in his hands; he is not only his
friend but his confidant, his second self. In the letters of Cicero we have the
description of the period of Roman history, and the portrait of the inner life
of Roman society in his day.
8. HISTORY.—In their historical literature the Romans exhibited a
faithful transcript of their mind and character. History at once gratified their
patriotism, and its investigations were in accordance with their love of the
real and the practical. In this department, they were enabled to emulate the
Greeks and to be their rivals, and sometimes their superiors. The elegant
simplicity of Caesar is as attractive as that of Herodotus; none of the Greek
Page 234
historians surpasses Livy in talent for the picturesque and in the charm with
which he invests his spirited and living stories; while for condensation of
thought, terseness of expression, and political and philosophical acumen,
Tacitus is not inferior to Thucydides. The catalogue of Roman historians
contains many writers whose works are lost; such as L. Lucretius, the friend
and correspondent of Cicero, L. Lucullus, the illustrious conqueror of
Mithridates, and Cornelius Nepos, of whom only one work was preserved,
the "Lives of Eminent Generals." The authenticity of this work is, however,
disputed. But at the head of this department, as the great representatives of
Roman history, stand Julius Caesar, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, all of whom,
except the last, belong to the Augustan age.
Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was descended from one of the oldest among
the patrician families of Rome. He attached himself to the popular party,
and his good taste, great tact, and pleasing manners contributed, together
with his talents, to insure his popularity. He became a soldier in the
nineteenth year of his age, and hence his works display all the best qualities
which are fostered by a military education—frankness, simplicity, and
brevity. His earliest literary triumph was as an orator, and, according to
Quintilian, he was a worthy rival of Cicero. When he obtained the office of
Pontifex Maximus, he diligently examined the history and nature of the
Roman belief in augury, and published his investigations. When his career
as a military commander began, whatever leisure his duties permitted him
to enjoy he devoted to the composition of his memoirs, or commentaries of
the Gallic and civil wars. He wrote, also, some minor works on different
subjects, and he left behind him various letters, some of which are extant.
But by far the most important of the works of Caesar is his
"Commentaries," which have come down to us in a tolerably perfect state.
They are sketches taken on the spot, in the midst of action, while the mind
was full, and they have all the graphic power of a master-mind and the
which he invests his spirited and living stories; while for condensation of
thought, terseness of expression, and political and philosophical acumen,
Tacitus is not inferior to Thucydides. The catalogue of Roman historians
contains many writers whose works are lost; such as L. Lucretius, the friend
and correspondent of Cicero, L. Lucullus, the illustrious conqueror of
Mithridates, and Cornelius Nepos, of whom only one work was preserved,
the "Lives of Eminent Generals." The authenticity of this work is, however,
disputed. But at the head of this department, as the great representatives of
Roman history, stand Julius Caesar, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, all of whom,
except the last, belong to the Augustan age.
Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was descended from one of the oldest among
the patrician families of Rome. He attached himself to the popular party,
and his good taste, great tact, and pleasing manners contributed, together
with his talents, to insure his popularity. He became a soldier in the
nineteenth year of his age, and hence his works display all the best qualities
which are fostered by a military education—frankness, simplicity, and
brevity. His earliest literary triumph was as an orator, and, according to
Quintilian, he was a worthy rival of Cicero. When he obtained the office of
Pontifex Maximus, he diligently examined the history and nature of the
Roman belief in augury, and published his investigations. When his career
as a military commander began, whatever leisure his duties permitted him
to enjoy he devoted to the composition of his memoirs, or commentaries of
the Gallic and civil wars. He wrote, also, some minor works on different
subjects, and he left behind him various letters, some of which are extant.
But by far the most important of the works of Caesar is his
"Commentaries," which have come down to us in a tolerably perfect state.
They are sketches taken on the spot, in the midst of action, while the mind
was full, and they have all the graphic power of a master-mind and the
Page 235
vigorous touches of a master-hand. The Commentaries are the materials for
history, notes jotted down for future historians. The very faults which may
justly be found with the style of Caesar are such as reflect the man himself.
The majesty of his character consists chiefly in the imperturbable calmness
and equanimity of his temper; he had no sudden bursts of energy and
alternations of passion and inactivity. The elevation of his character was a
high one, but it was a level table-land. This calmness and equability
pervades his writings, and for this reason they have been thought to want
life and energy. The beauty of his language is, as Cicero says, statuesque
rather than picturesque. Simple and severe, it conveys the idea of perfect
and well-proportioned beauty, while it banishes all thoughts of human
passion. In relating his own deeds, he does not strive to add to his own
reputation by detracting from the merits of those who served under him. He
is honest, generous, and candid, not only towards them, but also towards his
brave enemies. He recounts his successes without pretension or arrogance,
though he has evidently no objection to be the hero of his own tale. His
Commentaries are not confessions, although he is the subject of them; not a
record of a weakness appears, nor even a defect, except that which the
Romans would readily forgive, cruelty. His savage waste of human life he
recounts with perfect self-complacency. Vanity, the crowning error in his
career as a statesman, though hidden by the reserve with which he speaks of
himself, sometimes discovers itself in the historian.
The Commentaries of Caesar have been compared with the work of the
great soldier-historian of Greece, Xenophon. Both are eminently simple and
unaffected, but there the parallel ends. The severe contempt of ornament,
which characterizes the stern Roman, is totally unlike the mellifluous
sweetness of the Attic writer.
Sallust (85-35 B.C.) was born of a plebeian family, but, having filled the
offices of tribune and quaestor, attained senatorial rank. He was expelled
history, notes jotted down for future historians. The very faults which may
justly be found with the style of Caesar are such as reflect the man himself.
The majesty of his character consists chiefly in the imperturbable calmness
and equanimity of his temper; he had no sudden bursts of energy and
alternations of passion and inactivity. The elevation of his character was a
high one, but it was a level table-land. This calmness and equability
pervades his writings, and for this reason they have been thought to want
life and energy. The beauty of his language is, as Cicero says, statuesque
rather than picturesque. Simple and severe, it conveys the idea of perfect
and well-proportioned beauty, while it banishes all thoughts of human
passion. In relating his own deeds, he does not strive to add to his own
reputation by detracting from the merits of those who served under him. He
is honest, generous, and candid, not only towards them, but also towards his
brave enemies. He recounts his successes without pretension or arrogance,
though he has evidently no objection to be the hero of his own tale. His
Commentaries are not confessions, although he is the subject of them; not a
record of a weakness appears, nor even a defect, except that which the
Romans would readily forgive, cruelty. His savage waste of human life he
recounts with perfect self-complacency. Vanity, the crowning error in his
career as a statesman, though hidden by the reserve with which he speaks of
himself, sometimes discovers itself in the historian.
The Commentaries of Caesar have been compared with the work of the
great soldier-historian of Greece, Xenophon. Both are eminently simple and
unaffected, but there the parallel ends. The severe contempt of ornament,
which characterizes the stern Roman, is totally unlike the mellifluous
sweetness of the Attic writer.
Sallust (85-35 B.C.) was born of a plebeian family, but, having filled the
offices of tribune and quaestor, attained senatorial rank. He was expelled
Page 236
from the Senate for his profligacy, but restored again to his rank through the
influence of Caesar, whose party he espoused. He accompanied his patron
in the African war, and was made governor of Numidia. While in that
capacity, he accumulated by rapacity and extortion enormous wealth, which
he lavished in expensive but tasteful luxury. The gardens on the Quirinal
which bore his name were celebrated for their beauty; and there, surrounded
by the choicest works of art, he devoted his retirement to composing the
historical records which survived him. As a politician, he was a mere
partisan of Caesar, and therefore a strenuous opponent of the higher classes
and of the supporters of Pompey. The object of his hatred was not the old
patrician blood of Rome, but the new aristocracy, which had of late years
been rapidly rising up and displacing it. That new nobility was utterly
corrupt, and its corruption was encouraged by the venality of the masses,
whose poverty and destitution tempted them to be the tools of unscrupulous
ambition. Sallust strove to place that party in the unfavorable light which it
deserved; but, notwithstanding the truthfulness of the picture which he
draws, selfishness and not patriotism was the mainspring of his politics; he
was not an honest champion of popular rights, but a vain and conceited
man, who lived in an immoral and corrupt age, and had not the strength of
principle to resist the force of example and temptation. If, however, we
make some allowance for the political bias of Sallust, his histories have not
only the charms of the historical romance, but are also valuable political
studies. His characters are vigorously and naturally drawn, and the more his
histories are read, the more obvious it is that he always writes with an
object, and uses his facts as the means of enforcing a great political lesson.
His first work is on the "Jugurthine War;" the next related to the period
from the consulship of Lepidus to the praetorship of Cicero, and is
unfortunately lost. This was followed by a history of the conspiracy of
Catiline, "The War of Catiline," in which he paints in vivid colors the
depravity of that order of society which, bankrupt in fortune and honor, still
influence of Caesar, whose party he espoused. He accompanied his patron
in the African war, and was made governor of Numidia. While in that
capacity, he accumulated by rapacity and extortion enormous wealth, which
he lavished in expensive but tasteful luxury. The gardens on the Quirinal
which bore his name were celebrated for their beauty; and there, surrounded
by the choicest works of art, he devoted his retirement to composing the
historical records which survived him. As a politician, he was a mere
partisan of Caesar, and therefore a strenuous opponent of the higher classes
and of the supporters of Pompey. The object of his hatred was not the old
patrician blood of Rome, but the new aristocracy, which had of late years
been rapidly rising up and displacing it. That new nobility was utterly
corrupt, and its corruption was encouraged by the venality of the masses,
whose poverty and destitution tempted them to be the tools of unscrupulous
ambition. Sallust strove to place that party in the unfavorable light which it
deserved; but, notwithstanding the truthfulness of the picture which he
draws, selfishness and not patriotism was the mainspring of his politics; he
was not an honest champion of popular rights, but a vain and conceited
man, who lived in an immoral and corrupt age, and had not the strength of
principle to resist the force of example and temptation. If, however, we
make some allowance for the political bias of Sallust, his histories have not
only the charms of the historical romance, but are also valuable political
studies. His characters are vigorously and naturally drawn, and the more his
histories are read, the more obvious it is that he always writes with an
object, and uses his facts as the means of enforcing a great political lesson.
His first work is on the "Jugurthine War;" the next related to the period
from the consulship of Lepidus to the praetorship of Cicero, and is
unfortunately lost. This was followed by a history of the conspiracy of
Catiline, "The War of Catiline," in which he paints in vivid colors the
depravity of that order of society which, bankrupt in fortune and honor, still
Page 237
plumes itself on its rank and exclusiveness. To Sallust must be conceded the
praise of having first conceived the notion of a history, in the true sense of
the term. He was the first Roman historian, and the guide of future
historians. He had always an object to which he wished all his facts to
converge, and he brought them forward as illustrations and developments of
principles. He analyzed and exposed the motives of parties, and laid bare
the inner life of those great actors on the public stage, in the interesting
historical scenes which he describes. His style, although ostentatiously
elaborate and artificial, is, upon the whole, pleasing, and almost always
transparently clear. Following Thucydides, whom he evidently took as his
model, he strives to imitate his brevity; but while this quality with the
Greek historian is natural and involuntary, with the Roman it is intentional
and studied. The brevity of Thucydides is the result of condensation, that of
Salust is elliptical expression.
Livy (59-18 B.C.) was born in Padua, and came to Rome during the reign
of Augustus, where he resided in the enjoyment of the imperial favor and
patronage. He was a warm and open admirer of the ancient institutions of
the country, and esteemed Pompey as one of its greatest heroes; but
Augustus did not allow political opinions to interfere with the regard which
he entertained for the historian. His great work is a history of Rome, which
he modestly terms "Annals," in one hundred and forty-two books, of which
thirty-five are extant. Besides his history, Livy is said to have written
treatises and dialogues, which were partly philosophical and partly
historical.
The great object of Livy's history was to celebrate the glories of his
native country, to which he was devotedly attached. He was a patriot: his
sympathy was with Pompey, called forth by the disinterestedness of that
great man, and perhaps by his sad end. He delights to put forth his powers
in those passages which relate to the affections. He is a biographer quite as
praise of having first conceived the notion of a history, in the true sense of
the term. He was the first Roman historian, and the guide of future
historians. He had always an object to which he wished all his facts to
converge, and he brought them forward as illustrations and developments of
principles. He analyzed and exposed the motives of parties, and laid bare
the inner life of those great actors on the public stage, in the interesting
historical scenes which he describes. His style, although ostentatiously
elaborate and artificial, is, upon the whole, pleasing, and almost always
transparently clear. Following Thucydides, whom he evidently took as his
model, he strives to imitate his brevity; but while this quality with the
Greek historian is natural and involuntary, with the Roman it is intentional
and studied. The brevity of Thucydides is the result of condensation, that of
Salust is elliptical expression.
Livy (59-18 B.C.) was born in Padua, and came to Rome during the reign
of Augustus, where he resided in the enjoyment of the imperial favor and
patronage. He was a warm and open admirer of the ancient institutions of
the country, and esteemed Pompey as one of its greatest heroes; but
Augustus did not allow political opinions to interfere with the regard which
he entertained for the historian. His great work is a history of Rome, which
he modestly terms "Annals," in one hundred and forty-two books, of which
thirty-five are extant. Besides his history, Livy is said to have written
treatises and dialogues, which were partly philosophical and partly
historical.
The great object of Livy's history was to celebrate the glories of his
native country, to which he was devotedly attached. He was a patriot: his
sympathy was with Pompey, called forth by the disinterestedness of that
great man, and perhaps by his sad end. He delights to put forth his powers
in those passages which relate to the affections. He is a biographer quite as
Page 238
much as a historian; he anatomizes the moral nature of his heroes, and
shows the motive springs of their noble exploits. His characters stand
before us like epic heroes, and he tells his story like a bard singing his lay at
a joyous festive meeting, checkered by alternate successes and reverses,
though all tending to a happy result at last. But while these features
constitute his charm as a narrator, they render him less valuable as a
historian. Although he would not be willfully inaccurate, if the legend he
was about to tell was interesting, he would not stop to inquire whether or
not it was true. Taking upon trust the traditions which had been handed
down from generation to generation, the more flattering and popular they
were, the more suitable would he deem them for his purposes. He loved his
country, and he would scarcely believe anything derogatory to the national
glory. Whenever Rome was false to treaties, unmerciful in victory, or
unsuccessful in arms, he either ignores the facts or is anxious to find
excuses. He does not appear to have made researches into the many original
documents which were extant at his time, but he trusted to the annalists, and
took advantage of the investigations of preceding historians. His
descriptions of military affairs are often vague and indistinct, and he often
shows himself ignorant of the localities which he describes. Such are the
principal defects of Livy, who otherwise charms his readers with his
romantic narratives, and his lively, fresh, and fascinating style.
9. OTHER PROSE WRITERS.—Though the grammarians of this period
were numerous, they added little or nothing to its literary reputation. The
most conspicuous among them were Atteius, a friend of Sallust; Epirota, the
correspondent of Cicero; Julius Hyginus, a friend of Ovid; and Nigidius
Figulus, an orator as well as grammarian. M. Vitruvius Pollio, the
celebrated architect, deserves to be mentioned for his treatise on
architecture. He was probably native of Verona, and served under Julius
Caesar in Africa, as a military engineer. Notwithstanding the defects of his
style, the language of Vitruvius is vigorous, and his descriptions bold; his
shows the motive springs of their noble exploits. His characters stand
before us like epic heroes, and he tells his story like a bard singing his lay at
a joyous festive meeting, checkered by alternate successes and reverses,
though all tending to a happy result at last. But while these features
constitute his charm as a narrator, they render him less valuable as a
historian. Although he would not be willfully inaccurate, if the legend he
was about to tell was interesting, he would not stop to inquire whether or
not it was true. Taking upon trust the traditions which had been handed
down from generation to generation, the more flattering and popular they
were, the more suitable would he deem them for his purposes. He loved his
country, and he would scarcely believe anything derogatory to the national
glory. Whenever Rome was false to treaties, unmerciful in victory, or
unsuccessful in arms, he either ignores the facts or is anxious to find
excuses. He does not appear to have made researches into the many original
documents which were extant at his time, but he trusted to the annalists, and
took advantage of the investigations of preceding historians. His
descriptions of military affairs are often vague and indistinct, and he often
shows himself ignorant of the localities which he describes. Such are the
principal defects of Livy, who otherwise charms his readers with his
romantic narratives, and his lively, fresh, and fascinating style.
9. OTHER PROSE WRITERS.—Though the grammarians of this period
were numerous, they added little or nothing to its literary reputation. The
most conspicuous among them were Atteius, a friend of Sallust; Epirota, the
correspondent of Cicero; Julius Hyginus, a friend of Ovid; and Nigidius
Figulus, an orator as well as grammarian. M. Vitruvius Pollio, the
celebrated architect, deserves to be mentioned for his treatise on
architecture. He was probably native of Verona, and served under Julius
Caesar in Africa, as a military engineer. Notwithstanding the defects of his
style, the language of Vitruvius is vigorous, and his descriptions bold; his
Page 239
work is valuable as exhibiting the principles of Greek architectural taste and
beauty, of which he was a devoted admirer.
PERIOD THIRD.
FROM THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS TO THE CLOSE OF THE REIGN OF THEODORIC
(14-526 A.D.).
1. DECLINE OF ROMAN LITERATURE.—With the death of Augustus
began the decline of Roman literature, and a few names only rescue the first
years of this period from the charge of a corrupt and vitiated taste. After a
while, indeed, political circumstances again became more favorable; the
dangers, which paralyzed genius and talent, and prevented their free
exercise under Tiberius and his tyrannical successors, diminished, and a
more liberal system of administration ensued under Vespasian and Titus.
Juvenal and Tacitus then stood forth, as the representatives of the old
Roman independence. Vigor of thought communicated itself to the
language; a taste for the sublime and beautiful, to a certain extent, revived,
although it did not attain to the perfection which shed a lustre over the
Augustan age. Between the ages of Horace and Juvenal, Cicero and Tacitus,
there was a gap of half a century, in which Roman genius was slumbering.
The gradual growth of a spirit of adulation deterred all who were qualified
for the task of the historian from attempting it. Fear, during the lifetime of
Tiberius and Caligula, Claudius and Nero, and hatred, still fresh after their
deaths, rendered all accounts of their reigns false. And the same causes
which silenced the voice of history extinguished the genius of poetry and
oratory. As liberty declined, natural eloquence decayed; the orator sought
only to please the corrupt taste of his audiences with strange and
exaggerated statements; the poet aimed to win public admiration through a
style over-laden with ornament, and florid and diffuse descriptions.
Literature, in order to flourish, requires the genial sunshine of human
beauty, of which he was a devoted admirer.
PERIOD THIRD.
FROM THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS TO THE CLOSE OF THE REIGN OF THEODORIC
(14-526 A.D.).
1. DECLINE OF ROMAN LITERATURE.—With the death of Augustus
began the decline of Roman literature, and a few names only rescue the first
years of this period from the charge of a corrupt and vitiated taste. After a
while, indeed, political circumstances again became more favorable; the
dangers, which paralyzed genius and talent, and prevented their free
exercise under Tiberius and his tyrannical successors, diminished, and a
more liberal system of administration ensued under Vespasian and Titus.
Juvenal and Tacitus then stood forth, as the representatives of the old
Roman independence. Vigor of thought communicated itself to the
language; a taste for the sublime and beautiful, to a certain extent, revived,
although it did not attain to the perfection which shed a lustre over the
Augustan age. Between the ages of Horace and Juvenal, Cicero and Tacitus,
there was a gap of half a century, in which Roman genius was slumbering.
The gradual growth of a spirit of adulation deterred all who were qualified
for the task of the historian from attempting it. Fear, during the lifetime of
Tiberius and Caligula, Claudius and Nero, and hatred, still fresh after their
deaths, rendered all accounts of their reigns false. And the same causes
which silenced the voice of history extinguished the genius of poetry and
oratory. As liberty declined, natural eloquence decayed; the orator sought
only to please the corrupt taste of his audiences with strange and
exaggerated statements; the poet aimed to win public admiration through a
style over-laden with ornament, and florid and diffuse descriptions.
Literature, in order to flourish, requires the genial sunshine of human
Page 240
sympathy; it needs either the patronage of the great, or the favor of the
people. Immediately after the death of Augustus, patronage was withdrawn,
and there was no public sympathy to supply its place. In the reign of Nero,
literature partially revived; for, though the bloodiest of tyrants, he had a
taste for art and poetry, and an ambition to excel in refinement.
2. FABLE.—In fable, as in other fields of literature, Rome was an
imitator of Greece, but nevertheless Phaedrus struck out a new line for
himself, and, through his fables, became not only a moral instructor, but a
political satirist. Phaedrus (fl. 16 A.D.), the originator and only author of
Roman fable, though born in the reign of Augustus, wrote when the
Augustan age had passed away. His works are, as it were, isolated; he had
no contemporaries. Nevertheless, his solitary voice was lifted up when
those of the poet, the historian, and the philosopher were silenced. The
moral and political lessons conveyed in his fables were suggested by the
evils of the times in which he lived. Some of them illustrate the danger of
riches and the comparative safety of obscurity and poverty, in an age when
the rich were marked for destruction, in order that the confiscation of their
property might glut the avarice of the emperor and of his servants; others
were suggested by historical events, being nevertheless satirical strictures
on individuals. The style of Phaedrus is pure and classical, and combines
the simple neatness and graceful elegance of the golden age with the vigor
and terseness of the silver one. He has the facility of Ovid and the brevity of
Tacitus. In the construction of his fables, he displays observation and
ingenuity; but he is deficient in imagination. He makes his animals the
vehicles of his wisdom, but he does not throw himself into them, or identify
himself with them; while they look and act like animals, they talk like
human beings. In this consists the great superiority of Aesop to his Roman
imitator; his brutes are a superior race, but they are still brutes, and it would
seem that the fabulist had lived among them as one of themselves, had
adopted their mode of life, and conversed with them in their own language.
people. Immediately after the death of Augustus, patronage was withdrawn,
and there was no public sympathy to supply its place. In the reign of Nero,
literature partially revived; for, though the bloodiest of tyrants, he had a
taste for art and poetry, and an ambition to excel in refinement.
2. FABLE.—In fable, as in other fields of literature, Rome was an
imitator of Greece, but nevertheless Phaedrus struck out a new line for
himself, and, through his fables, became not only a moral instructor, but a
political satirist. Phaedrus (fl. 16 A.D.), the originator and only author of
Roman fable, though born in the reign of Augustus, wrote when the
Augustan age had passed away. His works are, as it were, isolated; he had
no contemporaries. Nevertheless, his solitary voice was lifted up when
those of the poet, the historian, and the philosopher were silenced. The
moral and political lessons conveyed in his fables were suggested by the
evils of the times in which he lived. Some of them illustrate the danger of
riches and the comparative safety of obscurity and poverty, in an age when
the rich were marked for destruction, in order that the confiscation of their
property might glut the avarice of the emperor and of his servants; others
were suggested by historical events, being nevertheless satirical strictures
on individuals. The style of Phaedrus is pure and classical, and combines
the simple neatness and graceful elegance of the golden age with the vigor
and terseness of the silver one. He has the facility of Ovid and the brevity of
Tacitus. In the construction of his fables, he displays observation and
ingenuity; but he is deficient in imagination. He makes his animals the
vehicles of his wisdom, but he does not throw himself into them, or identify
himself with them; while they look and act like animals, they talk like
human beings. In this consists the great superiority of Aesop to his Roman
imitator; his brutes are a superior race, but they are still brutes, and it would
seem that the fabulist had lived among them as one of themselves, had
adopted their mode of life, and conversed with them in their own language.
Page 241
In Phaedrus we have human sentiments translated into the language of
beasts, while in Aesop we have beasts giving utterance to such sentiments
as would be naturally theirs if they were placed in the position of men.
3. SATIRE AND EPIGRAM.—Roman satire, subsequently to Horace, is
represented by Persius and Juvenal. Persius (34-62 A.D.) early attached
himself to the Stoic philosophy. He was pure in mind, and free from the
corrupt taint of an immoral age. Although Lucilius was, to a certain extent,
his model, he does not attack vice with the biting severity of the old satirist,
nor do we find in his writings the enthusiastic indignation which burns in
the verses of Juvenal. His purity of mind and kindliness of heart disinclined
him to portray vice in its hideous and loathsome forms, and to indulge in
that bitterness of invective which the prevalent enormities of his times
deserved. His uprightness and love of virtue are shown by the
uncompromising severity with which he rebukes sins of not so deep a dye;
and the heart which was capable of being moulded by his example, and
influenced by his purity, would have shrunk from the fearful crimes which
deform the pages of Juvenal. The greatest defect in Persius, as a satirist, is
that the Stoic philosophy in which he was educated rendered him indifferent
to the affairs of the world. His contemplative habits led him to criticise, as
his favorite subjects, false taste in poetry and empty pretensions to
philosophy. Horace mingled in the society of the profligate and considering
them as fools, laughed their folly to scorn. Juvenal looked down upon the
corruption of the age from the eminence of his virtue, and punished it like
an avenging deity. Persius, pure in heart and passionless by education,
while he lashes wickedness in the abstract, almost ignores its existence, and
shrinks from probing to the bottom the vileness of the human heart. His
works comprise six satires, all of which breathe the natural amiability and
placid cheerfulness of his temper.
beasts, while in Aesop we have beasts giving utterance to such sentiments
as would be naturally theirs if they were placed in the position of men.
3. SATIRE AND EPIGRAM.—Roman satire, subsequently to Horace, is
represented by Persius and Juvenal. Persius (34-62 A.D.) early attached
himself to the Stoic philosophy. He was pure in mind, and free from the
corrupt taint of an immoral age. Although Lucilius was, to a certain extent,
his model, he does not attack vice with the biting severity of the old satirist,
nor do we find in his writings the enthusiastic indignation which burns in
the verses of Juvenal. His purity of mind and kindliness of heart disinclined
him to portray vice in its hideous and loathsome forms, and to indulge in
that bitterness of invective which the prevalent enormities of his times
deserved. His uprightness and love of virtue are shown by the
uncompromising severity with which he rebukes sins of not so deep a dye;
and the heart which was capable of being moulded by his example, and
influenced by his purity, would have shrunk from the fearful crimes which
deform the pages of Juvenal. The greatest defect in Persius, as a satirist, is
that the Stoic philosophy in which he was educated rendered him indifferent
to the affairs of the world. His contemplative habits led him to criticise, as
his favorite subjects, false taste in poetry and empty pretensions to
philosophy. Horace mingled in the society of the profligate and considering
them as fools, laughed their folly to scorn. Juvenal looked down upon the
corruption of the age from the eminence of his virtue, and punished it like
an avenging deity. Persius, pure in heart and passionless by education,
while he lashes wickedness in the abstract, almost ignores its existence, and
shrinks from probing to the bottom the vileness of the human heart. His
works comprise six satires, all of which breathe the natural amiability and
placid cheerfulness of his temper.
Page 242
Juvenal flourished in the reign of Domitian, towards the close of the first
century A.D., a dark period, which saw the utter moral degradation of the
people, and the bloodiest tyranny and oppression on the part of their rulers.
The picture of Roman manners, as painted by his glowing pencil, is truly
appalling. The fabric of society was in ruins, the popular religion was
rejected with scorn, and the creed of natural religion had not occupied its
place. The emperors took part in public scenes of folly and profligacy, and
exposed themselves as charioteers, as dancers, and as actors. Nothing was
respected but wealth, nothing provoked contempt but poverty. Players and
dancers had all honors and offices at their disposal; the city swarmed with
informers, who made the rich their prey; every man feared his most intimate
friend, and the only bond of friendship was to be an accomplice in crime.
The teacher would corrupt his pupil, and the guardian defraud his ward.
Crimes which cannot be named were common, and the streets of Rome
were the constant scene of robbery, assault, and assassination. The morals
of women were as depraved as those of men, and there was no public
amusement so immoral or so cruel as not to be countenanced by their
presence. In this period of moral dearth, the fountains of genius and
literature were dried up. There was criticism, declamation, panegyric, and
verse writing, but no oratory, history, or poetry. Juvenal, though himself not
free from the declamatory affectation of the day, attacked the false literary
taste of his contemporaries as unsparingly as he did their depraved morality.
His sixteen satires exhibit an enlightened, truthful, and comprehensive view
of Roman manners, and of the inevitable result of such depravity. The two
finest of them are those which Dr. Johnson has thought worthy of imitation.
The historical value of these satires must not be forgotten. Tacitus lived
in the same perilous times as Juvenal, and when they had come to an end
and it was not unsafe to speak, he wrote their public history, which the poet
illustrates by displaying the social and inner life of the Romans. Their
works are parallel, and each forms a commentary upon the other. The style
century A.D., a dark period, which saw the utter moral degradation of the
people, and the bloodiest tyranny and oppression on the part of their rulers.
The picture of Roman manners, as painted by his glowing pencil, is truly
appalling. The fabric of society was in ruins, the popular religion was
rejected with scorn, and the creed of natural religion had not occupied its
place. The emperors took part in public scenes of folly and profligacy, and
exposed themselves as charioteers, as dancers, and as actors. Nothing was
respected but wealth, nothing provoked contempt but poverty. Players and
dancers had all honors and offices at their disposal; the city swarmed with
informers, who made the rich their prey; every man feared his most intimate
friend, and the only bond of friendship was to be an accomplice in crime.
The teacher would corrupt his pupil, and the guardian defraud his ward.
Crimes which cannot be named were common, and the streets of Rome
were the constant scene of robbery, assault, and assassination. The morals
of women were as depraved as those of men, and there was no public
amusement so immoral or so cruel as not to be countenanced by their
presence. In this period of moral dearth, the fountains of genius and
literature were dried up. There was criticism, declamation, panegyric, and
verse writing, but no oratory, history, or poetry. Juvenal, though himself not
free from the declamatory affectation of the day, attacked the false literary
taste of his contemporaries as unsparingly as he did their depraved morality.
His sixteen satires exhibit an enlightened, truthful, and comprehensive view
of Roman manners, and of the inevitable result of such depravity. The two
finest of them are those which Dr. Johnson has thought worthy of imitation.
The historical value of these satires must not be forgotten. Tacitus lived
in the same perilous times as Juvenal, and when they had come to an end
and it was not unsafe to speak, he wrote their public history, which the poet
illustrates by displaying the social and inner life of the Romans. Their
works are parallel, and each forms a commentary upon the other. The style
Page 243
of Juvenal is vigorous and lucid; his morals were pure in the midst of a
debased age, and his language shines forth in classic elegance, in the midst
of specimens of declining and degenerate taste.
Juvenal closes the list of Roman satirists, properly speaking. The satirical
spirit animates the piquant epigrams of his friend Martial, but their purpose
is not moral or didactic. They sting the individual, and render him an object
of scorn and disgust, but they do not hold up vice itself to ridicule and
detestation.
Martial (43-104 A.D.) was born in Spain. He early emigrated to Rome,
where he became a favorite of Titus and Domitian, and in the reign of the
latter he was appointed to the office of court-poet. During thirty-five years,
he lived at Rome the life of a flatterer and a dependent, and then he returned
to his native town, where his death was hastened by his distaste for
provincial life. Measured by the corrupt standard of morals which disgraced
the age in which he lived, Martial was probably not worse than most of his
contemporaries; for the fearful profligacy, which his powerful pen describes
in such hideous terms, had spread through Rome its loathsome infection.
Had he lived in better times, his talents might have been devoted to a purer
object; as it was, no language is strong enough to denounce the impurities
of his page, and his moral taste must have been thoroughly depraved not to
have turned with disgust from the contemplation of such subjects. But not
all his poems are of this character. Amidst some obscurity of style and want
of finish, many are redolent of Greek sweetness and elegance. Here and
there are pleasing descriptions of the beauties of nature, and many are kind-
hearted and full of varied wit, poetical imagination, and graceful
expression. To the original characteristics of the Greek epigram, Martial,
more than any other poet, added that which constitutes an epigram in the
modern sense of the term: pointedness either in jest or earnest, and the
bitterness of personal satire.
debased age, and his language shines forth in classic elegance, in the midst
of specimens of declining and degenerate taste.
Juvenal closes the list of Roman satirists, properly speaking. The satirical
spirit animates the piquant epigrams of his friend Martial, but their purpose
is not moral or didactic. They sting the individual, and render him an object
of scorn and disgust, but they do not hold up vice itself to ridicule and
detestation.
Martial (43-104 A.D.) was born in Spain. He early emigrated to Rome,
where he became a favorite of Titus and Domitian, and in the reign of the
latter he was appointed to the office of court-poet. During thirty-five years,
he lived at Rome the life of a flatterer and a dependent, and then he returned
to his native town, where his death was hastened by his distaste for
provincial life. Measured by the corrupt standard of morals which disgraced
the age in which he lived, Martial was probably not worse than most of his
contemporaries; for the fearful profligacy, which his powerful pen describes
in such hideous terms, had spread through Rome its loathsome infection.
Had he lived in better times, his talents might have been devoted to a purer
object; as it was, no language is strong enough to denounce the impurities
of his page, and his moral taste must have been thoroughly depraved not to
have turned with disgust from the contemplation of such subjects. But not
all his poems are of this character. Amidst some obscurity of style and want
of finish, many are redolent of Greek sweetness and elegance. Here and
there are pleasing descriptions of the beauties of nature, and many are kind-
hearted and full of varied wit, poetical imagination, and graceful
expression. To the original characteristics of the Greek epigram, Martial,
more than any other poet, added that which constitutes an epigram in the
modern sense of the term: pointedness either in jest or earnest, and the
bitterness of personal satire.
Page 244
4. DRAMATIC LITERATURE.—Dramatic literature never flourished in
Rome, and still less under the empire. During this period there were not
wanting some imitators of Greece in this noble branch of poetry, but their
productions were rather literary than dramatic; they were poems composed
in a dramatic form, intended to be read, not acted. They contain noble
philosophical sentiments, lively descriptions, and passages full of
tenderness and pathos, but they are deficient in dramatic effect, and
positively offend against those laws of good taste which regulated the
Athenian stage. In the Augustan age, a few writers attained some excellence
in tragedy, at least in the opinion of ancient critics.
Under the tyrant Nero, dramatic literature reappeared, specimens of
which are extant in the ten tragedies attributed to Seneca. But the genius of
the author never grasps, in their wholeness, the characters which he
attempts to copy; they are distorted images of the Greek originals, and the
shadowy grandeur of the godlike heroes of Aeschylus stands forth in
corporeal vastness, and appears childish and unnatural, like the giants of a
story-book. The Greeks believed in the gods and heroes whose agency and
exploits constituted the machinery of tragedy, but the Romans did not, and
we cannot sympathize with them, because we see that they are insincere.
An awful belief in destiny, and the hopeless yet patient struggle of a great
and good man against this all-ruling power, are the mainspring of Greek
tragedy. This belief the Romans did not transfer into their imitations, but
they supplied its place with the stern fatalism of the Stoics. The principle of
destiny entertained by the Greek poets is a mythological, even a religious
one. It is the irresistible will of God. God is at the commencement of the
chain of causes and effects, by which the event is brought about which God
has ordained; his inspired prophets have power to foretell, and mortals
cannot resist or avoid. It is rather predestination than destiny. The fatalism
of the Stoics, on the other hand, is the doctrine of practical necessity. It
Rome, and still less under the empire. During this period there were not
wanting some imitators of Greece in this noble branch of poetry, but their
productions were rather literary than dramatic; they were poems composed
in a dramatic form, intended to be read, not acted. They contain noble
philosophical sentiments, lively descriptions, and passages full of
tenderness and pathos, but they are deficient in dramatic effect, and
positively offend against those laws of good taste which regulated the
Athenian stage. In the Augustan age, a few writers attained some excellence
in tragedy, at least in the opinion of ancient critics.
Under the tyrant Nero, dramatic literature reappeared, specimens of
which are extant in the ten tragedies attributed to Seneca. But the genius of
the author never grasps, in their wholeness, the characters which he
attempts to copy; they are distorted images of the Greek originals, and the
shadowy grandeur of the godlike heroes of Aeschylus stands forth in
corporeal vastness, and appears childish and unnatural, like the giants of a
story-book. The Greeks believed in the gods and heroes whose agency and
exploits constituted the machinery of tragedy, but the Romans did not, and
we cannot sympathize with them, because we see that they are insincere.
An awful belief in destiny, and the hopeless yet patient struggle of a great
and good man against this all-ruling power, are the mainspring of Greek
tragedy. This belief the Romans did not transfer into their imitations, but
they supplied its place with the stern fatalism of the Stoics. The principle of
destiny entertained by the Greek poets is a mythological, even a religious
one. It is the irresistible will of God. God is at the commencement of the
chain of causes and effects, by which the event is brought about which God
has ordained; his inspired prophets have power to foretell, and mortals
cannot resist or avoid. It is rather predestination than destiny. The fatalism
of the Stoics, on the other hand, is the doctrine of practical necessity. It
Page 245
ignores the almighty power of the Supreme Being, and although it does not
deny his existence, it strips him of his attributes as the moral governor of
the universe. These doctrines, expressed equally in the writings of Seneca
the philosopher, and in the tragedies attributed to him, lead to the
probability, amounting almost to certainty, that he was their author. But
whatever be the case in regard to their authorship, it is certain that,
notwithstanding their false rhetorical taste and the absence of all ideal and
creative genius, they have found many admirers and imitators in modern
times. The French school of tragic poets took them for their model;
Corneille evidently considered them the ideal of tragedy, and Racine
servilely imitated them.
5. EPIC POETRY.—At the head of the epic poets who flourished during
the Silver Age, stands Lucan (39-66 A.D.). He was born at Cordova, in
Spain, and probably came to Rome when very young, where his literary
reputation was soon established. But Nero, who could not bear the idea of a
rival, forbade him to recite his poems, then the common mode of
publication. Neither would he allow him to plead as an advocate. Smarting
under this provocation, he joined in a conspiracy against the emperor's life.
The plot failed, but Lucan was pardoned on condition of pointing out his
confederates, and in the vain hope of saving himself from the monster's
vengeance, he actually impeached his mother. This noble woman was
incapable of treason. Tacitus says, "the scourge, the flames, the rage of the
executioners who tortured her the more savagely, lest they should be
scorned by a woman, were powerless to extort a false confession." Lucan
never received the reward which he purchased by treachery. When the
warrant for his death was issued, he caused his veins to be cut asunder, and
expired in the twenty-seventh year of his age.
The only one of his works which survives is the "Pharsalia," an epic
poem on the subject of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. It bears
deny his existence, it strips him of his attributes as the moral governor of
the universe. These doctrines, expressed equally in the writings of Seneca
the philosopher, and in the tragedies attributed to him, lead to the
probability, amounting almost to certainty, that he was their author. But
whatever be the case in regard to their authorship, it is certain that,
notwithstanding their false rhetorical taste and the absence of all ideal and
creative genius, they have found many admirers and imitators in modern
times. The French school of tragic poets took them for their model;
Corneille evidently considered them the ideal of tragedy, and Racine
servilely imitated them.
5. EPIC POETRY.—At the head of the epic poets who flourished during
the Silver Age, stands Lucan (39-66 A.D.). He was born at Cordova, in
Spain, and probably came to Rome when very young, where his literary
reputation was soon established. But Nero, who could not bear the idea of a
rival, forbade him to recite his poems, then the common mode of
publication. Neither would he allow him to plead as an advocate. Smarting
under this provocation, he joined in a conspiracy against the emperor's life.
The plot failed, but Lucan was pardoned on condition of pointing out his
confederates, and in the vain hope of saving himself from the monster's
vengeance, he actually impeached his mother. This noble woman was
incapable of treason. Tacitus says, "the scourge, the flames, the rage of the
executioners who tortured her the more savagely, lest they should be
scorned by a woman, were powerless to extort a false confession." Lucan
never received the reward which he purchased by treachery. When the
warrant for his death was issued, he caused his veins to be cut asunder, and
expired in the twenty-seventh year of his age.
The only one of his works which survives is the "Pharsalia," an epic
poem on the subject of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. It bears
Page 246
evident marks of having been left unfinished; it has great faults and at the
same time great beauties. The sentiments contained in this poem breathe a
love of freedom and an attachment to the old Roman republicanism. Its
subject is a noble one, full of historic interest, and it is treated with spirit,
brilliancy, and animation. The characters of Caesar and Pompey are
masterpieces; but while some passages are scarcely inferior to any written
by the best Latin poets, others have neither the dignity of prose, nor the
melody of poetry. Description forms the principal feature in the poetry of
Lucan; in fact, it constitutes one of the characteristic features of Roman
literature in its decline, because poetry had become more than ever an art,
and the epoch one of erudition.
Silius Italicus (fl. 54 A.D.) was the favorite and intimate of two
emperors, Nero and Vitellius. He left a poem, the "Punica," which contains
the history in heroic verse of the second Punic war. The Aeneid of Virgil
was his model, and the narrative of Livy furnished his materials. It is
considered the dullest and most tedious poem in the Latin language though
its versification is harmonious, and will often, in point of smoothness, bear
comparison with that of Virgil.
Valerius Flaccus flourished in the reign of Vespasian. He is author of the
"Argonautica," an imitation and in some parts a translation of the Greek
poem of Apollonius Rhodius on the same subject. He evidently did not live
to complete his original design. In the Argonautica there are no glaring
faults or blemishes, but there is also no genius, no inspiration. He has some
talents as a descriptive poet; his versification is harmonious and his style
graceful.
P. Statius (61-95 A.D.) was the author of the Silviae, Thebaid, and
Achilleid. The "Silviae" are the rude materials of thought springing up
spontaneously in all their wild luxuriance, from the rich, natural soil of the
same time great beauties. The sentiments contained in this poem breathe a
love of freedom and an attachment to the old Roman republicanism. Its
subject is a noble one, full of historic interest, and it is treated with spirit,
brilliancy, and animation. The characters of Caesar and Pompey are
masterpieces; but while some passages are scarcely inferior to any written
by the best Latin poets, others have neither the dignity of prose, nor the
melody of poetry. Description forms the principal feature in the poetry of
Lucan; in fact, it constitutes one of the characteristic features of Roman
literature in its decline, because poetry had become more than ever an art,
and the epoch one of erudition.
Silius Italicus (fl. 54 A.D.) was the favorite and intimate of two
emperors, Nero and Vitellius. He left a poem, the "Punica," which contains
the history in heroic verse of the second Punic war. The Aeneid of Virgil
was his model, and the narrative of Livy furnished his materials. It is
considered the dullest and most tedious poem in the Latin language though
its versification is harmonious, and will often, in point of smoothness, bear
comparison with that of Virgil.
Valerius Flaccus flourished in the reign of Vespasian. He is author of the
"Argonautica," an imitation and in some parts a translation of the Greek
poem of Apollonius Rhodius on the same subject. He evidently did not live
to complete his original design. In the Argonautica there are no glaring
faults or blemishes, but there is also no genius, no inspiration. He has some
talents as a descriptive poet; his versification is harmonious and his style
graceful.
P. Statius (61-95 A.D.) was the author of the Silviae, Thebaid, and
Achilleid. The "Silviae" are the rude materials of thought springing up
spontaneously in all their wild luxuriance, from the rich, natural soil of the
Page 247
imagination of the poet. The subject of the "Thebaid" is the ancient Greek
legend respecting the war of the Seven against Thebes, and the "Achilleid"
was intended to embrace all the exploits of Achilles, but only two books
were completed. The poems of Statius contain many poetical incidents,
which might stand by themselves as perfect fugitive pieces. In these we see
his natural and unaffected elegance, his harmonious ear, and the
truthfulness of his perceptions. But, as an epic poet, he has neither grasp of
mind nor vigor of conception; his imaginary heroes do not inspire and
warm his imagination; and his genius was unable to rise to the highest
departments of art.
6. HISTORY.—For the reasons already stated, Rome for a long period
could boast of no historian; the perilous nature of the times, and the
personal obligations under which learned men frequently were to the
emperors, rendered contemporary history a means of adulation and servility.
To this class of historians belongs Paterculus (fl. 30 A.D.), who wrote a
history of Rome which is partial, prejudiced, and adulatory. He was a man
of lively talents, and his taste was formed after the model of Sallust, of
whom he was an imitator. His style is often overstrained and unnatural.
Under the genial and fostering influence of the Emperor Trajan, the fine
arts, especially architecture, flourished, and literature revived. The same
taste and execution which are visible in the bas-reliefs on the column of
Trajan adorn the literature of his age as illustrated by its two great lights,
Tacitus and the younger Pliny. There is not the rich, graceful manner which
invests with such a charm the writers of the Golden Age, but the absence of
these qualities is amply compensated by dignity, gravity, and honesty.
Truthfulness beams throughout the writings of these two great
contemporaries, and incorruptible virtue is as visible in the pages of Tacitus
as benevolence and tenderness are in the letters of Pliny. They mutually
influenced each other's characters and principles; their tastes and pursuits
legend respecting the war of the Seven against Thebes, and the "Achilleid"
was intended to embrace all the exploits of Achilles, but only two books
were completed. The poems of Statius contain many poetical incidents,
which might stand by themselves as perfect fugitive pieces. In these we see
his natural and unaffected elegance, his harmonious ear, and the
truthfulness of his perceptions. But, as an epic poet, he has neither grasp of
mind nor vigor of conception; his imaginary heroes do not inspire and
warm his imagination; and his genius was unable to rise to the highest
departments of art.
6. HISTORY.—For the reasons already stated, Rome for a long period
could boast of no historian; the perilous nature of the times, and the
personal obligations under which learned men frequently were to the
emperors, rendered contemporary history a means of adulation and servility.
To this class of historians belongs Paterculus (fl. 30 A.D.), who wrote a
history of Rome which is partial, prejudiced, and adulatory. He was a man
of lively talents, and his taste was formed after the model of Sallust, of
whom he was an imitator. His style is often overstrained and unnatural.
Under the genial and fostering influence of the Emperor Trajan, the fine
arts, especially architecture, flourished, and literature revived. The same
taste and execution which are visible in the bas-reliefs on the column of
Trajan adorn the literature of his age as illustrated by its two great lights,
Tacitus and the younger Pliny. There is not the rich, graceful manner which
invests with such a charm the writers of the Golden Age, but the absence of
these qualities is amply compensated by dignity, gravity, and honesty.
Truthfulness beams throughout the writings of these two great
contemporaries, and incorruptible virtue is as visible in the pages of Tacitus
as benevolence and tenderness are in the letters of Pliny. They mutually
influenced each other's characters and principles; their tastes and pursuits
Page 248
were similar; they loved each other dearly, corresponded regularly,
corrected each other's works, and accepted patiently and gratefully each
other's criticism.
Tacitus (60-135 A.D.) was of equestrian rank, and served in several
important offices of the empire. His works now extant are a life of his
father-in-law, Agricola, a tract on the manners and nations of the Germans,
a small portion of a voluminous work entitled "Histories," about two thirds
of another historical work, entitled "Annals," and a dialogue on the decline
of eloquence. The life of Agricola, though a panegyric rather than a
biography, is a beautiful specimen of the vigor and force of expression with
which this greatest painter of antiquity could throw off any portrait which
he attempted. Even if the likeness be somewhat flattered, the qualities
which the writer possessed, his insight into character, his pathetic power,
and his affectionate heart, render this short piece one of the most attractive
biographies extant. The treatise on the "Geography, Manners, and Nations
of Germany," though containing geographical descriptions often vague and
inaccurate, and accounts evidently founded on mere tales of travelers, bears
the impress of truth in the salient points and characteristic features of the
national manners and institutions of Teutonic nations. The "Histories," his
earliest historical work, of which only four books and a portion of the fifth
are extant, extended from the year 69 to 96 A.D., and it was his intention to
include the reigns of Nero and Trajan. In this work he proposed to
investigate the political state of the commonwealth, the feeling of its
armies, the sentiments of its provinces, the elements of its strength and
weakness, and the causes and reasons for each historical phenomenon. The
principal fault which diminishes the value of his history as a record of
events is his too great readiness to accept evidence unhesitatingly, and to
record popular rumors without taking sufficient pains to examine into their
truth. His incorrect account of the history, constitution, and manners of the
Jewish people is one among the few instances of this fault, scattered over a
corrected each other's works, and accepted patiently and gratefully each
other's criticism.
Tacitus (60-135 A.D.) was of equestrian rank, and served in several
important offices of the empire. His works now extant are a life of his
father-in-law, Agricola, a tract on the manners and nations of the Germans,
a small portion of a voluminous work entitled "Histories," about two thirds
of another historical work, entitled "Annals," and a dialogue on the decline
of eloquence. The life of Agricola, though a panegyric rather than a
biography, is a beautiful specimen of the vigor and force of expression with
which this greatest painter of antiquity could throw off any portrait which
he attempted. Even if the likeness be somewhat flattered, the qualities
which the writer possessed, his insight into character, his pathetic power,
and his affectionate heart, render this short piece one of the most attractive
biographies extant. The treatise on the "Geography, Manners, and Nations
of Germany," though containing geographical descriptions often vague and
inaccurate, and accounts evidently founded on mere tales of travelers, bears
the impress of truth in the salient points and characteristic features of the
national manners and institutions of Teutonic nations. The "Histories," his
earliest historical work, of which only four books and a portion of the fifth
are extant, extended from the year 69 to 96 A.D., and it was his intention to
include the reigns of Nero and Trajan. In this work he proposed to
investigate the political state of the commonwealth, the feeling of its
armies, the sentiments of its provinces, the elements of its strength and
weakness, and the causes and reasons for each historical phenomenon. The
principal fault which diminishes the value of his history as a record of
events is his too great readiness to accept evidence unhesitatingly, and to
record popular rumors without taking sufficient pains to examine into their
truth. His incorrect account of the history, constitution, and manners of the
Jewish people is one among the few instances of this fault, scattered over a
Page 249
vast field of faithful history. The "Annals" consist of sixteen books; they
begin with the death of Augustus, and conclude with that of Nero (14-68
A.D.). The object of Tacitus was to describe the influence which the
establishment of tyranny on the ruins of liberty exercised for good or for
evil in bringing out the character of the individual. In the extinction of
freedom there still existed in Rome bright examples of heroism and
courage, and instances not less prominent of corruption and degradation. In
the annals of Tacitus these individuals stand out in bold relief, either singly
or in groups upon the stage, while the emperor forms the principal figure,
and the moral sense of the reader is awakened to admire instances of patient
suffering and determined bravery, or to witness abject slavery and
remorseless despotism.
Full of sagacious observation and descriptive power, Tacitus engages the
most serious attention of the reader by the gravity of his condensed and
comprehensive style, as he does by the wisdom and dignity of his
reflections. Living amidst the influences of a corrupt age, he was
uncontaminated. By his virtue and integrity, and his chastened political
liberality, he commands our admiration as a man, while his love of truth is
reflected in his character as a historian. In his style, the form is always
subordinate to the matter; his sentences are suggestive of far more than they
express, and his brevity is enlivened by copiousness, variety, and poetry; his
language is highly figurative; his descriptions of scenery and incidents are
eminently picturesque, his characters dramatic, and the expression of his
own sentiments almost lyrical.
Suetonius was born about 69 A.D. His principal extant works are the
"Lives of the Twelve Caesars," "Notices of Illustrious Grammarians and
Rhetoricians," and the Lives of the Poets Terence, Horace, Persius, Lucan,
and Juvenal. The use which he makes of historical documents proves that
he was a man of diligent research, and, as a biographer, industrious and
begin with the death of Augustus, and conclude with that of Nero (14-68
A.D.). The object of Tacitus was to describe the influence which the
establishment of tyranny on the ruins of liberty exercised for good or for
evil in bringing out the character of the individual. In the extinction of
freedom there still existed in Rome bright examples of heroism and
courage, and instances not less prominent of corruption and degradation. In
the annals of Tacitus these individuals stand out in bold relief, either singly
or in groups upon the stage, while the emperor forms the principal figure,
and the moral sense of the reader is awakened to admire instances of patient
suffering and determined bravery, or to witness abject slavery and
remorseless despotism.
Full of sagacious observation and descriptive power, Tacitus engages the
most serious attention of the reader by the gravity of his condensed and
comprehensive style, as he does by the wisdom and dignity of his
reflections. Living amidst the influences of a corrupt age, he was
uncontaminated. By his virtue and integrity, and his chastened political
liberality, he commands our admiration as a man, while his love of truth is
reflected in his character as a historian. In his style, the form is always
subordinate to the matter; his sentences are suggestive of far more than they
express, and his brevity is enlivened by copiousness, variety, and poetry; his
language is highly figurative; his descriptions of scenery and incidents are
eminently picturesque, his characters dramatic, and the expression of his
own sentiments almost lyrical.
Suetonius was born about 69 A.D. His principal extant works are the
"Lives of the Twelve Caesars," "Notices of Illustrious Grammarians and
Rhetoricians," and the Lives of the Poets Terence, Horace, Persius, Lucan,
and Juvenal. The use which he makes of historical documents proves that
he was a man of diligent research, and, as a biographer, industrious and
Page 250
careful. He indulges neither in ornament of style nor in romantic
exaggeration. The pictures which he draws of some of the Caesars are
indeed terrible, but they are fully supported by the contemporary authority
of Juvenal and Tacitus. As a historian, Suetonius had not that
comprehensive and philosophical mind which would qualify him for taking
an enlarged view of his subject; he has no definite plan or method, and
wanders at will from one subject to another just as the idea seizes him.
Curtius is considered by some writers as belonging to the Silver Age, and
by others to a later period. His biography of Alexander the Great is deeply
interesting. It is a romance rather than a history. He never loses an
opportunity, by the coloring which he gives to historical facts, of elevating
the Macedonian conqueror to a super-human standard. His florid and
ornamented style is suitable to the imaginary orations which are introduced
in the narrative, and which constitute the most striking portions of the work.
Valerius Maximus flourished during the reign of Tiberius. His work is a
collection of anecdotes entitled "Memorable Sayings and Deeds," the object
of which was to illustrate by examples the beauty of virtue and the
deformity of vice. The style is prolix and declamatory, and characterized by
awkward affectation and involved obscurity.
7. RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE.—Under the empire, schools of
rhetoric were multiplied, as harmless as tyranny could desire. In these the
Roman youth learned the means by which the absence of natural
endowments could be compensated. The students composed their speeches
according to the rules of rhetoric; they were then corrected, committed to
memory, and recited, partly with a view to practice, partly in order to amuse
an admiring audience. Nor were these declamations confined to mere
students. Public recitations had, since the days of Juvenal, been one of the
crying nuisances of the times. Seneca, the father of the philosopher of the
exaggeration. The pictures which he draws of some of the Caesars are
indeed terrible, but they are fully supported by the contemporary authority
of Juvenal and Tacitus. As a historian, Suetonius had not that
comprehensive and philosophical mind which would qualify him for taking
an enlarged view of his subject; he has no definite plan or method, and
wanders at will from one subject to another just as the idea seizes him.
Curtius is considered by some writers as belonging to the Silver Age, and
by others to a later period. His biography of Alexander the Great is deeply
interesting. It is a romance rather than a history. He never loses an
opportunity, by the coloring which he gives to historical facts, of elevating
the Macedonian conqueror to a super-human standard. His florid and
ornamented style is suitable to the imaginary orations which are introduced
in the narrative, and which constitute the most striking portions of the work.
Valerius Maximus flourished during the reign of Tiberius. His work is a
collection of anecdotes entitled "Memorable Sayings and Deeds," the object
of which was to illustrate by examples the beauty of virtue and the
deformity of vice. The style is prolix and declamatory, and characterized by
awkward affectation and involved obscurity.
7. RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE.—Under the empire, schools of
rhetoric were multiplied, as harmless as tyranny could desire. In these the
Roman youth learned the means by which the absence of natural
endowments could be compensated. The students composed their speeches
according to the rules of rhetoric; they were then corrected, committed to
memory, and recited, partly with a view to practice, partly in order to amuse
an admiring audience. Nor were these declamations confined to mere
students. Public recitations had, since the days of Juvenal, been one of the
crying nuisances of the times. Seneca, the father of the philosopher of the
Page 251
same name, a famous rhetorician himself, left two works containing a series
of exercises in oratory, which show the hollow and artificial system of those
schools. He was born in Cordova in Spain (61 A.D.), and as a professional
rhetorician amassed a considerable fortune.
Quintilian (40-118 A.D.) was the most distinguished teacher of rhetoric
of this age. He attempted to restore a purer and more classical taste, but,
although to a certain extent he was successful, the effect which he produced
was only temporary. For the instruction of his elder son he wrote his great
work, "Institutes of Oratory," a complete system of instruction in the art of
oratory; and in it he shows himself far superior to Cicero as a teacher,
though he was inferior to him as an orator.
His work is divided into twelve books, in which he traces the progress of
the orator from the very cradle until he arrives at perfection. In this
monument of his taste and genius he fully and completely exhausted the
subject, and left a text-book of the science and art of nations, as well as a
masterly sketch of the eloquence of antiquity.
The disposition of Quintilian was as affectionate and tender as his genius
was brilliant and his taste pure; few passages throughout the whole range of
Latin literature can be compared to that in which he mourns the loss of his
wife and children. It is the touching eloquence of one who could not write
otherwise than gracefully.
Among the pupils of Quintilian, Pliny the younger took the highest place
in the literature of his age. He was born in Como, 61 A.D., and adopted and
educated by his maternal uncle, the elder Pliny. He attained great celebrity
as a pleader, and stood high in favor with the emperor. His works consist of
a panegyric on Trajan, and a collection of letters in ten books. The
panegyric is a piece of courtly flattery in accordance with the cringing and
fawning manners of the times. The letters are very valuable, not only for the
of exercises in oratory, which show the hollow and artificial system of those
schools. He was born in Cordova in Spain (61 A.D.), and as a professional
rhetorician amassed a considerable fortune.
Quintilian (40-118 A.D.) was the most distinguished teacher of rhetoric
of this age. He attempted to restore a purer and more classical taste, but,
although to a certain extent he was successful, the effect which he produced
was only temporary. For the instruction of his elder son he wrote his great
work, "Institutes of Oratory," a complete system of instruction in the art of
oratory; and in it he shows himself far superior to Cicero as a teacher,
though he was inferior to him as an orator.
His work is divided into twelve books, in which he traces the progress of
the orator from the very cradle until he arrives at perfection. In this
monument of his taste and genius he fully and completely exhausted the
subject, and left a text-book of the science and art of nations, as well as a
masterly sketch of the eloquence of antiquity.
The disposition of Quintilian was as affectionate and tender as his genius
was brilliant and his taste pure; few passages throughout the whole range of
Latin literature can be compared to that in which he mourns the loss of his
wife and children. It is the touching eloquence of one who could not write
otherwise than gracefully.
Among the pupils of Quintilian, Pliny the younger took the highest place
in the literature of his age. He was born in Como, 61 A.D., and adopted and
educated by his maternal uncle, the elder Pliny. He attained great celebrity
as a pleader, and stood high in favor with the emperor. His works consist of
a panegyric on Trajan, and a collection of letters in ten books. The
panegyric is a piece of courtly flattery in accordance with the cringing and
fawning manners of the times. The letters are very valuable, not only for the
Page 252
insight which they give into his own character, but also into the manners
and modes of thought of his illustrious contemporaries, as well as the
politics of the day. For liveliness, descriptive power, elegance, and
simplicity of style, they are scarcely inferior to those of Cicero, whom he
evidently took for his model. These letters show how accurate and judicious
was the mind of Pliny, how prudent his administration in the high offices
which he filled under the reign of Trajan, and how refined his taste for the
beautiful. The tenth book, which consists of the letters to Trajan, together
with the emperor's rescripts, will be read with the greatest interest. The
following passages from his dispatch respecting the Christians, written
while he was procurator of the province of Bithynia, and the emperor's
answer, are worthy of being transcribed, both because reference is so often
made to them, and because they throw light upon the marvelous and rapid
propagation of the gospel, the manners of the early Christians, the treatment
to which their constancy exposed them, and the severe jealousy with which
they were regarded:—
"It is my constant practice, sire, to refer to you all subjects on which I
entertain doubt. For who is better able to direct my hesitation, or to instruct
my ignorance? I have never been present at the trials of Christians, and,
therefore, I do not know in what way, or to what extent it is usual to
question or to punish them. I have also felt no small difficulty in deciding
whether age should make any difference, or whether those of the tenderest
and those of mature years should be treated alike; whether pardon should be
accorded to repentance, or whether, where a man has once been a Christian,
recantation should profit him; whether, if the name of Christian does not
imply criminality, still the crimes peculiarly belonging to the name should
be punished. Meanwhile, in the case of those against whom informations
have been laid before me, I have pursued the following line of conduct: I
have put to them, personally, the question whether they were Christians. If
they confessed, I interrogated them a second and third time, and threatened
and modes of thought of his illustrious contemporaries, as well as the
politics of the day. For liveliness, descriptive power, elegance, and
simplicity of style, they are scarcely inferior to those of Cicero, whom he
evidently took for his model. These letters show how accurate and judicious
was the mind of Pliny, how prudent his administration in the high offices
which he filled under the reign of Trajan, and how refined his taste for the
beautiful. The tenth book, which consists of the letters to Trajan, together
with the emperor's rescripts, will be read with the greatest interest. The
following passages from his dispatch respecting the Christians, written
while he was procurator of the province of Bithynia, and the emperor's
answer, are worthy of being transcribed, both because reference is so often
made to them, and because they throw light upon the marvelous and rapid
propagation of the gospel, the manners of the early Christians, the treatment
to which their constancy exposed them, and the severe jealousy with which
they were regarded:—
"It is my constant practice, sire, to refer to you all subjects on which I
entertain doubt. For who is better able to direct my hesitation, or to instruct
my ignorance? I have never been present at the trials of Christians, and,
therefore, I do not know in what way, or to what extent it is usual to
question or to punish them. I have also felt no small difficulty in deciding
whether age should make any difference, or whether those of the tenderest
and those of mature years should be treated alike; whether pardon should be
accorded to repentance, or whether, where a man has once been a Christian,
recantation should profit him; whether, if the name of Christian does not
imply criminality, still the crimes peculiarly belonging to the name should
be punished. Meanwhile, in the case of those against whom informations
have been laid before me, I have pursued the following line of conduct: I
have put to them, personally, the question whether they were Christians. If
they confessed, I interrogated them a second and third time, and threatened
Page 253
them with punishment. If they still persevered, I ordered their commitment;
for I had no doubt whatever, that whatever they confessed, at any rate,
dogged and inflexible obstinacy deserved to be punished. There were others
who displayed similar madness; but, as they were Roman citizens, I ordered
them to be sent back to the city. Soon, persecution itself, as is generally the
case, caused the crime to spread, and it appeared in new forms. An
anonymous information was laid against a large number of persons, but
they deny that they are, or ever have been, Christians. As they invoked the
gods, repeating the form after me, and offered prayer with incense and
wine, to your image, which I had ordered to be brought together with those
of the deities, and besides, cursed Christ, while those who are true
Christians, it is said, cannot be compelled to do any one of these things, I
thought it right to set them at liberty. Others, when accused by an informer,
confessed that they were Christians, and soon after denied the fact. They
said they had been, but had ceased to be, some three, some more, not a few
even twenty years previously. All these worshiped your image and those of
the gods, and cursed Christ. But they affirmed that the sum-total of their
fault, or their error, was that they were accustomed to assemble on a fixed
day, before dawn, and sing an antiphonal hymn to Christ as God; that they
bound themselves by an oath, not to the commission of any wickedness, but
to abstain from theft, robbery, and adultery; never to break a promise, or to
deny a deposit, when it was demanded back. When these ceremonies were
concluded, it was their custom to depart, and again assemble together to
take food harmlessly and in common. That after my proclamation, in which,
in obedience to your command, I had forbidden associations, they had
desisted from this practice. For these reasons, I the more thought it
necessary to investigate the real truth, by putting to the torture two maidens
who were called deaconesses; but I discovered nothing, but a perverse and
excessive superstition. I have, therefore, deferred taking cognizance of the
matter until I had consulted you; for it seemed to me a case requiring
for I had no doubt whatever, that whatever they confessed, at any rate,
dogged and inflexible obstinacy deserved to be punished. There were others
who displayed similar madness; but, as they were Roman citizens, I ordered
them to be sent back to the city. Soon, persecution itself, as is generally the
case, caused the crime to spread, and it appeared in new forms. An
anonymous information was laid against a large number of persons, but
they deny that they are, or ever have been, Christians. As they invoked the
gods, repeating the form after me, and offered prayer with incense and
wine, to your image, which I had ordered to be brought together with those
of the deities, and besides, cursed Christ, while those who are true
Christians, it is said, cannot be compelled to do any one of these things, I
thought it right to set them at liberty. Others, when accused by an informer,
confessed that they were Christians, and soon after denied the fact. They
said they had been, but had ceased to be, some three, some more, not a few
even twenty years previously. All these worshiped your image and those of
the gods, and cursed Christ. But they affirmed that the sum-total of their
fault, or their error, was that they were accustomed to assemble on a fixed
day, before dawn, and sing an antiphonal hymn to Christ as God; that they
bound themselves by an oath, not to the commission of any wickedness, but
to abstain from theft, robbery, and adultery; never to break a promise, or to
deny a deposit, when it was demanded back. When these ceremonies were
concluded, it was their custom to depart, and again assemble together to
take food harmlessly and in common. That after my proclamation, in which,
in obedience to your command, I had forbidden associations, they had
desisted from this practice. For these reasons, I the more thought it
necessary to investigate the real truth, by putting to the torture two maidens
who were called deaconesses; but I discovered nothing, but a perverse and
excessive superstition. I have, therefore, deferred taking cognizance of the
matter until I had consulted you; for it seemed to me a case requiring
Page 254
advice, especially on account of the number of those in peril. For many of
every age, sex, and rank are, and will continue to be called in question. The
infection, in fact, has spread not only through the cities, but also through the
villages and open country; but it seems that its progress can be arrested. At
any rate, it is clear that the temples, which were almost deserted, begin to be
frequented; and solemn sacrifices, which had been long intermitted, are
again performed, and victims are being sold everywhere, for which, up to
this time, a purchaser could rarely be found. It is, therefore, easy to
conceive that crowds might be reclaimed, if an opportunity for repentance
were given."
Trajan to Pliny: "In sifting the cases of those who have been indicted on
the charge of Christianity, you have adopted, my dear Secundus, the right
course of proceeding; for no certain rule can be laid down which will meet
all cases. They must not be sought after, but if they are informed against,
and convicted, they must be punished; with this proviso, however, that if
any deny that he is a Christian, and proves the point by offering prayers to
our deities, notwithstanding the suspicions under which he has labored, he
shall be pardoned on his repentance. On no account should any anonymous
charges be attended to, for it would be the worst possible precedent, and is
inconsistent with the habits of our time."
8. PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE.—Philosophy, and particularly moral
philosophy, became a necessary study at this time, when the popular
religion had lost its influence. In the general ruin of public and private
morals, virtuous men found in this science a guide in the dangers by which
they were continually threatened, and a consolation in all their sorrows. The
Stoic among the other schools met with most favor from this class of men,
for it offered better security against the evils of life, and taught men how to
take shelter from baseness and profligacy under the influence of virtue and
courage. The doctrines of the Stoics suited the rigid sternness of the Roman
every age, sex, and rank are, and will continue to be called in question. The
infection, in fact, has spread not only through the cities, but also through the
villages and open country; but it seems that its progress can be arrested. At
any rate, it is clear that the temples, which were almost deserted, begin to be
frequented; and solemn sacrifices, which had been long intermitted, are
again performed, and victims are being sold everywhere, for which, up to
this time, a purchaser could rarely be found. It is, therefore, easy to
conceive that crowds might be reclaimed, if an opportunity for repentance
were given."
Trajan to Pliny: "In sifting the cases of those who have been indicted on
the charge of Christianity, you have adopted, my dear Secundus, the right
course of proceeding; for no certain rule can be laid down which will meet
all cases. They must not be sought after, but if they are informed against,
and convicted, they must be punished; with this proviso, however, that if
any deny that he is a Christian, and proves the point by offering prayers to
our deities, notwithstanding the suspicions under which he has labored, he
shall be pardoned on his repentance. On no account should any anonymous
charges be attended to, for it would be the worst possible precedent, and is
inconsistent with the habits of our time."
8. PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE.—Philosophy, and particularly moral
philosophy, became a necessary study at this time, when the popular
religion had lost its influence. In the general ruin of public and private
morals, virtuous men found in this science a guide in the dangers by which
they were continually threatened, and a consolation in all their sorrows. The
Stoic among the other schools met with most favor from this class of men,
for it offered better security against the evils of life, and taught men how to
take shelter from baseness and profligacy under the influence of virtue and
courage. The doctrines of the Stoics suited the rigid sternness of the Roman
Page 255
character. They embodied that spirit of self-devotion and self- denial with
which the Roman patriot, in the old times of simple republican virtue, threw
himself into his public duties, and they enabled him to meet death with a
courageous spirit in this degenerate age, in which many of the best and
noblest willingly died by their own hands, at the imperial mandate, in order
to save their name from infamy, and their inheritance from confiscation.
Seneca, (12-69 A.D.), a native of Cordova in Spain, was the greatest
philosopher of this age. He early displayed great talent as a pleader, but in
the reign of Claudius he was banished to Corsica, where he solaced his
exile with the study of the Stoic philosophy; and though its severe precepts
exercised no moral influence on his conduct, he not only professed himself
a Stoic, but imagined that he was one. A few years after, he was recalled by
Agrippina, to become tutor to her son Nero. He was too unscrupulous a man
of the world to attempt the correction of the vicious propensities of his
pupil, or to instill into him high principles. After the accession of Nero, he
endeavored to arrest his depraved career, but it was too late. Seneca had, by
usury and legacy-hunting, amassed one of those large fortunes of which so
many instances are met with in Roman history; feeling the dangers of
wealth, he offered his property to Nero, who refused it, but resolved to rid
himself of his former tutor, and easily found a pretext for his destruction. In
adversity the character of Seneca shone with brighter lustre. Though he had
lived ill, he could die well. He met the messengers of death without
trembling. His noble wife, Paulina, determined to die with him. The veins
of both were opened at the same time, but the little blood which remained in
his emaciated frame refused to flow. He suffered excruciating agony. A
warm bath was tried, but in vain; and a draught of poison was equally
ineffectual. At last he was suffocated by the vapor of a stove.
Seneca lived in a perilous atmosphere. He had not firmness to act up to
the high moral standard which he proposed to himself. He was avaricious,
which the Roman patriot, in the old times of simple republican virtue, threw
himself into his public duties, and they enabled him to meet death with a
courageous spirit in this degenerate age, in which many of the best and
noblest willingly died by their own hands, at the imperial mandate, in order
to save their name from infamy, and their inheritance from confiscation.
Seneca, (12-69 A.D.), a native of Cordova in Spain, was the greatest
philosopher of this age. He early displayed great talent as a pleader, but in
the reign of Claudius he was banished to Corsica, where he solaced his
exile with the study of the Stoic philosophy; and though its severe precepts
exercised no moral influence on his conduct, he not only professed himself
a Stoic, but imagined that he was one. A few years after, he was recalled by
Agrippina, to become tutor to her son Nero. He was too unscrupulous a man
of the world to attempt the correction of the vicious propensities of his
pupil, or to instill into him high principles. After the accession of Nero, he
endeavored to arrest his depraved career, but it was too late. Seneca had, by
usury and legacy-hunting, amassed one of those large fortunes of which so
many instances are met with in Roman history; feeling the dangers of
wealth, he offered his property to Nero, who refused it, but resolved to rid
himself of his former tutor, and easily found a pretext for his destruction. In
adversity the character of Seneca shone with brighter lustre. Though he had
lived ill, he could die well. He met the messengers of death without
trembling. His noble wife, Paulina, determined to die with him. The veins
of both were opened at the same time, but the little blood which remained in
his emaciated frame refused to flow. He suffered excruciating agony. A
warm bath was tried, but in vain; and a draught of poison was equally
ineffectual. At last he was suffocated by the vapor of a stove.
Seneca lived in a perilous atmosphere. He had not firmness to act up to
the high moral standard which he proposed to himself. He was avaricious,
Page 256
but avarice was the great sin of his times. The education of one who was a
brute rather than a man was a task to which no one would have been equal;
he therefore retained the influence which he had not the uprightness to
command, by miserable and sinful expedients. He had great abilities, and
some of the noble qualities of the old Romans; and had he lived in the days
of the republic, he would have been a great man.
Seneca was the author of twelve ethical treatises, the best of which are
entitled, "On Providence," "On Consolation," and "On the Perseverance of
Wise Men." He cared little for abstract speculation, and delighted to
inculcate precepts rather than to investigate principles. He was always a
favorite with Christian writers, and some of his sentiments are truly
Christian. There is even a tradition that he was acquainted with St. Paul. He
may unconsciously have imbibed some of the principles of Christianity. The
gospel had already made great and rapid strides over the civilized world,
and thoughtful minds may have been enlightened by some of the rays of
divine truth dispersed by the moral atmosphere, just as we are benefited by
the light of the sun, even when its disk is obscured by clouds. His epistles,
of which there are one hundred and twenty-four, are moral essays, and are
the most delightful of his works. They are evidently written for the public
eye; they are rich in varied thought, and their reflections flow naturally, and
without effort. They contain a free and unconstrained picture of his mind,
and we see in them how he despised verbal subtleties, the external badges
of a sect or creed, and insisted that the great end of science is to learn how
to live and how to die. The style of Seneca is too elaborate to please. It is
affected, often florid, and bombastic; there is too much sparkle and glitter,
too little repose and simplicity.
Pliny the elder (A.D. 23-79) was born probably at Como, the family
residence. He was educated at Rome, where he practiced at the bar, and
filled different civil offices. He perished a martyr to the cause of science, in
brute rather than a man was a task to which no one would have been equal;
he therefore retained the influence which he had not the uprightness to
command, by miserable and sinful expedients. He had great abilities, and
some of the noble qualities of the old Romans; and had he lived in the days
of the republic, he would have been a great man.
Seneca was the author of twelve ethical treatises, the best of which are
entitled, "On Providence," "On Consolation," and "On the Perseverance of
Wise Men." He cared little for abstract speculation, and delighted to
inculcate precepts rather than to investigate principles. He was always a
favorite with Christian writers, and some of his sentiments are truly
Christian. There is even a tradition that he was acquainted with St. Paul. He
may unconsciously have imbibed some of the principles of Christianity. The
gospel had already made great and rapid strides over the civilized world,
and thoughtful minds may have been enlightened by some of the rays of
divine truth dispersed by the moral atmosphere, just as we are benefited by
the light of the sun, even when its disk is obscured by clouds. His epistles,
of which there are one hundred and twenty-four, are moral essays, and are
the most delightful of his works. They are evidently written for the public
eye; they are rich in varied thought, and their reflections flow naturally, and
without effort. They contain a free and unconstrained picture of his mind,
and we see in them how he despised verbal subtleties, the external badges
of a sect or creed, and insisted that the great end of science is to learn how
to live and how to die. The style of Seneca is too elaborate to please. It is
affected, often florid, and bombastic; there is too much sparkle and glitter,
too little repose and simplicity.
Pliny the elder (A.D. 23-79) was born probably at Como, the family
residence. He was educated at Rome, where he practiced at the bar, and
filled different civil offices. He perished a martyr to the cause of science, in
Page 257
the eruption of Vesuvius, which took place in the reign of Titus, the first of
which there is any record in history. The circumstances of his death are
described by his nephew, Pliny the younger, in two letters to Tacitus. He
was at Misenum, in command of the fleet, when, observing the first
indications of the eruption, and wishing to investigate it more closely, he
fitted out a light galley, and sailed towards the villa of a friend at Stabiae.
He found his friend in great alarm, but Pliny remained tranquil and retired
to rest. Meanwhile, broad flames burst forth from the volcano, the blaze
was reflected from the sky, and the brightness was enhanced by the
darkness of the night. Repeated shocks of an earthquake made the houses
rock to and fro, while in the air the fall of half burnt pumice-stones
menaced danger. He was awakened, and he and his friend, with their
attendants, tied cushions over their heads to protect them from the falling
stones, and walked out to see if they might venture on the water. It was now
day, but the darkness was denser than the darkest night, the sea was a waste
of stormy waters, and when at last the flames and the sulphureous smell
could no longer be endured, Pliny fell dead, suffocated by the dense vapor.
The natural history of Pliny is an unequaled monument of studious
diligence and persevering industry. It consists of thirty-seven books, and
contains 20,000 facts (as he believed them to be) connected with nature and
art, the result not of original research, but, as he honestly confessed, culled
from the labors of other men.
Owing to the extent of his reading, his love of the marvelous, and his
want of judgment in comparing and selecting, he does not present us with a
correct view of the science of his own age. He reproduces errors evidently
obsolete and inconsistent with facts and theories which had afterwards
replaced them. With him, mythological traditions appeared to have almost
the same authority as modern discoveries; the earth teems with monsters,
not exceptions to the regular order of nature, but specimens of her
which there is any record in history. The circumstances of his death are
described by his nephew, Pliny the younger, in two letters to Tacitus. He
was at Misenum, in command of the fleet, when, observing the first
indications of the eruption, and wishing to investigate it more closely, he
fitted out a light galley, and sailed towards the villa of a friend at Stabiae.
He found his friend in great alarm, but Pliny remained tranquil and retired
to rest. Meanwhile, broad flames burst forth from the volcano, the blaze
was reflected from the sky, and the brightness was enhanced by the
darkness of the night. Repeated shocks of an earthquake made the houses
rock to and fro, while in the air the fall of half burnt pumice-stones
menaced danger. He was awakened, and he and his friend, with their
attendants, tied cushions over their heads to protect them from the falling
stones, and walked out to see if they might venture on the water. It was now
day, but the darkness was denser than the darkest night, the sea was a waste
of stormy waters, and when at last the flames and the sulphureous smell
could no longer be endured, Pliny fell dead, suffocated by the dense vapor.
The natural history of Pliny is an unequaled monument of studious
diligence and persevering industry. It consists of thirty-seven books, and
contains 20,000 facts (as he believed them to be) connected with nature and
art, the result not of original research, but, as he honestly confessed, culled
from the labors of other men.
Owing to the extent of his reading, his love of the marvelous, and his
want of judgment in comparing and selecting, he does not present us with a
correct view of the science of his own age. He reproduces errors evidently
obsolete and inconsistent with facts and theories which had afterwards
replaced them. With him, mythological traditions appeared to have almost
the same authority as modern discoveries; the earth teems with monsters,
not exceptions to the regular order of nature, but specimens of her
Page 258
ingenuity. His peculiar pantheistic belief prepared him to consider nothing
incredible, and his temper inclined him to admit all that was credible as
true.
He tells us of men whose feet were turned backwards, of others whose
feet were so large as to shade them when they lay in the sun; others without
mouths, who fed on the fragrance of fruits and flowers. Among the lower
animals, he enumerates horned horses furnished with wings; the
mantichora, with the face of a man, three rows of teeth, a lion's body, and a
scorpion's tail; the basilisk, whose very glance is fatal; and an insect which
cannot live except in the midst of the flames. But notwithstanding his
credulity and his want of judgment, this elaborate work contains many
valuable truths and much entertaining information. The prevailing character
of his philosophical belief, though tinctured with the stoicism of the day, is
querulous and melancholy. Believing that nature is an all- powerful
principle, and the universe instinct with deity, he saw more of evil than of
good in the divine dispensation, and the result was a gloomy and
discontented pantheism.
Celsus probably lived in the reign of Tiberius. He was the author of many
works, on various subjects, of which one, in eight books, on medicine, is
now extant. The independence of his views, the practical, as well as the
scientific nature of his instructions, and above all, his knowledge of surgery,
and his clear exposition of surgical operations, have given his work great
authority; the highest testimony is borne to its merits by the fact of its being
used as a text-book, even in the present advanced state of medical science.
The taste of the age in which he lived turned his attention also to polite
literature, and to that may be ascribed the Augustan purity of his style.
Pomponius Mela lived in the reign of Claudius. He is considered as the
representative of the Roman geographers. Though his book, "The Place of
incredible, and his temper inclined him to admit all that was credible as
true.
He tells us of men whose feet were turned backwards, of others whose
feet were so large as to shade them when they lay in the sun; others without
mouths, who fed on the fragrance of fruits and flowers. Among the lower
animals, he enumerates horned horses furnished with wings; the
mantichora, with the face of a man, three rows of teeth, a lion's body, and a
scorpion's tail; the basilisk, whose very glance is fatal; and an insect which
cannot live except in the midst of the flames. But notwithstanding his
credulity and his want of judgment, this elaborate work contains many
valuable truths and much entertaining information. The prevailing character
of his philosophical belief, though tinctured with the stoicism of the day, is
querulous and melancholy. Believing that nature is an all- powerful
principle, and the universe instinct with deity, he saw more of evil than of
good in the divine dispensation, and the result was a gloomy and
discontented pantheism.
Celsus probably lived in the reign of Tiberius. He was the author of many
works, on various subjects, of which one, in eight books, on medicine, is
now extant. The independence of his views, the practical, as well as the
scientific nature of his instructions, and above all, his knowledge of surgery,
and his clear exposition of surgical operations, have given his work great
authority; the highest testimony is borne to its merits by the fact of its being
used as a text-book, even in the present advanced state of medical science.
The taste of the age in which he lived turned his attention also to polite
literature, and to that may be ascribed the Augustan purity of his style.
Pomponius Mela lived in the reign of Claudius. He is considered as the
representative of the Roman geographers. Though his book, "The Place of
Page 259
the World," is but an epitome of former treatises, it is interesting for the
simplicity of its style and the purity of its language.
Columella flourished in the reigns of Claudius and Nero. He is author of
an agricultural work, "De Re Rustica," in which he gives, in smooth and
fluent, though somewhat too diffuse a style, the fullest and completest
information on practical agriculture among the Romans in the first century
of the Christian era.
Frontinus (fl. 78 A.D.) left two valuable works, one on military tactics,
the other a descriptive architectural treatise on those wonderful monuments
of Roman art, the aqueducts. Besides these, there are extant fragments of
other works on surveying, and on the laws and customs relating to landed
property, which assign Frontinus an important place in the estimation of the
students of Roman history.
9. ROMAN LITERATURE FROM HADRIAN TO THEODORIC (138-
526 A.D.).—From the death of Augustus, Roman literature had gradually
declined, and though it shone forth for a time with classic radiance in the
writings of Persius, Juvenal, Quintilian, Tacitus, and the Plinies, with the
death of freedom, the extinction of patriotism, and the decay of the national
spirit, nothing could avert its fall. Poetry had become declamation; history
had degenerated either into fulsome panegyric or the fleshless skeletons of
epitomes; and at length the Romans seemed to disdain the use of their
native tongue, and wrote again in Greek, as they had in the infancy of the
national literature. The Emperor Hadrian resided long at Athens, and
became imbued with a taste and admiration for Greek; and thus the
literature of Rome became Hellenized. From this epoch the term classical
can no longer be applied to it, for it no longer retained its purity. To Greek
influence succeeded the still more corrupting one of foreign nations. With
the death of Nerva, the uninterrupted succession of emperors of Roman or
simplicity of its style and the purity of its language.
Columella flourished in the reigns of Claudius and Nero. He is author of
an agricultural work, "De Re Rustica," in which he gives, in smooth and
fluent, though somewhat too diffuse a style, the fullest and completest
information on practical agriculture among the Romans in the first century
of the Christian era.
Frontinus (fl. 78 A.D.) left two valuable works, one on military tactics,
the other a descriptive architectural treatise on those wonderful monuments
of Roman art, the aqueducts. Besides these, there are extant fragments of
other works on surveying, and on the laws and customs relating to landed
property, which assign Frontinus an important place in the estimation of the
students of Roman history.
9. ROMAN LITERATURE FROM HADRIAN TO THEODORIC (138-
526 A.D.).—From the death of Augustus, Roman literature had gradually
declined, and though it shone forth for a time with classic radiance in the
writings of Persius, Juvenal, Quintilian, Tacitus, and the Plinies, with the
death of freedom, the extinction of patriotism, and the decay of the national
spirit, nothing could avert its fall. Poetry had become declamation; history
had degenerated either into fulsome panegyric or the fleshless skeletons of
epitomes; and at length the Romans seemed to disdain the use of their
native tongue, and wrote again in Greek, as they had in the infancy of the
national literature. The Emperor Hadrian resided long at Athens, and
became imbued with a taste and admiration for Greek; and thus the
literature of Rome became Hellenized. From this epoch the term classical
can no longer be applied to it, for it no longer retained its purity. To Greek
influence succeeded the still more corrupting one of foreign nations. With
the death of Nerva, the uninterrupted succession of emperors of Roman or
Page 260
Italian birth ceased. Trajan himself was a Spaniard, and after him not only
foreigners of every European race, but even Orientals and Africans were
invested with the imperial purple, and the huge empire over which they
ruled was one unwieldy mass of heterogeneous materials. The literary
influence of the capital was not felt in the interior portions of the Roman
dominions. Schools were established in the very heart of nations just
emerging from barbarism; and though the blessings of civilization and
intellectual culture were thus distributed far and wide, still literary taste, as
it flowed through the minds of foreigners, became corrupted, and the
language of the imperial city, exposed to the infecting contact of barbarous
idioms, lost its purity.
The Latin authors of this age were numerous, but few had taste to
appreciate and imitate the literature of the Augustan age. They may be
classified according to their departments of poetry, history, grammar and
oratory, philosophy and science.
The brightest star of the poetry of this period was Claudian (365-404
A.D.), in whom the graceful imagination of classical antiquity seems to
have revived. He enjoyed the patronage of Stilicho, the guardian and
minister of Honorius, and in the praise and honor of him and of his pupil, he
wrote "The Rape of Proserpine," the "War of the Giants," and several other
poems.
His descriptions indicate a rich and powerful imagination, but, neglecting
substance for form, his style is often declamatory and affected. Among the
earliest authors of Christian hymns were Hilarius and Prudentius, Those of
the former were expressly designed to be sung, and are said to have been set
to music by the author himself. Prudentius (fl. 348 A.D.) wrote many
hymns and poems in defense of the Christian faith, more distinguished for
their pious and devotional character than for their lyric sublimity or parity
foreigners of every European race, but even Orientals and Africans were
invested with the imperial purple, and the huge empire over which they
ruled was one unwieldy mass of heterogeneous materials. The literary
influence of the capital was not felt in the interior portions of the Roman
dominions. Schools were established in the very heart of nations just
emerging from barbarism; and though the blessings of civilization and
intellectual culture were thus distributed far and wide, still literary taste, as
it flowed through the minds of foreigners, became corrupted, and the
language of the imperial city, exposed to the infecting contact of barbarous
idioms, lost its purity.
The Latin authors of this age were numerous, but few had taste to
appreciate and imitate the literature of the Augustan age. They may be
classified according to their departments of poetry, history, grammar and
oratory, philosophy and science.
The brightest star of the poetry of this period was Claudian (365-404
A.D.), in whom the graceful imagination of classical antiquity seems to
have revived. He enjoyed the patronage of Stilicho, the guardian and
minister of Honorius, and in the praise and honor of him and of his pupil, he
wrote "The Rape of Proserpine," the "War of the Giants," and several other
poems.
His descriptions indicate a rich and powerful imagination, but, neglecting
substance for form, his style is often declamatory and affected. Among the
earliest authors of Christian hymns were Hilarius and Prudentius, Those of
the former were expressly designed to be sung, and are said to have been set
to music by the author himself. Prudentius (fl. 348 A.D.) wrote many
hymns and poems in defense of the Christian faith, more distinguished for
their pious and devotional character than for their lyric sublimity or parity
Page 261
of language. To this age belong also the hymns of Damasus and of
Ambrose.
Among the historians are Flavius Eutropius, who lived in the fourth
century, and by the direction of the Emperor Valens composed an "Epitome
of Roman History," which was a favorite book in the Middle Ages.
Ammianus Marcellinus, his contemporary, wrote a Roman history in
continuation of Tacitus and Suetonius. Though his style is affected and
often rough and inaccurate, his work is interesting for its digressions and
observations. Severus Sulpicius wrote the history of the Hebrews, and of
the four centuries of the church. His "Sacred History," for its language and
style, is one of the best works of that age.
In the department of oratory may be mentioned Cornelius Fronto, who
flourished under Domitian and Nerva, and was endowed with a rich
imagination and a mind stored with vast erudition in Greek and Latin
literature, Symmachus, distinguished for his opposition to Christianity, and
Cassiodorus, minister and secretary of the Emperor Theodoric.
In the decline of Roman, as of Greek literature, grammarians took the
place of poets and of historians; they commented on and interpreted the
ancient classics, and transmitted to us valuable information concerning the
Augustan writers. Among the most important works of this kind are the
"Attic Nights" of Gellius, who was born in Rome, and lived under Hadrian
and the Antonines. In this work are preserved many valuable passages of
the classics which would otherwise have been lost. Macrobius, who
flourished in the middle of the fifth century, was the author of different
works in which the doctrines of the Neo-Platonic school are expounded. His
style, however, is very defective.
A striking characteristic of the writings, both in Greek and Latin, of the
last ages of the empire, is the prevalence of principles and opinions
Ambrose.
Among the historians are Flavius Eutropius, who lived in the fourth
century, and by the direction of the Emperor Valens composed an "Epitome
of Roman History," which was a favorite book in the Middle Ages.
Ammianus Marcellinus, his contemporary, wrote a Roman history in
continuation of Tacitus and Suetonius. Though his style is affected and
often rough and inaccurate, his work is interesting for its digressions and
observations. Severus Sulpicius wrote the history of the Hebrews, and of
the four centuries of the church. His "Sacred History," for its language and
style, is one of the best works of that age.
In the department of oratory may be mentioned Cornelius Fronto, who
flourished under Domitian and Nerva, and was endowed with a rich
imagination and a mind stored with vast erudition in Greek and Latin
literature, Symmachus, distinguished for his opposition to Christianity, and
Cassiodorus, minister and secretary of the Emperor Theodoric.
In the decline of Roman, as of Greek literature, grammarians took the
place of poets and of historians; they commented on and interpreted the
ancient classics, and transmitted to us valuable information concerning the
Augustan writers. Among the most important works of this kind are the
"Attic Nights" of Gellius, who was born in Rome, and lived under Hadrian
and the Antonines. In this work are preserved many valuable passages of
the classics which would otherwise have been lost. Macrobius, who
flourished in the middle of the fifth century, was the author of different
works in which the doctrines of the Neo-Platonic school are expounded. His
style, however, is very defective.
A striking characteristic of the writings, both in Greek and Latin, of the
last ages of the empire, is the prevalence of principles and opinions
Page 262
imported from the East. The Neo-Platonic school, imbued with Oriental
mysticism, had diffused the belief in spirits and magic, and the philosophy
of this age was a mixture of ancient wisdom with new superstitions
belonging to the ages of transition between the decadence of the ancient
faith and the development of a new religion. The best representative of the
philosophy of this age is Apuleius, born in Africa in the reign of Hadrian.
After having received his education in Carthage and Athens, he came to
Rome, where he acquired great reputation as a literary man, and as the
possessor of extraordinary supernatural powers. To this extensive
philosophical knowledge and immense erudition he united great polish of
manner and remarkable beauty of person. He wrote much on philosophy;
but his most important work is a romance known as "Metamorphoses, or
the Golden Ass," containing his philosophical and mystic doctrines. In this
book, the object of which is to encourage the belief in mysticism, the writer
describes the transformation of a young man into an ass, who is allowed to
take his primitive human form only through a knowledge of the mysteries
of Isis. The story is well told, and the romance is full of interest and
sprightliness; but its style is incorrect, florid, and bombastic.
Boethius (470-524), the last of the Roman philosophers, was the
descendant of an illustrious family. He made Greek philosophy the principal
object of his meditations. He was raised to the highest honors and offices in
the empire by Theodoric, but finally, through the artifices of enemies who
envied his reputation, he lost the favor of his patron, was imprisoned, and at
length beheaded. Of his numerous works, founded on the peripatetic
philosophy, that which has gained him the greatest celebrity is entitled "On
the Consolations of Philosophy," composed while he was in prison. It is in
the form of a dialogue, in which philosophy appears to console him with the
idea of Divine Providence. The poetical part of the book is written with
elegance and grace, and his prose, though not pure, is fluent and full of
mysticism, had diffused the belief in spirits and magic, and the philosophy
of this age was a mixture of ancient wisdom with new superstitions
belonging to the ages of transition between the decadence of the ancient
faith and the development of a new religion. The best representative of the
philosophy of this age is Apuleius, born in Africa in the reign of Hadrian.
After having received his education in Carthage and Athens, he came to
Rome, where he acquired great reputation as a literary man, and as the
possessor of extraordinary supernatural powers. To this extensive
philosophical knowledge and immense erudition he united great polish of
manner and remarkable beauty of person. He wrote much on philosophy;
but his most important work is a romance known as "Metamorphoses, or
the Golden Ass," containing his philosophical and mystic doctrines. In this
book, the object of which is to encourage the belief in mysticism, the writer
describes the transformation of a young man into an ass, who is allowed to
take his primitive human form only through a knowledge of the mysteries
of Isis. The story is well told, and the romance is full of interest and
sprightliness; but its style is incorrect, florid, and bombastic.
Boethius (470-524), the last of the Roman philosophers, was the
descendant of an illustrious family. He made Greek philosophy the principal
object of his meditations. He was raised to the highest honors and offices in
the empire by Theodoric, but finally, through the artifices of enemies who
envied his reputation, he lost the favor of his patron, was imprisoned, and at
length beheaded. Of his numerous works, founded on the peripatetic
philosophy, that which has gained him the greatest celebrity is entitled "On
the Consolations of Philosophy," composed while he was in prison. It is in
the form of a dialogue, in which philosophy appears to console him with the
idea of Divine Providence. The poetical part of the book is written with
elegance and grace, and his prose, though not pure, is fluent and full of
Page 263
tranquil dignity. The work of Boethius, which is known in all modern
languages, was translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, 900 A.D.
The fathers of the church followed more particularly the philosophy of
Plato, which was united and adapted to Christianity. St. Augustine is the
most illustrious among the Christian Platonists.
The most eloquent orators and writers of this period were found among
the advocates of Christianity; and among the most celebrated of these Latin
fathers of the Christian church we may mention the following names.
Tertullian (160-285), in his apology for the Christians, gives much
information on the manners and conduct of the early Christians; his style is
concise and figurative, but harsh, unpolished, and obscure. St. Cyprian
(200-258), beheaded at Carthage for preaching the gospel contrary to the
orders of the government, wrote an explanation of the Lord's Prayer, which
affords a valuable illustration of the ecclesiastical history of the time.
Arnobius (fl. 300) refuted the objections of the heathen against Christianity
with spirit and learning, in his "Disputes with the Gentiles," a work rich in
materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology. Lactantius
(d. 335), on account of his fine and eloquent language, is frequently called
the Christian Cicero; his "Divine Institutes" are particularly celebrated. St.
Ambrose (340-397) obtained great honor by his conduct as Bishop of
Milan, and his writings bear the stamp of his high Christian character. St.
Augustine (360-430) was one of the most renowned of all the Latin fathers.
Though others may have been more learned or masters of a purer style,
none more powerfully touched and warmed the heart towards religion. His
"City of God" is one of the great monuments of human genius. St. Jerome
(330-420) wrote many epistles full of energy and affection, as well as of
religious zeal. He made a Latin version of the Old Testament, which was
the foundation of the Vulgate, and which gave a new impulse to the study of
the Holy Scriptures. Leo the Great (fl. 440) is the first pope whose writings
languages, was translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, 900 A.D.
The fathers of the church followed more particularly the philosophy of
Plato, which was united and adapted to Christianity. St. Augustine is the
most illustrious among the Christian Platonists.
The most eloquent orators and writers of this period were found among
the advocates of Christianity; and among the most celebrated of these Latin
fathers of the Christian church we may mention the following names.
Tertullian (160-285), in his apology for the Christians, gives much
information on the manners and conduct of the early Christians; his style is
concise and figurative, but harsh, unpolished, and obscure. St. Cyprian
(200-258), beheaded at Carthage for preaching the gospel contrary to the
orders of the government, wrote an explanation of the Lord's Prayer, which
affords a valuable illustration of the ecclesiastical history of the time.
Arnobius (fl. 300) refuted the objections of the heathen against Christianity
with spirit and learning, in his "Disputes with the Gentiles," a work rich in
materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology. Lactantius
(d. 335), on account of his fine and eloquent language, is frequently called
the Christian Cicero; his "Divine Institutes" are particularly celebrated. St.
Ambrose (340-397) obtained great honor by his conduct as Bishop of
Milan, and his writings bear the stamp of his high Christian character. St.
Augustine (360-430) was one of the most renowned of all the Latin fathers.
Though others may have been more learned or masters of a purer style,
none more powerfully touched and warmed the heart towards religion. His
"City of God" is one of the great monuments of human genius. St. Jerome
(330-420) wrote many epistles full of energy and affection, as well as of
religious zeal. He made a Latin version of the Old Testament, which was
the foundation of the Vulgate, and which gave a new impulse to the study of
the Holy Scriptures. Leo the Great (fl. 440) is the first pope whose writings
Page 264
have been preserved. They consist of sermons and letters. His style is
finished and rhetorical.
10. ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE.—In the period which followed, from
the death of Augustus to the time of the Antonines, Roman civilians and
legal writers continued to be numerous, and as a professional body they
seem to have enjoyed high consideration until the close of the reign of
Alexander Severus, 385* A.D. After that time they were held in much less
estimation, as the science fell into the hands of freedmen and plebeians,
who practiced it as a sordid and pernicious trade. With the reign of
Constantine, the credit of the profession revived, and the youth of the
empire were stimulated to pursue the study of the law by the hope of being
ultimately rewarded by honorable and lucrative offices, the magistrates
being almost wholly taken from the class of lawyers. Two jurists of this
reign, Gregorianus and Hermogenianus, are particularly distinguished as
authors of codes which are known by their names, and which were
recognized as standard authorities in courts of justice. The "Code of
Theodosius" was a collection of laws reduced by that emperor, and
promulgated in both empires 438 A.D. It retained its authority in the
western empire until its final overthrow, 476 A.D., and even after this,
though modified by the institutions of the conquerors. In the eastern empire,
it was only superseded by the code of Justinian. This emperor undertook the
task of reducing to order and system the great confusion and perplexity in
which the whole subject of Roman jurisprudence was involved. For this
purpose he employed the most eminent lawyers, with the celebrated
Tribonian at their head, to whom he intrusted the work of forming and
publishing a complete collection of the preceding laws and edicts, and who
devoted several years of unwearied labor and research to this object. They
first collected and reduced the imperial constitutions from the time of
Hadrian downwards, which was promulgated as the "Justinian Code." Their
next labor was to reduce the writings of the jurisconsults of the preceding
finished and rhetorical.
10. ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE.—In the period which followed, from
the death of Augustus to the time of the Antonines, Roman civilians and
legal writers continued to be numerous, and as a professional body they
seem to have enjoyed high consideration until the close of the reign of
Alexander Severus, 385* A.D. After that time they were held in much less
estimation, as the science fell into the hands of freedmen and plebeians,
who practiced it as a sordid and pernicious trade. With the reign of
Constantine, the credit of the profession revived, and the youth of the
empire were stimulated to pursue the study of the law by the hope of being
ultimately rewarded by honorable and lucrative offices, the magistrates
being almost wholly taken from the class of lawyers. Two jurists of this
reign, Gregorianus and Hermogenianus, are particularly distinguished as
authors of codes which are known by their names, and which were
recognized as standard authorities in courts of justice. The "Code of
Theodosius" was a collection of laws reduced by that emperor, and
promulgated in both empires 438 A.D. It retained its authority in the
western empire until its final overthrow, 476 A.D., and even after this,
though modified by the institutions of the conquerors. In the eastern empire,
it was only superseded by the code of Justinian. This emperor undertook the
task of reducing to order and system the great confusion and perplexity in
which the whole subject of Roman jurisprudence was involved. For this
purpose he employed the most eminent lawyers, with the celebrated
Tribonian at their head, to whom he intrusted the work of forming and
publishing a complete collection of the preceding laws and edicts, and who
devoted several years of unwearied labor and research to this object. They
first collected and reduced the imperial constitutions from the time of
Hadrian downwards, which was promulgated as the "Justinian Code." Their
next labor was to reduce the writings of the jurisconsults of the preceding
Page 265
ages, especially those who had lived under the empire, and whose works are
said to have amounted to two thousand volumes. This work was published
533 A.D., under the title of "Pandects," or "Digest," the former title
referring to their completeness as comprehending the whole of Roman
jurisprudence, and the latter to their methodical arrangement. At the same
time, a work prepared by Tribonian was published by the order of the
emperor, on the elements or first principles of Roman law, entitled
"Institutes," and another collection consisting of constitutions and edicts,
under the title of "Novels," chiefly written in Greek, but known to the
moderns by a Latin translation. These four works, the Code, the Pandects,
the Institutes, and the Novels, constituted what is now called the Body of
Roman Law.
The system of jurisprudence established by Justinian remained in force in
the eastern empire until the taking of Constantinople, 1453 A.D. After the
fall of the western empire, these laws had little sway until the twelfth
century, when Irnerius, a German lawyer who had studied at
Constantinople, opened a school at Bologna, and thus revived and
propagated in the West a knowledge of Roman civil law. Students flocked
to this school from all parts, and by them Roman jurisprudence, as
embodied in the system of Justinian, was transmitted to most of the
countries of Europe.
During the fourth and fifth centuries, the process of the debasement of
the Roman tongue went on with great rapidity. The influence of the
provincials began what the irruptions of the northern tribes consummated.
In many scattered parts of the empire it is probable that separate Latin
dialects arose, and the strain upon the whole structure of the tongue was
prodigious, when the Goths poured into Italy, established themselves in the
capital, and began to speak and write in a language previously foreign to
said to have amounted to two thousand volumes. This work was published
533 A.D., under the title of "Pandects," or "Digest," the former title
referring to their completeness as comprehending the whole of Roman
jurisprudence, and the latter to their methodical arrangement. At the same
time, a work prepared by Tribonian was published by the order of the
emperor, on the elements or first principles of Roman law, entitled
"Institutes," and another collection consisting of constitutions and edicts,
under the title of "Novels," chiefly written in Greek, but known to the
moderns by a Latin translation. These four works, the Code, the Pandects,
the Institutes, and the Novels, constituted what is now called the Body of
Roman Law.
The system of jurisprudence established by Justinian remained in force in
the eastern empire until the taking of Constantinople, 1453 A.D. After the
fall of the western empire, these laws had little sway until the twelfth
century, when Irnerius, a German lawyer who had studied at
Constantinople, opened a school at Bologna, and thus revived and
propagated in the West a knowledge of Roman civil law. Students flocked
to this school from all parts, and by them Roman jurisprudence, as
embodied in the system of Justinian, was transmitted to most of the
countries of Europe.
During the fourth and fifth centuries, the process of the debasement of
the Roman tongue went on with great rapidity. The influence of the
provincials began what the irruptions of the northern tribes consummated.
In many scattered parts of the empire it is probable that separate Latin
dialects arose, and the strain upon the whole structure of the tongue was
prodigious, when the Goths poured into Italy, established themselves in the
capital, and began to speak and write in a language previously foreign to
Page 266
them. With the close of the reign of Theodoric the curtain falls upon ancient
literature.
literature.
Page 267
ARABIAN LITERATURE.
1. European Literature in the Dark Ages.—2. The Arabian language.—3.
Arabian Mythology and the Koran.—4. Historical Development of Arabian
Literature.—5. Grammar and Rhetoric.—6. Poetry.—7. The Arabian Tales.
— 8. History and Science.—9. Education.
1. EUROPEAN LITERATURE IN THE DARK AGES.—The literature,
arts, and sciences of the Arabs formed the connecting link between the
civilizations of ancient and modern times. To them we owe the revival of
learning in Western Europe, and many of the inventions and useful arts
perfected by later nations.
From the middle of the sixth century A.D. to the beginning of the
eleventh, the interval between the decline of ancient and the development of
modern literature is known in history as the Dark Ages. The sudden rise of
the Arabian Empire and the rapid development of its literature were the
great events which characterize the period.
At the beginning of this epoch classical genius was already extinct, and
the purity of the classical tongues was yielding rapidly to the corruptions of
the provinces and of the new dialects. Many other causes conspired to work
great changes in the fabric of society, and in the manifestations of human
intellect. Throughout this period the treasures of Greek and Latin literature,
1. European Literature in the Dark Ages.—2. The Arabian language.—3.
Arabian Mythology and the Koran.—4. Historical Development of Arabian
Literature.—5. Grammar and Rhetoric.—6. Poetry.—7. The Arabian Tales.
— 8. History and Science.—9. Education.
1. EUROPEAN LITERATURE IN THE DARK AGES.—The literature,
arts, and sciences of the Arabs formed the connecting link between the
civilizations of ancient and modern times. To them we owe the revival of
learning in Western Europe, and many of the inventions and useful arts
perfected by later nations.
From the middle of the sixth century A.D. to the beginning of the
eleventh, the interval between the decline of ancient and the development of
modern literature is known in history as the Dark Ages. The sudden rise of
the Arabian Empire and the rapid development of its literature were the
great events which characterize the period.
At the beginning of this epoch classical genius was already extinct, and
the purity of the classical tongues was yielding rapidly to the corruptions of
the provinces and of the new dialects. Many other causes conspired to work
great changes in the fabric of society, and in the manifestations of human
intellect. Throughout this period the treasures of Greek and Latin literature,
Page 268
exposed to the danger of perishing and impaired by much actual loss,
exerted no influence on the minds of those who still used the tongues to
which they belong. Greek letters, as we have seen, decayed with the
Byzantine power, and the vital principle in both became extinct long before
the sword of the Turkish conqueror inflicted the final blow. The fate of
Latin literature was not less deplorable. When province after province of the
Roman dominions was overrun by the northern hordes, when the imperial
schools were suppressed and the monuments of ancient genius destroyed,
an enfeebled people and a debased language could not withstand such
adverse circumstances. During the seventh and eighth centuries Latin
composition degenerated into the rudeness of the monkish style. The care
bestowed by Charlemagne upon education in the ninth century produced
some purifying effect upon the writings of the cloister; the tenth was
distinguished by an increased zeal in the task of transcribing the classical
authors, and in the eleventh the Latin works of the Normans display some
masculine force and freedom. Latin was the repository of such knowledge
as the times could boast; it was used in the service of the church, and in the
chronicles that supplied the place of history, but it was not the vehicle of
any great production stamped with true genius and impressing the minds of
posterity. Still, genius was not altogether extinguished in every part of
Europe. The north, which sent out its daring tribes to change the aspect of
civil life, furnished a fresh source of mental inspiration, which was
destined, with the recovered influence of the classic spirit and other prolific
causes, to give birth to some of the best portions of modern literature.
At the memorable epoch of the overthrow of the Roman dominion in the
West (476 A.D.), the seats of the Teutonic race extended from the banks of
the Rhine and the Danube to the rock-bound coasts of Norway. The
victorious invaders who occupied the southern provinces of Europe
speedily lost their own forms of speech, which were broken down, together
with those of the vanquished, into a jargon unfit for composition. But in
exerted no influence on the minds of those who still used the tongues to
which they belong. Greek letters, as we have seen, decayed with the
Byzantine power, and the vital principle in both became extinct long before
the sword of the Turkish conqueror inflicted the final blow. The fate of
Latin literature was not less deplorable. When province after province of the
Roman dominions was overrun by the northern hordes, when the imperial
schools were suppressed and the monuments of ancient genius destroyed,
an enfeebled people and a debased language could not withstand such
adverse circumstances. During the seventh and eighth centuries Latin
composition degenerated into the rudeness of the monkish style. The care
bestowed by Charlemagne upon education in the ninth century produced
some purifying effect upon the writings of the cloister; the tenth was
distinguished by an increased zeal in the task of transcribing the classical
authors, and in the eleventh the Latin works of the Normans display some
masculine force and freedom. Latin was the repository of such knowledge
as the times could boast; it was used in the service of the church, and in the
chronicles that supplied the place of history, but it was not the vehicle of
any great production stamped with true genius and impressing the minds of
posterity. Still, genius was not altogether extinguished in every part of
Europe. The north, which sent out its daring tribes to change the aspect of
civil life, furnished a fresh source of mental inspiration, which was
destined, with the recovered influence of the classic spirit and other prolific
causes, to give birth to some of the best portions of modern literature.
At the memorable epoch of the overthrow of the Roman dominion in the
West (476 A.D.), the seats of the Teutonic race extended from the banks of
the Rhine and the Danube to the rock-bound coasts of Norway. The
victorious invaders who occupied the southern provinces of Europe
speedily lost their own forms of speech, which were broken down, together
with those of the vanquished, into a jargon unfit for composition. But in
Page 269
Germany and Scandinavia, where the old language retained its purity, song
continued to flourish. There, from the most distant eras described by Tacitus
and other Latin writers, the favorite attendants of kings and chiefs were
those celebrated bards who preserved in their traditionary strains the
memory of great events, the praises of the gods, the glory of warriors, and
the laws and customs of their countrymen. Intrusted, like the Grecian heroic
minstrelsy, to oral recitation, it was not until the propitious reign of
Charlemagne that these verses were collected. But, through the bigotry of
his successor or the ravages of time, not a fragment of this collection
remains. We are enabled, however, to form an idea of the general tone and
tenor of this early Teutonic poetry from other interesting remains. The
"Nibelungen-Lied" (Lay of the Nibelungen) and "Heldenbuch" (Book of
Heroes) may be regarded as the Homeric poems of Germany. After an
examination of their monuments, the ability of the ancient bards, the honor
in which they were held, and the enthusiasm which they produced, will not
be surprising.
Equally distinguished were the Scalds of Scandinavia. Ever in the train of
princes and gallant adventurers, they chanted their rhymeless verse for the
encouragement and solace of heroes. Their oldest songs, or sagas, are
mostly of a historical import. In the Icelandic Edda, however, the richest
monument of this species of composition, the theological element of their
poetry is shadowed out in the most picturesque and fanciful legends.
Such was the intellectual state of Europe down to the age of
Charlemagne. While in the once famous seats of arts and arms scarcely a
ray of native genius or courage was visible, the light of human intellect still
burned in lands whose barbarism had furnished matter for the sarcasm of
classical writers.
continued to flourish. There, from the most distant eras described by Tacitus
and other Latin writers, the favorite attendants of kings and chiefs were
those celebrated bards who preserved in their traditionary strains the
memory of great events, the praises of the gods, the glory of warriors, and
the laws and customs of their countrymen. Intrusted, like the Grecian heroic
minstrelsy, to oral recitation, it was not until the propitious reign of
Charlemagne that these verses were collected. But, through the bigotry of
his successor or the ravages of time, not a fragment of this collection
remains. We are enabled, however, to form an idea of the general tone and
tenor of this early Teutonic poetry from other interesting remains. The
"Nibelungen-Lied" (Lay of the Nibelungen) and "Heldenbuch" (Book of
Heroes) may be regarded as the Homeric poems of Germany. After an
examination of their monuments, the ability of the ancient bards, the honor
in which they were held, and the enthusiasm which they produced, will not
be surprising.
Equally distinguished were the Scalds of Scandinavia. Ever in the train of
princes and gallant adventurers, they chanted their rhymeless verse for the
encouragement and solace of heroes. Their oldest songs, or sagas, are
mostly of a historical import. In the Icelandic Edda, however, the richest
monument of this species of composition, the theological element of their
poetry is shadowed out in the most picturesque and fanciful legends.
Such was the intellectual state of Europe down to the age of
Charlemagne. While in the once famous seats of arts and arms scarcely a
ray of native genius or courage was visible, the light of human intellect still
burned in lands whose barbarism had furnished matter for the sarcasm of
classical writers.
Page 270
Charlemagne encouraged learning, established schools, and filled his
court with men of letters; while in England, the illustrious Alfred, himself a
scholar and an author, improved and enriched the Anglo-Saxon dialect, and
exerted the most beneficial influence on his contemporaries.
The confusion and debasement of language in the south of Europe has
already been alluded to. But the force and activity of mind, that formed an
essential characteristic of the conquering race, were destined ultimately to
evolve regularity and harmony out of the concussion of discordant
elements. The Latin and Teutonic tongues were blended together, and hence
proceeded all the chief dialects of modern Europe. Over the south, from
Portugal to Italy, the Latin element prevailed; but even where the Teutonic
was the chief ingredient, as in the English and German, there has also been
a large infusion of the Latin. To these two languages, and to the Provençal,
French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, called, from their Roman origin,
the Romance or Romanic languages, all that is prominent and precious in
modern letters belongs. But it is not until the eleventh century that their
progress becomes identified with the history of literature. Up to this period
there had been little repose, freedom, or peaceful enjoyment of property.
The independence and industry of the middle classes were almost unknown,
and the chieftain, the vassal, and the slave were the characters which stood
out in the highest relief. Throughout the whole of the eleventh century, the
social chaos seemed resolving itself into some approach to order and
tranquillity. The gradual abolition of personal servitude, hardly
accomplished in three successive centuries, now began. A third estate arose.
The rights of cities, and the corporation-spirit, the result of the necessity
that drove men to combine for mutual defense, led to intercourse among
them and to consequent improvement in language. Chivalry, also, served to
mitigate the oppressions of the nobles, and to soften and refine their
manners. From the date of the first crusade (1093 A.D.) down to the close
of the twelfth century, was the golden age of chivalry. The principal thrones
court with men of letters; while in England, the illustrious Alfred, himself a
scholar and an author, improved and enriched the Anglo-Saxon dialect, and
exerted the most beneficial influence on his contemporaries.
The confusion and debasement of language in the south of Europe has
already been alluded to. But the force and activity of mind, that formed an
essential characteristic of the conquering race, were destined ultimately to
evolve regularity and harmony out of the concussion of discordant
elements. The Latin and Teutonic tongues were blended together, and hence
proceeded all the chief dialects of modern Europe. Over the south, from
Portugal to Italy, the Latin element prevailed; but even where the Teutonic
was the chief ingredient, as in the English and German, there has also been
a large infusion of the Latin. To these two languages, and to the Provençal,
French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, called, from their Roman origin,
the Romance or Romanic languages, all that is prominent and precious in
modern letters belongs. But it is not until the eleventh century that their
progress becomes identified with the history of literature. Up to this period
there had been little repose, freedom, or peaceful enjoyment of property.
The independence and industry of the middle classes were almost unknown,
and the chieftain, the vassal, and the slave were the characters which stood
out in the highest relief. Throughout the whole of the eleventh century, the
social chaos seemed resolving itself into some approach to order and
tranquillity. The gradual abolition of personal servitude, hardly
accomplished in three successive centuries, now began. A third estate arose.
The rights of cities, and the corporation-spirit, the result of the necessity
that drove men to combine for mutual defense, led to intercourse among
them and to consequent improvement in language. Chivalry, also, served to
mitigate the oppressions of the nobles, and to soften and refine their
manners. From the date of the first crusade (1093 A.D.) down to the close
of the twelfth century, was the golden age of chivalry. The principal thrones
Page 271
of Europe were occupied by her foremost knights. The East formed a point
of union for the ardent and adventurous of different countries, whose
courteous rivalry stimulated the growth of generous sentiments and the
passion for brave deeds. The genius of Europe was roused by the passage of
thousands of her sons through Greece into Asia and Egypt, amidst the
ancient seats of art, science, and refinement; and the minds of men received
a fresh and powerful impulse. It was during the eleventh century that the
brilliancy of the Arabian literature reached its culminating point, and,
through the intercourse of the Troubadours with the Moors of the peninsula,
and of the Crusaders with the Arabs in the East, began to influence the
progress of letters in Europe.
2. THE ARABIAN LANGUAGE.—The Arabian language belongs to the
Semitic family; it has two principal dialects—the northern, which has, for
centuries, been the general tongue of the empire, and is best represented in
literature, and the southern, a branch of which is supposed to be the mother
of the Ethiopian language. The former, in degenerated dialects, is still
spoken in Arabia, in parts of western Asia, and throughout northern Africa,
and forms an important part of the Turkish, Persian, and other Oriental
languages. The Arabic is characterized by its guttural sounds, by the
richness and pliability of its vowels, by its dignity, volume of sound, and
vigor of accentuation and pronunciation. Like all Semitic languages, it is
written from right to left; the characters are of Syrian origin, and were
introduced into Arabia before the time of Mohammed. They are of two
kinds, the Cufic, which were first used, and the Neskhi, which superseded
them, and which continue in use at the present day. The Arabic alphabet
was, with a few modifications, early adopted by the Persians and Turks.
3. ARABIAN MYTHOLOGY AND THE KORAN.—Before the time of
Mohammed, the Arabians were gross idolaters. They had some traditionary
idea of the unity and perfections of the Deity, but their creed embraced an
of union for the ardent and adventurous of different countries, whose
courteous rivalry stimulated the growth of generous sentiments and the
passion for brave deeds. The genius of Europe was roused by the passage of
thousands of her sons through Greece into Asia and Egypt, amidst the
ancient seats of art, science, and refinement; and the minds of men received
a fresh and powerful impulse. It was during the eleventh century that the
brilliancy of the Arabian literature reached its culminating point, and,
through the intercourse of the Troubadours with the Moors of the peninsula,
and of the Crusaders with the Arabs in the East, began to influence the
progress of letters in Europe.
2. THE ARABIAN LANGUAGE.—The Arabian language belongs to the
Semitic family; it has two principal dialects—the northern, which has, for
centuries, been the general tongue of the empire, and is best represented in
literature, and the southern, a branch of which is supposed to be the mother
of the Ethiopian language. The former, in degenerated dialects, is still
spoken in Arabia, in parts of western Asia, and throughout northern Africa,
and forms an important part of the Turkish, Persian, and other Oriental
languages. The Arabic is characterized by its guttural sounds, by the
richness and pliability of its vowels, by its dignity, volume of sound, and
vigor of accentuation and pronunciation. Like all Semitic languages, it is
written from right to left; the characters are of Syrian origin, and were
introduced into Arabia before the time of Mohammed. They are of two
kinds, the Cufic, which were first used, and the Neskhi, which superseded
them, and which continue in use at the present day. The Arabic alphabet
was, with a few modifications, early adopted by the Persians and Turks.
3. ARABIAN MYTHOLOGY AND THE KORAN.—Before the time of
Mohammed, the Arabians were gross idolaters. They had some traditionary
idea of the unity and perfections of the Deity, but their creed embraced an
Page 272
immense number of subordinate divinities, represented by images of men
and women, beasts and birds. The essential basis of their religion was
Sabeism, or star-worship. The number and beauty of the heavenly
luminaries, and the silent regularity of their motions, could not fail deeply
to impress the minds of this imaginative people, living in the open air,
under the clear and serene sky, and wandering among the deserts, oases, and
picturesque mountains of Arabia. They had seven celebrated temples
dedicated to the seven planets. Some tribes exclusively reverenced the
moon; others the dog-star. Some had received the religion of the Magi, or
fire-worshipers, while others had become converts to Judaism.
Ishmael is one of the most venerated progenitors of the nation; and it is
the common faith that Mecca, then an arid wilderness, was the spot where
his life was providentially saved, and where Hagar, his mother, was buried.
The well pointed out by the angel, they believe to be the famous Zemzem,
of which all pious Mohammedans drink to this day. To commemorate the
miraculous preservation of Ishmael, God commanded Abraham to build a
temple, and he erected and consecrated the Caaba, or sacred house, which is
still venerated in Mecca; and the black stone incased within its walls is the
same on which Abraham stood.
Mohammed (569-632 A.D.) did not pretend to introduce a new religion;
his professed object was merely to restore the primitive and only true faith,
such as it had been in the days of the patriarchs; the fundamental idea of
which was the unity of God. He made the revelations of the Old and New
Testaments the basis of his preaching. He maintained the authority of the
books of Moses, admitted the divine mission of Jesus, and he enrolled
himself in the catalogue of inspired teachers. This doctrine was proclaimed
in the memorable words, which for so many centuries constituted the war-
cry of the Saracens,—There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his
prophet. Mohammed preached no dogmas substantially new, but he
and women, beasts and birds. The essential basis of their religion was
Sabeism, or star-worship. The number and beauty of the heavenly
luminaries, and the silent regularity of their motions, could not fail deeply
to impress the minds of this imaginative people, living in the open air,
under the clear and serene sky, and wandering among the deserts, oases, and
picturesque mountains of Arabia. They had seven celebrated temples
dedicated to the seven planets. Some tribes exclusively reverenced the
moon; others the dog-star. Some had received the religion of the Magi, or
fire-worshipers, while others had become converts to Judaism.
Ishmael is one of the most venerated progenitors of the nation; and it is
the common faith that Mecca, then an arid wilderness, was the spot where
his life was providentially saved, and where Hagar, his mother, was buried.
The well pointed out by the angel, they believe to be the famous Zemzem,
of which all pious Mohammedans drink to this day. To commemorate the
miraculous preservation of Ishmael, God commanded Abraham to build a
temple, and he erected and consecrated the Caaba, or sacred house, which is
still venerated in Mecca; and the black stone incased within its walls is the
same on which Abraham stood.
Mohammed (569-632 A.D.) did not pretend to introduce a new religion;
his professed object was merely to restore the primitive and only true faith,
such as it had been in the days of the patriarchs; the fundamental idea of
which was the unity of God. He made the revelations of the Old and New
Testaments the basis of his preaching. He maintained the authority of the
books of Moses, admitted the divine mission of Jesus, and he enrolled
himself in the catalogue of inspired teachers. This doctrine was proclaimed
in the memorable words, which for so many centuries constituted the war-
cry of the Saracens,—There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his
prophet. Mohammed preached no dogmas substantially new, but he
Page 273
adorned, amplified, and adapted to the ideas, prejudices, and inclinations of
the Orientals, doctrines which were as old as the race. He enjoined the
ablutions suited to the manners and necessities of hot climates. He ordained
five daily prayers, that man might learn habitually to elevate his thoughts
above the outward world. He instituted the festival of the Ramadan, and the
pilgrimage to Mecca, and commanded that every man should bestow in
alms the hundredth part of his possessions; observances which, for the most
part, already existed in the established customs of the country.
The Koran (Reading), the sacred book of the Mohammedans, is,
according to their belief, the revelation of God to their prophet Mohammed.
It contains not only their religious belief, but their civil, military, and
political code. It is divided into 114 chapters, and 1,666 verses. It is written
in rhythmical prose, and its materials are borrowed from the Jewish and
Christian scriptures, the legends of the Talmud, and the traditions and fables
of the Arabian and Persian mythologies. Confusion of ideas, obscurity, and
contradictions destroy the unity and even the interest of this work. The
chapters are preposterously distributed, not according to their date or
connection, but according to their length, beginning with the longest, and
ending with the shortest; and thus the work becomes often the more
unintelligible by its singular arrangement. But notwithstanding this, there is
scarcely a volume in the Arabic language which contains passages
breathing more sublime poetry, or more enchanting eloquence; and the
Koran is so far important in the history of Arabian letters, that when the
scattered leaves were collected by Abubeker, the successor of Mohammed
(635 A.D.) and afterwards revised, in the thirtieth year of the Hegira, they
fixed at once the classic language of the Arabs, and became their standard
in style as well as in religion.
This work and its commentaries are held in the highest reverence by the
Mohammedans. It is the principal book taught in their schools; they never
the Orientals, doctrines which were as old as the race. He enjoined the
ablutions suited to the manners and necessities of hot climates. He ordained
five daily prayers, that man might learn habitually to elevate his thoughts
above the outward world. He instituted the festival of the Ramadan, and the
pilgrimage to Mecca, and commanded that every man should bestow in
alms the hundredth part of his possessions; observances which, for the most
part, already existed in the established customs of the country.
The Koran (Reading), the sacred book of the Mohammedans, is,
according to their belief, the revelation of God to their prophet Mohammed.
It contains not only their religious belief, but their civil, military, and
political code. It is divided into 114 chapters, and 1,666 verses. It is written
in rhythmical prose, and its materials are borrowed from the Jewish and
Christian scriptures, the legends of the Talmud, and the traditions and fables
of the Arabian and Persian mythologies. Confusion of ideas, obscurity, and
contradictions destroy the unity and even the interest of this work. The
chapters are preposterously distributed, not according to their date or
connection, but according to their length, beginning with the longest, and
ending with the shortest; and thus the work becomes often the more
unintelligible by its singular arrangement. But notwithstanding this, there is
scarcely a volume in the Arabic language which contains passages
breathing more sublime poetry, or more enchanting eloquence; and the
Koran is so far important in the history of Arabian letters, that when the
scattered leaves were collected by Abubeker, the successor of Mohammed
(635 A.D.) and afterwards revised, in the thirtieth year of the Hegira, they
fixed at once the classic language of the Arabs, and became their standard
in style as well as in religion.
This work and its commentaries are held in the highest reverence by the
Mohammedans. It is the principal book taught in their schools; they never
Page 274
touch it without kissing it, and carrying it to the forehead, in token of their
reverence; oaths before the courts are taken upon it; it is learned by heart,
and repeated every forty days; many believers copy it several times in their
lives, and often possess one or more copies ornamented with gold and
precious stones.
The Koran treats of death, resurrection, the judgment, paradise, and the
place of torment, in a style calculated powerfully to affect the imagination
of the believer. The joys of paradise, promised to all who fall in the cause of
religion, are those most captivating to an Arabian fancy. When Al Sirat, or
the Bridge of Judgment, which is as slender as the thread of a famished
spider, and as sharp as the edge of a sword, shall be passed by the believer,
he will be welcomed into the gardens of delight by black-eyed Houris,
beautiful nymphs, not made of common clay, but of pure essence and odors,
free from all blemish, and subject to no decay of virtue or of beauty, and
who await their destined lovers in rosy bowers, or in pavilions formed of a
single hollow pearl. The soil of paradise is composed of musk and saffron,
sprinkled with pearls and hyacinths. The walls of its mansions are of gold
and silver; the fruits, which bend spontaneously to him who would gather
them, are of a flavor and delicacy unknown to mortals. Numerous rivers
flow through this blissful abode; some of wine, others of milk, honey, and
water, the pebbly beds of which are rubies and emeralds, and their banks of
musk, camphor, and saffron. In paradise the enjoyment of the believers,
which is subject neither to satiety nor diminution, will be greater than the
human understanding can compass. The meanest among them will have
eighty thousand servants, and seventy-two wives. Wine, though forbidden
on earth, will there be freely allowed, and will not hurt or inebriate. The
ravishing songs of the angels and of the Houris will render all the groves
vocal with harmony, such as mortal ear never heard. At whatever age they
may have died, at their resurrection all will be in the prime of manly and
eternal vigor. It would be a journey of a thousand years for a true
reverence; oaths before the courts are taken upon it; it is learned by heart,
and repeated every forty days; many believers copy it several times in their
lives, and often possess one or more copies ornamented with gold and
precious stones.
The Koran treats of death, resurrection, the judgment, paradise, and the
place of torment, in a style calculated powerfully to affect the imagination
of the believer. The joys of paradise, promised to all who fall in the cause of
religion, are those most captivating to an Arabian fancy. When Al Sirat, or
the Bridge of Judgment, which is as slender as the thread of a famished
spider, and as sharp as the edge of a sword, shall be passed by the believer,
he will be welcomed into the gardens of delight by black-eyed Houris,
beautiful nymphs, not made of common clay, but of pure essence and odors,
free from all blemish, and subject to no decay of virtue or of beauty, and
who await their destined lovers in rosy bowers, or in pavilions formed of a
single hollow pearl. The soil of paradise is composed of musk and saffron,
sprinkled with pearls and hyacinths. The walls of its mansions are of gold
and silver; the fruits, which bend spontaneously to him who would gather
them, are of a flavor and delicacy unknown to mortals. Numerous rivers
flow through this blissful abode; some of wine, others of milk, honey, and
water, the pebbly beds of which are rubies and emeralds, and their banks of
musk, camphor, and saffron. In paradise the enjoyment of the believers,
which is subject neither to satiety nor diminution, will be greater than the
human understanding can compass. The meanest among them will have
eighty thousand servants, and seventy-two wives. Wine, though forbidden
on earth, will there be freely allowed, and will not hurt or inebriate. The
ravishing songs of the angels and of the Houris will render all the groves
vocal with harmony, such as mortal ear never heard. At whatever age they
may have died, at their resurrection all will be in the prime of manly and
eternal vigor. It would be a journey of a thousand years for a true
Page 275
Mohammedan to travel through paradise, and behold all the wives, servants,
gardens, robes, jewels, horses, camels, and other things, which belong
exclusively to him.
The hell of Mohammed is as full of terror as his heaven is of delight. The
wicked, who fall into the gulf of torture from the bridge of Al Sirat, will
suffer alternately from cold and heat; when they are thirsty, boiling water
will be given them to drink; and they will be shod with shoes of fire. The
dark mansions of the Christians, Jews, Sabeans, Magians, and idolaters are
sunk below each other with increasing horrors, in the order of their names.
The seventh or lowest hell is reserved for the faithless hypocrites of every
religion. Into this dismal receptacle the unhappy sufferer will be dragged by
seventy thousand halters, each pulled by seventy thousand angels, and
exposed to the scourge of demons, whose pastime is cruelty and pain.
It is a portion of the faith inculcated in the Koran, that both angels and
demons exist, having pure and subtle bodies, created of fire, and free from
human appetites and desires. The four principal angels are Gabriel, the
angel of revelation; Michael, the friend and protector of the Jews; Azrael,
the angel of death; and Izrafel, whose office it will be to sound the trumpet
at the last day. Every man has two guardian angels to attend him and record
his actions, good and evil. The doctrine of the angels, demons, and jins or
genii, the Arabians probably derived from the Hebrews. The demons are
fallen angels, the prince of whom is Eblis; he was at first one of the angels
nearest to God's presence, and was called Azazel. He was cast out of
heaven, according to the Koran, for refusing to pay homage to Adam at the
time of the creation. The genii are intermediate creatures, neither wholly
spiritual nor wholly earthly, some of whom are good and entitled to
salvation, and others infidels and devoted to eternal torture. Among them
are several ranks and degrees, as the Peris, or fairies, beautiful female
spirits, who seek to do good upon the earth, and the Deev, or giants, who
gardens, robes, jewels, horses, camels, and other things, which belong
exclusively to him.
The hell of Mohammed is as full of terror as his heaven is of delight. The
wicked, who fall into the gulf of torture from the bridge of Al Sirat, will
suffer alternately from cold and heat; when they are thirsty, boiling water
will be given them to drink; and they will be shod with shoes of fire. The
dark mansions of the Christians, Jews, Sabeans, Magians, and idolaters are
sunk below each other with increasing horrors, in the order of their names.
The seventh or lowest hell is reserved for the faithless hypocrites of every
religion. Into this dismal receptacle the unhappy sufferer will be dragged by
seventy thousand halters, each pulled by seventy thousand angels, and
exposed to the scourge of demons, whose pastime is cruelty and pain.
It is a portion of the faith inculcated in the Koran, that both angels and
demons exist, having pure and subtle bodies, created of fire, and free from
human appetites and desires. The four principal angels are Gabriel, the
angel of revelation; Michael, the friend and protector of the Jews; Azrael,
the angel of death; and Izrafel, whose office it will be to sound the trumpet
at the last day. Every man has two guardian angels to attend him and record
his actions, good and evil. The doctrine of the angels, demons, and jins or
genii, the Arabians probably derived from the Hebrews. The demons are
fallen angels, the prince of whom is Eblis; he was at first one of the angels
nearest to God's presence, and was called Azazel. He was cast out of
heaven, according to the Koran, for refusing to pay homage to Adam at the
time of the creation. The genii are intermediate creatures, neither wholly
spiritual nor wholly earthly, some of whom are good and entitled to
salvation, and others infidels and devoted to eternal torture. Among them
are several ranks and degrees, as the Peris, or fairies, beautiful female
spirits, who seek to do good upon the earth, and the Deev, or giants, who
Page 276
frequently make war upon the Peris, take them captive, and shut them up in
cages. The genii, both good and bad, have the power of making themselves
invisible at pleasure. Besides the mountain o£ Kaf, which is their chief
place of resort, they dwell in ruined cities, uninhabited houses, at the
bottom of wells, in woods, pools of water, and among the rocks and
sandhills of the desert. Shooting stars are still believed by the people of the
East to be arrows shot by the angels against the genii, who transgress these
limits and approach too near the forbidden regions of bliss. Many of the
genii delight in mischief; they surprise and mislead travelers, raise
whirlwinds, and dry up springs in the desert. The Ghoul lives on the flesh of
men and women, whom he decoys to his haunts in wild and barren places,
in order to kill and devour them, and when he cannot thus obtain food, he
enters the graveyards and feeds upon the bodies of the dead.
The fairy mythology of the Arabians was introduced into Europe in the
eleventh century by the Troubadours and writers of the romances of
chivalry, and through them it became an important element in the literature
of Europe. It constituted the machinery of the Fabliaux of the Trouvères,
and of the romantic epics of Boccaccio, Ariosto, Tasso, Spenser,
Shakspeare, and others.
The three leading Mohammedan sects are the Sunnees, the Sheahs, and
the Wahabees. The Sunnees acknowledge the authority of the first Caliphs,
from whom most of the traditions were derived. The Sheahs assert the
divine right of Ali to succeed to the prophet; consequently they consider the
first Caliphs, and all their successors, as usurpers. The Wahabees are a sect
of religious reformers, who took their name from Abd al Wahab (1700-
1750), the Luther of the Mohammedans. They became a formidable power
in Arabia, but they were finally overcome by Ibrahim Pacha in 1816.
cages. The genii, both good and bad, have the power of making themselves
invisible at pleasure. Besides the mountain o£ Kaf, which is their chief
place of resort, they dwell in ruined cities, uninhabited houses, at the
bottom of wells, in woods, pools of water, and among the rocks and
sandhills of the desert. Shooting stars are still believed by the people of the
East to be arrows shot by the angels against the genii, who transgress these
limits and approach too near the forbidden regions of bliss. Many of the
genii delight in mischief; they surprise and mislead travelers, raise
whirlwinds, and dry up springs in the desert. The Ghoul lives on the flesh of
men and women, whom he decoys to his haunts in wild and barren places,
in order to kill and devour them, and when he cannot thus obtain food, he
enters the graveyards and feeds upon the bodies of the dead.
The fairy mythology of the Arabians was introduced into Europe in the
eleventh century by the Troubadours and writers of the romances of
chivalry, and through them it became an important element in the literature
of Europe. It constituted the machinery of the Fabliaux of the Trouvères,
and of the romantic epics of Boccaccio, Ariosto, Tasso, Spenser,
Shakspeare, and others.
The three leading Mohammedan sects are the Sunnees, the Sheahs, and
the Wahabees. The Sunnees acknowledge the authority of the first Caliphs,
from whom most of the traditions were derived. The Sheahs assert the
divine right of Ali to succeed to the prophet; consequently they consider the
first Caliphs, and all their successors, as usurpers. The Wahabees are a sect
of religious reformers, who took their name from Abd al Wahab (1700-
1750), the Luther of the Mohammedans. They became a formidable power
in Arabia, but they were finally overcome by Ibrahim Pacha in 1816.
Page 277
4. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARABIAN LITERATURE.
—The literature of the Arabians has, properly speaking, but one period;
although from remote antiquity poetry was with them a favorite occupation,
and long before the time of Mohammed the roving tribes of the desert had
their annual conventions, where they defended their honor and celebrated
their heroic deeds. As early as the fifth century A.D., at the fair of Ochadh,
thirty days every year were employed not only in the exchange of
merchandise, but in the nobler display of rival talents. A place was set apart
for the competitions of the bards, whose highest ambition was to conquer in
this literary arena, and the victorious compositions were inscribed in golden
letters upon Egyptian paper, and suspended upon the doors of the Caaba,
the ancient national sanctuary of Mecca. Seven of the most famous of these
ancient poets have been celebrated by Oriental writers under the title of the
Arabian Pleiades, and their songs, still preserved, are full of passion, manly
pride, and intensity of imagination and feeling. These and similar effusions
constituted the entire literature of Arabia, and were the only archives of the
nation previous to the age of Mohammed.
The peninsula of Arabia, hitherto restricted to its natural boundaries, and
peopled by wandering tribes, had occupied but a subordinate place in the
history of the world. But the success of Mohammed and the preaching of
the Koran were followed by the union of the tribes who, inspired by the
feelings of national pride and religious fervor, in less than a century made
the Arabian power, tongue, and religion predominant over a third part of
Asia, almost one half of Africa, and a part of Spain; and, from the ninth to
the sixteenth century, the literature of the Arabians far surpassed that of any
contemporary nation.
After the fall of the Roman empire in the fifth century A.D., when the
western world sank into barbarism, and the inhabitants, ever menaced by
famine or the sword, found full occupation in struggling against civil wars,
—The literature of the Arabians has, properly speaking, but one period;
although from remote antiquity poetry was with them a favorite occupation,
and long before the time of Mohammed the roving tribes of the desert had
their annual conventions, where they defended their honor and celebrated
their heroic deeds. As early as the fifth century A.D., at the fair of Ochadh,
thirty days every year were employed not only in the exchange of
merchandise, but in the nobler display of rival talents. A place was set apart
for the competitions of the bards, whose highest ambition was to conquer in
this literary arena, and the victorious compositions were inscribed in golden
letters upon Egyptian paper, and suspended upon the doors of the Caaba,
the ancient national sanctuary of Mecca. Seven of the most famous of these
ancient poets have been celebrated by Oriental writers under the title of the
Arabian Pleiades, and their songs, still preserved, are full of passion, manly
pride, and intensity of imagination and feeling. These and similar effusions
constituted the entire literature of Arabia, and were the only archives of the
nation previous to the age of Mohammed.
The peninsula of Arabia, hitherto restricted to its natural boundaries, and
peopled by wandering tribes, had occupied but a subordinate place in the
history of the world. But the success of Mohammed and the preaching of
the Koran were followed by the union of the tribes who, inspired by the
feelings of national pride and religious fervor, in less than a century made
the Arabian power, tongue, and religion predominant over a third part of
Asia, almost one half of Africa, and a part of Spain; and, from the ninth to
the sixteenth century, the literature of the Arabians far surpassed that of any
contemporary nation.
After the fall of the Roman empire in the fifth century A.D., when the
western world sank into barbarism, and the inhabitants, ever menaced by
famine or the sword, found full occupation in struggling against civil wars,
Page 278
feudal tyranny, and the invasion of barbarians; when poetry was unknown,
philosophy was proscribed as rebellion against religion, and barbarous
dialects had usurped the place of that beautiful Latin language which had so
long connected the nations of the West, and preserved to them so many
treasures of thought and taste, the Arabians, who by their conquests and
fanaticism had contributed more than any other nation to abolish the
cultivation of science and literature, having at length established their
empire, in turn devoted themselves to letters. Masters of the country of the
magi and the Chaldeans, of Egypt, the first storehouse of human science, of
Asia Minor, where poetry and the fine arts had their birth, and of Africa, the
country of impetuous eloquence and subtle intellect—they seemed to unite
in themselves the advantages of all the nations which they had thus
subjugated. Innumerable treasures had been the fruit of their conquests, and
this hitherto rude and uncultivated nation now began to indulge in the most
unbounded luxury. Possessed of all the delights that human industry,
quickened by boundless riches, could procure, with all that could flatter the
senses and attach the heart to life, they now attempted to mingle with these
the pleasures of the intellect, the cultivation of the arts and sciences, and all
that is most excellent in human knowledge. In this new career, their
conquests were not less rapid than they had been in the field; nor was the
empire which they founded less extended. With a celerity equally
surprising, it rose to a gigantic height, but it rested on a foundation no less
insecure, and it was quite as transitory in its duration.
The Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, corresponds
with the year 622 of our era, and the supposed burning of the Alexandrian
library by Amrou, the general of the Caliph Omar, with the year 641. This is
the period of the deepest barbarism among the Saracens, and this event,
doubtful as it is, has left a melancholy proof of their contempt for letters. A
century had scarcely elapsed from the period to which this barbarian
outrage is referred, when the family of the Abassides, who mounted the
philosophy was proscribed as rebellion against religion, and barbarous
dialects had usurped the place of that beautiful Latin language which had so
long connected the nations of the West, and preserved to them so many
treasures of thought and taste, the Arabians, who by their conquests and
fanaticism had contributed more than any other nation to abolish the
cultivation of science and literature, having at length established their
empire, in turn devoted themselves to letters. Masters of the country of the
magi and the Chaldeans, of Egypt, the first storehouse of human science, of
Asia Minor, where poetry and the fine arts had their birth, and of Africa, the
country of impetuous eloquence and subtle intellect—they seemed to unite
in themselves the advantages of all the nations which they had thus
subjugated. Innumerable treasures had been the fruit of their conquests, and
this hitherto rude and uncultivated nation now began to indulge in the most
unbounded luxury. Possessed of all the delights that human industry,
quickened by boundless riches, could procure, with all that could flatter the
senses and attach the heart to life, they now attempted to mingle with these
the pleasures of the intellect, the cultivation of the arts and sciences, and all
that is most excellent in human knowledge. In this new career, their
conquests were not less rapid than they had been in the field; nor was the
empire which they founded less extended. With a celerity equally
surprising, it rose to a gigantic height, but it rested on a foundation no less
insecure, and it was quite as transitory in its duration.
The Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, corresponds
with the year 622 of our era, and the supposed burning of the Alexandrian
library by Amrou, the general of the Caliph Omar, with the year 641. This is
the period of the deepest barbarism among the Saracens, and this event,
doubtful as it is, has left a melancholy proof of their contempt for letters. A
century had scarcely elapsed from the period to which this barbarian
outrage is referred, when the family of the Abassides, who mounted the
Page 279
throne of the Caliphs in 750, introduced a passionate love of art, of science,
and of poetry. In the literature of Greece, nearly eight centuries of
progressive cultivation succeeding the Trojan war had prepared the way for
the age of Pericles. In that of Rome, the age of Augustus was also in the
eighth century after the foundation of the city. In French literature, the age
of Louis XIV. was twelve centuries subsequent to Clovis, and eight after the
development of the first rudiments of the language. But, in the rapid
progress of the Arabian empire, the age of Al Mamoun, the Augustus of
Bagdad, was not removed more than one hundred and fifty years from the
foundation of the monarchy. All the literature of the Arabians bears the
marks of this rapid development.
Ali, the fourth Caliph from Mohammed, was the first who extended any
protection to letters. His rival and successor, Moawyiah, the first of the
Ommyiades (661-680), assembled at his court all who were most
distinguished by scientific acquirements; he surrounded himself with poets;
and as he had subjected to his dominion many of the Grecian islands and
provinces, the sciences of Greece under him first began to obtain any
influence over the Arabians.
After the extinction of the dynasty of the Ommyiades, that of the
Abassides bestowed a still more powerful patronage on letters. The
celebrated Haroun al Raschid (786-809) acquired a glorious reputation by
the protection he afforded to letters. He never undertook a journey without
carrying with him at least a hundred men of science in his train, and he
never built a mosque without attaching to it a school.
But the true protector and father of Arabic literature was Al Mamoun, the
son of Haroun al Raschid (813-833), who rendered Bagdad the centre of
literature. He invited to his court from every part of the world all the
learned men with whose existence he was acquainted, and he retained them
and of poetry. In the literature of Greece, nearly eight centuries of
progressive cultivation succeeding the Trojan war had prepared the way for
the age of Pericles. In that of Rome, the age of Augustus was also in the
eighth century after the foundation of the city. In French literature, the age
of Louis XIV. was twelve centuries subsequent to Clovis, and eight after the
development of the first rudiments of the language. But, in the rapid
progress of the Arabian empire, the age of Al Mamoun, the Augustus of
Bagdad, was not removed more than one hundred and fifty years from the
foundation of the monarchy. All the literature of the Arabians bears the
marks of this rapid development.
Ali, the fourth Caliph from Mohammed, was the first who extended any
protection to letters. His rival and successor, Moawyiah, the first of the
Ommyiades (661-680), assembled at his court all who were most
distinguished by scientific acquirements; he surrounded himself with poets;
and as he had subjected to his dominion many of the Grecian islands and
provinces, the sciences of Greece under him first began to obtain any
influence over the Arabians.
After the extinction of the dynasty of the Ommyiades, that of the
Abassides bestowed a still more powerful patronage on letters. The
celebrated Haroun al Raschid (786-809) acquired a glorious reputation by
the protection he afforded to letters. He never undertook a journey without
carrying with him at least a hundred men of science in his train, and he
never built a mosque without attaching to it a school.
But the true protector and father of Arabic literature was Al Mamoun, the
son of Haroun al Raschid (813-833), who rendered Bagdad the centre of
literature. He invited to his court from every part of the world all the
learned men with whose existence he was acquainted, and he retained them
Page 280
by rewards, honors, and distinctions of every kind. He exacted, as the most
precious tribute from the conquered provinces, all the important books and
literary relics that could be discovered. Hundreds of camels might be seen
entering Bagdad, loaded with nothing but manuscripts and papers, and
those most proper for instruction were translated into Arabic. Instructors,
translators, and commentators formed the court of Al Mamoun, which
appeared to be rather a learned academy, than the seat of government in a
warlike empire. The Caliph himself was much attached to the study of
mathematics, which he pursued with brilliant success. He conceived the
grand design of measuring the earth, which was accomplished by his
mathematicians, at his own expense. Not less generous than enlightened, Al
Mamoun, when he pardoned one of his relatives who had revolted against
him, exclaimed, "If it were known what pleasure I experience in granting
pardon, all who have offended against me would come and confess their
crimes."
The progress of the Arabians in science was proportioned to the zeal of
the sovereign. In every town of the empire schools, colleges, and academies
were established. Bagdad was the capital of letters as well as of the Caliphs,
but Bassora and Cufa almost equaled that city in reputation, and in the
number of celebrated poems and treatises that they produced. Balkh,
Ispahan, and Samarcand were equally the homes of science. Cairo
contained a great number of colleges; in the towns of Fez and Morocco the
most magnificent buildings were appropriated to the purposes of
instruction, and in their rich libraries were preserved those precious
volumes which had been lost in other places.
What Bagdad was to Asia, Cordova was to Europe, where, particularly in
the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Arabs were the pillars of literature. At
this period, when learning found scarcely anywhere either rest or
encouragement, the Arabians were employed in collecting and diffusing it
precious tribute from the conquered provinces, all the important books and
literary relics that could be discovered. Hundreds of camels might be seen
entering Bagdad, loaded with nothing but manuscripts and papers, and
those most proper for instruction were translated into Arabic. Instructors,
translators, and commentators formed the court of Al Mamoun, which
appeared to be rather a learned academy, than the seat of government in a
warlike empire. The Caliph himself was much attached to the study of
mathematics, which he pursued with brilliant success. He conceived the
grand design of measuring the earth, which was accomplished by his
mathematicians, at his own expense. Not less generous than enlightened, Al
Mamoun, when he pardoned one of his relatives who had revolted against
him, exclaimed, "If it were known what pleasure I experience in granting
pardon, all who have offended against me would come and confess their
crimes."
The progress of the Arabians in science was proportioned to the zeal of
the sovereign. In every town of the empire schools, colleges, and academies
were established. Bagdad was the capital of letters as well as of the Caliphs,
but Bassora and Cufa almost equaled that city in reputation, and in the
number of celebrated poems and treatises that they produced. Balkh,
Ispahan, and Samarcand were equally the homes of science. Cairo
contained a great number of colleges; in the towns of Fez and Morocco the
most magnificent buildings were appropriated to the purposes of
instruction, and in their rich libraries were preserved those precious
volumes which had been lost in other places.
What Bagdad was to Asia, Cordova was to Europe, where, particularly in
the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Arabs were the pillars of literature. At
this period, when learning found scarcely anywhere either rest or
encouragement, the Arabians were employed in collecting and diffusing it
Page 281
in the three great divisions of the world. Students traveled from France and
other European countries to the Arabian schools in Spain, particularly to
learn medicine and mathematics. Besides the academy at Cordova, there
were established fourteen others in different parts of Spain, exclusive of the
higher schools. The Arabians made the most rapid advancement in all the
departments of learning, especially in arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy.
In the various cities of Spain, seventy libraries were opened for public
instruction at the period when all the rest of Europe, without books, without
learning, without cultivation, was plunged in the most disgraceful
ignorance. The number of Arabic authors which Spain produced was so
prodigious, that many Arabian bibliographers wrote learned treatises on the
authors born in particular towns, or on those among the Spaniards who
devoted themselves to a single branch of study, as philosophy, medicine,
mathematics, or poetry. Thus, throughout the vast extent of the Arabian
empire, the progress of letters had followed that of arms, and for five
centuries this literature preserved all its brilliancy.
5. GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC.—The perfection of the language was
one of the first objects of the Arabian scholars, and from the rival schools of
Cufa and Bassora a number of distinguished men proceeded, who analyzed
with the greatest subtlety all its rules and aided in perfecting it. As early as
in the age of Ali, the fourth Caliph, Arabian literature boasted of a number
of scientific grammarians. Prosody and the metric art were reduced to
systems. Dictionaries of the language were composed, some of which are
highly esteemed at the present day. Among these may be mentioned the "Al
Sehah," or Purity, and "El Kamus," or the Ocean, which is considered the
best dictionary of the Arabian language. The study of rhetoric was united to
that of grammar, and the most celebrated works of the Greeks on this art
were translated and adapted to the Arabic. After the age of Mohammed and
his immediate successors, popular eloquence was no longer cultivated.
Eastern despotism having supplanted the liberty of the desert, the heads of
other European countries to the Arabian schools in Spain, particularly to
learn medicine and mathematics. Besides the academy at Cordova, there
were established fourteen others in different parts of Spain, exclusive of the
higher schools. The Arabians made the most rapid advancement in all the
departments of learning, especially in arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy.
In the various cities of Spain, seventy libraries were opened for public
instruction at the period when all the rest of Europe, without books, without
learning, without cultivation, was plunged in the most disgraceful
ignorance. The number of Arabic authors which Spain produced was so
prodigious, that many Arabian bibliographers wrote learned treatises on the
authors born in particular towns, or on those among the Spaniards who
devoted themselves to a single branch of study, as philosophy, medicine,
mathematics, or poetry. Thus, throughout the vast extent of the Arabian
empire, the progress of letters had followed that of arms, and for five
centuries this literature preserved all its brilliancy.
5. GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC.—The perfection of the language was
one of the first objects of the Arabian scholars, and from the rival schools of
Cufa and Bassora a number of distinguished men proceeded, who analyzed
with the greatest subtlety all its rules and aided in perfecting it. As early as
in the age of Ali, the fourth Caliph, Arabian literature boasted of a number
of scientific grammarians. Prosody and the metric art were reduced to
systems. Dictionaries of the language were composed, some of which are
highly esteemed at the present day. Among these may be mentioned the "Al
Sehah," or Purity, and "El Kamus," or the Ocean, which is considered the
best dictionary of the Arabian language. The study of rhetoric was united to
that of grammar, and the most celebrated works of the Greeks on this art
were translated and adapted to the Arabic. After the age of Mohammed and
his immediate successors, popular eloquence was no longer cultivated.
Eastern despotism having supplanted the liberty of the desert, the heads of
Page 282
the state or army regarded it beneath them to harangue the people or the
soldiers; they called upon them only for obedience. But though political
eloquence was of short duration among the Arabians, on the other hand they
were the inventors of that species of rhetoric most cultivated at the present
day, that of the academy and the pulpit. Their philosophers in these learned
assemblies displayed all the measured harmony of which their language
was susceptible. Mohammed had ordained that his faith should be preached
in the mosques;—many of the harangues of these sacred orators are still
preserved in the Escurial, and the style of them is very similar to that of the
Christian orators.
6. POETRY.—Poetry still more than eloquence was the favorite
occupation of the Arabians from their origin as a nation. It is said that this
people alone have produced more poets than all others united. Mohammed
himself, as well as some of his first companions, cultivated this art, but it
was under Haroun al Raschid and his successor, Al Mamoun, and more
especially under the Ommyïades of Spain that Arabic poetry attained its
highest splendor. But the ancient impetuosity of expression, the passionate
feeling, and the spirit of individual independence no longer characterized
the productions of this period, nor is there among the numerous
constellations of Arabic poets any star of distinguished magnitude. With the
exception of Mohammed and a few of the Saracen conquerors and
sovereigns, there is scarcely an individual of this nation whose name is
familiar to the nations of Christendom.
The Arabians possess many heroic poems composed for the purpose of
celebrating the praises of distinguished men, and of animating the courage
of their soldiers. They do not, however, boast of any epics; their poetry is
entirely lyric and didactic. They have been inexhaustible in their love
poems, their elegies, their moral verses,—among which their fables may be
reckoned,—their eulogistic, satirical, descriptive, and above all, their
soldiers; they called upon them only for obedience. But though political
eloquence was of short duration among the Arabians, on the other hand they
were the inventors of that species of rhetoric most cultivated at the present
day, that of the academy and the pulpit. Their philosophers in these learned
assemblies displayed all the measured harmony of which their language
was susceptible. Mohammed had ordained that his faith should be preached
in the mosques;—many of the harangues of these sacred orators are still
preserved in the Escurial, and the style of them is very similar to that of the
Christian orators.
6. POETRY.—Poetry still more than eloquence was the favorite
occupation of the Arabians from their origin as a nation. It is said that this
people alone have produced more poets than all others united. Mohammed
himself, as well as some of his first companions, cultivated this art, but it
was under Haroun al Raschid and his successor, Al Mamoun, and more
especially under the Ommyïades of Spain that Arabic poetry attained its
highest splendor. But the ancient impetuosity of expression, the passionate
feeling, and the spirit of individual independence no longer characterized
the productions of this period, nor is there among the numerous
constellations of Arabic poets any star of distinguished magnitude. With the
exception of Mohammed and a few of the Saracen conquerors and
sovereigns, there is scarcely an individual of this nation whose name is
familiar to the nations of Christendom.
The Arabians possess many heroic poems composed for the purpose of
celebrating the praises of distinguished men, and of animating the courage
of their soldiers. They do not, however, boast of any epics; their poetry is
entirely lyric and didactic. They have been inexhaustible in their love
poems, their elegies, their moral verses,—among which their fables may be
reckoned,—their eulogistic, satirical, descriptive, and above all, their
Page 283
didactic poems, which have graced even the most abstruse science, as
grammar, rhetoric, and arithmetic. But among all their poems, the catalogue
alone of which, in the Escurial, consists of twenty-four volumes, there is not
a single epic, comedy, or tragedy.
In those branches of poetry which they cultivated they displayed
surprising subtlety and great refinement of thought, but the fame of their
compositions rests, in some degree, on their bold metaphors, their
extravagant allegories, and their excessive hyperboles. The Arabs despised
the poetry of the Greeks, which appeared to them timid, cold, and
constrained, and among all the books, which, with almost superstitious
veneration, they borrowed from them, there is scarcely a single poem which
they judged worthy of translation. The object of the Arabian poets was to
make a brilliant use of the boldest and most gigantic images, and to astonish
the reader by the abruptness of their expressions. They burdened their
compositions with riches, under the idea that nothing which was beautiful
could be superfluous. They neglected natural sentiment, and the more they
could multiply the ornaments of art, the more admirable in their eyes did
the work appear.
The nations who possessed a classical poetry, in imitating nature, had
discovered the use of the epic and the drama, in which the poet endeavors to
express the true language of the human heart. The people of the East, with
the exception of the Hindus, never made this attempt—their poetry is
entirely lyric; but under whatever name it may be known, it is always found
to be the language of the passions. The poetry of the Arabians is rhymed
like our own, and the rhyming is often carried still farther in the
construction of the verse, while the uniformity of sound is frequently
echoed throughout the whole expression. The collection made by Aboul
Teman (fl. 845 A.D.) containing the Arabian poems of the age anterior to
Mohammed, and that of Taoleti, which embraces the poems of the
grammar, rhetoric, and arithmetic. But among all their poems, the catalogue
alone of which, in the Escurial, consists of twenty-four volumes, there is not
a single epic, comedy, or tragedy.
In those branches of poetry which they cultivated they displayed
surprising subtlety and great refinement of thought, but the fame of their
compositions rests, in some degree, on their bold metaphors, their
extravagant allegories, and their excessive hyperboles. The Arabs despised
the poetry of the Greeks, which appeared to them timid, cold, and
constrained, and among all the books, which, with almost superstitious
veneration, they borrowed from them, there is scarcely a single poem which
they judged worthy of translation. The object of the Arabian poets was to
make a brilliant use of the boldest and most gigantic images, and to astonish
the reader by the abruptness of their expressions. They burdened their
compositions with riches, under the idea that nothing which was beautiful
could be superfluous. They neglected natural sentiment, and the more they
could multiply the ornaments of art, the more admirable in their eyes did
the work appear.
The nations who possessed a classical poetry, in imitating nature, had
discovered the use of the epic and the drama, in which the poet endeavors to
express the true language of the human heart. The people of the East, with
the exception of the Hindus, never made this attempt—their poetry is
entirely lyric; but under whatever name it may be known, it is always found
to be the language of the passions. The poetry of the Arabians is rhymed
like our own, and the rhyming is often carried still farther in the
construction of the verse, while the uniformity of sound is frequently
echoed throughout the whole expression. The collection made by Aboul
Teman (fl. 845 A.D.) containing the Arabian poems of the age anterior to
Mohammed, and that of Taoleti, which embraces the poems of the
Page 284
subsequent periods, are considered the richest and most complete
anthologies of Arabian poetry. Montanebbi, a poet who lived about 1050,
has been compared to the Persian Hafiz.
7. THE ARABIAN TALES.—If the Arabs have neither the epic nor the
drama, they have been, on the other hand, the inventors of a style of
composition which is related to the epic, and which supplies among them
the place of the drama. We owe to them those tales, the conception of which
is so brilliant and the imagination so rich and varied: tales which have been
the delight of our infancy, and which at a more advanced age we can never
read without feeling their enchantment anew. Every one is acquainted with
the "Arabian Nights Entertainments;" but in our translation we possess but a
very small part of the Arabian collection, which is not confined merely to
books, but forms the treasure of a numerous class of men and women, who,
throughout the East, find a livelihood in reciting these tales to crowds, who
delight to forget the present, in the pleasing dreams of imagination. In the
coffee-houses of the Levant, one of these men will gather a silent crowd
around him, and picture to his audience those brilliant and fantastic visions
which are the patrimony of Eastern imaginations. The public squares
abound with men of this class, and their recitations supply the place of our
dramatic representations. The physicians frequently recommend them to
their patients in order to soothe pain, to calm agitation, or to produce sleep;
and these story-tellers, accustomed to sickness, modulate their voices,
soften their tones, and gently suspend them as sleep steals over the sufferer.
The imagination of the Arabs in these tales is easily distinguished from
that of the chivalric nations. The supernatural world is the same in both, but
the moral world is different. The Arabian tales, like the romances of
chivalry, convey us to the fairy realms, but the human personages which
they introduce are very dissimilar. They had their birth after the Arabians
had devoted themselves to commerce, literature, and the arts, and we
anthologies of Arabian poetry. Montanebbi, a poet who lived about 1050,
has been compared to the Persian Hafiz.
7. THE ARABIAN TALES.—If the Arabs have neither the epic nor the
drama, they have been, on the other hand, the inventors of a style of
composition which is related to the epic, and which supplies among them
the place of the drama. We owe to them those tales, the conception of which
is so brilliant and the imagination so rich and varied: tales which have been
the delight of our infancy, and which at a more advanced age we can never
read without feeling their enchantment anew. Every one is acquainted with
the "Arabian Nights Entertainments;" but in our translation we possess but a
very small part of the Arabian collection, which is not confined merely to
books, but forms the treasure of a numerous class of men and women, who,
throughout the East, find a livelihood in reciting these tales to crowds, who
delight to forget the present, in the pleasing dreams of imagination. In the
coffee-houses of the Levant, one of these men will gather a silent crowd
around him, and picture to his audience those brilliant and fantastic visions
which are the patrimony of Eastern imaginations. The public squares
abound with men of this class, and their recitations supply the place of our
dramatic representations. The physicians frequently recommend them to
their patients in order to soothe pain, to calm agitation, or to produce sleep;
and these story-tellers, accustomed to sickness, modulate their voices,
soften their tones, and gently suspend them as sleep steals over the sufferer.
The imagination of the Arabs in these tales is easily distinguished from
that of the chivalric nations. The supernatural world is the same in both, but
the moral world is different. The Arabian tales, like the romances of
chivalry, convey us to the fairy realms, but the human personages which
they introduce are very dissimilar. They had their birth after the Arabians
had devoted themselves to commerce, literature, and the arts, and we
Page 285
recognize in them the style of a mercantile people, as we do that of a
warlike nation in the romances of chivalry. Valor and military achievements
here inspire terror but no enthusiasm, and on this account the Arabian tales
are often less noble and heroic than we usually expect in compositions of
this nature. But, on the other hand, the Arabians are our masters in the art of
producing and sustaining this kind of fiction. They are the creators of that
brilliant mythology of fairies and genii which extends the bounds of the
world, and carries us into the realms of marvels and prodigies. It is from
them that European nations have derived that intoxication of love, that
tenderness and delicacy of sentiment, and that reverential awe of women,
by turns slaves and divinities, which have operated so powerfully on their
chivalrous feelings. We trace their effects in all the literature of the south,
which owes to this cause its mental character. Many of these tales had
separately found their way into the poetic literature of Europe, long before
the translation of the Arabian Nights. Some are to be met with in the old
fabliaux, in Boccaccio, and in Ariosto, and these very tales which have
charmed our infancy, passing from nation to nation through channels
frequently unknown, are now familiar to the memory and form the delight
of the imagination of half the inhabitants of the globe.
The author of the original Arabic work is unknown, as is also the period
at which it was composed. It was first introduced into Europe from Syria,
where it was obtained, in the latter part of the seventeenth century, by
Galland, a French traveler, who was sent to the East by the celebrated
Colbert, to collect manuscripts, and by him first translated and published.
8. HISTORY AND SCIENCE.—As early as the eighth century A.D.,
history became an important department in Arabian literature. At later
periods, historians who wrote on all subjects were numerous. Several
authors wrote universal history from the beginning of the world to their
own time; every state, province, and city possessed its individual chronicle,
warlike nation in the romances of chivalry. Valor and military achievements
here inspire terror but no enthusiasm, and on this account the Arabian tales
are often less noble and heroic than we usually expect in compositions of
this nature. But, on the other hand, the Arabians are our masters in the art of
producing and sustaining this kind of fiction. They are the creators of that
brilliant mythology of fairies and genii which extends the bounds of the
world, and carries us into the realms of marvels and prodigies. It is from
them that European nations have derived that intoxication of love, that
tenderness and delicacy of sentiment, and that reverential awe of women,
by turns slaves and divinities, which have operated so powerfully on their
chivalrous feelings. We trace their effects in all the literature of the south,
which owes to this cause its mental character. Many of these tales had
separately found their way into the poetic literature of Europe, long before
the translation of the Arabian Nights. Some are to be met with in the old
fabliaux, in Boccaccio, and in Ariosto, and these very tales which have
charmed our infancy, passing from nation to nation through channels
frequently unknown, are now familiar to the memory and form the delight
of the imagination of half the inhabitants of the globe.
The author of the original Arabic work is unknown, as is also the period
at which it was composed. It was first introduced into Europe from Syria,
where it was obtained, in the latter part of the seventeenth century, by
Galland, a French traveler, who was sent to the East by the celebrated
Colbert, to collect manuscripts, and by him first translated and published.
8. HISTORY AND SCIENCE.—As early as the eighth century A.D.,
history became an important department in Arabian literature. At later
periods, historians who wrote on all subjects were numerous. Several
authors wrote universal history from the beginning of the world to their
own time; every state, province, and city possessed its individual chronicle,
Page 286
Many, in imitation of Plutarch, wrote the lives of distinguished men; and
there was such a passion for every species of composition, and such a desire
to leave no subject untouched, that there was a serious history written of
celebrated horses, and another of camels that had risen to distinction. They
possessed historical dictionaries, and made use of all those inventions
which curtail labor and dispense with the necessity of research. Every art
and science had its history, and of these this nation possessed a more
complete collection than any other, either ancient or modern. The style of
the Arabian historians is simple and unadorned.
Philosophy was passionately cultivated by the Arabians, and upon it was
founded the fame of many ingenious and sagacious men, whose names are
still revered in Europe. Among them were Averrhoes of Cordova (d. 1198),
the great commentator on the works of Aristotle, and Avicenna (d. 1037), a
profound philosopher as well as a celebrated writer on medicine. Arabian
philosophy penetrated rapidly into the West, and had greater influence on
the schools of Europe than any branch of Arabic literature; and yet it was
the one in which the progress was, in fact, the least real. The Arabians, more
ingenious than profound, attached themselves rather to the subtleties than to
the connection of ideas; their object was more to dazzle than to instruct, and
they exhausted their imaginations in search of mysteries. Aristotle was
worshiped by them, as a sort of divinity. In their opinion all philosophy was
to be found in his writings, and they explained every metaphysical question
according to the scholastic standard.
The interpretation of the Koran formed another important part of their
speculative studies, and their literature abounds with exegetic works on
their sacred book, as well as with commentaries on Mohammedan law. The
learned Arabians did not confine themselves to the studies which they could
only prosecute in their closets; they undertook, for the advancement of
science, the most perilous journeys, and we owe to Aboul Feda (1273-
there was such a passion for every species of composition, and such a desire
to leave no subject untouched, that there was a serious history written of
celebrated horses, and another of camels that had risen to distinction. They
possessed historical dictionaries, and made use of all those inventions
which curtail labor and dispense with the necessity of research. Every art
and science had its history, and of these this nation possessed a more
complete collection than any other, either ancient or modern. The style of
the Arabian historians is simple and unadorned.
Philosophy was passionately cultivated by the Arabians, and upon it was
founded the fame of many ingenious and sagacious men, whose names are
still revered in Europe. Among them were Averrhoes of Cordova (d. 1198),
the great commentator on the works of Aristotle, and Avicenna (d. 1037), a
profound philosopher as well as a celebrated writer on medicine. Arabian
philosophy penetrated rapidly into the West, and had greater influence on
the schools of Europe than any branch of Arabic literature; and yet it was
the one in which the progress was, in fact, the least real. The Arabians, more
ingenious than profound, attached themselves rather to the subtleties than to
the connection of ideas; their object was more to dazzle than to instruct, and
they exhausted their imaginations in search of mysteries. Aristotle was
worshiped by them, as a sort of divinity. In their opinion all philosophy was
to be found in his writings, and they explained every metaphysical question
according to the scholastic standard.
The interpretation of the Koran formed another important part of their
speculative studies, and their literature abounds with exegetic works on
their sacred book, as well as with commentaries on Mohammedan law. The
learned Arabians did not confine themselves to the studies which they could
only prosecute in their closets; they undertook, for the advancement of
science, the most perilous journeys, and we owe to Aboul Feda (1273-
Page 287
1331) and other Arabian travelers the best works on geography written in
the Middle Ages.
The natural sciences were cultivated by them with great ardor, and many
naturalists among them merit the gratitude of posterity. Botany and
chemistry, of which they were in some sort the inventors, gave them a better
acquaintance with nature than the Greeks or Romans ever possessed, and
the latter science was applied by them to all the necessary arts of life.
Above all, agriculture was studied by them with a perfect knowledge of the
climate, soil, and growth of plants. From the eighth to the eleventh century,
they established medical schools in the principal cities of their dominions,
and published valuable works on medical science. They introduced more
simple principles into mathematics, and extended the use and application of
that science. They added to arithmetic the decimal system, and the Arabic
numerals, which, however, are of Hindu origin; they simplified the
trigonometry of the Greeks, and gave algebra more useful and general
applications. Bagdad and Cordova had celebrated schools of astronomy, and
observatories, and their astronomers made important discoveries; a great
number of scientific words are evidently Arabic, such as algebra, alcohol,
zenith, nadir, etc., and many of the inventions, which at the present day add
to the comforts of life, are due to the Arabians. Paper, now so necessary to
the progress of intellect, was brought by them from Asia. In China, from all
antiquity, it had been manufactured from silk, but about the year 30 of the
Hegira (649 A.D.) the manufacture of it was introduced at Samarcand, and
when that city was conquered by the Arabians, they first employed cotton in
the place of silk, and the invention spread with rapidity throughout their
dominions. The Spaniards, in fabricating paper, substituted flax for cotton,
which was more scarce and dear; but it was not till the end of the thirteenth
century that paper mills were established in the Christian states of Spain,
from whence the invention passed, in the fourteenth century only, to Treviso
and Padua. Tournaments were first instituted among the Arabians, from
the Middle Ages.
The natural sciences were cultivated by them with great ardor, and many
naturalists among them merit the gratitude of posterity. Botany and
chemistry, of which they were in some sort the inventors, gave them a better
acquaintance with nature than the Greeks or Romans ever possessed, and
the latter science was applied by them to all the necessary arts of life.
Above all, agriculture was studied by them with a perfect knowledge of the
climate, soil, and growth of plants. From the eighth to the eleventh century,
they established medical schools in the principal cities of their dominions,
and published valuable works on medical science. They introduced more
simple principles into mathematics, and extended the use and application of
that science. They added to arithmetic the decimal system, and the Arabic
numerals, which, however, are of Hindu origin; they simplified the
trigonometry of the Greeks, and gave algebra more useful and general
applications. Bagdad and Cordova had celebrated schools of astronomy, and
observatories, and their astronomers made important discoveries; a great
number of scientific words are evidently Arabic, such as algebra, alcohol,
zenith, nadir, etc., and many of the inventions, which at the present day add
to the comforts of life, are due to the Arabians. Paper, now so necessary to
the progress of intellect, was brought by them from Asia. In China, from all
antiquity, it had been manufactured from silk, but about the year 30 of the
Hegira (649 A.D.) the manufacture of it was introduced at Samarcand, and
when that city was conquered by the Arabians, they first employed cotton in
the place of silk, and the invention spread with rapidity throughout their
dominions. The Spaniards, in fabricating paper, substituted flax for cotton,
which was more scarce and dear; but it was not till the end of the thirteenth
century that paper mills were established in the Christian states of Spain,
from whence the invention passed, in the fourteenth century only, to Treviso
and Padua. Tournaments were first instituted among the Arabians, from
Page 288
whom they were introduced into Italy and France. Gunpowder, the
discovery of which is generally attributed to a German chemist, was known
to the Arabians at least a century before any trace of it appeared in
European history. The compass, also, the invention of which has been given
alternately to the Italians and French in the thirteenth century, was known to
the Arabians in the eleventh. The number of Arabic inventions, of which we
enjoy the benefit without suspecting it, is prodigious.
Such, then, was the brilliant light which literature and science displayed
from the ninth to the fourteenth century of our era in those vast countries
which had submitted to the yoke of Islamism. In this immense extent of
territory, twice or thrice as large as Europe, nothing is now found but
ignorance, slavery, terror, and death. Few men are there capable of reading
the works of their illustrious ancestors, and few who could comprehend
them are able to procure them. The prodigious literary riches of the
Arabians no longer exist in any of the countries where the Arabians or
Mussulmans rule. It is not there that we must seek for the fame of their
great men or for their writings. What has been preserved is in the hands of
their enemies, in the convents of the monks, or in the royal libraries of
Europe.
9. EDUCATION.—At present there is little education, in our sense of the
word, in Arabia. In the few instances where public schools exist, writing,
grammar, and rhetoric sum up the teaching. The Bedouin children learn
from their parents much more than is common in other countries. Great
attention is paid to accuracy of grammar and purity of diction throughout
the country, and of late literary institutions have been established at
Beyrout, Damascus, Bagdad, and Hefar.
Such is the extent of Arabic literature, that, notwithstanding the labors of
European scholars and the productions of native presses, in Boulak and
discovery of which is generally attributed to a German chemist, was known
to the Arabians at least a century before any trace of it appeared in
European history. The compass, also, the invention of which has been given
alternately to the Italians and French in the thirteenth century, was known to
the Arabians in the eleventh. The number of Arabic inventions, of which we
enjoy the benefit without suspecting it, is prodigious.
Such, then, was the brilliant light which literature and science displayed
from the ninth to the fourteenth century of our era in those vast countries
which had submitted to the yoke of Islamism. In this immense extent of
territory, twice or thrice as large as Europe, nothing is now found but
ignorance, slavery, terror, and death. Few men are there capable of reading
the works of their illustrious ancestors, and few who could comprehend
them are able to procure them. The prodigious literary riches of the
Arabians no longer exist in any of the countries where the Arabians or
Mussulmans rule. It is not there that we must seek for the fame of their
great men or for their writings. What has been preserved is in the hands of
their enemies, in the convents of the monks, or in the royal libraries of
Europe.
9. EDUCATION.—At present there is little education, in our sense of the
word, in Arabia. In the few instances where public schools exist, writing,
grammar, and rhetoric sum up the teaching. The Bedouin children learn
from their parents much more than is common in other countries. Great
attention is paid to accuracy of grammar and purity of diction throughout
the country, and of late literary institutions have been established at
Beyrout, Damascus, Bagdad, and Hefar.
Such is the extent of Arabic literature, that, notwithstanding the labors of
European scholars and the productions of native presses, in Boulak and
Page 289
Cairo, in India, and recently in England, where Hassam, an Arabian poet,
has devoted himself to the production of standard works, the greater part of
what has been preserved is still in manuscript and still more has perished.
has devoted himself to the production of standard works, the greater part of
what has been preserved is still in manuscript and still more has perished.
Page 290
ITALIAN LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Italian Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Dialects. —3. The Italian Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Latin Influence.—2. Early Italian Poetry and Prose.
—3.
Dante.—4. Petrarch.—5. Boccaccio and other Prose Writers.—6. First
Decline of Italian Literature.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Close of the Fifteenth Century; Lorenzo de'
Medici.—2. The Origin of the Drama and Romantic Epic; Poliziano, Pulci,
Boiardo.—3. Romantic Epic Poetry; Ariosto.—4. Heroic Epic Poetry;
Tasso.—5. Lyric Poetry; Bembo, Molza, Tarsia, V. Colonna.—6. Dramatic
Poetry; Trissino, Rucellai; the Writers of Comedy.—7. Pastoral Drama and
Didactic Poetry; Beccari, Sannazzaro, Tasso, Guarini, Rucellai, Alamanni.
—8. Satirical Poetry, Novels, and Tales; Berni, Grazzini, Firenzuola,
Bandello, and others.—9. History; Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Nardi, and
others.—10. Grammar and Rhetoric; the Academy della Crusca, Della Casa,
Speroni, and others.—11. Science, Philosophy, and Politics; the Academy
del Cimento, Galileo, Torricelli, Borelli, Patrizi, Telesio, Campanella,
Bruno, Castiglione, Machiavelli, and others.—12. Decline of the
Literature in the Seventeenth Century.—13. Epic and Lyric Poetry; Marini,
Filicaja.—14. Mock Heroic Poetry, the Drama, and Satire; Tassoni,
INTRODUCTION.—1. Italian Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Dialects. —3. The Italian Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Latin Influence.—2. Early Italian Poetry and Prose.
—3.
Dante.—4. Petrarch.—5. Boccaccio and other Prose Writers.—6. First
Decline of Italian Literature.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Close of the Fifteenth Century; Lorenzo de'
Medici.—2. The Origin of the Drama and Romantic Epic; Poliziano, Pulci,
Boiardo.—3. Romantic Epic Poetry; Ariosto.—4. Heroic Epic Poetry;
Tasso.—5. Lyric Poetry; Bembo, Molza, Tarsia, V. Colonna.—6. Dramatic
Poetry; Trissino, Rucellai; the Writers of Comedy.—7. Pastoral Drama and
Didactic Poetry; Beccari, Sannazzaro, Tasso, Guarini, Rucellai, Alamanni.
—8. Satirical Poetry, Novels, and Tales; Berni, Grazzini, Firenzuola,
Bandello, and others.—9. History; Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Nardi, and
others.—10. Grammar and Rhetoric; the Academy della Crusca, Della Casa,
Speroni, and others.—11. Science, Philosophy, and Politics; the Academy
del Cimento, Galileo, Torricelli, Borelli, Patrizi, Telesio, Campanella,
Bruno, Castiglione, Machiavelli, and others.—12. Decline of the
Literature in the Seventeenth Century.—13. Epic and Lyric Poetry; Marini,
Filicaja.—14. Mock Heroic Poetry, the Drama, and Satire; Tassoni,
Page 291
Bracciolini, Andreini, and others.—15. History and Epistolary Writings;
Davila, Bentivoglio, Sarpi, Redi.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Historical Development of the Third Period.—2.
The Melodrama; Rinuccini, Zeno, Metastasio.—3. Comedy; Goldoni, C.
Gozzi, and others.—4. Tragedy; Maffei, Alfieri, Monti, Manzoni, Nicolini,
and others.—5. Lyric, Epic, and Didactic Poetry; Parini, Monti, Ugo
Foscolo, Leopardi, Grossi, Lorenzi, and others.—6. Heroic-Comic Poetry,
Satire, and Fable; Fortiguerri, Passeroni, G. Gozzi, Parini, Giusti, and
others. —7. Romances; Verri, Manzoni, D'Azeglio, Cantù, Guerrazzi, and
others. —8. History; Muratori, Vico, Giannone, Botta, Colletta, Tiraboschi,
and others.—9. Aesthetics, Criticism, Philology, and Philosophy; Baretti,
Parini, Giordani, Gioja, Romagnosi, Gallupi, Rosmini, Gioberti.—From
1860 to 1885.
INTRODUCTION.
1. ITALIAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—The fall of the
Western Empire, the invasions of the northern tribes, and the subsequent
wars and calamities, did not entirely extinguish the fire of genius in Italy.
As we have seen, the Crusades had opened the East and revealed to Europe
its literary and artistic treasures; the Arabs had established a celebrated
school of medicine in Salerno, and had made known the ancient classics; a
school of jurisprudence was opened in Bologna, where Roman law was
expounded by eminent lecturers; and the spirit of chivalry, while it softened
and refined human character, awoke the desire of distinction in arms and
poetry. The origin of the Italian republics, giving scope to individual
agency, marked another era in civilization; while the appearance of the
Italian language quickened the national mind and led to a new literature.
The spirit of freedom, awakened as early as the eleventh century, received
Davila, Bentivoglio, Sarpi, Redi.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Historical Development of the Third Period.—2.
The Melodrama; Rinuccini, Zeno, Metastasio.—3. Comedy; Goldoni, C.
Gozzi, and others.—4. Tragedy; Maffei, Alfieri, Monti, Manzoni, Nicolini,
and others.—5. Lyric, Epic, and Didactic Poetry; Parini, Monti, Ugo
Foscolo, Leopardi, Grossi, Lorenzi, and others.—6. Heroic-Comic Poetry,
Satire, and Fable; Fortiguerri, Passeroni, G. Gozzi, Parini, Giusti, and
others. —7. Romances; Verri, Manzoni, D'Azeglio, Cantù, Guerrazzi, and
others. —8. History; Muratori, Vico, Giannone, Botta, Colletta, Tiraboschi,
and others.—9. Aesthetics, Criticism, Philology, and Philosophy; Baretti,
Parini, Giordani, Gioja, Romagnosi, Gallupi, Rosmini, Gioberti.—From
1860 to 1885.
INTRODUCTION.
1. ITALIAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—The fall of the
Western Empire, the invasions of the northern tribes, and the subsequent
wars and calamities, did not entirely extinguish the fire of genius in Italy.
As we have seen, the Crusades had opened the East and revealed to Europe
its literary and artistic treasures; the Arabs had established a celebrated
school of medicine in Salerno, and had made known the ancient classics; a
school of jurisprudence was opened in Bologna, where Roman law was
expounded by eminent lecturers; and the spirit of chivalry, while it softened
and refined human character, awoke the desire of distinction in arms and
poetry. The origin of the Italian republics, giving scope to individual
agency, marked another era in civilization; while the appearance of the
Italian language quickened the national mind and led to a new literature.
The spirit of freedom, awakened as early as the eleventh century, received
Page 292
new life in the twelfth, when the Lombard cities, becoming independent,
formed a powerful league against Frederick Barbarossa. The instinct of self-
defense thus developed increased the necessity of education. In the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Italian literature acquired its national
character and rose to its highest splendor, through the writings of Dante,
Petrarch, and Boccaccio, whose influence has been more or less felt in
succeeding centuries.
The literary history of Italy may be divided into three periods, each of
which presents two distinct phases, one of progress and one of decline. The
first period, extending from 1100 to 1475, embraces the origin of the
literature, its development through the works of Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and its first decline in
the fifteenth, when it was supplanted by the absorbing study of the Greek
and Latin classics.
The second period, commencing 1475, embraces the age of Lorenzo de'
Medici and Leo X., when literature began to revive; the age of Ariosto,
Tasso, Machiavelli, and Galileo, when it reached its meridian splendor; its
subsequent decline, through the school of Marini; and its last revival
towards the close of the seventeenth century.
The third period, extending from the close of the seventeenth century to
the present time, includes the development of Italian literature, its decline
under French influence, and its subsequent national tendency, through the
writings of Metastasio, Goldoni, Alfieri, Parini, Monti, Manzoni, and
Leopardi.
2. THE DIALECTS.—The dialects of the ancient tribes inhabiting the
peninsula early came in contact with the rustic Latin, and were moulded
into new tongues, which, at a later period, were again modified by the
influence of the barbarians who successively invaded the country. These
formed a powerful league against Frederick Barbarossa. The instinct of self-
defense thus developed increased the necessity of education. In the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Italian literature acquired its national
character and rose to its highest splendor, through the writings of Dante,
Petrarch, and Boccaccio, whose influence has been more or less felt in
succeeding centuries.
The literary history of Italy may be divided into three periods, each of
which presents two distinct phases, one of progress and one of decline. The
first period, extending from 1100 to 1475, embraces the origin of the
literature, its development through the works of Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and its first decline in
the fifteenth, when it was supplanted by the absorbing study of the Greek
and Latin classics.
The second period, commencing 1475, embraces the age of Lorenzo de'
Medici and Leo X., when literature began to revive; the age of Ariosto,
Tasso, Machiavelli, and Galileo, when it reached its meridian splendor; its
subsequent decline, through the school of Marini; and its last revival
towards the close of the seventeenth century.
The third period, extending from the close of the seventeenth century to
the present time, includes the development of Italian literature, its decline
under French influence, and its subsequent national tendency, through the
writings of Metastasio, Goldoni, Alfieri, Parini, Monti, Manzoni, and
Leopardi.
2. THE DIALECTS.—The dialects of the ancient tribes inhabiting the
peninsula early came in contact with the rustic Latin, and were moulded
into new tongues, which, at a later period, were again modified by the
influence of the barbarians who successively invaded the country. These
Page 293
tongues, elaborated by the action of centuries, are still in use, especially
with the lower classes, and many of them have a literature of their own,
with grammars and dictionaries. The more important of these dialects are
divided into three groups: 1st. The Northern, including the Ligurian,
Piedmontese, Lombard, Venetian, and Emilian. 2d. The Central, containing
the Tuscan, Umbrian, the dialects of the Marches and of the Roman
Provinces. 3d. The Southern, embracing those of the Neapolitan provinces
and of Sicily. Each is distinguished from the other and from the true Italian,
although they all rest on a common basis, the rustic Latin, the plebeian
tongue of the Romans, as distinct from the official and literary tongue.
3. THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE.—The Tuscan or Florentine dialect,
which early became the literary language of Italy, was the result of the
natural development of the popular Latin and a native dialect probably akin
to the rustic Roman idiom. Tuscany suffering comparatively little from
foreign invasion, the language lost none of its purity, and remained free
from heterogeneous elements. The great writers, Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio, who appeared so early, promoted its perfection, secured its
prevailing influence, and gave it a national character. Hence, in the
literature there is no old Italian as distinct from the modern; the language of
Dante continues to be that of modern writers, and becomes more perfect the
more it approaches the standard fixed by the great masters of the fourteenth
century. Of this language it may he said that for flexibility, copiousness,
freedom of construction, and harmony and beauty of sound, it is the most
perfect of all the idioms of the Neo-Latin or Romanic tongues.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM THE ORIGIN OF ITALIAN LITERATURE TO ITS FIRST DECLINE (1100-1475).
with the lower classes, and many of them have a literature of their own,
with grammars and dictionaries. The more important of these dialects are
divided into three groups: 1st. The Northern, including the Ligurian,
Piedmontese, Lombard, Venetian, and Emilian. 2d. The Central, containing
the Tuscan, Umbrian, the dialects of the Marches and of the Roman
Provinces. 3d. The Southern, embracing those of the Neapolitan provinces
and of Sicily. Each is distinguished from the other and from the true Italian,
although they all rest on a common basis, the rustic Latin, the plebeian
tongue of the Romans, as distinct from the official and literary tongue.
3. THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE.—The Tuscan or Florentine dialect,
which early became the literary language of Italy, was the result of the
natural development of the popular Latin and a native dialect probably akin
to the rustic Roman idiom. Tuscany suffering comparatively little from
foreign invasion, the language lost none of its purity, and remained free
from heterogeneous elements. The great writers, Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio, who appeared so early, promoted its perfection, secured its
prevailing influence, and gave it a national character. Hence, in the
literature there is no old Italian as distinct from the modern; the language of
Dante continues to be that of modern writers, and becomes more perfect the
more it approaches the standard fixed by the great masters of the fourteenth
century. Of this language it may he said that for flexibility, copiousness,
freedom of construction, and harmony and beauty of sound, it is the most
perfect of all the idioms of the Neo-Latin or Romanic tongues.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM THE ORIGIN OF ITALIAN LITERATURE TO ITS FIRST DECLINE (1100-1475).
Page 294
1. LATIN INFLUENCE.—During the early part of the Middle Ages
Latin was the literary language of Italy, and the aim of the best writers of
the time was to restore Roman culture. The Gothic kingdom of Ravenna,
established by Theodoric, was the centre of this movement, under the
influence of Cassiodorus, Boethius, and Symmachus. It was due to the
prevailing affection for the memories of Rome, that through all the Dark
Ages the Italian mind kept alive a spirit of freedom unknown in other
countries of Europe, a spirit active, later, in the establishment of the Italian
republics, and showing itself in the heroic resistance of the communes of
Lombardy to the empire of the Hohenstaufens. While the literatures of other
countries were drawn almost exclusively from sacred and chivalric legends,
the Italians devoted themselves to the study of Roman law and history, to
translations from the philosophers of Greece, and, above all, to the
establishment of those great universities which were so powerful in
extending science and culture throughout the Peninsula.
While the Latin language was used in prose, the poets wrote in Provençal
and in French, and many Italian troubadours appeared at the courts of
Europe.
2. EARLY ITALIAN POETRY AND PROSE.—The French element
became gradually lessened, and towards the close of the thirteenth century
there arose the Tuscan school of lyric poetry, the true beginning of Italian
art, of which Lapo Gianni, Guido Cavalcanti, Cino da Pistoia, and Dante
Alighieri were the masters. It is mainly inspired by love, and takes a
popular courtly or scholastic form. The style of Gianni had many of the
faults of his predecessors. That of Cavalcanti, the friend and precursor of
Dante, showed a tendency to stifle poetic imagery under the dead weight of
philosophy. But the love poems of Cino are so mellow, so sweet, so
musical, that they are only surpassed by those of Dante, who, as the author
of the "Vita Nuova," belongs to this lyric school. In this book he tells the
Latin was the literary language of Italy, and the aim of the best writers of
the time was to restore Roman culture. The Gothic kingdom of Ravenna,
established by Theodoric, was the centre of this movement, under the
influence of Cassiodorus, Boethius, and Symmachus. It was due to the
prevailing affection for the memories of Rome, that through all the Dark
Ages the Italian mind kept alive a spirit of freedom unknown in other
countries of Europe, a spirit active, later, in the establishment of the Italian
republics, and showing itself in the heroic resistance of the communes of
Lombardy to the empire of the Hohenstaufens. While the literatures of other
countries were drawn almost exclusively from sacred and chivalric legends,
the Italians devoted themselves to the study of Roman law and history, to
translations from the philosophers of Greece, and, above all, to the
establishment of those great universities which were so powerful in
extending science and culture throughout the Peninsula.
While the Latin language was used in prose, the poets wrote in Provençal
and in French, and many Italian troubadours appeared at the courts of
Europe.
2. EARLY ITALIAN POETRY AND PROSE.—The French element
became gradually lessened, and towards the close of the thirteenth century
there arose the Tuscan school of lyric poetry, the true beginning of Italian
art, of which Lapo Gianni, Guido Cavalcanti, Cino da Pistoia, and Dante
Alighieri were the masters. It is mainly inspired by love, and takes a
popular courtly or scholastic form. The style of Gianni had many of the
faults of his predecessors. That of Cavalcanti, the friend and precursor of
Dante, showed a tendency to stifle poetic imagery under the dead weight of
philosophy. But the love poems of Cino are so mellow, so sweet, so
musical, that they are only surpassed by those of Dante, who, as the author
of the "Vita Nuova," belongs to this lyric school. In this book he tells the
Page 295
story of his love for Beatrice, which was from the first a high idealization in
which there was apparently nothing human or earthly. Everything is super-
sensual, aerial, heavenly, and the real Beatrice melts more and more into the
symbolic, passing out of her human nature into the divine.
Italian prose writing is of a later date, and also succeeded a period when
Italian authors wrote in Latin and French. It consists chiefly of chronicles,
tales, and translations.
3. DANTE (1265-1331).—No poet had yet arisen gifted with absolute
power over the empire of the soul; no philosopher had pierced into the
depths of feeling and of thought, when Dante, the greatest name of Italy and
the father of Italian literature, appeared in the might of his genius, and
availing himself of the rude and imperfect materials within his reach,
constructed his magnificent work. Dante was born in Florence, of the noble
family of Alighieri, which was attached to the papal, or Guelph party, in
opposition to the imperial, or Ghibelline. He was but a child when death
deprived him of his father; but his mother took the greatest pains with his
education, placing him under the tuition of Brunetto Latini, and other
masters of eminence. He early made great progress, not only in an
acquaintance with classical literature and politics, but in music, drawing,
horsemanship, and other accomplishments suitable to his station. As he
grew up, he pursued his studies in the universities of Padua, Bologna, and
Paris. He became an accomplished scholar, and at the same time appeared
in public as a gallant and high-bred man of the world. At the age of twenty-
five, he took arms on the side of the Florentine Guelphs, and distinguished
himself in two battles against the Ghibellines of Arezzo and Pisa. But
before Dante was either a student or a soldier, he had become a lover; and
this character, above all others, was impressed upon him for life. At a May-
day festival, when only nine years of age, he had singled out a girl of his
own age, by the name of Bice, or Beatrice, who thenceforward became the
which there was apparently nothing human or earthly. Everything is super-
sensual, aerial, heavenly, and the real Beatrice melts more and more into the
symbolic, passing out of her human nature into the divine.
Italian prose writing is of a later date, and also succeeded a period when
Italian authors wrote in Latin and French. It consists chiefly of chronicles,
tales, and translations.
3. DANTE (1265-1331).—No poet had yet arisen gifted with absolute
power over the empire of the soul; no philosopher had pierced into the
depths of feeling and of thought, when Dante, the greatest name of Italy and
the father of Italian literature, appeared in the might of his genius, and
availing himself of the rude and imperfect materials within his reach,
constructed his magnificent work. Dante was born in Florence, of the noble
family of Alighieri, which was attached to the papal, or Guelph party, in
opposition to the imperial, or Ghibelline. He was but a child when death
deprived him of his father; but his mother took the greatest pains with his
education, placing him under the tuition of Brunetto Latini, and other
masters of eminence. He early made great progress, not only in an
acquaintance with classical literature and politics, but in music, drawing,
horsemanship, and other accomplishments suitable to his station. As he
grew up, he pursued his studies in the universities of Padua, Bologna, and
Paris. He became an accomplished scholar, and at the same time appeared
in public as a gallant and high-bred man of the world. At the age of twenty-
five, he took arms on the side of the Florentine Guelphs, and distinguished
himself in two battles against the Ghibellines of Arezzo and Pisa. But
before Dante was either a student or a soldier, he had become a lover; and
this character, above all others, was impressed upon him for life. At a May-
day festival, when only nine years of age, he had singled out a girl of his
own age, by the name of Bice, or Beatrice, who thenceforward became the
Page 296
object of his constant and passionate affection, or the symbol of all human
wisdom and perfection. Before his twenty-fifth year she was separated from
him by death, but his passion was refined, not extinguished by this event;
not buried with her body but translated with her soul, which was its object.
On the other hand, the affection of Beatrice for the poet troubled her spirit
amid the bliss of Paradise, and the visions of the eternal world with which
he was favored were a device of hers for reclaiming him from sin, and
preparing him for everlasting companionship with herself.
At the age of thirty-five he was elected prior, or supreme magistrate of
Florence, an honor from which he dates all his subsequent misfortunes.
During his priorship, the citizens were divided into two factions called the
Neri and Bianchi, as bitterly opposed to each other as both had been to the
Ghibellines. In the absence of Dante on an embassy to Rome, a pretext was
found by the Neri, his opponents, for exciting the populace against him. His
dwelling was demolished, his property confiscated, himself and his friends
condemned to perpetual exile, with the provision that, if taken, they should
be burned alive. After a fruitless attempt, by himself and his party, to
surprise Florence, he quitted his companions in disgust, and passed the
remainder of his life in wandering from one court of Italy to another, eating
the bitter bread of dependence, which was granted him often as an alms.
The greater part of his poem was composed during this period; but it
appears that till the end of his life he continued to retouch the work.
The last and most generous patron of Dante was Guido di Polenta, lord of
Ravenna, and father of Francesca da Rimini, whose fatal love forms one of
the most beautiful episodes of this poem. Polenta treated him, not as a
dependent but as an honored guest, and in a dispute with the Republic of
Venice he employed the poet as his ambassador, to effect a reconciliation;
but he was refused even an audience, and, returning disappointed and
wisdom and perfection. Before his twenty-fifth year she was separated from
him by death, but his passion was refined, not extinguished by this event;
not buried with her body but translated with her soul, which was its object.
On the other hand, the affection of Beatrice for the poet troubled her spirit
amid the bliss of Paradise, and the visions of the eternal world with which
he was favored were a device of hers for reclaiming him from sin, and
preparing him for everlasting companionship with herself.
At the age of thirty-five he was elected prior, or supreme magistrate of
Florence, an honor from which he dates all his subsequent misfortunes.
During his priorship, the citizens were divided into two factions called the
Neri and Bianchi, as bitterly opposed to each other as both had been to the
Ghibellines. In the absence of Dante on an embassy to Rome, a pretext was
found by the Neri, his opponents, for exciting the populace against him. His
dwelling was demolished, his property confiscated, himself and his friends
condemned to perpetual exile, with the provision that, if taken, they should
be burned alive. After a fruitless attempt, by himself and his party, to
surprise Florence, he quitted his companions in disgust, and passed the
remainder of his life in wandering from one court of Italy to another, eating
the bitter bread of dependence, which was granted him often as an alms.
The greater part of his poem was composed during this period; but it
appears that till the end of his life he continued to retouch the work.
The last and most generous patron of Dante was Guido di Polenta, lord of
Ravenna, and father of Francesca da Rimini, whose fatal love forms one of
the most beautiful episodes of this poem. Polenta treated him, not as a
dependent but as an honored guest, and in a dispute with the Republic of
Venice he employed the poet as his ambassador, to effect a reconciliation;
but he was refused even an audience, and, returning disappointed and
Page 297
broken-hearted to Ravenna, he died soon after at the age of fifty-six, having
been in exile nineteen years.
His fellow-citizens, who had closed their hearts and their gates against
him while living, now deeply bewailed his death; and, during the two
succeeding centuries, embassy after embassy was vainly sent from Florence
to recover his honored remains. Not long after his death, those who had
exiled him and confiscated his property provided that his poem should be
read and expounded to the people in a church. Boccaccio was appointed to
this professorship. Before the end of the sixteenth century, the "Divine
Comedy" had gone through sixty editions.
The Divine Comedy is one of the greatest monuments of human genius.
It is an allegory conceived in the form of a vision, which was the most
popular style of poetry at that age. At the close of the year 1300 Dante
represents himself as lost in a forest at the foot of a hill, near Jerusalem. He
wishes to ascend it, but is prevented by a panther, a lion, and a she-wolf
which beset the way. He is met by Virgil, who tells him that he is sent by
Beatrice as a guide through the realm of shadows, hell, and purgatory, and
that she will afterwards lead him up to heaven. They pass the gates of hell,
and penetrate into the dismal region beyond. This, as represented by Dante,
consists of nine circles, forming an inverted cone, of the size of the earth,
each succeeding circle being lower and narrower than the former, while
Lucifer is chained in the centre and at the bottom of the dreadful crater.
Each circle contains various cavities, where the punishments vary in
proportion to the guilt, and the suffering increases in intensity as the circles
descend and contract. In the first circle were neither cries nor tears, but the
eternal sighs of those who, having never received Christian baptism, were,
according to the poet's creed, forever excluded from the abodes of bliss. In
the next circle, appropriated to those whose souls had been lost by the
indulgence of guilty love, the poet recognizes the unhappy Francesca da
been in exile nineteen years.
His fellow-citizens, who had closed their hearts and their gates against
him while living, now deeply bewailed his death; and, during the two
succeeding centuries, embassy after embassy was vainly sent from Florence
to recover his honored remains. Not long after his death, those who had
exiled him and confiscated his property provided that his poem should be
read and expounded to the people in a church. Boccaccio was appointed to
this professorship. Before the end of the sixteenth century, the "Divine
Comedy" had gone through sixty editions.
The Divine Comedy is one of the greatest monuments of human genius.
It is an allegory conceived in the form of a vision, which was the most
popular style of poetry at that age. At the close of the year 1300 Dante
represents himself as lost in a forest at the foot of a hill, near Jerusalem. He
wishes to ascend it, but is prevented by a panther, a lion, and a she-wolf
which beset the way. He is met by Virgil, who tells him that he is sent by
Beatrice as a guide through the realm of shadows, hell, and purgatory, and
that she will afterwards lead him up to heaven. They pass the gates of hell,
and penetrate into the dismal region beyond. This, as represented by Dante,
consists of nine circles, forming an inverted cone, of the size of the earth,
each succeeding circle being lower and narrower than the former, while
Lucifer is chained in the centre and at the bottom of the dreadful crater.
Each circle contains various cavities, where the punishments vary in
proportion to the guilt, and the suffering increases in intensity as the circles
descend and contract. In the first circle were neither cries nor tears, but the
eternal sighs of those who, having never received Christian baptism, were,
according to the poet's creed, forever excluded from the abodes of bliss. In
the next circle, appropriated to those whose souls had been lost by the
indulgence of guilty love, the poet recognizes the unhappy Francesca da
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Rimini, whose history forms one of the most beautiful episodes of the
poem. The third circle includes gluttons; the fourth misers and spendthrifts;
each succeeding circle embracing what the poet deems a deeper shade of
guilt, and inflicting appropriate punishment. The Christian and heathen
systems of theology are here freely interwoven. We have Minos visiting the
Stygian Lake, where heretics are burning; we meet Cerberus and the
harpies, and we accompany the poet across several of the fabulous rivers of
Erebus. A fearful scene appears in the deepest circle of the infernal abodes.
Here, among those who have betrayed their country, and are entombed in
eternal ice, is Count Ugolino, who, by a series of treasons, had made
himself master of Pisa. He is gnawing with savage ferocity the skull of the
archbishop of that state, who had condemned him and his children to die by
starvation. The arch-traitor, Satan, stands fixed in the centre of hell and of
the earth. All the streams of guilt keep flowing back to him as their source,
and from beneath his threefold visage issue six gigantic wings with which
he vainly struggles to raise himself, and thus produces winds which freeze
him more firmly in the marsh.
After leaving the infernal regions, and entering purgatory, they find an
immense cone divided into seven circles, each of which is devoted to the
expiation of one of the seven mortal sins. The proud are overwhelmed with
enormous weights; the envious are clothed in garments of horse-hair, their
eye-lids closed; the choleric are suffocated with smoke; the indolent are
compelled to run about continually; the avaricious are prostrated upon the
earth; epicures are afflicted with hunger and thirst; and the incontinent
expiate their crimes in fire. In this portion of the work, however, while there
is much to admire, there is less to excite and sustain the interest. On the
summit of the purgatorial mountain is the terrestrial paradise, whence is the
only assent to the celestial. Beatrice, the object of his early and constant
affection, descends hither to meet the poet. Virgil disappears, and she
becomes his only guide. She conducts him through the nine heavens, and
poem. The third circle includes gluttons; the fourth misers and spendthrifts;
each succeeding circle embracing what the poet deems a deeper shade of
guilt, and inflicting appropriate punishment. The Christian and heathen
systems of theology are here freely interwoven. We have Minos visiting the
Stygian Lake, where heretics are burning; we meet Cerberus and the
harpies, and we accompany the poet across several of the fabulous rivers of
Erebus. A fearful scene appears in the deepest circle of the infernal abodes.
Here, among those who have betrayed their country, and are entombed in
eternal ice, is Count Ugolino, who, by a series of treasons, had made
himself master of Pisa. He is gnawing with savage ferocity the skull of the
archbishop of that state, who had condemned him and his children to die by
starvation. The arch-traitor, Satan, stands fixed in the centre of hell and of
the earth. All the streams of guilt keep flowing back to him as their source,
and from beneath his threefold visage issue six gigantic wings with which
he vainly struggles to raise himself, and thus produces winds which freeze
him more firmly in the marsh.
After leaving the infernal regions, and entering purgatory, they find an
immense cone divided into seven circles, each of which is devoted to the
expiation of one of the seven mortal sins. The proud are overwhelmed with
enormous weights; the envious are clothed in garments of horse-hair, their
eye-lids closed; the choleric are suffocated with smoke; the indolent are
compelled to run about continually; the avaricious are prostrated upon the
earth; epicures are afflicted with hunger and thirst; and the incontinent
expiate their crimes in fire. In this portion of the work, however, while there
is much to admire, there is less to excite and sustain the interest. On the
summit of the purgatorial mountain is the terrestrial paradise, whence is the
only assent to the celestial. Beatrice, the object of his early and constant
affection, descends hither to meet the poet. Virgil disappears, and she
becomes his only guide. She conducts him through the nine heavens, and
Page 299
makes him acquainted with the great men who, by their virtuous lives, have
deserved the highest enjoyments of eternity. In the ninth celestial sphere,
Dante is favored with a manifestation of divinity, veiled, however, by three
hierarchies of attending angels. He sees the Virgin Mary, and the saints of
the Old and New Testament, and by these personages, and by Beatrice, all
his doubts and difficulties are finally solved, and the conclusion leaves him
absorbed in the beatific vision.
The allegorical meaning of the poem is hidden under the literal one.
Dante, traveling through the invisible world, is a symbol of mankind aiming
at the double object of temporal and eternal happiness. The forest typifies
the civil and religious confusion of society deprived of its two judges, the
pope and the emperor. The three beasts are the powers which offered the
greatest obstacles to Dante's designs, Florence, France, and the papal court.
Virgil represents reason and the empire, and Beatrice symbolizes the
supernatural aid, without which man cannot attain the supreme end, which
is God.
But the merit of the poem is that for the first time classic art is transferred
into a Romance form. Dante is, above all, a great artist. Whether he
describes nature, analyzes passions, curses the vices, or sings hymns to the
virtues, he is always wonderful for the grandeur and delicacy of his art. He
took his materials from mythology, history, and philosophy, but more
especially from his own passions of hatred and love, breathed into them the
breath of genius and produced the greatest work of modern times.
The personal interest that he brings to bear on the historical
representation of the three worlds is that which most interests and stirs us.
The Divine Comedy is not only the most lifelike drama of the thoughts and
feelings that moved men at that time, but it is also the most spontaneous and
clear reflection of the individual feelings of the poet, who remakes history
deserved the highest enjoyments of eternity. In the ninth celestial sphere,
Dante is favored with a manifestation of divinity, veiled, however, by three
hierarchies of attending angels. He sees the Virgin Mary, and the saints of
the Old and New Testament, and by these personages, and by Beatrice, all
his doubts and difficulties are finally solved, and the conclusion leaves him
absorbed in the beatific vision.
The allegorical meaning of the poem is hidden under the literal one.
Dante, traveling through the invisible world, is a symbol of mankind aiming
at the double object of temporal and eternal happiness. The forest typifies
the civil and religious confusion of society deprived of its two judges, the
pope and the emperor. The three beasts are the powers which offered the
greatest obstacles to Dante's designs, Florence, France, and the papal court.
Virgil represents reason and the empire, and Beatrice symbolizes the
supernatural aid, without which man cannot attain the supreme end, which
is God.
But the merit of the poem is that for the first time classic art is transferred
into a Romance form. Dante is, above all, a great artist. Whether he
describes nature, analyzes passions, curses the vices, or sings hymns to the
virtues, he is always wonderful for the grandeur and delicacy of his art. He
took his materials from mythology, history, and philosophy, but more
especially from his own passions of hatred and love, breathed into them the
breath of genius and produced the greatest work of modern times.
The personal interest that he brings to bear on the historical
representation of the three worlds is that which most interests and stirs us.
The Divine Comedy is not only the most lifelike drama of the thoughts and
feelings that moved men at that time, but it is also the most spontaneous and
clear reflection of the individual feelings of the poet, who remakes history
Page 300
after his own passions, and who is the real chastiser of the sins and rewarder
of the virtues. He defined the destiny of Italian literature in the Middle
Ages, and began the great era of the Renaissance.
4. PETRARCH.—Petrarch (1304-1374) belonged to a respected
Florentine family. His father was the personal friend of Dante, and a
partaker of the same exile. While at Avignon, then the seat of the papal
court, on one occasion he made an excursion to the fountain of Vaucluse,
taking with him his son, the future poet, then in the tenth year of his age.
The wild and solitary aspect of the place inspired the boy with an
enthusiasm beyond his years, leaving an impression which was never
afterwards effaced, and which affected his future life and writings. As
Petrarch grew up, unlike the haughty, taciturn, and sarcastic Dante, he
seems to have made friends wherever he went. With splendid talents,
engaging manners, a handsome person, and an affectionate and generous
disposition, he became the darling of his age, a man whom princes
delighted to honor. At the age of twenty-three, he first met Laura de Sade in
a church at Avignon. She was only twenty years of age, and had been for
three years the wife of a patrician of that city. Laura was not more
distinguished for her beauty and fortune than for the unsullied purity of her
manners in a licentious court, where she was one of the chief ornaments.
The sight of her beauty inspired the young poet with an affection which was
as pure and virtuous as it was tender and passionate. He poured forth in
song the fervor of his love and the bitterness of his grief. Upwards of three
hundred sonnets, written at various times, commemorate all the little
circumstances of this attachment, and describe the favors which, during an
acquaintance of fifteen or twenty years, never exceeded a kind word, a look
less severe than usual, or a passing expression of regret at parting. He was
not permitted to visit at Laura's house; he had no opportunity of seeing her
except at mass, at the brilliant levees of the pope, or in private assemblies of
beauty and fashion: but she forever remained the dominant object of his
of the virtues. He defined the destiny of Italian literature in the Middle
Ages, and began the great era of the Renaissance.
4. PETRARCH.—Petrarch (1304-1374) belonged to a respected
Florentine family. His father was the personal friend of Dante, and a
partaker of the same exile. While at Avignon, then the seat of the papal
court, on one occasion he made an excursion to the fountain of Vaucluse,
taking with him his son, the future poet, then in the tenth year of his age.
The wild and solitary aspect of the place inspired the boy with an
enthusiasm beyond his years, leaving an impression which was never
afterwards effaced, and which affected his future life and writings. As
Petrarch grew up, unlike the haughty, taciturn, and sarcastic Dante, he
seems to have made friends wherever he went. With splendid talents,
engaging manners, a handsome person, and an affectionate and generous
disposition, he became the darling of his age, a man whom princes
delighted to honor. At the age of twenty-three, he first met Laura de Sade in
a church at Avignon. She was only twenty years of age, and had been for
three years the wife of a patrician of that city. Laura was not more
distinguished for her beauty and fortune than for the unsullied purity of her
manners in a licentious court, where she was one of the chief ornaments.
The sight of her beauty inspired the young poet with an affection which was
as pure and virtuous as it was tender and passionate. He poured forth in
song the fervor of his love and the bitterness of his grief. Upwards of three
hundred sonnets, written at various times, commemorate all the little
circumstances of this attachment, and describe the favors which, during an
acquaintance of fifteen or twenty years, never exceeded a kind word, a look
less severe than usual, or a passing expression of regret at parting. He was
not permitted to visit at Laura's house; he had no opportunity of seeing her
except at mass, at the brilliant levees of the pope, or in private assemblies of
beauty and fashion: but she forever remained the dominant object of his
Page 301
existence. He purchased a house at Vaucluse, and there, shut in by lofty and
craggy heights, the river Sorgue traversing the valley on one side, amidst
hills clothed with umbrageous trees, cheered only by the song of birds, the
poet passed his lonely days. Again and again he made tours through Italy,
Spain, and Flanders, during one of which he was crowned with the poet's
laurel at Rome, but he always returned to Vaucluse, to Avignon, to Laura.
Thus years passed away. Laura became the mother of a numerous family,
and time and care made havoc of her youthful beauty. Meanwhile, the
sonnets of Petrarch had spread her fame throughout France and Italy, and
attracted many to the court of Avignon, who were surprised and
disappointed at the sight of her whom they had believed to be the loveliest
of mortals. In 1347, during the absence of the poet from Avignon, Laura fell
a victim to the plague, just twenty-one years from the day that Petrarch first
met her. Now all his love was deepened and consecrated, and the effusions
of his poetic genius became more melancholy, more passionate, and more
beautiful than ever. He declined the offices and honors that his countrymen
offered him, and passed his life in retirement. He was found one morning
by his attendants dead in his library, his head resting on a book.
The celebrity of Petrarch at the present day depends chiefly on his lyrical
poems, which served as models to all the distinguished poets of southern
Europe. They are restricted to two forms: the sonnet, borrowed from the
Sicilians, and the canzone, from the Provençals. The subject of almost all
these poems is the same—the hopeless affection of the poet for the high-
minded Laura. This love was a kind of religious and enthusiastic passion,
such as mystics imagine they feel towards the Deity, or such as Plato
believes to be the bond of union between elevated minds. There is no poet
in any language more perfectly pure than Petrarch—more completely above
all reproach of laxity or immorality. This merit, which is equally due to the
poet and to his Laura, is the more remarkable, considering the models
which he followed and the court at which Laura lived. The labor of Petrarch
craggy heights, the river Sorgue traversing the valley on one side, amidst
hills clothed with umbrageous trees, cheered only by the song of birds, the
poet passed his lonely days. Again and again he made tours through Italy,
Spain, and Flanders, during one of which he was crowned with the poet's
laurel at Rome, but he always returned to Vaucluse, to Avignon, to Laura.
Thus years passed away. Laura became the mother of a numerous family,
and time and care made havoc of her youthful beauty. Meanwhile, the
sonnets of Petrarch had spread her fame throughout France and Italy, and
attracted many to the court of Avignon, who were surprised and
disappointed at the sight of her whom they had believed to be the loveliest
of mortals. In 1347, during the absence of the poet from Avignon, Laura fell
a victim to the plague, just twenty-one years from the day that Petrarch first
met her. Now all his love was deepened and consecrated, and the effusions
of his poetic genius became more melancholy, more passionate, and more
beautiful than ever. He declined the offices and honors that his countrymen
offered him, and passed his life in retirement. He was found one morning
by his attendants dead in his library, his head resting on a book.
The celebrity of Petrarch at the present day depends chiefly on his lyrical
poems, which served as models to all the distinguished poets of southern
Europe. They are restricted to two forms: the sonnet, borrowed from the
Sicilians, and the canzone, from the Provençals. The subject of almost all
these poems is the same—the hopeless affection of the poet for the high-
minded Laura. This love was a kind of religious and enthusiastic passion,
such as mystics imagine they feel towards the Deity, or such as Plato
believes to be the bond of union between elevated minds. There is no poet
in any language more perfectly pure than Petrarch—more completely above
all reproach of laxity or immorality. This merit, which is equally due to the
poet and to his Laura, is the more remarkable, considering the models
which he followed and the court at which Laura lived. The labor of Petrarch
Page 302
in polishing his poems did much towards perfecting the language, which
through him became more elegant and more melodious. He introduced into
the lyric poetry of Italy the pathos and the touching sweetness of Ovid and
Tibullus, as well as the simplicity of Anacreon.
Petrarch attached little value to his Italian poems; it was on his Latin
works that he founded his hopes of renown. But his highest title to immortal
fame is his prodigious labor to promote the study of ancient authors.
Wherever he traveled, he sought with the utmost avidity for classic
manuscripts, and it is difficult to estimate the effect produced by his
enthusiasm. He corresponded with all the eminent literati of his day, and
inspired them with his own tastes. Now for the first time there appeared a
kind of literary republic in Europe united by the magic bond of Petrarch's
influence, and he was better known and exercised a more extensive and
powerful influence than many of the sovereigns of the day. He treated with
various princes rather in the character of an arbitrator than an ambassador,
and he not only directed the tastes of his own age, but he determined those
of succeeding generations.
5. BOCCACCIO AND OTHER PROSE WRITERS.—The fourteenth
century forms a brilliant era in Italian literature, distinguished beyond any
other period for the creative powers of genius which it exhibited. In this
century, Dante gave to Europe his great epic poem, the lyric muse awoke at
the call of Petrarch, while Boccaccio created a style of prose, harmonious,
flexible, and engaging, and alike suitable to the most elevated and to the
most playful subjects.
Boccaccio (1313-1875) was the son of a Florentine merchant; he early
gave evidence of superior talents, and his father vainly attempted to educate
him to follow his own profession. He resided at Naples, where he became
acquainted with a lady celebrated in his writings under the name of
through him became more elegant and more melodious. He introduced into
the lyric poetry of Italy the pathos and the touching sweetness of Ovid and
Tibullus, as well as the simplicity of Anacreon.
Petrarch attached little value to his Italian poems; it was on his Latin
works that he founded his hopes of renown. But his highest title to immortal
fame is his prodigious labor to promote the study of ancient authors.
Wherever he traveled, he sought with the utmost avidity for classic
manuscripts, and it is difficult to estimate the effect produced by his
enthusiasm. He corresponded with all the eminent literati of his day, and
inspired them with his own tastes. Now for the first time there appeared a
kind of literary republic in Europe united by the magic bond of Petrarch's
influence, and he was better known and exercised a more extensive and
powerful influence than many of the sovereigns of the day. He treated with
various princes rather in the character of an arbitrator than an ambassador,
and he not only directed the tastes of his own age, but he determined those
of succeeding generations.
5. BOCCACCIO AND OTHER PROSE WRITERS.—The fourteenth
century forms a brilliant era in Italian literature, distinguished beyond any
other period for the creative powers of genius which it exhibited. In this
century, Dante gave to Europe his great epic poem, the lyric muse awoke at
the call of Petrarch, while Boccaccio created a style of prose, harmonious,
flexible, and engaging, and alike suitable to the most elevated and to the
most playful subjects.
Boccaccio (1313-1875) was the son of a Florentine merchant; he early
gave evidence of superior talents, and his father vainly attempted to educate
him to follow his own profession. He resided at Naples, where he became
acquainted with a lady celebrated in his writings under the name of
Page 303
Fiammetta. It was at her desire that most of his early pieces were written,
and the very exceptionable moral character which attaches to them must be
attributed, in part, to her depraved tastes. The source of Boccaccio's highest
reputation, and that which entitles him to rank as the third founder of the
national literature, is his "Decameron," a collection of tales written during
the period when the plague desolated the south of Europe, with a view to
amuse the ladies of the court during that dreadful visitation. The tales are
united under the supposition of a party of ten who had retired to one of the
villas in the environs of Naples to strive, in the enjoyment of innocent
amusement, to escape the danger of contagion. It was agreed that each
person should tell a new story during the space of ten days, whence the title
Decameron. The description of the plague, in the introduction, is considered
not only the finest piece of writing from Boccaccio's pen, but one of the
best historical descriptions that have descended to us. The stories, a hundred
in number, are varied with considerable art, both in subject and in style,
from the most pathetic and sportive to the most licentious. The great merit
of Boccaccio's composition consists in his easy elegance, his naïveté, and,
above all, in the correctness of his language.
The groundwork of the Decameron has been traced to an old Hindu
romance, which, after passing through all the languages of the East, was
translated into Latin as early as the twelfth century; the originals of several
of these tales have been found in the ancient French Fabliaux, while others
are believed to have been borrowed from popular recitation or from real
occurrences. But if Boccaccio cannot boast of being the inventor of all, or
even any of these tales, he is still the father of this class of modern Italian
literature, since he was the first to transplant into the world of letters what
had hitherto been only the subject of social mirth. These tales have in their
turn been repeated anew in almost every language of Europe, and have
afforded reputations to numerous imitators. One of the most beautiful and
unexceptionable tales in the Decameron is that of "Griselda," the last in the
and the very exceptionable moral character which attaches to them must be
attributed, in part, to her depraved tastes. The source of Boccaccio's highest
reputation, and that which entitles him to rank as the third founder of the
national literature, is his "Decameron," a collection of tales written during
the period when the plague desolated the south of Europe, with a view to
amuse the ladies of the court during that dreadful visitation. The tales are
united under the supposition of a party of ten who had retired to one of the
villas in the environs of Naples to strive, in the enjoyment of innocent
amusement, to escape the danger of contagion. It was agreed that each
person should tell a new story during the space of ten days, whence the title
Decameron. The description of the plague, in the introduction, is considered
not only the finest piece of writing from Boccaccio's pen, but one of the
best historical descriptions that have descended to us. The stories, a hundred
in number, are varied with considerable art, both in subject and in style,
from the most pathetic and sportive to the most licentious. The great merit
of Boccaccio's composition consists in his easy elegance, his naïveté, and,
above all, in the correctness of his language.
The groundwork of the Decameron has been traced to an old Hindu
romance, which, after passing through all the languages of the East, was
translated into Latin as early as the twelfth century; the originals of several
of these tales have been found in the ancient French Fabliaux, while others
are believed to have been borrowed from popular recitation or from real
occurrences. But if Boccaccio cannot boast of being the inventor of all, or
even any of these tales, he is still the father of this class of modern Italian
literature, since he was the first to transplant into the world of letters what
had hitherto been only the subject of social mirth. These tales have in their
turn been repeated anew in almost every language of Europe, and have
afforded reputations to numerous imitators. One of the most beautiful and
unexceptionable tales in the Decameron is that of "Griselda," the last in the
Page 304
collection. It is to be regretted that the author did not prescribe to himself
the same purity in his images that he did in his phraseology. Many of these
tales are not only immoral but grossly indecent, though but too faithful a
representation of the manners of the age in which they were written. The
Decameron was published towards the middle of the fourteenth century;
and, from the first invention of printing, it was freely circulated in Italy,
until the Council of Trent proscribed it in the middle of the sixteenth
century. It was, however, again published in 1570, purified and abridged.
Boccaccio is the author of two romances, one called "Fiammetta," the
other the "Filocopo;" the former distinguished for the fervor of its
expression, the latter for the variety of its adventures and incidents. He
wrote also two romantic poems, in which he first introduced the ottava
rima, or the stanza composed of six lines, which rhyme interchangeably
with each other, and are followed by a couplet. In these he strove to revive
ancient mythology, and to identify it with modern literature. His Latin
compositions are voluminous, and materially contributed to the
advancement of letters.
While Boccaccio labored so successfully to reduce the language to
elegant and harmonious forms, he strove like Petrarch to excite his
contemporaries to the study of the ancient classics. He induced the senate of
Florence to establish a professorship of Greek, entered his name among the
first of the students, and procured manuscripts at his own expense. Thus
Hellenic literature was introduced into Tuscany, and thence into the rest of
Europe.
Boccaccio, late in life, assumed the ecclesiastical habit, and entered on
the study of theology. When the Florentines founded a professorship for the
reading and exposition of the Divine Comedy, Boccaccio was made the first
incumbent. The result of his labors was a life of Dante, and a commentary
the same purity in his images that he did in his phraseology. Many of these
tales are not only immoral but grossly indecent, though but too faithful a
representation of the manners of the age in which they were written. The
Decameron was published towards the middle of the fourteenth century;
and, from the first invention of printing, it was freely circulated in Italy,
until the Council of Trent proscribed it in the middle of the sixteenth
century. It was, however, again published in 1570, purified and abridged.
Boccaccio is the author of two romances, one called "Fiammetta," the
other the "Filocopo;" the former distinguished for the fervor of its
expression, the latter for the variety of its adventures and incidents. He
wrote also two romantic poems, in which he first introduced the ottava
rima, or the stanza composed of six lines, which rhyme interchangeably
with each other, and are followed by a couplet. In these he strove to revive
ancient mythology, and to identify it with modern literature. His Latin
compositions are voluminous, and materially contributed to the
advancement of letters.
While Boccaccio labored so successfully to reduce the language to
elegant and harmonious forms, he strove like Petrarch to excite his
contemporaries to the study of the ancient classics. He induced the senate of
Florence to establish a professorship of Greek, entered his name among the
first of the students, and procured manuscripts at his own expense. Thus
Hellenic literature was introduced into Tuscany, and thence into the rest of
Europe.
Boccaccio, late in life, assumed the ecclesiastical habit, and entered on
the study of theology. When the Florentines founded a professorship for the
reading and exposition of the Divine Comedy, Boccaccio was made the first
incumbent. The result of his labors was a life of Dante, and a commentary
Page 305
on the first seventeen cantos of the Inferno. With the death of Petrarch, who
had been his most intimate friend, his last tie to earth was loosed; he died at
Certaldo a few months later, in the sixty-third year of his age. His dwelling
is still to be seen, situated on a hill, and looking down on the fertile and
beautiful valley watered by the river Elsa.
Of the other prose writers of the fourteenth century the most remarkable
are the three Florentine historians named Villani, the eldest of whom (1310-
1348) wrote a history of Florence, which was continued afterwards by his
brother and by his nephew; a work highly esteemed for its historical
interest, and for its purity of language and style; and Franco Sacchetti
(1335-1400), who approaches nearest to Boccaccio. His "Novels and Tales"
are valuable for the purity and eloquence of their style, and for the picture
they afford of the manners of his age.
Among the ascetic writers of this age St. Catherine of Siena occupies an
important place, as one who aided in preparing the way for the great
religious movement of the sixteenth century. The writings of this
extraordinary woman, who strove to bring back the Church of Rome to
evangelical virtue, are the strongest, clearest, most exalted religious
utterance that made itself heard in Italy in the fourteenth century.
6. THE FIRST DECLINE OF ITALIAN LITERATURE.—The
passionate study of the ancients, of which Petrarch and Boccaccio had
given an example, suspended the progress of Italian literature in the latter
part of the fourteenth century, and through almost all the fifteenth. The
attention of the literary men of this time was wholly engrossed by the study
of the dead languages, and of manners, customs, and religious systems
equally extinct. They present to our observation boundless erudition, a just
spirit of criticism, and nice sensibility to the beauties and defects of the
great authors of antiquity; but we look in vain for that true eloquence which
had been his most intimate friend, his last tie to earth was loosed; he died at
Certaldo a few months later, in the sixty-third year of his age. His dwelling
is still to be seen, situated on a hill, and looking down on the fertile and
beautiful valley watered by the river Elsa.
Of the other prose writers of the fourteenth century the most remarkable
are the three Florentine historians named Villani, the eldest of whom (1310-
1348) wrote a history of Florence, which was continued afterwards by his
brother and by his nephew; a work highly esteemed for its historical
interest, and for its purity of language and style; and Franco Sacchetti
(1335-1400), who approaches nearest to Boccaccio. His "Novels and Tales"
are valuable for the purity and eloquence of their style, and for the picture
they afford of the manners of his age.
Among the ascetic writers of this age St. Catherine of Siena occupies an
important place, as one who aided in preparing the way for the great
religious movement of the sixteenth century. The writings of this
extraordinary woman, who strove to bring back the Church of Rome to
evangelical virtue, are the strongest, clearest, most exalted religious
utterance that made itself heard in Italy in the fourteenth century.
6. THE FIRST DECLINE OF ITALIAN LITERATURE.—The
passionate study of the ancients, of which Petrarch and Boccaccio had
given an example, suspended the progress of Italian literature in the latter
part of the fourteenth century, and through almost all the fifteenth. The
attention of the literary men of this time was wholly engrossed by the study
of the dead languages, and of manners, customs, and religious systems
equally extinct. They present to our observation boundless erudition, a just
spirit of criticism, and nice sensibility to the beauties and defects of the
great authors of antiquity; but we look in vain for that true eloquence which
Page 306
is more the fruit of an intercourse with the world than of a knowledge of
books. They were still more unsuccessful in poetry, in which their attempts,
all in Latin, are few in number, and their verses harsh and heavy, without
originality or vigor. It was not until the period when Italian poetry began to
be again cultivated, that Latin verse acquired any of the characteristics of
genuine inspiration.
But towards the close of the fifteenth century the dawn of a new literary
era appeared, which soon shone with meridian light. At this time, the
universities had become more and more the subjects of attention to the
governments; the appointment of eminent professors, and the privileges
connected with these institutions, attracted to them large numbers of
students, and the concourse was often so great that the lectures were
delivered in the churches and in public squares. Those republics which still
existed, and the princes who had risen on the ruins of the more ephemeral
ones, rivaled each other in their patronage of literary men; the popes, who
in the preceding ages had denounced all secular learning, now became its
munificent patrons; and two of them, Nicholas V. and Pius II., were
themselves scholars of high distinction. The Dukes of Milan, and the
Marquises of Mantua and Ferrara, surrounded themselves in their capitals
with men illustrious in science and letters, and seemed to vie with each
other in the favors which they lavished upon them. In the hitherto free
republic of Florence, which had given birth to Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio, literature found support in a family which, at no distant period,
employed it to augment their power, and to rule the city with an almost
despotic sway. The Medici had been long distinguished for the wealth they
had acquired by commercial enterprise, and for the high offices which they
held in the republic. Cosmo de' Medici had acquired a degree of power
which shook the very foundations of the state. He was master of the
moneyed credit of Europe, and almost the equal of the kings with whom he
negotiated; but in the midst of the projects of his ambition he opened his
books. They were still more unsuccessful in poetry, in which their attempts,
all in Latin, are few in number, and their verses harsh and heavy, without
originality or vigor. It was not until the period when Italian poetry began to
be again cultivated, that Latin verse acquired any of the characteristics of
genuine inspiration.
But towards the close of the fifteenth century the dawn of a new literary
era appeared, which soon shone with meridian light. At this time, the
universities had become more and more the subjects of attention to the
governments; the appointment of eminent professors, and the privileges
connected with these institutions, attracted to them large numbers of
students, and the concourse was often so great that the lectures were
delivered in the churches and in public squares. Those republics which still
existed, and the princes who had risen on the ruins of the more ephemeral
ones, rivaled each other in their patronage of literary men; the popes, who
in the preceding ages had denounced all secular learning, now became its
munificent patrons; and two of them, Nicholas V. and Pius II., were
themselves scholars of high distinction. The Dukes of Milan, and the
Marquises of Mantua and Ferrara, surrounded themselves in their capitals
with men illustrious in science and letters, and seemed to vie with each
other in the favors which they lavished upon them. In the hitherto free
republic of Florence, which had given birth to Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio, literature found support in a family which, at no distant period,
employed it to augment their power, and to rule the city with an almost
despotic sway. The Medici had been long distinguished for the wealth they
had acquired by commercial enterprise, and for the high offices which they
held in the republic. Cosmo de' Medici had acquired a degree of power
which shook the very foundations of the state. He was master of the
moneyed credit of Europe, and almost the equal of the kings with whom he
negotiated; but in the midst of the projects of his ambition he opened his
Page 307
palace as an asylum to the scholars and artists of the age, turned its gardens
into an academy, and effected a revolution in philosophy by setting up the
authority of Plato against that of Aristotle. His banks, which were scattered
over Europe, were placed at the service of literature as well as commerce.
His agents abroad sold spices and bought manuscripts; the vessels which
returned to him from Constantinople, Alexandria, and Smyrna were often
laden with volumes in the Greek, Syriac, and Chaldaic languages. Being
banished to Venice, he continued his protection of letters, and on his return
to Florence he devoted himself more than ever to the cause of literature. In
the south of Italy, Alphonso V., and, indeed, all the sovereigns of that age,
pursued the same course, and chose for their chancellors and ambassadors
the same scholars who educated their sons and expounded the classics in
their literary circles.
This patronage, however, was confined to the progress of ancient letters,
while the native literature, instead of redeeming the promise of its infancy,
remained at this time mute and inglorious. Yet the resources of poets and
orators were multiplying a thousand fold. The exalted characters, the
austere laws, the energetic virtues, the graceful mythology, the thrilling
eloquence of antiquity, were annihilating the puerilities of the old Italian
rhymes, and creating purer and nobler tastes. The clay which was destined
for the formation of great men was undergoing a new process; a fresh
mould was cast, the forms at first appeared lifeless, but ere the end of the
fifteenth century the breath of genius entered into them, and a new era of
life began.
PERIOD SECOND.
REVIVAL OF ITALIAN LITERATURE AND ITS SECOND DECLINE (1476-1675).
into an academy, and effected a revolution in philosophy by setting up the
authority of Plato against that of Aristotle. His banks, which were scattered
over Europe, were placed at the service of literature as well as commerce.
His agents abroad sold spices and bought manuscripts; the vessels which
returned to him from Constantinople, Alexandria, and Smyrna were often
laden with volumes in the Greek, Syriac, and Chaldaic languages. Being
banished to Venice, he continued his protection of letters, and on his return
to Florence he devoted himself more than ever to the cause of literature. In
the south of Italy, Alphonso V., and, indeed, all the sovereigns of that age,
pursued the same course, and chose for their chancellors and ambassadors
the same scholars who educated their sons and expounded the classics in
their literary circles.
This patronage, however, was confined to the progress of ancient letters,
while the native literature, instead of redeeming the promise of its infancy,
remained at this time mute and inglorious. Yet the resources of poets and
orators were multiplying a thousand fold. The exalted characters, the
austere laws, the energetic virtues, the graceful mythology, the thrilling
eloquence of antiquity, were annihilating the puerilities of the old Italian
rhymes, and creating purer and nobler tastes. The clay which was destined
for the formation of great men was undergoing a new process; a fresh
mould was cast, the forms at first appeared lifeless, but ere the end of the
fifteenth century the breath of genius entered into them, and a new era of
life began.
PERIOD SECOND.
REVIVAL OF ITALIAN LITERATURE AND ITS SECOND DECLINE (1476-1675).
Page 308
1. THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.—The first man who
contributed to the restoration of Italian poetry was Lorenzo de' Medici
(1448-1492), the grandson of Cosmo. In the brilliant society that he
gathered around him, a new era was opened in Italian literature. Himself a
poet, he attempted to restore poetry to the condition in which Petrarch had
left it; although superior in some respects to that poet, he had less power of
versification, less sweetness, and harmony, but his ideas were more natural,
and his style was more simple. He attempted all kinds of poetical
composition, and in all he displayed the versatility of his talents and the
exuberance of his imagination. But to Lorenzo poetry was but an
amusement, scarcely regarded in his brilliant political career. He
concentrated in himself all the power of the republic—he was the arbiter of
the whole political state of Italy, and from the splendor with which he
surrounded himself, and his celebrity, he received the title of Lorenzo the
Magnificent. He continued to collect manuscripts, and to employ learned
men to prepare them for printing. His Platonic Academy extended its
researches into new paths of study. The collection of antique sculpture, the
germ of the gallery of Florence, which had been established by Cosmo, he
enriched, and gave to it a new destination, which was the occasion of
imparting fresh life and vigor to the liberal arts. He appropriated a part of
his gardens to serve as a school for the study of the antique, and placed his
statues, busts, and other models of art in the shrubberies, terraces, and
buildings. Young men were liberally paid for the copies which they made
while pursuing their studies. It was this institution that kindled the flame of
genius in the breast of Michael Angelo, and to it must be attributed the
splendor which was shed by the fine arts over the close of the fifteenth
century, and which extended rapidly from Florence throughout Italy, and
over a great part of Europe. Among the friends of Lorenzo may be
mentioned Pico della Mirandola (1463- 1494), one of the most prominent
contributed to the restoration of Italian poetry was Lorenzo de' Medici
(1448-1492), the grandson of Cosmo. In the brilliant society that he
gathered around him, a new era was opened in Italian literature. Himself a
poet, he attempted to restore poetry to the condition in which Petrarch had
left it; although superior in some respects to that poet, he had less power of
versification, less sweetness, and harmony, but his ideas were more natural,
and his style was more simple. He attempted all kinds of poetical
composition, and in all he displayed the versatility of his talents and the
exuberance of his imagination. But to Lorenzo poetry was but an
amusement, scarcely regarded in his brilliant political career. He
concentrated in himself all the power of the republic—he was the arbiter of
the whole political state of Italy, and from the splendor with which he
surrounded himself, and his celebrity, he received the title of Lorenzo the
Magnificent. He continued to collect manuscripts, and to employ learned
men to prepare them for printing. His Platonic Academy extended its
researches into new paths of study. The collection of antique sculpture, the
germ of the gallery of Florence, which had been established by Cosmo, he
enriched, and gave to it a new destination, which was the occasion of
imparting fresh life and vigor to the liberal arts. He appropriated a part of
his gardens to serve as a school for the study of the antique, and placed his
statues, busts, and other models of art in the shrubberies, terraces, and
buildings. Young men were liberally paid for the copies which they made
while pursuing their studies. It was this institution that kindled the flame of
genius in the breast of Michael Angelo, and to it must be attributed the
splendor which was shed by the fine arts over the close of the fifteenth
century, and which extended rapidly from Florence throughout Italy, and
over a great part of Europe. Among the friends of Lorenzo may be
mentioned Pico della Mirandola (1463- 1494), one of the most prominent
Page 309
men of his age, who left in his Latin and Italian works monuments of his
vast erudition and exuberant talent.
The fifteenth century closed brightly on Florence, but it was otherwise
throughout Italy. Some of its princes still patronized the sciences, but most
of them were engaged in the intrigues of ambition; and the storms which
were gathering soon burst on Florence itself. Shortly after the death of
Lorenzo, nearly the whole of Italy fell under the rule of Charles VIII., and
the voice of science and literature was drowned in the clash of arms;
military violence dispersed the learned men, and pillage destroyed or
scattered the literary treasures. Literature and the arts, banished from their
long-loved home, sought another asylum. We find them again at Rome,
cherished by a more powerful and fortunate protector, Pope Leo X., the son
of Lorenzo (1475-1521). Though his patronage was confined to the fine arts
and to the lighter kinds of composition, yet owing to the influence of the
newly-invented art of printing, the discovery of Columbus, and the
Reformation, new energies were imparted to the age, the Italian mind was
awakened from its slumber, and prepared for a new era in literature.
2. THE ORIGIN OF THE DRAMA AND ROMANTIC EPIC.—Among
the gifted individuals in the circle of Lorenzo, the highest rank may be
assigned to Poliziano (1454-1494). He revived on the modern stage the
tragedies of the ancients, or rather created a new kind of pastoral tragedy,
on which Tasso did not disdain to employ his genius. His "Orpheus,"
composed within ten days, was performed at the Mantuan court in 1483,
and may be considered as the first dramatic composition in Italian. The
universal homage paid to Virgil had a decided influence on this kind of
poetry. His Bucolics were looked upon as dramas more poetical than those
of Terence and Seneca. The comedies of Plautus were represented, and the
taste for theatrical performances was eagerly renewed. In these
representations, however, the object in view was the restoration of the
vast erudition and exuberant talent.
The fifteenth century closed brightly on Florence, but it was otherwise
throughout Italy. Some of its princes still patronized the sciences, but most
of them were engaged in the intrigues of ambition; and the storms which
were gathering soon burst on Florence itself. Shortly after the death of
Lorenzo, nearly the whole of Italy fell under the rule of Charles VIII., and
the voice of science and literature was drowned in the clash of arms;
military violence dispersed the learned men, and pillage destroyed or
scattered the literary treasures. Literature and the arts, banished from their
long-loved home, sought another asylum. We find them again at Rome,
cherished by a more powerful and fortunate protector, Pope Leo X., the son
of Lorenzo (1475-1521). Though his patronage was confined to the fine arts
and to the lighter kinds of composition, yet owing to the influence of the
newly-invented art of printing, the discovery of Columbus, and the
Reformation, new energies were imparted to the age, the Italian mind was
awakened from its slumber, and prepared for a new era in literature.
2. THE ORIGIN OF THE DRAMA AND ROMANTIC EPIC.—Among
the gifted individuals in the circle of Lorenzo, the highest rank may be
assigned to Poliziano (1454-1494). He revived on the modern stage the
tragedies of the ancients, or rather created a new kind of pastoral tragedy,
on which Tasso did not disdain to employ his genius. His "Orpheus,"
composed within ten days, was performed at the Mantuan court in 1483,
and may be considered as the first dramatic composition in Italian. The
universal homage paid to Virgil had a decided influence on this kind of
poetry. His Bucolics were looked upon as dramas more poetical than those
of Terence and Seneca. The comedies of Plautus were represented, and the
taste for theatrical performances was eagerly renewed. In these
representations, however, the object in view was the restoration of the
Page 310
classics rather than the amusement of the public; and the new dramatists
confined themselves to a faithful copy of the ancients. But the Orpheus of
Poliziano caused a revolution. The beauty of the verse, the charm of the
music, and the decorations which accompanied its recital, produced an
excitement of feeling and intellect that combined to open the way for the
true dramatic art.
At the same time, several eminent poets devoted their attention to that
style of composition which was destined to form the glory of Ariosto. The
trouvères chose Charlemagne and his paladins as the heroes of their poems
and romances, and these, composed for the most part in French in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were early circulated in Italy. Their origin
accorded with the vivacity of the prevailing religious sentiment, the
violence of the passions and the taste for adventures which distinguished
the first crusades; while from the general ignorance of the times, their
supernatural agency was readily admitted. But at the close of the fifteenth
century, when the poets possessed themselves of these old romances, in
order to give a variety to the adventures of their heroes, the belief in the
marvelous was much diminished, and they could not be recounted without a
mixture of mockery. The spirit of the age did not admit in the Italian
language a subject entirely serious. He who made pretensions to fame was
compelled to write in Latin, and the choice of the vulgar tongue was the
indication of a humorous subject. The language had developed since the
time of Boccaccio a character of naïveté mingled with satire, which still
remains, and which is particularly remarkable in Ariosto.
The "Morgante Maggiore" of Pulci (1431-1470) is the first of these
romantic poems. It is alternately burlesque and serious, and it abounds with
passages of great pathos and beauty. The "Orlando Innamorato" of Boiardo
(1430-1494) is a poem somewhat similar to that of Pulci. It was, however,
remodeled by Berni, sixty years after the death of the author, and from the
confined themselves to a faithful copy of the ancients. But the Orpheus of
Poliziano caused a revolution. The beauty of the verse, the charm of the
music, and the decorations which accompanied its recital, produced an
excitement of feeling and intellect that combined to open the way for the
true dramatic art.
At the same time, several eminent poets devoted their attention to that
style of composition which was destined to form the glory of Ariosto. The
trouvères chose Charlemagne and his paladins as the heroes of their poems
and romances, and these, composed for the most part in French in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were early circulated in Italy. Their origin
accorded with the vivacity of the prevailing religious sentiment, the
violence of the passions and the taste for adventures which distinguished
the first crusades; while from the general ignorance of the times, their
supernatural agency was readily admitted. But at the close of the fifteenth
century, when the poets possessed themselves of these old romances, in
order to give a variety to the adventures of their heroes, the belief in the
marvelous was much diminished, and they could not be recounted without a
mixture of mockery. The spirit of the age did not admit in the Italian
language a subject entirely serious. He who made pretensions to fame was
compelled to write in Latin, and the choice of the vulgar tongue was the
indication of a humorous subject. The language had developed since the
time of Boccaccio a character of naïveté mingled with satire, which still
remains, and which is particularly remarkable in Ariosto.
The "Morgante Maggiore" of Pulci (1431-1470) is the first of these
romantic poems. It is alternately burlesque and serious, and it abounds with
passages of great pathos and beauty. The "Orlando Innamorato" of Boiardo
(1430-1494) is a poem somewhat similar to that of Pulci. It was, however,
remodeled by Berni, sixty years after the death of the author, and from the
Page 311
variety and novelty of the adventures, the richness of its descriptions, the
interest excited by its hero, and the honor rendered to the female sex, it
excels the Morgante.
3. ROMANTIC EPIC POETRY.—The romances of chivalry, which had
been thus versified by Pulci and Boiardo, were elevated to the rank of epic
poetry by the genius of Ariosto (1474-1533). He was born at Reggio, of
which place his father was governor. As the means of improving his
resources, he early attached himself to the service of Cardinal D'Este, and
afterwards to that of the Duke of Ferrara. At the age of thirty years he
commenced his "Orlando Furioso," and continued the composition for
eleven years. While the work was in progress, he was in the habit of reading
the cantos, as they were finished, at the courts of the cardinal and duke,
which may account for the manner in which this hundred-fold tale is told,
as if delivered spontaneously before scholars and princes, who assembled to
listen to the marvelous adventures of knights and ladies, giants and
magicians, from the lips of the story-teller. Ariosto excelled in the practice
of reading aloud with distinct utterance and animated elocution, an
accomplishment of peculiar value at a time when books were scarce, and
the emoluments of authors depended more on the gratuities of their patrons
than the sale of their works. In each of the four editions which he published,
he improved, corrected, and enlarged the original. No poet, perhaps, ever
evinced more fastidious taste in adjusting the nicer points that affected the
harmony, dignity, and fluency of his composition, yet the whole seems as
natural as if it had flowed extemporaneously from his pen. Throughout life
it was the lot of Ariosto to struggle against the difficulties inseparable from
narrow and precarious circumstances. His patrons, among them Leo X.,
were often culpable in exciting expectations, and afterwards disappointing
them. The earliest and latest works of Ariosto, though not his best, were
dramatic. He wrote also some satires in the form of epistles. He died in the
fifty-eighth year of his age, and his ashes now rest under the magnificent
interest excited by its hero, and the honor rendered to the female sex, it
excels the Morgante.
3. ROMANTIC EPIC POETRY.—The romances of chivalry, which had
been thus versified by Pulci and Boiardo, were elevated to the rank of epic
poetry by the genius of Ariosto (1474-1533). He was born at Reggio, of
which place his father was governor. As the means of improving his
resources, he early attached himself to the service of Cardinal D'Este, and
afterwards to that of the Duke of Ferrara. At the age of thirty years he
commenced his "Orlando Furioso," and continued the composition for
eleven years. While the work was in progress, he was in the habit of reading
the cantos, as they were finished, at the courts of the cardinal and duke,
which may account for the manner in which this hundred-fold tale is told,
as if delivered spontaneously before scholars and princes, who assembled to
listen to the marvelous adventures of knights and ladies, giants and
magicians, from the lips of the story-teller. Ariosto excelled in the practice
of reading aloud with distinct utterance and animated elocution, an
accomplishment of peculiar value at a time when books were scarce, and
the emoluments of authors depended more on the gratuities of their patrons
than the sale of their works. In each of the four editions which he published,
he improved, corrected, and enlarged the original. No poet, perhaps, ever
evinced more fastidious taste in adjusting the nicer points that affected the
harmony, dignity, and fluency of his composition, yet the whole seems as
natural as if it had flowed extemporaneously from his pen. Throughout life
it was the lot of Ariosto to struggle against the difficulties inseparable from
narrow and precarious circumstances. His patrons, among them Leo X.,
were often culpable in exciting expectations, and afterwards disappointing
them. The earliest and latest works of Ariosto, though not his best, were
dramatic. He wrote also some satires in the form of epistles. He died in the
fifty-eighth year of his age, and his ashes now rest under the magnificent
Page 312
monument in the new church of the Benedictines in Ferrara. The house in
which the poet lived, the chair in which he was wont to study, and the
inkstand whence he filled his pen, are still shown as interesting memorials
of his life and labors.
Ariosto, like Pulci and Boiardo, undertook to sing the paladins and their
amours at the court of Charlemagne, during the fabulous wars of this
emperor against the Moors. In his poem he seems to have designedly
thrown off the embarrassment of a unity of action. The Orlando Furioso is
founded on three principal narratives, distinct but often intermingled; the
history of the war between Charlemagne and the Saracens, Orlando's love
for Angelica, his madness on hearing of her infidelity, and Ruggiero's
attachment to Bradamante. These stories are interwoven with so many
incidents and episodes, and there is in the poem such a prodigious quantity
of action, that it is difficult to assign it a central point. Indeed, Ariosto,
playing with his readers, seems to delight in continually misleading them,
and allows them no opportunity of viewing the general subject of the poem.
This want of unity is essentially detrimental to the general impression of the
work, and the author has succeeded in throwing around its individual parts
an interest which does not attach to it as a whole. The world to which the
poet transports his readers is truly poetic; all the factitious wants of
common life, its cold calculations and its imaginary distinctions, disappear;
love and honor reign supreme, and the prompting of the one and the laws of
the other are alone permitted to stimulate and regulate a life, of which war
is the only business and gallantry the only pastime. The magic and sorcery,
borrowed from the East, which pervade these chivalric fictions, lead us still
farther from the world of realities. Nor is it the least charm that all the
wonders and prodigies here related are made to appear quite probable from
the apparently artless, truthful style of the narration. The versification of the
Orlando is more distinguished for sweetness and elegance than for strength;
which the poet lived, the chair in which he was wont to study, and the
inkstand whence he filled his pen, are still shown as interesting memorials
of his life and labors.
Ariosto, like Pulci and Boiardo, undertook to sing the paladins and their
amours at the court of Charlemagne, during the fabulous wars of this
emperor against the Moors. In his poem he seems to have designedly
thrown off the embarrassment of a unity of action. The Orlando Furioso is
founded on three principal narratives, distinct but often intermingled; the
history of the war between Charlemagne and the Saracens, Orlando's love
for Angelica, his madness on hearing of her infidelity, and Ruggiero's
attachment to Bradamante. These stories are interwoven with so many
incidents and episodes, and there is in the poem such a prodigious quantity
of action, that it is difficult to assign it a central point. Indeed, Ariosto,
playing with his readers, seems to delight in continually misleading them,
and allows them no opportunity of viewing the general subject of the poem.
This want of unity is essentially detrimental to the general impression of the
work, and the author has succeeded in throwing around its individual parts
an interest which does not attach to it as a whole. The world to which the
poet transports his readers is truly poetic; all the factitious wants of
common life, its cold calculations and its imaginary distinctions, disappear;
love and honor reign supreme, and the prompting of the one and the laws of
the other are alone permitted to stimulate and regulate a life, of which war
is the only business and gallantry the only pastime. The magic and sorcery,
borrowed from the East, which pervade these chivalric fictions, lead us still
farther from the world of realities. Nor is it the least charm that all the
wonders and prodigies here related are made to appear quite probable from
the apparently artless, truthful style of the narration. The versification of the
Orlando is more distinguished for sweetness and elegance than for strength;
Page 313
but, in point of harmony, and in the beauty, pathos, and grace of his
descriptions, no poet surpasses Ariosto.
4. HEROIC EPIC POETRY.—While, in the romantic epic of the Middle
Ages, unity of design was considered unnecessary, and truthfulness of
detail, fertility of imagination, strength of coloring, and vivacity of
narration were alone required, heroic poetry was expected to exhibit, on the
most extensive scale, those laws of symmetry which adapt all the parts to
one object, which combine variety with unity, and, as it were, initiate us
into the secrets of creation, by disclosing the single idea which governs the
most dissimilar actions, and harmonizes the most opposite interests. It was
reserved to Torquato Tasso to raise the Italian language to this kind of epic
poetry.
Tasso (1544-1595) was born in Sorrento, and many marvels are told by
his biographers of the precocity of his genius. Political convulsions early
drove his father into exile. He went to Rome and sent for his son, then ten
years of age. When the exiles were no longer safe at Rome, an asylum was
offered them at Pesaro by the Duke of Urbino. Here young Tasso pursued
his studies in all the learning and accomplishments of the age. In his
seventeenth year he had completed the composition of an epic poem on the
adventures of Rinaldo, which was received with passionate admiration
throughout Italy. The appearance of this poem proved not only the
beginning of the author's fame, but the dawn of a new day in Italian
literature. In 1565, Tasso was nominated by the Cardinal D'Este as
gentleman of his household, and his reception at the court was in every
respect most pleasing to his youthful ambition. He was honored by the
intimate acquaintance of the accomplished princesses Lucretia and Leonora,
and to this dangerous friendship must be attributed most of his subsequent
misfortunes, if it be true that he cherished a secret attachment for Leonora.
descriptions, no poet surpasses Ariosto.
4. HEROIC EPIC POETRY.—While, in the romantic epic of the Middle
Ages, unity of design was considered unnecessary, and truthfulness of
detail, fertility of imagination, strength of coloring, and vivacity of
narration were alone required, heroic poetry was expected to exhibit, on the
most extensive scale, those laws of symmetry which adapt all the parts to
one object, which combine variety with unity, and, as it were, initiate us
into the secrets of creation, by disclosing the single idea which governs the
most dissimilar actions, and harmonizes the most opposite interests. It was
reserved to Torquato Tasso to raise the Italian language to this kind of epic
poetry.
Tasso (1544-1595) was born in Sorrento, and many marvels are told by
his biographers of the precocity of his genius. Political convulsions early
drove his father into exile. He went to Rome and sent for his son, then ten
years of age. When the exiles were no longer safe at Rome, an asylum was
offered them at Pesaro by the Duke of Urbino. Here young Tasso pursued
his studies in all the learning and accomplishments of the age. In his
seventeenth year he had completed the composition of an epic poem on the
adventures of Rinaldo, which was received with passionate admiration
throughout Italy. The appearance of this poem proved not only the
beginning of the author's fame, but the dawn of a new day in Italian
literature. In 1565, Tasso was nominated by the Cardinal D'Este as
gentleman of his household, and his reception at the court was in every
respect most pleasing to his youthful ambition. He was honored by the
intimate acquaintance of the accomplished princesses Lucretia and Leonora,
and to this dangerous friendship must be attributed most of his subsequent
misfortunes, if it be true that he cherished a secret attachment for Leonora.
Page 314
During this prosperous period of his life, Tasso prosecuted his great epic
poem, the "Jerusalem Delivered," and as canto after canto was completed
and recited to the princesses, he found in their applause repeated stimulus to
proceed. While steadily engaged in his great work, his fancy gave birth to
numerous fugitive poems, the most remarkable of which is the "Aminta."
After its representation at the court of Ferrara, all Italy resounded with the
poet's fame. It was translated into all the languages of Europe, and the name
of Tasso would have been immortal even though he had never composed an
epic. The various vexations he endured regarding the publication of his
work at its conclusion, the wrongs he suffered from both patrons and rivals,
together with disappointed ambition, rendered him the subject of feverish
anxiety and afterwards the prey of restless fear and continual suspicion. His
mental malady increased, and he wandered from place to place without
finding any permanent home. Assuming the disguise of a shepherd, he
traveled to Sorrento, to visit his sister; but soon, tired of seclusion, he
obtained permission to return to the court of Ferrara. He was coldly
received by the duke, and was refused an interview with the princesses. He
left the place in indignation, and wandered from one city of Italy to another,
reduced to the appearance of a wretched itinerant, sometimes kindly
received, sometimes driven away as a vagabond, always restless,
suspicious, and unhappy. In this mood he again returned to Ferrara, at a
moment when the duke was too much occupied with the solemnities of his
own marriage to attend to the complaints of the poet. Tasso became
infuriated, retracted all the praises he had bestowed on the house of Este,
and indulged in the bitterest invectives against the duke, by whose orders he
was afterwards committed to the hospital for lunatics, where he was closely
confined, and treated with extreme rigor. If he had never been insane
before, he certainly now became so. To add to his misfortune, his poem was
printed without his permission, from an imperfect copy, and while editors
and printers enriched themselves with the fruit of his labors, the poet
poem, the "Jerusalem Delivered," and as canto after canto was completed
and recited to the princesses, he found in their applause repeated stimulus to
proceed. While steadily engaged in his great work, his fancy gave birth to
numerous fugitive poems, the most remarkable of which is the "Aminta."
After its representation at the court of Ferrara, all Italy resounded with the
poet's fame. It was translated into all the languages of Europe, and the name
of Tasso would have been immortal even though he had never composed an
epic. The various vexations he endured regarding the publication of his
work at its conclusion, the wrongs he suffered from both patrons and rivals,
together with disappointed ambition, rendered him the subject of feverish
anxiety and afterwards the prey of restless fear and continual suspicion. His
mental malady increased, and he wandered from place to place without
finding any permanent home. Assuming the disguise of a shepherd, he
traveled to Sorrento, to visit his sister; but soon, tired of seclusion, he
obtained permission to return to the court of Ferrara. He was coldly
received by the duke, and was refused an interview with the princesses. He
left the place in indignation, and wandered from one city of Italy to another,
reduced to the appearance of a wretched itinerant, sometimes kindly
received, sometimes driven away as a vagabond, always restless,
suspicious, and unhappy. In this mood he again returned to Ferrara, at a
moment when the duke was too much occupied with the solemnities of his
own marriage to attend to the complaints of the poet. Tasso became
infuriated, retracted all the praises he had bestowed on the house of Este,
and indulged in the bitterest invectives against the duke, by whose orders he
was afterwards committed to the hospital for lunatics, where he was closely
confined, and treated with extreme rigor. If he had never been insane
before, he certainly now became so. To add to his misfortune, his poem was
printed without his permission, from an imperfect copy, and while editors
and printers enriched themselves with the fruit of his labors, the poet
Page 315
himself was languishing in a dungeon, despised, neglected, sick, and
destitute of the common conveniences of life, and above all, deafened by
the frantic cries with which the hospital continually resounded. When the
first rigors of his imprisonment were relaxed, Tasso pursued his studies, and
poured forth his emotions in every form of verse. Some of his most
beautiful minor poems were composed during this period. After more than
seven years' confinement, the poet was liberated at the intercession of the
Duke of Mantua. Prom this time he wandered from city to city; the
hallucinations of his mind never entirely ceased. Towards the close of the
year 1594 he took up his residence at Rome, where he died at the age of
fifty-two.
Tasso was particularly happy in choosing the most engaging subject that
could inspire a modern poet—the struggle between the Christians and the
Saracens. The Saracens considered themselves called on to subjugate the
earth to the faith of Mohammed; the Christians to enfranchise the sacred
spot where their divine founder suffered death. The religion of the age was
wholly warlike. It was a profound, disinterested, enthusiastic, and poetic
sentiment, and no period has beheld such a brilliant display of valor. The
belief in the supernatural, which formed a striking characteristic of the time,
seemed to have usurped the laws of nature and the common course of
events.
The faith against which the crusaders fought appeared to them the
worship of the powers of darkness. They believed that a contest might exist
between invisible beings as between different nations, and when Tasso
armed the dark powers of enchantment against the Christian knights, he
only developed and embellished a popular idea.
The scene of the Jerusalem Delivered, so rich in recollections and
associations with all our religious feelings, is one in which nature displays
destitute of the common conveniences of life, and above all, deafened by
the frantic cries with which the hospital continually resounded. When the
first rigors of his imprisonment were relaxed, Tasso pursued his studies, and
poured forth his emotions in every form of verse. Some of his most
beautiful minor poems were composed during this period. After more than
seven years' confinement, the poet was liberated at the intercession of the
Duke of Mantua. Prom this time he wandered from city to city; the
hallucinations of his mind never entirely ceased. Towards the close of the
year 1594 he took up his residence at Rome, where he died at the age of
fifty-two.
Tasso was particularly happy in choosing the most engaging subject that
could inspire a modern poet—the struggle between the Christians and the
Saracens. The Saracens considered themselves called on to subjugate the
earth to the faith of Mohammed; the Christians to enfranchise the sacred
spot where their divine founder suffered death. The religion of the age was
wholly warlike. It was a profound, disinterested, enthusiastic, and poetic
sentiment, and no period has beheld such a brilliant display of valor. The
belief in the supernatural, which formed a striking characteristic of the time,
seemed to have usurped the laws of nature and the common course of
events.
The faith against which the crusaders fought appeared to them the
worship of the powers of darkness. They believed that a contest might exist
between invisible beings as between different nations, and when Tasso
armed the dark powers of enchantment against the Christian knights, he
only developed and embellished a popular idea.
The scene of the Jerusalem Delivered, so rich in recollections and
associations with all our religious feelings, is one in which nature displays
Page 316
her riches and treasures, and where descriptions, in turn the most lovely and
the most austere, attract the pen of the poet. All the nations of Christendom
send forth their warriors to the army of the cross, and the whole world thus
becomes his patrimony. Whatever interest the taking of Troy might possess
for the Greeks, or the vanity of the Romans might attach to the adventures
of AEneas, whom they adopted as their progenitor, it may be asserted that
neither the Iliad nor the Aeneid possesses the dignity of subject, the interest
at the same time divine and human, and the varied dramatic action which
are peculiar to the Jerusalem Delivered.
The whole course of the poem is comprised in the campaign of 1093,
when the Christian army, assembled on the plain of Tortosa, marched
towards Jerusalem, which they besieged and captured. From the
commencement of the poem, the most tender sentiments are combined with
the action, and love has been assigned a nobler part than had been given to
it in any other epic poem. Love, enthusiastic, respectful, and full of homage,
was an essential characteristic of chivalry and the source of the noblest
actions. While with the heroes of the classic epic it was a weakness, with
the Christian knights it was a devotion. In this work are happily combined
the classic and romantic styles. It is classic in its plan, romantic in its
heroes; it is conceived in the spirit of antiquity, and executed in the spirit of
medieval romance. It has the beauty which results from unity of design and
from the harmony of all its parts, united with the romantic form, which falls
in with the feelings, the passions, and the recollections of Europeans.
Notwithstanding some defects, which must be attributed rather to the taste
of his age than to his genius, in the history of literature Tasso may be placed
by the side of Homer and Virgil.
5. LYRIC POETRY.—Lyric poetry, which had been brought to such
perfection by Petrarch in the fourteenth century, but almost lost sight of in
the fifteenth, was cultivated by all the Italian poets of this period. Petrarch
the most austere, attract the pen of the poet. All the nations of Christendom
send forth their warriors to the army of the cross, and the whole world thus
becomes his patrimony. Whatever interest the taking of Troy might possess
for the Greeks, or the vanity of the Romans might attach to the adventures
of AEneas, whom they adopted as their progenitor, it may be asserted that
neither the Iliad nor the Aeneid possesses the dignity of subject, the interest
at the same time divine and human, and the varied dramatic action which
are peculiar to the Jerusalem Delivered.
The whole course of the poem is comprised in the campaign of 1093,
when the Christian army, assembled on the plain of Tortosa, marched
towards Jerusalem, which they besieged and captured. From the
commencement of the poem, the most tender sentiments are combined with
the action, and love has been assigned a nobler part than had been given to
it in any other epic poem. Love, enthusiastic, respectful, and full of homage,
was an essential characteristic of chivalry and the source of the noblest
actions. While with the heroes of the classic epic it was a weakness, with
the Christian knights it was a devotion. In this work are happily combined
the classic and romantic styles. It is classic in its plan, romantic in its
heroes; it is conceived in the spirit of antiquity, and executed in the spirit of
medieval romance. It has the beauty which results from unity of design and
from the harmony of all its parts, united with the romantic form, which falls
in with the feelings, the passions, and the recollections of Europeans.
Notwithstanding some defects, which must be attributed rather to the taste
of his age than to his genius, in the history of literature Tasso may be placed
by the side of Homer and Virgil.
5. LYRIC POETRY.—Lyric poetry, which had been brought to such
perfection by Petrarch in the fourteenth century, but almost lost sight of in
the fifteenth, was cultivated by all the Italian poets of this period. Petrarch
Page 317
became the model, which every aspirant endeavored to imitate. Hence arose
a host of poetasters, who wrote with considerable elegance, but without the
least power of imagination. We must not, however, confound with the
servile imitators of Petrarch those who took nothing from his school but
purity of language and elegance of style, and who consecrated the lyre not
to love alone, but to patriotism and religion. First of these are Poliziano and
Lorenzo de' Medici, in whose ballads and stanzas the language of Petrarch
reappeared with all its beauty and harmony. Later, Cardinal Bembo (1470-
1547), Molza (1489-1544), Tarsia (1476-1535), Guidiccioni (1480-1541),
Della Casa (1503-1556), Costanzo (1507-1585), and later still, Chiabrera
(1552-1637), attempted to restore Italian poetry to its primitive elegance.
Their sonnets and canzoni contributed much to the revival of a purer style,
although their elegance is often too elaborate and their thoughts and
feelings too artificial. Besides these, Ariosto, Tasso, Machiavelli, and
Michael Angelo, whose genius was practiced in more ambitious tasks, did
not disdain to shape and polish such diminutive gems as the canzone, the
madrigal, and the sonnet.
This reform of taste in lyric composition was also promoted by several
women, among whom the most distinguished at once for beauty, virtue, and
talent was Vittoria Colonna (1490-1547). She was daughter of the high
constable of Naples, and married to the Marquis of Pescara. Early left a
widow, she abandoned herself to sorrow. That fidelity which made her
refuse the hand of princes in her youth, rendered her incapable of a second
attachment in her widowhood. The solace of her life was to mourn the loss
and cherish the memory of Pescara. After passing several years in
retirement, Vittoria took up her residence at Rome, and became the intimate
friend of the distinguished men of her time. Her verses, though deficient in
poetic fancy, are full of tenderness and absorbing passion. Vittoria Colonna
was reckoned by her contemporaries as a being almost more than human,
and the epithet divine was usually prefixed to her name. By her death-bed
a host of poetasters, who wrote with considerable elegance, but without the
least power of imagination. We must not, however, confound with the
servile imitators of Petrarch those who took nothing from his school but
purity of language and elegance of style, and who consecrated the lyre not
to love alone, but to patriotism and religion. First of these are Poliziano and
Lorenzo de' Medici, in whose ballads and stanzas the language of Petrarch
reappeared with all its beauty and harmony. Later, Cardinal Bembo (1470-
1547), Molza (1489-1544), Tarsia (1476-1535), Guidiccioni (1480-1541),
Della Casa (1503-1556), Costanzo (1507-1585), and later still, Chiabrera
(1552-1637), attempted to restore Italian poetry to its primitive elegance.
Their sonnets and canzoni contributed much to the revival of a purer style,
although their elegance is often too elaborate and their thoughts and
feelings too artificial. Besides these, Ariosto, Tasso, Machiavelli, and
Michael Angelo, whose genius was practiced in more ambitious tasks, did
not disdain to shape and polish such diminutive gems as the canzone, the
madrigal, and the sonnet.
This reform of taste in lyric composition was also promoted by several
women, among whom the most distinguished at once for beauty, virtue, and
talent was Vittoria Colonna (1490-1547). She was daughter of the high
constable of Naples, and married to the Marquis of Pescara. Early left a
widow, she abandoned herself to sorrow. That fidelity which made her
refuse the hand of princes in her youth, rendered her incapable of a second
attachment in her widowhood. The solace of her life was to mourn the loss
and cherish the memory of Pescara. After passing several years in
retirement, Vittoria took up her residence at Rome, and became the intimate
friend of the distinguished men of her time. Her verses, though deficient in
poetic fancy, are full of tenderness and absorbing passion. Vittoria Colonna
was reckoned by her contemporaries as a being almost more than human,
and the epithet divine was usually prefixed to her name. By her death-bed
Page 318
stood Michael Angelo, who was considerably her junior, but who enjoyed
her friendship and regarded her with enthusiastic veneration. He wrote
several sonnets in her praise. Veronica Gambara, Tullia d'Aragona, and
Giulia Gonzaga may also be named as possessing superior genius to many
literary men of their time.
6. DRAMATIC POETRY.—Tragedy, in the hands of the Romans, had
exhibited no national characteristics, and disappeared with the decline of
their literature. When Europe began to breathe again, the natural taste of the
multitude for games and spectacles revived; the church entertained the
people with its representations, which, however, were destitute of all
literary character. At the commencement of the fourteenth century we find
traces of Latin tragedies, and these, during the fifteenth century, were
frequently represented, as we have seen, more as a branch of ancient art and
learning than as matter of recreation. After the "Orpheus" of Poliziano had
appeared on the stage, the first drama in the Italian tongue, Latin tragedies
and comedies were translated into the Italian, but as yet no one had
ventured beyond mere translation.
Leo X. shed over the dramatic art the same favor which he bestowed on
the other liberal arts, and the theatricals of the Vatican were of the most
splendid description. During his pontificate, Trissino (1478-1550) dedicated
to him the tragedy of "Sofonisba," formed on the Greek model, the first
regular tragedy which had appeared since the revival of letters. Its subject is
found entire in the work of Livy, and the invention of the poet has added
little to the records of the historian. The piece is not divided into acts and
scenes, and the only repose given to the action is by the chorus, who sing
odes and lyric stanzas. The story is well conducted, the characters are all
dramatic, and the incidents arise spontaneously out of each other; but the
style of the tragedy has neither the sublimity nor the originality which
her friendship and regarded her with enthusiastic veneration. He wrote
several sonnets in her praise. Veronica Gambara, Tullia d'Aragona, and
Giulia Gonzaga may also be named as possessing superior genius to many
literary men of their time.
6. DRAMATIC POETRY.—Tragedy, in the hands of the Romans, had
exhibited no national characteristics, and disappeared with the decline of
their literature. When Europe began to breathe again, the natural taste of the
multitude for games and spectacles revived; the church entertained the
people with its representations, which, however, were destitute of all
literary character. At the commencement of the fourteenth century we find
traces of Latin tragedies, and these, during the fifteenth century, were
frequently represented, as we have seen, more as a branch of ancient art and
learning than as matter of recreation. After the "Orpheus" of Poliziano had
appeared on the stage, the first drama in the Italian tongue, Latin tragedies
and comedies were translated into the Italian, but as yet no one had
ventured beyond mere translation.
Leo X. shed over the dramatic art the same favor which he bestowed on
the other liberal arts, and the theatricals of the Vatican were of the most
splendid description. During his pontificate, Trissino (1478-1550) dedicated
to him the tragedy of "Sofonisba," formed on the Greek model, the first
regular tragedy which had appeared since the revival of letters. Its subject is
found entire in the work of Livy, and the invention of the poet has added
little to the records of the historian. The piece is not divided into acts and
scenes, and the only repose given to the action is by the chorus, who sing
odes and lyric stanzas. The story is well conducted, the characters are all
dramatic, and the incidents arise spontaneously out of each other; but the
style of the tragedy has neither the sublimity nor the originality which
Page 319
becomes this kind of composition, and which distinguished the genius of
the dramatic poets of Athens.
The example of Trissino was followed by Rucellai (1475-1525), who left
two dramas, "Rosamunda" and "Orestes," written in blank verse, with a
chorus, much resembling the Greek tragedies. This poet used much more
license with his subject than Trissino; his plot is less simple and pathetic,
but abounds in horror, and his style is florid and rhetorical. Tasso, Speroni
(1500-1588), Giraldi (1504-1573), and others, attempted also this species of
composition, and their dramas are considered the best of the age.
As the tragic poets of this century servilely imitated Sophocles and
Euripides, the comic writers copied Plautus and Terence. The comedies of
Ariosto, of which there are five, display considerable ingenuity of invention
and an elegant vivacity of language. The dramatic works of Machiavelli
approach more nearly to the middle comedy of the Greeks. They depict and
satirize contemporaneous rather than obsolete manners, but the characters
and plots awaken little interest.
Bentivoglio (1506-1573), Salviati (1540-1589), Firenzuola (1493-1547),
Caro (1507-1566), Cardinal Bibiena, (1470-1520), Aretino (1492-1556),
and others, are among the principal comic writers of the age, who displayed
more or less dramatic talent. Of all the Italian comedies composed in the
sixteenth century, however, scarcely one was the work of eminent genius. A
species of comic drama, known under the name of Commedia dell' arte,
took its rise in this century. The characteristic of these plays is that the story
only belongs to the poet, the dialogue being improvised by the actors. The
four principal characters, denominated masks, were Pantaloon, a merchant
of Venice, a doctor of laws from Bologna, and two servants, known to us as
Harlequin and Columbine. When we add to these a couple of sons, one
virtuous and the other profligate; a couple of daughters, and a pert,
the dramatic poets of Athens.
The example of Trissino was followed by Rucellai (1475-1525), who left
two dramas, "Rosamunda" and "Orestes," written in blank verse, with a
chorus, much resembling the Greek tragedies. This poet used much more
license with his subject than Trissino; his plot is less simple and pathetic,
but abounds in horror, and his style is florid and rhetorical. Tasso, Speroni
(1500-1588), Giraldi (1504-1573), and others, attempted also this species of
composition, and their dramas are considered the best of the age.
As the tragic poets of this century servilely imitated Sophocles and
Euripides, the comic writers copied Plautus and Terence. The comedies of
Ariosto, of which there are five, display considerable ingenuity of invention
and an elegant vivacity of language. The dramatic works of Machiavelli
approach more nearly to the middle comedy of the Greeks. They depict and
satirize contemporaneous rather than obsolete manners, but the characters
and plots awaken little interest.
Bentivoglio (1506-1573), Salviati (1540-1589), Firenzuola (1493-1547),
Caro (1507-1566), Cardinal Bibiena, (1470-1520), Aretino (1492-1556),
and others, are among the principal comic writers of the age, who displayed
more or less dramatic talent. Of all the Italian comedies composed in the
sixteenth century, however, scarcely one was the work of eminent genius. A
species of comic drama, known under the name of Commedia dell' arte,
took its rise in this century. The characteristic of these plays is that the story
only belongs to the poet, the dialogue being improvised by the actors. The
four principal characters, denominated masks, were Pantaloon, a merchant
of Venice, a doctor of laws from Bologna, and two servants, known to us as
Harlequin and Columbine. When we add to these a couple of sons, one
virtuous and the other profligate; a couple of daughters, and a pert,
Page 320
intriguing chambermaid, we have nearly the whole dramatis personae of
these plays. The extempore dialogue by which the plot was developed was
replete with drollery and wit, and there was no end to the novelty of the
jests.
7. PASTORAL DRAMA AND DIDACTIC POETRY.—The pastoral
drama, which describes characters and passions in their primitive simplicity,
is thus distinguished from tragedy and comedy. It is probable that the idyls
of the Greeks afforded the first germ of this species of composition, but
Beccari, a poet of Ferrara (1510-1590), is considered the father of the
genuine pastoral drama. Before him Sannazzaro (1458-1530) had written
the "Arcadia," which, however, bears the character of an eclogue rather than
that of a drama. It is written in the choicest Italian; its versification is
melodious, and it abounds with beautiful descriptions; as an imitation of the
ancients, it is entitled to the highest rank. The beauty of the Italian
landscape and the softness of the Italian climate seem naturally fitted to
dispose the poetic soul to the dreams of rural life, and the language seems,
by its graceful simplicity, peculiarly adapted to express the feelings of a
class of people whom we picture to ourselves as ingenuous and infantine in
their natures. The manners of the Italian peasantry are more truly pastoral
than those of any other people, and a bucolic poet in that fair region need
not wander to Arcadia. But Sannazzaro, like all the early pastoral poets of
Italy, proposed to himself, as the highest excellence, a close imitation of
Virgil; he took his shepherds from the fabulous ages of antiquity, borrowed
the mythology of the Greeks, and completed the machinery with fauns,
nymphs, and satyrs. Like Sannazzaro, Beccari places his shepherds in
Arcadia, and invests them with ancient manners; but he goes beyond mere
dialogue; he connects their conversations by a series of dramatic actions.
The representation of one of these poems incited Tasso to the composition
of his "Aminta," the success of which was due less to the interest of the
story than to the sweetness of the poetry, and the soft voluptuousness which
these plays. The extempore dialogue by which the plot was developed was
replete with drollery and wit, and there was no end to the novelty of the
jests.
7. PASTORAL DRAMA AND DIDACTIC POETRY.—The pastoral
drama, which describes characters and passions in their primitive simplicity,
is thus distinguished from tragedy and comedy. It is probable that the idyls
of the Greeks afforded the first germ of this species of composition, but
Beccari, a poet of Ferrara (1510-1590), is considered the father of the
genuine pastoral drama. Before him Sannazzaro (1458-1530) had written
the "Arcadia," which, however, bears the character of an eclogue rather than
that of a drama. It is written in the choicest Italian; its versification is
melodious, and it abounds with beautiful descriptions; as an imitation of the
ancients, it is entitled to the highest rank. The beauty of the Italian
landscape and the softness of the Italian climate seem naturally fitted to
dispose the poetic soul to the dreams of rural life, and the language seems,
by its graceful simplicity, peculiarly adapted to express the feelings of a
class of people whom we picture to ourselves as ingenuous and infantine in
their natures. The manners of the Italian peasantry are more truly pastoral
than those of any other people, and a bucolic poet in that fair region need
not wander to Arcadia. But Sannazzaro, like all the early pastoral poets of
Italy, proposed to himself, as the highest excellence, a close imitation of
Virgil; he took his shepherds from the fabulous ages of antiquity, borrowed
the mythology of the Greeks, and completed the machinery with fauns,
nymphs, and satyrs. Like Sannazzaro, Beccari places his shepherds in
Arcadia, and invests them with ancient manners; but he goes beyond mere
dialogue; he connects their conversations by a series of dramatic actions.
The representation of one of these poems incited Tasso to the composition
of his "Aminta," the success of which was due less to the interest of the
story than to the sweetness of the poetry, and the soft voluptuousness which
Page 321
breathes in every line. It is written in flowing verse of various measures,
without rhyme, and enriched with lyric choruses of uncommon beauty.
The imitations of the Aminta were numerous, but, with one exception,
which has disputed the palm with its model, they had an ephemeral
existence. Guarini (1537-1612) was the author of the "Pastor Fido," which
is the principal monument of his genius; its chief merit lies in the poetry in
which the tale is embodied, the simplicity and clearness of the diction, the
tenderness of the sentiments, and the vehement passion which gives life to
the whole. This drama was first performed in 1585, at Turin, during the
nuptial festivities of the Prince of Savoy. Its success was triumphant, and
Guarini was justly considered as second only to Tasso among the poets of
the age. Theatrical music, which was now beginning to be cultivated, found
its way into the acts of the pastoral drama, and in one scene of the Pastor
Fido it is united with dancing; thus was opened the way for the Italian
opera.
Among the didactic poets, Rucellai may be first mentioned. His poem of
"The Bees" is an imitation of the fourth book of the Georgics; he does not,
however, servilely follow his model, but gives an original coloring to that
which he borrowed. Alamanni (1495-1556) occupies a secondary rank
among epic, tragic, and comic poets, but merits a distinguished place in
didactic poetry. His poem entitled "Cultivation" is pure and elegant in its
style.
8. SATIRICAL POETRY, NOVELS, AND TALES.—In an age when
every kind of poetry that had flourished among the Greeks and Romans
appeared again with new lustre, satire was not wanting. There is much that
is satirical in the "Divine Comedy" of Dante. Three of Petrarch's sonnets are
satires on the court of Rome; those of Ariosto are valuable not only for their
flowing style, but for the details they afford of his character, taste, and
without rhyme, and enriched with lyric choruses of uncommon beauty.
The imitations of the Aminta were numerous, but, with one exception,
which has disputed the palm with its model, they had an ephemeral
existence. Guarini (1537-1612) was the author of the "Pastor Fido," which
is the principal monument of his genius; its chief merit lies in the poetry in
which the tale is embodied, the simplicity and clearness of the diction, the
tenderness of the sentiments, and the vehement passion which gives life to
the whole. This drama was first performed in 1585, at Turin, during the
nuptial festivities of the Prince of Savoy. Its success was triumphant, and
Guarini was justly considered as second only to Tasso among the poets of
the age. Theatrical music, which was now beginning to be cultivated, found
its way into the acts of the pastoral drama, and in one scene of the Pastor
Fido it is united with dancing; thus was opened the way for the Italian
opera.
Among the didactic poets, Rucellai may be first mentioned. His poem of
"The Bees" is an imitation of the fourth book of the Georgics; he does not,
however, servilely follow his model, but gives an original coloring to that
which he borrowed. Alamanni (1495-1556) occupies a secondary rank
among epic, tragic, and comic poets, but merits a distinguished place in
didactic poetry. His poem entitled "Cultivation" is pure and elegant in its
style.
8. SATIRICAL POETRY, NOVELS, AND TALES.—In an age when
every kind of poetry that had flourished among the Greeks and Romans
appeared again with new lustre, satire was not wanting. There is much that
is satirical in the "Divine Comedy" of Dante. Three of Petrarch's sonnets are
satires on the court of Rome; those of Ariosto are valuable not only for their
flowing style, but for the details they afford of his character, taste, and
Page 322
circumstances. The satires of Alamanni are chiefly political, and in general
are characterized by purity of diction and by a high moral tendency.
There is a kind of jocose or burlesque satire peculiar to Italy, in which the
literature is extremely rich. If it serves the cause of wisdom, it is always in
the mask of folly. The poet who carried this kind of writing to the highest
perfection was Berni (1499-1536). Comic poetry, hitherto known in Italy as
burlesque, of which Burchiello was the representative in the fifteenth
century, received from Berni the name of Bernesque, in its more refined and
elegant character. His satirical poems are full of light and elegant mockery,
and his style possesses nature and comic truth. In his hand, everything was
transformed into ridicule; his satire is almost always personal, and his
laughter is not always restrained by respect for morals or for decency. To
burlesque poetry may be referred also the Macaronic style, a ludicrous
mixture of Latin and Italian, introduced by Merlino Coccajo (1491-1544).
His poems are as full of lively descriptions and piquant satire as they are
wanting in decorum and morality.
The story-tellers of the sixteenth century are numerous. Sometimes they
appear as followers of Boccaccio; sometimes they attempt to open new
paths for themselves. The class of productions, of which the "Decameron"
was the earliest example in the fourteenth century, is called by the Italians
"Novelle." In general, the interest of the tale depends rather on a number of
incidents slightly touched, than on a few carefully delineated; from the
difficulty of developing character in a few isolated scenes, the story-teller
trusts for effect to the combination of incident and style, and the delineation
of character, which is the nobler part of fiction, is neglected. Italian
novelists, too, have often regarded the incidents themselves but as a vehicle
for fine writing. An interesting view of these productions is, that they form
a vast repository of incident, in which we recognize the origin of much that
has since appeared in our own and other languages.
are characterized by purity of diction and by a high moral tendency.
There is a kind of jocose or burlesque satire peculiar to Italy, in which the
literature is extremely rich. If it serves the cause of wisdom, it is always in
the mask of folly. The poet who carried this kind of writing to the highest
perfection was Berni (1499-1536). Comic poetry, hitherto known in Italy as
burlesque, of which Burchiello was the representative in the fifteenth
century, received from Berni the name of Bernesque, in its more refined and
elegant character. His satirical poems are full of light and elegant mockery,
and his style possesses nature and comic truth. In his hand, everything was
transformed into ridicule; his satire is almost always personal, and his
laughter is not always restrained by respect for morals or for decency. To
burlesque poetry may be referred also the Macaronic style, a ludicrous
mixture of Latin and Italian, introduced by Merlino Coccajo (1491-1544).
His poems are as full of lively descriptions and piquant satire as they are
wanting in decorum and morality.
The story-tellers of the sixteenth century are numerous. Sometimes they
appear as followers of Boccaccio; sometimes they attempt to open new
paths for themselves. The class of productions, of which the "Decameron"
was the earliest example in the fourteenth century, is called by the Italians
"Novelle." In general, the interest of the tale depends rather on a number of
incidents slightly touched, than on a few carefully delineated; from the
difficulty of developing character in a few isolated scenes, the story-teller
trusts for effect to the combination of incident and style, and the delineation
of character, which is the nobler part of fiction, is neglected. Italian
novelists, too, have often regarded the incidents themselves but as a vehicle
for fine writing. An interesting view of these productions is, that they form
a vast repository of incident, in which we recognize the origin of much that
has since appeared in our own and other languages.
Page 323
Machiavelli was one of the first novelists of this age. His little tale,
"Belfagor," is pleasantly told, and has been translated into all languages.
The celebrated "Giulietta" of Luigi da Porta is the sole production of the
author, but it has served to give him a high place among Italian novelists.
This is Shakspeare's Romeo and Juliet in another shape, though it is not
probable that it was the immediate source from which the great dramatist
collected the materials for his tragedy. The "Hundred Tales" of Cinzio
Giraldi (1504-1573) are distinguished by great boldness of conception, and
by a wild and tragic horror which commands the attention, while it is
revolting to the feelings. He appears to have ransacked every age and
country, and to have exhausted the catalogue of human crimes in procuring
subjects for his novels.
Grazzini, called Lasca (1503-1583), is perhaps the best of the Italian
novelists after Boccaccio. His manner is light and graceful. His stories
display much ingenuity, but are often improbable and cruel in their nature.
The Fairy Tales of Strapparola (b. 1500) are the earliest specimens of the
kind in the prose literature of Italy, and this work has been a perfect
storehouse from which succeeding writers have derived a vast multitude of
their tales. To this, also, we are indebted for the legend of "Fair Star," "Puss
in Boots," "Fortunio," and others which adorn our nursery libraries.
Firenzuola (1493-1547) occupies a high rank among the Italian novelists;
his "Golden Ass," from Apuleius, and his "Discourses of Animals" are
distinguished for their originality and purity of style.
Bandello (1480-1562) is the novelist best known to foreigners after
Boccaccio. Shakspeare and other English dramatists have drawn largely
from his voluminous writings. His tales are founded upon history rather
than fancy.
"Belfagor," is pleasantly told, and has been translated into all languages.
The celebrated "Giulietta" of Luigi da Porta is the sole production of the
author, but it has served to give him a high place among Italian novelists.
This is Shakspeare's Romeo and Juliet in another shape, though it is not
probable that it was the immediate source from which the great dramatist
collected the materials for his tragedy. The "Hundred Tales" of Cinzio
Giraldi (1504-1573) are distinguished by great boldness of conception, and
by a wild and tragic horror which commands the attention, while it is
revolting to the feelings. He appears to have ransacked every age and
country, and to have exhausted the catalogue of human crimes in procuring
subjects for his novels.
Grazzini, called Lasca (1503-1583), is perhaps the best of the Italian
novelists after Boccaccio. His manner is light and graceful. His stories
display much ingenuity, but are often improbable and cruel in their nature.
The Fairy Tales of Strapparola (b. 1500) are the earliest specimens of the
kind in the prose literature of Italy, and this work has been a perfect
storehouse from which succeeding writers have derived a vast multitude of
their tales. To this, also, we are indebted for the legend of "Fair Star," "Puss
in Boots," "Fortunio," and others which adorn our nursery libraries.
Firenzuola (1493-1547) occupies a high rank among the Italian novelists;
his "Golden Ass," from Apuleius, and his "Discourses of Animals" are
distinguished for their originality and purity of style.
Bandello (1480-1562) is the novelist best known to foreigners after
Boccaccio. Shakspeare and other English dramatists have drawn largely
from his voluminous writings. His tales are founded upon history rather
than fancy.
Page 324
9. HISTORY.—Historical composition was cultivated with much success
by the Italians of the sixteenth century; yet such was the altered state of
things, that, except at Venice and Genoa, republics had been superseded by
princes, and republican authority by the pomp of regal courts. Home was a
nest of intrigue, luxury, and corruption; Tuscany had become the prey of a
powerful family; Lombardy was but a battle-field for the rival powers of
France and Germany, and the lot of the people was oppression and
humiliation. High independence of mind, one of the most valuable qualities
in connection with historical research, was impossible under these
circumstances, and yet, some of the Italian writers of this age exhibit
genius, strength of character, and a conscientious sense of the sacred
commission of the historian.
Machiavelli (1469-1527) was born in Florence of a family which had
enjoyed the first offices in the republic. At the age of thirty, he was made
chancellor of the state, and from that time he was constantly employed in
public affairs, and particularly in embassies. Among those to the smaller
princes of Italy, the one of the longest duration was to Caesar Borgia, whom
he narrowly observed at the very important period when this illustrious
villain was elevating himself by his crimes, and whose diabolical policy he
had thus an opportunity of studying. He had a considerable share in
directing the counsels of the republic, and the influence to which he owed
his elevation was that of the free party, which censured the power of the
Medici, and at that time held them in exile. When the latter were recalled,
Machiavelli was deprived of all his offices and banished. He then entered
into a conspiracy against the usurpers, which was discovered, and he was
put to the torture, but without wresting from him any confession which
could impeach either himself or those who had confided in his honor. Leo
X., on his elevation to the pontificate, restored him to liberty. At this time
he wrote his "History of Florence," in which he united eloquence of style
by the Italians of the sixteenth century; yet such was the altered state of
things, that, except at Venice and Genoa, republics had been superseded by
princes, and republican authority by the pomp of regal courts. Home was a
nest of intrigue, luxury, and corruption; Tuscany had become the prey of a
powerful family; Lombardy was but a battle-field for the rival powers of
France and Germany, and the lot of the people was oppression and
humiliation. High independence of mind, one of the most valuable qualities
in connection with historical research, was impossible under these
circumstances, and yet, some of the Italian writers of this age exhibit
genius, strength of character, and a conscientious sense of the sacred
commission of the historian.
Machiavelli (1469-1527) was born in Florence of a family which had
enjoyed the first offices in the republic. At the age of thirty, he was made
chancellor of the state, and from that time he was constantly employed in
public affairs, and particularly in embassies. Among those to the smaller
princes of Italy, the one of the longest duration was to Caesar Borgia, whom
he narrowly observed at the very important period when this illustrious
villain was elevating himself by his crimes, and whose diabolical policy he
had thus an opportunity of studying. He had a considerable share in
directing the counsels of the republic, and the influence to which he owed
his elevation was that of the free party, which censured the power of the
Medici, and at that time held them in exile. When the latter were recalled,
Machiavelli was deprived of all his offices and banished. He then entered
into a conspiracy against the usurpers, which was discovered, and he was
put to the torture, but without wresting from him any confession which
could impeach either himself or those who had confided in his honor. Leo
X., on his elevation to the pontificate, restored him to liberty. At this time
he wrote his "History of Florence," in which he united eloquence of style
Page 325
with depth of reflection, and although an elegant, animated, and picturesque
composition, it is not the fruit of much research or criticism.
Besides this history, Machiavelli wrote his discourses on the first decade
of Livy, considered his best work, and "The Art of War," which is an
invaluable commentary on the history of the times. These works had the
desired effect of inducing the Medici family to use the political services of
the author, and at the request of Leo X. he wrote his essay "On the Reform
of the Florentine Government."
Guicciardini (1483-1541), the friend of Machiavelli, is considered the
greatest historian of this age. He attached himself to the service of Leo X.,
and was raised to high offices and honors by him and the two succeeding
popes. On the expulsion of the Medici from Florence, the republican party
having obtained the ascendency, he was obliged to fly from the city. From
this time he manifested an utter abhorrence of all popular institutions, and
threw himself heart and soul into the interests of the Medici. He displayed
his zeal at the expense of the lives and liberties of the most virtuous among
his fellow-citizens. Having aided in the elevation of Cosmo, afterwards
Grand Duke of Tuscany, and being requited with ingratitude and neglect, he
retired in disgust from public life, and devoted himself wholly to the
completion of his history of Italy. This work, which is a monument of his
genius and industry, commences with the coming of Charles VIII. to Italy,
and concludes with the year 1534, embracing one of the most important
periods of Italian history. His powerfully-drawn pictures exhibit the men
and the times so vividly, that they seem to pass before our eyes. His
delineations of character, his masterly views of the course of events, the
conduct of leaders, and the changes of war, claim our highest admiration.
His language is pure and his style elegant, though sometimes too Latinized;
his letters are considered as a most valuable contribution to the history of
his times.
composition, it is not the fruit of much research or criticism.
Besides this history, Machiavelli wrote his discourses on the first decade
of Livy, considered his best work, and "The Art of War," which is an
invaluable commentary on the history of the times. These works had the
desired effect of inducing the Medici family to use the political services of
the author, and at the request of Leo X. he wrote his essay "On the Reform
of the Florentine Government."
Guicciardini (1483-1541), the friend of Machiavelli, is considered the
greatest historian of this age. He attached himself to the service of Leo X.,
and was raised to high offices and honors by him and the two succeeding
popes. On the expulsion of the Medici from Florence, the republican party
having obtained the ascendency, he was obliged to fly from the city. From
this time he manifested an utter abhorrence of all popular institutions, and
threw himself heart and soul into the interests of the Medici. He displayed
his zeal at the expense of the lives and liberties of the most virtuous among
his fellow-citizens. Having aided in the elevation of Cosmo, afterwards
Grand Duke of Tuscany, and being requited with ingratitude and neglect, he
retired in disgust from public life, and devoted himself wholly to the
completion of his history of Italy. This work, which is a monument of his
genius and industry, commences with the coming of Charles VIII. to Italy,
and concludes with the year 1534, embracing one of the most important
periods of Italian history. His powerfully-drawn pictures exhibit the men
and the times so vividly, that they seem to pass before our eyes. His
delineations of character, his masterly views of the course of events, the
conduct of leaders, and the changes of war, claim our highest admiration.
His language is pure and his style elegant, though sometimes too Latinized;
his letters are considered as a most valuable contribution to the history of
his times.
Page 326
Numberless historians, of more or less merit, stimulated by the renown of
Machiavelli and Guicciardini, composed annals of the states to which they
belonged, while others undertook to write the histories of foreign nations.
Nardi (1496-1556), one of the most ardent and pure patriots of his age,
takes the first place. He wrote the history of the Florentine Revolution of
1527, a work which, though defective in style, is distinguished for its
truthfulness. The histories of Florence by Adriani, Varchi, and Segni (1499-
1559), are considered the best works of their kind, for elegance of style and
for interest of the narrative. Almost all the other cities of Italy had their
historians, but the palm must be awarded to the Florentine writers, not only
on account of their number, but for the elegance and purity of their style, for
their impartiality and the sagacity of their research into matters of fact.
Among the writers of the second class may be mentioned Davanzati (1519),
the translator of Tacitus, who wrote, in the Florentine dialect, a history of
the schism of England; Giambullari (1495-1564), who wrote a history of
Europe; D'Anghiera (fl. 1536), who, after having examined the papers of
Christopher Columbus, and the official reports transmitted from America to
Spain, compiled an interesting work on "Ocean Navigation and the New
World." His style is incorrect; but this is compensated for by the fidelity of
his narration. Several of the German States, France, the Netherlands,
Poland, Hungary, and the East Indies, found Italian authors in this age to
digest and arrange their chronicles, and give them historical form.
To this period belong also the "Lives of the Most Celebrated Artists,"
written by Vasari (1512-1574), himself a distinguished artist, a work highly
interesting for its subject and style, and the Autobiography of Benvenuto
Cellini (b. 1500), one of the most curious works which was ever written in
any language.
10. GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC.—The Italian language was used
both in writing and conversation for three centuries before its rules and
Machiavelli and Guicciardini, composed annals of the states to which they
belonged, while others undertook to write the histories of foreign nations.
Nardi (1496-1556), one of the most ardent and pure patriots of his age,
takes the first place. He wrote the history of the Florentine Revolution of
1527, a work which, though defective in style, is distinguished for its
truthfulness. The histories of Florence by Adriani, Varchi, and Segni (1499-
1559), are considered the best works of their kind, for elegance of style and
for interest of the narrative. Almost all the other cities of Italy had their
historians, but the palm must be awarded to the Florentine writers, not only
on account of their number, but for the elegance and purity of their style, for
their impartiality and the sagacity of their research into matters of fact.
Among the writers of the second class may be mentioned Davanzati (1519),
the translator of Tacitus, who wrote, in the Florentine dialect, a history of
the schism of England; Giambullari (1495-1564), who wrote a history of
Europe; D'Anghiera (fl. 1536), who, after having examined the papers of
Christopher Columbus, and the official reports transmitted from America to
Spain, compiled an interesting work on "Ocean Navigation and the New
World." His style is incorrect; but this is compensated for by the fidelity of
his narration. Several of the German States, France, the Netherlands,
Poland, Hungary, and the East Indies, found Italian authors in this age to
digest and arrange their chronicles, and give them historical form.
To this period belong also the "Lives of the Most Celebrated Artists,"
written by Vasari (1512-1574), himself a distinguished artist, a work highly
interesting for its subject and style, and the Autobiography of Benvenuto
Cellini (b. 1500), one of the most curious works which was ever written in
any language.
10. GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC.—The Italian language was used
both in writing and conversation for three centuries before its rules and
Page 327
principles were reduced to a scientific form. Bembo was the first scholar
who established the grammar. Grammatical writings and researches were
soon multiplied and extended. Salviati was one of the most prominent
grammarians of the sixteenth century, and Buonmattei and Cinonio of the
seventeenth. But the progress in this study was due less to the grammarians
than to the Dictionary della Crusca. Among the scholars who took part in
the exercises of the Florentine Academy, founded by Cosmo de' Medici,
there were some who, dissatisfied with the philosophical disputations which
were the object of this institution, organized another association for the
purpose of giving a new impulse to the study of the language. This
academy, inaugurated in 1587, was called della Crusca, literally, of the
bran. The object of this new association being to sift all impurities from the
language, a sieve, the emblem of the academy, was placed In the hall; the
members at their meetings sat on flour-barrels, and the chair of the
presiding officer stood on three mill-stones. The first work of the academy
was to compile a universal dictionary of the Italian language, which was
published in 1612. Though the Dictionary della Crusca was conceived in an
exclusive spirit, and admitted, as linguistic authorities, only writers of the
fourteenth century, belonging to Tuscany, it contributed greatly to the
progress of the Italian tongue.
Every university of Italy boasted in the sixteenth century of some
celebrated rhetoricians, all of whom, however, were overshadowed by
Vettori (1499-1585), distinguished for the editions of the Greek and Latin
classics published under his superintendence, and for his commentaries on
the rhetorical books of Aristotle. B. Cavalcanti (1503-1562) was also
celebrated in this department, and his "Rhetoric" is the best work of the age
on that subject.
The oratory of this period is very imperfect. Orations were written in the
style of Boccaccio, which, however suitable for the narration of merry tales,
who established the grammar. Grammatical writings and researches were
soon multiplied and extended. Salviati was one of the most prominent
grammarians of the sixteenth century, and Buonmattei and Cinonio of the
seventeenth. But the progress in this study was due less to the grammarians
than to the Dictionary della Crusca. Among the scholars who took part in
the exercises of the Florentine Academy, founded by Cosmo de' Medici,
there were some who, dissatisfied with the philosophical disputations which
were the object of this institution, organized another association for the
purpose of giving a new impulse to the study of the language. This
academy, inaugurated in 1587, was called della Crusca, literally, of the
bran. The object of this new association being to sift all impurities from the
language, a sieve, the emblem of the academy, was placed In the hall; the
members at their meetings sat on flour-barrels, and the chair of the
presiding officer stood on three mill-stones. The first work of the academy
was to compile a universal dictionary of the Italian language, which was
published in 1612. Though the Dictionary della Crusca was conceived in an
exclusive spirit, and admitted, as linguistic authorities, only writers of the
fourteenth century, belonging to Tuscany, it contributed greatly to the
progress of the Italian tongue.
Every university of Italy boasted in the sixteenth century of some
celebrated rhetoricians, all of whom, however, were overshadowed by
Vettori (1499-1585), distinguished for the editions of the Greek and Latin
classics published under his superintendence, and for his commentaries on
the rhetorical books of Aristotle. B. Cavalcanti (1503-1562) was also
celebrated in this department, and his "Rhetoric" is the best work of the age
on that subject.
The oratory of this period is very imperfect. Orations were written in the
style of Boccaccio, which, however suitable for the narration of merry tales,
Page 328
is entirely unfit for oratorical compositions. Among those who most
distinguished themselves in this department are Della Casa (1503-1556),
whose harangues against the Emperor Charles V. are full of eloquence;
Speroni (1500-1588), whose style is more perfect than that of any other
writer of the sixteenth century; and Lollio (d. 1568), whose orations are the
most polished. At that time, in the forum of Venice, eloquent orators
pleaded the causes of the citizens, and at the close of the preceding century,
Savonarola (1452-1498), a preacher of Florence, thundered against the
abuses of the Roman church, and suffered death in consequence. Among the
models of letter-writing, Caro takes the first place. His familiar letters are
written with that graceful elegance which becomes this kind of
composition. The letters of Tasso are full of eloquence and philosophy, and
are written in the most select Italian.
11. SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, AND POLITICS.—The sciences, during
this period, went hand in hand with poetry and history. Libraries and other
aids to learning were multiplied, and academies were organized with other
objects than those of enjoyment of mere poetical triumphs or dramatic
amusements. The Academy del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657
by Leopold de' Medici, for promoting the study of the natural sciences, and
similar institutions were established in Rome, Bologna, and Naples, and
other cities of Italy, besides the Royal Academy of London (1660), and the
Academy of Sciences in Paris (1666). From the period of the first institution
of universities, that of Bologna had maintained its preëminence. Padua,
Ferrara, Pavia, Turin, Florence, Siena, Pisa, and Rome were also seats of
learning. The men who directed the scientific studies of their country and of
Europe were almost universally attached as professors to these institutions.
Indeed, at this period, through the genius of Galileo and his school,
European science first dawned in Italy. Galileo (1564-1641) was a native of
Pisa, and professor of mathematics in the university of that city. Being
obliged to leave it on account of scientific opinions, at that time at variance
distinguished themselves in this department are Della Casa (1503-1556),
whose harangues against the Emperor Charles V. are full of eloquence;
Speroni (1500-1588), whose style is more perfect than that of any other
writer of the sixteenth century; and Lollio (d. 1568), whose orations are the
most polished. At that time, in the forum of Venice, eloquent orators
pleaded the causes of the citizens, and at the close of the preceding century,
Savonarola (1452-1498), a preacher of Florence, thundered against the
abuses of the Roman church, and suffered death in consequence. Among the
models of letter-writing, Caro takes the first place. His familiar letters are
written with that graceful elegance which becomes this kind of
composition. The letters of Tasso are full of eloquence and philosophy, and
are written in the most select Italian.
11. SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, AND POLITICS.—The sciences, during
this period, went hand in hand with poetry and history. Libraries and other
aids to learning were multiplied, and academies were organized with other
objects than those of enjoyment of mere poetical triumphs or dramatic
amusements. The Academy del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657
by Leopold de' Medici, for promoting the study of the natural sciences, and
similar institutions were established in Rome, Bologna, and Naples, and
other cities of Italy, besides the Royal Academy of London (1660), and the
Academy of Sciences in Paris (1666). From the period of the first institution
of universities, that of Bologna had maintained its preëminence. Padua,
Ferrara, Pavia, Turin, Florence, Siena, Pisa, and Rome were also seats of
learning. The men who directed the scientific studies of their country and of
Europe were almost universally attached as professors to these institutions.
Indeed, at this period, through the genius of Galileo and his school,
European science first dawned in Italy. Galileo (1564-1641) was a native of
Pisa, and professor of mathematics in the university of that city. Being
obliged to leave it on account of scientific opinions, at that time at variance
Page 329
with universally received principles, he removed to the university of Padua,
where for eighteen years he enjoyed the high consideration of his
countrymen. He returned to Pisa, and at the age of seventy was summoned
to Rome by the Inquisition, and required to renounce his doctrines relative
to the Copernican system, of which he was a zealous defender, and his life
was spared only on condition of his abjuring his opinions. It is said that on
rising from his knees, after making the abjuration of his belief that the earth
moved round the sun, he stamped his foot on the floor and said, "It does
move, though." To Galileo science is indebted for the discovery of the laws
of weight, the scientific construction of the system of Copernicus, the
pendulum, the improvement of many scientific instruments, the invention of
the hydrostatic balance, the thermometer, proportional compasses, and,
above all, the telescope. He discovered the satellites of Jupiter, the phases of
Venus, the mountains of the moon, the spots and the rotation of the sun.
Science, which had consisted for centuries only of scholastic subtleties and
barren dialectics, he established on an experimental basis. In his works he
unites delicacy and purity with vivacity of style.
Among the scholars of Galileo, who most efficaciously contributed to the
progress of science, may be mentioned Torricelli (1608-1647), the inventor
of the barometer, an elegant and profound writer; Borelli (1608-1679), the
founder of animal mechanics, or the science of the movements of animals,
distinguished for his works on astronomy, mathematics, anatomy, and
natural philosophy; Cassini (1625-1712), a celebrated astronomer, to whom
France is indebted for its meridian; Cavalieri (1598-1648), distinguished for
his works on geometry, which paved the way to the discovery of the
infinitesimal calculus.
In the scientific department of the earlier part of this period may also be
mentioned Tartaglia (d. 1657) and Cardano (1501-1576), celebrated for
their researches on algebra and geometry; Vignola (1507-1573) and
where for eighteen years he enjoyed the high consideration of his
countrymen. He returned to Pisa, and at the age of seventy was summoned
to Rome by the Inquisition, and required to renounce his doctrines relative
to the Copernican system, of which he was a zealous defender, and his life
was spared only on condition of his abjuring his opinions. It is said that on
rising from his knees, after making the abjuration of his belief that the earth
moved round the sun, he stamped his foot on the floor and said, "It does
move, though." To Galileo science is indebted for the discovery of the laws
of weight, the scientific construction of the system of Copernicus, the
pendulum, the improvement of many scientific instruments, the invention of
the hydrostatic balance, the thermometer, proportional compasses, and,
above all, the telescope. He discovered the satellites of Jupiter, the phases of
Venus, the mountains of the moon, the spots and the rotation of the sun.
Science, which had consisted for centuries only of scholastic subtleties and
barren dialectics, he established on an experimental basis. In his works he
unites delicacy and purity with vivacity of style.
Among the scholars of Galileo, who most efficaciously contributed to the
progress of science, may be mentioned Torricelli (1608-1647), the inventor
of the barometer, an elegant and profound writer; Borelli (1608-1679), the
founder of animal mechanics, or the science of the movements of animals,
distinguished for his works on astronomy, mathematics, anatomy, and
natural philosophy; Cassini (1625-1712), a celebrated astronomer, to whom
France is indebted for its meridian; Cavalieri (1598-1648), distinguished for
his works on geometry, which paved the way to the discovery of the
infinitesimal calculus.
In the scientific department of the earlier part of this period may also be
mentioned Tartaglia (d. 1657) and Cardano (1501-1576), celebrated for
their researches on algebra and geometry; Vignola (1507-1573) and
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Palladio (1518-1580), whose works on architecture are still held in high
estimation, as well as the work of Marchi (fl. 1550) on military
construction. Later, Redi (1626-1697) distinguished himself as a natural
philosopher, a physician and elegant writer, both in prose and verse, and
Malpighi (1628-1694) and Bellini (1643-1704) were anatomists of high
repute. Scamozzi (1550-1616) emulated the glory formerly won by Palladio
in architecture, and Montecuccoli (1608-1681), a great general of the age,
ably illustrated the art of strategy.
The sixteenth century abounds in philosophers who, abandoning the
doctrines of Plato, which had been in great favor in the fifteenth, adopted
those of Aristotle. Some, however, dared to throw off the yoke of
philosophical authority, and to walk in new paths of speculation. Patrizi
(1529-1597) was one of the first who undertook to examine for himself the
phenomena of nature, and to attack the authority of Aristotle. Telesio (1509-
1588), a friend of Patrizi, joined him in the work of overthrowing the
Peripatetic idols; but neither of them dared to renounce entirely the
authority of antiquity. The glory of having claimed absolute freedom in
philosophical speculation belongs to Cardano, already mentioned, to
Campanella (1568-1639), who for the boldness of his opinions was put to
the torture and spent thirty years in prison, and to Giordano Bruno (1550-
1600), a sublime thinker and a bold champion of freedom, who was burned
at the stake.
Among the moral philosophers of this age may be mentioned Speroni,
whose writings are distinguished by harmony, freedom, and eloquence of
style; Tasso, whose dialogues unite loftiness of thought with elegance of
style; Castiglione (1468-1529), whose "Cortigiano" is in equal estimation as
a manual of elegance of manners and as a model of pure Italian; and Della
Casa, whose "Galateo" is a complete system of politeness, couched in
estimation, as well as the work of Marchi (fl. 1550) on military
construction. Later, Redi (1626-1697) distinguished himself as a natural
philosopher, a physician and elegant writer, both in prose and verse, and
Malpighi (1628-1694) and Bellini (1643-1704) were anatomists of high
repute. Scamozzi (1550-1616) emulated the glory formerly won by Palladio
in architecture, and Montecuccoli (1608-1681), a great general of the age,
ably illustrated the art of strategy.
The sixteenth century abounds in philosophers who, abandoning the
doctrines of Plato, which had been in great favor in the fifteenth, adopted
those of Aristotle. Some, however, dared to throw off the yoke of
philosophical authority, and to walk in new paths of speculation. Patrizi
(1529-1597) was one of the first who undertook to examine for himself the
phenomena of nature, and to attack the authority of Aristotle. Telesio (1509-
1588), a friend of Patrizi, joined him in the work of overthrowing the
Peripatetic idols; but neither of them dared to renounce entirely the
authority of antiquity. The glory of having claimed absolute freedom in
philosophical speculation belongs to Cardano, already mentioned, to
Campanella (1568-1639), who for the boldness of his opinions was put to
the torture and spent thirty years in prison, and to Giordano Bruno (1550-
1600), a sublime thinker and a bold champion of freedom, who was burned
at the stake.
Among the moral philosophers of this age may be mentioned Speroni,
whose writings are distinguished by harmony, freedom, and eloquence of
style; Tasso, whose dialogues unite loftiness of thought with elegance of
style; Castiglione (1468-1529), whose "Cortigiano" is in equal estimation as
a manual of elegance of manners and as a model of pure Italian; and Della
Casa, whose "Galateo" is a complete system of politeness, couched in
Page 331
elegant language, and a work to which Lord Chesterfield was much
indebted.
Political science had its greatest representative in Machiavelli, who wrote
on it with that profound knowledge of the human heart which he had
acquired in public life, and with the habit of unweaving, in all its
intricacies, the political perfidy which then prevailed in Italy. The "Prince"
is the best known of his political works, and from the infamous principles
which he has here developed, though probably with good intentions, his
name is allied with everything false and perfidious in politics. The object of
the treatise is to show how a new prince may establish and consolidate his
power, and how the Medici might not only confirm their authority in
Florence, but extend it over the whole of the Peninsula. At the time that
Machiavelli wrote, Italy had been for centuries a theatre where might was
the only right. He was not a man given to illusive fancies, and throughout a
long political career nothing had been permitted to escape his keen and
penetrating eye. In all the affairs in which he had taken part he had seen that
success was the only thing studied, and therefore to succeed in an
enterprise, by whatever means, had become the fundamental idea of his
political theory. His Prince reduced to a science the art, long before known
and practiced by kings and tyrants, of attaining absolute power by deception
and cruelty, and of maintaining it afterwards by the dissimulation of
leniency and virtue. It does not appear that any exception was at first taken
to the doctrines which have since called forth such severe reprehension, and
from the moment of its appearance the Prince became a favorite at every
court. But soon after the death of Machiavelli a violent outcry was raised
against him, and although it was first heard with amazement, it soon
became general, The Prince was laid under the ban of several successive
popes, and the name of Machiavelli passed into a proverb of infamy. His
bones lay undistinguished for nearly two centuries, when a monument was
indebted.
Political science had its greatest representative in Machiavelli, who wrote
on it with that profound knowledge of the human heart which he had
acquired in public life, and with the habit of unweaving, in all its
intricacies, the political perfidy which then prevailed in Italy. The "Prince"
is the best known of his political works, and from the infamous principles
which he has here developed, though probably with good intentions, his
name is allied with everything false and perfidious in politics. The object of
the treatise is to show how a new prince may establish and consolidate his
power, and how the Medici might not only confirm their authority in
Florence, but extend it over the whole of the Peninsula. At the time that
Machiavelli wrote, Italy had been for centuries a theatre where might was
the only right. He was not a man given to illusive fancies, and throughout a
long political career nothing had been permitted to escape his keen and
penetrating eye. In all the affairs in which he had taken part he had seen that
success was the only thing studied, and therefore to succeed in an
enterprise, by whatever means, had become the fundamental idea of his
political theory. His Prince reduced to a science the art, long before known
and practiced by kings and tyrants, of attaining absolute power by deception
and cruelty, and of maintaining it afterwards by the dissimulation of
leniency and virtue. It does not appear that any exception was at first taken
to the doctrines which have since called forth such severe reprehension, and
from the moment of its appearance the Prince became a favorite at every
court. But soon after the death of Machiavelli a violent outcry was raised
against him, and although it was first heard with amazement, it soon
became general, The Prince was laid under the ban of several successive
popes, and the name of Machiavelli passed into a proverb of infamy. His
bones lay undistinguished for nearly two centuries, when a monument was
Page 332
erected to his memory in the church of Santa Croce, through the influence
of an English nobleman.
12. PERIOD OF DECADENCE.—The sixteenth century reaped the
fruits that had been sown in the fifteenth, but it scattered no seeds for a
harvest in the seventeenth, which was therefore doomed to general sterility.
In the reigns of Charles V. and Philip II. the chains of civil and religious
despotism were forged which subdued the intellect and arrested the genius
of the people. The Spanish viceroys ruled with an iron hand over Milan,
Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Poverty and superstition wasted and darkened
the minds of the people, and indolence and love of pleasure introduced
almost universal degeneracy. But the Spanish yoke, which weighed so
heavily at both extremities of the Peninsula, did not extend to the republic
of Venice, or to the duchy of Tuscany; and the heroic character of the
princes of Savoy alone would have served to throw a lustre over this
otherwise darkened period. In literature, too, there were a few who resisted
the torrent of bad taste, amidst many who opened the way for a crowd of
followers in the false route, and gave to the age that character of
extravagance for which it is so peculiarly distinguished.
The literary works of the seventeenth century may be divided into three
classes, the first of which, under the guidance of Marini, attained the lowest
degree of corruption, and remain in the annals of literature as monuments of
bombastic style and bad taste. The second embraces those writers who were
aware of the faults of the school to which they belonged, and who, aiming
to bring about a reform in literature, while they endeavored to follow a
better style, partook more or less of the character of the age. To this class
may be referred Chiabrera already named, and more particularly Filicaja
and other poets of the same school. The third class is composed of a few
writers who preserved themselves faithful to the principles of true taste, and
of an English nobleman.
12. PERIOD OF DECADENCE.—The sixteenth century reaped the
fruits that had been sown in the fifteenth, but it scattered no seeds for a
harvest in the seventeenth, which was therefore doomed to general sterility.
In the reigns of Charles V. and Philip II. the chains of civil and religious
despotism were forged which subdued the intellect and arrested the genius
of the people. The Spanish viceroys ruled with an iron hand over Milan,
Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Poverty and superstition wasted and darkened
the minds of the people, and indolence and love of pleasure introduced
almost universal degeneracy. But the Spanish yoke, which weighed so
heavily at both extremities of the Peninsula, did not extend to the republic
of Venice, or to the duchy of Tuscany; and the heroic character of the
princes of Savoy alone would have served to throw a lustre over this
otherwise darkened period. In literature, too, there were a few who resisted
the torrent of bad taste, amidst many who opened the way for a crowd of
followers in the false route, and gave to the age that character of
extravagance for which it is so peculiarly distinguished.
The literary works of the seventeenth century may be divided into three
classes, the first of which, under the guidance of Marini, attained the lowest
degree of corruption, and remain in the annals of literature as monuments of
bombastic style and bad taste. The second embraces those writers who were
aware of the faults of the school to which they belonged, and who, aiming
to bring about a reform in literature, while they endeavored to follow a
better style, partook more or less of the character of the age. To this class
may be referred Chiabrera already named, and more particularly Filicaja
and other poets of the same school. The third class is composed of a few
writers who preserved themselves faithful to the principles of true taste, and
Page 333
among them are Menzini, Salvator Rosa, Redi, and more particularly
Tassoni.
13. EPIC AND LYRIC POETRY.—Marini (1569-1625), the celebrated
innovator on classic Italian taste, is considered as the first who seduced the
poets of the seventeenth century into a labored and affected style. He was
born at Naples and educated for the legal profession, for which he had little
taste, and on publishing a volume of poems, his indignant father turned him
out of doors. But his popular qualities never left him without friends. He
was invited to the Court of France, obtained the favor of Mary de' Medici,
and the situation of gentleman to the king. He became exceedingly popular
among the French nobility, many of whom learned Italian for the sole
purpose of reading his works. It was here that he published the most
celebrated of his poems, entitled "Adonis." He afterwards purchased a
beautiful villa near Naples, to which he retired, and where he soon after
died. The Adonis of Marini is a mixture of the epic and the romantic style,
the subject being taken from the well-known story of Venus and Adonis. He
renounced all keeping and probability, both in his incidents and
descriptions; if he could present a series of enchanted pictures, he was little
solicitous as to the manner of their arrangement. But the work has much
beauty and imagination, and is often animated by the true spirit of poetry.
Its principal faults are that it is sadly wire-drawn, and abounds in puns,
endless antitheses, and inventions for surprising or bewildering the reader;
graces which were greatly admired by the contemporaries of the poet.
Marini was a voluminous writer, and was not only extolled in his own
country above its classic authors, and in France, but the Spaniards held him
in the highest esteem, and imitated and even surpassed him in his own
eccentric career. He had also innumerable imitators in Italy, many of whom
attained a high reputation during their lives, and afterwards sank into
complete oblivion.
Tassoni.
13. EPIC AND LYRIC POETRY.—Marini (1569-1625), the celebrated
innovator on classic Italian taste, is considered as the first who seduced the
poets of the seventeenth century into a labored and affected style. He was
born at Naples and educated for the legal profession, for which he had little
taste, and on publishing a volume of poems, his indignant father turned him
out of doors. But his popular qualities never left him without friends. He
was invited to the Court of France, obtained the favor of Mary de' Medici,
and the situation of gentleman to the king. He became exceedingly popular
among the French nobility, many of whom learned Italian for the sole
purpose of reading his works. It was here that he published the most
celebrated of his poems, entitled "Adonis." He afterwards purchased a
beautiful villa near Naples, to which he retired, and where he soon after
died. The Adonis of Marini is a mixture of the epic and the romantic style,
the subject being taken from the well-known story of Venus and Adonis. He
renounced all keeping and probability, both in his incidents and
descriptions; if he could present a series of enchanted pictures, he was little
solicitous as to the manner of their arrangement. But the work has much
beauty and imagination, and is often animated by the true spirit of poetry.
Its principal faults are that it is sadly wire-drawn, and abounds in puns,
endless antitheses, and inventions for surprising or bewildering the reader;
graces which were greatly admired by the contemporaries of the poet.
Marini was a voluminous writer, and was not only extolled in his own
country above its classic authors, and in France, but the Spaniards held him
in the highest esteem, and imitated and even surpassed him in his own
eccentric career. He had also innumerable imitators in Italy, many of whom
attained a high reputation during their lives, and afterwards sank into
complete oblivion.
Page 334
Filicaja (1642-1709) stands at the head of the lyric poets of the
seventeenth century. His inspiration seems first to have been awakened
when Vienna was besieged by the Turks in 1683, and gallantly defended by
the Christian powers. His verses on this occasion awoke the most
enthusiastic admiration, and called forth the eulogies of princes and poets.
The admiration which he excited in his day is scarcely to be wondered at;
for, though this judgment has not been ratified by posterity, Filicaja has at
least the merit of having raised the poetry of Italy from the abject service of
mere amorous imbecility to the noble office of embodying the more manly
and virtuous sentiments; and though his style is infected with the bombastic
spirit of the age, it is even in this respect singularly moderate, compared
with that of his contemporaries.
14. MOCK-HEROIC POETRY, THE DRAMA, AND SATIRE.—The
full maturity of the style of mock-heroic poetry is due to Tassoni (1565-
1635). He first attracted public notice by disputing the authority of
Aristotle, and the poetical merits of Petrarch. In 1622 he published his
"Rape of the Bucket," a burlesque poem on the petty wars which were so
common between the towns of Italy in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. The heroes of Modena had, in 1325, discomfited the Bolognese,
and pursued them to the very heart of their city, whence they carried off, as
a trophy of their victory, the bucket belonging to the public well. The
expedition undertaken by the Bolognese for its recovery forms the basis of
the twelve mock-heroic cantos of Tassoni. To understand this poem requires
a knowledge of the vulgarisms and idioms which are frequently introduced
in it.
About the same period, Bracciolini (1566-1645) produced another comic-
heroic poem, entitled the "Ridicule of the Gods," in which the ancient
deities are introduced as mingling with the peasants, and declaiming in the
low, vulgar dialect, and making themselves most agreeably ridiculous.
seventeenth century. His inspiration seems first to have been awakened
when Vienna was besieged by the Turks in 1683, and gallantly defended by
the Christian powers. His verses on this occasion awoke the most
enthusiastic admiration, and called forth the eulogies of princes and poets.
The admiration which he excited in his day is scarcely to be wondered at;
for, though this judgment has not been ratified by posterity, Filicaja has at
least the merit of having raised the poetry of Italy from the abject service of
mere amorous imbecility to the noble office of embodying the more manly
and virtuous sentiments; and though his style is infected with the bombastic
spirit of the age, it is even in this respect singularly moderate, compared
with that of his contemporaries.
14. MOCK-HEROIC POETRY, THE DRAMA, AND SATIRE.—The
full maturity of the style of mock-heroic poetry is due to Tassoni (1565-
1635). He first attracted public notice by disputing the authority of
Aristotle, and the poetical merits of Petrarch. In 1622 he published his
"Rape of the Bucket," a burlesque poem on the petty wars which were so
common between the towns of Italy in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. The heroes of Modena had, in 1325, discomfited the Bolognese,
and pursued them to the very heart of their city, whence they carried off, as
a trophy of their victory, the bucket belonging to the public well. The
expedition undertaken by the Bolognese for its recovery forms the basis of
the twelve mock-heroic cantos of Tassoni. To understand this poem requires
a knowledge of the vulgarisms and idioms which are frequently introduced
in it.
About the same period, Bracciolini (1566-1645) produced another comic-
heroic poem, entitled the "Ridicule of the Gods," in which the ancient
deities are introduced as mingling with the peasants, and declaiming in the
low, vulgar dialect, and making themselves most agreeably ridiculous.
Page 335
Somewhat later appeared one more example of the same species of epic,
"The Malmantile," by Lippi (1606-1664). This poem is considered a pure
model of the dialect of the Florentines, which is so graceful and harmonious
even in its homeliness.
The seventeenth century was remarkable for the prodigious number of its
dramatic authors, but few of them equaled and none excelled those of the
preceding age. The opera, or melodrama, which had arisen out of the
pastoral, seemed to monopolize whatever talent was at the disposal of the
stage, and branches formerly cultivated sank below mediocrity. Amid the
crowd of theatrical corrupters, the name of Andreini (1564-1652) deserves
peculiar mention, not from any claim to exemption from the general
censure, but because his comedy of "Adam" is believed to have been the
foundation of Milton's "Paradise Lost." Andreini was but one of the
common throng of dramatic writers, and it has been fiercely contended by
some, that it is impossible that the idea of so sublime a poem should have
been taken from so ordinary a composition as his Adam. His piece was
represented at Milan as early as 1613, and so has at least a claim of priority,
Menzini (1646-1708) and Salvator Rosa (1615-1675) were the
representatives of the satire of this century; the former distinguished for the
purity of his language and the harmony of his verse; the latter for his
vivacity and sprightliness.
15. HISTORY AND EPISTOLARY WRITINGS.—The number of
historical works in this century is much greater than in that of the
preceding, but they are generally far from possessing the same merit or
commanding the same interest. The historians seem to have lost all feeling
of national dignity; they do not venture to unveil the causes of public
events, or to indicate their results. Even those that dared treat of Italy or its
provinces, confined themselves to the reigning dynasties, and overlooking
"The Malmantile," by Lippi (1606-1664). This poem is considered a pure
model of the dialect of the Florentines, which is so graceful and harmonious
even in its homeliness.
The seventeenth century was remarkable for the prodigious number of its
dramatic authors, but few of them equaled and none excelled those of the
preceding age. The opera, or melodrama, which had arisen out of the
pastoral, seemed to monopolize whatever talent was at the disposal of the
stage, and branches formerly cultivated sank below mediocrity. Amid the
crowd of theatrical corrupters, the name of Andreini (1564-1652) deserves
peculiar mention, not from any claim to exemption from the general
censure, but because his comedy of "Adam" is believed to have been the
foundation of Milton's "Paradise Lost." Andreini was but one of the
common throng of dramatic writers, and it has been fiercely contended by
some, that it is impossible that the idea of so sublime a poem should have
been taken from so ordinary a composition as his Adam. His piece was
represented at Milan as early as 1613, and so has at least a claim of priority,
Menzini (1646-1708) and Salvator Rosa (1615-1675) were the
representatives of the satire of this century; the former distinguished for the
purity of his language and the harmony of his verse; the latter for his
vivacity and sprightliness.
15. HISTORY AND EPISTOLARY WRITINGS.—The number of
historical works in this century is much greater than in that of the
preceding, but they are generally far from possessing the same merit or
commanding the same interest. The historians seem to have lost all feeling
of national dignity; they do not venture to unveil the causes of public
events, or to indicate their results. Even those that dared treat of Italy or its
provinces, confined themselves to the reigning dynasties, and overlooking
Page 336
the causes which most deeply affected the happiness of the people,
described only the festivities, battles, and triumphs of their princes. A large
number of historians chose foreign subjects; the history of France was
remarkable for the number of Italians who endeavored to relate it in this
age. The work of Davila (1576-1630) on "The Civil Wars of France,"
however, throws all the rest into the shade. What gives to it peculiar value is
the carefulness with which the materials were collected, in connection with
the opportunities its author enjoyed for gaining information. This history is
considered as superior to that of Guicciardini in its matter, as the latter
excels it in style. It is wanting in that elegance which characterized the
Florentine historians of the sixteenth century. Bentivoglio (1579-1644) was
an eminent rival of Davila; he wrote the history of the civil wars of
Flanders; a work remarkable for the elegance and correctness of its style.
Above all stand the works of Sarpi, who lived between 1552 and 1623, and
who defended with great courage the authority of the Senate of Venice
against the power of the Popes, notwithstanding their excommunication and
continued persecution. His history of the Council of Trent contains a
curious account of the intrigues of the Court of Rome at the period of the
Reformation.
It was chiefly in the more showy departments of literature that the
extravagance of the Marinists was most conspicuous, and the decay of
native genius was most apparent. But this genius had turned into other
paths, which it pursued with a steady, though less brilliant course. Of all
branches of prose composition, the epistolary was the most carefully
cultivated. The talent for letter-writing was often the means of considerable
emolument, as all the petty princes of Italy and the cardinals of Rome were
ambitious of having secretaries who would give them éclat in their
correspondence, and these situations, which were steps to higher
preferment, were eagerly sought; hence the prodigious number of
collections of letters which have at all times inundated Italy—specimens by
described only the festivities, battles, and triumphs of their princes. A large
number of historians chose foreign subjects; the history of France was
remarkable for the number of Italians who endeavored to relate it in this
age. The work of Davila (1576-1630) on "The Civil Wars of France,"
however, throws all the rest into the shade. What gives to it peculiar value is
the carefulness with which the materials were collected, in connection with
the opportunities its author enjoyed for gaining information. This history is
considered as superior to that of Guicciardini in its matter, as the latter
excels it in style. It is wanting in that elegance which characterized the
Florentine historians of the sixteenth century. Bentivoglio (1579-1644) was
an eminent rival of Davila; he wrote the history of the civil wars of
Flanders; a work remarkable for the elegance and correctness of its style.
Above all stand the works of Sarpi, who lived between 1552 and 1623, and
who defended with great courage the authority of the Senate of Venice
against the power of the Popes, notwithstanding their excommunication and
continued persecution. His history of the Council of Trent contains a
curious account of the intrigues of the Court of Rome at the period of the
Reformation.
It was chiefly in the more showy departments of literature that the
extravagance of the Marinists was most conspicuous, and the decay of
native genius was most apparent. But this genius had turned into other
paths, which it pursued with a steady, though less brilliant course. Of all
branches of prose composition, the epistolary was the most carefully
cultivated. The talent for letter-writing was often the means of considerable
emolument, as all the petty princes of Italy and the cardinals of Rome were
ambitious of having secretaries who would give them éclat in their
correspondence, and these situations, which were steps to higher
preferment, were eagerly sought; hence the prodigious number of
collections of letters which have at all times inundated Italy—specimens by
Page 337
which those who believed themselves elegant writers endeavored to make
known their talent. The letters of Bentivoglio have obtained European
celebrity. They are distinguished for elegance of style as well as for the
interest of those historical recollections which they transmit; they are
considered superior to his history. But of all the letters of this or of the
preceding age, none are more rich, more varied, or more pleasing than those
of Redi, who threw into this form his discoveries in natural history. The
driest subjects, even those of language and grammar, are here treated in an
interesting and agreeable manner.
PERIOD THIRD.
THE SECOND REVIVAL OF ITALIAN LITERATURE, AND ITS
PRESENT CONDITION (1675-1885).
1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE THIRD PERIOD.—At the
close of the seventeenth century, a new dawn arose in the history of Italian
letters, and the general corruption which had extended to every branch of
literature and paralyzed the Italian mind began to be arrested by the
appearance of writers of better taste; the affectations of the Marinists and of
the so-called Arcadian poets were banished from literature; science was
elevated and its dominion extended, the melodrama, comedy, and tragedy
recreated, and a new spirit infused into every branch of composition.
Amidst the clash of arms and the vicissitudes of long and bloody wars, Italy
began to awake from her lethargy to the aspiration for greater and better
things, and her intellectual condition soon underwent important changes
and improvements. In the eighteenth century, in Naples, Vico transformed
history into a new science. Filangeri contended with Montesquieu for the
palm of legislative philosophy; and new light was thrown on criminal
science by Mario Pagano. In Rome, letters and science flourished under the
known their talent. The letters of Bentivoglio have obtained European
celebrity. They are distinguished for elegance of style as well as for the
interest of those historical recollections which they transmit; they are
considered superior to his history. But of all the letters of this or of the
preceding age, none are more rich, more varied, or more pleasing than those
of Redi, who threw into this form his discoveries in natural history. The
driest subjects, even those of language and grammar, are here treated in an
interesting and agreeable manner.
PERIOD THIRD.
THE SECOND REVIVAL OF ITALIAN LITERATURE, AND ITS
PRESENT CONDITION (1675-1885).
1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE THIRD PERIOD.—At the
close of the seventeenth century, a new dawn arose in the history of Italian
letters, and the general corruption which had extended to every branch of
literature and paralyzed the Italian mind began to be arrested by the
appearance of writers of better taste; the affectations of the Marinists and of
the so-called Arcadian poets were banished from literature; science was
elevated and its dominion extended, the melodrama, comedy, and tragedy
recreated, and a new spirit infused into every branch of composition.
Amidst the clash of arms and the vicissitudes of long and bloody wars, Italy
began to awake from her lethargy to the aspiration for greater and better
things, and her intellectual condition soon underwent important changes
and improvements. In the eighteenth century, in Naples, Vico transformed
history into a new science. Filangeri contended with Montesquieu for the
palm of legislative philosophy; and new light was thrown on criminal
science by Mario Pagano. In Rome, letters and science flourished under the
Page 338
patronage of Benedict XIV., Clement XIV., and Pius VI., under whose
auspices Quirico Visconti undertook his "Pio Clementine Museum" and his
"Greek and Roman Iconography," the two greatest archaeological works of
all ages. Padua was immortalized by the works of Cesarotti, Belzoni, and
Stratico; Venice by Goldoni; Verona by Maffei, the critic and the
antiquarian, as well as the first reformer of Italian tragedy. Tuscany took the
lead of the intellectual movement of the country under Leopold and his
successor Ferdinand, when Florence, Pisa, and Siena again became seats of
learning and of poetry and the arts. Maria Theresa and Joseph II. fostered
the intellectual progress of Lombardy; Spallanzani published his researches
on natural philosophy; Volta discovered the pile which bears his name; a
new era in poetry was created by Parinl; another in criminal jurisprudence
by Beccaria; history was reconstructed by Muratori; mathematics promoted
by Lagrange, and astronomy by Oriani; and Alfieri restored Italian letters to
their primitive splendor.
But at the close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the
nineteenth, Italy became the theatre of political and military revolutions,
whose influence could not fail to arrest the development of the literature of
the country. The galleries, museums, and libraries of Rome, Florence, and
other cities suffered from the military occupation, and many of their
treasures, manuscripts, and masterpieces of art were carried to Paris by
command of Napoleon. The entire peninsula was subject to French
influence, which, though beneficial to its material progress, could not fail to
be detrimental to national literature. All new works were composed in
French, and indifferent or bad translations from the French were widely
circulated; the French language was substituted for the Italian, and the
national literature seemed about to disappear. But Italian genius was not
wholly extinguished; a few writers powerfully opposed this new tendency,
and preserved in its purity the language of Dante and Petrarch. Gradually
the national spirit revived, and literature was again moulded in accordance
auspices Quirico Visconti undertook his "Pio Clementine Museum" and his
"Greek and Roman Iconography," the two greatest archaeological works of
all ages. Padua was immortalized by the works of Cesarotti, Belzoni, and
Stratico; Venice by Goldoni; Verona by Maffei, the critic and the
antiquarian, as well as the first reformer of Italian tragedy. Tuscany took the
lead of the intellectual movement of the country under Leopold and his
successor Ferdinand, when Florence, Pisa, and Siena again became seats of
learning and of poetry and the arts. Maria Theresa and Joseph II. fostered
the intellectual progress of Lombardy; Spallanzani published his researches
on natural philosophy; Volta discovered the pile which bears his name; a
new era in poetry was created by Parinl; another in criminal jurisprudence
by Beccaria; history was reconstructed by Muratori; mathematics promoted
by Lagrange, and astronomy by Oriani; and Alfieri restored Italian letters to
their primitive splendor.
But at the close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the
nineteenth, Italy became the theatre of political and military revolutions,
whose influence could not fail to arrest the development of the literature of
the country. The galleries, museums, and libraries of Rome, Florence, and
other cities suffered from the military occupation, and many of their
treasures, manuscripts, and masterpieces of art were carried to Paris by
command of Napoleon. The entire peninsula was subject to French
influence, which, though beneficial to its material progress, could not fail to
be detrimental to national literature. All new works were composed in
French, and indifferent or bad translations from the French were widely
circulated; the French language was substituted for the Italian, and the
national literature seemed about to disappear. But Italian genius was not
wholly extinguished; a few writers powerfully opposed this new tendency,
and preserved in its purity the language of Dante and Petrarch. Gradually
the national spirit revived, and literature was again moulded in accordance
Page 339
with the national character. Notwithstanding the political calamities of
which, for some time after the treaty of Vienna in 1815, Italy was
continually the victim, the literature of the country awakened and fostered a
sentiment of nationality, and Italian independence is at this present moment
already achieved.
2. THE MELODRAMA.—The first result of the revival of letters at the
close of the seventeenth century was the reform of the theatre. The
melodrama, or Italian opera, arose out of the pastoral drama, which it
superseded. The astonishing progress of musical science succeeded that of
poetry and sculpture, which fell into decline with the decay of literature.
Music, rising into excellence and importance at a time when poetry was on
the decline, acquired such superiority that verse, instead of being its
mistress, became its handmaid. The first occasion of this inversion was in
the year 1594, when Rinuccini, a Florentine poet, associated himself with
three musicians to compose a mythological drama. This and several other
pieces by the same author met with a brilliant reception. Poetry, written
only in order to be sung, thus assumed a different character; Rinuiccini
abandoned the form of the canzone which had hitherto been used in the
lyrical part of the drama, and adopted the Pindaric ode. Many poets
followed in the same path; more action was given to the dramatic parts, and
greater variety to the music, in which the airs were agreeably blended with
the recitative duets; other harmonized pieces were also added, and after the
lapse of a century Apostolo Zeno (1669-1750) still further improved the
melodrama. But it was the spirit of Metastasio that breathed a soul of fire
into this ingenious and happy form created by others.
Metastasio (1698-1782) gave early indications of genius, and when only
ten years of age used to collect an audience in his father's shop, by his talent
for improvisation. He thus attracted the notice of Gravina, a celebrated
patron of letters, who adopted him as his son, changed his somewhat
which, for some time after the treaty of Vienna in 1815, Italy was
continually the victim, the literature of the country awakened and fostered a
sentiment of nationality, and Italian independence is at this present moment
already achieved.
2. THE MELODRAMA.—The first result of the revival of letters at the
close of the seventeenth century was the reform of the theatre. The
melodrama, or Italian opera, arose out of the pastoral drama, which it
superseded. The astonishing progress of musical science succeeded that of
poetry and sculpture, which fell into decline with the decay of literature.
Music, rising into excellence and importance at a time when poetry was on
the decline, acquired such superiority that verse, instead of being its
mistress, became its handmaid. The first occasion of this inversion was in
the year 1594, when Rinuccini, a Florentine poet, associated himself with
three musicians to compose a mythological drama. This and several other
pieces by the same author met with a brilliant reception. Poetry, written
only in order to be sung, thus assumed a different character; Rinuiccini
abandoned the form of the canzone which had hitherto been used in the
lyrical part of the drama, and adopted the Pindaric ode. Many poets
followed in the same path; more action was given to the dramatic parts, and
greater variety to the music, in which the airs were agreeably blended with
the recitative duets; other harmonized pieces were also added, and after the
lapse of a century Apostolo Zeno (1669-1750) still further improved the
melodrama. But it was the spirit of Metastasio that breathed a soul of fire
into this ingenious and happy form created by others.
Metastasio (1698-1782) gave early indications of genius, and when only
ten years of age used to collect an audience in his father's shop, by his talent
for improvisation. He thus attracted the notice of Gravina, a celebrated
patron of letters, who adopted him as his son, changed his somewhat
Page 340
ignoble name of Trepassi to Metastasio, and had him educated in every
branch necessary for a literary career. He still continued to improvise verses
on any given subject for the amusement of company. His youth, his
harmonious voice, and prepossessing appearance, added greatly to the
charm of his talent. It was one generally cultivated in Italy at this time, and
men of mature years often presented themselves as rivals of the hoy. This
occupation becoming injurious to the youth, Gravina forbade him to
compose extempore verses any more, and this rule, imposed on him at
sixteen, he never afterwards infringed. When Metastasio was in his
twentieth year Gravina died, leaving to him his fortune, most of which he
squandered in two years. He afterwards went to Naples, where, under a
severe master, he devoted himself to the closest study and for two years
resisted every solicitation to compose verses. At length, under promise of
secrecy, he wrote a drama. All Naples resounded with its praise, and the
author was soon discovered. Metastasio from this time followed the career
for which nature seemed to have formed him, and devoted himself to the
opera, which he considered to be the natural drama of Italy. An invitation to
become the court poet of Vienna made his future life both stable and
prosperous. On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, several other European
sovereigns made advantageous overtures to the poet, but as Maria Theresa
was disposed to retain him, he would not leave her in her adverse
circumstances. The remainder of his life he passed in Germany, and his
latter years were as monotonous as they were prosperous.
Metastasio seized with a daring hand the true spirit of the melodrama,
and scorning to confine himself to unity of place, opened a wide field for
the display of theatrical variety, on which the charm of the opera so much
depends. The language in which he clothed the favorite passion of his
drama exhibits all that is delicate and yet ardent, and he develops the most
elevated sentiments of loyalty, patriotism, and filial love. The flow of his
verse in the recitative is the most pure and harmonious known in any
branch necessary for a literary career. He still continued to improvise verses
on any given subject for the amusement of company. His youth, his
harmonious voice, and prepossessing appearance, added greatly to the
charm of his talent. It was one generally cultivated in Italy at this time, and
men of mature years often presented themselves as rivals of the hoy. This
occupation becoming injurious to the youth, Gravina forbade him to
compose extempore verses any more, and this rule, imposed on him at
sixteen, he never afterwards infringed. When Metastasio was in his
twentieth year Gravina died, leaving to him his fortune, most of which he
squandered in two years. He afterwards went to Naples, where, under a
severe master, he devoted himself to the closest study and for two years
resisted every solicitation to compose verses. At length, under promise of
secrecy, he wrote a drama. All Naples resounded with its praise, and the
author was soon discovered. Metastasio from this time followed the career
for which nature seemed to have formed him, and devoted himself to the
opera, which he considered to be the natural drama of Italy. An invitation to
become the court poet of Vienna made his future life both stable and
prosperous. On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, several other European
sovereigns made advantageous overtures to the poet, but as Maria Theresa
was disposed to retain him, he would not leave her in her adverse
circumstances. The remainder of his life he passed in Germany, and his
latter years were as monotonous as they were prosperous.
Metastasio seized with a daring hand the true spirit of the melodrama,
and scorning to confine himself to unity of place, opened a wide field for
the display of theatrical variety, on which the charm of the opera so much
depends. The language in which he clothed the favorite passion of his
drama exhibits all that is delicate and yet ardent, and he develops the most
elevated sentiments of loyalty, patriotism, and filial love. The flow of his
verse in the recitative is the most pure and harmonious known in any
Page 341
language, and the strophes at the close of each scene are scarcely surpassed
by the first masters in lyric poetry. Metastasio is one of the most pleasing, at
the same time one of the least difficult of the Italian poets, and the tyro in
the study of Italian classics may begin with his works, and at once enjoy the
pleasures of poetic harmony at their highest source.
3. COMEDY.—The revolution, so frequently attempted in Italian
comedy by men whose genius was unequal to the task, was reserved for
Goldoni (1707- 1772) to accomplish. His life, written by himself, presents a
picture of Italian manners in their gayest colors. He was a native of Venice,
and from his early youth was constantly surrounded by theatrical people. At
eight years of age he composed a comedy, and at fourteen he ran away from
school with a company of strolling players. He afterwards prepared for the
medical, then for the legal profession, and finally, at the age of twenty-
seven, he was installed poet to a company of players. He now attempted to
introduce the reforms that he had long meditated; he attained a purer style,
and became a censor of the manners and a satirist of the follies of his
country. His dialogue is extremely animated, earnest, and full of meaning;
with a thorough knowledge of national manners, he possessed the rare
faculty of representing them in the most life-like manner on the stage. The
language used by the inferior characters of his comedies is the Venetian
dialect.
In his latter days Goldoni was rivaled by Carlo Gozzi (1722-1806), who
parodied his pieces, and, it is thought, was the cause of his retirement, in the
decline of life, to Paris. Gozzi introduced a new style of comedy, by
reviving the familiar fictions of childhood; he selected and dramatized the
most brilliant fairy tales, such as "Blue Beard," "The King of the Genii,"
etc., and gave them to the public with magnificent decorations and
surprising machinery. If his comedies display little resemblance to nature,
they at least preserve the kind of probability which is looked for in a fairy
by the first masters in lyric poetry. Metastasio is one of the most pleasing, at
the same time one of the least difficult of the Italian poets, and the tyro in
the study of Italian classics may begin with his works, and at once enjoy the
pleasures of poetic harmony at their highest source.
3. COMEDY.—The revolution, so frequently attempted in Italian
comedy by men whose genius was unequal to the task, was reserved for
Goldoni (1707- 1772) to accomplish. His life, written by himself, presents a
picture of Italian manners in their gayest colors. He was a native of Venice,
and from his early youth was constantly surrounded by theatrical people. At
eight years of age he composed a comedy, and at fourteen he ran away from
school with a company of strolling players. He afterwards prepared for the
medical, then for the legal profession, and finally, at the age of twenty-
seven, he was installed poet to a company of players. He now attempted to
introduce the reforms that he had long meditated; he attained a purer style,
and became a censor of the manners and a satirist of the follies of his
country. His dialogue is extremely animated, earnest, and full of meaning;
with a thorough knowledge of national manners, he possessed the rare
faculty of representing them in the most life-like manner on the stage. The
language used by the inferior characters of his comedies is the Venetian
dialect.
In his latter days Goldoni was rivaled by Carlo Gozzi (1722-1806), who
parodied his pieces, and, it is thought, was the cause of his retirement, in the
decline of life, to Paris. Gozzi introduced a new style of comedy, by
reviving the familiar fictions of childhood; he selected and dramatized the
most brilliant fairy tales, such as "Blue Beard," "The King of the Genii,"
etc., and gave them to the public with magnificent decorations and
surprising machinery. If his comedies display little resemblance to nature,
they at least preserve the kind of probability which is looked for in a fairy
Page 342
tale. Many years elapsed after Goldoni and Gozzi disappeared from the
arena before there was any successor to rival their compositions.
Among those who contributed to the perfection of Italian comedy may be
mentioned Albergati (fl. 1774), Gherardo de' Rossi (1754-1827), and above
all, Nota (d. 1847), who is preeminent among the new race of comic
authors; although somewhat cold and didactic, he at least fulfils the
important office of holding the mirror up to nature. He exhibits a faithful
picture of Italian society, and applies the scourge of satire to its most
prevalent faults and follies.
4. TRAGEDY.—The reform of Italian tragedy was early attempted by
Martelli (d. 1727) and by Scipione Maffei (1675-1755). But Martelli was
only a tame imitator of French models, while Maffei, possessing real talent
and feeling, deserved the extended reputation he acquired. His "Merope" is
considered as the last and the best specimen of the elder school of Italian
tragedy.
The honor of raising tragedy to its highest standard was reserved for
Alfieri (1749-1803), whose remarkable personal character exercised a
powerful influence over his works. He was possessed of an impetuosity
which continually urged him towards some indefinite object, a craving for
something more free in politics, more elevated in character, more ardent in
love, and more perfect in friendship; of desires for a better state of things,
which drove him from one extremity of Europe to another, but without
discovering it in the realities of this everyday world. Finally, he turned to
the contemplation of a new universe in his own poetical creations, and
calmed his agitations by the production of those master- pieces which have
secured his immortality. His aim in life, in the pursuit of which he never
deviated, was that of founding a new and classic school of tragedy. He
proposed to himself the severe simplicity of the Greeks with respect to the
arena before there was any successor to rival their compositions.
Among those who contributed to the perfection of Italian comedy may be
mentioned Albergati (fl. 1774), Gherardo de' Rossi (1754-1827), and above
all, Nota (d. 1847), who is preeminent among the new race of comic
authors; although somewhat cold and didactic, he at least fulfils the
important office of holding the mirror up to nature. He exhibits a faithful
picture of Italian society, and applies the scourge of satire to its most
prevalent faults and follies.
4. TRAGEDY.—The reform of Italian tragedy was early attempted by
Martelli (d. 1727) and by Scipione Maffei (1675-1755). But Martelli was
only a tame imitator of French models, while Maffei, possessing real talent
and feeling, deserved the extended reputation he acquired. His "Merope" is
considered as the last and the best specimen of the elder school of Italian
tragedy.
The honor of raising tragedy to its highest standard was reserved for
Alfieri (1749-1803), whose remarkable personal character exercised a
powerful influence over his works. He was possessed of an impetuosity
which continually urged him towards some indefinite object, a craving for
something more free in politics, more elevated in character, more ardent in
love, and more perfect in friendship; of desires for a better state of things,
which drove him from one extremity of Europe to another, but without
discovering it in the realities of this everyday world. Finally, he turned to
the contemplation of a new universe in his own poetical creations, and
calmed his agitations by the production of those master- pieces which have
secured his immortality. His aim in life, in the pursuit of which he never
deviated, was that of founding a new and classic school of tragedy. He
proposed to himself the severe simplicity of the Greeks with respect to the
Page 343
plot, while he rejected the pomp of poetry which compensates for interest
among the classic writers of antiquity. Energy and conciseness are the
distinguishing features of his style; and this, in his earlier dramas, is carried
to the extreme. He brings the whole action into one focus; the passion he
would exhibit is introduced into the first verse and kept in view to the last.
No event, no character, no conversation unconnected with the advancement
of the plot is permitted to appear; all confidants and secondary personages
are, therefore, excluded, and there seldom appear more than four
interlocutors. These tragedies breathe the spirit of patriotism and freedom,
and for this, even independently of their intrinsic merit, Alfieri is considered
as the reviver of the national character in modern times, as Dante was in the
fourteenth century. "Saul" is regarded as his masterpiece; it represents a
noble character suffering under those weaknesses which sometimes
accompany great virtues, and are governed by the fatality, not of destiny,
but of human nature.
Among the earliest and most distinguished of those who followed in the
path of Alfieri was Monti (1754-1828). Though endowed with a sublime
imagination and exquisite taste, his character was weak and vain, and he, in
turn, celebrated every party as it became the successful one. Educated in the
school of Dante, he introduced into Italian poetry those bold and severe
beauties which adorned its infancy. His "Aristodemus" is one of the most
affecting tragedies in Italian literature. The story is founded on the narrative
of Pausanias. It is simple in its construction, and its interest is confined
almost entirely to the principal personage. In the loftiness of the characters
of his tragedies, and the energy of sentiment and simplicity of action which
characterize them, we recognize the school of Alfieri, while in harmony and
elegance of style and poetical language, Monti is superior.
Another follower of the school of Alfieri is Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827),
one of the greatest writers of this age, in whom inspiration was derived
among the classic writers of antiquity. Energy and conciseness are the
distinguishing features of his style; and this, in his earlier dramas, is carried
to the extreme. He brings the whole action into one focus; the passion he
would exhibit is introduced into the first verse and kept in view to the last.
No event, no character, no conversation unconnected with the advancement
of the plot is permitted to appear; all confidants and secondary personages
are, therefore, excluded, and there seldom appear more than four
interlocutors. These tragedies breathe the spirit of patriotism and freedom,
and for this, even independently of their intrinsic merit, Alfieri is considered
as the reviver of the national character in modern times, as Dante was in the
fourteenth century. "Saul" is regarded as his masterpiece; it represents a
noble character suffering under those weaknesses which sometimes
accompany great virtues, and are governed by the fatality, not of destiny,
but of human nature.
Among the earliest and most distinguished of those who followed in the
path of Alfieri was Monti (1754-1828). Though endowed with a sublime
imagination and exquisite taste, his character was weak and vain, and he, in
turn, celebrated every party as it became the successful one. Educated in the
school of Dante, he introduced into Italian poetry those bold and severe
beauties which adorned its infancy. His "Aristodemus" is one of the most
affecting tragedies in Italian literature. The story is founded on the narrative
of Pausanias. It is simple in its construction, and its interest is confined
almost entirely to the principal personage. In the loftiness of the characters
of his tragedies, and the energy of sentiment and simplicity of action which
characterize them, we recognize the school of Alfieri, while in harmony and
elegance of style and poetical language, Monti is superior.
Another follower of the school of Alfieri is Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827),
one of the greatest writers of this age, in whom inspiration was derived
Page 344
from a lofty patriotism. At the time of the French revolution he joined the
Italian army, with the object of restoring independence to his country.
Disappointed in this hope, he left Italy for England, where he distinguished
himself by his writings. The best of his tragedies, "Ricciarda," is founded
on events supposed to have occurred in the Middle Ages. While some of its
scenes and situations are forced and unnatural, some of the acts are wrought
with consummate skill and effect, and the conception of the characters is
tragic and original. Foscolo adopts in his tragedies a concise and pregnant
style, and displays great mastery over his native language. Marenco (d.
1846) is distinguished for the noble and moral ideas, lofty images, and
affections of his tragedies; but he lacks unity of design and vigor of style.
Silvio Pellico (1789-1854) was born in Piedmont. As a writer he is best
known as the author of "My Prisons," a narrative full of simplicity and
resignation, in which he relates his sufferings during ten years in the
fortress of Spielberg. His tragedies are good specimens of modern art; they
abound in fine thoughts and tender affections, but they lack that liveliness
of dialogue and rapidity of action which give reality to the situations, and
that knowledge of the human heart and unity and grandeur of conception
which are the characteristics of true genius.
Manzoni (1785-1873) and Nicolini (1782-1861) are the last of the
modern representatives of the tragic drama of Italy. The tragedies of
Manzoni, and especially his "Conte di Carmagnola," and "Adelchi," abound
in exquisite beauties. His style is simple and noble, his verse easy and
harmonious, and his object elevated. The merits of these tragedies,
however, belong rather to parts, and while the reading of them is always
interesting, on the stage they fail to awaken the interest of the audience.
After Manzoni, Nicolini was the most popular literary man of Italy of his
time. Lofty ideas, generous passions, splendor and harmony of poetry,
purity of language, variety of characters, and warmth of patriotism,
constitute the merit of his tragedies; while his faults consist in a style
Italian army, with the object of restoring independence to his country.
Disappointed in this hope, he left Italy for England, where he distinguished
himself by his writings. The best of his tragedies, "Ricciarda," is founded
on events supposed to have occurred in the Middle Ages. While some of its
scenes and situations are forced and unnatural, some of the acts are wrought
with consummate skill and effect, and the conception of the characters is
tragic and original. Foscolo adopts in his tragedies a concise and pregnant
style, and displays great mastery over his native language. Marenco (d.
1846) is distinguished for the noble and moral ideas, lofty images, and
affections of his tragedies; but he lacks unity of design and vigor of style.
Silvio Pellico (1789-1854) was born in Piedmont. As a writer he is best
known as the author of "My Prisons," a narrative full of simplicity and
resignation, in which he relates his sufferings during ten years in the
fortress of Spielberg. His tragedies are good specimens of modern art; they
abound in fine thoughts and tender affections, but they lack that liveliness
of dialogue and rapidity of action which give reality to the situations, and
that knowledge of the human heart and unity and grandeur of conception
which are the characteristics of true genius.
Manzoni (1785-1873) and Nicolini (1782-1861) are the last of the
modern representatives of the tragic drama of Italy. The tragedies of
Manzoni, and especially his "Conte di Carmagnola," and "Adelchi," abound
in exquisite beauties. His style is simple and noble, his verse easy and
harmonious, and his object elevated. The merits of these tragedies,
however, belong rather to parts, and while the reading of them is always
interesting, on the stage they fail to awaken the interest of the audience.
After Manzoni, Nicolini was the most popular literary man of Italy of his
time. Lofty ideas, generous passions, splendor and harmony of poetry,
purity of language, variety of characters, and warmth of patriotism,
constitute the merit of his tragedies; while his faults consist in a style
Page 345
somewhat too exuberant and lyrical, in ideas sometimes too vague, and
characters often too ideal.
5. LYRIC, EPIC, AND DIDACTIC POETRY.—In the latter part of the
eighteenth century, a class of poets who called themselves "The Arcadians"
attempted to overthrow the artificial and bombastic school of Marini; but
their frivolous and insipid productions had little effect on the literature. The
first poets who gave a new impulse to letters were Parini and Monti. Parini
(1729-1799) was a man of great genius, integrity, and taste; he contributed
more than any other writer of his age to the progress of literature and the
arts. His lyrical poems abound in noble thoughts, and breathe a pure
patriotism and high morality. His style is forcible, chaste, and harmonious.
The poems of Monti have much of the fire and elevation of Pindar.
Whatever object employs his thoughts, his eyes immediately behold; and,
as it stands before him, a flexible and harmonious language is ever at his
command to paint it in the brightest colors. His "Basvilliana" is the most
celebrated of his lyric poems, and, beyond every other, is remarkable for
majesty, nobleness of expression, and richness of coloring.
The poetical writings of Pindemonte (1753-1828) are stamped with the
melancholy of his character. Their subjects are taken from contemporary
events, and his inspiration is drawn from nature and rural life. His
"Sepulchres" breathes the sweetest and most pathetic tenderness, and the
brightest hopes of immorality. The poems of Foscolo have the grace and
elegance of the Greek poets; but in his "Sepulchres" the gloom of his
melancholy imagination throws a funereal light over the nothingness of all
things, and the silence of death is unbroken by any voice of hope in a future
life. Torti (1774-1852), a pupil of Parini, rivaled his master in the simplicity
of style and purity of his images; while Leopardi (1798- 1837) impressed
upon his lyric poems the peculiarities of his own character. A sublime poet
and a profound scholar, his muse was inspired by a deep sorrow, and his
characters often too ideal.
5. LYRIC, EPIC, AND DIDACTIC POETRY.—In the latter part of the
eighteenth century, a class of poets who called themselves "The Arcadians"
attempted to overthrow the artificial and bombastic school of Marini; but
their frivolous and insipid productions had little effect on the literature. The
first poets who gave a new impulse to letters were Parini and Monti. Parini
(1729-1799) was a man of great genius, integrity, and taste; he contributed
more than any other writer of his age to the progress of literature and the
arts. His lyrical poems abound in noble thoughts, and breathe a pure
patriotism and high morality. His style is forcible, chaste, and harmonious.
The poems of Monti have much of the fire and elevation of Pindar.
Whatever object employs his thoughts, his eyes immediately behold; and,
as it stands before him, a flexible and harmonious language is ever at his
command to paint it in the brightest colors. His "Basvilliana" is the most
celebrated of his lyric poems, and, beyond every other, is remarkable for
majesty, nobleness of expression, and richness of coloring.
The poetical writings of Pindemonte (1753-1828) are stamped with the
melancholy of his character. Their subjects are taken from contemporary
events, and his inspiration is drawn from nature and rural life. His
"Sepulchres" breathes the sweetest and most pathetic tenderness, and the
brightest hopes of immorality. The poems of Foscolo have the grace and
elegance of the Greek poets; but in his "Sepulchres" the gloom of his
melancholy imagination throws a funereal light over the nothingness of all
things, and the silence of death is unbroken by any voice of hope in a future
life. Torti (1774-1852), a pupil of Parini, rivaled his master in the simplicity
of style and purity of his images; while Leopardi (1798- 1837) impressed
upon his lyric poems the peculiarities of his own character. A sublime poet
and a profound scholar, his muse was inspired by a deep sorrow, and his
Page 346
poems pour out a melancholy that is terrible and grand, the most agonizing
cry in modern literature uttered with a solemn quietness that elevates and
terrifies. The poetry of despair has never had a more powerful voice than
his. He is not only the first poet since Dante, but perhaps the most perfect
prose writer. Berchet (1790-1851) is considered as the Italian Béranger, and
his songs glow with patriotic fire. Those of Silvio Pellico, always sweet and
truthful, bear the stamp of a calm resignation, hope, and piety. The list of
modern lyric poets closes with Manzoni, whose hymns are models of this
style of poetry.
In the epic department the third period does not afford any poems of a
high order. But the translation of the Iliad by Monti, that of the Odyssey by
Pindemonte, for their purity of language and beauty of style, may be
considered as epic additions to Italian literature. "The Longobards of the
First Crusade," written by Grossi (1791-1853), excels in beauty and
splendor of poetry all the epic poems of this age, though it lacks unity of
design and comprehensiveness of thought.
Among the didactic poems may be mentioned the "Invitation of Lesbia,"
by Mascheroni (1750-1800), a distinguished poet as well as a celebrated
mathematician. This poem, which describes the beautiful productions of
nature in the Museum of Pavia, is considered a masterpiece of didactic
poetry. The "Riseide," or cultivation of rice, by Spolverini (1695-1762), and
the "Silkworm," by Betti (1732-1788), are characterized by poetical
beauties. The poem on the "Immortality of the Soul," by Filorentino (1742-
1815), though defective in style, is distinguished by its elevation of ideas
and sentiments. "The Cultivation of Mountains," by Lorenzi (1732- 1822),
is rich in beautiful images and thoughts. "The Cultivation of Olive Trees,"
by Arici (1782-1836), his "Corals," and other poems, especially in their
descriptions, are graceful and attractive. "The Seasons" of Barbieri (1774-
cry in modern literature uttered with a solemn quietness that elevates and
terrifies. The poetry of despair has never had a more powerful voice than
his. He is not only the first poet since Dante, but perhaps the most perfect
prose writer. Berchet (1790-1851) is considered as the Italian Béranger, and
his songs glow with patriotic fire. Those of Silvio Pellico, always sweet and
truthful, bear the stamp of a calm resignation, hope, and piety. The list of
modern lyric poets closes with Manzoni, whose hymns are models of this
style of poetry.
In the epic department the third period does not afford any poems of a
high order. But the translation of the Iliad by Monti, that of the Odyssey by
Pindemonte, for their purity of language and beauty of style, may be
considered as epic additions to Italian literature. "The Longobards of the
First Crusade," written by Grossi (1791-1853), excels in beauty and
splendor of poetry all the epic poems of this age, though it lacks unity of
design and comprehensiveness of thought.
Among the didactic poems may be mentioned the "Invitation of Lesbia,"
by Mascheroni (1750-1800), a distinguished poet as well as a celebrated
mathematician. This poem, which describes the beautiful productions of
nature in the Museum of Pavia, is considered a masterpiece of didactic
poetry. The "Riseide," or cultivation of rice, by Spolverini (1695-1762), and
the "Silkworm," by Betti (1732-1788), are characterized by poetical
beauties. The poem on the "Immortality of the Soul," by Filorentino (1742-
1815), though defective in style, is distinguished by its elevation of ideas
and sentiments. "The Cultivation of Mountains," by Lorenzi (1732- 1822),
is rich in beautiful images and thoughts. "The Cultivation of Olive Trees,"
by Arici (1782-1836), his "Corals," and other poems, especially in their
descriptions, are graceful and attractive. "The Seasons" of Barbieri (1774-
Page 347
1852), though bearing marks of imitation from Pope, is written in a pure
and elegant style.
6. HEROIC-COMIC POETRY, SATIRE, AND FABLE.—The period of
heroic-comic poetry closes in the eighteenth century. The "Ricciardetto" of
Fortiguerri (1674-1735) is the last of the poems of chivalry, and with it
terminated the long series of romances founded on the adventures of
Charlemagne and his paladins. The "Cicero" of Passeroni (1713-1803) is a
rambling composition in a style similar to Sterne's "Tristram Shandy,"
which, it appears, was suggested by this work.
Satiric poetry, which had flourished in the preceding period, was
enriched by new productions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. G.
Gozzi (1713-1789) attacked in his satires the vices and prejudices of his
fellow-citizens, in a forcible and elegant style; and Parini, the great satirist
of the eighteenth century, founded a school of satire, which proved most
beneficial to the country. His poem, "The Day," is distinguished by fine
irony and by the severity with which he attacks the effeminate habits of his
age. He lashes the affectations and vices of the Milanese aristocracy with a
sarcasm worthy of Juvenal. The satires of D'Elei, Guadagnali, and others
are characterized by wit and beauty of versification. Those of Leopardi are
bitter and contemptuous, while Giusti (1809-1850), the political satirist of
his age, scourged the petty tyrants of his country with biting severity and
pungent wit; the circulation of his satires throughout Italy, in defiance of its
despotic governments, greatly contributed to the revolution of 1848.
In the department of fable may be mentioned Roberti (1719-1786),
Passeroni, Pignotti (1739-1812), and Clasio (1754-1825), distinguished for
invention, purity, and simplicity of style.
7. ROMANCES.—Though the tales of Boccaccio and the story tellers of
the sixteenth century paved the way to the romances of the present time, it
and elegant style.
6. HEROIC-COMIC POETRY, SATIRE, AND FABLE.—The period of
heroic-comic poetry closes in the eighteenth century. The "Ricciardetto" of
Fortiguerri (1674-1735) is the last of the poems of chivalry, and with it
terminated the long series of romances founded on the adventures of
Charlemagne and his paladins. The "Cicero" of Passeroni (1713-1803) is a
rambling composition in a style similar to Sterne's "Tristram Shandy,"
which, it appears, was suggested by this work.
Satiric poetry, which had flourished in the preceding period, was
enriched by new productions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. G.
Gozzi (1713-1789) attacked in his satires the vices and prejudices of his
fellow-citizens, in a forcible and elegant style; and Parini, the great satirist
of the eighteenth century, founded a school of satire, which proved most
beneficial to the country. His poem, "The Day," is distinguished by fine
irony and by the severity with which he attacks the effeminate habits of his
age. He lashes the affectations and vices of the Milanese aristocracy with a
sarcasm worthy of Juvenal. The satires of D'Elei, Guadagnali, and others
are characterized by wit and beauty of versification. Those of Leopardi are
bitter and contemptuous, while Giusti (1809-1850), the political satirist of
his age, scourged the petty tyrants of his country with biting severity and
pungent wit; the circulation of his satires throughout Italy, in defiance of its
despotic governments, greatly contributed to the revolution of 1848.
In the department of fable may be mentioned Roberti (1719-1786),
Passeroni, Pignotti (1739-1812), and Clasio (1754-1825), distinguished for
invention, purity, and simplicity of style.
7. ROMANCES.—Though the tales of Boccaccio and the story tellers of
the sixteenth century paved the way to the romances of the present time, it
Page 348
was only at a late period that the Italians gave their attention to this kind of
composition. In the eighteenth century we find only two specimens of
romance, "The Congress of Citera," by Algarotti, of which Voltaire said that
it was written with a feather drawn from the wings of love; and the "Roman
Nights," by Alexander Verri (1741-1816). In his romance he introduces the
shades of celebrated Romans, particularly of Cicero, and an ingenious
comparison of ancient and modern institutions is made. The style is
picturesque and poetical, though somewhat florid.
This kind of composition has found more favor in the nineteenth century.
First among the writers of this age is Manzoni, whose "Betrothed" is a
model of romantic literature. The variety, originality, and truthfulness of the
characters, the perfect knowledge of the human heart it displays, the
simplicity and vivacity of its style, form the principal merits of this work.
The "Marco Visconti" of Grossi is distinguished for its pathos and for the
purity and elegance of its style.
The "Ettore Fieramosca" of Massimo d'Azeglio is distinguished from the
works already spoken of by its martial and national spirit. His "Nicolò de
Lapi," though full of beauties, partakes in some degree of the faults
common to the French school. After these, the "Margherita Pusterla" of
Cantil, the "Luisa Strozzi" of Rosini, the "Lamberto Malatesta" of Rovani,
the "Angiola Maria" of Carcano, are the best historical romances of Italian
literature. Both in an artistic and moral point of view, they far excel those of
Guerrazzi, which represent the French school of George Sand in Italy, and
whose "Battle of Benevento," "Isabella Orsini," "Siege of Florence," and
"Beatrice Cenci," while they are written in pure language and abound in
minor beauties, are exaggerated in their characters, bombastic and
declamatory in style, and overloaded in description.
composition. In the eighteenth century we find only two specimens of
romance, "The Congress of Citera," by Algarotti, of which Voltaire said that
it was written with a feather drawn from the wings of love; and the "Roman
Nights," by Alexander Verri (1741-1816). In his romance he introduces the
shades of celebrated Romans, particularly of Cicero, and an ingenious
comparison of ancient and modern institutions is made. The style is
picturesque and poetical, though somewhat florid.
This kind of composition has found more favor in the nineteenth century.
First among the writers of this age is Manzoni, whose "Betrothed" is a
model of romantic literature. The variety, originality, and truthfulness of the
characters, the perfect knowledge of the human heart it displays, the
simplicity and vivacity of its style, form the principal merits of this work.
The "Marco Visconti" of Grossi is distinguished for its pathos and for the
purity and elegance of its style.
The "Ettore Fieramosca" of Massimo d'Azeglio is distinguished from the
works already spoken of by its martial and national spirit. His "Nicolò de
Lapi," though full of beauties, partakes in some degree of the faults
common to the French school. After these, the "Margherita Pusterla" of
Cantil, the "Luisa Strozzi" of Rosini, the "Lamberto Malatesta" of Rovani,
the "Angiola Maria" of Carcano, are the best historical romances of Italian
literature. Both in an artistic and moral point of view, they far excel those of
Guerrazzi, which represent the French school of George Sand in Italy, and
whose "Battle of Benevento," "Isabella Orsini," "Siege of Florence," and
"Beatrice Cenci," while they are written in pure language and abound in
minor beauties, are exaggerated in their characters, bombastic and
declamatory in style, and overloaded in description.
Page 349
The "Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis," by Foscolo, belongs to that kind of
romance which is called sentimental. Overcome by the calamities of his
country, with his soul full of fiery passion and sad disappointment, Foscolo
wrote this romance, the protest of his heart against evils which he could not
heal.
8. HISTORY.—Among the most prominent of the numerous historians of
this period, a few only can be named. Muratori (1672-1750), for his vast
erudition and profound criticism, has no rivals. He made the most accurate
and extensive researches and discoveries relating to the history of Italy from
the fifth to the sixteenth century, which he published in twenty- seven folio
volumes; the most valuable collection of historical documents which ever
appeared in Italy. He wrote, also, a work on "Italian Antiquities,"
illustrating the history of the Middle Ages through ancient monuments, and
the "Annals of Italy," a history of the country from the beginning of the
Christian era to his own age. Though its style is somewhat defective, the
richness and abundance of its erudition, its clearness, and arrangement,
impart to this work great value and interest.
Maffei, already spoken of as the first reformer of Italian tragedy,
surpassed Muratori in the purity of his style, and was only second to him in
the extent and variety of his erudition. He wrote several works on the
antiquities and monuments of Italy.
Bianchini (1662-1729), a celebrated architect and scholar, wrote a
"Universal History," which, though not complete, is characterized as a work
of great genius. It is founded exclusively on the interpretations of ancient
monuments in marble and metal.
Vico (1670-1744), the founder of the philosophy of history, embraced
with his comprehensive mind the history of all nations, and from the
romance which is called sentimental. Overcome by the calamities of his
country, with his soul full of fiery passion and sad disappointment, Foscolo
wrote this romance, the protest of his heart against evils which he could not
heal.
8. HISTORY.—Among the most prominent of the numerous historians of
this period, a few only can be named. Muratori (1672-1750), for his vast
erudition and profound criticism, has no rivals. He made the most accurate
and extensive researches and discoveries relating to the history of Italy from
the fifth to the sixteenth century, which he published in twenty- seven folio
volumes; the most valuable collection of historical documents which ever
appeared in Italy. He wrote, also, a work on "Italian Antiquities,"
illustrating the history of the Middle Ages through ancient monuments, and
the "Annals of Italy," a history of the country from the beginning of the
Christian era to his own age. Though its style is somewhat defective, the
richness and abundance of its erudition, its clearness, and arrangement,
impart to this work great value and interest.
Maffei, already spoken of as the first reformer of Italian tragedy,
surpassed Muratori in the purity of his style, and was only second to him in
the extent and variety of his erudition. He wrote several works on the
antiquities and monuments of Italy.
Bianchini (1662-1729), a celebrated architect and scholar, wrote a
"Universal History," which, though not complete, is characterized as a work
of great genius. It is founded exclusively on the interpretations of ancient
monuments in marble and metal.
Vico (1670-1744), the founder of the philosophy of history, embraced
with his comprehensive mind the history of all nations, and from the
Page 350
darkness of centuries he created the science of humanity, which he called
"Scienza Nuova." Vico does not propose to illustrate any special historical
epoch, but follows the general movement of mankind in the most remote
and obscure times, and establishes the rules which must guide us in
interpreting ancient historians. By gathering from different epochs, remote
from each other, the songs, symbols, monuments, laws, etymologies, and
religious and philosophical doctrines,—in a word, the infinite elements
which form the life of mankind,—he establishes the unity of human history.
The "Scienza Nuova" is one of the great monuments of human genius, and
it has inspired many works on the philosophy of history, especially among
the Germans, such as those of Hegel, Niebuhr, and others.
Giannone (1676-1748) is the author of a "Civil History of the Kingdom
of Naples," a work full of juridical science as well as of historical interest.
Having attacked with much violence the encroachments of the Church of
Rome on the rights of the state, he became the victim of a persecution
which ended in his death in the fortress of Turin. Giannone, in his history,
gave the first example in modern times of that intrepidity and courage
which belong to the true historian.
Botta (1766-1837) is among the first historians of the present age. He
was a physician and a scholar, and devoted to the freedom of his country.
He filled important political offices in Piedmont, under the administration
of the French government. In 1809 he published, in Paris, his "History of
the American Revolution," a work held in high estimation both in this
country and in Italy. In the political changes which followed the fall of
Napoleon, Botta suffered many pecuniary trials, and was even obliged to
sell, by weight, to a druggist, the entire edition of his history, in order to pay
for medicines for his sick wife. Meanwhile, he wrote a history of Italy, from
1789 to 1814, which was received with great enthusiasm through Italy, and
for which the Academy della Crusca, in 1830, granted to him a pecuniary
"Scienza Nuova." Vico does not propose to illustrate any special historical
epoch, but follows the general movement of mankind in the most remote
and obscure times, and establishes the rules which must guide us in
interpreting ancient historians. By gathering from different epochs, remote
from each other, the songs, symbols, monuments, laws, etymologies, and
religious and philosophical doctrines,—in a word, the infinite elements
which form the life of mankind,—he establishes the unity of human history.
The "Scienza Nuova" is one of the great monuments of human genius, and
it has inspired many works on the philosophy of history, especially among
the Germans, such as those of Hegel, Niebuhr, and others.
Giannone (1676-1748) is the author of a "Civil History of the Kingdom
of Naples," a work full of juridical science as well as of historical interest.
Having attacked with much violence the encroachments of the Church of
Rome on the rights of the state, he became the victim of a persecution
which ended in his death in the fortress of Turin. Giannone, in his history,
gave the first example in modern times of that intrepidity and courage
which belong to the true historian.
Botta (1766-1837) is among the first historians of the present age. He
was a physician and a scholar, and devoted to the freedom of his country.
He filled important political offices in Piedmont, under the administration
of the French government. In 1809 he published, in Paris, his "History of
the American Revolution," a work held in high estimation both in this
country and in Italy. In the political changes which followed the fall of
Napoleon, Botta suffered many pecuniary trials, and was even obliged to
sell, by weight, to a druggist, the entire edition of his history, in order to pay
for medicines for his sick wife. Meanwhile, he wrote a history of Italy, from
1789 to 1814, which was received with great enthusiasm through Italy, and
for which the Academy della Crusca, in 1830, granted to him a pecuniary
Page 351
reward. This was followed by the "History of Italy," in continuation of
Guicciardini, from the fall of the Florentine Republic to 1789, a gigantic
work, with which he closed his historical career. The histories of Botta are
distinguished by clearness of narrative, vividness and beauty of description,
by the prominence he gives to the moral aspect of events and characters,
and by purity, richness, and variety of style.
Colletta (1775-1831) was born in Naples; under the government of Murat
he rose to the rank of general, and fell with his patron. His "History of the
Kingdom of Naples," from 1734 to 1825, is modeled after the annals of
Tacitus. The style is simple, clear, and concise, the subject is treated without
digressions or episodes; it is conceived in a partial spirit, and is a eulogium
of the administration of Joachim; but no writer can rival Colletta in his
descriptions of strategic movements, of sieges and battles.
Balbo (1789-1853) was born in Turin; during the administration of
Napoleon he filled many important political offices, and afterwards entered
upon a military career. Devoted to the freedom of his country, he strove to
promote the progress of Italian independence. In 1847 he published the
"Hopes of Italy," the first political work that had appeared in the peninsula
since the restoration of 1814; it was the spark which kindled the movements
of 1848. In the events of that and of the succeeding year, he ranked among
the most prominent leaders of the national party. His historical works are a
"Life of Dante," considered the best on the subject; "Historical
Contemplations," in which he developed the history of mankind from a
philosophical point of view; and "The Compendium of the History of Italy,"
which embraces in a synthetic form all the history of the country from the
earliest times to 1814. His style is pure, clear, and sometimes eloquent,
though often concise and abrupt.
Guicciardini, from the fall of the Florentine Republic to 1789, a gigantic
work, with which he closed his historical career. The histories of Botta are
distinguished by clearness of narrative, vividness and beauty of description,
by the prominence he gives to the moral aspect of events and characters,
and by purity, richness, and variety of style.
Colletta (1775-1831) was born in Naples; under the government of Murat
he rose to the rank of general, and fell with his patron. His "History of the
Kingdom of Naples," from 1734 to 1825, is modeled after the annals of
Tacitus. The style is simple, clear, and concise, the subject is treated without
digressions or episodes; it is conceived in a partial spirit, and is a eulogium
of the administration of Joachim; but no writer can rival Colletta in his
descriptions of strategic movements, of sieges and battles.
Balbo (1789-1853) was born in Turin; during the administration of
Napoleon he filled many important political offices, and afterwards entered
upon a military career. Devoted to the freedom of his country, he strove to
promote the progress of Italian independence. In 1847 he published the
"Hopes of Italy," the first political work that had appeared in the peninsula
since the restoration of 1814; it was the spark which kindled the movements
of 1848. In the events of that and of the succeeding year, he ranked among
the most prominent leaders of the national party. His historical works are a
"Life of Dante," considered the best on the subject; "Historical
Contemplations," in which he developed the history of mankind from a
philosophical point of view; and "The Compendium of the History of Italy,"
which embraces in a synthetic form all the history of the country from the
earliest times to 1814. His style is pure, clear, and sometimes eloquent,
though often concise and abrupt.
Page 352
Cantù, a living historian, has written a universal history, in which he
attempts the philosophical style. Though vivid in his narratives,
descriptions, and details, he is often incorrect in Ms statements, and rash in
his judgments; his work, though professing liberal views, is essentially
conservative in its tendency. The same faults may be discovered in his more
recent "History of the Italians."
Tiraboschi (1731-1794) is the great historian of Italian literature; his
work is biographical and critical, and is the most extensive literary history
of Italy. His style is simple and elegant, and his criticism profound; but he
gives greater prominence to the biographies of writers than to the
consideration of their works. This history was continued by Corniani (1742-
1813), and afterwards by Ugoni (1784-1855).
9. AESTHETICS, CRITICISM, PHILOLOGY, AND PHILOSOPHY.—
Italian literature is comparatively deficient in aesthetics, the science of the
beautiful. The treatise of Gioberti on the "Beautiful," the last work which
has appeared on this subject, is distinguished for its profound doctrines and
brilliant style. Philology and criticism first began to flourish at the close of
the seventeenth century, and are well represented at the present time. The
revival of letters was greatly promoted by the criticism of Gravina (1664-
1718), one of the most celebrated jurisconsults and scholars of his age, who,
through his work, "The Poetical Reason," greatly contributed to the reform
of taste. Zeno, Maffei, and Muratori also distinguished themselves in the art
of criticism, and by their works aided in overthrowing the school of Marini.
At a later date, Gaspar Gozzi, through his "Observer," a periodical
publication modeled after the "Spectator" of Addison, undertook to correct
the literary taste of the country; for its invention, pungent wit, and satire,
and the purity and correctness of its style, it is considered one of the best
compositions of this kind. Baretti (1716-1789) propagated in England the
taste for Italian literature, and at the same time published his "Literary
attempts the philosophical style. Though vivid in his narratives,
descriptions, and details, he is often incorrect in Ms statements, and rash in
his judgments; his work, though professing liberal views, is essentially
conservative in its tendency. The same faults may be discovered in his more
recent "History of the Italians."
Tiraboschi (1731-1794) is the great historian of Italian literature; his
work is biographical and critical, and is the most extensive literary history
of Italy. His style is simple and elegant, and his criticism profound; but he
gives greater prominence to the biographies of writers than to the
consideration of their works. This history was continued by Corniani (1742-
1813), and afterwards by Ugoni (1784-1855).
9. AESTHETICS, CRITICISM, PHILOLOGY, AND PHILOSOPHY.—
Italian literature is comparatively deficient in aesthetics, the science of the
beautiful. The treatise of Gioberti on the "Beautiful," the last work which
has appeared on this subject, is distinguished for its profound doctrines and
brilliant style. Philology and criticism first began to flourish at the close of
the seventeenth century, and are well represented at the present time. The
revival of letters was greatly promoted by the criticism of Gravina (1664-
1718), one of the most celebrated jurisconsults and scholars of his age, who,
through his work, "The Poetical Reason," greatly contributed to the reform
of taste. Zeno, Maffei, and Muratori also distinguished themselves in the art
of criticism, and by their works aided in overthrowing the school of Marini.
At a later date, Gaspar Gozzi, through his "Observer," a periodical
publication modeled after the "Spectator" of Addison, undertook to correct
the literary taste of the country; for its invention, pungent wit, and satire,
and the purity and correctness of its style, it is considered one of the best
compositions of this kind. Baretti (1716-1789) propagated in England the
taste for Italian literature, and at the same time published his "Literary
Page 353
Scourge," a criticism of the ancient and modern writers of Italy. His style,
though always pure, is often caustic. He wrote several books in the English
language, one of which is in defense of Shakspeare against Voltaire.
Cesarotti (1730-1808), though eminent as a critic, introduced into the
Italian language some innovations, which contributed to its corruption;
while the nice judgment, good taste, and pure style of Parini place him at
the head of this department. In the latter part of this period we find, in the
criticisms of Monti, vigorous logic and a splendid and attractive style.
Foscolo is distinguished for his acumen and pungent wit. The works of
Perticari (1779-1822) are written with extreme polish, erudition, judgment,
and dignity. In Leopardi, philosophical acumen equals the elegance of his
style. Giordani (d. 1848), as a critic and an epigraphist, deserves notice for
his fine judgment and pure taste, as do Tommaseo and Cattaneo, who are
both epigrammatic, witty, and pungent.
The golden age of philology dates from the time of Lorenzo de' Medici to
the seventeenth century. It then declined until the eighteenth, but revived in
the works of Maffei, Muratori, Zeno, and others. In the same century this
study was greatly promoted by Foscolo, Monti, and Cesari (1760-1828),
who, among other philological works, published a new edition of the
Dictionary della Crusca, revised and augmented. Of the modern writers on
philology, Gherardini, Tommaseo, and Ascoli are the most prominent.
The revival of philosophy in Italy dates from the age of Galileo, when the
authority of the Peripatetics was overthrown, and a new method introduced
into scientific researches. From that time to the present, this science has
been represented by opposite schools, the one characterized by sensualism
and the other by rationalism. The experimental method of Galileo paved the
way to the first, which holds that experience is the only source of
knowledge, a doctrine which gained ground in the seventeenth century,
became universally accepted in the eighteenth, through the influence of
though always pure, is often caustic. He wrote several books in the English
language, one of which is in defense of Shakspeare against Voltaire.
Cesarotti (1730-1808), though eminent as a critic, introduced into the
Italian language some innovations, which contributed to its corruption;
while the nice judgment, good taste, and pure style of Parini place him at
the head of this department. In the latter part of this period we find, in the
criticisms of Monti, vigorous logic and a splendid and attractive style.
Foscolo is distinguished for his acumen and pungent wit. The works of
Perticari (1779-1822) are written with extreme polish, erudition, judgment,
and dignity. In Leopardi, philosophical acumen equals the elegance of his
style. Giordani (d. 1848), as a critic and an epigraphist, deserves notice for
his fine judgment and pure taste, as do Tommaseo and Cattaneo, who are
both epigrammatic, witty, and pungent.
The golden age of philology dates from the time of Lorenzo de' Medici to
the seventeenth century. It then declined until the eighteenth, but revived in
the works of Maffei, Muratori, Zeno, and others. In the same century this
study was greatly promoted by Foscolo, Monti, and Cesari (1760-1828),
who, among other philological works, published a new edition of the
Dictionary della Crusca, revised and augmented. Of the modern writers on
philology, Gherardini, Tommaseo, and Ascoli are the most prominent.
The revival of philosophy in Italy dates from the age of Galileo, when the
authority of the Peripatetics was overthrown, and a new method introduced
into scientific researches. From that time to the present, this science has
been represented by opposite schools, the one characterized by sensualism
and the other by rationalism. The experimental method of Galileo paved the
way to the first, which holds that experience is the only source of
knowledge, a doctrine which gained ground in the seventeenth century,
became universally accepted in the eighteenth, through the influence of
Page 354
Locke and Condillac, and continued to prevail during the first part of the
nineteenth. Gioja (1767-1829), and Romagnosi (1761-1835) are the greatest
representatives of this system, in the last part of this period. But while the
former developed sensualism in philosophy and economy, the latter applied
it to political science and jurisprudence. The numerous Works of Gioja are
distinguished for their practical value and clearness of style, though they
lack eloquence and purity; those of Romagnosi are more abstract, and
couched in obscure arid often incorrect language, but they are monuments
of vast erudition, acute and profound judgment, and powerful dialectics.
Galluppi (1773-1846), though unable to extricate himself entirely from
the sensualistic school, attempted the reform of philosophy, which resulted
in a movement in Italy similar to that produced by Reid and Dugald Stewart
in Scotland.
While sensualism was gaining ground in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, rationalism, having its roots in the Platonic system which had
prevailed in the fifteenth and sixteenth, was remodeled under the influence
of Descartes, Leibnitz, and Wolf, and opposed to the invading tendencies of
its antagonist. From causes to be found in the spirit of the age and the
political condition of the country, this system was unable to take the place
to which it was entitled, though it succeeded in purifying sensualism from
its more dangerous consequences, and infusing into it some of its own
elements. But the overthrow of that system was completed only by the
works of Rosmini and Gioberti. Rosmini (1795-1855) gave a new impulse
to metaphysical researches, and created a new era in the history of Italian
philosophy. His numerous works embrace all philosophical knowledge in
its unity and universality, founded on a new basis, and developed with deep,
broad, and original views. His philosophy, both inductive and deductive,
rests on experimental method, reaches the highest problems of ideology and
ontology, and infuses new life into all departments of science. This
nineteenth. Gioja (1767-1829), and Romagnosi (1761-1835) are the greatest
representatives of this system, in the last part of this period. But while the
former developed sensualism in philosophy and economy, the latter applied
it to political science and jurisprudence. The numerous Works of Gioja are
distinguished for their practical value and clearness of style, though they
lack eloquence and purity; those of Romagnosi are more abstract, and
couched in obscure arid often incorrect language, but they are monuments
of vast erudition, acute and profound judgment, and powerful dialectics.
Galluppi (1773-1846), though unable to extricate himself entirely from
the sensualistic school, attempted the reform of philosophy, which resulted
in a movement in Italy similar to that produced by Reid and Dugald Stewart
in Scotland.
While sensualism was gaining ground in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, rationalism, having its roots in the Platonic system which had
prevailed in the fifteenth and sixteenth, was remodeled under the influence
of Descartes, Leibnitz, and Wolf, and opposed to the invading tendencies of
its antagonist. From causes to be found in the spirit of the age and the
political condition of the country, this system was unable to take the place
to which it was entitled, though it succeeded in purifying sensualism from
its more dangerous consequences, and infusing into it some of its own
elements. But the overthrow of that system was completed only by the
works of Rosmini and Gioberti. Rosmini (1795-1855) gave a new impulse
to metaphysical researches, and created a new era in the history of Italian
philosophy. His numerous works embrace all philosophical knowledge in
its unity and universality, founded on a new basis, and developed with deep,
broad, and original views. His philosophy, both inductive and deductive,
rests on experimental method, reaches the highest problems of ideology and
ontology, and infuses new life into all departments of science. This
Page 355
philosophical progress was greatly aided by Gioberti (1801-1851), whose
life, however, was more particularly devoted to political pursuits. His work
on "The Regeneration of Italy" contains his latest and soundest views on
Italian nationality. Another distinguished philosophical and political writer
is Mamiani, whose work on "The Rights of Nations" deserves the attention
of all students of history and political science. As a statesman, he belongs to
the National party, of which Count Cavour (1810-1861), himself an eminent
writer on political economy, was the great representative, and to whose
commanding influence is to be attributed the rapid progress which the
Italian nation was making towards unity and independence at the time of his
death.
FROM 1860 TO 1885.
During the last twenty-five years the rapid progress of political events in
Italy seems to have absorbed the energies of the people, who have made
little advance in literature. For the first time since the fall of the Roman
empire the country has become a united kingdom, and in the national
adjustment to the new conditions, and in the material and industrial
development which has followed, the new literature has not yet, to any
great extent, found voice. Yet this period of national formation and
consolidation, however, has not been without its poets, among whom a few
may be here named. Aleardo Aleardi (d. 1882) is one of the finest poetical
geniuses that Italy has produced within the last century, but his writings
show the ill effects of a poet sacrificing his art to a political cause, and
when the patriot has ceased to declaim the poet ceases to sing. Prati (1815-
1884), on the other hand, in his writings exemplifies the evil of a poet
refusing to take part in the grand movement of his nation. He severs himself
from all present interests and finds his subjects in sources which have no
interest for his contemporaries. He has great metrical facility and his lyrics
are highly praised. Carducci, like Aleardi, is a poet who has written on
life, however, was more particularly devoted to political pursuits. His work
on "The Regeneration of Italy" contains his latest and soundest views on
Italian nationality. Another distinguished philosophical and political writer
is Mamiani, whose work on "The Rights of Nations" deserves the attention
of all students of history and political science. As a statesman, he belongs to
the National party, of which Count Cavour (1810-1861), himself an eminent
writer on political economy, was the great representative, and to whose
commanding influence is to be attributed the rapid progress which the
Italian nation was making towards unity and independence at the time of his
death.
FROM 1860 TO 1885.
During the last twenty-five years the rapid progress of political events in
Italy seems to have absorbed the energies of the people, who have made
little advance in literature. For the first time since the fall of the Roman
empire the country has become a united kingdom, and in the national
adjustment to the new conditions, and in the material and industrial
development which has followed, the new literature has not yet, to any
great extent, found voice. Yet this period of national formation and
consolidation, however, has not been without its poets, among whom a few
may be here named. Aleardo Aleardi (d. 1882) is one of the finest poetical
geniuses that Italy has produced within the last century, but his writings
show the ill effects of a poet sacrificing his art to a political cause, and
when the patriot has ceased to declaim the poet ceases to sing. Prati (1815-
1884), on the other hand, in his writings exemplifies the evil of a poet
refusing to take part in the grand movement of his nation. He severs himself
from all present interests and finds his subjects in sources which have no
interest for his contemporaries. He has great metrical facility and his lyrics
are highly praised. Carducci, like Aleardi, is a poet who has written on
Page 356
political subjects; he belongs to the class of closet democrats. His poems
display a remarkable talent for the picturesque, forcible, and epigrammatic.
The poems of Zanella are nearly all on scientific subjects connected with
human feeling, and entitle him to a distinguished place among the refined
poets of his country. A poet of greater promise than those already spoken of
is Arnaboldi, who has the endowment requisite to become the first Italian
poet of a new school, but who endangers his position by devoting his verse
to utilitarian purposes.
The tendency of the younger poets is to realism and to representing its
most materialistic features as beautiful. Against this current of the new
poetry Alessandro Rizzi, Guerzoni, and others have uttered a strong protest
in poetry and prose.
Among historians, Capponi is the author of a history of Florence; Zini
has continued Farina's history of Italy; Bartoli, Settembrini, and De Sanctis
have written histories of Italian literature; Villari is the author of able works
on the life of Machiavelli and of Savonarola, and Berti has written the life
of Giordano Bruno. In criticism philosophic, historical, and literary,
Fiorentino, De Sanctis, Massarani, and Trezza are distinguished. Barili,
Farina, Bersezio, and Giovagnoli are writers of fiction, and Cossa, Ferrari,
and Giacosa are the authors of many dramatic works. The charming books
of travel by De Amicis are extensively translated and very popular.
display a remarkable talent for the picturesque, forcible, and epigrammatic.
The poems of Zanella are nearly all on scientific subjects connected with
human feeling, and entitle him to a distinguished place among the refined
poets of his country. A poet of greater promise than those already spoken of
is Arnaboldi, who has the endowment requisite to become the first Italian
poet of a new school, but who endangers his position by devoting his verse
to utilitarian purposes.
The tendency of the younger poets is to realism and to representing its
most materialistic features as beautiful. Against this current of the new
poetry Alessandro Rizzi, Guerzoni, and others have uttered a strong protest
in poetry and prose.
Among historians, Capponi is the author of a history of Florence; Zini
has continued Farina's history of Italy; Bartoli, Settembrini, and De Sanctis
have written histories of Italian literature; Villari is the author of able works
on the life of Machiavelli and of Savonarola, and Berti has written the life
of Giordano Bruno. In criticism philosophic, historical, and literary,
Fiorentino, De Sanctis, Massarani, and Trezza are distinguished. Barili,
Farina, Bersezio, and Giovagnoli are writers of fiction, and Cossa, Ferrari,
and Giacosa are the authors of many dramatic works. The charming books
of travel by De Amicis are extensively translated and very popular.
Page 357
FRENCH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. French Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. The Troubadours.—2. The Trouvères French
Literature in
the Fifteenth Century.—4. The Mysteries and Moralities: Charles of
Orleans, Villon, Ville-Hardouin, Joinville, Froissart, Philippe de
Commines.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Renaissance and the Reformation:
Marguerite de
Valois, Marot, Rabelais, Calvin, Montaigne, Charron and others.—2. Light
Literature: Ronsard Jodelle, Hardy, Malherbe, Scarron, Madame de
Rambouillet, and others.—3. The French Academy.—4. The Drama:
Corneille.—5. Philosophy: Descartes, Pascal; Port Royal.—6. The Rise of
the Golden Age of French Literature: Louis XIV.—7. Tragedy: Racine.—8.
Comedy: Molière.—9. Fables, Satires, Mock-Heroic, and other Poetry: La
Fontaine, Boileau.—10. Eloquence of the Pulpit and of the Bar:
Bourdaloue, Bossuet, Massillon, Fléchier, Le Maître, D'Aguesseau, and
others.—11. Moral Philosophy: Rochefoucault La Bruyère, Nicole.—12.
History and Memoirs: Mézeray, Fleury, Rollin, Brantôme the Duke of Sully,
Cardinal de Retz.—13. Romance and Letter Writing: Fénelon, Madame de
Sévigné.
INTRODUCTION.—1. French Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. The Troubadours.—2. The Trouvères French
Literature in
the Fifteenth Century.—4. The Mysteries and Moralities: Charles of
Orleans, Villon, Ville-Hardouin, Joinville, Froissart, Philippe de
Commines.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Renaissance and the Reformation:
Marguerite de
Valois, Marot, Rabelais, Calvin, Montaigne, Charron and others.—2. Light
Literature: Ronsard Jodelle, Hardy, Malherbe, Scarron, Madame de
Rambouillet, and others.—3. The French Academy.—4. The Drama:
Corneille.—5. Philosophy: Descartes, Pascal; Port Royal.—6. The Rise of
the Golden Age of French Literature: Louis XIV.—7. Tragedy: Racine.—8.
Comedy: Molière.—9. Fables, Satires, Mock-Heroic, and other Poetry: La
Fontaine, Boileau.—10. Eloquence of the Pulpit and of the Bar:
Bourdaloue, Bossuet, Massillon, Fléchier, Le Maître, D'Aguesseau, and
others.—11. Moral Philosophy: Rochefoucault La Bruyère, Nicole.—12.
History and Memoirs: Mézeray, Fleury, Rollin, Brantôme the Duke of Sully,
Cardinal de Retz.—13. Romance and Letter Writing: Fénelon, Madame de
Sévigné.
Page 358
PERIOD THIRD.—1. The Dawn of Skepticism: Bayle, J. B. Rousseau,
Fontenelle, Lamotte.—2. Progress of Skepticism: Montesquieu, Voltaire.
—3. French Literature during the Revolution: D'Holbach, D'Alembert,
Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Buffon, Beaumarchais, St. Pierre, and others.—4.
French Literature under the Empire: Madame de Staël, Châteaubriand,
Royer-
Collard, Ronald, De Maistre.—5. French Literature from the Age of the
Restoration to the Present Time. History: Thierry, Sismondi, Thiers,
Mignet, Martin, Michelet, and others. Poetry and the Drama; Rise of the
Romantic School: Béranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, and others; Les
Parnassiens. Fiction: Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée, Balzac, Sand,
Sandeau
and others. Criticism: Sainte-Beuve, Taine, and others. Miscellaneous.
INTRODUCTION.
1. FRENCH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—Towards the middle
of the fifth century the Franks commenced their invasions of Gaul, which
ended in the conquest of the country, and the establishment of the French
monarchy under Clovis. The period from Clovis to Charlemagne (487-768)
is the most obscure of the Dark Ages. The principal writers, whose names
have been preserved, are St. Rémy, the archbishop of Rheims (d. 535),
distinguished for his eloquence, and Gregory of Tours (d. 595), whose
contemporary history is valuable for the good faith in which it is written, in
spite of the ignorance and credulity which it displays. The genius of
Charlemagne (r. 768-814) gave a new impulse to learning. By his liberality
he attracted the most distinguished scholars to his court, among others
Alcuin, from England, whom he chose for his instructor; he established
schools of theology and science, and appointed the most learned professors
Fontenelle, Lamotte.—2. Progress of Skepticism: Montesquieu, Voltaire.
—3. French Literature during the Revolution: D'Holbach, D'Alembert,
Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Buffon, Beaumarchais, St. Pierre, and others.—4.
French Literature under the Empire: Madame de Staël, Châteaubriand,
Royer-
Collard, Ronald, De Maistre.—5. French Literature from the Age of the
Restoration to the Present Time. History: Thierry, Sismondi, Thiers,
Mignet, Martin, Michelet, and others. Poetry and the Drama; Rise of the
Romantic School: Béranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, and others; Les
Parnassiens. Fiction: Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée, Balzac, Sand,
Sandeau
and others. Criticism: Sainte-Beuve, Taine, and others. Miscellaneous.
INTRODUCTION.
1. FRENCH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—Towards the middle
of the fifth century the Franks commenced their invasions of Gaul, which
ended in the conquest of the country, and the establishment of the French
monarchy under Clovis. The period from Clovis to Charlemagne (487-768)
is the most obscure of the Dark Ages. The principal writers, whose names
have been preserved, are St. Rémy, the archbishop of Rheims (d. 535),
distinguished for his eloquence, and Gregory of Tours (d. 595), whose
contemporary history is valuable for the good faith in which it is written, in
spite of the ignorance and credulity which it displays. The genius of
Charlemagne (r. 768-814) gave a new impulse to learning. By his liberality
he attracted the most distinguished scholars to his court, among others
Alcuin, from England, whom he chose for his instructor; he established
schools of theology and science, and appointed the most learned professors
Page 359
to preside over them. But in the century succeeding his death the country
relapsed into barbarism.
In the south of France, Provence early became an independent kingdom,
and consolidating its language, laws, and manners, at the close of the
eleventh century it gave birth to the literature of the Troubadours; while in
the north, the language and literature of the Trouvères, which were the
germs of the national literature of France, were not developed until a
century later.
In the schools established by Charlemagne for the education of the
clergy, the scholastic philosophy originated, which prevailed throughout
Europe in the Middle Ages. The most distinguished schoolmen or
scholastics in France during this period are Roscellinus (fl. 1092), the
originator of the controversy between the Nominalists and Realists, which
occupied so prominent a place in the philosophy of the time; Abelard
(1079-1142), equally celebrated for his learning, and for his unfortunate
love for Héloïse; St. Bernard (1091-1153), one of the most influential
ecclesiastics of the Middle Ages; and Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274) and
Bonaventure (1221-1274), Italians who taught theology and philosophy at
Paris, and who powerfully influenced the intellect of the age.
Beginning with the Middle Ages, the literary history of France may be
divided into three periods. The first period extends from 1000 to 1500, and
includes the literature of the Troubadours, the Trouvères, and of the
fifteenth century.
The second period extends from 1500 to 1700, and includes the revival of
the study of classical literature, or the Renaissance, and the golden age of
French literature under Louis XIV.
relapsed into barbarism.
In the south of France, Provence early became an independent kingdom,
and consolidating its language, laws, and manners, at the close of the
eleventh century it gave birth to the literature of the Troubadours; while in
the north, the language and literature of the Trouvères, which were the
germs of the national literature of France, were not developed until a
century later.
In the schools established by Charlemagne for the education of the
clergy, the scholastic philosophy originated, which prevailed throughout
Europe in the Middle Ages. The most distinguished schoolmen or
scholastics in France during this period are Roscellinus (fl. 1092), the
originator of the controversy between the Nominalists and Realists, which
occupied so prominent a place in the philosophy of the time; Abelard
(1079-1142), equally celebrated for his learning, and for his unfortunate
love for Héloïse; St. Bernard (1091-1153), one of the most influential
ecclesiastics of the Middle Ages; and Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274) and
Bonaventure (1221-1274), Italians who taught theology and philosophy at
Paris, and who powerfully influenced the intellect of the age.
Beginning with the Middle Ages, the literary history of France may be
divided into three periods. The first period extends from 1000 to 1500, and
includes the literature of the Troubadours, the Trouvères, and of the
fifteenth century.
The second period extends from 1500 to 1700, and includes the revival of
the study of classical literature, or the Renaissance, and the golden age of
French literature under Louis XIV.
Page 360
The third period, extending from 1700 to 1885, comprises the age of
skepticism introduced into French literature by Voltaire, the
Encyclopaedists and others, the Revolutionary era, the literature of the
Empire and of the Restoration, of the Second Empire, and of the present
time.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—After the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar,
Latin became the predominant language of the country; but on the
overthrow of the Western Empire it was corrupted by the intermixture of
elements derived from the northern invaders of the country, and from the
general ignorance and barbarism of the times. At length a distinction was
drawn between the language of the Gauls who called themselves Romans,
and that of the Latin writers; and the Romance language arose from the
former, while the Latin was perpetuated by the latter. At the commencement
of the second race of monarchs, German was the language of Charlemagne
and his court, Latin was the written language, and the Romance, still in a
state of barbarism, was the dialect of the people. The subjects of
Charlemagne were composed of two different races, the Germans,
inhabiting along and beyond the Rhine, and the Wallons, who called
themselves Romans. The name of Welsch or Wallons, given them by the
Germans, was the same as Galli, which they had received from the Latins,
and as Keltai or Celts, which they themselves acknowledged. The language
which they spoke was called after them the Romance-Wallon, or rustic
Romance, which was at first very much the same throughout France, except
that as it extended southward the Latin prevailed, and in the north the
German was more perceptible. These differences increased, and the
languages rapidly grew more dissimilar. The people of the south called
themselves Romans- provençaux, while the northern tribes added to the
name of Romans, which they had assumed, that of Wallons, which they had
received from the neighboring people. The Provençal was called the Langue
d'oc, and the Wallon the Langue d'oui, from the affirmative word in each
skepticism introduced into French literature by Voltaire, the
Encyclopaedists and others, the Revolutionary era, the literature of the
Empire and of the Restoration, of the Second Empire, and of the present
time.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—After the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar,
Latin became the predominant language of the country; but on the
overthrow of the Western Empire it was corrupted by the intermixture of
elements derived from the northern invaders of the country, and from the
general ignorance and barbarism of the times. At length a distinction was
drawn between the language of the Gauls who called themselves Romans,
and that of the Latin writers; and the Romance language arose from the
former, while the Latin was perpetuated by the latter. At the commencement
of the second race of monarchs, German was the language of Charlemagne
and his court, Latin was the written language, and the Romance, still in a
state of barbarism, was the dialect of the people. The subjects of
Charlemagne were composed of two different races, the Germans,
inhabiting along and beyond the Rhine, and the Wallons, who called
themselves Romans. The name of Welsch or Wallons, given them by the
Germans, was the same as Galli, which they had received from the Latins,
and as Keltai or Celts, which they themselves acknowledged. The language
which they spoke was called after them the Romance-Wallon, or rustic
Romance, which was at first very much the same throughout France, except
that as it extended southward the Latin prevailed, and in the north the
German was more perceptible. These differences increased, and the
languages rapidly grew more dissimilar. The people of the south called
themselves Romans- provençaux, while the northern tribes added to the
name of Romans, which they had assumed, that of Wallons, which they had
received from the neighboring people. The Provençal was called the Langue
d'oc, and the Wallon the Langue d'oui, from the affirmative word in each
Page 361
language, as the Italian was then called the Langue de sí, and the German
the Langue de ya.
The invasion of the Normans, in the tenth century, supplied new elements
to the Romance Wallon. They adopted it as their language, and stamped
upon it the impress of their own genius. It thus became Norman-French. In
1066, William the Conqueror introduced it into England, and enforced its
use among his new subjects by rigorous laws; thus the popular French
became there the language of the court and of the educated classes, while it
was still the vulgar dialect in France.
From the beginning of the twelfth century, the two dialects were known
as the Provençal and the French. The former, though much changed, is still
the dialect of the common people in Provence, Languedoc, Catalonia,
Valencia, Majorca, and Minorca. In the thirteenth century, the northern
French dialect gained the ascendency, chiefly in consequence of Paris
becoming the centre of refinement and literature for all France. The Langue
d'oui was, from its origin, deficient in that rhythm which exists in the Italian
and Spanish languages. It was formed rather by an abbreviation than by a
harmonious transformation of the Latin, and the metrical character of the
language was gradually lost. The French became thus more accustomed to
rhetorical measure than to poetical forms, and the language led them rather
to eloquence than poetry. Francis I. established a professorship of the
French language at Paris, and banished Latin from the public documents
and courts of justice. The Academy, established by Cardinal Richelieu
(1635), put an end to the arbitrary power of usage, and fixed the standard of
pure French, though at the same time it restricted the power of genius over
the language. Nothing was approved by the Academy unless it was received
at court, and nothing was tolerated by the public that had not been
sanctioned by the Academy. The language now acquired the most admirable
precision, and thus recommended itself not only as the language of science
the Langue de ya.
The invasion of the Normans, in the tenth century, supplied new elements
to the Romance Wallon. They adopted it as their language, and stamped
upon it the impress of their own genius. It thus became Norman-French. In
1066, William the Conqueror introduced it into England, and enforced its
use among his new subjects by rigorous laws; thus the popular French
became there the language of the court and of the educated classes, while it
was still the vulgar dialect in France.
From the beginning of the twelfth century, the two dialects were known
as the Provençal and the French. The former, though much changed, is still
the dialect of the common people in Provence, Languedoc, Catalonia,
Valencia, Majorca, and Minorca. In the thirteenth century, the northern
French dialect gained the ascendency, chiefly in consequence of Paris
becoming the centre of refinement and literature for all France. The Langue
d'oui was, from its origin, deficient in that rhythm which exists in the Italian
and Spanish languages. It was formed rather by an abbreviation than by a
harmonious transformation of the Latin, and the metrical character of the
language was gradually lost. The French became thus more accustomed to
rhetorical measure than to poetical forms, and the language led them rather
to eloquence than poetry. Francis I. established a professorship of the
French language at Paris, and banished Latin from the public documents
and courts of justice. The Academy, established by Cardinal Richelieu
(1635), put an end to the arbitrary power of usage, and fixed the standard of
pure French, though at the same time it restricted the power of genius over
the language. Nothing was approved by the Academy unless it was received
at court, and nothing was tolerated by the public that had not been
sanctioned by the Academy. The language now acquired the most admirable
precision, and thus recommended itself not only as the language of science
Page 362
and diplomacy, but of society, capable of conveying the most discriminating
observations on character and manners, and the most delicate expressions of
civility which involve no obligation. Hence its adoption as the court
language in so many European countries. Among the dictionaries of the
French language, that of the Academy holds the first rank.
PERIOD FIRST.
PROVENÇAL AND FRENCH LITERATURES IN THE MIDDLE AGES (1000-1500).
1. THE TROUBADOURS.—When, in the tenth century, the nations of
the south of Europe attempted to give consistency to the rude dialects which
had been produced by the mixture of the Latin with the northern tongues,
the Provencal, or Langue d'oc, was the first to come to perfection. The
study of this language became the favorite recreation of the higher classes
during the tenth and eleventh centuries, and poetry the elegant occupation
of those whose time was not spent in the ruder pastimes of the field.
Thousands of poets, who were called troubadours (from trobar, to find or
invent), flourished in this new language almost contemporaneously, and
spread their reputation from the extremity of Spain to that of Italy. All at
once, however, this ephemeral reputation vanished. The voice of the
troubadours was silent, the Provençal was abandoned and sank into a mere
dialect, and after a brilliant existence of three centuries (950-1250), its
productions were ranked among those of the dead languages. The high
reputation of the Provençal poets, and the rapid decline of their language,
are two phenomena equally striking in the history of human culture. This
literature, which gave models to other nations, yet among its crowds of
agreeable poems did not produce a single masterpiece destined to
immortality, was entirely the offspring of the age, and not of individuals. It
reveals to us the sentiments and imagination of modern nations in their
observations on character and manners, and the most delicate expressions of
civility which involve no obligation. Hence its adoption as the court
language in so many European countries. Among the dictionaries of the
French language, that of the Academy holds the first rank.
PERIOD FIRST.
PROVENÇAL AND FRENCH LITERATURES IN THE MIDDLE AGES (1000-1500).
1. THE TROUBADOURS.—When, in the tenth century, the nations of
the south of Europe attempted to give consistency to the rude dialects which
had been produced by the mixture of the Latin with the northern tongues,
the Provencal, or Langue d'oc, was the first to come to perfection. The
study of this language became the favorite recreation of the higher classes
during the tenth and eleventh centuries, and poetry the elegant occupation
of those whose time was not spent in the ruder pastimes of the field.
Thousands of poets, who were called troubadours (from trobar, to find or
invent), flourished in this new language almost contemporaneously, and
spread their reputation from the extremity of Spain to that of Italy. All at
once, however, this ephemeral reputation vanished. The voice of the
troubadours was silent, the Provençal was abandoned and sank into a mere
dialect, and after a brilliant existence of three centuries (950-1250), its
productions were ranked among those of the dead languages. The high
reputation of the Provençal poets, and the rapid decline of their language,
are two phenomena equally striking in the history of human culture. This
literature, which gave models to other nations, yet among its crowds of
agreeable poems did not produce a single masterpiece destined to
immortality, was entirely the offspring of the age, and not of individuals. It
reveals to us the sentiments and imagination of modern nations in their
Page 363
infancy; it exhibits what was common to all and pervaded all, and not what
genius superior to the age enabled a single individual to accomplish.
Southern France, having been the inheritance of several of the successors
of Charlemagne, was elevated to the rank of an independent kingdom in
879, by Bozon, and under his sovereignty, and that of his successors for 213
years, it enjoyed a paternal government. The accession of the Count of
Barcelona to the crown, in 1092, introduced into Provence the spirit both of
liberty and chivalry, and a taste for elegance and the arts, with all the
sciences of the Arabians. The union of these noble sentiments added
brilliancy to that poetical spirit which shone out at once over Provence and
all the south of Europe, like an electric flash in the midst of profound
darkness, illuminating all things with the splendor of its flame.
At the same time with Provençal poetry, chivalry had its rise; it was, in a
manner, the soul of the new literature, and gave to it a character different
from anything in antiquity. Love, in this age, while it was not more tender
and passionate than among the Greeks and Romans, was more respectful,
and women were regarded with something of that religious veneration
which the Germans evinced towards their prophetesses. To this was added
that passionate ardor of feeling peculiar to the people of the South, the
expression of which was borrowed from the Arabians. But although among
individuals love preserved this pure and religious character, the license
engendered by the feudal system, and the disorders of the time, produced a
universal corruption of manners which found expression in the literature of
the age. Neither the sirventes nor the chanzos of the troubadours, nor the
fabliaux of the trouvères, nor the romances of chivalry, can be read without
a blush. On every page the grossness of the language is only equaled by the
shameful depravity of the characters and the immorality of the incidents. In
the south of France, more particularly, an extreme laxity of manners
prevailed among the nobility. Gallantry seems to have been the sole object
genius superior to the age enabled a single individual to accomplish.
Southern France, having been the inheritance of several of the successors
of Charlemagne, was elevated to the rank of an independent kingdom in
879, by Bozon, and under his sovereignty, and that of his successors for 213
years, it enjoyed a paternal government. The accession of the Count of
Barcelona to the crown, in 1092, introduced into Provence the spirit both of
liberty and chivalry, and a taste for elegance and the arts, with all the
sciences of the Arabians. The union of these noble sentiments added
brilliancy to that poetical spirit which shone out at once over Provence and
all the south of Europe, like an electric flash in the midst of profound
darkness, illuminating all things with the splendor of its flame.
At the same time with Provençal poetry, chivalry had its rise; it was, in a
manner, the soul of the new literature, and gave to it a character different
from anything in antiquity. Love, in this age, while it was not more tender
and passionate than among the Greeks and Romans, was more respectful,
and women were regarded with something of that religious veneration
which the Germans evinced towards their prophetesses. To this was added
that passionate ardor of feeling peculiar to the people of the South, the
expression of which was borrowed from the Arabians. But although among
individuals love preserved this pure and religious character, the license
engendered by the feudal system, and the disorders of the time, produced a
universal corruption of manners which found expression in the literature of
the age. Neither the sirventes nor the chanzos of the troubadours, nor the
fabliaux of the trouvères, nor the romances of chivalry, can be read without
a blush. On every page the grossness of the language is only equaled by the
shameful depravity of the characters and the immorality of the incidents. In
the south of France, more particularly, an extreme laxity of manners
prevailed among the nobility. Gallantry seems to have been the sole object
Page 364
of existence. Ladies were proud of the celebrity conferred upon their
charms by the songs of the troubadours, and they themselves often
professed the "Gay Science," as poetry was called. They instituted the
Courts of Love where questions of gallantry were gravely discussed and
decided by their suffrages; and they gave, in short, to the whole south of
France the character of a carnival. No sooner had the Gay Science been
established in Provence, than it became the fashion in surrounding
countries. The sovereigns of Europe adopted the Provençal language, and
enlisted themselves among the poets, and there was soon neither baron nor
knight who did not feel himself bound to add to his fame as a warrior the
reputation of a gentle troubadour. Monarchs were now the professors of the
art, and the only patrons were the ladies. Women, no longer beautiful
ciphers, acquired complete liberty of action, and the homage paid to them
amounted almost to worship.
At the festivals of the haughty barons, the lady of the castle, attended by
youthful beauties, distributed crowns to the conquerors in the jousts and
tournaments. She then, in turn, surrounded by her ladies, opened her Court
of Love, and the candidates for poetical honors entered with their harps and
contended for the prize in extempore verses called tensons. The Court of
Love then entered upon a grave discussion of the merits of the question, and
a judgment or arrêt d'amour was given, frequently in verse, by which the
dispute was supposed to be decided. These courts often formally justified
the abandonment of moral duty, and assuming the forms and exercising the
power of ordinary tribunals, they defined and prescribed the duties of the
sexes, and taught the arts of love and song according to the most depraved
moral principles, mingled, however, with an affected display of refined
sentimentality. Whatever may have been their utility in the advancement of
the language and the cultivation of literary taste, these institutions extended
a legal sanction to vice, and inculcated maxims of shameful profligacy.
charms by the songs of the troubadours, and they themselves often
professed the "Gay Science," as poetry was called. They instituted the
Courts of Love where questions of gallantry were gravely discussed and
decided by their suffrages; and they gave, in short, to the whole south of
France the character of a carnival. No sooner had the Gay Science been
established in Provence, than it became the fashion in surrounding
countries. The sovereigns of Europe adopted the Provençal language, and
enlisted themselves among the poets, and there was soon neither baron nor
knight who did not feel himself bound to add to his fame as a warrior the
reputation of a gentle troubadour. Monarchs were now the professors of the
art, and the only patrons were the ladies. Women, no longer beautiful
ciphers, acquired complete liberty of action, and the homage paid to them
amounted almost to worship.
At the festivals of the haughty barons, the lady of the castle, attended by
youthful beauties, distributed crowns to the conquerors in the jousts and
tournaments. She then, in turn, surrounded by her ladies, opened her Court
of Love, and the candidates for poetical honors entered with their harps and
contended for the prize in extempore verses called tensons. The Court of
Love then entered upon a grave discussion of the merits of the question, and
a judgment or arrêt d'amour was given, frequently in verse, by which the
dispute was supposed to be decided. These courts often formally justified
the abandonment of moral duty, and assuming the forms and exercising the
power of ordinary tribunals, they defined and prescribed the duties of the
sexes, and taught the arts of love and song according to the most depraved
moral principles, mingled, however, with an affected display of refined
sentimentality. Whatever may have been their utility in the advancement of
the language and the cultivation of literary taste, these institutions extended
a legal sanction to vice, and inculcated maxims of shameful profligacy.
Page 365
The songs of the Provençals were divided into chanzos and sirventes; the
object of the former was love, and of the latter war, politics, or satire. The
name of tenson was given to those poetical contests in verse which took
place in the Courts of Love, or before illustrious princes. The songs were
sung from château to château, either by the troubadours themselves, or by
the jongleur or instrument player by whom they were attended; they often
abounded in extravagant hyperboles, trivial conceits, and grossness of
expression. Ladies, whose attractions were estimated by the number and
desperation of their lovers, and the songs of their troubadours, were not
offended if licentiousness mingled with gallantry in the songs composed in
their praise. Authors addressed prayers to the saints for aid in their amorous
intrigues, and men, seemingly rational, resigned themselves to the wildest
transports of passion for individuals whom, in some cases, they had never
seen. Thus, religious enthusiasm, martial bravery, and licentious love, so
grotesquely mingled, formed the very life of the Middle Ages, and
impossible as it is to transfuse into a translation the harmony of Provençal
verse, or to find in it, when stripped of this harmony, any poetical idea,
these remains are valuable since they present us with a picture of the life
and manners of the times.
The intercourse of the Provençals with the Moors of Spain, which, as we
have seen, was greatly increased by the union of Catalonia and Provence
(1092), introduced into the North an acquaintance with the arts and learning
of the Arabians. It was then that rhyme, the essential characteristic of
Arabian poetry, was adopted by the troubadours into the Provençal
language, and thence communicated to the nations of modern Europe.
The poetry of the troubadours borrowed nothing from history, mythology,
or from foreign manners, and no reference to the sciences or the learning of
the schools mingled with their simple effusions of sentiment. This fact
enables us to comprehend how it was possible for princes and knights, who
object of the former was love, and of the latter war, politics, or satire. The
name of tenson was given to those poetical contests in verse which took
place in the Courts of Love, or before illustrious princes. The songs were
sung from château to château, either by the troubadours themselves, or by
the jongleur or instrument player by whom they were attended; they often
abounded in extravagant hyperboles, trivial conceits, and grossness of
expression. Ladies, whose attractions were estimated by the number and
desperation of their lovers, and the songs of their troubadours, were not
offended if licentiousness mingled with gallantry in the songs composed in
their praise. Authors addressed prayers to the saints for aid in their amorous
intrigues, and men, seemingly rational, resigned themselves to the wildest
transports of passion for individuals whom, in some cases, they had never
seen. Thus, religious enthusiasm, martial bravery, and licentious love, so
grotesquely mingled, formed the very life of the Middle Ages, and
impossible as it is to transfuse into a translation the harmony of Provençal
verse, or to find in it, when stripped of this harmony, any poetical idea,
these remains are valuable since they present us with a picture of the life
and manners of the times.
The intercourse of the Provençals with the Moors of Spain, which, as we
have seen, was greatly increased by the union of Catalonia and Provence
(1092), introduced into the North an acquaintance with the arts and learning
of the Arabians. It was then that rhyme, the essential characteristic of
Arabian poetry, was adopted by the troubadours into the Provençal
language, and thence communicated to the nations of modern Europe.
The poetry of the troubadours borrowed nothing from history, mythology,
or from foreign manners, and no reference to the sciences or the learning of
the schools mingled with their simple effusions of sentiment. This fact
enables us to comprehend how it was possible for princes and knights, who
Page 366
were often unable to read, to be yet ranked among the most ingenious
troubadours. Several public events, however, materially contributed to
enlarge the sphere of intellect of the knights of the Langue d'oc. The first
was the conquest of Toledo and Castile by Alphonso VI., in which he was
seconded by the Cid Rodriguez, the hero of Spain, and by a number of
French Provençal knights; the second was the preaching of the Crusades. Of
all the events recorded in the history of the world, there is, perhaps, not one
of a nature so highly poetical as these holy wars; not one which presents a
more powerful picture of the grand effects of enthusiasm, of noble
sacrifices of self-interest to faith, sentiment, and passion, which are
essentially poetical. Many of the troubadours assumed the cross; others
were detained in Europe by the bonds of love, and the conflict between
passion and religious enthusiasm lent its influence to the poems they
composed. The third event was the succession of the kings of England to
the sovereignty of a large part of the countries where the Langue d'oc
prevailed, which influenced the manners and opinions of the troubadours,
and introduced them to the courts of the most powerful monarchs; while the
encouragement given to them by the kings of the house of Plantagenet had a
great influence on the formation of the English language, and furnished
Chaucer, the father of English literature, with his first models for imitation.
The troubadours numbered among their ranks the most illustrious
sovereigns and heroes of the age. Among others, Richard Coeur de Lion,
who, as a poet and knight, united in his own person all the brilliant qualities
of the time. A story is told of him, that when he was detained a prisoner in
Germany, the place of his imprisonment was discovered by Blondel, his
minstrel, who sang beneath the fortress a tenson which he and Richard had
composed in common, and to which Richard responded. Bertrand de Born,
who was intimately connected with Richard, and who exercised a powerful
influence over the destinies of the royal family of England, has left a
number of original poems; Sordello of Mantua was the first to adopt the
troubadours. Several public events, however, materially contributed to
enlarge the sphere of intellect of the knights of the Langue d'oc. The first
was the conquest of Toledo and Castile by Alphonso VI., in which he was
seconded by the Cid Rodriguez, the hero of Spain, and by a number of
French Provençal knights; the second was the preaching of the Crusades. Of
all the events recorded in the history of the world, there is, perhaps, not one
of a nature so highly poetical as these holy wars; not one which presents a
more powerful picture of the grand effects of enthusiasm, of noble
sacrifices of self-interest to faith, sentiment, and passion, which are
essentially poetical. Many of the troubadours assumed the cross; others
were detained in Europe by the bonds of love, and the conflict between
passion and religious enthusiasm lent its influence to the poems they
composed. The third event was the succession of the kings of England to
the sovereignty of a large part of the countries where the Langue d'oc
prevailed, which influenced the manners and opinions of the troubadours,
and introduced them to the courts of the most powerful monarchs; while the
encouragement given to them by the kings of the house of Plantagenet had a
great influence on the formation of the English language, and furnished
Chaucer, the father of English literature, with his first models for imitation.
The troubadours numbered among their ranks the most illustrious
sovereigns and heroes of the age. Among others, Richard Coeur de Lion,
who, as a poet and knight, united in his own person all the brilliant qualities
of the time. A story is told of him, that when he was detained a prisoner in
Germany, the place of his imprisonment was discovered by Blondel, his
minstrel, who sang beneath the fortress a tenson which he and Richard had
composed in common, and to which Richard responded. Bertrand de Born,
who was intimately connected with Richard, and who exercised a powerful
influence over the destinies of the royal family of England, has left a
number of original poems; Sordello of Mantua was the first to adopt the
Page 367
ballad form of writing, and many of his love songs are expressed in a pure
and delicate style. Both of these poets are immortalized in the Divine
Comedy of Dante. The history of Geoffrey Rudel illustrates the wildness of
the imagination and manners of the troubadours. He was a gentleman of
Provence, and hearing the knights who had returned from the Holy Land
speak with enthusiasm of the Countess of Tripoli, who had extended to
them the most generous hospitality, and whose grace and beauty equaled
her virtues, he fell in love with her without ever having seen her, and,
leaving the Court of England, he embarked for the Holy Land, to offer to
her the homage of his heart. During the voyage he was attacked by a severe
illness, and lost the power of speech. On his arrival in the harbor, the
countess, being informed that a celebrated poet was dying of love for her,
visited him on shipboard, took him kindly by the hand, and attempted to
cheer his spirits. Rudel revived sufficiently to thank the lady for her
humanity and to declare his passion, when his voice was silenced by the
convulsions of death. He was buried at Tripoli, and, by the orders of the
countess, a tomb of porphyry was erected to his memory. It is unnecessary
to mention other names among the multitude of these poets, who all hold
nearly the same rank. An extreme monotony reigns throughout their works,
which offer little individuality of character.
After the thirteenth century, the troubadours were heard no more, and the
efforts of the counts of Provence, the magistrates of Toulouse, and the kings
of Arragon to awaken, their genius by the Courts of Love and the Floral
Games were vain. They themselves attributed their decline to the
degradation into which the jongleurs, with whom at last they were
confounded, had fallen. But their art contained within itself a more
immediate principle of decay in the profound ignorance of its professors.
They had no other models than the songs of the Arabians, which perverted
their taste. They made no attempt at epic or dramatic poetry; they had no
classical allusions, no mythology, nor even a romantic imagination, and,
and delicate style. Both of these poets are immortalized in the Divine
Comedy of Dante. The history of Geoffrey Rudel illustrates the wildness of
the imagination and manners of the troubadours. He was a gentleman of
Provence, and hearing the knights who had returned from the Holy Land
speak with enthusiasm of the Countess of Tripoli, who had extended to
them the most generous hospitality, and whose grace and beauty equaled
her virtues, he fell in love with her without ever having seen her, and,
leaving the Court of England, he embarked for the Holy Land, to offer to
her the homage of his heart. During the voyage he was attacked by a severe
illness, and lost the power of speech. On his arrival in the harbor, the
countess, being informed that a celebrated poet was dying of love for her,
visited him on shipboard, took him kindly by the hand, and attempted to
cheer his spirits. Rudel revived sufficiently to thank the lady for her
humanity and to declare his passion, when his voice was silenced by the
convulsions of death. He was buried at Tripoli, and, by the orders of the
countess, a tomb of porphyry was erected to his memory. It is unnecessary
to mention other names among the multitude of these poets, who all hold
nearly the same rank. An extreme monotony reigns throughout their works,
which offer little individuality of character.
After the thirteenth century, the troubadours were heard no more, and the
efforts of the counts of Provence, the magistrates of Toulouse, and the kings
of Arragon to awaken, their genius by the Courts of Love and the Floral
Games were vain. They themselves attributed their decline to the
degradation into which the jongleurs, with whom at last they were
confounded, had fallen. But their art contained within itself a more
immediate principle of decay in the profound ignorance of its professors.
They had no other models than the songs of the Arabians, which perverted
their taste. They made no attempt at epic or dramatic poetry; they had no
classical allusions, no mythology, nor even a romantic imagination, and,
Page 368
deprived of the riches of antiquity, they had few resources within
themselves. The poetry of Provence was a beautiful flower springing up on
a sterile soil, and no cultivation could avail in the absence of its natural
nourishment. From the close of the twelfth century the language began to
decline, and public events occurred which hastened its downfall, and
reduced it to the condition of a provincial dialect.
Among the numerous sects which sprang up in Christendom during the
Middle Ages, there was one which, though bearing different names at
different times, more or less resembled what is now known as
Protestantism; in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it was called the faith
of the Albigenses, as it prevailed most widely in the district of Albi. It easily
came to be identified with the Provençal language, as this was the chosen
vehicle of its religious services. This sect was tolerated and protected by the
Court of Toulouse. It augmented its numbers; it devoted itself to commerce
and the arts, and added much to the prosperity which had long distinguished
the south of France. The Albigenses had lived long and peaceably side by
side with the Catholics in the cities and villages; but Innocent III. sent
legates to Provence, who preached, discussed, and threatened, and met a
freedom of thought and resistance to authority which Rome was not willing
to brook. Bitter controversy was now substituted for the amiable frivolity of
the tensons, and theological disputes superseded those on points of
gallantry. The long struggle between the poetry of the troubadours and the
preaching of the monks came to a crisis; the severe satires which the
disorderly lives of the clergy called forth became severer still, and the songs
of the troubadours wounded the power and pride of Rome more deeply than
ever, while they stimulated the Albigenses to a valiant resistance or a
glorious death. A crusade followed, and when the dreadful strife was over,
Provençal poetry had received its death-blow. The language of Provence
was destined to share the fate of its poetry; it became identified in the minds
of the orthodox with heresy and rebellion. When Charles of Anjou acquired
themselves. The poetry of Provence was a beautiful flower springing up on
a sterile soil, and no cultivation could avail in the absence of its natural
nourishment. From the close of the twelfth century the language began to
decline, and public events occurred which hastened its downfall, and
reduced it to the condition of a provincial dialect.
Among the numerous sects which sprang up in Christendom during the
Middle Ages, there was one which, though bearing different names at
different times, more or less resembled what is now known as
Protestantism; in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it was called the faith
of the Albigenses, as it prevailed most widely in the district of Albi. It easily
came to be identified with the Provençal language, as this was the chosen
vehicle of its religious services. This sect was tolerated and protected by the
Court of Toulouse. It augmented its numbers; it devoted itself to commerce
and the arts, and added much to the prosperity which had long distinguished
the south of France. The Albigenses had lived long and peaceably side by
side with the Catholics in the cities and villages; but Innocent III. sent
legates to Provence, who preached, discussed, and threatened, and met a
freedom of thought and resistance to authority which Rome was not willing
to brook. Bitter controversy was now substituted for the amiable frivolity of
the tensons, and theological disputes superseded those on points of
gallantry. The long struggle between the poetry of the troubadours and the
preaching of the monks came to a crisis; the severe satires which the
disorderly lives of the clergy called forth became severer still, and the songs
of the troubadours wounded the power and pride of Rome more deeply than
ever, while they stimulated the Albigenses to a valiant resistance or a
glorious death. A crusade followed, and when the dreadful strife was over,
Provençal poetry had received its death-blow. The language of Provence
was destined to share the fate of its poetry; it became identified in the minds
of the orthodox with heresy and rebellion. When Charles of Anjou acquired
Page 369
the kingdom of Naples, he drew thither the Provençal nobility, and thus
drained the kingdom of those who had formerly maintained its chivalrous
manners. In the beginning of the fourteenth century, when the Court of
Rome was removed to Avignon, the retinues of the three successive popes
were Italians, and the Tuscan language entirely superseded the Provençal
among the higher classes.
2. THE TROUVÈRES.—While the Provençal was thus relapsing into a
mere dialect, the north of France was maturing a new language and
literature of an entirely different character. Normandy, a province of France,
was invaded in the tenth century by a new northern tribe, who, under the
command of Rollo or Raoul the Dane, incorporated themselves with the
ancient inhabitants. The victors adopted the language of the vanquished,
stamped upon it the impress of their own genius, and gave it a fixed form. It
was from Normandy that the first writers and poets in the French language
sprang. While the Romance Provençal spoken in the South was sweet, and
expressive of effeminate manners, the Romance-Wallon was energetic and
warlike, and represented the severer manners of the Germans. Its poetry,
too, was widely different from the Provençal. It was no longer the idle
baron sighing for his lady-love, but the songs of a nation of hardy warriors,
celebrating the prowess of their ancestors with all the exaggerations that
fancy could supply. The Langue d'oui became the vehicle of literature only
in the twelfth century,—a hundred years subsequent to the Romance
Provençal. The poets and reciters of tales, giving the name of Troubadour a
French termination, called themselves Trouvères. They originated the
brilliant romances of chivalry, the fabliaux or tales of amusement, and the
dramatic invention of the Mysteries. The first literary work in this tongue is
the versified romance of a fabulous history of the early kings of England,
beginning with Brutus, the grandson of AEneas, who, after passing many
enchanted isles, at length establishes himself in England, where he finds
King Arthur, the chivalric institution of the Round Table, and the enchanter
drained the kingdom of those who had formerly maintained its chivalrous
manners. In the beginning of the fourteenth century, when the Court of
Rome was removed to Avignon, the retinues of the three successive popes
were Italians, and the Tuscan language entirely superseded the Provençal
among the higher classes.
2. THE TROUVÈRES.—While the Provençal was thus relapsing into a
mere dialect, the north of France was maturing a new language and
literature of an entirely different character. Normandy, a province of France,
was invaded in the tenth century by a new northern tribe, who, under the
command of Rollo or Raoul the Dane, incorporated themselves with the
ancient inhabitants. The victors adopted the language of the vanquished,
stamped upon it the impress of their own genius, and gave it a fixed form. It
was from Normandy that the first writers and poets in the French language
sprang. While the Romance Provençal spoken in the South was sweet, and
expressive of effeminate manners, the Romance-Wallon was energetic and
warlike, and represented the severer manners of the Germans. Its poetry,
too, was widely different from the Provençal. It was no longer the idle
baron sighing for his lady-love, but the songs of a nation of hardy warriors,
celebrating the prowess of their ancestors with all the exaggerations that
fancy could supply. The Langue d'oui became the vehicle of literature only
in the twelfth century,—a hundred years subsequent to the Romance
Provençal. The poets and reciters of tales, giving the name of Troubadour a
French termination, called themselves Trouvères. They originated the
brilliant romances of chivalry, the fabliaux or tales of amusement, and the
dramatic invention of the Mysteries. The first literary work in this tongue is
the versified romance of a fabulous history of the early kings of England,
beginning with Brutus, the grandson of AEneas, who, after passing many
enchanted isles, at length establishes himself in England, where he finds
King Arthur, the chivalric institution of the Round Table, and the enchanter
Page 370
Merlin, one of the most popular personages of the Middle Ages. Out of this
legend arose some of the boldest creations of the human fancy. The word
"romance," now synonymous with fictitious composition, originally meant
only a work in the modern dialect, as distinguished from the scholastic
Latin. There is little doubt that these tales were originally believed to be
strictly true. One of the first romances of chivalry was "Tristam de
Léonois," written in 1190. This was soon followed by that of the "San
Graal" and "Lancelot;" and previously to 1213 Ville-Hardouin had written
in the French language a "History of the Conquest of Constantinople." The
poem of "Alexander," however, which appeared about the same time, has
enjoyed the greatest reputation. It is a series of romances and marvelous
histories, said to be the result of the labors of nine celebrated poets of the
time. Alexander is introduced, surrounded not by the pomp of antiquity, but
by the splendors of chivalry. The high renown of this poem has given the
name of Alexandrine verse to the measure in which it is written.
The spirit of chivalry which burst forth in the romances of the trouvères,
the heroism of honor and love, the devotion of the powerful to the weak, the
supernatural fictions, so novel and so dissimilar to everything in antiquity
or in later times, the force and brilliancy of imagination which they display,
have been variously attributed to the Arabians and the Germans, but they
were undoubtedly the invention of the Normans. Of all the people of
ancient Europe, they were the most adventurous and intrepid. They
established a dynasty in Russia; they cut their way through a perfidious and
sanguinary nation to Constantinople; they landed on the coasts of England
and France, and surprised nations who were ignorant of their existence;
they conquered Sicily, and established a principality in the heart of Syria. A
people so active, so enterprising, and so intrepid, found no greater delight in
their leisure hours than listening to tales of adventures, dangers, and battles.
The romances of chivalry are divided into three distinct classes. They relate
to three different epochs in the early part of the Middle Ages, and represent
legend arose some of the boldest creations of the human fancy. The word
"romance," now synonymous with fictitious composition, originally meant
only a work in the modern dialect, as distinguished from the scholastic
Latin. There is little doubt that these tales were originally believed to be
strictly true. One of the first romances of chivalry was "Tristam de
Léonois," written in 1190. This was soon followed by that of the "San
Graal" and "Lancelot;" and previously to 1213 Ville-Hardouin had written
in the French language a "History of the Conquest of Constantinople." The
poem of "Alexander," however, which appeared about the same time, has
enjoyed the greatest reputation. It is a series of romances and marvelous
histories, said to be the result of the labors of nine celebrated poets of the
time. Alexander is introduced, surrounded not by the pomp of antiquity, but
by the splendors of chivalry. The high renown of this poem has given the
name of Alexandrine verse to the measure in which it is written.
The spirit of chivalry which burst forth in the romances of the trouvères,
the heroism of honor and love, the devotion of the powerful to the weak, the
supernatural fictions, so novel and so dissimilar to everything in antiquity
or in later times, the force and brilliancy of imagination which they display,
have been variously attributed to the Arabians and the Germans, but they
were undoubtedly the invention of the Normans. Of all the people of
ancient Europe, they were the most adventurous and intrepid. They
established a dynasty in Russia; they cut their way through a perfidious and
sanguinary nation to Constantinople; they landed on the coasts of England
and France, and surprised nations who were ignorant of their existence;
they conquered Sicily, and established a principality in the heart of Syria. A
people so active, so enterprising, and so intrepid, found no greater delight in
their leisure hours than listening to tales of adventures, dangers, and battles.
The romances of chivalry are divided into three distinct classes. They relate
to three different epochs in the early part of the Middle Ages, and represent
Page 371
three bands of fabulous heroes. In the romances of the first class, the
exploits of Arthur, son of Pendragon, the last British king who defended
England against the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons, are celebrated. In the
second we find the Amadises, but whether they belong to French literature
has been reasonably disputed. The scene is placed nearly in the same
countries as in the romances of the Round Table, but there is a want of
locality about them, and the name and the times are absolutely fabulous.
"Amadis of Gaul," the first of these romances, and the model of all the rest,
is claimed as the work of Vasco Lobeira, a Portuguese (1290-1325); but no
doubt exists with regard to the continuations and numerous imitations of
this work, which are incontestably of Spanish origin, and were in their
highest repute when Cervantes produced his inimitable "Don Quixote." The
third class of chivalric romances, relating to the court of Charlemagne and
his Paladins, is entirely French, although their celebrity is chiefly due to the
renowned Italian poet who availed himself of their fictions. The most
ancient monument of the marvelous history of Charlemagne is the chronicle
of Turpin, of uncertain date, and which, though fabulous, can scarcely be
considered as a romance. This and other similar narratives furnished
materials for the romances, which appeared at the conclusion of the
Crusades, when a knowledge of the East had enriched the French
imagination with all the treasures of the Arabian. The trouvères were not
only the inventors of the romances of chivalry, but they originated the
allegories, and the dramatic compositions of southern Europe. Although
none of their works have obtained a high reputation or deserve to be ranked
among the masterpieces of human intellect, they are still worthy of attention
as monuments of the progress of mind.
The French possessed, above every other nation of modern times, an
inventive spirit, but they were, at the same time, the originators of those
tedious allegorical poems which have been imitated by all the romantic
nations. The most ancient and celebrated of these is the "Romance of the
exploits of Arthur, son of Pendragon, the last British king who defended
England against the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons, are celebrated. In the
second we find the Amadises, but whether they belong to French literature
has been reasonably disputed. The scene is placed nearly in the same
countries as in the romances of the Round Table, but there is a want of
locality about them, and the name and the times are absolutely fabulous.
"Amadis of Gaul," the first of these romances, and the model of all the rest,
is claimed as the work of Vasco Lobeira, a Portuguese (1290-1325); but no
doubt exists with regard to the continuations and numerous imitations of
this work, which are incontestably of Spanish origin, and were in their
highest repute when Cervantes produced his inimitable "Don Quixote." The
third class of chivalric romances, relating to the court of Charlemagne and
his Paladins, is entirely French, although their celebrity is chiefly due to the
renowned Italian poet who availed himself of their fictions. The most
ancient monument of the marvelous history of Charlemagne is the chronicle
of Turpin, of uncertain date, and which, though fabulous, can scarcely be
considered as a romance. This and other similar narratives furnished
materials for the romances, which appeared at the conclusion of the
Crusades, when a knowledge of the East had enriched the French
imagination with all the treasures of the Arabian. The trouvères were not
only the inventors of the romances of chivalry, but they originated the
allegories, and the dramatic compositions of southern Europe. Although
none of their works have obtained a high reputation or deserve to be ranked
among the masterpieces of human intellect, they are still worthy of attention
as monuments of the progress of mind.
The French possessed, above every other nation of modern times, an
inventive spirit, but they were, at the same time, the originators of those
tedious allegorical poems which have been imitated by all the romantic
nations. The most ancient and celebrated of these is the "Romance of the
Page 372
Rose," though not a romance in the present sense of the word. At the period
of its composition, the French language was still called the Romance, and
all its more voluminous productions Romances. The "Romance of the
Rose" was the work of two authors, Guillaume de Lorris, who commenced
it in the early part of the thirteenth century, and Jean de Meun (b. 1280), by
whom it was continued. Although it reached the appalling length of twenty
thousand verses, no book was ever more popular. It was admired as a
masterpiece of wit, invention, and philosophy; the highest mysteries of
theology were believed to be concealed in this poetical form, and learned
commentaries were written upon its veiled meaning by preachers, who did
not scruple to cite passages from it in the pulpit. But the tedious poem and
its numberless imitations are nothing but rhymed prose, which it would be
impossible to recognize as poetry, if the measure of the verse were taken
away.
In considering the popularity of these long, didactic works, it must not be
forgotten that the people of that day were almost entirely without books. A
single volume was the treasure of a whole household. In unfavorable
weather it was read to a circle around the fire, and when it was finished the
perusal was again commenced. No comparison with other books enabled
men to form a judgment upon its merits. It was reverenced like holy writ,
and they accounted themselves happy in being able to comprehend it.
Another species of poetry peculiar to this period had at least the merit of
being exceedingly amusing. This was the fabliaux, tales written in verse in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They are treasures of invention,
simplicity, and gayety, of which other nations can furnish no instances,
except by borrowing from the French. A collection of Indian tales,
translated into Latin in the tenth or eleventh century, was the first
storehouse of the trouvères. The Arabian tales, transmitted by the Moors to
the Castilians, and by the latter to the French, were in turn versified. But
of its composition, the French language was still called the Romance, and
all its more voluminous productions Romances. The "Romance of the
Rose" was the work of two authors, Guillaume de Lorris, who commenced
it in the early part of the thirteenth century, and Jean de Meun (b. 1280), by
whom it was continued. Although it reached the appalling length of twenty
thousand verses, no book was ever more popular. It was admired as a
masterpiece of wit, invention, and philosophy; the highest mysteries of
theology were believed to be concealed in this poetical form, and learned
commentaries were written upon its veiled meaning by preachers, who did
not scruple to cite passages from it in the pulpit. But the tedious poem and
its numberless imitations are nothing but rhymed prose, which it would be
impossible to recognize as poetry, if the measure of the verse were taken
away.
In considering the popularity of these long, didactic works, it must not be
forgotten that the people of that day were almost entirely without books. A
single volume was the treasure of a whole household. In unfavorable
weather it was read to a circle around the fire, and when it was finished the
perusal was again commenced. No comparison with other books enabled
men to form a judgment upon its merits. It was reverenced like holy writ,
and they accounted themselves happy in being able to comprehend it.
Another species of poetry peculiar to this period had at least the merit of
being exceedingly amusing. This was the fabliaux, tales written in verse in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They are treasures of invention,
simplicity, and gayety, of which other nations can furnish no instances,
except by borrowing from the French. A collection of Indian tales,
translated into Latin in the tenth or eleventh century, was the first
storehouse of the trouvères. The Arabian tales, transmitted by the Moors to
the Castilians, and by the latter to the French, were in turn versified. But
Page 373
above all, the anecdotes collected in the towns and castles of France, the
adventures of lovers, the tricks of gallants, and the numerous subjects
gathered from the manners of the age, afforded inexhaustible materials for
ludicrous narratives to the writers of these tales. They were treasures
common to all. We seldom know the name of the trouvère by whom these
anecdotes were versified. As they were related, each one varied them
according to the impression he wished to produce. At this period there were
neither theatrical entertainments nor games at cards to fill up the leisure
hours of society, and the trouvères or relators of the tales were welcomed at
the courts, castles, and private houses with an eagerness proportioned to the
store of anecdotes which they brought with them to enliven conversation.
Whatever was the subject of their verse, legends, miracles, or licentious
anecdotes, they were equally acceptable. These tales were the models of
those of Boccaccio, La Fontaine, and others. Some of them have had great
fame, and have passed from tongue to tongue, and from age to age, down to
our own times. Several of them have been introduced upon the stage, and
others formed the originals of Parnell's "Hermit," of the "Zaïre" of Voltaire,
and of the "Renard," which Goethe has converted into a long poem. But
perhaps the most interesting and celebrated of all the fabliaux is that of
"Aucassin and Nicolette," which has furnished the subject for a well-known
opera.
It was at this period, when the ancient drama was entirely forgotten, that
a dramatic form was given to the great events which accompanied the
establishment of the Christian religion. The first to introduce this grotesque
species of composition, were the pilgrims who had returned from the Holy
Land. In the twelfth or thirteenth centuries, their dramatic representations
were first exhibited in the open streets; but it was only at the conclusion of
the fourteenth that a company of pilgrims undertook to amuse the public by
regular dramatic entertainments. They were called the Fraternity of the
Passion, from the passion of our Saviour being one of their most celebrated
adventures of lovers, the tricks of gallants, and the numerous subjects
gathered from the manners of the age, afforded inexhaustible materials for
ludicrous narratives to the writers of these tales. They were treasures
common to all. We seldom know the name of the trouvère by whom these
anecdotes were versified. As they were related, each one varied them
according to the impression he wished to produce. At this period there were
neither theatrical entertainments nor games at cards to fill up the leisure
hours of society, and the trouvères or relators of the tales were welcomed at
the courts, castles, and private houses with an eagerness proportioned to the
store of anecdotes which they brought with them to enliven conversation.
Whatever was the subject of their verse, legends, miracles, or licentious
anecdotes, they were equally acceptable. These tales were the models of
those of Boccaccio, La Fontaine, and others. Some of them have had great
fame, and have passed from tongue to tongue, and from age to age, down to
our own times. Several of them have been introduced upon the stage, and
others formed the originals of Parnell's "Hermit," of the "Zaïre" of Voltaire,
and of the "Renard," which Goethe has converted into a long poem. But
perhaps the most interesting and celebrated of all the fabliaux is that of
"Aucassin and Nicolette," which has furnished the subject for a well-known
opera.
It was at this period, when the ancient drama was entirely forgotten, that
a dramatic form was given to the great events which accompanied the
establishment of the Christian religion. The first to introduce this grotesque
species of composition, were the pilgrims who had returned from the Holy
Land. In the twelfth or thirteenth centuries, their dramatic representations
were first exhibited in the open streets; but it was only at the conclusion of
the fourteenth that a company of pilgrims undertook to amuse the public by
regular dramatic entertainments. They were called the Fraternity of the
Passion, from the passion of our Saviour being one of their most celebrated
Page 374
representations. This mystery, the most ancient dramatic work of modern
Europe, comprehends the whole history of our Lord, from his baptism to his
death. The piece was too long for one representation, and was therefore
continued from day to day. Eighty-seven characters successively appear in
this mystery, among whom are the three persons of the Trinity, angels,
apostles, devils, and a host of other personages, the invention of the poet's
brain. To fill the comic parts, the dialogues of the devils were introduced,
and their eagerness to maltreat one another always produced much laughter
in the assembly. Extravagant machinery was employed to give to the
representation the pomp which we find in the modern opera; and this
drama, placing before the eyes of a Christian assembly all those incidents
for which they felt the highest veneration, must have affected them much
more powerfully than even the finest tragedies can do at the present day.
The mystery of the Passion was followed by a crowd of imitations. The
whole of the Old Testament, and the lives of all the saints, were brought
upon the stage. The theatre on which these mysteries were represented was
always composed of an elevated scaffold divided into three parts,—heaven,
hell, and the earth between them. The proceedings of the Deity and Lucifer
might be discerned in their respective abodes, and angels descended and
devils ascended, as their interference in mundane affairs was required. The
pomp of these representations went on increasing for two centuries, and, as
great value was set upon the length of the piece, some mysteries could not
be represented in less than forty days.
The "Clerks of the Revels," an incorporated society at Paris, whose duty
it was to regulate the public festivities, resolved to amuse the people with
dramatic representations themselves, but as the Fraternity of the Passion
had obtained a royal license to represent the mysteries, they were compelled
to abstain from that kind of exhibition. They therefore invented a new one,
to which they gave the name of "Moralities," and which differed little from
Europe, comprehends the whole history of our Lord, from his baptism to his
death. The piece was too long for one representation, and was therefore
continued from day to day. Eighty-seven characters successively appear in
this mystery, among whom are the three persons of the Trinity, angels,
apostles, devils, and a host of other personages, the invention of the poet's
brain. To fill the comic parts, the dialogues of the devils were introduced,
and their eagerness to maltreat one another always produced much laughter
in the assembly. Extravagant machinery was employed to give to the
representation the pomp which we find in the modern opera; and this
drama, placing before the eyes of a Christian assembly all those incidents
for which they felt the highest veneration, must have affected them much
more powerfully than even the finest tragedies can do at the present day.
The mystery of the Passion was followed by a crowd of imitations. The
whole of the Old Testament, and the lives of all the saints, were brought
upon the stage. The theatre on which these mysteries were represented was
always composed of an elevated scaffold divided into three parts,—heaven,
hell, and the earth between them. The proceedings of the Deity and Lucifer
might be discerned in their respective abodes, and angels descended and
devils ascended, as their interference in mundane affairs was required. The
pomp of these representations went on increasing for two centuries, and, as
great value was set upon the length of the piece, some mysteries could not
be represented in less than forty days.
The "Clerks of the Revels," an incorporated society at Paris, whose duty
it was to regulate the public festivities, resolved to amuse the people with
dramatic representations themselves, but as the Fraternity of the Passion
had obtained a royal license to represent the mysteries, they were compelled
to abstain from that kind of exhibition. They therefore invented a new one,
to which they gave the name of "Moralities," and which differed little from
Page 375
the mysteries, except in name. They were borrowed from the Parables, or
the historical parts of the Bible, or they were purely allegorical. To the
Clerks of the Revels we also owe the invention of modern comedy. They
mingled their moralities with farces, the sole object of which was to excite
laughter, and in which all the gayety and vivacity of the French character
were displayed. Some of these plays still retain their place upon the French
stage. At the commencement of the fifteenth century another comic
company was established, who introduced personal and even political satire
upon the stage. Thus every species of dramatic representation was revived
by the French. This was the result of the talent for imitation so peculiar to
the French people, and of that pliancy of thought and correctness of intellect
which enables them to conceive new characters. All these inventions, which
led to the establishment of the Romantic drama in other countries, were
known in France more than a century before the rise of the Spanish or
Italian theatre, and even before the classical authors were first studied and
imitated. At the end of the sixteenth century, these new pursuits acquired a
more immediate influence over the literature of France, and wrought a
change in its spirit and rules, without, however, altering the national
character and taste which had been manifested in the earliest productions of
the trouvères.
3. FRENCH LITERATURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.—French
had as yet been merely a popular language; it varied from province to
province, and from author to author, because no masterpiece had
inaugurated any one of its numerous dialects. It was disdained by the more
serious writers, who continued to employ the Latin. In the fifteenth century
literature assumed a somewhat wider range, and the language began to take
precision and force. But with much general improvement and literary
industry there was still nothing great or original, nothing to mark an epoch
in the history of letters. The only poets worthy of notice were Charles, Duke
of Orleans (1391-1465), and Villon, a low ruffian of Paris (1431-1500).
the historical parts of the Bible, or they were purely allegorical. To the
Clerks of the Revels we also owe the invention of modern comedy. They
mingled their moralities with farces, the sole object of which was to excite
laughter, and in which all the gayety and vivacity of the French character
were displayed. Some of these plays still retain their place upon the French
stage. At the commencement of the fifteenth century another comic
company was established, who introduced personal and even political satire
upon the stage. Thus every species of dramatic representation was revived
by the French. This was the result of the talent for imitation so peculiar to
the French people, and of that pliancy of thought and correctness of intellect
which enables them to conceive new characters. All these inventions, which
led to the establishment of the Romantic drama in other countries, were
known in France more than a century before the rise of the Spanish or
Italian theatre, and even before the classical authors were first studied and
imitated. At the end of the sixteenth century, these new pursuits acquired a
more immediate influence over the literature of France, and wrought a
change in its spirit and rules, without, however, altering the national
character and taste which had been manifested in the earliest productions of
the trouvères.
3. FRENCH LITERATURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.—French
had as yet been merely a popular language; it varied from province to
province, and from author to author, because no masterpiece had
inaugurated any one of its numerous dialects. It was disdained by the more
serious writers, who continued to employ the Latin. In the fifteenth century
literature assumed a somewhat wider range, and the language began to take
precision and force. But with much general improvement and literary
industry there was still nothing great or original, nothing to mark an epoch
in the history of letters. The only poets worthy of notice were Charles, Duke
of Orleans (1391-1465), and Villon, a low ruffian of Paris (1431-1500).
Page 376
Charles was taken prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, and carried to
England, where he was detained for twenty-five years, and where he wrote
a volume of poems in which he imitated the allegorical style of the
Romance of the Rose. The verses of Villon were inspired by the events of
his not very creditable life. Again and again he suffered imprisonment for
petty larcenies, and at the age of twenty-five was condemned to be hanged.
His language is not that of the court, but of the people; and his poetry marks
the first sensible progress after the Romance of the Rose.
It has been well said that literature begins with poetry; but it is
established by prose, which fixes the language. The earliest work in French
prose is the chronicle of Ville-Hardouin (1150-1213), written in the
thirteenth century. It is a personal narrative and relates with graphic
particularity the conquest of Constantinople by the knights of Christendom.
This ancient chronicle traces out for us some of the realities, of which the
mediaeval romances were the ideal, and enables us to judge in a measure
how far these romances embody substantial truth.
A great improvement in style is apparent in Joinville (1223-1317), the
amiable and light-hearted ecclesiastic who wrote the Life of St. Louis,
whom he had accompanied to the Holy Land, and whose pious adventures
he affectionately records. Notwithstanding the anarchy which prevailed in
France during the fourteenth century, some social progress was made; but
while public events were hostile to poetry, they gave inspiration to the
historic muse, and Froissart arose to impart vivacity of coloring to historic
narrative.
Froissart (1337-1410) was an ecclesiastic of the day, but little in his life
or writings bespeaks the sacred calling. Having little taste for the duties of
his profession, he was employed by the Lord of Montfort to compose a
chronicle of the wars of the time; but there were no books to tell him of the
England, where he was detained for twenty-five years, and where he wrote
a volume of poems in which he imitated the allegorical style of the
Romance of the Rose. The verses of Villon were inspired by the events of
his not very creditable life. Again and again he suffered imprisonment for
petty larcenies, and at the age of twenty-five was condemned to be hanged.
His language is not that of the court, but of the people; and his poetry marks
the first sensible progress after the Romance of the Rose.
It has been well said that literature begins with poetry; but it is
established by prose, which fixes the language. The earliest work in French
prose is the chronicle of Ville-Hardouin (1150-1213), written in the
thirteenth century. It is a personal narrative and relates with graphic
particularity the conquest of Constantinople by the knights of Christendom.
This ancient chronicle traces out for us some of the realities, of which the
mediaeval romances were the ideal, and enables us to judge in a measure
how far these romances embody substantial truth.
A great improvement in style is apparent in Joinville (1223-1317), the
amiable and light-hearted ecclesiastic who wrote the Life of St. Louis,
whom he had accompanied to the Holy Land, and whose pious adventures
he affectionately records. Notwithstanding the anarchy which prevailed in
France during the fourteenth century, some social progress was made; but
while public events were hostile to poetry, they gave inspiration to the
historic muse, and Froissart arose to impart vivacity of coloring to historic
narrative.
Froissart (1337-1410) was an ecclesiastic of the day, but little in his life
or writings bespeaks the sacred calling. Having little taste for the duties of
his profession, he was employed by the Lord of Montfort to compose a
chronicle of the wars of the time; but there were no books to tell him of the
Page 377
past, no regular communication between nations to inform him of the
present; so he followed the fashion of knights errant, and set out on
horseback, not to seek adventures, but, as an itinerant historian, to find
materials for his chronicle. He wandered from town to town, and from
castle to castle, to see the places of which he would write, and to learn
events on the spot where they occurred. His first journey was to England;
here he was employed by Queen Philippa of Hainault to accompany the
Duke of Clarence to Milan, where he met Boccaccio and Chaucer. He
afterwards passed into the service of several of the princes of Europe, to
whom he acted as secretary and poet, always gleaning material for historic
record. His book is an almost universal history of the different states of
Europe, from 1322 to the end of the fourteenth century. He troubles himself
with no explanations or theories of cause and effect, nor with the
philosophy of state policy; he is simply a graphic story-teller. Sir Walter
Scott called Froissart his master.
Philippe de Commines (1445-1509) was a man of his age, but in advance
of it, combining the simplicity of the fifteenth century with the sagacity of a
later period. An annalist, like Froissart, he was also a statesman, and a
political philosopher; embracing, like Machiavelli and Montesquieu, the
remoter consequences which flowed from the events he narrated and the
principles he unfolded. He was an unscrupulous diplomat in the service of
Louis XI., and his description of the last years of that monarch is a striking
piece of history, whence poets and novelists have borrowed themes in later
times. But neither the romance of Sir Walter Scott nor the song of Béranger
does justice to the reality, as presented by the faithful Commines.
PERIOD SECOND.
THE RENAISSANCE AND THE GOLDEN AGE OF FRENCH LITERATURE (1500-1700).
present; so he followed the fashion of knights errant, and set out on
horseback, not to seek adventures, but, as an itinerant historian, to find
materials for his chronicle. He wandered from town to town, and from
castle to castle, to see the places of which he would write, and to learn
events on the spot where they occurred. His first journey was to England;
here he was employed by Queen Philippa of Hainault to accompany the
Duke of Clarence to Milan, where he met Boccaccio and Chaucer. He
afterwards passed into the service of several of the princes of Europe, to
whom he acted as secretary and poet, always gleaning material for historic
record. His book is an almost universal history of the different states of
Europe, from 1322 to the end of the fourteenth century. He troubles himself
with no explanations or theories of cause and effect, nor with the
philosophy of state policy; he is simply a graphic story-teller. Sir Walter
Scott called Froissart his master.
Philippe de Commines (1445-1509) was a man of his age, but in advance
of it, combining the simplicity of the fifteenth century with the sagacity of a
later period. An annalist, like Froissart, he was also a statesman, and a
political philosopher; embracing, like Machiavelli and Montesquieu, the
remoter consequences which flowed from the events he narrated and the
principles he unfolded. He was an unscrupulous diplomat in the service of
Louis XI., and his description of the last years of that monarch is a striking
piece of history, whence poets and novelists have borrowed themes in later
times. But neither the romance of Sir Walter Scott nor the song of Béranger
does justice to the reality, as presented by the faithful Commines.
PERIOD SECOND.
THE RENAISSANCE AND THE GOLDEN AGE OF FRENCH LITERATURE (1500-1700).
Page 378
1. THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION.—During the
preceding ages, erudition and civilization had not gone hand-in-hand. On
the one side there was the bold, chivalric mind of young Europe, speaking
with the tongues of yesterday, while on the other was the ecclesiastical
mind, expressing itself in degenerate Latin. The one was a life of gayety
and rude disorder—the life of court and castle as depicted in the literature
just scanned; the other, that of men separated from the world, who had been
studying the literary remains of antiquity, and transcribing and treasuring
them for future generations. Hitherto these two sections had held their
courses apart; now they were to meet and blend in harmony. The vernacular
poets, on the one hand, borrowing thought and expression from the classics,
and the clergy, on the other, becoming purveyors of light literature to the
court circles.
The fifteenth century, though somewhat barren, had prepared for the
fecundity of succeeding ages. The revival of the study of ancient literature,
which was promoted by the downfall of Constantinople, the invention of
printing, the discovery of the new world, the decline of feudalism, and the
consequent elevation of the middle classes,—all concurred to promote a
rapid improvement of the human intellect.
During the early part of the sixteenth century, all the ardor of the French
mind was turned to the study of the dead languages; men of genius had no
higher ambition than to excel in them, and many in their declining years
went in their gray hairs to the schools where the languages of Homer and
Cicero were taught. In civil and political society, the same enthusiasm
manifested itself in the imitation of antique manners; people dressed in the
Greek and Roman fashions, borrowed from them the usages of life, and
made a point of dying like the heroes of Plutarch.
preceding ages, erudition and civilization had not gone hand-in-hand. On
the one side there was the bold, chivalric mind of young Europe, speaking
with the tongues of yesterday, while on the other was the ecclesiastical
mind, expressing itself in degenerate Latin. The one was a life of gayety
and rude disorder—the life of court and castle as depicted in the literature
just scanned; the other, that of men separated from the world, who had been
studying the literary remains of antiquity, and transcribing and treasuring
them for future generations. Hitherto these two sections had held their
courses apart; now they were to meet and blend in harmony. The vernacular
poets, on the one hand, borrowing thought and expression from the classics,
and the clergy, on the other, becoming purveyors of light literature to the
court circles.
The fifteenth century, though somewhat barren, had prepared for the
fecundity of succeeding ages. The revival of the study of ancient literature,
which was promoted by the downfall of Constantinople, the invention of
printing, the discovery of the new world, the decline of feudalism, and the
consequent elevation of the middle classes,—all concurred to promote a
rapid improvement of the human intellect.
During the early part of the sixteenth century, all the ardor of the French
mind was turned to the study of the dead languages; men of genius had no
higher ambition than to excel in them, and many in their declining years
went in their gray hairs to the schools where the languages of Homer and
Cicero were taught. In civil and political society, the same enthusiasm
manifested itself in the imitation of antique manners; people dressed in the
Greek and Roman fashions, borrowed from them the usages of life, and
made a point of dying like the heroes of Plutarch.
Page 379
The religious reformation came soon after to restore the Christian, as the
revival of letters had brought back the pagan antiquity. Ignorance was
dissipated, and religion was disengaged from philosophy. The Renaissance,
as the revival of antique learning was called, and the Reformation, at first
made common cause. One of those who most eagerly imbibed the spirit of
both was the Princess Marguerite de Valois (1492-1549), elder sister of
Francis I., who obtained the credit of many generous actions which were
truly hers. The principal work of this lady was "L'Heptaméron," or the
History of the Fortunate Lovers, written on the plan and in the spirit of the
Decameron of Boccaccio, a work which a lady of our times would be
unwilling to own acquaintance with, much more to adopt as a model; but
the apology for Marguerite must be found in the manners of the times.
L'Heptaméron is the earliest French prose that can be read without a
glossary.
In 1518, when Margaret was twenty-six years of age, she received from
her brother a gifted poet as valet-de-chambre; this was Marot (1495-1544),
between whom and the learned princess a poetical intercourse was
maintained. Marot had imbibed the principles of Calvin, and had also drank
deeply of the spirit of the Renaissance; but he displayed the poet more truly
before he was either a theologian or a classical scholar. He may be
considered the last type of the old French school, of that combination of
grace and archness, of elegance and simplicity, of familiarity and propriety,
which is a national characteristic of French poetic literature, and in which
they have never been imitated.
Francis Rabelais (1483-1553) was one of the most remarkable persons
that figured in the Renaissance, a learned scholar, physician, and
philosopher, though known to posterity chiefly as an obscene humorist. He
is called by Lord Bacon "the great jester of France." He was at first a monk
of the Franciscan order, but he afterwards threw off the sacerdotal character,
revival of letters had brought back the pagan antiquity. Ignorance was
dissipated, and religion was disengaged from philosophy. The Renaissance,
as the revival of antique learning was called, and the Reformation, at first
made common cause. One of those who most eagerly imbibed the spirit of
both was the Princess Marguerite de Valois (1492-1549), elder sister of
Francis I., who obtained the credit of many generous actions which were
truly hers. The principal work of this lady was "L'Heptaméron," or the
History of the Fortunate Lovers, written on the plan and in the spirit of the
Decameron of Boccaccio, a work which a lady of our times would be
unwilling to own acquaintance with, much more to adopt as a model; but
the apology for Marguerite must be found in the manners of the times.
L'Heptaméron is the earliest French prose that can be read without a
glossary.
In 1518, when Margaret was twenty-six years of age, she received from
her brother a gifted poet as valet-de-chambre; this was Marot (1495-1544),
between whom and the learned princess a poetical intercourse was
maintained. Marot had imbibed the principles of Calvin, and had also drank
deeply of the spirit of the Renaissance; but he displayed the poet more truly
before he was either a theologian or a classical scholar. He may be
considered the last type of the old French school, of that combination of
grace and archness, of elegance and simplicity, of familiarity and propriety,
which is a national characteristic of French poetic literature, and in which
they have never been imitated.
Francis Rabelais (1483-1553) was one of the most remarkable persons
that figured in the Renaissance, a learned scholar, physician, and
philosopher, though known to posterity chiefly as an obscene humorist. He
is called by Lord Bacon "the great jester of France." He was at first a monk
of the Franciscan order, but he afterwards threw off the sacerdotal character,
Page 380
and studied medicine. From about the year 1534, Rabelais was in the
service of the Cardinal Dubellay, and a favorite in the court circles of Paris
and Rome. It was probably during this period that he published, in
successive parts, the work on which his popular fame has rested, the "Lives
of Gargantua and Pantagruel." It consists of the lives and adventures of
these two gigantic heroes, father and son, with the waggeries and practical
jokes of Panurge, their jongleur, and the blasphemies and obscenities of
Friar John, a fighting, swaggering, drinking monk. With these are mingled
dissertations, sophistries, and allegorical satires in abundance. The
publication of the work created a perfect uproar at the Sorbonne, and among
the monks who were its principal victims; but the cardinals enjoyed its
humor, and protected its author, while the king, Francis I., pronounced it
innocent and delectable. It became the book of the day, and passed through
countless editions and endless commentaries; and yet it is agreed on all
hands that there exists not another work, admitted as literature, that would
bear a moment's comparison with it, for indecency, profanity, and repulsive
and disgusting coarseness. His work is now a mere curiosity for the student
of antique literature.
As Rabelais was the leading type of the Renaissance, so was Calvin
(1509- 1564) of the Reformation. Having embraced the principles of
Luther, he went considerably farther in his views. In 1532 he established
himself at Geneva, where he organized a church according to his own ideas.
In 1535 he published his "Institutes of the Christian Religion,"
distinguished for great severity of doctrine. His next most celebrated work
is a commentary on the Scriptures.
Intellect continued to struggle with its fetters. Many, like Rabelais,
mistrusted the whole system of ecclesiastical polity established by law, and
yet did not pin their faith on the dictates of the austere Calvin. The almost
service of the Cardinal Dubellay, and a favorite in the court circles of Paris
and Rome. It was probably during this period that he published, in
successive parts, the work on which his popular fame has rested, the "Lives
of Gargantua and Pantagruel." It consists of the lives and adventures of
these two gigantic heroes, father and son, with the waggeries and practical
jokes of Panurge, their jongleur, and the blasphemies and obscenities of
Friar John, a fighting, swaggering, drinking monk. With these are mingled
dissertations, sophistries, and allegorical satires in abundance. The
publication of the work created a perfect uproar at the Sorbonne, and among
the monks who were its principal victims; but the cardinals enjoyed its
humor, and protected its author, while the king, Francis I., pronounced it
innocent and delectable. It became the book of the day, and passed through
countless editions and endless commentaries; and yet it is agreed on all
hands that there exists not another work, admitted as literature, that would
bear a moment's comparison with it, for indecency, profanity, and repulsive
and disgusting coarseness. His work is now a mere curiosity for the student
of antique literature.
As Rabelais was the leading type of the Renaissance, so was Calvin
(1509- 1564) of the Reformation. Having embraced the principles of
Luther, he went considerably farther in his views. In 1532 he established
himself at Geneva, where he organized a church according to his own ideas.
In 1535 he published his "Institutes of the Christian Religion,"
distinguished for great severity of doctrine. His next most celebrated work
is a commentary on the Scriptures.
Intellect continued to struggle with its fetters. Many, like Rabelais,
mistrusted the whole system of ecclesiastical polity established by law, and
yet did not pin their faith on the dictates of the austere Calvin. The almost
Page 381
inevitable consequence was a wide and universal skepticism, replacing the
former implicit subjection to Romanism.
The most eminent type of this school was Montaigne (1533-1592), who,
in his "Essays," shook the foundations of all the creeds of his day, without
offering anything to replace them. He is considered the earliest
philosophical writer in French prose, the first of those who contributed to
direct the minds of his countrymen to the study of human nature. In doing
so, he takes himself as his subject; he dissects his feelings, emotions, and
tendencies with the coolness of an operating surgeon. To a singular power
of self-investigation and an acute observation of the actions of men, he
added great affluence of thought and excursiveness of fancy, which render
him, in spite of his egotism, a most attractive writer. As he would have
considered it dishonest to conceal anything about himself, he has told much
that our modern ideas of decorum would deem better untold.
Charron (1541-1603), the friend and disciple of Montaigne, was as bold a
thinker, though inferior as a writer. In his book, "De la Sagesse," he treats
religion as a mere matter of speculation, a system of dogmas without
practical influence. Other writers followed in the same steps, and affected,
like him, to place skepticism at the service of good morals. "License," says
a French writer, "had to come before liberty, skepticism before
philosophical inquiry, the school of Montaigne before that of Descartes."
On the other hand, St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622), in his "Introduction to
a Devout Life," and other works, taught that the only cure for the evils of
human nature was to be found in the grace which was revealed by
Christianity.
In these struggles of thought, in this conflict of creeds, the language
acquired vigor and precision. In the works of Calvin, it manifested a
seriousness of tone, and a severe purity of style which commanded general
former implicit subjection to Romanism.
The most eminent type of this school was Montaigne (1533-1592), who,
in his "Essays," shook the foundations of all the creeds of his day, without
offering anything to replace them. He is considered the earliest
philosophical writer in French prose, the first of those who contributed to
direct the minds of his countrymen to the study of human nature. In doing
so, he takes himself as his subject; he dissects his feelings, emotions, and
tendencies with the coolness of an operating surgeon. To a singular power
of self-investigation and an acute observation of the actions of men, he
added great affluence of thought and excursiveness of fancy, which render
him, in spite of his egotism, a most attractive writer. As he would have
considered it dishonest to conceal anything about himself, he has told much
that our modern ideas of decorum would deem better untold.
Charron (1541-1603), the friend and disciple of Montaigne, was as bold a
thinker, though inferior as a writer. In his book, "De la Sagesse," he treats
religion as a mere matter of speculation, a system of dogmas without
practical influence. Other writers followed in the same steps, and affected,
like him, to place skepticism at the service of good morals. "License," says
a French writer, "had to come before liberty, skepticism before
philosophical inquiry, the school of Montaigne before that of Descartes."
On the other hand, St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622), in his "Introduction to
a Devout Life," and other works, taught that the only cure for the evils of
human nature was to be found in the grace which was revealed by
Christianity.
In these struggles of thought, in this conflict of creeds, the language
acquired vigor and precision. In the works of Calvin, it manifested a
seriousness of tone, and a severe purity of style which commanded general
Page 382
respect. An easy, natural tone was imparted to it by Amyot (1513-1593),
professor of Greek and Latin at the University of Paris, who enriched the
literature with elegant translations, in which he blended Hellenic graces
with those strictly French.
2. LIGHT LITERATURE.—Ronsard (1524-1585), the favorite poet of
Mary Queen of Scots, flourished at the time that the rage for ancient
literature was at its height. He traced the first outlines of modern French
poetry, and introduced a higher style of poetic thought and feeling than had
hitherto been known. To him France owes the first attempt at the ode and
the heroic epic; in the former, he is regarded as the precursor of Malherbe,
who is still looked on as a model in this style, But Ronsard, and the
numerous school which he formed, not only imitated the spirit and form of
the ancients, but aimed to subject his own language to combinations and
inversions like those of the Greek and Latin, and foreign roots and phrases
began to overpower the reviving flexibility of the French idiom.
Under this influence, the drama was restored by Jodelle (1532-1573) and
others, in the shape of imitations and translations. Towards the end of the
century, however, there appeared a reaction against this learned tragedy, led
by Alexander Hardy (1560-1631), who, with little or no original genius,
produced about twelve hundred plays. He borrowed in every direction, and
imitated the styles of all nations. But the general taste, however, soon
returned to the Greek and Roman school.
The glorious reign of Henry IV. had been succeeded by the stormy
minority of Louis XIII., when Malherbe (1556-1628), the tyrant of words
and syllables, appeared as the reformer of poetry. He attracted attention by
ridiculing the style of Ronsard. He became the laureate of the court, and
furnished for it that literature in which it was beginning to take delight. In
the place of Latin and Greek French, he inaugurated the extreme of
professor of Greek and Latin at the University of Paris, who enriched the
literature with elegant translations, in which he blended Hellenic graces
with those strictly French.
2. LIGHT LITERATURE.—Ronsard (1524-1585), the favorite poet of
Mary Queen of Scots, flourished at the time that the rage for ancient
literature was at its height. He traced the first outlines of modern French
poetry, and introduced a higher style of poetic thought and feeling than had
hitherto been known. To him France owes the first attempt at the ode and
the heroic epic; in the former, he is regarded as the precursor of Malherbe,
who is still looked on as a model in this style, But Ronsard, and the
numerous school which he formed, not only imitated the spirit and form of
the ancients, but aimed to subject his own language to combinations and
inversions like those of the Greek and Latin, and foreign roots and phrases
began to overpower the reviving flexibility of the French idiom.
Under this influence, the drama was restored by Jodelle (1532-1573) and
others, in the shape of imitations and translations. Towards the end of the
century, however, there appeared a reaction against this learned tragedy, led
by Alexander Hardy (1560-1631), who, with little or no original genius,
produced about twelve hundred plays. He borrowed in every direction, and
imitated the styles of all nations. But the general taste, however, soon
returned to the Greek and Roman school.
The glorious reign of Henry IV. had been succeeded by the stormy
minority of Louis XIII., when Malherbe (1556-1628), the tyrant of words
and syllables, appeared as the reformer of poetry. He attracted attention by
ridiculing the style of Ronsard. He became the laureate of the court, and
furnished for it that literature in which it was beginning to take delight. In
the place of Latin and Greek French, he inaugurated the extreme of
Page 383
formality; the matter of his verse was made subordinate to the manner; he
substituted polish for native beauty, and effect for genuine feeling.
I. de Balzac (1594-1624), in his frivolous epistles, used prose as
Malherbe did verse, and a numerous school of the same character was soon
formed. The works of Voiture (1598-1648) abound in the pleasantries and
affected simplicity which best befit such compositions. The most trifling
adventure—the death of a cat or a dog—was transformed into a poem, in
which there was no poetry, but only a graceful facility, which was
considered perfectly charming. Then, as though native affectation were not
enough, the borrowed wit of Italian Marinism, which had been eagerly
adopted in Spain, made its way thence into France, with Spanish
exaggeration superadded. A disciple of this school declares that the eyes of
his mistress are as "large as his grief, and as black as his fate." Malherbe
and his school fell afterwards into neglect, for fashionable caprice had
turned its attention to burlesque, and every one believed himself capable of
writing in this style, from the lords and ladies of the court down to the
valets and maid-servants. It was men like Scarron (1610- 1660), familiar
with literary study, and, from choice, with the lowest society, who
introduced this form, the pleasantry of which was increased by contrast
with the finical taste that had been in vogue. Fashion ruled the light
literature of France during the first half of the seventeenth century, and
through all its diversities, its great characteristic is the absence of all true
and serious feeling, and of that inspiration which is drawn from realities. In
the productions of half a century, we find not one truly elevated, energetic,
or pathetic work.
It is during this time, that is, between the death of Henry IV (1610), and
that of Richelieu (1642), that we mark the beginning of literary societies in
France. The earliest in point of date was headed by Madame de Rambouillet
(1610-1642), whose hotel became a seminary of female authors and
substituted polish for native beauty, and effect for genuine feeling.
I. de Balzac (1594-1624), in his frivolous epistles, used prose as
Malherbe did verse, and a numerous school of the same character was soon
formed. The works of Voiture (1598-1648) abound in the pleasantries and
affected simplicity which best befit such compositions. The most trifling
adventure—the death of a cat or a dog—was transformed into a poem, in
which there was no poetry, but only a graceful facility, which was
considered perfectly charming. Then, as though native affectation were not
enough, the borrowed wit of Italian Marinism, which had been eagerly
adopted in Spain, made its way thence into France, with Spanish
exaggeration superadded. A disciple of this school declares that the eyes of
his mistress are as "large as his grief, and as black as his fate." Malherbe
and his school fell afterwards into neglect, for fashionable caprice had
turned its attention to burlesque, and every one believed himself capable of
writing in this style, from the lords and ladies of the court down to the
valets and maid-servants. It was men like Scarron (1610- 1660), familiar
with literary study, and, from choice, with the lowest society, who
introduced this form, the pleasantry of which was increased by contrast
with the finical taste that had been in vogue. Fashion ruled the light
literature of France during the first half of the seventeenth century, and
through all its diversities, its great characteristic is the absence of all true
and serious feeling, and of that inspiration which is drawn from realities. In
the productions of half a century, we find not one truly elevated, energetic,
or pathetic work.
It is during this time, that is, between the death of Henry IV (1610), and
that of Richelieu (1642), that we mark the beginning of literary societies in
France. The earliest in point of date was headed by Madame de Rambouillet
(1610-1642), whose hotel became a seminary of female authors and
Page 384
factious politicians. This lady was of Italian origin, of fine taste and
education. She had turned away in disgust from the rude manners of the
court of Henry IV, and devoted herself to the study of the classics. After the
death of the king, she gathered a distinguished circle round herself,
combining the elegances of high life with the cultivation of literary taste.
While yet young, Madame de Rambouillet was attacked with a malady
which obliged her to keep her bed the greater part of every year. An elegant
alcove was formed in the great salon of the house, where her bed was
placed, and here she received her friends. The choicest wits of Paris flocked
to her levées; the Hotel de Rambouillet became the fashionable rendezvous
of literature and taste, and bas-bleu-ism was the rage. Even the infirmities
of this accomplished lady were imitated. An alcove was essential to every
fashionable belle, who, attired in a coquettish dishabille, and reclining on
satin pillows, fringed with lace, gave audience to whispered gossip in the
ruelle, as the space around the bed was called.
Among the personages renowned in their day, who frequented the Hotel
de Rambouillet, were Mademoiselle de Scudery (1607-1701), then in the
zenith of her fame, Madame de Sévigné (1627-1696), Mademoiselle de la
Vergne, afterwards Madame de Lafayette (1655-1693), eminent as literary
characters; the Duchess de Longueville, the Duchess de Chevreuse, and
Madame Deshoulières, afterwards distinguished for their political ability. At
the feet of these noble ladies reclined a number of young seigneurs,
dangling their little hats surcharged with plumes, while their mantles of silk
and gold were spread loosely on the floor. And there, in more grave attire,
were the professional littérateurs, such as Balzac, Voiture, Ménage,
Scudery, Chaplain, Costart, Conrad, and the Abbé Bossuet. The Cupid of
the hotel was strictly Platonic. The romances of Mademoiselle de Scudery
were long-spun disquisitions on love; her characters were drawn from the
individuals around her, who in turn attempted to sustain the characters and
adopt the language suggested in her books. One folly led on another, till at
education. She had turned away in disgust from the rude manners of the
court of Henry IV, and devoted herself to the study of the classics. After the
death of the king, she gathered a distinguished circle round herself,
combining the elegances of high life with the cultivation of literary taste.
While yet young, Madame de Rambouillet was attacked with a malady
which obliged her to keep her bed the greater part of every year. An elegant
alcove was formed in the great salon of the house, where her bed was
placed, and here she received her friends. The choicest wits of Paris flocked
to her levées; the Hotel de Rambouillet became the fashionable rendezvous
of literature and taste, and bas-bleu-ism was the rage. Even the infirmities
of this accomplished lady were imitated. An alcove was essential to every
fashionable belle, who, attired in a coquettish dishabille, and reclining on
satin pillows, fringed with lace, gave audience to whispered gossip in the
ruelle, as the space around the bed was called.
Among the personages renowned in their day, who frequented the Hotel
de Rambouillet, were Mademoiselle de Scudery (1607-1701), then in the
zenith of her fame, Madame de Sévigné (1627-1696), Mademoiselle de la
Vergne, afterwards Madame de Lafayette (1655-1693), eminent as literary
characters; the Duchess de Longueville, the Duchess de Chevreuse, and
Madame Deshoulières, afterwards distinguished for their political ability. At
the feet of these noble ladies reclined a number of young seigneurs,
dangling their little hats surcharged with plumes, while their mantles of silk
and gold were spread loosely on the floor. And there, in more grave attire,
were the professional littérateurs, such as Balzac, Voiture, Ménage,
Scudery, Chaplain, Costart, Conrad, and the Abbé Bossuet. The Cupid of
the hotel was strictly Platonic. The romances of Mademoiselle de Scudery
were long-spun disquisitions on love; her characters were drawn from the
individuals around her, who in turn attempted to sustain the characters and
adopt the language suggested in her books. One folly led on another, till at
Page 385
last the vocabulary of the salon became so artificial, that none but the
initiated could understand it. As for Mademoiselle de Scudery herself,
applying, it would seem, the impracticable tests she had invented for
sounding the depths of the tender passion, though not without suitors, she
died an old maid, at the advanced age of ninety-four.
The civil wars of the Fronde (1649-1654) were unfavorable to literary
meetings. The women who took the most distinguished part in these
troubles had graduated, so to say, from the Hotel de Rambouillet, which,
perhaps for this reason, declined with the ascendency of Louis XIV. The
agitations of the Fronde taught him to distrust clever women, and he always
showed a marked dislike for female authorship.
3. THE FRENCH ACADEMY.—The taste for literature, which had
become so generally diffused, rendered the men whose province it was to
define its laws the chiefs of a brilliant empire. Scholars, therefore,
frequently met together for critical discussion. About the year 1629 a
certain number of men of letters agreed to assemble one day in each week.
It was a union of friendship, a companionship of men of kindred tastes and
occupations; and to prevent intrusion, the meetings were for some time kept
secret. When Richelieu came to hear of the existence of the society,
desirous to make literature subservient to his political glory, he proposed to
these gentlemen to form themselves into a corporation, established by
letters patent, at the same time hinting that he had the power to put a stop to
their secret meetings. The argument was irresistible, and the little society
consented to receive from his highness the title of the French Academy, in
1635. The members of the Academy were to occupy themselves in
establishing rules for the French language, and to take cognizance of
whatever books were written by its members, and by others who desired its
opinions.
initiated could understand it. As for Mademoiselle de Scudery herself,
applying, it would seem, the impracticable tests she had invented for
sounding the depths of the tender passion, though not without suitors, she
died an old maid, at the advanced age of ninety-four.
The civil wars of the Fronde (1649-1654) were unfavorable to literary
meetings. The women who took the most distinguished part in these
troubles had graduated, so to say, from the Hotel de Rambouillet, which,
perhaps for this reason, declined with the ascendency of Louis XIV. The
agitations of the Fronde taught him to distrust clever women, and he always
showed a marked dislike for female authorship.
3. THE FRENCH ACADEMY.—The taste for literature, which had
become so generally diffused, rendered the men whose province it was to
define its laws the chiefs of a brilliant empire. Scholars, therefore,
frequently met together for critical discussion. About the year 1629 a
certain number of men of letters agreed to assemble one day in each week.
It was a union of friendship, a companionship of men of kindred tastes and
occupations; and to prevent intrusion, the meetings were for some time kept
secret. When Richelieu came to hear of the existence of the society,
desirous to make literature subservient to his political glory, he proposed to
these gentlemen to form themselves into a corporation, established by
letters patent, at the same time hinting that he had the power to put a stop to
their secret meetings. The argument was irresistible, and the little society
consented to receive from his highness the title of the French Academy, in
1635. The members of the Academy were to occupy themselves in
establishing rules for the French language, and to take cognizance of
whatever books were written by its members, and by others who desired its
opinions.
Page 386
4. THE DRAMA.—The endeavor to imitate the ancients in the tragic art
displayed itself at a very early period among the French, and they
considered that the surest method of succeeding in this endeavor was to
observe the strictest outward regularity of form, of which they derived their
ideas more from Aristotle, and especially from Seneca, than from any
intimate acquaintance with the Greek models themselves. Three of the most
celebrated of the French tragic poets, Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire, have
given, it would seem, an immutable shape to the tragic stage of France by
adopting this system, which has been considered by the French critics
universally as alone entitled to any authority, and who have viewed every
deviation from it as a sin against good taste. The treatise of Aristotle, from
which they have derived the idea of the far-famed three unities, of action,
time, and place, which have given rise to so many critical wars, is a mere
fragment, and some scholars have been of the opinion that it is not even a
fragment of the true original, but of an extract which some person made for
his own improvement. From this anxious observance of the Greek rules,
under totally different circumstances, it is obvious that great inconveniences
and incongruities must arise; and the criticism of the Academy on a tragedy
of Corneille, "that the poet, from the fear of sinning against the rules of art,
had chosen rather to sin against the rules of nature," is often applicable to
the dramatic writers of France.
Corneille (1606-1684) ushered in a new era in the French drama. It has
been said of him that he was a man greater in himself than in his works, his
genius being fettered by the rules of the French drama and the conventional
state of French verse. The day of mysteries and moralities was past, and the
comedies of Hardy, the court poet of Henry IV., had, in their turn, been
consigned to oblivion, yet there was an increasing taste for the drama. The
first comedy of Corneille, "Mélite," was followed by many others, which,
though now considered unreadable, were better than anything then known.
The appearance of the "Cid," in 1635, a drama constructed on the
displayed itself at a very early period among the French, and they
considered that the surest method of succeeding in this endeavor was to
observe the strictest outward regularity of form, of which they derived their
ideas more from Aristotle, and especially from Seneca, than from any
intimate acquaintance with the Greek models themselves. Three of the most
celebrated of the French tragic poets, Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire, have
given, it would seem, an immutable shape to the tragic stage of France by
adopting this system, which has been considered by the French critics
universally as alone entitled to any authority, and who have viewed every
deviation from it as a sin against good taste. The treatise of Aristotle, from
which they have derived the idea of the far-famed three unities, of action,
time, and place, which have given rise to so many critical wars, is a mere
fragment, and some scholars have been of the opinion that it is not even a
fragment of the true original, but of an extract which some person made for
his own improvement. From this anxious observance of the Greek rules,
under totally different circumstances, it is obvious that great inconveniences
and incongruities must arise; and the criticism of the Academy on a tragedy
of Corneille, "that the poet, from the fear of sinning against the rules of art,
had chosen rather to sin against the rules of nature," is often applicable to
the dramatic writers of France.
Corneille (1606-1684) ushered in a new era in the French drama. It has
been said of him that he was a man greater in himself than in his works, his
genius being fettered by the rules of the French drama and the conventional
state of French verse. The day of mysteries and moralities was past, and the
comedies of Hardy, the court poet of Henry IV., had, in their turn, been
consigned to oblivion, yet there was an increasing taste for the drama. The
first comedy of Corneille, "Mélite," was followed by many others, which,
though now considered unreadable, were better than anything then known.
The appearance of the "Cid," in 1635, a drama constructed on the
Page 387
foundation of the old Spanish romances, constituted an era in the dramatic
history of France. Although not without great faults, resulting from strict
adherence to the rules, it was the first time that the depths of passion had
been stirred on the stage, and its success was unprecedented. For years after,
his pieces followed each other in rapid succession, and the history of the
stage was that of Corneille's works. In the "Cid," the triumph of love was
exhibited; in "Les Horaces," love was represented as punished for its
rebellion against the laws of honor; in "Cinna," all more tender
considerations are sacrificed to the implacable duty of avenging a father;
while in "Polyeucte," duty triumphs alone. Corneille did not boldly abandon
himself to the guidance of his genius; he feared criticism, although he
defied it. His success proved the signal for envy and detraction; he became
angry at being obliged to fight his way, and therefore withdrew from the
path in which he was likely to meet enemies. His decline was as rapid as his
success had been brilliant. "The fall of the great Corneille," says Fontenelle,
"may be reckoned as among the most remarkable examples of the
vicissitudes of human affairs. Even that of Belisarius asking alms is not
more striking." As his years increased, he became more anxious for
popularity; having been so long in possession of undisputed superiority, he
could not behold without dissatisfaction the rising glory of his successors;
and, towards the close of his life, this weakness was greatly increased by
the decay of his bodily organs.
5. PHILOSOPHY.—During this period, in a region far above court favor,
Descartes (1596-1650) elaborated his system of philosophy, in creating a
new method of philosophizing. The leading peculiarity of his system was
the attempt to deduce all moral and religious truth from self- consciousness.
I think, therefore I am, was the famous axiom on which the whole was built.
From this he inferred the existence of two distinct natures in man, the
mental and the physical, and the existence of certain ideas which he called
innate in the mind, and serving to connect it with the spiritual and invisible.
history of France. Although not without great faults, resulting from strict
adherence to the rules, it was the first time that the depths of passion had
been stirred on the stage, and its success was unprecedented. For years after,
his pieces followed each other in rapid succession, and the history of the
stage was that of Corneille's works. In the "Cid," the triumph of love was
exhibited; in "Les Horaces," love was represented as punished for its
rebellion against the laws of honor; in "Cinna," all more tender
considerations are sacrificed to the implacable duty of avenging a father;
while in "Polyeucte," duty triumphs alone. Corneille did not boldly abandon
himself to the guidance of his genius; he feared criticism, although he
defied it. His success proved the signal for envy and detraction; he became
angry at being obliged to fight his way, and therefore withdrew from the
path in which he was likely to meet enemies. His decline was as rapid as his
success had been brilliant. "The fall of the great Corneille," says Fontenelle,
"may be reckoned as among the most remarkable examples of the
vicissitudes of human affairs. Even that of Belisarius asking alms is not
more striking." As his years increased, he became more anxious for
popularity; having been so long in possession of undisputed superiority, he
could not behold without dissatisfaction the rising glory of his successors;
and, towards the close of his life, this weakness was greatly increased by
the decay of his bodily organs.
5. PHILOSOPHY.—During this period, in a region far above court favor,
Descartes (1596-1650) elaborated his system of philosophy, in creating a
new method of philosophizing. The leading peculiarity of his system was
the attempt to deduce all moral and religious truth from self- consciousness.
I think, therefore I am, was the famous axiom on which the whole was built.
From this he inferred the existence of two distinct natures in man, the
mental and the physical, and the existence of certain ideas which he called
innate in the mind, and serving to connect it with the spiritual and invisible.
Page 388
Besides these new views in metaphysics, Descartes made valuable
contributions to mathematical and physical science; and though his
philosophy is now generally discarded, it is not forgotten that he opened the
way for Locke, Newton, and Leibnitz, and that his system was in reality the
base of all those that superseded it. There is scarcely a name on record, the
bearer of which has given a greater impulse to mathematical and
philosophical inquiry than Descartes, and he embodied his thoughts in such
masterly language, that it has been justly said of him, that his fame as a
writer would have been greater if his celebrity as a thinker had been less.
The age of Descartes was an interesting era in the annals of the human
mind. The darkness of scholastic philosophy was gradually clearing away
before the light which an improved method of study was shedding over the
natural sciences. A system of philosophy, founded on observation, was
preparing the downfall of those traditional errors which had long held the
mastery in the schools. Geometricians, physicians, and astronomers taught,
by their example, the severe process of reasoning which was to regenerate
all the sciences; and minds of the first order, scattered in various parts of
Europe, communicated to each other the results of their labors, and
stimulated each other to new exertions.
One of the most eminent contemporaries of Descartes was Pascal (1628-
1662). At the age of sixteen he wrote a treatise on conic sections, which was
followed by several important discoveries in arithmetic and geometry. His
experiments in natural science added to his fame, and he was recognized as
one of the most eminent geometricians of modern times. But he soon
formed the design of abandoning science for pursuits exclusively religious,
and circumstances arose which became the occasion of those "Provincial
Letters," which, with the "Pensées de la Religion," are considered among
the finest specimens of French literature.
contributions to mathematical and physical science; and though his
philosophy is now generally discarded, it is not forgotten that he opened the
way for Locke, Newton, and Leibnitz, and that his system was in reality the
base of all those that superseded it. There is scarcely a name on record, the
bearer of which has given a greater impulse to mathematical and
philosophical inquiry than Descartes, and he embodied his thoughts in such
masterly language, that it has been justly said of him, that his fame as a
writer would have been greater if his celebrity as a thinker had been less.
The age of Descartes was an interesting era in the annals of the human
mind. The darkness of scholastic philosophy was gradually clearing away
before the light which an improved method of study was shedding over the
natural sciences. A system of philosophy, founded on observation, was
preparing the downfall of those traditional errors which had long held the
mastery in the schools. Geometricians, physicians, and astronomers taught,
by their example, the severe process of reasoning which was to regenerate
all the sciences; and minds of the first order, scattered in various parts of
Europe, communicated to each other the results of their labors, and
stimulated each other to new exertions.
One of the most eminent contemporaries of Descartes was Pascal (1628-
1662). At the age of sixteen he wrote a treatise on conic sections, which was
followed by several important discoveries in arithmetic and geometry. His
experiments in natural science added to his fame, and he was recognized as
one of the most eminent geometricians of modern times. But he soon
formed the design of abandoning science for pursuits exclusively religious,
and circumstances arose which became the occasion of those "Provincial
Letters," which, with the "Pensées de la Religion," are considered among
the finest specimens of French literature.
Page 389
The abbey of Port Royal occupied a lonely situation about six leagues
from Paris. Its internal discipline had recently undergone a thorough
reformation, and the abbey rose to such a high reputation, that men of piety
and learning took up their abode in its vicinity, to enjoy literary leisure. The
establishment received pupils, and its system of education became
celebrated in a religious and intellectual point of view. The great rivals of
the Port Royalists were the Jesuits. Pascal, though not a member of the
establishment, was a frequent visitor, and one of his friends there, having
been drawn into a controversy with the Sorbonne on the doctrines of the
Jansenists, had recourse to his aid in replying. Pascal published a series of
letters in a dramatic form, in which he brought his adversaries on the stage
with himself, and fairly cut them up for the public amusement. These
letters, combining the comic pleasantry of Molière with the eloquence of
Demosthenes, so elegant and attractive in style, and so clear and popular
that a child might understand them, gained immediate attention; but the
Jesuits, whose policy and doctrines they attacked, finally induced the
parliament of Provence to condemn them to be burned by the common
hangman; and the Port Royalists, refusing to renounce their opinions, were
driven from their retreat, and the establishment broken up. Pascal's
masterpiece is the "Pensées de la Religion;" it consists of fragments of
thought, without apparent connection or unity of design. These thoughts are
in some places obscure; they contain repetitions, and even contradictions,
and require that arrangement that could only have been supplied by the
hand of the writer. It has often been lamented that the author never
constructed the edifice which it is believed he had designed, and of which
these thoughts were the splendid materials.
6. THE RISE OF THE GOLDEN AGE OF FRENCH LITERATURE.—
When Louis XIV. came to the throne (1638-1715), France was already
subject to conditions certain to produce a brilliant period in literature. She
had been brought into close relations with Spain and Italy, the countries
from Paris. Its internal discipline had recently undergone a thorough
reformation, and the abbey rose to such a high reputation, that men of piety
and learning took up their abode in its vicinity, to enjoy literary leisure. The
establishment received pupils, and its system of education became
celebrated in a religious and intellectual point of view. The great rivals of
the Port Royalists were the Jesuits. Pascal, though not a member of the
establishment, was a frequent visitor, and one of his friends there, having
been drawn into a controversy with the Sorbonne on the doctrines of the
Jansenists, had recourse to his aid in replying. Pascal published a series of
letters in a dramatic form, in which he brought his adversaries on the stage
with himself, and fairly cut them up for the public amusement. These
letters, combining the comic pleasantry of Molière with the eloquence of
Demosthenes, so elegant and attractive in style, and so clear and popular
that a child might understand them, gained immediate attention; but the
Jesuits, whose policy and doctrines they attacked, finally induced the
parliament of Provence to condemn them to be burned by the common
hangman; and the Port Royalists, refusing to renounce their opinions, were
driven from their retreat, and the establishment broken up. Pascal's
masterpiece is the "Pensées de la Religion;" it consists of fragments of
thought, without apparent connection or unity of design. These thoughts are
in some places obscure; they contain repetitions, and even contradictions,
and require that arrangement that could only have been supplied by the
hand of the writer. It has often been lamented that the author never
constructed the edifice which it is believed he had designed, and of which
these thoughts were the splendid materials.
6. THE RISE OF THE GOLDEN AGE OF FRENCH LITERATURE.—
When Louis XIV. came to the throne (1638-1715), France was already
subject to conditions certain to produce a brilliant period in literature. She
had been brought into close relations with Spain and Italy, the countries
Page 390
then the most advanced in intellectual culture; and she had received from
the study of the ancient masters the best correctives of whatever might have
been extravagant in the national genius. She had learned some useful
lessons from the polemical distractions of the sixteenth century. The
religious earnestness excited by controversy was gratified by preachers of
high endowments, and the political ascendency of France, among the
kingdoms of Europe, imparted a general freedom and buoyancy. But of all
the influences which contributed to perfect the literature of France in the
latter half of the seventeenth century, none was so powerful as that of the
monarch himself, who, by his personal power, rendered his court a centre of
knowledge, and, by his government, imparted a feeling of security to those
who lived under it. The predominance of the sovereign became the most
prominent feature in the social character of the age, and the whole circle of
the literature bears its impress. Louis elevated and improved, in no small
degree, the position of literary men, by granting pensions to some, while he
raised others to high offices of state; or they were recompensed by the
public, through the general taste, which the monarch so largely contributed
to diffuse.
The age, unlike that which followed it, was one of order and specialty in
literature; and in classifying its literary riches, we shall find the principal
authors presenting themselves under the different subjects: Racine with
tragedy, Molière with comedy, Boileau with satirical and mock- heroic, La
Fontaine with narrative poetry, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Massillon with
pulpit eloquence; Patru, Pellisson, and some others with that of the bar;
Bossuet, de Retz, and St. Simon with history and memoirs; Rochefoucauld
and La Bruyère with moral philosophy; Fénelon and Madame de Lafayette
with romance; and Madame de Sévigné with letter-writing.
The personal influence of the king was most marked on pulpit eloquence
and dramatic poetry. Other branches found less favor, from his dislike to
the study of the ancient masters the best correctives of whatever might have
been extravagant in the national genius. She had learned some useful
lessons from the polemical distractions of the sixteenth century. The
religious earnestness excited by controversy was gratified by preachers of
high endowments, and the political ascendency of France, among the
kingdoms of Europe, imparted a general freedom and buoyancy. But of all
the influences which contributed to perfect the literature of France in the
latter half of the seventeenth century, none was so powerful as that of the
monarch himself, who, by his personal power, rendered his court a centre of
knowledge, and, by his government, imparted a feeling of security to those
who lived under it. The predominance of the sovereign became the most
prominent feature in the social character of the age, and the whole circle of
the literature bears its impress. Louis elevated and improved, in no small
degree, the position of literary men, by granting pensions to some, while he
raised others to high offices of state; or they were recompensed by the
public, through the general taste, which the monarch so largely contributed
to diffuse.
The age, unlike that which followed it, was one of order and specialty in
literature; and in classifying its literary riches, we shall find the principal
authors presenting themselves under the different subjects: Racine with
tragedy, Molière with comedy, Boileau with satirical and mock- heroic, La
Fontaine with narrative poetry, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Massillon with
pulpit eloquence; Patru, Pellisson, and some others with that of the bar;
Bossuet, de Retz, and St. Simon with history and memoirs; Rochefoucauld
and La Bruyère with moral philosophy; Fénelon and Madame de Lafayette
with romance; and Madame de Sévigné with letter-writing.
The personal influence of the king was most marked on pulpit eloquence
and dramatic poetry. Other branches found less favor, from his dislike to
Page 391
those who chiefly treated them. The recollections of the Fronde had left in
his mind a distrust of Rochefoucauld. A similar feeling of political jealousy,
with a thorough hatred of bel esprit, especially in a woman, prevented him
from appreciating Madame de Sévigné; and he seems not even to have
observed La Bruyère, in his modest functions as teacher of history to the
Duke of Burgundy. He had no taste for the pure mental speculations of
Malebranche or Fénelon; and in metaphysics, as in religion, had little
patience for what was beyond the good sense of ordinary individuals. The
same hatred of excess rendered him equally the enemy of refiners and free-
thinkers, so that the like exile fell to the lot of Arnauld and Bayle, the one
carrying to the extreme the doctrines of grace, and the other those of
skeptical inquiry. Nor did he relish the excessive simplicity of La Fontaine,
or deem that his talent was a sufficient compensation for his slovenly
manners and inaptitude for court life. Of all these writers it may be said,
that they flourished rather in spite of the personal influence of the monarch
than under his favor.
7. TRAGEDY.—The first dramas of Racine (1639-1699) were but feeble
imitations of Corneille, who advised the young author to attempt no more
tragedy. He replied by producing "Andromaque," which had a most
powerful effect upon the stage. The poet had discovered that sympathy was
a more powerful source of tragic effect than admiration, and he accordingly
employed the powers of his genius in a truthful expression of feeling and
character, and a thrilling alternation of hope and fear, anger and pity.
"Andromaque" was followed almost every year by a work of similar
character. Henrietta of England induced Corneille and Racine, unknown to
each other, to produce a tragedy on Berenice, in order to contrast the powers
of these illustrious rivals. They were represented in the year 1670; that of
Corneille proved a failure, but Racine's was honored; by the tears of the
court and the city. Soon after, partly disgusted at the intrigues against him,
and partly from religious principle, Racine abandoned his career while yet
his mind a distrust of Rochefoucauld. A similar feeling of political jealousy,
with a thorough hatred of bel esprit, especially in a woman, prevented him
from appreciating Madame de Sévigné; and he seems not even to have
observed La Bruyère, in his modest functions as teacher of history to the
Duke of Burgundy. He had no taste for the pure mental speculations of
Malebranche or Fénelon; and in metaphysics, as in religion, had little
patience for what was beyond the good sense of ordinary individuals. The
same hatred of excess rendered him equally the enemy of refiners and free-
thinkers, so that the like exile fell to the lot of Arnauld and Bayle, the one
carrying to the extreme the doctrines of grace, and the other those of
skeptical inquiry. Nor did he relish the excessive simplicity of La Fontaine,
or deem that his talent was a sufficient compensation for his slovenly
manners and inaptitude for court life. Of all these writers it may be said,
that they flourished rather in spite of the personal influence of the monarch
than under his favor.
7. TRAGEDY.—The first dramas of Racine (1639-1699) were but feeble
imitations of Corneille, who advised the young author to attempt no more
tragedy. He replied by producing "Andromaque," which had a most
powerful effect upon the stage. The poet had discovered that sympathy was
a more powerful source of tragic effect than admiration, and he accordingly
employed the powers of his genius in a truthful expression of feeling and
character, and a thrilling alternation of hope and fear, anger and pity.
"Andromaque" was followed almost every year by a work of similar
character. Henrietta of England induced Corneille and Racine, unknown to
each other, to produce a tragedy on Berenice, in order to contrast the powers
of these illustrious rivals. They were represented in the year 1670; that of
Corneille proved a failure, but Racine's was honored; by the tears of the
court and the city. Soon after, partly disgusted at the intrigues against him,
and partly from religious principle, Racine abandoned his career while yet
Page 392
in the full vigor of his life and genius. He was appointed historiographer to
the king, conjointly with Boileau, and after twelve years of silence he was
induced by Madame de Maintenon to compose the drama of "Esther" for
the pupils in the Maison de St. Cyr, which met with prodigious success.
"Athalie," considered the most perfect of his works, was composed with
similar views; theatricals having been abandoned at the school, however,
the play was published, but found no readers. Discouraged by this second
injustice, Racine finally abandoned the drama. "Athalie" was but little
known till the year 1716, since when its reputation has considerably
augmented. Voltaire pronounced it the most perfect work of human genius.
The subject of this drama is taken from the twenty-second and twenty-third
chapter of II. Chronicles, where it is written that Athaliah, to avenge the
death of her son, destroyed all the seed royal of the house of Judah, but that
the young Joash was stolen from among the rest by his aunt Jehoshabeath,
the wife of the high-priest, and hidden with his nurse for six years in the
temple. Besides numerous tragedies, Racine composed odes, epigrams, and
spiritual songs. By a rare combination of talents he wrote as well in prose as
in verse. His "History of the Reign of Louis XIV." was destroyed by a
conflagration, but there remain the "History of Port Royal," some pleasing
letters, and some academic discourses. The tragedies of Racine are more
elegant than those of Corneille, though less bold and striking. Corneille's
principal characters are heroes and heroines thrown into situations of
extremity, and displaying strength of mind superior to their position.
Racine's characters are men, not heroes,—men such as they are, not such as
they might possibly be.
France produced no other tragic dramatists of the first class in this age.
Somewhat later, Crébillon (1674-1762), in such wild tragedies as "Atrea,"
"Electra," and "Rhadamiste," introduced a new element, that of terror, as
a source of tragic effect.
the king, conjointly with Boileau, and after twelve years of silence he was
induced by Madame de Maintenon to compose the drama of "Esther" for
the pupils in the Maison de St. Cyr, which met with prodigious success.
"Athalie," considered the most perfect of his works, was composed with
similar views; theatricals having been abandoned at the school, however,
the play was published, but found no readers. Discouraged by this second
injustice, Racine finally abandoned the drama. "Athalie" was but little
known till the year 1716, since when its reputation has considerably
augmented. Voltaire pronounced it the most perfect work of human genius.
The subject of this drama is taken from the twenty-second and twenty-third
chapter of II. Chronicles, where it is written that Athaliah, to avenge the
death of her son, destroyed all the seed royal of the house of Judah, but that
the young Joash was stolen from among the rest by his aunt Jehoshabeath,
the wife of the high-priest, and hidden with his nurse for six years in the
temple. Besides numerous tragedies, Racine composed odes, epigrams, and
spiritual songs. By a rare combination of talents he wrote as well in prose as
in verse. His "History of the Reign of Louis XIV." was destroyed by a
conflagration, but there remain the "History of Port Royal," some pleasing
letters, and some academic discourses. The tragedies of Racine are more
elegant than those of Corneille, though less bold and striking. Corneille's
principal characters are heroes and heroines thrown into situations of
extremity, and displaying strength of mind superior to their position.
Racine's characters are men, not heroes,—men such as they are, not such as
they might possibly be.
France produced no other tragic dramatists of the first class in this age.
Somewhat later, Crébillon (1674-1762), in such wild tragedies as "Atrea,"
"Electra," and "Rhadamiste," introduced a new element, that of terror, as
a source of tragic effect.
Page 393
Cardinal Mazarin had brought from Italy the opera or lyric tragedy,
which was cultivated with success by Quinault (1637-1688). He is said to
have taken the bones out of the French language by cultivating an art in
which thought, incident, and dialogue are made secondary to the
development of tender and voluptuous feeling.
8. COMEDY.—The comic drama, which occupied the French stage till
the middle of the seventeenth century, was the comedy of intrigue,
borrowed from Spain, and turning on disguises, dark lanterns, and trap-
doors to help or hinder the design of personages who were types, not of
individual character, but of classes, as doctors, lawyers, lovers, and
confidants. It was reserved for Molière (1622-1673) to demolish all this
childishness, and enthrone the true Thalia on the French stage. Like
Shakspeare, he was both an author and an actor. The appearance of the
"Précieuses Ridicules" was the first of the comedies in which the gifted poet
assailed the follies of his age. The object of this satire was the system of
solemn sentimentality which at this time was considered the perfection of
elegance. It will be remembered that there existed at Paris a coterie of
fashionable women who pretended to the most exalted refinement both of
feeling and expression, and that these were waited upon and worshiped by a
set of nobles and littérateurs, who used towards them a peculiar strain of
high-flown, pedantic gallantry. These ladies adopted fictitious names for
themselves and gave enigmatical ones to the commonest things. They
lavished upon each other the most tender appellations, as though in contrast
to the frigid tone in which the Platonism of the Hotel required them to
address the gentlemen of their circle. Ma chère, ma précieuse, were the
terms most frequently used by the leaders of this world of folly, and a
précieuse came to be synonymous with a lady of the clique; hence the title
of the comedy. The piece was received with unanimous applause; a more
signal victory could not have been gained by a comic poet, and from the
time of its first representation this bombastic nonsense was given up.
which was cultivated with success by Quinault (1637-1688). He is said to
have taken the bones out of the French language by cultivating an art in
which thought, incident, and dialogue are made secondary to the
development of tender and voluptuous feeling.
8. COMEDY.—The comic drama, which occupied the French stage till
the middle of the seventeenth century, was the comedy of intrigue,
borrowed from Spain, and turning on disguises, dark lanterns, and trap-
doors to help or hinder the design of personages who were types, not of
individual character, but of classes, as doctors, lawyers, lovers, and
confidants. It was reserved for Molière (1622-1673) to demolish all this
childishness, and enthrone the true Thalia on the French stage. Like
Shakspeare, he was both an author and an actor. The appearance of the
"Précieuses Ridicules" was the first of the comedies in which the gifted poet
assailed the follies of his age. The object of this satire was the system of
solemn sentimentality which at this time was considered the perfection of
elegance. It will be remembered that there existed at Paris a coterie of
fashionable women who pretended to the most exalted refinement both of
feeling and expression, and that these were waited upon and worshiped by a
set of nobles and littérateurs, who used towards them a peculiar strain of
high-flown, pedantic gallantry. These ladies adopted fictitious names for
themselves and gave enigmatical ones to the commonest things. They
lavished upon each other the most tender appellations, as though in contrast
to the frigid tone in which the Platonism of the Hotel required them to
address the gentlemen of their circle. Ma chère, ma précieuse, were the
terms most frequently used by the leaders of this world of folly, and a
précieuse came to be synonymous with a lady of the clique; hence the title
of the comedy. The piece was received with unanimous applause; a more
signal victory could not have been gained by a comic poet, and from the
time of its first representation this bombastic nonsense was given up.
Page 394
Molière, perceiving that he had struck the true vein, resolved to study
human nature more and Plautus and Terence less. Comedy after comedy
followed, which were true pictures of the follies of society; but whatever
was the theme of his satire, all proved that he had a falcon's eye for
detecting vice and folly in every shape, and talons for pouncing upon all as
the natural prey of the satirist. On the boards he always took the principal
character himself, and he was a comedian in every look and gesture. The
"Malade Imaginaire" was the last of his works. When it was produced upon
the stage, the poet himself was really ill, but repressing the voice of natural
suffering, to affect that of the hypochondriac for public amusement, he was
seized with a convulsive cough, and carried home dying. Though he was
denied the last offices of the church, and his remains were with difficulty
allowed Christian burial, in the following century his bust was placed in the
Academy, and a monument erected to his memory in the cemetery of Père
la Chaise. The best of Molière's works are, "Le Misanthrope," "Les Femmes
Savantes," and "Tartuffe;" these are considered models of high comedy.
Other comedians followed, but at a great distance from him in point of
merit.
9. FABLE, SATIRE, MOCK-HEROIC, AND OTHER POETRY.—La
Fontaine (1621-1695) was the prince of fabulists; his fables appeared
successively in three collections, and although the subjects of some of these
are borrowed, the dress is entirely new. His versification constitutes one of
the greatest charms of his poetry, and seems to have been the result of an
instinctive sense of harmony, a delicate taste, and rapidity of invention.
There are few authors in France more popular, none so much the familiar
genius of every fireside. La Fontaine himself was a mere child of nature,
indolent, and led by the whim of the moment, rather than by any fixed
principle. He was desired by his father to take charge of the domain of
which he was the keeper, and to unite himself in marriage with a family
relative. With unthinking docility he consented to both, but neglected alike
human nature more and Plautus and Terence less. Comedy after comedy
followed, which were true pictures of the follies of society; but whatever
was the theme of his satire, all proved that he had a falcon's eye for
detecting vice and folly in every shape, and talons for pouncing upon all as
the natural prey of the satirist. On the boards he always took the principal
character himself, and he was a comedian in every look and gesture. The
"Malade Imaginaire" was the last of his works. When it was produced upon
the stage, the poet himself was really ill, but repressing the voice of natural
suffering, to affect that of the hypochondriac for public amusement, he was
seized with a convulsive cough, and carried home dying. Though he was
denied the last offices of the church, and his remains were with difficulty
allowed Christian burial, in the following century his bust was placed in the
Academy, and a monument erected to his memory in the cemetery of Père
la Chaise. The best of Molière's works are, "Le Misanthrope," "Les Femmes
Savantes," and "Tartuffe;" these are considered models of high comedy.
Other comedians followed, but at a great distance from him in point of
merit.
9. FABLE, SATIRE, MOCK-HEROIC, AND OTHER POETRY.—La
Fontaine (1621-1695) was the prince of fabulists; his fables appeared
successively in three collections, and although the subjects of some of these
are borrowed, the dress is entirely new. His versification constitutes one of
the greatest charms of his poetry, and seems to have been the result of an
instinctive sense of harmony, a delicate taste, and rapidity of invention.
There are few authors in France more popular, none so much the familiar
genius of every fireside. La Fontaine himself was a mere child of nature,
indolent, and led by the whim of the moment, rather than by any fixed
principle. He was desired by his father to take charge of the domain of
which he was the keeper, and to unite himself in marriage with a family
relative. With unthinking docility he consented to both, but neglected alike
Page 395
his official duties and domestic obligations with an innocent
unconsciousness of wrong. He was taken to Paris by the Duchess of
Bouillon and passed his days in her coteries, and those of Racine and
Boileau, utterly forgetful of his home and family, except when his
pecuniary necessities obliged him to return to sell portions of his property
to supply his wants. When this was exhausted, he became dependent on the
kindness of female discerners of merit. Henrietta of England attached him
to her suite; and after her death, Madame de la Sablière gave him
apartments at her house, supplied his wants, and indulged his humors for
twenty years. When she retired to a convent, Madame d'Hervart, the wife of
a rich financier, offered him a similar retreat. While on her way to make the
proposal, she met him in the street, and said, "La Fontaine, will you come
and live in my house?" "I was just going, madame," he replied, as if his
doing so had been the simplest and most natural thing in the world. And
here he remained the rest of his days. France has produced numerous
writers of fables since the time of La Fontaine, but none worthy of
comparison with him.
The writings of Descartes and Pascal, with the precepts of the Academy
and Port Royal, had established the art of prose composition, but the destiny
of poetry continued doubtful. Corneille's masterpieces afforded models only
in one department; there was no specific doctrine on the idea of what poetry
ought to be. To supply this was the mission of Boileau (1636-1711); and he
fulfilled it, first by satirizing the existing style, and then by composing an
"Art of Poetry," after the manner of Horace. In the midst of men who made
verses for the sake of making them, and composed languishing love-songs
upon the perfections of mistresses who never existed except in their own
imaginations, Boileau determined to write nothing but what interested his
feelings, to break with this affected gallantry, and draw poetry only from the
depths of his own heart. His début was made in unmerciful satires on the
works of the poetasters, and he continued to plead the cause of reason
unconsciousness of wrong. He was taken to Paris by the Duchess of
Bouillon and passed his days in her coteries, and those of Racine and
Boileau, utterly forgetful of his home and family, except when his
pecuniary necessities obliged him to return to sell portions of his property
to supply his wants. When this was exhausted, he became dependent on the
kindness of female discerners of merit. Henrietta of England attached him
to her suite; and after her death, Madame de la Sablière gave him
apartments at her house, supplied his wants, and indulged his humors for
twenty years. When she retired to a convent, Madame d'Hervart, the wife of
a rich financier, offered him a similar retreat. While on her way to make the
proposal, she met him in the street, and said, "La Fontaine, will you come
and live in my house?" "I was just going, madame," he replied, as if his
doing so had been the simplest and most natural thing in the world. And
here he remained the rest of his days. France has produced numerous
writers of fables since the time of La Fontaine, but none worthy of
comparison with him.
The writings of Descartes and Pascal, with the precepts of the Academy
and Port Royal, had established the art of prose composition, but the destiny
of poetry continued doubtful. Corneille's masterpieces afforded models only
in one department; there was no specific doctrine on the idea of what poetry
ought to be. To supply this was the mission of Boileau (1636-1711); and he
fulfilled it, first by satirizing the existing style, and then by composing an
"Art of Poetry," after the manner of Horace. In the midst of men who made
verses for the sake of making them, and composed languishing love-songs
upon the perfections of mistresses who never existed except in their own
imaginations, Boileau determined to write nothing but what interested his
feelings, to break with this affected gallantry, and draw poetry only from the
depths of his own heart. His début was made in unmerciful satires on the
works of the poetasters, and he continued to plead the cause of reason
Page 396
against rhyme, of true poetry against false. Despite the anger of the poets
and their friends, his satires enjoyed immense favor, and he consolidated his
victory by writing the "Art of Poetry," in which he attempted to restore it to
its true dignity. This work obtained for him the title of Legislator of
Parnassus. The mock- heroic poem of the "Lutrin" is considered as the
happiest effort of his muse, though inferior to the "Rape of the Lock," a
composition of a similar kind. The occasion of this poem was a frivolous
dispute between the treasurer and the chapter of a cathedral concerning the
placing of a reading-desk (lutrin). A friend playfully challenged Boileau to
write a heroic poem on the subject, to verify his own theory that the
excellence of a heroic poem depended upon the power of the inventor to
sustain and enlarge upon a slender groundwork. Boileau was the last of the
great poets of the golden age.
The horizon of the poets was at this time somewhat circumscribed.
Confined to the conventional life of the court and the city, they enjoyed
little opportunity for the contemplation of nature. The policy of Louis XIV.
proscribed national recollections, so that the social life of the day was alone
open to them. Poetry thus became abstract and ideal, or limited to the
delineation of those passions which belong to a highly artificial state of
society. Madame Deshoulières (1634-1694) indeed wrote some graceful
idyls, but she by no means entered into the spirit of rural life and manners,
like La Fontaine.
10. ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT AND OF THE BAR.—Louis XIV.
afforded to religious eloquence the most efficacious kind of encouragement,
that of personal attendance. The court preachers had no more attentive
auditor than their royal master, who was singularly gifted with that
tenderness of conscience which leads a man to condemn himself for his
sins, yet indulge in their commission; to feel a certain pleasure in self-
accusation, and to enjoy that reaction of mind which consists in
and their friends, his satires enjoyed immense favor, and he consolidated his
victory by writing the "Art of Poetry," in which he attempted to restore it to
its true dignity. This work obtained for him the title of Legislator of
Parnassus. The mock- heroic poem of the "Lutrin" is considered as the
happiest effort of his muse, though inferior to the "Rape of the Lock," a
composition of a similar kind. The occasion of this poem was a frivolous
dispute between the treasurer and the chapter of a cathedral concerning the
placing of a reading-desk (lutrin). A friend playfully challenged Boileau to
write a heroic poem on the subject, to verify his own theory that the
excellence of a heroic poem depended upon the power of the inventor to
sustain and enlarge upon a slender groundwork. Boileau was the last of the
great poets of the golden age.
The horizon of the poets was at this time somewhat circumscribed.
Confined to the conventional life of the court and the city, they enjoyed
little opportunity for the contemplation of nature. The policy of Louis XIV.
proscribed national recollections, so that the social life of the day was alone
open to them. Poetry thus became abstract and ideal, or limited to the
delineation of those passions which belong to a highly artificial state of
society. Madame Deshoulières (1634-1694) indeed wrote some graceful
idyls, but she by no means entered into the spirit of rural life and manners,
like La Fontaine.
10. ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT AND OF THE BAR.—Louis XIV.
afforded to religious eloquence the most efficacious kind of encouragement,
that of personal attendance. The court preachers had no more attentive
auditor than their royal master, who was singularly gifted with that
tenderness of conscience which leads a man to condemn himself for his
sins, yet indulge in their commission; to feel a certain pleasure in self-
accusation, and to enjoy that reaction of mind which consists in
Page 397
occasionally holding his passions in abeyance. This attention on the part of
a great monarch, the liberty of saying everything, the refined taste of the
audience, who could on the same day attend a sermon of Bourdaloue and a
tragedy of Racine, all tended to lead pulpit eloquence to a high degree of
perfection; and, accordingly, we find the function of court preacher
exercised successively by Bossuet (1627-1704), Bourdaloue (1632-1704),
and Massillon (1663-1742), the greatest names that the Roman Catholic
Church has boasted in any age or country. Bossuet addressed the conscience
through the imagination, Bourdaloue through the judgment, and Massillon
through the feelings. Fléchier (1632-1710), another court preacher,
renowned chiefly as a rhetorician, was not free from the affectation of Les
Précieuses; but Bossuet was perhaps the most distinguished type of the age
of Louis XIV., in all save its vices. For the instruction of the Dauphin, to
whom he had been appointed preceptor, he wrote his "Discourse upon
Universal History," by which he is chiefly known to us. The Protestant
controversy elicited his famous "Exposition of the Catholic Doctrine." A
still more celebrated work is the "History of the Variations," the leading
principle of which is, that to forsake the authority of the church leads one
knows not whither, that there can be no new religious views except false
ones, and that there can be no escape from the faith transmitted from age to
age, save in the wastes of skepticism. In his controversy with Fénelon, in
relation to the mystical doctrines of Madame Guyon, Bossuet showed
himself irritated, and at last furious, at the moderate and submissive tone of
his opponent. He procured the banishment of Fénelon from court, and the
disgrace of his friends; and through his influence the pope condemned the
"Maxims of the Saints," in which Fénelon endeavored to show that the
views of Madame Guyon were those of others whom the church had
canonized. The sermons of Bossuet were paternal and familiar exhortations;
he seldom prepared them, but, abandoning himself to the inspiration of the
moment, was now simple and touching, now energetic and sublime, His
a great monarch, the liberty of saying everything, the refined taste of the
audience, who could on the same day attend a sermon of Bourdaloue and a
tragedy of Racine, all tended to lead pulpit eloquence to a high degree of
perfection; and, accordingly, we find the function of court preacher
exercised successively by Bossuet (1627-1704), Bourdaloue (1632-1704),
and Massillon (1663-1742), the greatest names that the Roman Catholic
Church has boasted in any age or country. Bossuet addressed the conscience
through the imagination, Bourdaloue through the judgment, and Massillon
through the feelings. Fléchier (1632-1710), another court preacher,
renowned chiefly as a rhetorician, was not free from the affectation of Les
Précieuses; but Bossuet was perhaps the most distinguished type of the age
of Louis XIV., in all save its vices. For the instruction of the Dauphin, to
whom he had been appointed preceptor, he wrote his "Discourse upon
Universal History," by which he is chiefly known to us. The Protestant
controversy elicited his famous "Exposition of the Catholic Doctrine." A
still more celebrated work is the "History of the Variations," the leading
principle of which is, that to forsake the authority of the church leads one
knows not whither, that there can be no new religious views except false
ones, and that there can be no escape from the faith transmitted from age to
age, save in the wastes of skepticism. In his controversy with Fénelon, in
relation to the mystical doctrines of Madame Guyon, Bossuet showed
himself irritated, and at last furious, at the moderate and submissive tone of
his opponent. He procured the banishment of Fénelon from court, and the
disgrace of his friends; and through his influence the pope condemned the
"Maxims of the Saints," in which Fénelon endeavored to show that the
views of Madame Guyon were those of others whom the church had
canonized. The sermons of Bossuet were paternal and familiar exhortations;
he seldom prepared them, but, abandoning himself to the inspiration of the
moment, was now simple and touching, now energetic and sublime, His
Page 398
familiarity with the language of inspiration imparted to his discourses a tone
of almost prophetic authority; his eloquence appeared as a native instinct, a
gift direct from heaven, neither marred nor improved by the study of human
rules. France does not acknowledge the Protestant Saurin (1677-1730), as
the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes expatriated him in childhood; but his
sermons occupy a distinguished place in the theological literature of the
French language.
Political or parliamentary oratory was as yet unknown, for the parliament
no sooner touched on matters of state and government, than Louis XIV
entered, booted and spurred, with whip in hand, and not figuratively, but
literally, lashed the refractory assembly into silence and obedience. But the
eloquence of the bar enjoyed a considerable degree of freedom in this age.
Law and reason, however, were too often overlaid by worthless conceits
and a fantastic abuse of classic and scriptural citations. Le Maitre (1608-
1658), Patru (1604-1681), Pellisson (1624-1693), Cochin (1687-1749), and
D'Aguesseau (1668-1751), successively purified and elevated the language
of the tribunals.
11. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.—The most celebrated moralist of the age
was the Duke de Rochefoucauld (1613-1680). He was early drawn into
those conflicts known as the wars of the Fronde, though he seems to have
had little motive for fighting or intriguing, except his restlessness of spirit
and his attachment to the Duchess de Longueville. He soon quarreled with
the duchess, dissolved his alliance with Condé, and being afterwards
included in the amnesty, he took up his residence at Paris, where he was one
of the brightest ornaments of the court of Louis XIV. His chosen friends, in
his declining years, were Madame de Sévigné, one of the most
accomplished women of the age, and Madame de Lafayette, who said of
him, "He gave me intellect, and I reformed his heart." But if the taint was
removed from his heart, it continued in the understanding. His famous
of almost prophetic authority; his eloquence appeared as a native instinct, a
gift direct from heaven, neither marred nor improved by the study of human
rules. France does not acknowledge the Protestant Saurin (1677-1730), as
the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes expatriated him in childhood; but his
sermons occupy a distinguished place in the theological literature of the
French language.
Political or parliamentary oratory was as yet unknown, for the parliament
no sooner touched on matters of state and government, than Louis XIV
entered, booted and spurred, with whip in hand, and not figuratively, but
literally, lashed the refractory assembly into silence and obedience. But the
eloquence of the bar enjoyed a considerable degree of freedom in this age.
Law and reason, however, were too often overlaid by worthless conceits
and a fantastic abuse of classic and scriptural citations. Le Maitre (1608-
1658), Patru (1604-1681), Pellisson (1624-1693), Cochin (1687-1749), and
D'Aguesseau (1668-1751), successively purified and elevated the language
of the tribunals.
11. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.—The most celebrated moralist of the age
was the Duke de Rochefoucauld (1613-1680). He was early drawn into
those conflicts known as the wars of the Fronde, though he seems to have
had little motive for fighting or intriguing, except his restlessness of spirit
and his attachment to the Duchess de Longueville. He soon quarreled with
the duchess, dissolved his alliance with Condé, and being afterwards
included in the amnesty, he took up his residence at Paris, where he was one
of the brightest ornaments of the court of Louis XIV. His chosen friends, in
his declining years, were Madame de Sévigné, one of the most
accomplished women of the age, and Madame de Lafayette, who said of
him, "He gave me intellect, and I reformed his heart." But if the taint was
removed from his heart, it continued in the understanding. His famous
Page 399
"Maxims," published in 1665, gained for the author a lasting reputation, not
less for the perfection of his style, than for the boldness of his paradoxes.
The leading peculiarity of this work is the principle that self-interest is the
ruling motive in human nature, placing every virtue, as well as every vice,
under contribution to itself. It is generally agreed that Rochefoucauld's
views of human nature were perverted by the specimens of it which he had
known in the wars of the Fronde, which were stimulated by vice, folly, and
a restless desire of power. His "Memoirs of the Reign of Anne of Austria"
embody the story of the Fronde, and his "Maxims" the moral philosophy he
deduced from it.
While Pascal, in proving all human remedies unworthy of confidence,
had sought to drive men upon faith by pursuing them with despair, and
Rochefoucauld, by his pitiless analysis of the disguises of the human heart,
led his readers to suspect their most natural emotions, and well- nigh took
away the desire of virtue by proving its impossibility, La Bruyère (1639-
1696) endeavored to make the most of our nature, such as it is, to render
men better, even with their imperfections, to assist them by a moral code
suited to their strength, or rather to their weakness. His "Characters of our
Age" is distinguished for the exactness and variety of the portraits, as well
as for the excellence of its style. The philosophy of La Bruyère is
unquestionably based on reason, and not on revelation.
In the moral works of Nicole, the Port Royalist (1611-1645), we find a
system of truly Christian ethics, derived from the precepts of revelation;
they are elegant in style, though they display little originality.
The only speculative philosopher of this age, worthy of mention, is
Malebranche (1631-1715), a disciple of Descartes; but, unlike his master,
instead of admitting innate ideas, he held that we see all in Deity, and that it
is only by our spiritual union with the Being who knows all things that we
less for the perfection of his style, than for the boldness of his paradoxes.
The leading peculiarity of this work is the principle that self-interest is the
ruling motive in human nature, placing every virtue, as well as every vice,
under contribution to itself. It is generally agreed that Rochefoucauld's
views of human nature were perverted by the specimens of it which he had
known in the wars of the Fronde, which were stimulated by vice, folly, and
a restless desire of power. His "Memoirs of the Reign of Anne of Austria"
embody the story of the Fronde, and his "Maxims" the moral philosophy he
deduced from it.
While Pascal, in proving all human remedies unworthy of confidence,
had sought to drive men upon faith by pursuing them with despair, and
Rochefoucauld, by his pitiless analysis of the disguises of the human heart,
led his readers to suspect their most natural emotions, and well- nigh took
away the desire of virtue by proving its impossibility, La Bruyère (1639-
1696) endeavored to make the most of our nature, such as it is, to render
men better, even with their imperfections, to assist them by a moral code
suited to their strength, or rather to their weakness. His "Characters of our
Age" is distinguished for the exactness and variety of the portraits, as well
as for the excellence of its style. The philosophy of La Bruyère is
unquestionably based on reason, and not on revelation.
In the moral works of Nicole, the Port Royalist (1611-1645), we find a
system of truly Christian ethics, derived from the precepts of revelation;
they are elegant in style, though they display little originality.
The only speculative philosopher of this age, worthy of mention, is
Malebranche (1631-1715), a disciple of Descartes; but, unlike his master,
instead of admitting innate ideas, he held that we see all in Deity, and that it
is only by our spiritual union with the Being who knows all things that we
Page 400
know anything. He professed optimism, and explained the existence of evil
by saying that the Deity acts only as a universal cause. His object was to
reconcile philosophy with revelation; his works, though models of style, are
now little read.
12. HISTORY AND MEMOIRS.—History attained no degree of
excellence during this period. Bossuet's "Discourse on Universal History"
was a sermon, with general history as the text. At a somewhat earlier date,
Mézeray (1610- 1683) compiled a history of France. The style is clear and
nervous, and the spirit which pervades it is bold and independent, but the
facts are not always to be relied on. The "History of Christianity," by the
Abbé Fleury (1640-1723), was pronounced by Voltaire to be the best work
of the kind that had ever appeared. Rollin (1661-1741) devoted his
declining years to the composition of historical works for the instruction of
young people. His "Ancient History" is more remarkable for the excellence
of his intentions than for the display of historical talent. Indeed, the
historical writers of this period may be said to have marked, rather than
filled a void.
The writers of memoirs were more happy. At an earlier period, Brantôme
(1527-1614), a gentleman attached to the suite of Charles IX. and Henry
III., employed his declining years in describing men and manners as he had
observed them; and his memoirs are admitted to embody but too faithfully a
representation of that singular mixture of elegance and grossness, of
superstition and impiety, of chivalrous feelings and licentious morals, which
characterized the sixteenth century. The Duke of Sully (1559-1641), the
skillful financier of Henry IV., left valuable memoirs of the stirring events
of his day. The "Memoirs" of the Cardinal de Betz (1614-1679), who took
so active a part in the agitations of the Fronde, embody the enlarged views
of the true historian, and breathe the impetuous spirit of a man whose native
element is civil commotion, and who looks on the chieftainship of a party
by saying that the Deity acts only as a universal cause. His object was to
reconcile philosophy with revelation; his works, though models of style, are
now little read.
12. HISTORY AND MEMOIRS.—History attained no degree of
excellence during this period. Bossuet's "Discourse on Universal History"
was a sermon, with general history as the text. At a somewhat earlier date,
Mézeray (1610- 1683) compiled a history of France. The style is clear and
nervous, and the spirit which pervades it is bold and independent, but the
facts are not always to be relied on. The "History of Christianity," by the
Abbé Fleury (1640-1723), was pronounced by Voltaire to be the best work
of the kind that had ever appeared. Rollin (1661-1741) devoted his
declining years to the composition of historical works for the instruction of
young people. His "Ancient History" is more remarkable for the excellence
of his intentions than for the display of historical talent. Indeed, the
historical writers of this period may be said to have marked, rather than
filled a void.
The writers of memoirs were more happy. At an earlier period, Brantôme
(1527-1614), a gentleman attached to the suite of Charles IX. and Henry
III., employed his declining years in describing men and manners as he had
observed them; and his memoirs are admitted to embody but too faithfully a
representation of that singular mixture of elegance and grossness, of
superstition and impiety, of chivalrous feelings and licentious morals, which
characterized the sixteenth century. The Duke of Sully (1559-1641), the
skillful financier of Henry IV., left valuable memoirs of the stirring events
of his day. The "Memoirs" of the Cardinal de Betz (1614-1679), who took
so active a part in the agitations of the Fronde, embody the enlarged views
of the true historian, and breathe the impetuous spirit of a man whose native
element is civil commotion, and who looks on the chieftainship of a party
Page 401
as worthy to engage the best powers of his head and heart; but his style
abounds with negligences and irregularities which would have shocked the
littérateurs of the day.
The Duke de St. Simon (1675-1755) is another of those who made no
pretensions to classical writing. All the styles of the seventeenth century are
found in him. His language has been compared to a torrent, which appears
somewhat incumbered by the debris which it carries, yet makes its way with
no less rapidity.
Count Hamilton (1646-1720) narrates the adventures of his brother-in-
law, Count de Grammont, of which La Harpe says, "Of all frivolous books,
it is the most diverting and ingenious." Much lively narration is here
expended on incidents better forgotten.
13. ROMANCE AND LETTER-WRITING.—The growth of kingly
power, the order which it established, and the civilization which followed in
its train, restrained the development of public life and increased the
interests of the social relations. From this new state of things arose a
modified kind of romance, in which elevated sentiments replaced the
achievements of mediaeval fiction and the military exploits of
Mademoiselle de Scudery's tales. Madame de Lafayette introduced that
kind of romance in which the absorbing interest is that of conflicting
passion, and external events were the occasion of developing the inward life
of thought and feeling. She first depicted manners as they really were,
relating natural events with gracefulness, instead of narrating those that
never could have had existence.
The illustrious Fénelon (1651-1715) was one of the few authors of this
period who belonged exclusively to no one class. He appears as a divine in
his "Sermons" and "Maxims;" as a rhetorician in his "Dialogues on
Eloquence;" as a moralist in his "Education of Girls;" as a politician in his
abounds with negligences and irregularities which would have shocked the
littérateurs of the day.
The Duke de St. Simon (1675-1755) is another of those who made no
pretensions to classical writing. All the styles of the seventeenth century are
found in him. His language has been compared to a torrent, which appears
somewhat incumbered by the debris which it carries, yet makes its way with
no less rapidity.
Count Hamilton (1646-1720) narrates the adventures of his brother-in-
law, Count de Grammont, of which La Harpe says, "Of all frivolous books,
it is the most diverting and ingenious." Much lively narration is here
expended on incidents better forgotten.
13. ROMANCE AND LETTER-WRITING.—The growth of kingly
power, the order which it established, and the civilization which followed in
its train, restrained the development of public life and increased the
interests of the social relations. From this new state of things arose a
modified kind of romance, in which elevated sentiments replaced the
achievements of mediaeval fiction and the military exploits of
Mademoiselle de Scudery's tales. Madame de Lafayette introduced that
kind of romance in which the absorbing interest is that of conflicting
passion, and external events were the occasion of developing the inward life
of thought and feeling. She first depicted manners as they really were,
relating natural events with gracefulness, instead of narrating those that
never could have had existence.
The illustrious Fénelon (1651-1715) was one of the few authors of this
period who belonged exclusively to no one class. He appears as a divine in
his "Sermons" and "Maxims;" as a rhetorician in his "Dialogues on
Eloquence;" as a moralist in his "Education of Girls;" as a politician in his
Page 402
"Examination of the Conscience of a King;" and it may be said that all these
characters are combined in "Telemachus," which has procured for him a
widespread fame, and which classes him among the romancers. Telemachus
was composed with the intention of its becoming a manual for his pupil, the
young Duke of Burgundy, on his entrance into manhood. Though its
publication caused him the loss of the king's favor, it went through
numerous editions, and was translated into every language of Europe. It was
considered, in its day, a manual for kings, and it became a standard book,
on account of the elegance of its style, the purity of its morals, and the
classic taste it was likely to foster in the youthful mind.
Madame de Sévigné made no pretensions to authorship. Her letters were
written to her daughter, without the slightest idea that they would be read,
except by those to whom they were addressed; but they have immortalized
their gifted author, and have been pronounced worthy to occupy an eminent
place among the classics of French literature. The matter which these
celebrated letters contain is multifarious; they are sketches of Madame de
Sévigné's friends, Madame de Lafayette, Madame Scarron, and all the
principal personages of that brilliant court, from which, however, she was
excluded, in consequence of her early alliance with the Fronde, her
friendship for Fouquet, and her Jansenist opinions. All the occurrences, as
well as the characters of the day, are touched in these letters; and so graphic
is the pen, so clear and easy the style, that we seem to live in those brilliant
days, and to see all that was going on. Great events are detailed in the same
tone as court gossip; Louis XIV., Turenne, Condé, the wars of France and of
the empire are freely mingled with details of housewifery, projects of
marriage,—in short, the seventeenth century is depicted in the
correspondence of two women who knew nothing so important as their own
affairs.
characters are combined in "Telemachus," which has procured for him a
widespread fame, and which classes him among the romancers. Telemachus
was composed with the intention of its becoming a manual for his pupil, the
young Duke of Burgundy, on his entrance into manhood. Though its
publication caused him the loss of the king's favor, it went through
numerous editions, and was translated into every language of Europe. It was
considered, in its day, a manual for kings, and it became a standard book,
on account of the elegance of its style, the purity of its morals, and the
classic taste it was likely to foster in the youthful mind.
Madame de Sévigné made no pretensions to authorship. Her letters were
written to her daughter, without the slightest idea that they would be read,
except by those to whom they were addressed; but they have immortalized
their gifted author, and have been pronounced worthy to occupy an eminent
place among the classics of French literature. The matter which these
celebrated letters contain is multifarious; they are sketches of Madame de
Sévigné's friends, Madame de Lafayette, Madame Scarron, and all the
principal personages of that brilliant court, from which, however, she was
excluded, in consequence of her early alliance with the Fronde, her
friendship for Fouquet, and her Jansenist opinions. All the occurrences, as
well as the characters of the day, are touched in these letters; and so graphic
is the pen, so clear and easy the style, that we seem to live in those brilliant
days, and to see all that was going on. Great events are detailed in the same
tone as court gossip; Louis XIV., Turenne, Condé, the wars of France and of
the empire are freely mingled with details of housewifery, projects of
marriage,—in short, the seventeenth century is depicted in the
correspondence of two women who knew nothing so important as their own
affairs.
Page 403
Considerable interest attaches also to the letters of Madame de
Maintenon (1635-1719), a lady whose life presents singular contrasts,
worthy of the time. To her influence on the king, after her private marriage
to him, is attributed much that is inauspicious in the latter part of his reign,
the combination of ascetic devotion and religious bigotry with the most
flagrant immorality, the appointment of unskillful generals and weak-
minded ministers, the persecution of the Jansenists, and, above all, the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which had secured religious freedom to
the Protestants.
PERIOD THIRD.
LITERATURE OF THE AGE OF THE REVOLUTION AND OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY (1700-1885).
1. THE DAWN OF SKEPTICISM.—In the age just past we have seen
religion, antiquity, and the monarchy of Louis XIV., each exercising a
distinct and powerful influence over the buoyancy of French genius, which
cheerfully submitted to their restraining power. A school of taste and
elegance had been formed, under these circumstances, which gave law to
the rest of Europe and constituted France the leading spirit of the age. On
the other hand, the dominant influences of the eighteenth century were a
skeptical philosophy, a preference for modern literature, and a rage for
political reform. The transition, however, was not sudden nor immediate,
and we come now to the consideration of those works which occupy the
midway position between the submissive age of Louis XIV. and the daring
infidelity and republicanism of the eighteenth century.
The eighteenth century began with the first timid protestation against the
splendid monarchy of Louis XIV., the domination of the Catholic Church,
and the classical authority of antiquity, and it ended when words came to
Maintenon (1635-1719), a lady whose life presents singular contrasts,
worthy of the time. To her influence on the king, after her private marriage
to him, is attributed much that is inauspicious in the latter part of his reign,
the combination of ascetic devotion and religious bigotry with the most
flagrant immorality, the appointment of unskillful generals and weak-
minded ministers, the persecution of the Jansenists, and, above all, the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which had secured religious freedom to
the Protestants.
PERIOD THIRD.
LITERATURE OF THE AGE OF THE REVOLUTION AND OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY (1700-1885).
1. THE DAWN OF SKEPTICISM.—In the age just past we have seen
religion, antiquity, and the monarchy of Louis XIV., each exercising a
distinct and powerful influence over the buoyancy of French genius, which
cheerfully submitted to their restraining power. A school of taste and
elegance had been formed, under these circumstances, which gave law to
the rest of Europe and constituted France the leading spirit of the age. On
the other hand, the dominant influences of the eighteenth century were a
skeptical philosophy, a preference for modern literature, and a rage for
political reform. The transition, however, was not sudden nor immediate,
and we come now to the consideration of those works which occupy the
midway position between the submissive age of Louis XIV. and the daring
infidelity and republicanism of the eighteenth century.
The eighteenth century began with the first timid protestation against the
splendid monarchy of Louis XIV., the domination of the Catholic Church,
and the classical authority of antiquity, and it ended when words came to
Page 404
deeds, in the sanguinary revolution of 1789. When the first generation of
great men who sunned themselves in the glance of Louis XIV. had passed
away, there were none to succeed them; the glory of the monarch began to
fade as the noble cortège disappeared, and admiration and enthusiasm were
no more. The new generation, which had not shared the glory and
prosperity of the old monarch, was not subjugated by the recollections of
his early splendor, and was not, like the preceding, proud to wear his yoke.
A certain indifference to principle began to prevail; men ventured to doubt
opinions once unquestioned; the habit of jesting with everything and
unblushing cynicism appeared almost under the eyes of the aged Louis;
even Massillon, who exhorted the people to obedience, at the same time
reminded the king that it was necessary to merit it by respecting their rights.
The Protestants, exiled by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, revenged
themselves by pamphlets against the monarch and the church, and these
works found their way into France, and fostered there the rising discontent
and contempt for the authority of the government.
Among these refugees was Bayle (1647-1706), the coolest and boldest of
doubters. He wrote openly against the intolerance of Louis XIV., and he
affords the first announcement of the characteristics of the century. His
"Historical and Critical Dictionary," a vast magazine of knowledge and
incredulity, was calculated to supersede the necessity of study to a lively
and thoughtless age. His skepticism is learned and philosophical, and he
ridicules those who reject without examination still more than those who
believe with docile credulity. Jean Baptiste Rousseau (1670- 1741), the
lyric poet of this age, displayed in his odes considerable energy, and a kind
of pompous harmony, which no other had imparted to the language, yet he
fails to excite the sympathy. In his writings we find that free commingling
of licentious morals with a taste for religious sublimities which
characterized the last years of Louis XIV. The Abbé Chaulieu (1639-1720)
great men who sunned themselves in the glance of Louis XIV. had passed
away, there were none to succeed them; the glory of the monarch began to
fade as the noble cortège disappeared, and admiration and enthusiasm were
no more. The new generation, which had not shared the glory and
prosperity of the old monarch, was not subjugated by the recollections of
his early splendor, and was not, like the preceding, proud to wear his yoke.
A certain indifference to principle began to prevail; men ventured to doubt
opinions once unquestioned; the habit of jesting with everything and
unblushing cynicism appeared almost under the eyes of the aged Louis;
even Massillon, who exhorted the people to obedience, at the same time
reminded the king that it was necessary to merit it by respecting their rights.
The Protestants, exiled by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, revenged
themselves by pamphlets against the monarch and the church, and these
works found their way into France, and fostered there the rising discontent
and contempt for the authority of the government.
Among these refugees was Bayle (1647-1706), the coolest and boldest of
doubters. He wrote openly against the intolerance of Louis XIV., and he
affords the first announcement of the characteristics of the century. His
"Historical and Critical Dictionary," a vast magazine of knowledge and
incredulity, was calculated to supersede the necessity of study to a lively
and thoughtless age. His skepticism is learned and philosophical, and he
ridicules those who reject without examination still more than those who
believe with docile credulity. Jean Baptiste Rousseau (1670- 1741), the
lyric poet of this age, displayed in his odes considerable energy, and a kind
of pompous harmony, which no other had imparted to the language, yet he
fails to excite the sympathy. In his writings we find that free commingling
of licentious morals with a taste for religious sublimities which
characterized the last years of Louis XIV. The Abbé Chaulieu (1639-1720)
Page 405
earned the appellation of the Anacreon of the Temple, but he did not, like
Rousseau, prostitute poetry in strains of low debauchery.
The tragedians followed in the footsteps of Racine with more or less
success, and comedy continued, with some vigor, to represent the corrupt
manners of the age. Le Sage (1668-1747) applied his talent to romance;
and, like Molière, appreciated human folly without analyzing it. "Gil Blas"
is a picture of the human heart under the aspect at once of the vicious and
the ridiculous.
Fontenelle (1657-1757), a nephew of the great Corneille, is regarded as
the link between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, he having
witnessed the splendor of the best days of Louis XIV., and lived long
enough to see the greatest men of the eighteenth century. He made his début
in tragedy, in which, however, he found little encouragement. In his
"Plurality of Worlds," and "Dialogues of the Dead," there is much that
indicates the man of science. His other works are valued rather for their
delicacy and impartiality than for striking originality.
Lamotte (1672-1731) was more distinguished in criticism than in any
other sphere of authorship. He raised the standard of revolt against the
worship of antiquity, and would have dethroned poetry itself on the ground
of its inutility. Thus skepticism began by making established literary
doctrines matters of doubt and controversy. Before attacking more serious
creeds it fastened on literary ones.
Such is the picture presented by the earlier part of the eighteenth century.
Part of the generation had remained attached to the traditions of the great
age. Others opened the path into which the whole country was about to
throw itself. The faith of the nation in its political institutions, its religious
and literary creed, was shaken to its foundation; the positive and palpable
began to engross every interest hitherto occupied by the ideal; and this
Rousseau, prostitute poetry in strains of low debauchery.
The tragedians followed in the footsteps of Racine with more or less
success, and comedy continued, with some vigor, to represent the corrupt
manners of the age. Le Sage (1668-1747) applied his talent to romance;
and, like Molière, appreciated human folly without analyzing it. "Gil Blas"
is a picture of the human heart under the aspect at once of the vicious and
the ridiculous.
Fontenelle (1657-1757), a nephew of the great Corneille, is regarded as
the link between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, he having
witnessed the splendor of the best days of Louis XIV., and lived long
enough to see the greatest men of the eighteenth century. He made his début
in tragedy, in which, however, he found little encouragement. In his
"Plurality of Worlds," and "Dialogues of the Dead," there is much that
indicates the man of science. His other works are valued rather for their
delicacy and impartiality than for striking originality.
Lamotte (1672-1731) was more distinguished in criticism than in any
other sphere of authorship. He raised the standard of revolt against the
worship of antiquity, and would have dethroned poetry itself on the ground
of its inutility. Thus skepticism began by making established literary
doctrines matters of doubt and controversy. Before attacking more serious
creeds it fastened on literary ones.
Such is the picture presented by the earlier part of the eighteenth century.
Part of the generation had remained attached to the traditions of the great
age. Others opened the path into which the whole country was about to
throw itself. The faith of the nation in its political institutions, its religious
and literary creed, was shaken to its foundation; the positive and palpable
began to engross every interest hitherto occupied by the ideal; and this
Page 406
disposition, so favorable to the cultivation of science, brought with it a
universal spirit of criticism. The habit of reflecting was generally diffused,
people were not afraid to exercise their own judgment, every man had
begun to have a higher estimate of his own opinions, and to care less for
those hitherto received as undoubted authority. Still, literature had not taken
any positive direction, nor had there yet appeared men of sufficiently
powerful genius to give it a decisive impulse.
2. PROGRESS OF SKEPTICISM.—The first powerful attack on the
manners, institutions, and establishments of France, and indeed of Europe
in general, is that contained in the "Persian Letters" of the Baron de
Montesquieu (1689-1755); in which, under the transparent veil of
pleasantries aimed at the Moslem religion, he sought to consign to ridicule
the belief in every species of dogma. But the celebrity of Montesquieu is
founded on his "Spirit of Laws," the greatest monument of human genius in
the eighteenth century. It is a profound analysis of law in its relation with
government, customs, climate, religion, and commerce. The book is
inspired with a spirit of justice and humanity; but it places the mind too
much under the dominion of matter, and argues for necessity rather than
liberty, thus depriving moral obligation of much of its absolute character. It
is an extraordinary specimen of argument, terseness, and erudition.
The maturity of the eighteenth century is found in Voltaire (1694-1778);
he was the personification of its rashness, its zeal, its derision, its ardor, and
its universality. In him nature had, so to speak, identified the individual with
the nation, bestowing on him a character in the highest degree elastic,
having lively sensibility but no depth of passion, little system of principle or
conduct, but that promptitude of self- direction which supplies its place, a
quickness of perception amounting almost to intuition, and an unexampled
degree of activity, by which he was in some sort many men at once. No
writer, even in the eighteenth century, knew so many things or treated so
universal spirit of criticism. The habit of reflecting was generally diffused,
people were not afraid to exercise their own judgment, every man had
begun to have a higher estimate of his own opinions, and to care less for
those hitherto received as undoubted authority. Still, literature had not taken
any positive direction, nor had there yet appeared men of sufficiently
powerful genius to give it a decisive impulse.
2. PROGRESS OF SKEPTICISM.—The first powerful attack on the
manners, institutions, and establishments of France, and indeed of Europe
in general, is that contained in the "Persian Letters" of the Baron de
Montesquieu (1689-1755); in which, under the transparent veil of
pleasantries aimed at the Moslem religion, he sought to consign to ridicule
the belief in every species of dogma. But the celebrity of Montesquieu is
founded on his "Spirit of Laws," the greatest monument of human genius in
the eighteenth century. It is a profound analysis of law in its relation with
government, customs, climate, religion, and commerce. The book is
inspired with a spirit of justice and humanity; but it places the mind too
much under the dominion of matter, and argues for necessity rather than
liberty, thus depriving moral obligation of much of its absolute character. It
is an extraordinary specimen of argument, terseness, and erudition.
The maturity of the eighteenth century is found in Voltaire (1694-1778);
he was the personification of its rashness, its zeal, its derision, its ardor, and
its universality. In him nature had, so to speak, identified the individual with
the nation, bestowing on him a character in the highest degree elastic,
having lively sensibility but no depth of passion, little system of principle or
conduct, but that promptitude of self- direction which supplies its place, a
quickness of perception amounting almost to intuition, and an unexampled
degree of activity, by which he was in some sort many men at once. No
writer, even in the eighteenth century, knew so many things or treated so
Page 407
many subjects. That which was the ruin of some minds was the strength of
his. Rich in diversified talent and in the gifts of fortune, he proceeded to the
conquest of his age with the combined power of the highest endowments
under the most favorable circumstances. He was driven again and again, as
a moral pest, from the capital of France by the powers that fain would have
preserved the people from his opinions, yet ever gaining ground, his wit
always welcome, and his opinions gradually prevailing, one audacious
sentiment after another broached, and branded with infamy, yet secretly
entertained, till the futile struggle was at length given in, and the nation, as
with one voice, avowed itself his disciple.
It has been said that Voltaire showed symptoms of infidelity from
infancy. When at college he gave way to sallies of wit, mirth, and profanity
which astonished his companions and terrified his preceptors. He was twice
imprisoned in the Bastile, and many times obliged to fly from the country.
In England he became acquainted with Bolingbroke and all the most
distinguished men of the time, and in the school of English philosophy he
learned to use argument, as well as ridicule, in his war with religion. In
1740 we find him assisting Frederick the Great to get up a refutation of
Machiavelli; again, he is appointed historiographer of France, Gentleman of
the Bed-chamber, and Member of the Academy; then he accepts an
invitation to reside at the Court of Prussia, where he soon quarrels with the
king. After many vicissitudes he finally purchased the estate of Ferney, near
the Lake of Geneva, where he resided during the rest of his days. From this
retreat he poured out an exhaustless variety of books, which were
extensively circulated and eagerly perused. He had the admiration of all the
wits and philosophers of Europe, and included among his pupils and
correspondents some of the greatest sovereigns of the age. At the age of
eighty-four he again visited Paris. Here his levees were more crowded than
those of any emperor; princes and peers thronged his ante-chamber, and
when he rode through the streets a train attended him which stretched far
his. Rich in diversified talent and in the gifts of fortune, he proceeded to the
conquest of his age with the combined power of the highest endowments
under the most favorable circumstances. He was driven again and again, as
a moral pest, from the capital of France by the powers that fain would have
preserved the people from his opinions, yet ever gaining ground, his wit
always welcome, and his opinions gradually prevailing, one audacious
sentiment after another broached, and branded with infamy, yet secretly
entertained, till the futile struggle was at length given in, and the nation, as
with one voice, avowed itself his disciple.
It has been said that Voltaire showed symptoms of infidelity from
infancy. When at college he gave way to sallies of wit, mirth, and profanity
which astonished his companions and terrified his preceptors. He was twice
imprisoned in the Bastile, and many times obliged to fly from the country.
In England he became acquainted with Bolingbroke and all the most
distinguished men of the time, and in the school of English philosophy he
learned to use argument, as well as ridicule, in his war with religion. In
1740 we find him assisting Frederick the Great to get up a refutation of
Machiavelli; again, he is appointed historiographer of France, Gentleman of
the Bed-chamber, and Member of the Academy; then he accepts an
invitation to reside at the Court of Prussia, where he soon quarrels with the
king. After many vicissitudes he finally purchased the estate of Ferney, near
the Lake of Geneva, where he resided during the rest of his days. From this
retreat he poured out an exhaustless variety of books, which were
extensively circulated and eagerly perused. He had the admiration of all the
wits and philosophers of Europe, and included among his pupils and
correspondents some of the greatest sovereigns of the age. At the age of
eighty-four he again visited Paris. Here his levees were more crowded than
those of any emperor; princes and peers thronged his ante-chamber, and
when he rode through the streets a train attended him which stretched far
Page 408
over the city. He was made president of the Academy, and crowned with
laurel at the theatre, where his bust was placed on the stage and adorned
with palms and garlands. He died soon after, without the rites of the church,
and was interred secretly at a Benedictine abbey.
The national enthusiasm which decreed Voltaire, as he descended to the
tomb, such a triumph as might have honored a benefactor of the race, gave
place to doubt and disputation as to his merits. In tragedy he is admitted to
rank after Corneille and Racine; in "Zaïre," which is his masterpiece, there
is neither the lofty conception of the one, nor the perfect versification of the
other, but there is a warmth of passion, an enthusiasm of feeling, and a
gracefulness of expression which fascinate and subdue. As an epic poet he
has least sustained his renown; though the "Henriade" has unquestionably
some great beauties, its machinery is tame, and the want of poetic illusion is
severely felt. His poetry, especially that of his later years, is by no means so
disgraceful to the author as the witticisms in prose, the tales, dialogues,
romances, and pasquinades which were eagerly sought for and readily
furnished, and which are, with little exception, totally unworthy of an
honorable man. As a historian, Voltaire lacked reflection and patience for
investigation. His "History of Charles XII.," however, was deservedly
successful; the reason being that he chose for his hero the most romantic
and adventurous of sovereigns, to describe whom there was more need of
rapid narrative and brilliant coloring than of profound knowledge and a just
appreciation of human nature. In his history of the age of Louis XIV.,
Voltaire sought not only to present a picture, but a series of researches
destined to instruct the memory and exercise the judgment. The English
historians, imitating his mode, have surpassed him in erudition and
philosophic impartiality. Still later, his own countrymen have carried this
species of writing to a high degree of perfection. Throughout the "Essay on
the Manners of Nations" we find traces of that hatred of religion which he
openly cherished in the latter part of his life. The style, however, is
laurel at the theatre, where his bust was placed on the stage and adorned
with palms and garlands. He died soon after, without the rites of the church,
and was interred secretly at a Benedictine abbey.
The national enthusiasm which decreed Voltaire, as he descended to the
tomb, such a triumph as might have honored a benefactor of the race, gave
place to doubt and disputation as to his merits. In tragedy he is admitted to
rank after Corneille and Racine; in "Zaïre," which is his masterpiece, there
is neither the lofty conception of the one, nor the perfect versification of the
other, but there is a warmth of passion, an enthusiasm of feeling, and a
gracefulness of expression which fascinate and subdue. As an epic poet he
has least sustained his renown; though the "Henriade" has unquestionably
some great beauties, its machinery is tame, and the want of poetic illusion is
severely felt. His poetry, especially that of his later years, is by no means so
disgraceful to the author as the witticisms in prose, the tales, dialogues,
romances, and pasquinades which were eagerly sought for and readily
furnished, and which are, with little exception, totally unworthy of an
honorable man. As a historian, Voltaire lacked reflection and patience for
investigation. His "History of Charles XII.," however, was deservedly
successful; the reason being that he chose for his hero the most romantic
and adventurous of sovereigns, to describe whom there was more need of
rapid narrative and brilliant coloring than of profound knowledge and a just
appreciation of human nature. In his history of the age of Louis XIV.,
Voltaire sought not only to present a picture, but a series of researches
destined to instruct the memory and exercise the judgment. The English
historians, imitating his mode, have surpassed him in erudition and
philosophic impartiality. Still later, his own countrymen have carried this
species of writing to a high degree of perfection. Throughout the "Essay on
the Manners of Nations" we find traces of that hatred of religion which he
openly cherished in the latter part of his life. The style, however, is
Page 409
pleasing, the facts well arranged, and the portraits traced with originality
and vivacity.
Some have attributed to Voltaire the serious design of overturning the
three great bases of society, religion, morality, and civil government, but he
had not the genius of a philosopher, and there is no system of philosophy in
his works. That he had a design to amuse and influence his age, and to
avenge himself on his enemies, is obvious enough. Envy and hatred
employed against him the weapons of religion, hence he viewed it only as
an instrument of persecution. His great powers of mind were continually
directed by the opinions of the times, and the desire of popularity was his
ruling motive. The character of his earlier writings shows that he did not
bring into the world a very independent spirit; they display the lightness and
frivolity of the time with the submission of a courtier for every kind of
authority, but as his success increased everything encouraged him to imbue
his works with that spirit which found so general a welcome. In vain the
authority of the civil government endeavored to arrest the impulse which
was gaining strength from day to day; in vain this director of the public
mind was imprisoned and exiled; the farther he advanced in his career and
the more audaciously he propagated his views on religion and government,
the more he was rewarded with the renown which he sought. Monarchs
became his friends and his flatterers; opposition only increased his energy,
and made him often forget moderation and good taste.
3. FRENCH LITERATURE DURING THE REVOLUTION.—The
names of Voltaire and Montesquieu eclipse all others in the first half of the
eighteenth century, but the influence of Voltaire was by far the most
immediate and extensive. After he had reached the zenith of his glory, about
the middle of the century, there appeared in France a display of various
talent, evoked by his example and trained by his instructions, yet boasting
an independent existence. In the works of these men was consummated the
and vivacity.
Some have attributed to Voltaire the serious design of overturning the
three great bases of society, religion, morality, and civil government, but he
had not the genius of a philosopher, and there is no system of philosophy in
his works. That he had a design to amuse and influence his age, and to
avenge himself on his enemies, is obvious enough. Envy and hatred
employed against him the weapons of religion, hence he viewed it only as
an instrument of persecution. His great powers of mind were continually
directed by the opinions of the times, and the desire of popularity was his
ruling motive. The character of his earlier writings shows that he did not
bring into the world a very independent spirit; they display the lightness and
frivolity of the time with the submission of a courtier for every kind of
authority, but as his success increased everything encouraged him to imbue
his works with that spirit which found so general a welcome. In vain the
authority of the civil government endeavored to arrest the impulse which
was gaining strength from day to day; in vain this director of the public
mind was imprisoned and exiled; the farther he advanced in his career and
the more audaciously he propagated his views on religion and government,
the more he was rewarded with the renown which he sought. Monarchs
became his friends and his flatterers; opposition only increased his energy,
and made him often forget moderation and good taste.
3. FRENCH LITERATURE DURING THE REVOLUTION.—The
names of Voltaire and Montesquieu eclipse all others in the first half of the
eighteenth century, but the influence of Voltaire was by far the most
immediate and extensive. After he had reached the zenith of his glory, about
the middle of the century, there appeared in France a display of various
talent, evoked by his example and trained by his instructions, yet boasting
an independent existence. In the works of these men was consummated the
Page 410
literary revolution of which we have marked the beginnings, a revolution
more striking than any other ever witnessed in the same space of time. It
was no longer a few eminent men that surrendered themselves boldly to the
skeptical philosophy which is the grand characteristic of the eighteenth
century; writers of inferior note followed in the same path; the new
opinions took entire possession of all literature and cooperated with the
state of the morals and the government to bring about a fearful revolution.
The whole strength of the literature of this age being directed towards the
subversion of the national institutions and religion, formed a homogeneous
body of science, literature, and the arts, and a compact phalanx of all
writers under the common name of philosophers. Women had their share in
the maintenance of this league; the salons of Mesdames du Deffand (1696-
1780), Geoffrin (b. 1777), and De l'Espinasse (1732-1776) were its favorite
resorts; but the great rendezvous was that of the Baron d'Holbach, whence
its doctrines spread far and wide, blasting, like a malaria, whatever it met
with on its way that had any connection with religion, morals, or venerable
social customs. Besides Voltaire, who presided over this coterie, at least in
spirit, the daily company included Diderot, an enthusiast by nature and a
cynic and sophist by profession; D'Alembert, a genius of the first order in
mathematics, though less distinguished in literature; the malicious
Marmontel, the philosopher Helvétius, the Abbé Raynal, the furious enemy
of all modern institutions; the would-be sentimentalist Grimm, and
D'Holbach himself. Hume, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, and others were affiliated
members. Their plan was to write a book which would in some sense
supersede all others, itself forming a library containing the most recent
discoveries in philosophy, and the best explanations and details on every
topic, literary and scientific.
The project of this great enterprise of an Encyclopaedia as an immense
vehicle for the development of the opinions of the philosophers, alarmed
the government, and the parliament and the clergy pronounced its
more striking than any other ever witnessed in the same space of time. It
was no longer a few eminent men that surrendered themselves boldly to the
skeptical philosophy which is the grand characteristic of the eighteenth
century; writers of inferior note followed in the same path; the new
opinions took entire possession of all literature and cooperated with the
state of the morals and the government to bring about a fearful revolution.
The whole strength of the literature of this age being directed towards the
subversion of the national institutions and religion, formed a homogeneous
body of science, literature, and the arts, and a compact phalanx of all
writers under the common name of philosophers. Women had their share in
the maintenance of this league; the salons of Mesdames du Deffand (1696-
1780), Geoffrin (b. 1777), and De l'Espinasse (1732-1776) were its favorite
resorts; but the great rendezvous was that of the Baron d'Holbach, whence
its doctrines spread far and wide, blasting, like a malaria, whatever it met
with on its way that had any connection with religion, morals, or venerable
social customs. Besides Voltaire, who presided over this coterie, at least in
spirit, the daily company included Diderot, an enthusiast by nature and a
cynic and sophist by profession; D'Alembert, a genius of the first order in
mathematics, though less distinguished in literature; the malicious
Marmontel, the philosopher Helvétius, the Abbé Raynal, the furious enemy
of all modern institutions; the would-be sentimentalist Grimm, and
D'Holbach himself. Hume, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, and others were affiliated
members. Their plan was to write a book which would in some sense
supersede all others, itself forming a library containing the most recent
discoveries in philosophy, and the best explanations and details on every
topic, literary and scientific.
The project of this great enterprise of an Encyclopaedia as an immense
vehicle for the development of the opinions of the philosophers, alarmed
the government, and the parliament and the clergy pronounced its
Page 411
condemnation. The philosophy of Descartes and the eminent thinkers of the
seventeenth century assumed the soul of man as the starting-point in the
investigation of physical science. The men of the eighteenth century had
become tired of following out the sublimities and abstractions of the
Cartesians, and they took the opposite course; beginning from sensation,
they did not stop short of the grossest materialism and positive atheism.
Such were the principles of the Encyclopaedia, more fully developed and
explained in the writings of Condillac (1715-1780), the head of this school
of philosophy. His first work, "On the Origin of Human Knowledge,"
contains the germ of all that he afterwards published. In his "Treatise on
Sensation," he endeavored, but in vain, to derive the notion of duty from
sensation, and expert as he was in logic, he could not conceal the great gulf
which his theory left between these two terms. Few writers have enjoyed
more success; he brought the science of thought within the reach of the
vulgar by stripping it of everything elevated, and every one was surprised
and delighted to find that philosophy was so easy a thing. Having
determined not to establish morality on any innate principles of the soul,
these philosophers founded it on the fact common to all animated nature,
the feeling of self-interest. Already deism had rejected the evidence of a
divine revelation. Now atheism raised a more audacious front, and
proclaimed that all religious sentiment was but the reverie of a disordered
mind. The works in which this opinion is most expressly announced, date
from the period of the Encyclopaedia.
D'Alembert (1717-1773) is now chiefly known as the author of the
preliminary discourse of the Encyclopaedia, which is ranked among the
principal works of the age.
Diderot (1714-1784), had he devoted himself to any one sphere, instead
of wandering about in the chaos of opinions which rose and perished
seventeenth century assumed the soul of man as the starting-point in the
investigation of physical science. The men of the eighteenth century had
become tired of following out the sublimities and abstractions of the
Cartesians, and they took the opposite course; beginning from sensation,
they did not stop short of the grossest materialism and positive atheism.
Such were the principles of the Encyclopaedia, more fully developed and
explained in the writings of Condillac (1715-1780), the head of this school
of philosophy. His first work, "On the Origin of Human Knowledge,"
contains the germ of all that he afterwards published. In his "Treatise on
Sensation," he endeavored, but in vain, to derive the notion of duty from
sensation, and expert as he was in logic, he could not conceal the great gulf
which his theory left between these two terms. Few writers have enjoyed
more success; he brought the science of thought within the reach of the
vulgar by stripping it of everything elevated, and every one was surprised
and delighted to find that philosophy was so easy a thing. Having
determined not to establish morality on any innate principles of the soul,
these philosophers founded it on the fact common to all animated nature,
the feeling of self-interest. Already deism had rejected the evidence of a
divine revelation. Now atheism raised a more audacious front, and
proclaimed that all religious sentiment was but the reverie of a disordered
mind. The works in which this opinion is most expressly announced, date
from the period of the Encyclopaedia.
D'Alembert (1717-1773) is now chiefly known as the author of the
preliminary discourse of the Encyclopaedia, which is ranked among the
principal works of the age.
Diderot (1714-1784), had he devoted himself to any one sphere, instead
of wandering about in the chaos of opinions which rose and perished
Page 412
around him, might have left a lasting reputation, and posterity, instead of
merely repeating his name, would have spoken of his works. He may be
regarded as a writer injurious at once to literature and to morals.
The most faithful disciple of the philosophy of this period was Helvétius
(1715-1771), known chiefly by his work, "On the Mind," the object of
which is to prove that physical sensibility is the origin of all our thoughts.
Of all the writers who maintained this opinion, none have represented it in
so gross a manner. His work was condemned by the Sorbonne, the pope,
and the parliament; it was burned by the hand of the hangman, and the
author was compelled to retract it.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a writer who marched under
none of the recognized banners of the day. The Encyclopaedists had
flattered themselves that they had tuned the opinion of all Europe to their
philosophical strain, when suddenly they heard his discordant note. Without
family, without friends, without home, wandering from place to place, from
one condition in life to another, he conceived a species of revolt against
society, and a feeling of bitterness against those civil organizations in which
he could never find a suitable place. He combated the atheism of the
Encyclopaedists, their materialism and contempt for moral virtue, for pure
deism was his creed. He believed in a Supreme Being, a future state, and
the excellence of virtue, but denying all revealed religion, he would have
men advance in the paths of virtue, freely and proudly, from love of virtue
itself, and not from any sense of duty or obligation. In the "Social Contract"
he traced the principles of government and laws in the nature of man, and
endeavored to show the end which they proposed to themselves by living in
communities, and the best means of attaining this end.
The two most notable works of Rousseau are "Julie," or the "Nouvelle
Héloïse," and "Emile." The former is a kind of romance, owing its interest
merely repeating his name, would have spoken of his works. He may be
regarded as a writer injurious at once to literature and to morals.
The most faithful disciple of the philosophy of this period was Helvétius
(1715-1771), known chiefly by his work, "On the Mind," the object of
which is to prove that physical sensibility is the origin of all our thoughts.
Of all the writers who maintained this opinion, none have represented it in
so gross a manner. His work was condemned by the Sorbonne, the pope,
and the parliament; it was burned by the hand of the hangman, and the
author was compelled to retract it.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a writer who marched under
none of the recognized banners of the day. The Encyclopaedists had
flattered themselves that they had tuned the opinion of all Europe to their
philosophical strain, when suddenly they heard his discordant note. Without
family, without friends, without home, wandering from place to place, from
one condition in life to another, he conceived a species of revolt against
society, and a feeling of bitterness against those civil organizations in which
he could never find a suitable place. He combated the atheism of the
Encyclopaedists, their materialism and contempt for moral virtue, for pure
deism was his creed. He believed in a Supreme Being, a future state, and
the excellence of virtue, but denying all revealed religion, he would have
men advance in the paths of virtue, freely and proudly, from love of virtue
itself, and not from any sense of duty or obligation. In the "Social Contract"
he traced the principles of government and laws in the nature of man, and
endeavored to show the end which they proposed to themselves by living in
communities, and the best means of attaining this end.
The two most notable works of Rousseau are "Julie," or the "Nouvelle
Héloïse," and "Emile." The former is a kind of romance, owing its interest
Page 413
mainly to development of character, and not to incident or plot. Emile
embodies a system of education in which the author's thoughts are digested
and arranged. He gives himself an imaginary pupil, the representative of
that life of spontaneous development which was the writer's ideal. In this
work there is an episode, the "Savoyard Vicar's Confession of Faith," which
is a declaration of pure deism, leveled especially against the errors of
Catholicism. It raised a perfect tempest against the author from every
quarter. The council of Geneva caused his book to be burned by the
executioner, and the parliament of Paris threatened him with imprisonment.
Under these circumstances he wrote his "Confessions," which he believed
would vindicate him before the world. The reader, who may expect to find
this book abounding with at least as much virtue as a man may possess
without Christian principle, will find in it not a single feature of greatness;
it is a proclamation of disagreeable faults; and yet he would persuade us
that he was virtuous, by giving the clearest proofs that he was not.
To the names of Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau, must be added
that of Buffon (1707-1788), and we have the four writers of this age who
left all their contemporaries far behind. Buffon having been appointed
superintendent of the Jardin des Plantes, and having enriched this fine
establishment, and gathered into it, from all parts of the world, various
productions of nature, conceived the project of composing a natural history,
which should embrace the whole immensity of being, animate and
inanimate. He first laid down the theory of the earth, then treated the natural
history of man, afterwards that of viviparous quadrupeds and birds. The
first volumes of his work appeared in 1749; the most important of the
supplementary matter which followed was the "Epochs of Nature." He gave
incredible attention to his style, and is one of the most brilliant writers of
the eighteenth century. No naturalist has ever equaled him in the
magnificence of his theories, or the animation of his descriptions of the
manners and habits of animals. It is said that he wrote the "Epochs of
embodies a system of education in which the author's thoughts are digested
and arranged. He gives himself an imaginary pupil, the representative of
that life of spontaneous development which was the writer's ideal. In this
work there is an episode, the "Savoyard Vicar's Confession of Faith," which
is a declaration of pure deism, leveled especially against the errors of
Catholicism. It raised a perfect tempest against the author from every
quarter. The council of Geneva caused his book to be burned by the
executioner, and the parliament of Paris threatened him with imprisonment.
Under these circumstances he wrote his "Confessions," which he believed
would vindicate him before the world. The reader, who may expect to find
this book abounding with at least as much virtue as a man may possess
without Christian principle, will find in it not a single feature of greatness;
it is a proclamation of disagreeable faults; and yet he would persuade us
that he was virtuous, by giving the clearest proofs that he was not.
To the names of Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau, must be added
that of Buffon (1707-1788), and we have the four writers of this age who
left all their contemporaries far behind. Buffon having been appointed
superintendent of the Jardin des Plantes, and having enriched this fine
establishment, and gathered into it, from all parts of the world, various
productions of nature, conceived the project of composing a natural history,
which should embrace the whole immensity of being, animate and
inanimate. He first laid down the theory of the earth, then treated the natural
history of man, afterwards that of viviparous quadrupeds and birds. The
first volumes of his work appeared in 1749; the most important of the
supplementary matter which followed was the "Epochs of Nature." He gave
incredible attention to his style, and is one of the most brilliant writers of
the eighteenth century. No naturalist has ever equaled him in the
magnificence of his theories, or the animation of his descriptions of the
manners and habits of animals. It is said that he wrote the "Epochs of
Page 414
Nature" eleven times over. He not only recited his compositions aloud, in
order to judge of the rhythm and cadence, but he made a point of being in
full dress before he sat down to write, believing that the splendor of his
habiliments impressed his language with that pomp and elegance which he
so much admired, and which is his distinguishing characteristic. Buffon,
while maintaining friendship with the celebrated men of his age, did not
identify himself with the party of the encyclopaedists, or the sects into
which they were divided. But he lived among men who deemed physical
nature alone worthy of study, and the wits of the age who had succeeded in
discovering how a Supreme Being might be dispensed with. Buffon evaded
the subject entirely, and amid all his lofty soarings showed no disposition to
rise to the Great First Cause. After his time, science lost its contemplative
and poetical character, and acquired that of intelligent observation. It
became a practical thing, and entered into close alliance with the arts. The
arts and sciences, thus combined, became the glory of France, as literature
had been in the preceding age.
The declining years of Voltaire and Rousseau witnessed no rising genius
of similar power, but some authors of a secondary rank deserve notice.
Marmontel (1728-1799) is distinguished as the writer of "Belisarius," a
philosophical romance, "Moral Tales," and "Elements of Literature." He
endeavors to lead his readers to the enjoyments of literature, instead of
detaining them with frigid criticisms.
La Harpe (1739-1803) displayed great eloquence in literary criticism, and
some of his works maintain their place, though they have little claim to
originality.
Many writers devoted themselves to history, but the spirit of French
philosophy was uncongenial to this species of composition, and the age
does not afford one remarkable historian. The fame of the Abbé Raynal
order to judge of the rhythm and cadence, but he made a point of being in
full dress before he sat down to write, believing that the splendor of his
habiliments impressed his language with that pomp and elegance which he
so much admired, and which is his distinguishing characteristic. Buffon,
while maintaining friendship with the celebrated men of his age, did not
identify himself with the party of the encyclopaedists, or the sects into
which they were divided. But he lived among men who deemed physical
nature alone worthy of study, and the wits of the age who had succeeded in
discovering how a Supreme Being might be dispensed with. Buffon evaded
the subject entirely, and amid all his lofty soarings showed no disposition to
rise to the Great First Cause. After his time, science lost its contemplative
and poetical character, and acquired that of intelligent observation. It
became a practical thing, and entered into close alliance with the arts. The
arts and sciences, thus combined, became the glory of France, as literature
had been in the preceding age.
The declining years of Voltaire and Rousseau witnessed no rising genius
of similar power, but some authors of a secondary rank deserve notice.
Marmontel (1728-1799) is distinguished as the writer of "Belisarius," a
philosophical romance, "Moral Tales," and "Elements of Literature." He
endeavors to lead his readers to the enjoyments of literature, instead of
detaining them with frigid criticisms.
La Harpe (1739-1803) displayed great eloquence in literary criticism, and
some of his works maintain their place, though they have little claim to
originality.
Many writers devoted themselves to history, but the spirit of French
philosophy was uncongenial to this species of composition, and the age
does not afford one remarkable historian. The fame of the Abbé Raynal
Page 415
(1718-1796) rests chiefly on his "History of the Two Indies." It is difficult
to conceive how a sober man could have arrived at such delirium of
opinion, and how he could so complacently exhibit principles which tended
to overthrow the whole system of society. Scarcely a crime was committed
during the revolution, with which this century closes, but could find its
advocate in this declaimer. When, however, Raynal found himself in the
midst of the turmoils he had suggested, he behaved with justice,
moderation, and courage; thus proving that his opinions were not the result
of experience.
The days of true religious eloquence were past; faith was extinct among
the greater part of the community, and cold and timid among the rest.
Preachers, in deference to their audience, kept out of view whatever was
purely religious, and enlarged on those topics which coincided with mere
human morality. Religion was introduced only as an accessory which it was
necessary to disguise skillfully, in order to escape derision. Genuine pulpit
eloquence was out of the question under these circumstances.
Forensic eloquence had been improving in simplicity and seriousness
since the commencement of the eighteenth century, and men of the law
were now led by the circumstances of the times to trace out universal
principles, rather than to discuss isolated facts. The eloquence of the bar
thus acquired more extensive influence; the measures of the government
converted it into a hostile power, and it furnished itself with weapons of
reason and erudition which had not been thought of before.
We come now close upon the epoch when the national spirit was no
longer to be traced in books, but in actions. The reign of Louis XV. had
been marked with general disorder, and while he was sinking into the grave,
amid the scorn of the people, the magistrates were punished for opposing
the royal authority, and the public were indignant at the arbitrary
to conceive how a sober man could have arrived at such delirium of
opinion, and how he could so complacently exhibit principles which tended
to overthrow the whole system of society. Scarcely a crime was committed
during the revolution, with which this century closes, but could find its
advocate in this declaimer. When, however, Raynal found himself in the
midst of the turmoils he had suggested, he behaved with justice,
moderation, and courage; thus proving that his opinions were not the result
of experience.
The days of true religious eloquence were past; faith was extinct among
the greater part of the community, and cold and timid among the rest.
Preachers, in deference to their audience, kept out of view whatever was
purely religious, and enlarged on those topics which coincided with mere
human morality. Religion was introduced only as an accessory which it was
necessary to disguise skillfully, in order to escape derision. Genuine pulpit
eloquence was out of the question under these circumstances.
Forensic eloquence had been improving in simplicity and seriousness
since the commencement of the eighteenth century, and men of the law
were now led by the circumstances of the times to trace out universal
principles, rather than to discuss isolated facts. The eloquence of the bar
thus acquired more extensive influence; the measures of the government
converted it into a hostile power, and it furnished itself with weapons of
reason and erudition which had not been thought of before.
We come now close upon the epoch when the national spirit was no
longer to be traced in books, but in actions. The reign of Louis XV. had
been marked with general disorder, and while he was sinking into the grave,
amid the scorn of the people, the magistrates were punished for opposing
the royal authority, and the public were indignant at the arbitrary
Page 416
proceeding. Beaumarchais (1732-1799) became the organ of this feeling,
and his memoirs, like his comedies, are replete with enthusiasm, cynicism,
and buffoonery. Literature was never so popular; it was regarded as the
universal and powerful instrument which it behooved every man to possess.
All grades of society were filled with authors and philosophers; the public
mind was tending towards some change, without knowing what it would
have; from the monarch on the throne to the lowest of the people, all
perceived the utter discordance that prevailed between existing opinions
and existing institutions.
In the midst of the dull murmur which announced the approaching storm,
literature, as though its work of agitation had been completed, took up the
shepherd's reed for public amusement. "Posterity would scarcely believe,"
says an eminent historian, "that 'Paul and Virginia' and the 'Indian Cottage'
were composed at this juncture by Bernardin de St, Pierre, (1737-1814), as
also the 'Fables of Florian' which are the only ones that have been
considered readable since those of La Fontaine." About the same time
appeared the "Voyage of Anacharsis," in which the Abbé Barthélemy (1716-
1795) embodied his erudition in an attractive form, presenting a lively
picture of Greece in the time of Pericles.
Among the more moral writers of this age was Necker (1732-1804), the
financial minister of Louis XVI., who maintained the cause of religion
against the torrent of public opinion in works distinguished for delicacy and
elevation, seriousness and elegance.
When the storm at length burst, the country was exposed to every kind of
revolutionary tyranny. The first actors in the work of destruction were, for
the most part, actuated by good intentions; but these were soon superseded
by men of a lower class, envious of all distinctions of rank and deeply
imbued with the spirit of the philosophers. Some derived, from the writings
and his memoirs, like his comedies, are replete with enthusiasm, cynicism,
and buffoonery. Literature was never so popular; it was regarded as the
universal and powerful instrument which it behooved every man to possess.
All grades of society were filled with authors and philosophers; the public
mind was tending towards some change, without knowing what it would
have; from the monarch on the throne to the lowest of the people, all
perceived the utter discordance that prevailed between existing opinions
and existing institutions.
In the midst of the dull murmur which announced the approaching storm,
literature, as though its work of agitation had been completed, took up the
shepherd's reed for public amusement. "Posterity would scarcely believe,"
says an eminent historian, "that 'Paul and Virginia' and the 'Indian Cottage'
were composed at this juncture by Bernardin de St, Pierre, (1737-1814), as
also the 'Fables of Florian' which are the only ones that have been
considered readable since those of La Fontaine." About the same time
appeared the "Voyage of Anacharsis," in which the Abbé Barthélemy (1716-
1795) embodied his erudition in an attractive form, presenting a lively
picture of Greece in the time of Pericles.
Among the more moral writers of this age was Necker (1732-1804), the
financial minister of Louis XVI., who maintained the cause of religion
against the torrent of public opinion in works distinguished for delicacy and
elevation, seriousness and elegance.
When the storm at length burst, the country was exposed to every kind of
revolutionary tyranny. The first actors in the work of destruction were, for
the most part, actuated by good intentions; but these were soon superseded
by men of a lower class, envious of all distinctions of rank and deeply
imbued with the spirit of the philosophers. Some derived, from the writings
Page 417
of Rousseau, a hatred of everything above them; others had taken from
Mably his admiration of the ancient republics of Greece and Rome, and
would reproduce them in France; others had borrowed from Raynal the
revolutionary torch which he had lighted for the destruction of all
institutions; others, educated in the atheistic fanaticism of Diderot, trembled
with rage at the very name of a priest or religion; and thus the Revolution
was gradually handed over to the guidance of passion and personal interest.
In hurrying past these years of anarchy and bloodshed, we cast a glance
upon the poet, André Chénier (1762-1794), who dared to write against the
excesses of his countrymen, in consequence of which he was cited before
the revolutionary tribunal, condemned, and executed.
4. FRENCH LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE.—Napoleon, on the
establishment of the empire, gave great encouragement to the arts, but none
to literature. Books were in little request; old editions were sold for a
fraction of their original price; but new works were dear, because the
demand for them was so limited. When literature again lifted its head, it
appeared that in the chaos of events a new order of thought had been
generated. The feelings of the people were for the freer forms of modern
literature, introduced by Madame de Staël and Châteaubriand, rather than
the ancient classics and the French models of the seventeenth century.
Madame de Staël (1766-1817) has been pronounced by the general voice
to be among the greatest of all female authors. She was early introduced to
the society of the cleverest men in Paris, with whom her father's house was
a favorite resort; and before she was twelve years of age, such men as
Raynal, Marmontel, and Grimm used to converse with her as though she
were twenty, calling out her ready eloquence, inquiring into her studies, and
recommending new books. She thus imbibed a taste for society and
distinction, and for bearing her part in the brilliant conversation of the
Mably his admiration of the ancient republics of Greece and Rome, and
would reproduce them in France; others had borrowed from Raynal the
revolutionary torch which he had lighted for the destruction of all
institutions; others, educated in the atheistic fanaticism of Diderot, trembled
with rage at the very name of a priest or religion; and thus the Revolution
was gradually handed over to the guidance of passion and personal interest.
In hurrying past these years of anarchy and bloodshed, we cast a glance
upon the poet, André Chénier (1762-1794), who dared to write against the
excesses of his countrymen, in consequence of which he was cited before
the revolutionary tribunal, condemned, and executed.
4. FRENCH LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE.—Napoleon, on the
establishment of the empire, gave great encouragement to the arts, but none
to literature. Books were in little request; old editions were sold for a
fraction of their original price; but new works were dear, because the
demand for them was so limited. When literature again lifted its head, it
appeared that in the chaos of events a new order of thought had been
generated. The feelings of the people were for the freer forms of modern
literature, introduced by Madame de Staël and Châteaubriand, rather than
the ancient classics and the French models of the seventeenth century.
Madame de Staël (1766-1817) has been pronounced by the general voice
to be among the greatest of all female authors. She was early introduced to
the society of the cleverest men in Paris, with whom her father's house was
a favorite resort; and before she was twelve years of age, such men as
Raynal, Marmontel, and Grimm used to converse with her as though she
were twenty, calling out her ready eloquence, inquiring into her studies, and
recommending new books. She thus imbibed a taste for society and
distinction, and for bearing her part in the brilliant conversation of the
Page 418
salon. At the age of twenty she became the wife of the Baron de Staël, the
Swedish minister at Paris. On her return, after the Reign of Terror, Madame
de Staël became the centre of a political society, and her drawing- rooms
were the resort of distinguished foreigners, ambassadors, and authors. On
the accession of Napoleon, a mutual hostility arose between him and this
celebrated woman, which ended in her banishment and the suppression of
her works.
"The Six Years of Exile" is the most simple and interesting of her
productions. Her "Considerations on the French Revolution" is the most
valuable of her political articles. Among her works of fiction, "Corinne" and
"Delphine" have had the highest popularity. But of all her writings, that on
"Germany" is considered worthy of the highest rank, and it was calculated
to influence most beneficially the literature of her country, by opening to
the rising generation of France unknown treasures of literature and
philosophy. Writers like Delavigne, Lamartine, Béranger, De Vigny, and
Victor Hugo, though in no respect imitators of Madame de Staël, are
probably much indebted to her for the stimulus to originality which her
writings afforded.
Another female author, who lived, like Madame de Staël through the
Revolution, and exercised an influence on public events, was Madame de
Genlis (1746-1830). Her works, which extend to at least eighty volumes,
are chiefly educational treatises, moral tales, and historical romances.
Her political power depended rather on her private influence in the
Orleans family than upon her pen.
Châteaubriand (1769-1848) must be placed side by side with Madame de
Staël, as another of those brilliant and versatile geniuses who have dazzled
the eyes of their countrymen, and exerted a permanent influence on French
literature. While the eighteenth century had used against religion all the
Swedish minister at Paris. On her return, after the Reign of Terror, Madame
de Staël became the centre of a political society, and her drawing- rooms
were the resort of distinguished foreigners, ambassadors, and authors. On
the accession of Napoleon, a mutual hostility arose between him and this
celebrated woman, which ended in her banishment and the suppression of
her works.
"The Six Years of Exile" is the most simple and interesting of her
productions. Her "Considerations on the French Revolution" is the most
valuable of her political articles. Among her works of fiction, "Corinne" and
"Delphine" have had the highest popularity. But of all her writings, that on
"Germany" is considered worthy of the highest rank, and it was calculated
to influence most beneficially the literature of her country, by opening to
the rising generation of France unknown treasures of literature and
philosophy. Writers like Delavigne, Lamartine, Béranger, De Vigny, and
Victor Hugo, though in no respect imitators of Madame de Staël, are
probably much indebted to her for the stimulus to originality which her
writings afforded.
Another female author, who lived, like Madame de Staël through the
Revolution, and exercised an influence on public events, was Madame de
Genlis (1746-1830). Her works, which extend to at least eighty volumes,
are chiefly educational treatises, moral tales, and historical romances.
Her political power depended rather on her private influence in the
Orleans family than upon her pen.
Châteaubriand (1769-1848) must be placed side by side with Madame de
Staël, as another of those brilliant and versatile geniuses who have dazzled
the eyes of their countrymen, and exerted a permanent influence on French
literature. While the eighteenth century had used against religion all the
Page 419
weapons of ridicule, he defended it by poetry and romance. Christianity he
considered the most poetical of all religions, the most attractive, the most
fertile in literary, social, and artistic results, and he develops his theme with
every advantage of language and style in the "Genius of Christianity" and
the "Martyrs." Some of the characteristics of Châteaubriand, however, have
produced a seriously injurious effect on French literature, and of these the
most contagious and corrupting is his passion for the glitter of words and
the pageantry of high-sounding phrases.
The salutary reaction against skepticism, produced in literature by
Madame de Staël and Châteaubriand was carried into philosophy by Maine
de Biran (1766-1824), and more particularly by Royer-Collard (1763-1846)
who took a decided stand against the school of Condillac and the
materialists of the eighteenth century. Royer-Collard restored its spiritual
character to the science of the human mind, by introducing into it the
psychological discoveries of the Scotch school. Benjamin Constant (1767-
1830) infused into political science a spirit of freedom before quite
unknown. In his works he attempted to limit the authority of the
government, to build up society on personal freedom, and on the guaranties
of individual right. His writings combine extraordinary power of logic with
great variety and beauty of style.
Proceeding in another direction, Bonald (1753-1846) opposed the spirit
of the French Revolution, by establishing the authority of the church as the
only criterion of truth and morality. As Rousseau had placed sovereign
power in the will of the people, Bonald placed it in that of God, as it is
manifested to man through language and revelation, and of this revelation
he regarded the Catholic church as the interpreter. He develops his doctrines
in numerous works, especially in his "Primitive Legislation," which is
characterized by boldness, dogmatism, sophistry in argument, and by
severity and purity of style.
considered the most poetical of all religions, the most attractive, the most
fertile in literary, social, and artistic results, and he develops his theme with
every advantage of language and style in the "Genius of Christianity" and
the "Martyrs." Some of the characteristics of Châteaubriand, however, have
produced a seriously injurious effect on French literature, and of these the
most contagious and corrupting is his passion for the glitter of words and
the pageantry of high-sounding phrases.
The salutary reaction against skepticism, produced in literature by
Madame de Staël and Châteaubriand was carried into philosophy by Maine
de Biran (1766-1824), and more particularly by Royer-Collard (1763-1846)
who took a decided stand against the school of Condillac and the
materialists of the eighteenth century. Royer-Collard restored its spiritual
character to the science of the human mind, by introducing into it the
psychological discoveries of the Scotch school. Benjamin Constant (1767-
1830) infused into political science a spirit of freedom before quite
unknown. In his works he attempted to limit the authority of the
government, to build up society on personal freedom, and on the guaranties
of individual right. His writings combine extraordinary power of logic with
great variety and beauty of style.
Proceeding in another direction, Bonald (1753-1846) opposed the spirit
of the French Revolution, by establishing the authority of the church as the
only criterion of truth and morality. As Rousseau had placed sovereign
power in the will of the people, Bonald placed it in that of God, as it is
manifested to man through language and revelation, and of this revelation
he regarded the Catholic church as the interpreter. He develops his doctrines
in numerous works, especially in his "Primitive Legislation," which is
characterized by boldness, dogmatism, sophistry in argument, and by
severity and purity of style.
Page 420
The peculiarities of Bonald were carried still farther by De Maistre
(1755-1852), whose hatred of the Revolution led him into the system of an
absolute theocracy, such as was dreamed of by Gregory VII. and Innocent
III.
5. FRENCH LITERATURE FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE
PRESENT TIME.—The influences already spoken of, in connection with
the literary progress which began in Germany and England towards the
close of the eighteenth century, produced in the beginning of the nineteenth
century a revival in French literature; but the conflict of opinions, the
immense number of authors, and their extraordinary fecundity, render it
difficult to examine or classify them. We first notice the great advances in
history and biography. Among the earlier specimens may be mentioned the
voluminous works of Sismondi and the "Biographie Universelle," in fifty-
two closely printed volumes, the most valuable body of biography that any
modern literature can boast. Since 1830, historians and literary critics have
occupied the foreground in French literature. The historians have divided
themselves into two schools, the descriptive and the philosophical. With the
one class history consists of a narration of facts in connection with a picture
of manners, bringing scenes of the past vividly before the mind of the
reader, leaving him to deduce general truths from the particular ones
brought before him. The style of these writers is simple and manly, and no
opinions of their own shine through their statements. The chief
representatives of this class, who regard Sir Walter Scott as their master, are
Thierry, Villemain, Barante, and in historical sketches and novels, Dumas
and De Vigny.
The philosophical school, on the other hand, consider this scenic
narrative more suitable to romance than to history; they seek in the events
of the past the chain of causes and effects in order to arrive at general
conclusions which may direct the conduct of men in the future. At the head
(1755-1852), whose hatred of the Revolution led him into the system of an
absolute theocracy, such as was dreamed of by Gregory VII. and Innocent
III.
5. FRENCH LITERATURE FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE
PRESENT TIME.—The influences already spoken of, in connection with
the literary progress which began in Germany and England towards the
close of the eighteenth century, produced in the beginning of the nineteenth
century a revival in French literature; but the conflict of opinions, the
immense number of authors, and their extraordinary fecundity, render it
difficult to examine or classify them. We first notice the great advances in
history and biography. Among the earlier specimens may be mentioned the
voluminous works of Sismondi and the "Biographie Universelle," in fifty-
two closely printed volumes, the most valuable body of biography that any
modern literature can boast. Since 1830, historians and literary critics have
occupied the foreground in French literature. The historians have divided
themselves into two schools, the descriptive and the philosophical. With the
one class history consists of a narration of facts in connection with a picture
of manners, bringing scenes of the past vividly before the mind of the
reader, leaving him to deduce general truths from the particular ones
brought before him. The style of these writers is simple and manly, and no
opinions of their own shine through their statements. The chief
representatives of this class, who regard Sir Walter Scott as their master, are
Thierry, Villemain, Barante, and in historical sketches and novels, Dumas
and De Vigny.
The philosophical school, on the other hand, consider this scenic
narrative more suitable to romance than to history; they seek in the events
of the past the chain of causes and effects in order to arrive at general
conclusions which may direct the conduct of men in the future. At the head
Page 421
of this school is Guizot (1787-1876), who has developed his historical
views in his essays on the "History of France," and more particularly in his
"History of European Civilization," in which he points out the origin of
modern civilization, and follows the progress of the human mind from the
fall of the Roman Empire. The philosophical historians have been again
divided according to their different theories, but the most eminent of them
are those whom Châteaubriand calls fatalists; men who, having surveyed
the course of public events, have come to the conclusion that individual
character has had little influence on the political destinies of mankind, that
there is a general and inevitable series of events which regularly succeed
each other with the certainty of cause and effect, and that it is as easy to
trace it as it is impossible to resist or divert it from its course. A tendency to
these views is visible in almost every French historian and philosopher of
the present time. The philosophy of history thus grounded has, in their
hands, assumed the aspect of a science.
HISTORY.—Among the celebrated writers who have combined the
philosophical and narrative styles are the brothers Amadée and Augustine
Thierry (1787- 1873), (1795-1856), who produced a "History of the Gauls,"
of "The Norman Conquest," and other excellent works; Sismondi (1773-
1842), whose history of the "Italian Republics" and of the "French People"
are characterized by immense erudition; Thiers (1797-1877), whose
clearness of style is combined with comprehensiveness and eloquence;
Mignet (1796-1884), celebrated for his history of the French Revolution.
The voluminous "History of France," by Henri Martin (1810-1884), is
perhaps the best and most important work treating the whole subject in
detail.
The downfall of the July Monarchy brought forth works of importance on
this subject, the most noted of which are those by Lamartine, Michelet, and
Louis Blanc. Lamartine's "History of the Girondins" was written from a
views in his essays on the "History of France," and more particularly in his
"History of European Civilization," in which he points out the origin of
modern civilization, and follows the progress of the human mind from the
fall of the Roman Empire. The philosophical historians have been again
divided according to their different theories, but the most eminent of them
are those whom Châteaubriand calls fatalists; men who, having surveyed
the course of public events, have come to the conclusion that individual
character has had little influence on the political destinies of mankind, that
there is a general and inevitable series of events which regularly succeed
each other with the certainty of cause and effect, and that it is as easy to
trace it as it is impossible to resist or divert it from its course. A tendency to
these views is visible in almost every French historian and philosopher of
the present time. The philosophy of history thus grounded has, in their
hands, assumed the aspect of a science.
HISTORY.—Among the celebrated writers who have combined the
philosophical and narrative styles are the brothers Amadée and Augustine
Thierry (1787- 1873), (1795-1856), who produced a "History of the Gauls,"
of "The Norman Conquest," and other excellent works; Sismondi (1773-
1842), whose history of the "Italian Republics" and of the "French People"
are characterized by immense erudition; Thiers (1797-1877), whose
clearness of style is combined with comprehensiveness and eloquence;
Mignet (1796-1884), celebrated for his history of the French Revolution.
The voluminous "History of France," by Henri Martin (1810-1884), is
perhaps the best and most important work treating the whole subject in
detail.
The downfall of the July Monarchy brought forth works of importance on
this subject, the most noted of which are those by Lamartine, Michelet, and
Louis Blanc. Lamartine's "History of the Girondins" was written from a
Page 422
constitutional and republican point of view, and was not without influence
in producing the Revolution of 1848, but it is the work of an orator and poet
rather than that of a historian. The historical and political works of Michelet
(1778-1873) are of a more original character; his imaginative powers are of
the highest order, and his style is striking and picturesque. The work of
Louis Blanc (1813-1883) is that of a sincere and ardent republican, and is
useful from that point of view, as is that of Quinet (1803-1875). Lanfrey
places the character of Napoleon in a new and far from favorable light.
Taine, so distinguished in literary criticism, has discussed elaborately the
causes of the Revolution.
POETRY AND THE DRAMA; RISE OF THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.
—During the Middle Ages men of letters followed each other in the
cultivation of certain literary forms, often with little regard to their
adaptation to the subject. The vast extension of thought and knowledge in
the sixteenth century broke up the old forms and introduced the practice of
treating each subject in a manner more or less appropriate to it. The
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed a return to the observance
of arbitrary rules, though the evil effects were somewhat counterbalanced
by the enlargement of thought and the increasing knowledge of other
literature, ancient and modern. The great Romantic movement, which began
in the second quarter of the nineteenth century, repeated on a larger scale
the movement of the sixteenth to break up and discard many stiff and
useless literary forms, to give strength and variety to such as were retained,
and to enrich the language by new inventions and revivals. The supporters
of this reform long maintained an animated controversy with the adherents
of the classical school, and it was only after several years that the younger
combatants came out victorious. The objects of the school were so violently
opposed that the king was petitioned to forbid the admission of any
Romantic drama at the Théâtre Français, the petitioners asserting that the
object of their adversaries was to burn everything that had been adored and
in producing the Revolution of 1848, but it is the work of an orator and poet
rather than that of a historian. The historical and political works of Michelet
(1778-1873) are of a more original character; his imaginative powers are of
the highest order, and his style is striking and picturesque. The work of
Louis Blanc (1813-1883) is that of a sincere and ardent republican, and is
useful from that point of view, as is that of Quinet (1803-1875). Lanfrey
places the character of Napoleon in a new and far from favorable light.
Taine, so distinguished in literary criticism, has discussed elaborately the
causes of the Revolution.
POETRY AND THE DRAMA; RISE OF THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.
—During the Middle Ages men of letters followed each other in the
cultivation of certain literary forms, often with little regard to their
adaptation to the subject. The vast extension of thought and knowledge in
the sixteenth century broke up the old forms and introduced the practice of
treating each subject in a manner more or less appropriate to it. The
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed a return to the observance
of arbitrary rules, though the evil effects were somewhat counterbalanced
by the enlargement of thought and the increasing knowledge of other
literature, ancient and modern. The great Romantic movement, which began
in the second quarter of the nineteenth century, repeated on a larger scale
the movement of the sixteenth to break up and discard many stiff and
useless literary forms, to give strength and variety to such as were retained,
and to enrich the language by new inventions and revivals. The supporters
of this reform long maintained an animated controversy with the adherents
of the classical school, and it was only after several years that the younger
combatants came out victorious. The objects of the school were so violently
opposed that the king was petitioned to forbid the admission of any
Romantic drama at the Théâtre Français, the petitioners asserting that the
object of their adversaries was to burn everything that had been adored and
Page 423
to adore everything that had been burned. The representation of Victor
Hugo's "Hernani" was the culmination of the struggle, and since that time
all the greatest men of letters in France have been on the innovating side. In
belles-lettres and history the result has been most remarkable. Obsolete
rules which had so long regulated the French stage have been abolished;
poetry not dramatic has been revived; prose romance and literary criticism
have been brought to a degree of perfection previously unknown; and in
history more various and remarkable works have been produced than ever
before, while the modern French language, if it lacks the precision and
elegance to which from 1680 to 1800 all else had been sacrificed, has
become a much more suitable instrument for the accurate and copious
treatment of scientific subjects. At the time of the accession of Charles X.
(1824), the only writers of eminence were Béranger (1780-1857),
Lamartine (1790-1869), and Lamennais (1782-1854), and they mark the
transition between the old and new. Béranger was the poet of the people;
most of his earlier compositions were political, extolling the greatness of
the fallen empire or bewailing the low state of France under the restored
dynasty. They were received with enthusiasm and sung from one end of the
country to the other. His later songs exhibit a not unpleasing change from
the audacious and too often licentious tone of his earlier days. In the hands
of Lamartine the language, softened and harmonized, loses that clear
epigrammatic expression which, before him, had appeared inseparable from
French poetry. His works are pervaded by an earnest religious feeling and a
rare delicacy of expression. "Jocelyn," a romance in verse, the
"Meditations," and "Harmonies" are among his best works.
Victor Hugo (b. 1800) at the age of twenty-five was the acknowledged
master in poetry as in the drama, and this position he still holds. In him all
the Romantic characteristics are expressed and embodied,—disregard of
arbitrary rules, free choice of subjects, variety and vigor of metre, and
beauty of diction. His poetical influence has been represented in three
Hugo's "Hernani" was the culmination of the struggle, and since that time
all the greatest men of letters in France have been on the innovating side. In
belles-lettres and history the result has been most remarkable. Obsolete
rules which had so long regulated the French stage have been abolished;
poetry not dramatic has been revived; prose romance and literary criticism
have been brought to a degree of perfection previously unknown; and in
history more various and remarkable works have been produced than ever
before, while the modern French language, if it lacks the precision and
elegance to which from 1680 to 1800 all else had been sacrificed, has
become a much more suitable instrument for the accurate and copious
treatment of scientific subjects. At the time of the accession of Charles X.
(1824), the only writers of eminence were Béranger (1780-1857),
Lamartine (1790-1869), and Lamennais (1782-1854), and they mark the
transition between the old and new. Béranger was the poet of the people;
most of his earlier compositions were political, extolling the greatness of
the fallen empire or bewailing the low state of France under the restored
dynasty. They were received with enthusiasm and sung from one end of the
country to the other. His later songs exhibit a not unpleasing change from
the audacious and too often licentious tone of his earlier days. In the hands
of Lamartine the language, softened and harmonized, loses that clear
epigrammatic expression which, before him, had appeared inseparable from
French poetry. His works are pervaded by an earnest religious feeling and a
rare delicacy of expression. "Jocelyn," a romance in verse, the
"Meditations," and "Harmonies" are among his best works.
Victor Hugo (b. 1800) at the age of twenty-five was the acknowledged
master in poetry as in the drama, and this position he still holds. In him all
the Romantic characteristics are expressed and embodied,—disregard of
arbitrary rules, free choice of subjects, variety and vigor of metre, and
beauty of diction. His poetical influence has been represented in three
Page 424
different schools, corresponding in point of time with the first outburst of
the movement, a brief period of reaction, and the closing years of the
second empire. Of the first, Théophile Gautier (1811-1872) was the most
distinguished member. The next generation produced those remarkable
poets, Theodore de Banville (b. 1820), who composed a large amount of
verse faultless in form and exquisite in shade and color, but so neutral in
tone that it has found few admirers, and Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867),
who offends by the choice of unpopular subjects and the terrible truth of his
analysis.
The poems of De Vigny are sweet and elegant, though somewhat lacking
in the energy belonging to lyric composition. Those of Alfred de Musset
(1800-1857) are among the finest in the language.
The Gascon poet Jasmin has produced a good deal of verse in the western
dialect of the Langue d'oc, and recently a more cultivated and literary
school of poets has arisen in Provence, the chief of whom is Mistral.
The effect of the Romantic movement on the drama has been the
introduction of a species of play called the drame, as opposed to regular
comedy and tragedy, and admitting of freer treatment. Victor Hugo,
Alexandre Dumas (1803-1874), Victorien Sardou (b. 1831), Alexandre
Dumas fils (b. 1821), Legouvé (b. 1807), Scribe (1791-1861), Octave
Feuillet (b. 1812), have produced works of this class.
The literature of France during the last generation has been prolific in
dramas and romances, all of which indicate a chaos of opinion. It is not
professedly infidel, like that of the eighteenth century, nor professedly
pietistic, like that of the seventeenth. It seems to have no general aim, the
opinions and efforts of the authors being seldom consistent with themselves
for any length of time. No one can deny that this literature engages the
reader's most intense interest by the seductive sagacity of the movement,
the movement, a brief period of reaction, and the closing years of the
second empire. Of the first, Théophile Gautier (1811-1872) was the most
distinguished member. The next generation produced those remarkable
poets, Theodore de Banville (b. 1820), who composed a large amount of
verse faultless in form and exquisite in shade and color, but so neutral in
tone that it has found few admirers, and Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867),
who offends by the choice of unpopular subjects and the terrible truth of his
analysis.
The poems of De Vigny are sweet and elegant, though somewhat lacking
in the energy belonging to lyric composition. Those of Alfred de Musset
(1800-1857) are among the finest in the language.
The Gascon poet Jasmin has produced a good deal of verse in the western
dialect of the Langue d'oc, and recently a more cultivated and literary
school of poets has arisen in Provence, the chief of whom is Mistral.
The effect of the Romantic movement on the drama has been the
introduction of a species of play called the drame, as opposed to regular
comedy and tragedy, and admitting of freer treatment. Victor Hugo,
Alexandre Dumas (1803-1874), Victorien Sardou (b. 1831), Alexandre
Dumas fils (b. 1821), Legouvé (b. 1807), Scribe (1791-1861), Octave
Feuillet (b. 1812), have produced works of this class.
The literature of France during the last generation has been prolific in
dramas and romances, all of which indicate a chaos of opinion. It is not
professedly infidel, like that of the eighteenth century, nor professedly
pietistic, like that of the seventeenth. It seems to have no general aim, the
opinions and efforts of the authors being seldom consistent with themselves
for any length of time. No one can deny that this literature engages the
reader's most intense interest by the seductive sagacity of the movement,
Page 425
the variety of incident, and the most perfect command of those means
calculated to produce certain ends.
In 1866 appeared a collection of poems, "Le Parnasse Contemporain,"
which included contributions of many poets already named, and of others
unknown. Two other collections followed, one in 1869 and one in 1876, by
numerous contributors, who have mostly published separate works. They
are called collectively, half seriously and half in derision, "Les
Parnassiens." Their cardinal principle is a devotion to poetry as an art, with
diversity of aim and subject. Of these, Coppée devotes himself to domestic
and social subjects; Louise Siefert indulges in the poetry of despair;
Glatigny excels all in individuality of poetical treatment. The Parnassiens
number three or four score poets; the average of their work is high, though
to none can be assigned the first rank.
FICTION.—Previous to 1830 no writer of fiction had formed a school,
nor had this form of literature been cultivated to any great extent. From the
immense influence of Walter Scott, or from other causes, there suddenly
appeared a remarkable group of novelists, Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée,
Balzac, George Sand, Sandeau, Charles de Bernard, and others scarcely
inferior. It is remarkable that the excellence of the first group has been
maintained by a new generation, Murger, About, Feuillet, Flaubert,
Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, Cherbulliez, Gaboriau, Dumas fils, and
others.
During this period the romance-writing of France has taken two different
directions. The first, that of the novel of incident, of which Scott was the
model; the second, that of analysis and character, illustrated by the genius
of Balzac and George Sand. The stories of Hugo are novels of incident with
ideal character painting. Dumas's works are dramatic in character and
charming for their brilliancy and wit. His "Trois Mousquetaires" and
calculated to produce certain ends.
In 1866 appeared a collection of poems, "Le Parnasse Contemporain,"
which included contributions of many poets already named, and of others
unknown. Two other collections followed, one in 1869 and one in 1876, by
numerous contributors, who have mostly published separate works. They
are called collectively, half seriously and half in derision, "Les
Parnassiens." Their cardinal principle is a devotion to poetry as an art, with
diversity of aim and subject. Of these, Coppée devotes himself to domestic
and social subjects; Louise Siefert indulges in the poetry of despair;
Glatigny excels all in individuality of poetical treatment. The Parnassiens
number three or four score poets; the average of their work is high, though
to none can be assigned the first rank.
FICTION.—Previous to 1830 no writer of fiction had formed a school,
nor had this form of literature been cultivated to any great extent. From the
immense influence of Walter Scott, or from other causes, there suddenly
appeared a remarkable group of novelists, Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée,
Balzac, George Sand, Sandeau, Charles de Bernard, and others scarcely
inferior. It is remarkable that the excellence of the first group has been
maintained by a new generation, Murger, About, Feuillet, Flaubert,
Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, Cherbulliez, Gaboriau, Dumas fils, and
others.
During this period the romance-writing of France has taken two different
directions. The first, that of the novel of incident, of which Scott was the
model; the second, that of analysis and character, illustrated by the genius
of Balzac and George Sand. The stories of Hugo are novels of incident with
ideal character painting. Dumas's works are dramatic in character and
charming for their brilliancy and wit. His "Trois Mousquetaires" and
Page 426
"Monte Christo" are considered his best novels. Of a similar kind are the
novels of Eugene Sue. Both writers were followed by a crowd of
companions and imitators. The taste for the novel of incident, which had
nearly died out, was renewed in another form, with the admixture of
domestic interest, by the literary partners, Erckmann-Chatrian.
Théophile Gautier modified the incident novel in many short tales, a kind
of writing for which the French have always been famous, and of which the
writings of Gautier were masterpieces. With him may be classed Prosper
Mérimée (1803-1871), one of the most exquisite masters of the language.
Since 1830 the tendency has been towards novels of contemporary life.
The two great masters of the novel of character and manners, as opposed to
that of history and incident, are Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850) and Aurore
Dudevant, commonly called George Sand (d. 1876), whose early writings
are strongly tinged with the spirit of revolt against moral and social
arrangements: later she devoted herself to studies of country life and
manners, involving bold sketches of character and dramatic situations. One
of the most remarkable characteristics of her work is the apparently
inexhaustible imagination with which she continued to the close of her long
life to pour forth many volumes of fiction year after year. Balzac, as a
writer, was equally productive. In the "Comédie Humaine" he attempted to
cover the whole ground of human, or at least of French life, and the success
he attained was remarkable. The influence of these two writers affected the
entire body of those who succeeded them with very few exceptions. Among
these are Jules Sandeau, whose novels are distinguished by minute
character-drawing in tones of a sombre hue.
Saintine, the author of "Picciola," Mme. Craven (Reçit d'une Soeur),
Henri Beyle, who, under the nom de plume of Stendhal, wrote the
"Chartreuse de Parme," a powerful novel of the analytical kind, and Henri
novels of Eugene Sue. Both writers were followed by a crowd of
companions and imitators. The taste for the novel of incident, which had
nearly died out, was renewed in another form, with the admixture of
domestic interest, by the literary partners, Erckmann-Chatrian.
Théophile Gautier modified the incident novel in many short tales, a kind
of writing for which the French have always been famous, and of which the
writings of Gautier were masterpieces. With him may be classed Prosper
Mérimée (1803-1871), one of the most exquisite masters of the language.
Since 1830 the tendency has been towards novels of contemporary life.
The two great masters of the novel of character and manners, as opposed to
that of history and incident, are Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850) and Aurore
Dudevant, commonly called George Sand (d. 1876), whose early writings
are strongly tinged with the spirit of revolt against moral and social
arrangements: later she devoted herself to studies of country life and
manners, involving bold sketches of character and dramatic situations. One
of the most remarkable characteristics of her work is the apparently
inexhaustible imagination with which she continued to the close of her long
life to pour forth many volumes of fiction year after year. Balzac, as a
writer, was equally productive. In the "Comédie Humaine" he attempted to
cover the whole ground of human, or at least of French life, and the success
he attained was remarkable. The influence of these two writers affected the
entire body of those who succeeded them with very few exceptions. Among
these are Jules Sandeau, whose novels are distinguished by minute
character-drawing in tones of a sombre hue.
Saintine, the author of "Picciola," Mme. Craven (Reçit d'une Soeur),
Henri Beyle, who, under the nom de plume of Stendhal, wrote the
"Chartreuse de Parme," a powerful novel of the analytical kind, and Henri
Page 427
Murger, a painter of Bohemian life. Octave Feuillet has attained great
popularity in romances of fashionable life. Gustave Flaubert (b. 1821), with
great acuteness and knowledge of human nature, combines scholarship and
a power over the language not surpassed by any writer of the century.
Edmond About (b. 1828) is distinguished by his refined wit. One of the
most popular writers of the second empire is Ernest Feydeau (1821-1874), a
writer of great ability, but morbid and affected in the choice and treatment
of his subjects. Of late, many writers of the realist school have striven to
outdo their predecessors in carrying out the principles of Balzac; among
these are Gaboriau, Cherbulliez, Droz, Bélot, Alphonse Daudet.
CRITICISM.—Previous to the Romantic movement in France the office
of criticism had been to compare all literary productions with certain
established rules, and to judge them accordingly. The theory of the new
school was, that a work should be judged by itself alone or by the author's
ideal. The great master of this school was Sainte-Beuve (1804- 1869), who
possessed a rare combination of great and accurate learning, compass and
profundity of thought, and above all sympathy in judgment. Hippolyte
Taine (b. 1828), the most brilliant of living French critics, Théophile
Gautier, Arsène Houssaye, Jules Janin (d. 1874), Sarcey, and others, are
distinguished in this branch of letters.
MISCELLANEOUS.—Among earlier writers of the nineteenth century
are Sismondi, whose "Literature of Southern Europe" remains without a
rival, the work of Ginguené on "Italian Literature," and of Renouard on
"Provençal Poetry." In intellectual philosophy Jouffroy and Damiron
continued the work begun by Royer-Collard, that of destroying the
influence of sensualism and materialism. The philosophical writings of
Cousin (1792-1867) are models of didactic prose, and in his work on "The
Beautiful, True, and Good" he raises the science of aesthetics to its highest
dignity. Lamennais (1782-1854) exhibits in his writings various phases of
popularity in romances of fashionable life. Gustave Flaubert (b. 1821), with
great acuteness and knowledge of human nature, combines scholarship and
a power over the language not surpassed by any writer of the century.
Edmond About (b. 1828) is distinguished by his refined wit. One of the
most popular writers of the second empire is Ernest Feydeau (1821-1874), a
writer of great ability, but morbid and affected in the choice and treatment
of his subjects. Of late, many writers of the realist school have striven to
outdo their predecessors in carrying out the principles of Balzac; among
these are Gaboriau, Cherbulliez, Droz, Bélot, Alphonse Daudet.
CRITICISM.—Previous to the Romantic movement in France the office
of criticism had been to compare all literary productions with certain
established rules, and to judge them accordingly. The theory of the new
school was, that a work should be judged by itself alone or by the author's
ideal. The great master of this school was Sainte-Beuve (1804- 1869), who
possessed a rare combination of great and accurate learning, compass and
profundity of thought, and above all sympathy in judgment. Hippolyte
Taine (b. 1828), the most brilliant of living French critics, Théophile
Gautier, Arsène Houssaye, Jules Janin (d. 1874), Sarcey, and others, are
distinguished in this branch of letters.
MISCELLANEOUS.—Among earlier writers of the nineteenth century
are Sismondi, whose "Literature of Southern Europe" remains without a
rival, the work of Ginguené on "Italian Literature," and of Renouard on
"Provençal Poetry." In intellectual philosophy Jouffroy and Damiron
continued the work begun by Royer-Collard, that of destroying the
influence of sensualism and materialism. The philosophical writings of
Cousin (1792-1867) are models of didactic prose, and in his work on "The
Beautiful, True, and Good" he raises the science of aesthetics to its highest
dignity. Lamennais (1782-1854) exhibits in his writings various phases of
Page 428
religious thought, ending in rationalism. Comte (1798-1857), in his
"Positive Philosophy," shows power of generalization and force of logic,
though tending to atheism and socialism. De Tocqueville and Chevalier are
distinguished in political science, the former particularly for his able work
on "Democracy in America." Renan (b. 1823) is a prominent name in
theological writing, and Montalembert (1810-1870) a historian with strong
religious tendencies.
Among the orators Lacordaire, Père Felix, Père Hyacinthe, and Coquerel
are best known.
Among the women of France distinguished for their literary abilities are
Mme. Durant, who, under the name of Henri Greville, has given, in a series
of tales, many charming pictures of Russian life, Mlle. Clarisse Bader, who
has produced valuable historical works on the condition of women in all
ages, and Mme. Adam, a brilliant writer and journalist.
In science, Pasteur and Milne-Edwards hold the first rank in biology,
Paul
Bert in physiology, and Quatrefages in anthropology of races.
"Positive Philosophy," shows power of generalization and force of logic,
though tending to atheism and socialism. De Tocqueville and Chevalier are
distinguished in political science, the former particularly for his able work
on "Democracy in America." Renan (b. 1823) is a prominent name in
theological writing, and Montalembert (1810-1870) a historian with strong
religious tendencies.
Among the orators Lacordaire, Père Felix, Père Hyacinthe, and Coquerel
are best known.
Among the women of France distinguished for their literary abilities are
Mme. Durant, who, under the name of Henri Greville, has given, in a series
of tales, many charming pictures of Russian life, Mlle. Clarisse Bader, who
has produced valuable historical works on the condition of women in all
ages, and Mme. Adam, a brilliant writer and journalist.
In science, Pasteur and Milne-Edwards hold the first rank in biology,
Paul
Bert in physiology, and Quatrefages in anthropology of races.
Page 429
SPANISH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Spanish Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early National Literature; the Poem of the Cid;
Berceo,
Alfonso the Wise, Segura; Don Juan Manuel, the Archpriest of Hita,
Santob,
Ayala.—2. Old Ballads.—3. The Chronicles.—4. Romances of Chivalry.—
5.
The Drama.—6. Provençal Literature in Spain.—7. The Influence of Italian
Literature in Spain.—8. The Cancioneros and Prose Writing.—9. The
Inquisition.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Effect of Intolerance on Letters.—2.
Influence of
Italy on Spanish Literature; Boscan, Garcilasso de la Vega, Diego de
Mendoza.—3. History; Cortez, Gomara, Oviedo, Las Casas.—4. The
Drama,
Rueda, Lope de Vega, Calderon de la Barca.—5. Romances and Tales;
Cervantes, and other Writers of Fiction.—6. Historical Narrative Poems;
Ercilla.—7. Lyric Poetry; the Argensolas; Luis de Leon, Quevedo, Herrera,
Gongora, and others.—8. Satirical and other Poetry.—9. History and other
Prose Writing; Zurita, Mariana, Sandoval, and others.
INTRODUCTION.—1. Spanish Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early National Literature; the Poem of the Cid;
Berceo,
Alfonso the Wise, Segura; Don Juan Manuel, the Archpriest of Hita,
Santob,
Ayala.—2. Old Ballads.—3. The Chronicles.—4. Romances of Chivalry.—
5.
The Drama.—6. Provençal Literature in Spain.—7. The Influence of Italian
Literature in Spain.—8. The Cancioneros and Prose Writing.—9. The
Inquisition.
PERIOD SECOND.—1. The Effect of Intolerance on Letters.—2.
Influence of
Italy on Spanish Literature; Boscan, Garcilasso de la Vega, Diego de
Mendoza.—3. History; Cortez, Gomara, Oviedo, Las Casas.—4. The
Drama,
Rueda, Lope de Vega, Calderon de la Barca.—5. Romances and Tales;
Cervantes, and other Writers of Fiction.—6. Historical Narrative Poems;
Ercilla.—7. Lyric Poetry; the Argensolas; Luis de Leon, Quevedo, Herrera,
Gongora, and others.—8. Satirical and other Poetry.—9. History and other
Prose Writing; Zurita, Mariana, Sandoval, and others.
Page 430
PERIOD THIRD.—1. French Influence on the Literature of Spain.—2.
The
Dawn of Spanish Literature in the Eighteenth Century; Feyjoo, Isla,
Moratin the elder, Yriarte, Melendez, Gonzalez, Quintana, Moratin the
younger.—3. Spanish Literature in the Nineteenth Century.
INTRODUCTION.
1. SPANISH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—At the period of the
subversion of the Empire of the West, in the fifth century, Spain was
invaded by the Suevi, the Alans, the Vandals, and the Visigoths. The
country which had for six centuries been subjected to the dominion of the
Romans, and had, adopted the language and arts of its masters, now
experienced those changes in manners, opinions, military spirit, and
language, which took place in the other provinces of the empire, and which,
were, in fact, the origin of the nations which arose on the overthrow of the
Roman power. Among the conquerors of Spain, the Visigoths were the most
numerous; the ancient Roman subjects were speedily confounded with
them, and their dominion soon extended over nearly the whole country. In
the year 710 the peninsula was invaded by the Arabs or Moors, and from
that time the active and incessant struggles of the Spanish Christians against
the invaders, and their necessary contact with Arabian civilization, began to
elicit sparks of intellectual energy. Indeed, the first utterance of that popular
feeling which became the foundation of the national literature was heard in
the midst of that extraordinary contest, which lasted for more than seven
centuries, so that the earliest Spanish poetry seems but a breathing of the
energy and heroism which, at the time it appeared, animated the Spanish
Christians throughout the peninsula. Overwhelmed by the Moors, they did
not entirely yield; a small but valiant band, retreating before the fiery
pursuit of their enemies, established themselves in the extreme
The
Dawn of Spanish Literature in the Eighteenth Century; Feyjoo, Isla,
Moratin the elder, Yriarte, Melendez, Gonzalez, Quintana, Moratin the
younger.—3. Spanish Literature in the Nineteenth Century.
INTRODUCTION.
1. SPANISH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—At the period of the
subversion of the Empire of the West, in the fifth century, Spain was
invaded by the Suevi, the Alans, the Vandals, and the Visigoths. The
country which had for six centuries been subjected to the dominion of the
Romans, and had, adopted the language and arts of its masters, now
experienced those changes in manners, opinions, military spirit, and
language, which took place in the other provinces of the empire, and which,
were, in fact, the origin of the nations which arose on the overthrow of the
Roman power. Among the conquerors of Spain, the Visigoths were the most
numerous; the ancient Roman subjects were speedily confounded with
them, and their dominion soon extended over nearly the whole country. In
the year 710 the peninsula was invaded by the Arabs or Moors, and from
that time the active and incessant struggles of the Spanish Christians against
the invaders, and their necessary contact with Arabian civilization, began to
elicit sparks of intellectual energy. Indeed, the first utterance of that popular
feeling which became the foundation of the national literature was heard in
the midst of that extraordinary contest, which lasted for more than seven
centuries, so that the earliest Spanish poetry seems but a breathing of the
energy and heroism which, at the time it appeared, animated the Spanish
Christians throughout the peninsula. Overwhelmed by the Moors, they did
not entirely yield; a small but valiant band, retreating before the fiery
pursuit of their enemies, established themselves in the extreme
Page 431
northwestern portion of their native land, amidst the mountains and the
fastnesses of Biscay and Asturias, while the others remained under the yoke
of the conquerors, adopting, in some degree, the manners and habits of the
Arabians. On the destruction of the caliphat of Cordova, in the year 1031,
the dismemberment of the Moslem territories into petty Independent
kingdoms, often at variance with each other, afforded the Christians a
favorable opportunity of reconquering their country. One after another the
Moorish states fell before them. The Moors were driven farther and farther
to the south, and by the middle of the thirteenth century they had no
dominion in Spain except the kingdom of Granada, which for two centuries
longer continued the splendid abode of luxury and magnificence.
As victory inclined more and more to the Spanish arms, the Castilian
dialect rapidly grew into a vehicle adequate to express the pride and dignity
of the prevailing people, and that enthusiasm for liberty which was long
their finest characteristic. The poem of the Cid early appeared, and in the
thirteenth century a numerous family of romantic ballads followed, all
glowing with heroic ardor. As another epoch drew near, the lyric form
began to predominate, in which, however, the warm expressions of the
Spanish heart were restricted by a fondness for conceit and allegory. The
rudiments of the drama, religious, pastoral, and satiric, soon followed,
marked by many traits of original thought and talent. Thus the course of
Spanish literature proceeded, animated and controlled by the national
character, to the end of the fifteenth century.
In the sixteenth, the original genius of the Spaniards, and their proud
consciousness of national greatness, contributed to the maintenance and
improvement of their literature in the face of the Inquisition itself. Released
by the conquest of Granada (1492) from the presence of internal foes,
prosperous at home and powerful abroad, Spain naturally rose to high
mental dignity; and with all that she gathered from foreign contributions,
fastnesses of Biscay and Asturias, while the others remained under the yoke
of the conquerors, adopting, in some degree, the manners and habits of the
Arabians. On the destruction of the caliphat of Cordova, in the year 1031,
the dismemberment of the Moslem territories into petty Independent
kingdoms, often at variance with each other, afforded the Christians a
favorable opportunity of reconquering their country. One after another the
Moorish states fell before them. The Moors were driven farther and farther
to the south, and by the middle of the thirteenth century they had no
dominion in Spain except the kingdom of Granada, which for two centuries
longer continued the splendid abode of luxury and magnificence.
As victory inclined more and more to the Spanish arms, the Castilian
dialect rapidly grew into a vehicle adequate to express the pride and dignity
of the prevailing people, and that enthusiasm for liberty which was long
their finest characteristic. The poem of the Cid early appeared, and in the
thirteenth century a numerous family of romantic ballads followed, all
glowing with heroic ardor. As another epoch drew near, the lyric form
began to predominate, in which, however, the warm expressions of the
Spanish heart were restricted by a fondness for conceit and allegory. The
rudiments of the drama, religious, pastoral, and satiric, soon followed,
marked by many traits of original thought and talent. Thus the course of
Spanish literature proceeded, animated and controlled by the national
character, to the end of the fifteenth century.
In the sixteenth, the original genius of the Spaniards, and their proud
consciousness of national greatness, contributed to the maintenance and
improvement of their literature in the face of the Inquisition itself. Released
by the conquest of Granada (1492) from the presence of internal foes,
prosperous at home and powerful abroad, Spain naturally rose to high
mental dignity; and with all that she gathered from foreign contributions,
Page 432
her writers kept much of their native vein, more free than at first from
Orientalism, but still breathing of their own romantic land. A close
connection, however, for more than one hundred years with Italy,
familiarized the Spanish mind with eminent Italian authors and with the
ancient classics.
During the seventeenth century, especially from the middle to the close,
the decay of letters kept pace with the decline of Spanish power, until the
humiliation of both seemed completed in the reign of Charles II. About that
time, however, the Spanish drama received a full development and attained
its perfection. In the eighteenth century, under the government of the
Bourbons, and partly through the patronage of Philip V., there was a certain
revival of literature; but unfortunately, parties divided, and many of the
educated Spaniards were so much attracted by French glitter as to turn with
disgust from their own writers. The political convulsions, of which Spain
has been the victim since the time of Ferdinand VII., have greatly retarded
the progress of national literature, and the nineteenth century has thus far
produced little which is worthy of mention.
The literary history of Spain may be divided into three periods:—
The first, extending from the close of the twelfth century to the beginning
of the sixteenth, will contain the literature of the country from the first
appearance of the present written language to the early part of the reign of
Charles V., and will include the genuinely national literature, and that
portion which, by imitating the refinement of Provence or of Italy, was,
during the same interval, more or less separated from the popular spirit and
genius.
The second, the period of literary success and national glory, extending
from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the close of the seventeenth,
Orientalism, but still breathing of their own romantic land. A close
connection, however, for more than one hundred years with Italy,
familiarized the Spanish mind with eminent Italian authors and with the
ancient classics.
During the seventeenth century, especially from the middle to the close,
the decay of letters kept pace with the decline of Spanish power, until the
humiliation of both seemed completed in the reign of Charles II. About that
time, however, the Spanish drama received a full development and attained
its perfection. In the eighteenth century, under the government of the
Bourbons, and partly through the patronage of Philip V., there was a certain
revival of literature; but unfortunately, parties divided, and many of the
educated Spaniards were so much attracted by French glitter as to turn with
disgust from their own writers. The political convulsions, of which Spain
has been the victim since the time of Ferdinand VII., have greatly retarded
the progress of national literature, and the nineteenth century has thus far
produced little which is worthy of mention.
The literary history of Spain may be divided into three periods:—
The first, extending from the close of the twelfth century to the beginning
of the sixteenth, will contain the literature of the country from the first
appearance of the present written language to the early part of the reign of
Charles V., and will include the genuinely national literature, and that
portion which, by imitating the refinement of Provence or of Italy, was,
during the same interval, more or less separated from the popular spirit and
genius.
The second, the period of literary success and national glory, extending
from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the close of the seventeenth,
Page 433
will embrace the literature from the accession of the Austrian family to its
extinction.
The third, the period of decline, extends from the beginning of the
eighteenth to the middle of the nineteenth century, or from the accession of
the Bourbon family to the present time.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The Spanish Christians who, after the Moorish
conquest, had retreated to the mountains of Asturias, carried with them the
Latin language as they had received it corrupted from the Romans, and still
more by the elements introduced into it by the invasion of the northern
tribes. In their retreat they found themselves amidst the descendants of the
Iberians, the earliest race which had inhabited Spain, who appeared to have
shaken off little of the barbarism that had resisted alike the invasion of the
Romans and of the Goths, and who retained the original Iberian or Basque
tongue. Coming in contact with this, the language of those Christians
underwent new modifications; later, when they advanced in their conquest
toward the south and the east, and found themselves surrounded by those
portions of their race that had remained among the Arabs, known as
Muçárabes, they felt that they were in the presence of a civilization and
refinement altogether superior to their own. As the Goths, between the fifth
and eighth centuries, had received a vast number of words from the Latin,
because it was the language of a people with whom they were intimately
mingled, and who were much more intellectual and advanced than
themselves, so, for the same reason, the whole nation, between the eighth
and thirteenth centuries, received another increase of their vocabulary from
the Arabic, and accommodated themselves in a remarkable degree to the
advanced culture of their southern countrymen, and of their new Moorish
subjects.
extinction.
The third, the period of decline, extends from the beginning of the
eighteenth to the middle of the nineteenth century, or from the accession of
the Bourbon family to the present time.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The Spanish Christians who, after the Moorish
conquest, had retreated to the mountains of Asturias, carried with them the
Latin language as they had received it corrupted from the Romans, and still
more by the elements introduced into it by the invasion of the northern
tribes. In their retreat they found themselves amidst the descendants of the
Iberians, the earliest race which had inhabited Spain, who appeared to have
shaken off little of the barbarism that had resisted alike the invasion of the
Romans and of the Goths, and who retained the original Iberian or Basque
tongue. Coming in contact with this, the language of those Christians
underwent new modifications; later, when they advanced in their conquest
toward the south and the east, and found themselves surrounded by those
portions of their race that had remained among the Arabs, known as
Muçárabes, they felt that they were in the presence of a civilization and
refinement altogether superior to their own. As the Goths, between the fifth
and eighth centuries, had received a vast number of words from the Latin,
because it was the language of a people with whom they were intimately
mingled, and who were much more intellectual and advanced than
themselves, so, for the same reason, the whole nation, between the eighth
and thirteenth centuries, received another increase of their vocabulary from
the Arabic, and accommodated themselves in a remarkable degree to the
advanced culture of their southern countrymen, and of their new Moorish
subjects.
Page 434
It appears that about the middle of the twelfth century this new dialect
had risen to the dignity of being a written language; and it spread gradually
through the country. It differed from the pure or the corrupted Latin, and
still more from the Arabic; yet it was obviously formed by a union of both,
modified by the analogies and spirit of the Gothic constructions and
dialects, and containing some remains of the vocabularies of the Iberians,
the Celts, the Phoenicians, and of the German tribes, who at different
periods had occupied the peninsula. This, like the other languages of
Southern Europe, was called originally the Romance, from the prevalence
of the Roman and Latin elements.
The territories of the Christian Spaniards were divided into three
longitudinal sections, having each a separate dialect, arising from the
mixture of different primitive elements. The Catalan was spoken in the east,
the Castilian in the centre, while the Galician, which originated the
Portuguese, prevailed in the west.
The Catalan or Limousin, the earliest dialect cultivated in the peninsula,
bore a strong resemblance to the Provençal, and when the bards were driven
from Provence they found a home in the east of Spain, and numerous
celebrated troubadours arose in Aragon and Catalonia. But many elements
concurred to produce a decay of the Catalan, and from the beginning of the
sixteenth century it rapidly declined. It is still spoken in the Balearic Islands
and among the lower classes of some of the eastern parts of Spain, but since
the sixteenth century the Castilian alone has been the vehicle of literature.
The Castilian dialect followed the fortune of the Castilian arms, until it
finally became the established language, even of the most southern
provinces, where it had been longest withstood by the Arabic. Its clear,
sonorous vowels and the beautiful articulation of its syllables, give it a
greater resemblance to the Italian than any other idiom of the peninsula. But
had risen to the dignity of being a written language; and it spread gradually
through the country. It differed from the pure or the corrupted Latin, and
still more from the Arabic; yet it was obviously formed by a union of both,
modified by the analogies and spirit of the Gothic constructions and
dialects, and containing some remains of the vocabularies of the Iberians,
the Celts, the Phoenicians, and of the German tribes, who at different
periods had occupied the peninsula. This, like the other languages of
Southern Europe, was called originally the Romance, from the prevalence
of the Roman and Latin elements.
The territories of the Christian Spaniards were divided into three
longitudinal sections, having each a separate dialect, arising from the
mixture of different primitive elements. The Catalan was spoken in the east,
the Castilian in the centre, while the Galician, which originated the
Portuguese, prevailed in the west.
The Catalan or Limousin, the earliest dialect cultivated in the peninsula,
bore a strong resemblance to the Provençal, and when the bards were driven
from Provence they found a home in the east of Spain, and numerous
celebrated troubadours arose in Aragon and Catalonia. But many elements
concurred to produce a decay of the Catalan, and from the beginning of the
sixteenth century it rapidly declined. It is still spoken in the Balearic Islands
and among the lower classes of some of the eastern parts of Spain, but since
the sixteenth century the Castilian alone has been the vehicle of literature.
The Castilian dialect followed the fortune of the Castilian arms, until it
finally became the established language, even of the most southern
provinces, where it had been longest withstood by the Arabic. Its clear,
sonorous vowels and the beautiful articulation of its syllables, give it a
greater resemblance to the Italian than any other idiom of the peninsula. But
Page 435
amidst this euphony the ear is struck with the sound of the German and
Arabic guttural, which is unknown in the other languages in which Latin
roots predominate.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM THE FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE TO THE EARLY
PART OF THE REIGN OF CHARLES V. (1200-1500).
1. EARLY NATIONAL LITERATURE.—There are two traits of the
earliest Spanish literature which so peculiarly distinguish it that they
deserve to be noticed from the outset—religious faith and knightly loyalty.
The Spanish national character, as it has existed from the earliest times to
the present day, was formed in that solemn contest which began when the
Moors landed beneath the rock of Gibraltar, and which did not end until
eight centuries after, when the last remnants of the race were driven from
the shores of Spain. During this contest, especially that part of it when the
earliest Spanish poetry appeared, nothing but an invincible faith and a not
less invincible loyalty to their own princes could have sustained the
Christian Spaniards in their struggles against their infidel oppressors. It
was, therefore, a stern necessity which made these two high qualities
elements of the Spanish national character, and it is not surprising that we
find submission to the church and loyalty to the king constantly breathing
through every portion of Spanish literature.
The first monument of the Spanish, or, as it was oftener called, the
Castilian tongue, the most ancient epic in any of the Romance languages, is
"The Poem of the Cid." It consists of more than three thousand lines, and
was probably not composed later than the year 1200. This poem celebrates
the achievements of the great hero of the chivalrous age of Spain, Rodrigo
Diaz (1020-1099), who obtained from five Moorish kings, whom he had
Arabic guttural, which is unknown in the other languages in which Latin
roots predominate.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM THE FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE TO THE EARLY
PART OF THE REIGN OF CHARLES V. (1200-1500).
1. EARLY NATIONAL LITERATURE.—There are two traits of the
earliest Spanish literature which so peculiarly distinguish it that they
deserve to be noticed from the outset—religious faith and knightly loyalty.
The Spanish national character, as it has existed from the earliest times to
the present day, was formed in that solemn contest which began when the
Moors landed beneath the rock of Gibraltar, and which did not end until
eight centuries after, when the last remnants of the race were driven from
the shores of Spain. During this contest, especially that part of it when the
earliest Spanish poetry appeared, nothing but an invincible faith and a not
less invincible loyalty to their own princes could have sustained the
Christian Spaniards in their struggles against their infidel oppressors. It
was, therefore, a stern necessity which made these two high qualities
elements of the Spanish national character, and it is not surprising that we
find submission to the church and loyalty to the king constantly breathing
through every portion of Spanish literature.
The first monument of the Spanish, or, as it was oftener called, the
Castilian tongue, the most ancient epic in any of the Romance languages, is
"The Poem of the Cid." It consists of more than three thousand lines, and
was probably not composed later than the year 1200. This poem celebrates
the achievements of the great hero of the chivalrous age of Spain, Rodrigo
Diaz (1020-1099), who obtained from five Moorish kings, whom he had
Page 436
vanquished in battle, the title of El Seid, or my lord. He was also called by
the Spaniards El Campeador or El Cid Campeador, the Champion or the
Lord Champion, and he well deserved the honorable title, for he passed
almost the whole of his life in the field against the oppressors of his
country, and led the conquering arms of the Christians over nearly a quarter
of Spain. No hero has been so universally celebrated by his countrymen,
and poetry and tradition have delighted to attach to his name a long series
of fabulous achievements, which remind us as often of Amadis and Arthur,
as they do of the sober heroes of history. His memory is so sacredly dear to
the Spanish nation, that to say "by the faith of Rodrigo," is still considered
the strongest vow of loyalty.
The poem of the Cid is valuable mainly for the living picture it presents
of manners and character in the eleventh century. It is a contemporary and
spirited exhibition of the chivalrous times of Spain, given occasionally with
an admirable and Homeric simplicity. It is the history of the most romantic
hero of Spanish tradition, continually mingled with domestic and personal
details, that bring the character of the Cid and his age very near to our own
sympathies and interests. The language is the same which he himself spoke
—still only imperfectly developed—it expresses the bold and original spirit
of the time, and the metre and rhyme are rude and unsettled; but the poem
throughout is striking and original, and breathes everywhere the true
Castilian spirit. During the thousand years which elapsed from the time of
the decay of Greek and Roman culture down to the appearance of the
Divine Comedy, no poetry was produced so original in its tone, or so full of
natural feeling, picturesqueness, and energy.
There are a few other poems, anonymous, like that of the Cid, whose
language and style carry them back to the thirteenth century. The next
poetry we meet is by a known author, Gonzalo (1220-1260), a priest
commonly called Berceo, from the place of his birth. His works, all on
the Spaniards El Campeador or El Cid Campeador, the Champion or the
Lord Champion, and he well deserved the honorable title, for he passed
almost the whole of his life in the field against the oppressors of his
country, and led the conquering arms of the Christians over nearly a quarter
of Spain. No hero has been so universally celebrated by his countrymen,
and poetry and tradition have delighted to attach to his name a long series
of fabulous achievements, which remind us as often of Amadis and Arthur,
as they do of the sober heroes of history. His memory is so sacredly dear to
the Spanish nation, that to say "by the faith of Rodrigo," is still considered
the strongest vow of loyalty.
The poem of the Cid is valuable mainly for the living picture it presents
of manners and character in the eleventh century. It is a contemporary and
spirited exhibition of the chivalrous times of Spain, given occasionally with
an admirable and Homeric simplicity. It is the history of the most romantic
hero of Spanish tradition, continually mingled with domestic and personal
details, that bring the character of the Cid and his age very near to our own
sympathies and interests. The language is the same which he himself spoke
—still only imperfectly developed—it expresses the bold and original spirit
of the time, and the metre and rhyme are rude and unsettled; but the poem
throughout is striking and original, and breathes everywhere the true
Castilian spirit. During the thousand years which elapsed from the time of
the decay of Greek and Roman culture down to the appearance of the
Divine Comedy, no poetry was produced so original in its tone, or so full of
natural feeling, picturesqueness, and energy.
There are a few other poems, anonymous, like that of the Cid, whose
language and style carry them back to the thirteenth century. The next
poetry we meet is by a known author, Gonzalo (1220-1260), a priest
commonly called Berceo, from the place of his birth. His works, all on
Page 437
religious subjects, amount to more than thirteen thousand lines. His
language shows some advance from that in which the Cid was written, but
the power and movement of that remarkable legend are entirely wanting in
these poems. There is a simple-hearted piety in them, however, that is very
attractive, and in some of them a story-telling spirit that is occasionally
vivid and graphic.
Alfonso, surnamed the Wise (1221-1284), united the crowns of Leon and
Castile, and attracted to his court many of the philosophers and learned men
of the East. He was a poet closely connected with the Provençal
troubadours of his time, and so skilled in astronomy and the occult sciences
that his fame spread throughout Europe. He had more political,
philosophical, and elegant learning than any man of his age, and made
further advances in some of the exact sciences. At one period his
consideration was so great, that he was elected Emperor of Germany; but
his claims were set aside by the subsequent election of Rudolph of
Hapsburg. The last great work undertaken by Alfonso was a kind of code
known as "Las Siete Partidas," or The Seven Parts, from the divisions of the
work itself. This is the most important legislative monument of the age, and
forms a sort of Spanish common law, which, with the decisions under it, has
been the basis of Spanish jurisprudence ever since. Becoming a part of the
Constitution of the State in all Spanish colonies, it has, from the time
Louisiana and Florida were added to the United States, become in some
cases the law in our own country.
The life of Alfonso was full of painful vicissitudes. He was driven from
his throne by factious nobles and a rebellious son, and died in exile, leaving
behind him the reputation of being the wisest fool in Christendom. Mariana
says of him: "He was more fit for letters than for the government of his
subjects; he studied the heavens and watched the stars, but forgot the earth
and lost his kingdom." Yet Alfonso is among the chief founders of his
language shows some advance from that in which the Cid was written, but
the power and movement of that remarkable legend are entirely wanting in
these poems. There is a simple-hearted piety in them, however, that is very
attractive, and in some of them a story-telling spirit that is occasionally
vivid and graphic.
Alfonso, surnamed the Wise (1221-1284), united the crowns of Leon and
Castile, and attracted to his court many of the philosophers and learned men
of the East. He was a poet closely connected with the Provençal
troubadours of his time, and so skilled in astronomy and the occult sciences
that his fame spread throughout Europe. He had more political,
philosophical, and elegant learning than any man of his age, and made
further advances in some of the exact sciences. At one period his
consideration was so great, that he was elected Emperor of Germany; but
his claims were set aside by the subsequent election of Rudolph of
Hapsburg. The last great work undertaken by Alfonso was a kind of code
known as "Las Siete Partidas," or The Seven Parts, from the divisions of the
work itself. This is the most important legislative monument of the age, and
forms a sort of Spanish common law, which, with the decisions under it, has
been the basis of Spanish jurisprudence ever since. Becoming a part of the
Constitution of the State in all Spanish colonies, it has, from the time
Louisiana and Florida were added to the United States, become in some
cases the law in our own country.
The life of Alfonso was full of painful vicissitudes. He was driven from
his throne by factious nobles and a rebellious son, and died in exile, leaving
behind him the reputation of being the wisest fool in Christendom. Mariana
says of him: "He was more fit for letters than for the government of his
subjects; he studied the heavens and watched the stars, but forgot the earth
and lost his kingdom." Yet Alfonso is among the chief founders of his
Page 438
country's intellectual fame, and he is to be remembered alike for the great
advancement Castilian prose composition made in his hands, for his poetry,
for his astronomical tables—which all the progress of modern science has
not deprived of their value—and for his great work on legislation, which is
at this moment an authority in both hemispheres.
Juan Lorenzo Segura (1176-1250) was the author of a poem containing
more than ten thousand lines, on the history of Alexander the Great. In this
poem the manners and customs of Spain in the thirteenth century are
substituted for those of ancient Greece, and the Macedonian hero is
invested with all the virtues and even equipments of European chivalry.
Don Juan Manuel, (1282-1347), a nephew of Alfonso the Wise, was one
of the most turbulent and dangerous Spanish barons of his time. His life
was full of intrigue and violence, and for thirty years he disturbed his
country by his military and rebellious enterprises. But in all these
circumstances, so adverse to intellectual pursuits, he showed himself
worthy of the family in which for more than a century letters had been
honored and cultivated. Don Juan is known to have written twelve works,
but it is uncertain how many of these are still in existence; only one, "Count
Lucanor," has been placed beyond the reach of accident by being printed.
The Count Lucanor is the most valuable monument of Spanish literature in
the fourteenth century, and one of the earliest prose works in the Castilian
tongue, as the Decameron, which appeared about the same time, was the
first in the Italian. Both are collections of tales; but the object of the
Decameron is to amuse, while the Count Lucanor is the production of a
statesman, instructing a grave and serious nation in lessons of policy and
morality in the form of apologues. These stories have suggested many
subjects for the Spanish stage, and one of them contains the groundwork of
Shakspeare's "Taming of the Shrew."
advancement Castilian prose composition made in his hands, for his poetry,
for his astronomical tables—which all the progress of modern science has
not deprived of their value—and for his great work on legislation, which is
at this moment an authority in both hemispheres.
Juan Lorenzo Segura (1176-1250) was the author of a poem containing
more than ten thousand lines, on the history of Alexander the Great. In this
poem the manners and customs of Spain in the thirteenth century are
substituted for those of ancient Greece, and the Macedonian hero is
invested with all the virtues and even equipments of European chivalry.
Don Juan Manuel, (1282-1347), a nephew of Alfonso the Wise, was one
of the most turbulent and dangerous Spanish barons of his time. His life
was full of intrigue and violence, and for thirty years he disturbed his
country by his military and rebellious enterprises. But in all these
circumstances, so adverse to intellectual pursuits, he showed himself
worthy of the family in which for more than a century letters had been
honored and cultivated. Don Juan is known to have written twelve works,
but it is uncertain how many of these are still in existence; only one, "Count
Lucanor," has been placed beyond the reach of accident by being printed.
The Count Lucanor is the most valuable monument of Spanish literature in
the fourteenth century, and one of the earliest prose works in the Castilian
tongue, as the Decameron, which appeared about the same time, was the
first in the Italian. Both are collections of tales; but the object of the
Decameron is to amuse, while the Count Lucanor is the production of a
statesman, instructing a grave and serious nation in lessons of policy and
morality in the form of apologues. These stories have suggested many
subjects for the Spanish stage, and one of them contains the groundwork of
Shakspeare's "Taming of the Shrew."
Page 439
Juan Ruiz, arch-priest of Hita (1292-1351), was a contemporary of Don
Manuel. His works consist of nearly seven thousand verses, forming a
series of stories which appear to be sketches from his own history, mingled
with fictions and allegories. The most curious is "The Battle of Don
Carnival with Madame Lent," in which Don Bacon, Madame Hungbeef,
and a train of other savory personages, are marshaled in mortal combat. The
cause of Madame Lent triumphs, and Don Carnival is condemned to
solitary imprisonment and one spare meal each day. At the end of forty days
the allegorical prisoner escapes, raises new followers, Don Breakfast and
others, and re-appears in alliance with Don Amor. The poetry of the arch-
priest is very various in tone. In general, it is satirical and pervaded by a
quiet humor. His happiest success is in the tales and apologues which
illustrate the adventures that constitute a framework for his poetry, which is
natural and spirited; and in this, as in other points, he strikingly resembles
Chaucer. Both often sought their materials in Northern French poetry, and
both have that mixture of devotion and of licentiousness belonging to their
age, as well as to the personal character of each.
Rabbi Santob, a Jew of Carrion (fl. 1350), was the author of many
poems, the most important of which is "The Dance of Death," a favorite
subject of the painters and poets of the Middle Ages, representing a kind of
spiritual masquerade, in which persons of every rank and age appear
dancing with the skeleton form of Death. In this Spanish version it is
perhaps more striking and picturesque than in any other—the ghastly nature
of the subject being brought into very lively contrast with the festive tone of
the verses. This grim fiction had for several centuries great success
throughout Europe.
Pedro Lopez Ayala (1332-1407), grand chancellor of Castile under four
successive sovereigns, was both a poet and a historian. His poem, "Court
Rhymes," is the most remarkable of his productions. His style is grave,
Manuel. His works consist of nearly seven thousand verses, forming a
series of stories which appear to be sketches from his own history, mingled
with fictions and allegories. The most curious is "The Battle of Don
Carnival with Madame Lent," in which Don Bacon, Madame Hungbeef,
and a train of other savory personages, are marshaled in mortal combat. The
cause of Madame Lent triumphs, and Don Carnival is condemned to
solitary imprisonment and one spare meal each day. At the end of forty days
the allegorical prisoner escapes, raises new followers, Don Breakfast and
others, and re-appears in alliance with Don Amor. The poetry of the arch-
priest is very various in tone. In general, it is satirical and pervaded by a
quiet humor. His happiest success is in the tales and apologues which
illustrate the adventures that constitute a framework for his poetry, which is
natural and spirited; and in this, as in other points, he strikingly resembles
Chaucer. Both often sought their materials in Northern French poetry, and
both have that mixture of devotion and of licentiousness belonging to their
age, as well as to the personal character of each.
Rabbi Santob, a Jew of Carrion (fl. 1350), was the author of many
poems, the most important of which is "The Dance of Death," a favorite
subject of the painters and poets of the Middle Ages, representing a kind of
spiritual masquerade, in which persons of every rank and age appear
dancing with the skeleton form of Death. In this Spanish version it is
perhaps more striking and picturesque than in any other—the ghastly nature
of the subject being brought into very lively contrast with the festive tone of
the verses. This grim fiction had for several centuries great success
throughout Europe.
Pedro Lopez Ayala (1332-1407), grand chancellor of Castile under four
successive sovereigns, was both a poet and a historian. His poem, "Court
Rhymes," is the most remarkable of his productions. His style is grave,
Page 440
gentle, and didactic, with occasional expressions of poetic feeling, which
seem, however, to belong as much to their age as to their author.
2. OLD BALLADS.—From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, the
period we have just gone over, the courts of the different sovereigns of
Europe were the principal centres of refinement and civilization, and this
was peculiarly the case in Spain during this period, when literature was
produced or encouraged by the sovereigns and other distinguished men. But
this was not the only literature of Spain. The spirit of poetry diffused
throughout the peninsula, excited by the romantic events of Spanish history,
now began to assume the form of a popular literature, and to assert for itself
a place which in some particulars it has maintained ever since. This popular
literature may be distributed into four different classes. The first contains
the Ballads, or the narrative and lyrical poetry of the common people from
the earliest times; the second, the Chronicles, or the half-genuine, half-
fabulous histories of the great events and heroes of the national annals; the
third class comprises the Romances of Chivalry, intimately connected with
both the others, and, after a time, as passionately admired by the whole
nation; and the fourth includes the Drama, which in its origin has always
been a popular and religious amusement, and was hardly less so in Spain
than it was in Greece or in France. These four classes compose what was
generally most valued in Spanish literature during the latter part of the
fourteenth century, the whole of the fifteenth, and much of the sixteenth.
They rested on the deep foundations of the national character, and therefore
by their very nature were opposed to the Provençal, the Italian, and the
courtly schools, which flourished during the same period.
The metrical structure of the old Spanish ballad was extremely simple,
consisting of eight-syllable lines, which are composed with great facility in
other languages as well as the Castilian. Sometimes they were broken into
stanzas of four lines each, thence called redondillas, or roundelays, but their
seem, however, to belong as much to their age as to their author.
2. OLD BALLADS.—From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, the
period we have just gone over, the courts of the different sovereigns of
Europe were the principal centres of refinement and civilization, and this
was peculiarly the case in Spain during this period, when literature was
produced or encouraged by the sovereigns and other distinguished men. But
this was not the only literature of Spain. The spirit of poetry diffused
throughout the peninsula, excited by the romantic events of Spanish history,
now began to assume the form of a popular literature, and to assert for itself
a place which in some particulars it has maintained ever since. This popular
literature may be distributed into four different classes. The first contains
the Ballads, or the narrative and lyrical poetry of the common people from
the earliest times; the second, the Chronicles, or the half-genuine, half-
fabulous histories of the great events and heroes of the national annals; the
third class comprises the Romances of Chivalry, intimately connected with
both the others, and, after a time, as passionately admired by the whole
nation; and the fourth includes the Drama, which in its origin has always
been a popular and religious amusement, and was hardly less so in Spain
than it was in Greece or in France. These four classes compose what was
generally most valued in Spanish literature during the latter part of the
fourteenth century, the whole of the fifteenth, and much of the sixteenth.
They rested on the deep foundations of the national character, and therefore
by their very nature were opposed to the Provençal, the Italian, and the
courtly schools, which flourished during the same period.
The metrical structure of the old Spanish ballad was extremely simple,
consisting of eight-syllable lines, which are composed with great facility in
other languages as well as the Castilian. Sometimes they were broken into
stanzas of four lines each, thence called redondillas, or roundelays, but their
Page 441
prominent peculiarity is that of the asonante, an imperfect rhyme that
echoes the same vowel, but not the same final consonant in the terminating
syllables. This metrical form was at a later period adopted by the dramatists,
and is now used in every department of Spanish poetry.
The old Spanish ballads comprise more than a thousand poems, first
collected in the sixteenth century, whose authors and dates are alike
unknown. Indeed, until after the middle of that century, it is difficult to find
ballads written by known authors. These collections, arranged without
regard to chronological order, relate to the fictions of chivalry, especially to
Charlemagne and his peers, to the traditions and history of Spain, to
Moorish adventures, and to the private life and manners of the Spaniards
themselves; they belong to the unchronicled popular life and character of
the age which gave them birth. The ballads of chivalry, with the exception
of those relating to Charlemagne, occupy a less important place than those
founded on national subjects. The historical ballads are by far the most
numerous and the most interesting; and of those the first in the order of time
are those relating to Bernardo del Carpio, concerning whom there are about
forty. Bernardo (fl. 800) was the offspring of a secret marriage between the
Count de Saldaña and a sister of Alfonso the Chaste, at which the king was
so much offended that he sent the Infanta to a convent, and kept the Count
in perpetual imprisonment, educating Bernardo as his own son, and keeping
him in ignorance of his birth. The achievements of Bernardo ending with
the victory of Roncesvalles, his efforts to procure the release of his father,
the falsehood of the king, and the despair and rebellion of Bernardo after
the death of the Count in prison, constitute the romantic incidents of these
ballads.
The next series is that on Fernan Gonzalez, a chieftain who, in the middle
of the tenth century, recovered Castile from the Moors and became its first
sovereign count. The most romantic are those which describe his being
echoes the same vowel, but not the same final consonant in the terminating
syllables. This metrical form was at a later period adopted by the dramatists,
and is now used in every department of Spanish poetry.
The old Spanish ballads comprise more than a thousand poems, first
collected in the sixteenth century, whose authors and dates are alike
unknown. Indeed, until after the middle of that century, it is difficult to find
ballads written by known authors. These collections, arranged without
regard to chronological order, relate to the fictions of chivalry, especially to
Charlemagne and his peers, to the traditions and history of Spain, to
Moorish adventures, and to the private life and manners of the Spaniards
themselves; they belong to the unchronicled popular life and character of
the age which gave them birth. The ballads of chivalry, with the exception
of those relating to Charlemagne, occupy a less important place than those
founded on national subjects. The historical ballads are by far the most
numerous and the most interesting; and of those the first in the order of time
are those relating to Bernardo del Carpio, concerning whom there are about
forty. Bernardo (fl. 800) was the offspring of a secret marriage between the
Count de Saldaña and a sister of Alfonso the Chaste, at which the king was
so much offended that he sent the Infanta to a convent, and kept the Count
in perpetual imprisonment, educating Bernardo as his own son, and keeping
him in ignorance of his birth. The achievements of Bernardo ending with
the victory of Roncesvalles, his efforts to procure the release of his father,
the falsehood of the king, and the despair and rebellion of Bernardo after
the death of the Count in prison, constitute the romantic incidents of these
ballads.
The next series is that on Fernan Gonzalez, a chieftain who, in the middle
of the tenth century, recovered Castile from the Moors and became its first
sovereign count. The most romantic are those which describe his being
Page 442
twice rescued from prison by his heroic wife, and his contest with King
Sancho, in which he displayed all the turbulence and cunning of a robber
baron of the Middle Ages.
The Seven Lords of Lara form the next group; some of them are
beautiful, and the story they contain is one of the most romantic in Spanish
history. The Seven Lords of Lara are betrayed by their uncle into the hands
of the Moors, and put to death, while their father, by the basest treason, is
confined in a Moorish prison. An eighth son, the famous Mudarra, whose
mother is a noble Moorish lady, at last avenges all the wrongs of his race.
But from the earliest period, the Cid has been the occasion of more
ballads than any other of the great heroes of Spanish history or fable. They
were first collected in 1612, and have been continually republished to the
present day. There are at least a hundred and sixty of them, forming a more
complete series than any other, all strongly marked with the spirit of their
age and country.
The Moorish ballads form a large and brilliant class by themselves. The
period when this style of poetry came into favor was the century after the
fall of Granada, when the south, with its refinement and effeminacy, its
magnificent and fantastic architecture, the foreign yet not strange manners
of its people, and the stories of their warlike achievements, all took strong
hold of the Spanish imagination, and made of Granada a fairy land.
Of the ballads relating to private life, most of them are effusions of love,
others are satirical, pastoral, and burlesque, and many descriptive of the
manners and amusements of the people at large; but all of them are true
representations of Spanish life. They are marked by an attractive simplicity
of thought and expression, united to a sort of mischievous shrewdness. No
such popular poetry exists in any other language, and no other exhibits in so
great a degree that nationality which is the truest element of such poetry
Sancho, in which he displayed all the turbulence and cunning of a robber
baron of the Middle Ages.
The Seven Lords of Lara form the next group; some of them are
beautiful, and the story they contain is one of the most romantic in Spanish
history. The Seven Lords of Lara are betrayed by their uncle into the hands
of the Moors, and put to death, while their father, by the basest treason, is
confined in a Moorish prison. An eighth son, the famous Mudarra, whose
mother is a noble Moorish lady, at last avenges all the wrongs of his race.
But from the earliest period, the Cid has been the occasion of more
ballads than any other of the great heroes of Spanish history or fable. They
were first collected in 1612, and have been continually republished to the
present day. There are at least a hundred and sixty of them, forming a more
complete series than any other, all strongly marked with the spirit of their
age and country.
The Moorish ballads form a large and brilliant class by themselves. The
period when this style of poetry came into favor was the century after the
fall of Granada, when the south, with its refinement and effeminacy, its
magnificent and fantastic architecture, the foreign yet not strange manners
of its people, and the stories of their warlike achievements, all took strong
hold of the Spanish imagination, and made of Granada a fairy land.
Of the ballads relating to private life, most of them are effusions of love,
others are satirical, pastoral, and burlesque, and many descriptive of the
manners and amusements of the people at large; but all of them are true
representations of Spanish life. They are marked by an attractive simplicity
of thought and expression, united to a sort of mischievous shrewdness. No
such popular poetry exists in any other language, and no other exhibits in so
great a degree that nationality which is the truest element of such poetry
Page 443
everywhere. The English and Scotch ballads, with which they may most
naturally be compared, belong to a ruder state of society, which gave to the
poetry less dignity and elevation than belong to a people who, like the
Spanish, were for centuries engaged in a contest ennobled by a sense of
religion and loyalty, and which could not fail to raise the minds of those
engaged in it far above the atmosphere that settled around the bloody feuds
of rival barons, or the gross maraudings of border warfare. The great
Castilian heroes, the Cid, Bernardo del Carpio, and Pelayo, are even now an
essential portion of the faith and poetry of the common people of Spain, and
are still honored as they were centuries ago. The stories of Guarinos and of
the defeat at Roncesvalles are still sung by the wayfaring muleteers, as they
were when Don Quixote heard them on his journey to Toboso, and the
showmen still rehearse the same adventures in the streets of Seville, that
they did at the solitary inn of Montesinos when he encountered them there.
3. THE CHRONICLES.—As the great Moorish contest was transferred
to the south of Spain, the north became comparatively quiet. Wealth and
leisure followed; the castles became the abodes of a crude but free
hospitality, and the distinctions of society grew more apparent. The ballads
from this time began to subside into the lower portions of society; the
educated sought forms of literature more in accordance with their increased
knowledge and leisure, and their more settled system of social life. The
oldest of these forms was that of the Spanish prose chronicles, of which
there are general and royal chronicles, chronicles of particular events,
chronicles of particular persons, chronicles of travels, and romantic
chronicles.
The first of these chronicles in the order of time as well as that of merit,
comes from the royal hand of Alfonso the Wise, and is entitled "The
Chronicle of Spain." It begins with the creation of the world, and concludes
with the death of St. Ferdinand, the father of Alfonso. The last part, relating
naturally be compared, belong to a ruder state of society, which gave to the
poetry less dignity and elevation than belong to a people who, like the
Spanish, were for centuries engaged in a contest ennobled by a sense of
religion and loyalty, and which could not fail to raise the minds of those
engaged in it far above the atmosphere that settled around the bloody feuds
of rival barons, or the gross maraudings of border warfare. The great
Castilian heroes, the Cid, Bernardo del Carpio, and Pelayo, are even now an
essential portion of the faith and poetry of the common people of Spain, and
are still honored as they were centuries ago. The stories of Guarinos and of
the defeat at Roncesvalles are still sung by the wayfaring muleteers, as they
were when Don Quixote heard them on his journey to Toboso, and the
showmen still rehearse the same adventures in the streets of Seville, that
they did at the solitary inn of Montesinos when he encountered them there.
3. THE CHRONICLES.—As the great Moorish contest was transferred
to the south of Spain, the north became comparatively quiet. Wealth and
leisure followed; the castles became the abodes of a crude but free
hospitality, and the distinctions of society grew more apparent. The ballads
from this time began to subside into the lower portions of society; the
educated sought forms of literature more in accordance with their increased
knowledge and leisure, and their more settled system of social life. The
oldest of these forms was that of the Spanish prose chronicles, of which
there are general and royal chronicles, chronicles of particular events,
chronicles of particular persons, chronicles of travels, and romantic
chronicles.
The first of these chronicles in the order of time as well as that of merit,
comes from the royal hand of Alfonso the Wise, and is entitled "The
Chronicle of Spain." It begins with the creation of the world, and concludes
with the death of St. Ferdinand, the father of Alfonso. The last part, relating
Page 444
to the history of Spain, is by far the most attractive, and sets forth in a truly
national spirit all the rich old traditions of the country. This is not only the
most interesting of the Spanish chronicles, but the most interesting of all
that in any country mark the transition from its poetical and romantic
traditions to the grave exactness of historical truth. The chronicle of the Cid
was probably taken from this work.
Alfonso XI. ordered the annals of the kingdom to be continued down to
his own reign, or through the period from 1252 to 1312. During many
succeeding reigns the royal chronicles were continued,—that of Ferdinand
and Isabella, by Pulgar, is the last instance of the old style; but though the
annals were still kept up, the free and picturesque spirit that gave them life
was no longer there.
The chronicles of particular events and persons are most of them of little
value.
Among the chronicles of travels, the oldest one of any value is an
account of a Spanish embassy to Tamerlane, the great Tartar potentate.
Of the romantic chronicles, the principal specimen is that of Don
Roderic, a fabulous account of the reign of King Roderic, the conquest of
the country by the Moors, and the first attempts to recover it in the
beginning of the eighth century. The style is heavy and verbose, although
upon it Southey has founded much of his beautiful poem of "Roderic, the
last of the Goths." This chronicle of Don Roderic, which was little more
than a romance of chivalry, marks the transition to those romantic fictions
that had already begun to inundate Spain. But the series which it concludes
extends over a period of two hundred and fifty years, from the time of
Alfonso the Wise to the accession of Charles V. (1221-1516), and is
unrivaled in the richness and variety of its poetic elements. In truth, these
old Spanish chronicles cannot be compared with those of any other nation,
national spirit all the rich old traditions of the country. This is not only the
most interesting of the Spanish chronicles, but the most interesting of all
that in any country mark the transition from its poetical and romantic
traditions to the grave exactness of historical truth. The chronicle of the Cid
was probably taken from this work.
Alfonso XI. ordered the annals of the kingdom to be continued down to
his own reign, or through the period from 1252 to 1312. During many
succeeding reigns the royal chronicles were continued,—that of Ferdinand
and Isabella, by Pulgar, is the last instance of the old style; but though the
annals were still kept up, the free and picturesque spirit that gave them life
was no longer there.
The chronicles of particular events and persons are most of them of little
value.
Among the chronicles of travels, the oldest one of any value is an
account of a Spanish embassy to Tamerlane, the great Tartar potentate.
Of the romantic chronicles, the principal specimen is that of Don
Roderic, a fabulous account of the reign of King Roderic, the conquest of
the country by the Moors, and the first attempts to recover it in the
beginning of the eighth century. The style is heavy and verbose, although
upon it Southey has founded much of his beautiful poem of "Roderic, the
last of the Goths." This chronicle of Don Roderic, which was little more
than a romance of chivalry, marks the transition to those romantic fictions
that had already begun to inundate Spain. But the series which it concludes
extends over a period of two hundred and fifty years, from the time of
Alfonso the Wise to the accession of Charles V. (1221-1516), and is
unrivaled in the richness and variety of its poetic elements. In truth, these
old Spanish chronicles cannot be compared with those of any other nation,
Page 445
and whether they have their foundation in truth or in fable, they strike their
strong roots further down into the deep soil of popular feeling and character.
The old Spanish loyalty, the old Spanish religious faith, as both were
formed and nourished in long periods of national trial and suffering,
everywhere appear; and they contain such a body of antiquities, traditions,
and fables as has been offered to no other people; furnishing not only
materials from which a multitude of old Spanish plays, ballads, and
romances have been drawn, but a mine which has unceasingly been
wrought by the rest of Europe for similar purposes, and which still remains
unexhausted.
4. ROMANCES OF CHIVALRY.—The ballads originally belonged to
the whole nation, but especially to its less cultivated portions. The
chronicles, on the contrary, belonged to the knightly classes, who sought in
these picturesque records of their fathers a stimulus to their own virtue. But
as the nation advanced in refinement, books of less grave character were
demanded, and the spirit of poetical invention soon turned to the national
traditions, and produced from these new and attractive forms of fiction.
Before the middle of the fourteenth century, the romances of chivalry
connected with the stories of Arthur and the knights of the Round Table,
and Charlemagne and his peers, which had appeared in France two
centuries before, were scarcely known in Spain; but after that time they
were imitated, and a new series of fictions was invented, which soon spread
through the world, and became more famous than, either of its
predecessors.
This extraordinary family of romances is that of which "Amadis" is the
poetical head and type, and this was probably produced before the year
1400, by Vasco de Lobeira, a Portuguese. The structure and tone of this
fiction are original, and much more free than those of the French romances
that had preceded it. The stories of Arthur and Charlemagne are both
strong roots further down into the deep soil of popular feeling and character.
The old Spanish loyalty, the old Spanish religious faith, as both were
formed and nourished in long periods of national trial and suffering,
everywhere appear; and they contain such a body of antiquities, traditions,
and fables as has been offered to no other people; furnishing not only
materials from which a multitude of old Spanish plays, ballads, and
romances have been drawn, but a mine which has unceasingly been
wrought by the rest of Europe for similar purposes, and which still remains
unexhausted.
4. ROMANCES OF CHIVALRY.—The ballads originally belonged to
the whole nation, but especially to its less cultivated portions. The
chronicles, on the contrary, belonged to the knightly classes, who sought in
these picturesque records of their fathers a stimulus to their own virtue. But
as the nation advanced in refinement, books of less grave character were
demanded, and the spirit of poetical invention soon turned to the national
traditions, and produced from these new and attractive forms of fiction.
Before the middle of the fourteenth century, the romances of chivalry
connected with the stories of Arthur and the knights of the Round Table,
and Charlemagne and his peers, which had appeared in France two
centuries before, were scarcely known in Spain; but after that time they
were imitated, and a new series of fictions was invented, which soon spread
through the world, and became more famous than, either of its
predecessors.
This extraordinary family of romances is that of which "Amadis" is the
poetical head and type, and this was probably produced before the year
1400, by Vasco de Lobeira, a Portuguese. The structure and tone of this
fiction are original, and much more free than those of the French romances
that had preceded it. The stories of Arthur and Charlemagne are both
Page 446
somewhat limited in invention by the adventures ascribed to them in the
traditions and chronicles, while that of Amadis belongs purely to the
imagination, and its sole purpose is to set forth the character of a perfect
knight. Amadis is admitted by general consent to be the best of all the old
romances of chivalry. The series which followed, founded upon the Amadis,
reached the number of twenty-four. They were successively translated into
French, and at once became famous. Considering the passionate admiration
which this work so long excited, and the influence that, with little merit of
its own, it has ever since exercised on the poetry and romance of modern
Europe, it is a phenomenon without parallel in literary history.
Many other series of romances followed, numbering more than seventy
volumes, most of them in folio, and their influence over the Spanish
character extended through two hundred years. Their extraordinary
popularity may be accounted for, if we remember that, when they first
appeared in Spain, it had long been peculiarly the land of knighthood.
Extravagant and impossible as are many of the adventures recorded in these
books of chivalry, they so little exceeded the absurdities of living men that
many persons took the romances themselves to be true histories, and
believed them. The happiest work of the greatest genius Spain has produced
bears witness on every page to the prevalence of an absolute fanaticism for
these books of chivalry, and becomes at once the seal of their vast
popularity and the monument of their fate.
5. THE DRAMA.—The ancient theatre of the Greeks and Romans was
continued in some of its grosser forms in Constantinople and in other parts
of the fallen empire far into the Middle Ages. But it was essentially
mythological or heathenish, and, as such, it was opposed by the Christian
church, which, however, provided a substitute for what it thus opposed, by
adding a dramatic element to its festivals. Thus the manger at Bethlehem,
with the worship of the shepherds and magi, was at a very early period
traditions and chronicles, while that of Amadis belongs purely to the
imagination, and its sole purpose is to set forth the character of a perfect
knight. Amadis is admitted by general consent to be the best of all the old
romances of chivalry. The series which followed, founded upon the Amadis,
reached the number of twenty-four. They were successively translated into
French, and at once became famous. Considering the passionate admiration
which this work so long excited, and the influence that, with little merit of
its own, it has ever since exercised on the poetry and romance of modern
Europe, it is a phenomenon without parallel in literary history.
Many other series of romances followed, numbering more than seventy
volumes, most of them in folio, and their influence over the Spanish
character extended through two hundred years. Their extraordinary
popularity may be accounted for, if we remember that, when they first
appeared in Spain, it had long been peculiarly the land of knighthood.
Extravagant and impossible as are many of the adventures recorded in these
books of chivalry, they so little exceeded the absurdities of living men that
many persons took the romances themselves to be true histories, and
believed them. The happiest work of the greatest genius Spain has produced
bears witness on every page to the prevalence of an absolute fanaticism for
these books of chivalry, and becomes at once the seal of their vast
popularity and the monument of their fate.
5. THE DRAMA.—The ancient theatre of the Greeks and Romans was
continued in some of its grosser forms in Constantinople and in other parts
of the fallen empire far into the Middle Ages. But it was essentially
mythological or heathenish, and, as such, it was opposed by the Christian
church, which, however, provided a substitute for what it thus opposed, by
adding a dramatic element to its festivals. Thus the manger at Bethlehem,
with the worship of the shepherds and magi, was at a very early period
Page 447
solemnly exhibited every year before the altars of the churches, at
Christmas, as were the tragical events of the last days of the Saviour's life,
during Lent and at the approach of Easter. To these spectacles, dialogue was
afterwards added, and they were called, as we have seen, Mysteries; they
were used successfully not only as a means of amusement, but for the
religious edification of an ignorant multitude, and in some countries they
have been continued quite down to our own times. The period when these
representations were first made in Spain cannot now be determined, though
it was certainly before the middle of the thirteenth century, and no distinct
account of them now remains.
A singular combination of pastoral and satirical poetry indicates the first
origin of the Spanish secular drama. Towards the close of the fifteenth
century, these pastoral dialogues were converted into real dramas by
Enzina, and were publicly represented. But the most important of these
early productions is the "Tragi-comedy of Calisto and Meliboea," or
"Celestina." Though it can never have been represented, it has left
unmistakable traces of its influence on the national drama ever since. It was
translated into various languages, and few works ever had a more brilliant
success. The great fault of the Celestina is its shameless libertinism of
thought and language; and its chief merits are its life- like exhibition of the
most unworthy forms of human character, and its singularly pure, rich, and
idiomatic Castilian style.
The dramatic writers of this period seem to have had no idea of founding
a popular national drama, of which there is no trace as late as the close of
the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
6. PROVENÇAL LITERATURE IN SPAIN.—When the crown of
Provence was transferred, by the marriage of its heir, in 1113, to Berenger,
Count of Barcelona, numbers of the Provençal poets followed their liege
Christmas, as were the tragical events of the last days of the Saviour's life,
during Lent and at the approach of Easter. To these spectacles, dialogue was
afterwards added, and they were called, as we have seen, Mysteries; they
were used successfully not only as a means of amusement, but for the
religious edification of an ignorant multitude, and in some countries they
have been continued quite down to our own times. The period when these
representations were first made in Spain cannot now be determined, though
it was certainly before the middle of the thirteenth century, and no distinct
account of them now remains.
A singular combination of pastoral and satirical poetry indicates the first
origin of the Spanish secular drama. Towards the close of the fifteenth
century, these pastoral dialogues were converted into real dramas by
Enzina, and were publicly represented. But the most important of these
early productions is the "Tragi-comedy of Calisto and Meliboea," or
"Celestina." Though it can never have been represented, it has left
unmistakable traces of its influence on the national drama ever since. It was
translated into various languages, and few works ever had a more brilliant
success. The great fault of the Celestina is its shameless libertinism of
thought and language; and its chief merits are its life- like exhibition of the
most unworthy forms of human character, and its singularly pure, rich, and
idiomatic Castilian style.
The dramatic writers of this period seem to have had no idea of founding
a popular national drama, of which there is no trace as late as the close of
the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
6. PROVENÇAL LITERATURE IN SPAIN.—When the crown of
Provence was transferred, by the marriage of its heir, in 1113, to Berenger,
Count of Barcelona, numbers of the Provençal poets followed their liege
Page 448
lady from Arles to Barcelona, and established themselves in her new
capital. At the very commencement, therefore, of the twelfth century,
Provençal refinement was introduced into the northeastern corner of Spain.
Political causes soon carried it farther towards the centre of the country. The
Counts of Barcelona obtained, by marriage, the kingdom of Aragon, and
soon spread through their new territories many of the refinements of
Provence. The literature thus introduced retained its Provençal character till
it came in contact with that more vigorous spirit which had been advancing
from the northwest, and which afterwards gave its tone to the consolidated
monarchy.
The poetry of the troubadours in Catalonia, as well as in its native home,
belonged much to the court, and the highest in rank and power were earliest
and foremost on its lists. From 1209 to 1229, the war against the Albigenses
was carried on with extraordinary cruelty and fury. To this sect nearly all
the contemporary troubadours belonged, and when they were compelled to
escape from the burnt and bloody ruins of their homes, many of them
hastened to the friendly court of Aragon, sure of being protected and
honored by princes who were at the same time poets.
From the close of the thirteenth century, the songs of the troubadours
were rarely heard in the land that gave them birth three hundred years
before; and the plant that was not permitted to expand in its native soil,
soon perished in that to which it had been transplanted. After the opening of
the fourteenth century, no genuinely Provençal poetry appears in Castile,
and from the middle of that century it begins to recede from Catalonia and
Aragon; or rather, to be corrupted by the hardier dialect spoken there by the
mass of the people. The retreat of the troubadours over the Pyrenees, from
Aix to Barcelona, from Barcelona to Saragossa and Valencia, is everywhere
marked by the wrecks and fragments of their peculiar poetry and
cultivation. At length, oppressed by the more powerful Castilian, what
capital. At the very commencement, therefore, of the twelfth century,
Provençal refinement was introduced into the northeastern corner of Spain.
Political causes soon carried it farther towards the centre of the country. The
Counts of Barcelona obtained, by marriage, the kingdom of Aragon, and
soon spread through their new territories many of the refinements of
Provence. The literature thus introduced retained its Provençal character till
it came in contact with that more vigorous spirit which had been advancing
from the northwest, and which afterwards gave its tone to the consolidated
monarchy.
The poetry of the troubadours in Catalonia, as well as in its native home,
belonged much to the court, and the highest in rank and power were earliest
and foremost on its lists. From 1209 to 1229, the war against the Albigenses
was carried on with extraordinary cruelty and fury. To this sect nearly all
the contemporary troubadours belonged, and when they were compelled to
escape from the burnt and bloody ruins of their homes, many of them
hastened to the friendly court of Aragon, sure of being protected and
honored by princes who were at the same time poets.
From the close of the thirteenth century, the songs of the troubadours
were rarely heard in the land that gave them birth three hundred years
before; and the plant that was not permitted to expand in its native soil,
soon perished in that to which it had been transplanted. After the opening of
the fourteenth century, no genuinely Provençal poetry appears in Castile,
and from the middle of that century it begins to recede from Catalonia and
Aragon; or rather, to be corrupted by the hardier dialect spoken there by the
mass of the people. The retreat of the troubadours over the Pyrenees, from
Aix to Barcelona, from Barcelona to Saragossa and Valencia, is everywhere
marked by the wrecks and fragments of their peculiar poetry and
cultivation. At length, oppressed by the more powerful Castilian, what
Page 449
remained of the language, that gave the first impulse to poetic feeling in
modern times, sank into a neglected dialect.
7. THE INFLUENCE OF ITALIAN LITERATURE IN SPAIN.—The
influence of the Italian literature over the Spanish, though less apparent at
first, was more deep and lasting than that of the Provençal. The long wars
that the Christians of Spain waged against the Moors brought them into
closer spiritual connection with the Church of Rome than any other people
of modern times. Spanish students repaired to the famous universities of
Italy, and returned to Spain, bringing with them the influence of Italian
culture; and commercial and political relations still further promoted a free
communication of the manners and literature of Italy to Spain. The
language, also, from its affinity with the Spanish, constituted a still more
important and effectual medium of intercourse. In the reign of John II.
(1407-1454), the attempt to form an Italian school in Spain became
apparent. This sovereign gathered about him a sort of poetical court, and
gave an impulse to refinement that was perceptible for several generations.
Among those who interested themselves most directly in the progress of
poetry in Spain, the first in rank, after the king himself, was the
Marquis of Villena (1384-1434), whose fame rests chiefly on the "Labors of
Hercules," a short prose treatise or allegory.
First of all the courtiers and poets of this reign, in point of merit, stands
the Marquis of Santillana (1398-1458), whose works belong more or less to
the Provençal, Italian, and Spanish schools. He was the founder of an Italian
and courtly school in Spanish poetry—one adverse to the national school
and finally overcome by it, but one that long exercised a considerable sway.
Another poet of the court of John II. is Juan de Mena, historiographer of
Castile. His principal works are, "The Coronation" and "The Labyrinth,"
both imitations of Dante. They are of consequence as marking the progress
modern times, sank into a neglected dialect.
7. THE INFLUENCE OF ITALIAN LITERATURE IN SPAIN.—The
influence of the Italian literature over the Spanish, though less apparent at
first, was more deep and lasting than that of the Provençal. The long wars
that the Christians of Spain waged against the Moors brought them into
closer spiritual connection with the Church of Rome than any other people
of modern times. Spanish students repaired to the famous universities of
Italy, and returned to Spain, bringing with them the influence of Italian
culture; and commercial and political relations still further promoted a free
communication of the manners and literature of Italy to Spain. The
language, also, from its affinity with the Spanish, constituted a still more
important and effectual medium of intercourse. In the reign of John II.
(1407-1454), the attempt to form an Italian school in Spain became
apparent. This sovereign gathered about him a sort of poetical court, and
gave an impulse to refinement that was perceptible for several generations.
Among those who interested themselves most directly in the progress of
poetry in Spain, the first in rank, after the king himself, was the
Marquis of Villena (1384-1434), whose fame rests chiefly on the "Labors of
Hercules," a short prose treatise or allegory.
First of all the courtiers and poets of this reign, in point of merit, stands
the Marquis of Santillana (1398-1458), whose works belong more or less to
the Provençal, Italian, and Spanish schools. He was the founder of an Italian
and courtly school in Spanish poetry—one adverse to the national school
and finally overcome by it, but one that long exercised a considerable sway.
Another poet of the court of John II. is Juan de Mena, historiographer of
Castile. His principal works are, "The Coronation" and "The Labyrinth,"
both imitations of Dante. They are of consequence as marking the progress
Page 450
of the language. The principal poem of Manrique the younger, one of an
illustrious family of that name, who were poets, statesmen, and soldiers, on
the death of his father, is remarkable for depth and truth of feeling. Its
greatest charm is its beautiful simplicity, and its merit entitles it to the place
it has taken among the most admired portions of the elder Spanish
literature.
8. THE CANCIONEROS AND PROSE WRITINGS.—The most distinct
idea of the poetical culture of Spain, during the fifteenth century, may he
obtained from the "Cancioneros," or collections of poetry, sometimes all by
one author, sometimes by many. The oldest of these dates from about 1450,
and was the work of Baena. Many similar collections followed, and they
were among the fashionable wants of the age. In 1511, Castillo printed at
Valencia the "Cancionero General," which contained poems attributed to
about a hundred different poets, from the time of Santillana to the period in
which it was made. Ten editions of this remarkable book followed, and in it
we find the poetry most in favor at the court and with the refined society of
Spain. It contains no trace of the earliest poetry of the country, but the spirit
of the troubadours is everywhere present; the occasional imitations from the
Italian are more apparent than successful, and in general it is wearisome and
monotonous, overstrained, formal, and cold. But it was impossible that such
a state of poetical culture should become permanent in a country so full of
stirring events as Spain was in the age that followed the fall of Granada and
the discovery of America; everything announced a decided movement in the
literature of the nation, and almost everything seemed to favor and facilitate
it.
The prose writers of the fifteenth century deserve mention chiefly
because they were so much valued in their own age. Their writings are
encumbered with the bad taste and pedantry of the time. Among them are
Lucena, Alfonso de la Torre, Pulgar, and a few others.
illustrious family of that name, who were poets, statesmen, and soldiers, on
the death of his father, is remarkable for depth and truth of feeling. Its
greatest charm is its beautiful simplicity, and its merit entitles it to the place
it has taken among the most admired portions of the elder Spanish
literature.
8. THE CANCIONEROS AND PROSE WRITINGS.—The most distinct
idea of the poetical culture of Spain, during the fifteenth century, may he
obtained from the "Cancioneros," or collections of poetry, sometimes all by
one author, sometimes by many. The oldest of these dates from about 1450,
and was the work of Baena. Many similar collections followed, and they
were among the fashionable wants of the age. In 1511, Castillo printed at
Valencia the "Cancionero General," which contained poems attributed to
about a hundred different poets, from the time of Santillana to the period in
which it was made. Ten editions of this remarkable book followed, and in it
we find the poetry most in favor at the court and with the refined society of
Spain. It contains no trace of the earliest poetry of the country, but the spirit
of the troubadours is everywhere present; the occasional imitations from the
Italian are more apparent than successful, and in general it is wearisome and
monotonous, overstrained, formal, and cold. But it was impossible that such
a state of poetical culture should become permanent in a country so full of
stirring events as Spain was in the age that followed the fall of Granada and
the discovery of America; everything announced a decided movement in the
literature of the nation, and almost everything seemed to favor and facilitate
it.
The prose writers of the fifteenth century deserve mention chiefly
because they were so much valued in their own age. Their writings are
encumbered with the bad taste and pedantry of the time. Among them are
Lucena, Alfonso de la Torre, Pulgar, and a few others.
Page 451
9. THE INQUISITION.—The first period of the history of Spanish
literature, now concluded, extends through nearly four centuries, from the
first breathings of the poetical enthusiasm of the mass of the people, down
to the decay of the courtly literature in the latter part of the reign of
Ferdinand and Isabella. The elements of a national literature which it
contains—the old ballads, the old chronicles, the old theatre— are of a
vigor and promise not to be mistaken. They constitute a mine of more
various wealth than had been offered under similar circumstances, at so
early a period, to any other people; and they give indications of a
subsequent literature that must vindicate for itself a place among the
permanent monuments of modern civilization.
The condition of things in Spain, at the close of the reign of Ferdinand
and Isabella, seemed to promise a long period of national prosperity. But
one institution, destined to check and discourage all intellectual freedom,
was already beginning to give token of its great and blighting power. The
Christian Spaniards had from an early period been essentially intolerant.
The Moors and the Jews were regarded by them with an intense and bitter
hatred; the first as their conquerors, and the last for the oppressive claims
which their wealth gave them on numbers of the Christian inhabitants; and
as enemies of the Cross, it was regarded as a merit to punish them. The
establishment of the Inquisition, therefore, in 1481, which had been so
effectually used to exterminate the heresy of the Albigenses, met with little
opposition. The Jews and the Moors were its first victims, and with them it
was permitted to deal unchecked by the power of the state. But the
movements of this power were in darkness and secrecy. From the moment
when the Inquisition laid its grasp on the object of its suspicions to that of
his execution, no voice was heard to issue from its cells. The very witnesses
it summoned were punished with death if they revealed the secrets of its
dread tribunals; and often of the victim nothing was known but that he had
disappeared from his accustomed haunts never again to be seen. The effect
literature, now concluded, extends through nearly four centuries, from the
first breathings of the poetical enthusiasm of the mass of the people, down
to the decay of the courtly literature in the latter part of the reign of
Ferdinand and Isabella. The elements of a national literature which it
contains—the old ballads, the old chronicles, the old theatre— are of a
vigor and promise not to be mistaken. They constitute a mine of more
various wealth than had been offered under similar circumstances, at so
early a period, to any other people; and they give indications of a
subsequent literature that must vindicate for itself a place among the
permanent monuments of modern civilization.
The condition of things in Spain, at the close of the reign of Ferdinand
and Isabella, seemed to promise a long period of national prosperity. But
one institution, destined to check and discourage all intellectual freedom,
was already beginning to give token of its great and blighting power. The
Christian Spaniards had from an early period been essentially intolerant.
The Moors and the Jews were regarded by them with an intense and bitter
hatred; the first as their conquerors, and the last for the oppressive claims
which their wealth gave them on numbers of the Christian inhabitants; and
as enemies of the Cross, it was regarded as a merit to punish them. The
establishment of the Inquisition, therefore, in 1481, which had been so
effectually used to exterminate the heresy of the Albigenses, met with little
opposition. The Jews and the Moors were its first victims, and with them it
was permitted to deal unchecked by the power of the state. But the
movements of this power were in darkness and secrecy. From the moment
when the Inquisition laid its grasp on the object of its suspicions to that of
his execution, no voice was heard to issue from its cells. The very witnesses
it summoned were punished with death if they revealed the secrets of its
dread tribunals; and often of the victim nothing was known but that he had
disappeared from his accustomed haunts never again to be seen. The effect
Page 452
was appalling. The imaginations of men were filled with horror at the idea
of a power so vast, so noiseless, constantly and invisibly around them,
whose blow was death, but whose step could neither be heard nor followed
amidst the gloom into which it retreated. From this time, Spanish
intolerance took that air of sombre fanaticism which it never afterwards
lost. The Inquisition gradually enlarged its jurisdiction, until none was too
humble to escape its notice, or too high to be reached by its power. From an
inquiry into the private opinions of individuals to an interference with
books and the press was but a step, and this was soon taken, hastened by the
appearance and progress of the Reformation of Luther.
PERIOD SECOND.
FROM THE ACCESSION OF THE AUSTRIAN FAMILY TO ITS
EXTINCTION (1500-1700).
1. THE EFFECT OF INTOLERANCE ON LETTERS.—The central
point in Spanish history is the capture of Granada. During nearly eight
centuries before that event, the Christians of Spain were occupied with
conflicts that developed extraordinary energies, till the whole land was
filled to overflowing with a power which had hardly yet been felt in
Europe. But no sooner was the last Moorish fortress yielded up, than this
accumulated flood broke loose and threatened to overspread the best
portions of the civilized world. Charles the Fifth, grandson of Ferdinand
and Isabella, inherited not only Spain, but Naples, Sicily, and the Low
Countries. The untold wealth of the Indies was already beginning to pour
into his treasury. He was elected Emperor of Germany, and he soon began a
career of conquest such as had not been imagined since the days of
Charlemagne. Success and glory ever waited for him as he advanced, and
this brilliant aspect seemed to promise that Spain would erelong be at the
of a power so vast, so noiseless, constantly and invisibly around them,
whose blow was death, but whose step could neither be heard nor followed
amidst the gloom into which it retreated. From this time, Spanish
intolerance took that air of sombre fanaticism which it never afterwards
lost. The Inquisition gradually enlarged its jurisdiction, until none was too
humble to escape its notice, or too high to be reached by its power. From an
inquiry into the private opinions of individuals to an interference with
books and the press was but a step, and this was soon taken, hastened by the
appearance and progress of the Reformation of Luther.
PERIOD SECOND.
FROM THE ACCESSION OF THE AUSTRIAN FAMILY TO ITS
EXTINCTION (1500-1700).
1. THE EFFECT OF INTOLERANCE ON LETTERS.—The central
point in Spanish history is the capture of Granada. During nearly eight
centuries before that event, the Christians of Spain were occupied with
conflicts that developed extraordinary energies, till the whole land was
filled to overflowing with a power which had hardly yet been felt in
Europe. But no sooner was the last Moorish fortress yielded up, than this
accumulated flood broke loose and threatened to overspread the best
portions of the civilized world. Charles the Fifth, grandson of Ferdinand
and Isabella, inherited not only Spain, but Naples, Sicily, and the Low
Countries. The untold wealth of the Indies was already beginning to pour
into his treasury. He was elected Emperor of Germany, and he soon began a
career of conquest such as had not been imagined since the days of
Charlemagne. Success and glory ever waited for him as he advanced, and
this brilliant aspect seemed to promise that Spain would erelong be at the
Page 453
head of an empire more extensive than the Roman. But a moral power was
at work, destined to divide Europe anew, and the monk Luther was already
become a counterpoise to the military master of so many kingdoms. During
the hundred and thirty years of struggle, that terminated with the peace of
Westphalia, though Spain was far removed from the fields where the most
cruel battles of the religious wars were fought, the interest she took in the
contest may be seen from the presence of her armies in every part of Europe
where it was possible to assail the great movement of the Reformation.
In Spain, the contest with Protestantism was of short duration. By
successive decrees the church ordained that all persons who kept in their
possession books infected with the doctrines of Luther, and even all who
failed to denounce such persons, should be excommunicated, and subjected
to cruel and degrading punishments. The power of the Inquisition was
consummated in 1546, when the first "Index Expurgatorius" was published
in Spain. This was a list of the books that all persons were forbidden to buy,
sell, or keep possession of, under penalty of confiscation and death. The
tribunals were authorized and required to proceed against all persons
supposed to be infected with the new belief, even though they were
cardinals, dukes, kings, or emperors,—a power more formidable to the
progress of intellectual improvement, than had ever before been granted to
any body of men, civil or ecclesiastical.
The portentous authority thus given was freely exercised. The first public
auto da fé of Protestants was held in 1559, and many others followed. The
number of victims seldom exceeded twenty burned at one time, and fifty or
sixty subjected to the severest punishments; but many of those who suffered
were among the active and leading minds of the age. Men of learning were
particularly obnoxious to suspicion, nor were persons of the holiest lives
beyond its reach if they showed a tendency to inquiry. So effectually did the
Inquisition accomplish its purpose, that, from the latter part of the reign of
at work, destined to divide Europe anew, and the monk Luther was already
become a counterpoise to the military master of so many kingdoms. During
the hundred and thirty years of struggle, that terminated with the peace of
Westphalia, though Spain was far removed from the fields where the most
cruel battles of the religious wars were fought, the interest she took in the
contest may be seen from the presence of her armies in every part of Europe
where it was possible to assail the great movement of the Reformation.
In Spain, the contest with Protestantism was of short duration. By
successive decrees the church ordained that all persons who kept in their
possession books infected with the doctrines of Luther, and even all who
failed to denounce such persons, should be excommunicated, and subjected
to cruel and degrading punishments. The power of the Inquisition was
consummated in 1546, when the first "Index Expurgatorius" was published
in Spain. This was a list of the books that all persons were forbidden to buy,
sell, or keep possession of, under penalty of confiscation and death. The
tribunals were authorized and required to proceed against all persons
supposed to be infected with the new belief, even though they were
cardinals, dukes, kings, or emperors,—a power more formidable to the
progress of intellectual improvement, than had ever before been granted to
any body of men, civil or ecclesiastical.
The portentous authority thus given was freely exercised. The first public
auto da fé of Protestants was held in 1559, and many others followed. The
number of victims seldom exceeded twenty burned at one time, and fifty or
sixty subjected to the severest punishments; but many of those who suffered
were among the active and leading minds of the age. Men of learning were
particularly obnoxious to suspicion, nor were persons of the holiest lives
beyond its reach if they showed a tendency to inquiry. So effectually did the
Inquisition accomplish its purpose, that, from the latter part of the reign of
Page 454
Philip II., the voice of religious dissent was scarcely heard in the land. The
great body of the Spanish people rejoiced alike in their loyalty and their
orthodoxy, and the few who differed from the mass of their fellow-subjects
were either silenced by their fears, or sunk away from the surface of society.
From that time down to its overthrow, in 1808, this institution was chiefly a
political engine.
The result of such extraordinary traits in the national character could not
fail to be impressed upon the literature. Loyalty, which had once been so
generous an element in the Spanish character and cultivation, was now
infected with the ambition of universal empire, and the Christian spirit
which gave an air of duty to the wildest forms of adventure in its long
contest with misbelief, was now fallen into a bigotry so pervading that the
romances of the time are full of it, and the national theatre becomes its
grotesque monument.
Of course the literature of Spain produced during this interval—the
earlier part of which was the period of the greatest glory the country ever
enjoyed—was injuriously affected by so diseased a condition of the national
mind. Some departments hardly appeared at all, others were strangely
perverted, while yet others, like the drama, ballads, and lyrical verse, grew
exuberant and lawless, from the very restraints imposed on the rest. But it
would be an error to suppose that these peculiarities in Spanish literature
were produced by the direct action either of the Inquisition or of the
government. The foundations of this dark work were laid deep and sure in
the old Castilian character. It was the result of the excess and misdirection
of that very Christian zeal which fought so gloriously against the intrusion
of Mohammedanism into Spain, and of that loyalty which sustained the
Spanish princes so faithfully through the whole of that terrible contest. This
state of things, however, involved the ultimate sacrifice of the best elements
of the national character. Only a little more than a century elapsed, before
great body of the Spanish people rejoiced alike in their loyalty and their
orthodoxy, and the few who differed from the mass of their fellow-subjects
were either silenced by their fears, or sunk away from the surface of society.
From that time down to its overthrow, in 1808, this institution was chiefly a
political engine.
The result of such extraordinary traits in the national character could not
fail to be impressed upon the literature. Loyalty, which had once been so
generous an element in the Spanish character and cultivation, was now
infected with the ambition of universal empire, and the Christian spirit
which gave an air of duty to the wildest forms of adventure in its long
contest with misbelief, was now fallen into a bigotry so pervading that the
romances of the time are full of it, and the national theatre becomes its
grotesque monument.
Of course the literature of Spain produced during this interval—the
earlier part of which was the period of the greatest glory the country ever
enjoyed—was injuriously affected by so diseased a condition of the national
mind. Some departments hardly appeared at all, others were strangely
perverted, while yet others, like the drama, ballads, and lyrical verse, grew
exuberant and lawless, from the very restraints imposed on the rest. But it
would be an error to suppose that these peculiarities in Spanish literature
were produced by the direct action either of the Inquisition or of the
government. The foundations of this dark work were laid deep and sure in
the old Castilian character. It was the result of the excess and misdirection
of that very Christian zeal which fought so gloriously against the intrusion
of Mohammedanism into Spain, and of that loyalty which sustained the
Spanish princes so faithfully through the whole of that terrible contest. This
state of things, however, involved the ultimate sacrifice of the best elements
of the national character. Only a little more than a century elapsed, before
Page 455
the government that had threatened the world with a universal empire, was
hardly able to repel invasion from abroad or maintain its subjects at home.
The vigorous poetical life which had been kindled through the country in its
ages of trial and adversity, was evidently passing out of the whole Spanish
character. The crude wealth from their American possessions sustained, for
a century longer, the forms of a miserable political existence; but the earnest
faith, the loyalty, the dignity of the Spanish people were gone, and little
remained in their place but a weak subserviency to unworthy masters of
state, and a low, timid bigotry in whatever related to religion. The old
enthusiasm faded away, and the poetry of the country, which had always
depended more on the state of the popular feeling than any other poetry of
modern times, faded and failed with it.
2. INFLUENCE OF ITALY ON SPANISH LITERATURE.—The
political connection between Spain and Italy in the early part of the
sixteenth century, and the superior civilization and refinement of the latter
country, could not fail to influence Spanish literature. Juan Boscan (d.
1543) was the first to attempt the proper Italian measures as they were then
practiced. He established in Spain the Italian iambic, the sonnet, and
canzone of Petrarch, the terza rima of Dante, and the flowing octaves of
Ariosto. As an original poet, the talents of Boscan were not of the highest
order.
Garcilasso de la Vega (1503-1536), the contemporary and friend of
Boscan, united with him in introducing an Italian school of poetry, which
has been an important part of Spanish literature ever since. The poems of
Garcilasso are remarkable for their gentleness and melancholy, and his
versification is uncommonly sweet, and well adapted to the tender and sad
character of his poetry.
hardly able to repel invasion from abroad or maintain its subjects at home.
The vigorous poetical life which had been kindled through the country in its
ages of trial and adversity, was evidently passing out of the whole Spanish
character. The crude wealth from their American possessions sustained, for
a century longer, the forms of a miserable political existence; but the earnest
faith, the loyalty, the dignity of the Spanish people were gone, and little
remained in their place but a weak subserviency to unworthy masters of
state, and a low, timid bigotry in whatever related to religion. The old
enthusiasm faded away, and the poetry of the country, which had always
depended more on the state of the popular feeling than any other poetry of
modern times, faded and failed with it.
2. INFLUENCE OF ITALY ON SPANISH LITERATURE.—The
political connection between Spain and Italy in the early part of the
sixteenth century, and the superior civilization and refinement of the latter
country, could not fail to influence Spanish literature. Juan Boscan (d.
1543) was the first to attempt the proper Italian measures as they were then
practiced. He established in Spain the Italian iambic, the sonnet, and
canzone of Petrarch, the terza rima of Dante, and the flowing octaves of
Ariosto. As an original poet, the talents of Boscan were not of the highest
order.
Garcilasso de la Vega (1503-1536), the contemporary and friend of
Boscan, united with him in introducing an Italian school of poetry, which
has been an important part of Spanish literature ever since. The poems of
Garcilasso are remarkable for their gentleness and melancholy, and his
versification is uncommonly sweet, and well adapted to the tender and sad
character of his poetry.
Page 456
The example set by Boscan and Garcilasso so well suited the demands of
the age, that it became as much a fashion at the court of Charles V. to write
in the Italian manner, as it did to travel in Italy, or make a military campaign
there. Among those who did most to establish the Italian influence in
Spanish literature was Diego de Mendoza (1503-1575), a scholar, a soldier,
a poet, a diplomatist, a statesman, a historian, and a man who rose to great
consideration in whatever he undertook. One of his earliest works,
"Lazarillo de Tormes," the auto-biography of a boy, little Lazarus, was
written with the object of satirizing all classes of society under the character
of a servant, who sees them in undress behind the scenes. The style of this
work is bold, rich, and idiomatic, and some of its sketches are among the
most fresh and spirited that can be found in the whole class of prose works
of fiction. It has been more or less a favorite in all languages, down to the
present day, and was the foundation of a class of fictions which the "Gil
Blas" of Le Sage has made famous throughout the world. Mendoza, after
having filled many high offices under Charles V., when Philip ascended the
throne, was, for some slight offense, banished from the court as a madman.
In the poems which he occasionally wrote during his exile, he gave the
influence of his example to the new form introduced by Boscan and
Garcilasso. At a later period he occupied himself in writing some portions
of the history of his native city, Granada, relating to the rebellion of the
Moors (1568-1570). Familiar with everything of which he speaks, there is a
freshness and power in his sketches that carry us at once into the midst of
the scenes and events he describes. "The War of Granada" is an imitation of
Sallust. Nothing in the style of the old chronicles is to be compared to it,
and little in any subsequent period is equal to it for manliness, vigor, and
truth.
3. HISTORY.—The imperfect chronicles of the age of Charles V. were
surpassed in importance by the histories or narratives, more or less ample,
of the discoverers of the western world, all of which were interesting from
the age, that it became as much a fashion at the court of Charles V. to write
in the Italian manner, as it did to travel in Italy, or make a military campaign
there. Among those who did most to establish the Italian influence in
Spanish literature was Diego de Mendoza (1503-1575), a scholar, a soldier,
a poet, a diplomatist, a statesman, a historian, and a man who rose to great
consideration in whatever he undertook. One of his earliest works,
"Lazarillo de Tormes," the auto-biography of a boy, little Lazarus, was
written with the object of satirizing all classes of society under the character
of a servant, who sees them in undress behind the scenes. The style of this
work is bold, rich, and idiomatic, and some of its sketches are among the
most fresh and spirited that can be found in the whole class of prose works
of fiction. It has been more or less a favorite in all languages, down to the
present day, and was the foundation of a class of fictions which the "Gil
Blas" of Le Sage has made famous throughout the world. Mendoza, after
having filled many high offices under Charles V., when Philip ascended the
throne, was, for some slight offense, banished from the court as a madman.
In the poems which he occasionally wrote during his exile, he gave the
influence of his example to the new form introduced by Boscan and
Garcilasso. At a later period he occupied himself in writing some portions
of the history of his native city, Granada, relating to the rebellion of the
Moors (1568-1570). Familiar with everything of which he speaks, there is a
freshness and power in his sketches that carry us at once into the midst of
the scenes and events he describes. "The War of Granada" is an imitation of
Sallust. Nothing in the style of the old chronicles is to be compared to it,
and little in any subsequent period is equal to it for manliness, vigor, and
truth.
3. HISTORY.—The imperfect chronicles of the age of Charles V. were
surpassed in importance by the histories or narratives, more or less ample,
of the discoverers of the western world, all of which were interesting from
Page 457
their subject and their materials. First in the foreground of this picturesque
group stands Fernando Cortes (1485-1554), of whose voluminous
documents the most remarkable were five long reports to the Emperor on
the affairs of Mexico.
The marvelous achievements of Cortes, however, were more fully
recorded by Gomara (b. 1510), the oldest of the regular historians of the
New World. His principal works are the "History of the Indies," chiefly
devoted to Columbus and the conquest of Peru, and the "Chronicle of New
Spain," which is merely the history and life of Cortes, under which title it
has since been republished. The style of Gomara is easy and flowing, but
his work was of no permanent authority, in consequence of the great and
frequent mistakes into which he was led by those who were too much a part
of the story to relate it fairly. These mistakes Bernal Diaz, an old soldier
who had been long in the New World, set himself at work to correct, and the
book he thus produced, with many faults, has something of the honest
nationality, and the fervor and faith of the old chronicles.
Among those who have left records of their adventures in America, one
of the most considerable is Oviedo (1478-1557), who for nearly forty years
devoted himself to the affairs of the Spanish colonies in which he resided.
His most important work is "The Natural and General History of the
Indies," a series of accounts of the natural condition, the aboriginal
inhabitants, and the political affairs of the Spanish provinces in America, as
they stood in the middle of the sixteenth century. It is of great value as a
vast repository of facts, and not without merit as a composition.
In Las Casas (1474-1566) Oviedo had a formidable rival, who, pursuing
the same course of inquiries in the New World, came to conclusions quite
opposite. Convinced from his first arrival in Hispaniola that the gentle
nature and slight frames of the natives were subjected to toil and servitude
group stands Fernando Cortes (1485-1554), of whose voluminous
documents the most remarkable were five long reports to the Emperor on
the affairs of Mexico.
The marvelous achievements of Cortes, however, were more fully
recorded by Gomara (b. 1510), the oldest of the regular historians of the
New World. His principal works are the "History of the Indies," chiefly
devoted to Columbus and the conquest of Peru, and the "Chronicle of New
Spain," which is merely the history and life of Cortes, under which title it
has since been republished. The style of Gomara is easy and flowing, but
his work was of no permanent authority, in consequence of the great and
frequent mistakes into which he was led by those who were too much a part
of the story to relate it fairly. These mistakes Bernal Diaz, an old soldier
who had been long in the New World, set himself at work to correct, and the
book he thus produced, with many faults, has something of the honest
nationality, and the fervor and faith of the old chronicles.
Among those who have left records of their adventures in America, one
of the most considerable is Oviedo (1478-1557), who for nearly forty years
devoted himself to the affairs of the Spanish colonies in which he resided.
His most important work is "The Natural and General History of the
Indies," a series of accounts of the natural condition, the aboriginal
inhabitants, and the political affairs of the Spanish provinces in America, as
they stood in the middle of the sixteenth century. It is of great value as a
vast repository of facts, and not without merit as a composition.
In Las Casas (1474-1566) Oviedo had a formidable rival, who, pursuing
the same course of inquiries in the New World, came to conclusions quite
opposite. Convinced from his first arrival in Hispaniola that the gentle
nature and slight frames of the natives were subjected to toil and servitude
Page 458
so hard that they were wasting away, he thenceforth devoted his life to their
emancipation. He crossed the Atlantic six times, in order to persuade the
government of Charles V. to ameliorate their condition, and always with
more or less success. His earliest work, "A Short Account of the Ruin of the
Indies," was a tract in which the sufferings and wrongs of the Indians were
doubtless much overstated by the zeal of its author, but it awakened all
Europe to a sense of the injustice it set forth. Other short treatises followed,
but none ever produced so deep and solemn an effect on the world.
The great work of Las Casas, however, still remains inedited,—"A
General History of the Indies from 1492 to 1525." Like his other works, it
shows marks of haste and carelessness, but its value is great,
notwithstanding his too fervent zeal for the Indians. It is a repository to
which Herrera, and, through him, all subsequent historians of the Indies
resorted for materials, and without which the history of the earliest period
of the Spanish settlements in America cannot even now be written.
There are numerous other works on the discovery and conquest of
America, but they are of less consequence than those already mentioned. As
a class, they resemble the old chronicles, though they announce the
approach of the more regular form of history.
4. THE DRAMA.—Before the middle of the sixteenth century, the
Mysteries were the only dramatic exhibitions of Spain. They were upheld
by ecclesiastical power, and the people, as such, had no share in them. The
first attempt to create a popular drama was made by Lope de Rueda, a
goldbeater of Seville, who flourished between 1544 and 1567, and who
became both a dramatic writer and an actor. His works consist of comedies,
pastoral colloquies, and dialogues in prose and verse. They were written for
representation, and were acted before popular audiences by a strolling
company led about by Lope de Rueda himself. Naturalness of thought, the
emancipation. He crossed the Atlantic six times, in order to persuade the
government of Charles V. to ameliorate their condition, and always with
more or less success. His earliest work, "A Short Account of the Ruin of the
Indies," was a tract in which the sufferings and wrongs of the Indians were
doubtless much overstated by the zeal of its author, but it awakened all
Europe to a sense of the injustice it set forth. Other short treatises followed,
but none ever produced so deep and solemn an effect on the world.
The great work of Las Casas, however, still remains inedited,—"A
General History of the Indies from 1492 to 1525." Like his other works, it
shows marks of haste and carelessness, but its value is great,
notwithstanding his too fervent zeal for the Indians. It is a repository to
which Herrera, and, through him, all subsequent historians of the Indies
resorted for materials, and without which the history of the earliest period
of the Spanish settlements in America cannot even now be written.
There are numerous other works on the discovery and conquest of
America, but they are of less consequence than those already mentioned. As
a class, they resemble the old chronicles, though they announce the
approach of the more regular form of history.
4. THE DRAMA.—Before the middle of the sixteenth century, the
Mysteries were the only dramatic exhibitions of Spain. They were upheld
by ecclesiastical power, and the people, as such, had no share in them. The
first attempt to create a popular drama was made by Lope de Rueda, a
goldbeater of Seville, who flourished between 1544 and 1567, and who
became both a dramatic writer and an actor. His works consist of comedies,
pastoral colloquies, and dialogues in prose and verse. They were written for
representation, and were acted before popular audiences by a strolling
company led about by Lope de Rueda himself. Naturalness of thought, the
Page 459
most easy, idiomatic Castilian terms of expression, a good-humored gayety,
a strong sense of the ridiculous, and a happy imitation of the tone and
manners of common life, are the prominent characteristics of these plays,
and their author was justly reckoned by Cervantes and Lope de Vega as the
true founder of the popular national theatre. The ancient simplicity and
severity of the Spanish people had now been superseded by the luxury and
extravagance which the treasures of America had introduced; the
ecclesiastical fetters imposed on opinion and conscience had so connected
all ideas of morality and religion with inquisitorial severity, that the mind
longed for an escape, and gladly took refuge in amusements where these
unwelcome topics had no place. So far, the number of dramas was small,
and these had been written in forms so different and so often opposed to
each other as to have little consistency or authority, and to offer no
sufficient indication of the channel in which the dramatic literature of the
country was at last to flow. It was reserved for Lope de Vega to seize, with
the instinct of genius, the crude and unsettled elements of the existing
drama, and to form from them, and from the abundant and rich inventions
of his own overflowing fancy, a drama which, as a whole, was unlike
anything that had preceded it, and yet was so truly national and rested so
faithfully on tradition, that it was never afterwards disturbed, till the whole
literature of which it was so brilliant a part was swept away with it.
Lope de Vega (1562-1635) early manifested extraordinary powers and a
marvelous poetic genius. After completing his education, he became
secretary to the Duke of Alba. Engaging in an affair of honor, in which he
dangerously wounded his adversary, he was obliged to fly and to remain
several years in exile. On his return to Madrid, religious and patriotic zeal
induced him to join the expedition of the Invincible Armada for the
invasion of England, and he was one of the few who returned in safety to
his native country. Domestic afflictions soon after determined him to
renounce the world and to enter holy orders. Notwithstanding this change,
a strong sense of the ridiculous, and a happy imitation of the tone and
manners of common life, are the prominent characteristics of these plays,
and their author was justly reckoned by Cervantes and Lope de Vega as the
true founder of the popular national theatre. The ancient simplicity and
severity of the Spanish people had now been superseded by the luxury and
extravagance which the treasures of America had introduced; the
ecclesiastical fetters imposed on opinion and conscience had so connected
all ideas of morality and religion with inquisitorial severity, that the mind
longed for an escape, and gladly took refuge in amusements where these
unwelcome topics had no place. So far, the number of dramas was small,
and these had been written in forms so different and so often opposed to
each other as to have little consistency or authority, and to offer no
sufficient indication of the channel in which the dramatic literature of the
country was at last to flow. It was reserved for Lope de Vega to seize, with
the instinct of genius, the crude and unsettled elements of the existing
drama, and to form from them, and from the abundant and rich inventions
of his own overflowing fancy, a drama which, as a whole, was unlike
anything that had preceded it, and yet was so truly national and rested so
faithfully on tradition, that it was never afterwards disturbed, till the whole
literature of which it was so brilliant a part was swept away with it.
Lope de Vega (1562-1635) early manifested extraordinary powers and a
marvelous poetic genius. After completing his education, he became
secretary to the Duke of Alba. Engaging in an affair of honor, in which he
dangerously wounded his adversary, he was obliged to fly and to remain
several years in exile. On his return to Madrid, religious and patriotic zeal
induced him to join the expedition of the Invincible Armada for the
invasion of England, and he was one of the few who returned in safety to
his native country. Domestic afflictions soon after determined him to
renounce the world and to enter holy orders. Notwithstanding this change,
Page 460
he continued to cultivate poetry to the close of his long life, with so
wonderful a facility that a drama of more than two thousand lines,
intermingled with sonnets and enlivened with all kinds of unexpected
incidents and intrigues, frequently cost him no more than the labor of a
single day. He composed more rapidly than his amanuensis could
transcribe, and the managers of the theatres left him no time to copy or
correct his compositions; so that his plays were frequently represented
within twenty- four hours after their first conception. His fertility of
invention and his talent for versification are unparalleled in the history of
literature. He produced two thousand two hundred dramas, of which only
about five hundred were printed. His other poems were published at Madrid
in 1776, in twenty-one volumes quarto. His prodigious literary labors
produced him nearly as much money as glory; but his liberality to the poor
and his taste for pomp soon dissipated his wealth, and after living in
splendor, he died almost in poverty.
No poet has ever in his lifetime enjoyed such honors. Eager crowds
surrounded him whenever he showed himself abroad, and saluted him with
the appellation of Prodigy of Nature. Every eye was fixed on him, and
children followed him with cries of pleasure. He was chosen President of
the Spiritual College at Madrid, and the pope conferred upon him high
marks of distinction, not only for his poetical talents, but for his enthusiastic
zeal for the interests of religion. He was also appointed one of the familiars
of the Inquisition, an office to which the highest honor was at that time
attached.
The fame of Lope de Vega rests upon his dramas alone, and in these there
is no end to their diversity, the subjects varying from the deepest tragedy to
the broadest farce, from the solemn mysteries of religion to the loosest
frolics of common life, and the style embracing every variety of tone and
measure known to the language of the country. In these dramas, too, the
wonderful a facility that a drama of more than two thousand lines,
intermingled with sonnets and enlivened with all kinds of unexpected
incidents and intrigues, frequently cost him no more than the labor of a
single day. He composed more rapidly than his amanuensis could
transcribe, and the managers of the theatres left him no time to copy or
correct his compositions; so that his plays were frequently represented
within twenty- four hours after their first conception. His fertility of
invention and his talent for versification are unparalleled in the history of
literature. He produced two thousand two hundred dramas, of which only
about five hundred were printed. His other poems were published at Madrid
in 1776, in twenty-one volumes quarto. His prodigious literary labors
produced him nearly as much money as glory; but his liberality to the poor
and his taste for pomp soon dissipated his wealth, and after living in
splendor, he died almost in poverty.
No poet has ever in his lifetime enjoyed such honors. Eager crowds
surrounded him whenever he showed himself abroad, and saluted him with
the appellation of Prodigy of Nature. Every eye was fixed on him, and
children followed him with cries of pleasure. He was chosen President of
the Spiritual College at Madrid, and the pope conferred upon him high
marks of distinction, not only for his poetical talents, but for his enthusiastic
zeal for the interests of religion. He was also appointed one of the familiars
of the Inquisition, an office to which the highest honor was at that time
attached.
The fame of Lope de Vega rests upon his dramas alone, and in these there
is no end to their diversity, the subjects varying from the deepest tragedy to
the broadest farce, from the solemn mysteries of religion to the loosest
frolics of common life, and the style embracing every variety of tone and
measure known to the language of the country. In these dramas, too, the
Page 461
sacred and secular, the tragic and comic, the heroic and vulgar, all run into
each other, until it seems that there is neither separate form nor distinction
attributed to any of them.
The first class of plays that Lope seems to have invented, and the one
which still remains most popular in Spain, are dramas of the cloak and
sword, so called from the picturesque national dress of the fashionable class
of society from which the principal characters were selected. Their main
principle is gallantry. The story is almost always involved and intriguing,
accompanied with an under-plot and parody on the principal parties, formed
by the servants and other inferior persons. The action is chiefly carried on
by lovers full of romance, or by low characters, whose wit is mixed with
buffoonery.
To the second class belong the historical or heroic dramas. Their
characters are usually kings, princes, and personages in the highest rank of
life, and their prevailing tone is imposing and tragical. A love story, filled as
usual with hair-breadth escapes, jealous quarrels, and questions of honor,
runs through nearly every one of them; but truth, in regard to facts,
manners, and customs, is entirely disregarded.
The third class contains the dramas founded on the manners of common
life; of these there are but few. Lope de Vega would doubtless have
confined himself to these three forms, but that the interference of the church
for a time forbade the representations of the secular drama, and he therefore
turned his attention to the composition of religious plays. The subjects of
these are taken from the Scriptures, or lives of the saints, and they approach
so near to the comedies of intrigue, that but for the religious passages they
would seem to belong to them. His "Sacramental Acts" was another form of
the religious drama which was still more grotesque than the last. They were
performed in the streets during the religious ceremonies of the Corpus
each other, until it seems that there is neither separate form nor distinction
attributed to any of them.
The first class of plays that Lope seems to have invented, and the one
which still remains most popular in Spain, are dramas of the cloak and
sword, so called from the picturesque national dress of the fashionable class
of society from which the principal characters were selected. Their main
principle is gallantry. The story is almost always involved and intriguing,
accompanied with an under-plot and parody on the principal parties, formed
by the servants and other inferior persons. The action is chiefly carried on
by lovers full of romance, or by low characters, whose wit is mixed with
buffoonery.
To the second class belong the historical or heroic dramas. Their
characters are usually kings, princes, and personages in the highest rank of
life, and their prevailing tone is imposing and tragical. A love story, filled as
usual with hair-breadth escapes, jealous quarrels, and questions of honor,
runs through nearly every one of them; but truth, in regard to facts,
manners, and customs, is entirely disregarded.
The third class contains the dramas founded on the manners of common
life; of these there are but few. Lope de Vega would doubtless have
confined himself to these three forms, but that the interference of the church
for a time forbade the representations of the secular drama, and he therefore
turned his attention to the composition of religious plays. The subjects of
these are taken from the Scriptures, or lives of the saints, and they approach
so near to the comedies of intrigue, that but for the religious passages they
would seem to belong to them. His "Sacramental Acts" was another form of
the religious drama which was still more grotesque than the last. They were
performed in the streets during the religious ceremonies of the Corpus
Page 462
Christi. The spiritual dramas of Lope de Vega are a heterogeneous mixture
of bright examples of piety, according to the views of the age and country,
and the wildest flights of imagination, combined into a whole by a fine
poetic spirit.
The variety and inexhaustible fertility of the genius of this writer
constituted the corner-stone of his success, and did much to make him the
monarch of the stage while he lived, and the great master of the national
theatre ever since. But there were other circumstances that aided in
producing these surprising results, the first of which is the principle, that
runs through all his plays, of making all other interests subordinate to the
interest of the story. For this purpose he used dialogue rather to bring out
the plot than the characters, and to this end also he sacrificed dramatic
probabilities and possibilities, geography, history, and a decent morality.
Another element which he established in the Spanish drama, was the
comic under-plot, and the witty gracioso or droll, the parody of the heroic
character of the play. Much of his power over the people of his time is also
to be found in the charm of his versification, which was always fresh,
flowing, and effective. The success of Lope de Vega was in proportion to
his rare powers. For the forty or fifty years that he wrote, nobody else was
willingly heard upon the stage, and his dramas were performed in France,
Italy, and even in Constantinople. His extraordinary talent was nearly allied
to improvisation, and it required but a little more indulgence of his feeling
and fancy to have made him not only an improvisator, but the most
remarkable one that ever lived.
Nearly thirty dramatic writers followed Lope de Vega, but the school was
not received with universal applause. In its gross extravagances and
irregularities, severe critics found just cause for complaint. The opposition
of the church to the theatre, however, which had been for a time so
of bright examples of piety, according to the views of the age and country,
and the wildest flights of imagination, combined into a whole by a fine
poetic spirit.
The variety and inexhaustible fertility of the genius of this writer
constituted the corner-stone of his success, and did much to make him the
monarch of the stage while he lived, and the great master of the national
theatre ever since. But there were other circumstances that aided in
producing these surprising results, the first of which is the principle, that
runs through all his plays, of making all other interests subordinate to the
interest of the story. For this purpose he used dialogue rather to bring out
the plot than the characters, and to this end also he sacrificed dramatic
probabilities and possibilities, geography, history, and a decent morality.
Another element which he established in the Spanish drama, was the
comic under-plot, and the witty gracioso or droll, the parody of the heroic
character of the play. Much of his power over the people of his time is also
to be found in the charm of his versification, which was always fresh,
flowing, and effective. The success of Lope de Vega was in proportion to
his rare powers. For the forty or fifty years that he wrote, nobody else was
willingly heard upon the stage, and his dramas were performed in France,
Italy, and even in Constantinople. His extraordinary talent was nearly allied
to improvisation, and it required but a little more indulgence of his feeling
and fancy to have made him not only an improvisator, but the most
remarkable one that ever lived.
Nearly thirty dramatic writers followed Lope de Vega, but the school was
not received with universal applause. In its gross extravagances and
irregularities, severe critics found just cause for complaint. The opposition
of the church to the theatre, however, which had been for a time so
Page 463
formidable, had at last given way, and from the beginning of the
seventeenth century, the popular drama was too strong to be subjected
either to classical criticism or ecclesiastical rule.
Calderon de la Barca (1600-1681) was the great successor and rival of
Lope de Vega. At the age of thirty-two, his reputation as a poet was an
enviable one. Soon after, when the death of Lope de Vega left the theatre
without a master, he was formally attached to the court for the purpose of
furnishing dramas to be represented in the royal theatres. In 1651, he
followed the example of Lope de Vega and other men of letters of his time,
by entering a religious brotherhood. Many ecclesiastical dignities were
conferred upon him, but he did not, however, on this account intermit his
dramatic labors, but continued through his long life to write for the theatres,
for the court, and for the churches. Many dramas of Calderon were printed
without his consent, and many were attributed to him which he never wrote.
His reputation as a dramatic poet rests on the seventy-three sacramental
autos, and one hundred and eight dramas, which are known to be his. The
autos, from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were among the favorite
amusements of the people; but in the age of Calderon they were much
increased in number and importance; they had become attractive to all
classes of society, and were represented with great luxury and at great
expense in the streets of all the larger cities. A procession, in which the king
and court appeared, preceded by the fantastic figures of giants, with music,
banners, and religious shows, followed the sacrament through the street,
and then, before the houses of the great officers of state, the autos were
performed; the giants made sport for the multitude, and the entertainment
concluded with music and dancing. Sometimes the procession was headed
by the figure of a monster called the Tarasca, half serpent in form, borne by
men concealed in its cumbrous bulk, and surmounted by another figure
representing the woman of Babylon, —all so managed as to fill with
wonder and terror the country people who crowded round it, and whose hats
seventeenth century, the popular drama was too strong to be subjected
either to classical criticism or ecclesiastical rule.
Calderon de la Barca (1600-1681) was the great successor and rival of
Lope de Vega. At the age of thirty-two, his reputation as a poet was an
enviable one. Soon after, when the death of Lope de Vega left the theatre
without a master, he was formally attached to the court for the purpose of
furnishing dramas to be represented in the royal theatres. In 1651, he
followed the example of Lope de Vega and other men of letters of his time,
by entering a religious brotherhood. Many ecclesiastical dignities were
conferred upon him, but he did not, however, on this account intermit his
dramatic labors, but continued through his long life to write for the theatres,
for the court, and for the churches. Many dramas of Calderon were printed
without his consent, and many were attributed to him which he never wrote.
His reputation as a dramatic poet rests on the seventy-three sacramental
autos, and one hundred and eight dramas, which are known to be his. The
autos, from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were among the favorite
amusements of the people; but in the age of Calderon they were much
increased in number and importance; they had become attractive to all
classes of society, and were represented with great luxury and at great
expense in the streets of all the larger cities. A procession, in which the king
and court appeared, preceded by the fantastic figures of giants, with music,
banners, and religious shows, followed the sacrament through the street,
and then, before the houses of the great officers of state, the autos were
performed; the giants made sport for the multitude, and the entertainment
concluded with music and dancing. Sometimes the procession was headed
by the figure of a monster called the Tarasca, half serpent in form, borne by
men concealed in its cumbrous bulk, and surmounted by another figure
representing the woman of Babylon, —all so managed as to fill with
wonder and terror the country people who crowded round it, and whose hats
Page 464
and caps were generally snatched away by the grinning beast, and became
the lawful prize of his conductors. This exhibition was at first rude and
simple, but under the influence of Lope de Vega it became a well-defined,
popular entertainment, divided into three parts, each distinct from the other.
First came the loa, a kind of prologue; then the entremes, a kind of interlude
or farce; and last, the autos sacramentales, or sacred acts themselves, which
were more grave in their tone, though often whimsical and extravagant.
the lawful prize of his conductors. This exhibition was at first rude and
simple, but under the influence of Lope de Vega it became a well-defined,
popular entertainment, divided into three parts, each distinct from the other.
First came the loa, a kind of prologue; then the entremes, a kind of interlude
or farce; and last, the autos sacramentales, or sacred acts themselves, which
were more grave in their tone, though often whimsical and extravagant.
Page 465
The seventy-three autos written by Calderon are all allegorical, and by
the music and show with which they abound, they closely approach to the
opera. They are upon a great variety of subjects, and indicate by their
structure that elaborate and costly machinery must have been used in their
representation. They are crowded with such personages as Sin, Death,
Judaism, Mercy, and Charity, and the purpose of all is to set forth the Real
Presence in the Eucharist. The great enemy of mankind of course fills a
large place in them. Almost all of them contain passages of striking lyrical
poetry.
The secular plays of Calderon can scarcely be classified, for in many of
them even more than two forms of the drama are mingled. To the principle
of making a story that should sustain the interest throughout, Calderon
sacrificed almost as much as Lope de Vega did. To him facts are never
obstacles. Coriolanus is a general under Romulus; the Danube is placed
between Sweden and Russia; and Herodotus is made to describe America.
But in these dramas we rarely miss the interest and charm of a dramatic
story, which provokes the curiosity and enchains the attention.
In the dramas of the Cloak and Sword the plots of Calderon are intricate.
He excelled in the accumulation of surprises, in plunging his characters into
one difficulty after another, maintaining the interest to the last. In style and
versification Calderon has high merits, though they are occasionally
mingled with the defects of his age. He added no new forms to dramatic
composition, nor did he much modify those which had been already settled
by Lope de Vega; but he showed greater skill in the arrangement of his
incidents, and more poetry in the structure and tendency of his dramas. To
his elevated tone we owe much of what distinguishes Calderon from his
predecessors, and nearly all that is most individual in his merits and defects.
In carrying out his theory of the national drama, he often succeeds and often
the music and show with which they abound, they closely approach to the
opera. They are upon a great variety of subjects, and indicate by their
structure that elaborate and costly machinery must have been used in their
representation. They are crowded with such personages as Sin, Death,
Judaism, Mercy, and Charity, and the purpose of all is to set forth the Real
Presence in the Eucharist. The great enemy of mankind of course fills a
large place in them. Almost all of them contain passages of striking lyrical
poetry.
The secular plays of Calderon can scarcely be classified, for in many of
them even more than two forms of the drama are mingled. To the principle
of making a story that should sustain the interest throughout, Calderon
sacrificed almost as much as Lope de Vega did. To him facts are never
obstacles. Coriolanus is a general under Romulus; the Danube is placed
between Sweden and Russia; and Herodotus is made to describe America.
But in these dramas we rarely miss the interest and charm of a dramatic
story, which provokes the curiosity and enchains the attention.
In the dramas of the Cloak and Sword the plots of Calderon are intricate.
He excelled in the accumulation of surprises, in plunging his characters into
one difficulty after another, maintaining the interest to the last. In style and
versification Calderon has high merits, though they are occasionally
mingled with the defects of his age. He added no new forms to dramatic
composition, nor did he much modify those which had been already settled
by Lope de Vega; but he showed greater skill in the arrangement of his
incidents, and more poetry in the structure and tendency of his dramas. To
his elevated tone we owe much of what distinguishes Calderon from his
predecessors, and nearly all that is most individual in his merits and defects.
In carrying out his theory of the national drama, he often succeeds and often
Page 466
fails; and when he succeeds, he sets before us an idealized drama, resting on
the noblest elements of the Spanish national character, and one which, with
all its unquestionable defects, is to be placed among the extraordinary
phenomena of modern poetry.
The most brilliant period of the Spanish drama falls within the reign of
Philip II., which extended from 1620 to 1665, and embraced the last years
of the life of Lope de Vega, and the thirty most fortunate years of the life of
Calderon. After this period a change begins to be apparent; for the school of
Lope was that of a drama in the freshness and buoyancy of youth, while that
of Calderon belongs to the season of its maturity and gradual decay. The
many writers who were either contemporary with Lope de Vega and
Calderon, or who succeeded them, had little influence on the character of
the theatre. This, in its proper outlines, always remained as it was left by
these great masters, who maintained an almost unquestioned control over it
while they lived, and at their death left a character impressed upon it, which
it never lost till it ceased to exist altogether.
When Lope de Vega first appeared as a dramatic writer at Madrid, the
only theatres he found were two unsheltered courtyards, which depended on
such companies of strolling players as occasionally visited the capital.
Before he died, there were, besides the court-yards in Madrid, several
theatres of great magnificence in the royal palaces, and many thousand
actors; and half a century later, the passion for dramatic representations had
spread into every part of the kingdom, and there was hardly a village that
did not possess a theatre.
During the whole of the successful period of the drama, the
representations took place in the daytime. Dancing was early an important
part of the theatrical exhibitions in Spain, even of the religious, and its
importance has continued down to the present day. From the earliest
the noblest elements of the Spanish national character, and one which, with
all its unquestionable defects, is to be placed among the extraordinary
phenomena of modern poetry.
The most brilliant period of the Spanish drama falls within the reign of
Philip II., which extended from 1620 to 1665, and embraced the last years
of the life of Lope de Vega, and the thirty most fortunate years of the life of
Calderon. After this period a change begins to be apparent; for the school of
Lope was that of a drama in the freshness and buoyancy of youth, while that
of Calderon belongs to the season of its maturity and gradual decay. The
many writers who were either contemporary with Lope de Vega and
Calderon, or who succeeded them, had little influence on the character of
the theatre. This, in its proper outlines, always remained as it was left by
these great masters, who maintained an almost unquestioned control over it
while they lived, and at their death left a character impressed upon it, which
it never lost till it ceased to exist altogether.
When Lope de Vega first appeared as a dramatic writer at Madrid, the
only theatres he found were two unsheltered courtyards, which depended on
such companies of strolling players as occasionally visited the capital.
Before he died, there were, besides the court-yards in Madrid, several
theatres of great magnificence in the royal palaces, and many thousand
actors; and half a century later, the passion for dramatic representations had
spread into every part of the kingdom, and there was hardly a village that
did not possess a theatre.
During the whole of the successful period of the drama, the
representations took place in the daytime. Dancing was early an important
part of the theatrical exhibitions in Spain, even of the religious, and its
importance has continued down to the present day. From the earliest
Page 467
antiquity it was the favorite amusement of the rude inhabitants of the
country, and in modern times dancing has been to Spain what music has
been to Italy, a passion with the whole population.
In all its forms and subsidiary attractions, the Spanish drama was
essentially a popular entertainment, governed by the popular will. Its
purpose was to please all equally, and it was not only necessary that the
play should be interesting; it was, above all, required that it should be
Spanish, and, therefore, whatever the subject might be, whether actual or
mythological, Greek or Roman, the characters were always represented as
Castilian, and Castilian of the seventeenth century. It was the same with
their costumes. Coriolanus appeared in the costume of Don Juan of Austria,
and Aristotle came on the stage dressed like a Spanish Abbé, with curled
periwig and buckles on his shoes.
The Spanish theatre, therefore, in many of its characteristics and
attributes, stands by itself. It is entirely national, it takes no cognizance of
ancient example, and it borrowed nothing from the drama of France, Italy,
or England. Founded on traits of national character, with all its faults, it
maintained itself as long as that character existed in its original attributes,
and even now it remains one of the most striking and interesting portions of
modern literature.
5. ROMANCES AND TALES.—Hitherto the writers of Spain had been
little known, except in their own country; but we are now introduced to an
author whose fame is bounded by no language and no country, and whose
name is not alone familiar to men of taste and learning, but to almost every
class of society.
Cervantes (1547-1616), though of noble family, was born in poverty and
obscurity, not far from Madrid. When he was about twenty-one years of
age, he attached himself to the person of Cardinal Aquaviva, with whom he
country, and in modern times dancing has been to Spain what music has
been to Italy, a passion with the whole population.
In all its forms and subsidiary attractions, the Spanish drama was
essentially a popular entertainment, governed by the popular will. Its
purpose was to please all equally, and it was not only necessary that the
play should be interesting; it was, above all, required that it should be
Spanish, and, therefore, whatever the subject might be, whether actual or
mythological, Greek or Roman, the characters were always represented as
Castilian, and Castilian of the seventeenth century. It was the same with
their costumes. Coriolanus appeared in the costume of Don Juan of Austria,
and Aristotle came on the stage dressed like a Spanish Abbé, with curled
periwig and buckles on his shoes.
The Spanish theatre, therefore, in many of its characteristics and
attributes, stands by itself. It is entirely national, it takes no cognizance of
ancient example, and it borrowed nothing from the drama of France, Italy,
or England. Founded on traits of national character, with all its faults, it
maintained itself as long as that character existed in its original attributes,
and even now it remains one of the most striking and interesting portions of
modern literature.
5. ROMANCES AND TALES.—Hitherto the writers of Spain had been
little known, except in their own country; but we are now introduced to an
author whose fame is bounded by no language and no country, and whose
name is not alone familiar to men of taste and learning, but to almost every
class of society.
Cervantes (1547-1616), though of noble family, was born in poverty and
obscurity, not far from Madrid. When he was about twenty-one years of
age, he attached himself to the person of Cardinal Aquaviva, with whom he
Page 468
visited Rome. He soon after enlisted as a common soldier in the war against
the Turks, and, in the great battle of Lepanto, 1572, he received a wound
which deprived him of the use of his left hand and arm, and obliged him to
quit the military profession. On his way home he was captured by pirates,
carried to Algiers, and sold for a slave. Here he passed five years full of
adventure and suffering. At length his ransom was effected, and he returned
home to find his father dead, his family reduced to a still more bitter
poverty by his ransom, and himself friendless and unknown. He withdrew
from the world to devote himself to literature, and to gain a subsistence by
his pen.
One of the first productions of Cervantes was the pastoral romance of
"Galatea." This was followed by several dramas, the principal of which is
founded on the tragical fate of Numantia. Notwithstanding its want of
dramatic skill, it may be cited as a proof of the author's poetical talent, and
as a bold effort to raise the condition of the stage.
After many years of poverty and embarrassment, in 1605, when
Cervantes had reached his fiftieth year, he published the first part of "Don
Quixote." The success of this effort was incredible. Many thousand copies
are said to have been printed during the author's lifetime. It was translated
into various languages, and eulogized by every class of readers, yet it
occasioned little improvement in the pecuniary circumstances of the author.
In 1615, he published the second part of the same work, and, in the year
following, his eventful and troubled life drew to its close.
"Don Quixote," of all the works of all modern times, bears most deeply
the impression of the national character it represents, and it has in return
enjoyed a degree of national favor never granted to any other. The object of
Cervantes in writing it was, as he himself declares, "to render abhorred of
men the false and absurd stories contained in books of chivalry." The
the Turks, and, in the great battle of Lepanto, 1572, he received a wound
which deprived him of the use of his left hand and arm, and obliged him to
quit the military profession. On his way home he was captured by pirates,
carried to Algiers, and sold for a slave. Here he passed five years full of
adventure and suffering. At length his ransom was effected, and he returned
home to find his father dead, his family reduced to a still more bitter
poverty by his ransom, and himself friendless and unknown. He withdrew
from the world to devote himself to literature, and to gain a subsistence by
his pen.
One of the first productions of Cervantes was the pastoral romance of
"Galatea." This was followed by several dramas, the principal of which is
founded on the tragical fate of Numantia. Notwithstanding its want of
dramatic skill, it may be cited as a proof of the author's poetical talent, and
as a bold effort to raise the condition of the stage.
After many years of poverty and embarrassment, in 1605, when
Cervantes had reached his fiftieth year, he published the first part of "Don
Quixote." The success of this effort was incredible. Many thousand copies
are said to have been printed during the author's lifetime. It was translated
into various languages, and eulogized by every class of readers, yet it
occasioned little improvement in the pecuniary circumstances of the author.
In 1615, he published the second part of the same work, and, in the year
following, his eventful and troubled life drew to its close.
"Don Quixote," of all the works of all modern times, bears most deeply
the impression of the national character it represents, and it has in return
enjoyed a degree of national favor never granted to any other. The object of
Cervantes in writing it was, as he himself declares, "to render abhorred of
men the false and absurd stories contained in books of chivalry." The
Page 469
fanaticism for these romances was so great in Spain during the sixteenth
century, and they were deemed so noxious, that the burning of all copies
extant in the country was earnestly asked for by the Cortes. To destroy a
passion that had struck its roots so deeply in the character of all classes of
men, to break up the only reading which, at that time, was fashionable and
popular, was a bold undertaking, yet one in which Cervantes succeeded. No
book of chivalry was written after the appearance of "Don Quixote;" and
from that time to the present they have been constantly disappearing, until
they are now among the rarest of literary curiosities,—a solitary instance of
the power of genius to destroy, by a well-timed blow, an entire department
of literature.
In accomplishing this object, Cervantes represents "Don Quixote" as a
country gentleman of La Mancha, full of Castilian honor and enthusiasm,
but so completely crazed by reading the most famous books of chivalry, that
he not only believes them to be true, but feels himself called upon to
become the impossible knight-errant they describe, and actually goes forth
into the world, like them, to defend the oppressed and avenge the injured.
To complete his chivalrous equipment, which he had begun by fitting up for
himself a suit of armor strange to his century, he took an esquire out of his
neighborhood, a middle-aged peasant, ignorant, credulous, and good-
natured, but shrewd enough occasionally to see the folly of their position.
The two sally forth from their native village in search of adventures, of
which the excited imagination of the knight— turning windmills into giants,
solitary turrets into castles, and galley slaves into oppressed gentlemen—
finds abundance wherever he goes, while the esquire translates them all into
the plain prose of truth, with a simplicity strikingly contrasted with the lofty
dignity and the magnificent illusions of the knight. After a series of
ridiculous discomfitures, the two are at last brought home like madmen to
their native village.
century, and they were deemed so noxious, that the burning of all copies
extant in the country was earnestly asked for by the Cortes. To destroy a
passion that had struck its roots so deeply in the character of all classes of
men, to break up the only reading which, at that time, was fashionable and
popular, was a bold undertaking, yet one in which Cervantes succeeded. No
book of chivalry was written after the appearance of "Don Quixote;" and
from that time to the present they have been constantly disappearing, until
they are now among the rarest of literary curiosities,—a solitary instance of
the power of genius to destroy, by a well-timed blow, an entire department
of literature.
In accomplishing this object, Cervantes represents "Don Quixote" as a
country gentleman of La Mancha, full of Castilian honor and enthusiasm,
but so completely crazed by reading the most famous books of chivalry, that
he not only believes them to be true, but feels himself called upon to
become the impossible knight-errant they describe, and actually goes forth
into the world, like them, to defend the oppressed and avenge the injured.
To complete his chivalrous equipment, which he had begun by fitting up for
himself a suit of armor strange to his century, he took an esquire out of his
neighborhood, a middle-aged peasant, ignorant, credulous, and good-
natured, but shrewd enough occasionally to see the folly of their position.
The two sally forth from their native village in search of adventures, of
which the excited imagination of the knight— turning windmills into giants,
solitary turrets into castles, and galley slaves into oppressed gentlemen—
finds abundance wherever he goes, while the esquire translates them all into
the plain prose of truth, with a simplicity strikingly contrasted with the lofty
dignity and the magnificent illusions of the knight. After a series of
ridiculous discomfitures, the two are at last brought home like madmen to
their native village.
Page 470
Ten years later, Cervantes published the second part of Don Quixote,
which is even better than the first. It shows more vigor and freedom, the
invention and the style of thought are richer, and the finish more exact. Both
Don Quixote and Sancho are brought before us like such living realities,
that at this moment the figures of the crazed, gaunt, and dignified knight,
and of his round, selfish, and most amusing esquire, dwell bodied forth in
the imagination of more, among all conditions of men throughout
Christendom, than any other of the creations of human talent. In this work
Cervantes has shown himself of kindred to all times and all lands, to the
humblest as well as to the highest degrees of cultivation, and he has
received in return, beyond all other writers, a tribute of sympathy and
admiration from the universal spirit of humanity.
This romance, which Cervantes threw so carelessly from him, and which
he regarded only as a bold effort to break up the absurd taste for the fancies
of chivalry, has been established by an uninterrupted and an unquestioned
success ever since, as the oldest classical specimen of romantic fiction, and
as one of the most remarkable monuments of modern genius. But Cervantes
is entitled to a higher glory: it should be borne in mind that this delightful
romance was not the result of a youthful exuberance of feeling, and a happy
external condition; with all its unquenchable and irresistible humor, its
bright views, and its cheerful trust in goodness and virtue, it was written in
his old age, at the conclusion of a life which had been marked at nearly
every step with struggle, disappointment, and calamity; it was begun in
prison, and finished when he felt the hand of death pressing cold and heavy
upon his heart. If this be remembered as we read, we may feel what
admiration and reverence are due, not only to the living power of Don
Quixote, but to the character and genius of Cervantes; if it be forgotten or
underrated, we shall fail in regard to both.
which is even better than the first. It shows more vigor and freedom, the
invention and the style of thought are richer, and the finish more exact. Both
Don Quixote and Sancho are brought before us like such living realities,
that at this moment the figures of the crazed, gaunt, and dignified knight,
and of his round, selfish, and most amusing esquire, dwell bodied forth in
the imagination of more, among all conditions of men throughout
Christendom, than any other of the creations of human talent. In this work
Cervantes has shown himself of kindred to all times and all lands, to the
humblest as well as to the highest degrees of cultivation, and he has
received in return, beyond all other writers, a tribute of sympathy and
admiration from the universal spirit of humanity.
This romance, which Cervantes threw so carelessly from him, and which
he regarded only as a bold effort to break up the absurd taste for the fancies
of chivalry, has been established by an uninterrupted and an unquestioned
success ever since, as the oldest classical specimen of romantic fiction, and
as one of the most remarkable monuments of modern genius. But Cervantes
is entitled to a higher glory: it should be borne in mind that this delightful
romance was not the result of a youthful exuberance of feeling, and a happy
external condition; with all its unquenchable and irresistible humor, its
bright views, and its cheerful trust in goodness and virtue, it was written in
his old age, at the conclusion of a life which had been marked at nearly
every step with struggle, disappointment, and calamity; it was begun in
prison, and finished when he felt the hand of death pressing cold and heavy
upon his heart. If this be remembered as we read, we may feel what
admiration and reverence are due, not only to the living power of Don
Quixote, but to the character and genius of Cervantes; if it be forgotten or
underrated, we shall fail in regard to both.
Page 471
The first form of romantic fiction which succeeded the romances of
chivalry was that of prose pastorals, which was introduced into Spain by
Montemayor, a Portuguese, who lived, probably, between 1520 and 1561.
To divert his mind from the sorrow of an unrequited attachment, he
composed a romance entitled "Diana," which, with numerous faults,
possesses a high degree of merit. It was succeeded by many similar tales.
The next form of Spanish prose fiction, and the one which has enjoyed a
more permanent regard, is that known as tales in the gusto picaresco, or
style of the rogues. As a class, they constitute a singular exhibition of
character, and are as separate and national as anything in modern literature.
The first fiction of this class was the "Lazarillo de Tormes" of Mendoza,
already spoken of, published in 1554,—a bold, unfinished sketch of the life
of a rogue from the very lowest condition of society. Forty-five years
afterwards this was followed by the "Guzman de Alfarache" of Aleman, the
most ample portraiture of its class to be found in Spanish literature. It is
chiefly curious and interesting because it shows us, in the costume of the
times, the life of an ingenious Machiavelian rogue, who is never at a loss
for an expedient, and who speaks of himself always as an honest man. The
work was received with great favor, and translated into all the languages of
Europe.
But the work which most plainly shows the condition of social life which
produced this class of tales, is the "Life of Estevanillo Gonzalez," first
printed in 1646. It is the autobiography of a buffoon who was long in the
service of Piccolomini, the great general of the Thirty Years' War. The
brilliant success of these works at home and abroad subsequently produced
the Gil Blas of Le Sage, an imitation more brilliant than any of the originals
that it followed.
chivalry was that of prose pastorals, which was introduced into Spain by
Montemayor, a Portuguese, who lived, probably, between 1520 and 1561.
To divert his mind from the sorrow of an unrequited attachment, he
composed a romance entitled "Diana," which, with numerous faults,
possesses a high degree of merit. It was succeeded by many similar tales.
The next form of Spanish prose fiction, and the one which has enjoyed a
more permanent regard, is that known as tales in the gusto picaresco, or
style of the rogues. As a class, they constitute a singular exhibition of
character, and are as separate and national as anything in modern literature.
The first fiction of this class was the "Lazarillo de Tormes" of Mendoza,
already spoken of, published in 1554,—a bold, unfinished sketch of the life
of a rogue from the very lowest condition of society. Forty-five years
afterwards this was followed by the "Guzman de Alfarache" of Aleman, the
most ample portraiture of its class to be found in Spanish literature. It is
chiefly curious and interesting because it shows us, in the costume of the
times, the life of an ingenious Machiavelian rogue, who is never at a loss
for an expedient, and who speaks of himself always as an honest man. The
work was received with great favor, and translated into all the languages of
Europe.
But the work which most plainly shows the condition of social life which
produced this class of tales, is the "Life of Estevanillo Gonzalez," first
printed in 1646. It is the autobiography of a buffoon who was long in the
service of Piccolomini, the great general of the Thirty Years' War. The
brilliant success of these works at home and abroad subsequently produced
the Gil Blas of Le Sage, an imitation more brilliant than any of the originals
that it followed.
Page 472
The serious and historical fictions produced in Spain were limited in
number, and with few exceptions deserved little favor. Short stories or tales
were more successful than any other form of prose-fiction during the latter
part of the sixteenth, and the whole of the seventeenth century. They
belonged to the spirit of their own times and to the state of society in which
they appeared. Taken together, the number of fictions in Spanish literature
is enormous; but what is more remarkable than their multitude, is the fact
that they were produced when the rest of Europe, with a partial exception in
favor of Italy, was not yet awakened to corresponding efforts of the
imagination. The creative spirit, however, soon ceased, and a spirit of
French imitation took its place.
6. HISTORICAL NARRATIVE POEMS.—Epic poetry, from its dignity
and pretensions, is almost uniformly placed at the head of the different
divisions of a nation's literature. But in Spain little has been achieved in this
department that is worthy of memory. The old half-epic poem of the Cid—
the first attempt at narration in the languages of modern Europe that
deserves the name—is one of the most remarkable outbreaks of poetical and
national enthusiasm on record. The few similar attempts that followed
during the next three centuries, while they serve to mark the progress of
Spanish culture, show little of the power manifested in the Cid.
In the reign of Charles V., the poets of the time evidently imagined that to
them was assigned the task of celebrating the achievements in the Old
World and in the New, which had raised their country to the first place
among the powers of Europe. There were written, therefore, during this and
the succeeding reigns, an extraordinary number of epic and narrative poems
on subjects connected with ancient and modern Spanish glory, but they all
belong to patriotism rather than to poetry; the best of these come with equal
pretension into the province of history. There is but one long poem of this
class which obtained much regard when it appeared, and which has been
number, and with few exceptions deserved little favor. Short stories or tales
were more successful than any other form of prose-fiction during the latter
part of the sixteenth, and the whole of the seventeenth century. They
belonged to the spirit of their own times and to the state of society in which
they appeared. Taken together, the number of fictions in Spanish literature
is enormous; but what is more remarkable than their multitude, is the fact
that they were produced when the rest of Europe, with a partial exception in
favor of Italy, was not yet awakened to corresponding efforts of the
imagination. The creative spirit, however, soon ceased, and a spirit of
French imitation took its place.
6. HISTORICAL NARRATIVE POEMS.—Epic poetry, from its dignity
and pretensions, is almost uniformly placed at the head of the different
divisions of a nation's literature. But in Spain little has been achieved in this
department that is worthy of memory. The old half-epic poem of the Cid—
the first attempt at narration in the languages of modern Europe that
deserves the name—is one of the most remarkable outbreaks of poetical and
national enthusiasm on record. The few similar attempts that followed
during the next three centuries, while they serve to mark the progress of
Spanish culture, show little of the power manifested in the Cid.
In the reign of Charles V., the poets of the time evidently imagined that to
them was assigned the task of celebrating the achievements in the Old
World and in the New, which had raised their country to the first place
among the powers of Europe. There were written, therefore, during this and
the succeeding reigns, an extraordinary number of epic and narrative poems
on subjects connected with ancient and modern Spanish glory, but they all
belong to patriotism rather than to poetry; the best of these come with equal
pretension into the province of history. There is but one long poem of this
class which obtained much regard when it appeared, and which has been
Page 473
remembered ever since, the "Araucana." The author of this work, Ercilla
(1533-1595), was a page of Philip the Second, and accompanied him to
England on the occasion of his marriage with Mary. News having arrived
that the Araucans, a tribe of Indians in Chili, had revolted against the
Spanish authority, Ercilla joined the adventurous expedition that was sent
out to subdue them. In the midst of his exploits he conceived the plan of
writing a narrative of the war in the form of an epic poem. After the tumult
of a battle, or the fatigues of a march, he devoted the hours of the night to
his literary labors, wielding the pen and sword by turns, and often obliged
to write on pieces of skin or scraps of paper so small as to contain only a
few lines. In this poem the descriptive powers of Ercilla are remarkable,
and his characters, especially those of the American chiefs, are drawn with
force and distinctness. The whole poem is pervaded by that deep sense of
loyalty, always a chief ingredient in Spanish honor and heroism, and which,
in Ercilla, seems never to have been chilled by the ingratitude of the master
to whom he devoted his life, and to whose glory he consecrated this poem.
These narrative and heroic poems continued long in favor in Spain, and
they retained to the last those ambitious feelings of national greatness which
had given them birth. Devoted to the glory of their country, they were
produced when the national character was on the decline; and as they
sprang more directly from that character, and depended more on its spirit
than did the similar poetry of any other people in modern times, so they
now visibly declined with them.
7. LYRIC POETRY.—The number of authors in the various classes of
Spanish lyric poetry, whose works have been preserved between the
beginning of the reign of Charles V. and the end of that of the last of his
race, is not less than a hundred and twenty; but the number of those who
were successful is small. A little of what was written by the Argensolas,
more of Herrera, and nearly the whole of the Bachiller de la Torre and Luis
(1533-1595), was a page of Philip the Second, and accompanied him to
England on the occasion of his marriage with Mary. News having arrived
that the Araucans, a tribe of Indians in Chili, had revolted against the
Spanish authority, Ercilla joined the adventurous expedition that was sent
out to subdue them. In the midst of his exploits he conceived the plan of
writing a narrative of the war in the form of an epic poem. After the tumult
of a battle, or the fatigues of a march, he devoted the hours of the night to
his literary labors, wielding the pen and sword by turns, and often obliged
to write on pieces of skin or scraps of paper so small as to contain only a
few lines. In this poem the descriptive powers of Ercilla are remarkable,
and his characters, especially those of the American chiefs, are drawn with
force and distinctness. The whole poem is pervaded by that deep sense of
loyalty, always a chief ingredient in Spanish honor and heroism, and which,
in Ercilla, seems never to have been chilled by the ingratitude of the master
to whom he devoted his life, and to whose glory he consecrated this poem.
These narrative and heroic poems continued long in favor in Spain, and
they retained to the last those ambitious feelings of national greatness which
had given them birth. Devoted to the glory of their country, they were
produced when the national character was on the decline; and as they
sprang more directly from that character, and depended more on its spirit
than did the similar poetry of any other people in modern times, so they
now visibly declined with them.
7. LYRIC POETRY.—The number of authors in the various classes of
Spanish lyric poetry, whose works have been preserved between the
beginning of the reign of Charles V. and the end of that of the last of his
race, is not less than a hundred and twenty; but the number of those who
were successful is small. A little of what was written by the Argensolas,
more of Herrera, and nearly the whole of the Bachiller de la Torre and Luis
Page 474
de Leon, with occasional efforts of Lope de Vega and Quevedo, and single
odes of other writers, make up what gives its character to the graver and
less popular portion of Spanish lyric poetry. Their writings form a body of
poetry, not large, but one that from its living, national feeling on the one
side, and its dignity on the other, may be placed without question among the
most successful efforts of modern literature.
The Argensolas were two brothers who flourished in Spain at the
beginning of the seventeenth century; both occupy a high place in this
department of poetry. The original poems of Luis de Leon (1528-1591) fill
no more than a hundred pages, but there is hardly a line of them which has
not its value, and the whole taken together are to be placed at the head of
Spanish lyric poetry. They are chiefly religious, and the source of their
inspiration is the Hebrew Scriptures. Herrera (1534-1597) is the earliest
classic ode writer in modern literature, and his poems are characterized by
dignity of language, harmony of versification, and elevation of ideas. Luis
de Leon and Herrera are considered the two great masters of Spanish lyric
poetry.
Quevedo (1580-1645) was successful in many departments of letters. The
most prominent characteristics of his verse are a broad, grotesque humor,
and a satire often imitated from the ancients. His amatory and religious
poems are occasionally marked by extreme beauty and tenderness. The
works upon which his reputation principally rests, however, are in prose,
and belong to theology and metaphysics rather than to elegant literature.
They were produced during the weary years of an unjust imprisonment. His
prose satires are the most celebrated of his compositions, and by these he
will always be remembered throughout the world.
In the early part of the seventeenth century there arose a sect who
attempted to create a new epoch in Spanish poetry, by affecting an exquisite
odes of other writers, make up what gives its character to the graver and
less popular portion of Spanish lyric poetry. Their writings form a body of
poetry, not large, but one that from its living, national feeling on the one
side, and its dignity on the other, may be placed without question among the
most successful efforts of modern literature.
The Argensolas were two brothers who flourished in Spain at the
beginning of the seventeenth century; both occupy a high place in this
department of poetry. The original poems of Luis de Leon (1528-1591) fill
no more than a hundred pages, but there is hardly a line of them which has
not its value, and the whole taken together are to be placed at the head of
Spanish lyric poetry. They are chiefly religious, and the source of their
inspiration is the Hebrew Scriptures. Herrera (1534-1597) is the earliest
classic ode writer in modern literature, and his poems are characterized by
dignity of language, harmony of versification, and elevation of ideas. Luis
de Leon and Herrera are considered the two great masters of Spanish lyric
poetry.
Quevedo (1580-1645) was successful in many departments of letters. The
most prominent characteristics of his verse are a broad, grotesque humor,
and a satire often imitated from the ancients. His amatory and religious
poems are occasionally marked by extreme beauty and tenderness. The
works upon which his reputation principally rests, however, are in prose,
and belong to theology and metaphysics rather than to elegant literature.
They were produced during the weary years of an unjust imprisonment. His
prose satires are the most celebrated of his compositions, and by these he
will always be remembered throughout the world.
In the early part of the seventeenth century there arose a sect who
attempted to create a new epoch in Spanish poetry, by affecting an exquisite
Page 475
refinement, and who ran into the most ridiculous extravagance and
pedantry. The founder of this "cultivated style," as it was called, was Luis
Gongora (1561-1627), and his name, like that of Marini in Italy, has
become a byword in literature. The style he introduced became at once
fashionable at court, and it struck so deep root in the soil of the whole
country, that it has not yet been completely eradicated. The most odious
feature of this style is, that it consists entirely of metaphors, so heaped upon
one another that it is as difficult to find out the meaning hidden under their
grotesque mass, as if it were a series of confused riddles. The success of this
style was very great, and inferior poets bowed to it throughout the country.
8. SATIRICAL AND OTHER POETRY.—Satirical poetry never enjoyed
a wide success in Spain. The nation has always been too grave and dignified
to endure the censure it implied. It was looked upon with, distrust, and
thought contrary to the conventions of good society to indulge in its
composition. Neither was elegiac poetry extensively cultivated. The
Spanish temperament was little fitted to the subdued, simple, and gentle
tone of the proper elegy. The echoes of pastoral poetry in Spain are heard
far back among the old ballads; but the Italian forms were early introduced
and naturalized. Two Portuguese writers, Montemayor and Miranda, were
most successful in this department of poetry. Equally characteristic of the
Spanish genius, with its pastorals, were the short epigrammatic poems
which appeared through the best age of its literature. They are generally in
the truest tone of popular verse. Of didactic poetry, there were many
irregular varieties; but the popular character of Spanish poetry, and the
severe nature of the ecclesiastical and political constitutions of Spain, were
unfavorable to the development of this form of verse, and unlikely to
tolerate it on any important subject. It remained, therefore, one of the
feeblest and least successful departments of the national literature.
pedantry. The founder of this "cultivated style," as it was called, was Luis
Gongora (1561-1627), and his name, like that of Marini in Italy, has
become a byword in literature. The style he introduced became at once
fashionable at court, and it struck so deep root in the soil of the whole
country, that it has not yet been completely eradicated. The most odious
feature of this style is, that it consists entirely of metaphors, so heaped upon
one another that it is as difficult to find out the meaning hidden under their
grotesque mass, as if it were a series of confused riddles. The success of this
style was very great, and inferior poets bowed to it throughout the country.
8. SATIRICAL AND OTHER POETRY.—Satirical poetry never enjoyed
a wide success in Spain. The nation has always been too grave and dignified
to endure the censure it implied. It was looked upon with, distrust, and
thought contrary to the conventions of good society to indulge in its
composition. Neither was elegiac poetry extensively cultivated. The
Spanish temperament was little fitted to the subdued, simple, and gentle
tone of the proper elegy. The echoes of pastoral poetry in Spain are heard
far back among the old ballads; but the Italian forms were early introduced
and naturalized. Two Portuguese writers, Montemayor and Miranda, were
most successful in this department of poetry. Equally characteristic of the
Spanish genius, with its pastorals, were the short epigrammatic poems
which appeared through the best age of its literature. They are generally in
the truest tone of popular verse. Of didactic poetry, there were many
irregular varieties; but the popular character of Spanish poetry, and the
severe nature of the ecclesiastical and political constitutions of Spain, were
unfavorable to the development of this form of verse, and unlikely to
tolerate it on any important subject. It remained, therefore, one of the
feeblest and least successful departments of the national literature.
Page 476
In the seventeenth century, ballads had become the delight of the whole
Spanish people. The soldier solaced himself with them in his tent, the
maiden danced to them on the green, the lover sang them for his serenade,
the street beggar chanted them for alms; they entered into the sumptuous
entertainments of the nobility, the holiday services of the church, and into
the orgies of thieves and vagabonds. No poetry of modern times has been so
widely spread through all classes of society, and none has so entered into
the national character. They were often written by authors otherwise little
known, and they were always found in the works of those poets of note who
desired to stand well with the mass of their countrymen.
9. HISTORY AND OTHER PROSE WRITINGS.—The fathers of
Spanish history are Zurita and Morales. Zurita (1512-1580) was the author
of the "Annals of Aragon," a work more important to Spanish history than
any that had preceded it. Morales (1513-1591) was historiographer to the
crown of Castile, and his unfinished history of that country is marked by
much general ability. Contemporary with these writers was Mendoza,
already mentioned. The honor of being the first historian of the country,
however, belongs to Mariana (1536-1623), a foundling who was educated a
Jesuit. His main occupation for the last thirty or forty years of his life was
his great "History of Spain." There is an air of good faith in his accounts
and a vividness in his details which are singularly attractive. If not in all
respects the most trustworthy of annals, it is at least the most remarkable
union of picturesque chronicling with sober history that the world has ever
seen. Sandoval (d. 1621) took up the history of Spain where Mariana left it;
but while his is a work of authority, it is unattractive in style. "The General
History of the Indies," by Herrera, is a work of great value, and the one on
which the reputation of the author as a historian chiefly rests.
One of the most pleasing of the minor Spanish histories is Argensola's
account of the Moluccas. It is full of the traditions found among the natives
Spanish people. The soldier solaced himself with them in his tent, the
maiden danced to them on the green, the lover sang them for his serenade,
the street beggar chanted them for alms; they entered into the sumptuous
entertainments of the nobility, the holiday services of the church, and into
the orgies of thieves and vagabonds. No poetry of modern times has been so
widely spread through all classes of society, and none has so entered into
the national character. They were often written by authors otherwise little
known, and they were always found in the works of those poets of note who
desired to stand well with the mass of their countrymen.
9. HISTORY AND OTHER PROSE WRITINGS.—The fathers of
Spanish history are Zurita and Morales. Zurita (1512-1580) was the author
of the "Annals of Aragon," a work more important to Spanish history than
any that had preceded it. Morales (1513-1591) was historiographer to the
crown of Castile, and his unfinished history of that country is marked by
much general ability. Contemporary with these writers was Mendoza,
already mentioned. The honor of being the first historian of the country,
however, belongs to Mariana (1536-1623), a foundling who was educated a
Jesuit. His main occupation for the last thirty or forty years of his life was
his great "History of Spain." There is an air of good faith in his accounts
and a vividness in his details which are singularly attractive. If not in all
respects the most trustworthy of annals, it is at least the most remarkable
union of picturesque chronicling with sober history that the world has ever
seen. Sandoval (d. 1621) took up the history of Spain where Mariana left it;
but while his is a work of authority, it is unattractive in style. "The General
History of the Indies," by Herrera, is a work of great value, and the one on
which the reputation of the author as a historian chiefly rests.
One of the most pleasing of the minor Spanish histories is Argensola's
account of the Moluccas. It is full of the traditions found among the natives
Page 477
by the Portuguese when they first landed there, and of the wild adventures
that followed when they had taken possession of the island. Garcilasso de la
Vega, the son of one of the unscrupulous conquerors of Peru, descended on
his mother's side from the Incas, wrote the "History of Florida," of which
the adventures of De Soto constitute the most brilliant portion. His
"Commentaries on Peru" is a striking and interesting work.
The last of the historians of eminence in the elder school of Spanish
history was Solis, whose "Conquest of Mexico" is beautifully written, and
as it was flattering to the national history, it was at once successful, and has
enjoyed an unimpaired popularity down to our times.
The spirit of political tyranny in the government, and of religious tyranny
in the Inquisition, now more than ever united, were more hostile to bold and
faithful inquiry in the department of history than in almost any other. Still,
the historians of this period were not unworthy of the national character.
Their works abound in feeling rather than philosophy, and are written in a
style that marks, not so much the peculiar genius of their authors, perhaps,
as that of the country that gave them birth. Although they may not be
entirely classical, they are entirely Spanish; and what they want in finish
and grace they make up in picturesqueness and originality.
In one form of didactic composition, Spain stands in advance of other
countries: that of proverbs, which Cervantes has happily called "short
sentences drawn from long experience." Spanish proverbs can be traced
back to the earliest times. Although twenty-four thousand have been
collected, many thousands still remain known only among the traditions of
the humbler classes of society that have given birth to them all.
From the early part of the seventeenth century, Spanish prose became
infected with that pedantry and affectation already spoken of as Gongorism,
or "the cultivated style;" and from this time, everything in prose as well as
that followed when they had taken possession of the island. Garcilasso de la
Vega, the son of one of the unscrupulous conquerors of Peru, descended on
his mother's side from the Incas, wrote the "History of Florida," of which
the adventures of De Soto constitute the most brilliant portion. His
"Commentaries on Peru" is a striking and interesting work.
The last of the historians of eminence in the elder school of Spanish
history was Solis, whose "Conquest of Mexico" is beautifully written, and
as it was flattering to the national history, it was at once successful, and has
enjoyed an unimpaired popularity down to our times.
The spirit of political tyranny in the government, and of religious tyranny
in the Inquisition, now more than ever united, were more hostile to bold and
faithful inquiry in the department of history than in almost any other. Still,
the historians of this period were not unworthy of the national character.
Their works abound in feeling rather than philosophy, and are written in a
style that marks, not so much the peculiar genius of their authors, perhaps,
as that of the country that gave them birth. Although they may not be
entirely classical, they are entirely Spanish; and what they want in finish
and grace they make up in picturesqueness and originality.
In one form of didactic composition, Spain stands in advance of other
countries: that of proverbs, which Cervantes has happily called "short
sentences drawn from long experience." Spanish proverbs can be traced
back to the earliest times. Although twenty-four thousand have been
collected, many thousands still remain known only among the traditions of
the humbler classes of society that have given birth to them all.
From the early part of the seventeenth century, Spanish prose became
infected with that pedantry and affectation already spoken of as Gongorism,
or "the cultivated style;" and from this time, everything in prose as well as
Page 478
in poetry announced that corrupted taste which both precedes and hastens
the decay of a literature, and which in the latter half of the seventeenth
century was in Spain but the concomitant of a general decline in the arts
and the gradual degradation of the monarchy. No country in Christendom
had fallen from such a height of power as that which Spain occupied in the
time of Charles V. into such an abyss of degradation as she reached when
Charles II., the last of the house of Austria, ceased to reign. The old religion
of the country, the most prominent of all the national characteristics, was
now so perverted from its true character by intolerance that it had become a
means of oppression, such as Europe never before witnessed. The principle
of loyalty, now equally perverted and mischievous, had sunk into servile
submission, and as we approach the conclusion of the century, the
Inquisition and the despotism seem to have cast their blight over
everything.
PERIOD THIRD.
THE ACCESSION OF THE BOURBON FAMILY TO THE PRESENT TIME (1700-1885).
1. FRENCH INFLUENCE ON THE LITERATURE OF SPAIN.—The
death of Charles II., in 1700, was followed by the War of the Succession
between the houses of Hapsburg and Bourbon, which lasted thirteen years.
It was terminated by the treaty of Utrecht and the accession of Philip V., the
grandson of Louis XIV. Under his reign the influence of France became
apparent in the customs of the country. The Academy of Madrid was soon
established in imitation of that of Paris, with the object of establishing and
cultivating the purity of the Castilian language. The first work published by
this association was a Dictionary, which has continued in successive
editions to be the proper standard of the language. At this time French
began to be spoken in the elegant society of the court and the capital,
translations from the French were multiplied, and at last, a poetical system,
the decay of a literature, and which in the latter half of the seventeenth
century was in Spain but the concomitant of a general decline in the arts
and the gradual degradation of the monarchy. No country in Christendom
had fallen from such a height of power as that which Spain occupied in the
time of Charles V. into such an abyss of degradation as she reached when
Charles II., the last of the house of Austria, ceased to reign. The old religion
of the country, the most prominent of all the national characteristics, was
now so perverted from its true character by intolerance that it had become a
means of oppression, such as Europe never before witnessed. The principle
of loyalty, now equally perverted and mischievous, had sunk into servile
submission, and as we approach the conclusion of the century, the
Inquisition and the despotism seem to have cast their blight over
everything.
PERIOD THIRD.
THE ACCESSION OF THE BOURBON FAMILY TO THE PRESENT TIME (1700-1885).
1. FRENCH INFLUENCE ON THE LITERATURE OF SPAIN.—The
death of Charles II., in 1700, was followed by the War of the Succession
between the houses of Hapsburg and Bourbon, which lasted thirteen years.
It was terminated by the treaty of Utrecht and the accession of Philip V., the
grandson of Louis XIV. Under his reign the influence of France became
apparent in the customs of the country. The Academy of Madrid was soon
established in imitation of that of Paris, with the object of establishing and
cultivating the purity of the Castilian language. The first work published by
this association was a Dictionary, which has continued in successive
editions to be the proper standard of the language. At this time French
began to be spoken in the elegant society of the court and the capital,
translations from the French were multiplied, and at last, a poetical system,
Page 479
founded on the critical doctrine of Boileau, prevalent in France, was
formally introduced into the country by Luzan, in his "Art of Poetry," which
from its first appearance (1737) exercised a controlling authority at the
court, and over the few writers of reputation then to be found in the country.
Though the works of Luzan offered a remedy for the bad taste which had
accompanied and in no small degree hastened the decline of the national
taste, they did not lay a foundation for advancement in literature. The
national mind had become dwarfed for want of its appropriate nourishment;
the moral and physical sciences that had been advancing for a hundred
years throughout Europe, were forbidden to cross the Pyrenees. The
scholastic philosophy was still maintained as the highest form of
intellectual culture; the system of Copernicus was looked upon as contrary
to the inspired record; while the philosophy of Bacon and the very existence
of mathematical science were generally unknown even to the graduates of
universities. It seemed as if the faculties of thinking and reasoning were
becoming extinct in Spain.
2. THE DAWN OF SPANISH LITERATURE IN THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY.—The first effort for intellectual emancipation was made by a
monk, Benito Feyjoo (1676-1764), who, having made himself acquainted
with the truths brought to light by Galileo, Bacon, Newton, Leibnitz, and
Pascal, devoted his life to the labor of diffusing them among his
countrymen. The opposition raised against him only drew to his works the
attention he desired. Even the Inquisition summoned him in vain, for it was
impossible to question that he was a sincere and devout Catholic, and he
had been careful not to interfere with any of the abuses sanctioned by the
church. Before his death he had the pleasure of seeing that an impulse in the
right direction had been imparted to the national mind.
One of the striking indications of advancement was an attack upon the
style of popular preaching, which was now in a state of scandalous
formally introduced into the country by Luzan, in his "Art of Poetry," which
from its first appearance (1737) exercised a controlling authority at the
court, and over the few writers of reputation then to be found in the country.
Though the works of Luzan offered a remedy for the bad taste which had
accompanied and in no small degree hastened the decline of the national
taste, they did not lay a foundation for advancement in literature. The
national mind had become dwarfed for want of its appropriate nourishment;
the moral and physical sciences that had been advancing for a hundred
years throughout Europe, were forbidden to cross the Pyrenees. The
scholastic philosophy was still maintained as the highest form of
intellectual culture; the system of Copernicus was looked upon as contrary
to the inspired record; while the philosophy of Bacon and the very existence
of mathematical science were generally unknown even to the graduates of
universities. It seemed as if the faculties of thinking and reasoning were
becoming extinct in Spain.
2. THE DAWN OF SPANISH LITERATURE IN THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY.—The first effort for intellectual emancipation was made by a
monk, Benito Feyjoo (1676-1764), who, having made himself acquainted
with the truths brought to light by Galileo, Bacon, Newton, Leibnitz, and
Pascal, devoted his life to the labor of diffusing them among his
countrymen. The opposition raised against him only drew to his works the
attention he desired. Even the Inquisition summoned him in vain, for it was
impossible to question that he was a sincere and devout Catholic, and he
had been careful not to interfere with any of the abuses sanctioned by the
church. Before his death he had the pleasure of seeing that an impulse in the
right direction had been imparted to the national mind.
One of the striking indications of advancement was an attack upon the
style of popular preaching, which was now in a state of scandalous
Page 480
degradation. The assailant was Isîa (1703-1781), a Jesuit, whose "History of
Friar Gerund" is a satirical romance, slightly resembling Don Quixote in its
plan, describing one of those bombastic orators of the age. It was from the
first successful in its object of destroying the evil at which it aimed, and
preachers of the class of Friar Gerund soon found themselves without an
audience.
The policy of Charles III. (1759-1788) was highly favorable to the
progress of literature. He abridged the power of the Inquisition, and forbade
the condemnation of any book till its writer or publisher had been heard in
its defense; he invited the suggestion of improved plans of study, made
arrangements for popular education, and raised the tone of instruction in the
institutions of learning. Finally, perceiving the Jesuits to be the most active
opponents of these reforms, he expelled them from every part of his
dominions, breaking up their schools, and confiscating their revenues.
During his reign, intellectual life and health were infused into the country,
and its powers, which had been so long wasting away, were revived and
renewed.
Among the writers of this age are Moratin the elder (1737-1780), whose
poems are marked by purity of language and harmony of versification; and
Yriarte (1750-1791), who was most successful in fables, which he applied,
to the correction of the faults and follies of literary men. To this period may
also be referred the school of Salamanca, whose object was to combine in
literature the power and richness of the old writers of the time of the Philips
with the severer taste then prevailing on the continent. Melendez (1754-
1817), who was the founder of this school, devoted his muse to the joys and
sorrows of rustic love, and the leisure and amusements of country life.
Nothing can surpass some of his descriptions in the graceful delineation of
tender feeling, and his verse is considered in sweetness and native strength,
to be such a return to the tones of Garcilasso, as had not been heard in Spain
Friar Gerund" is a satirical romance, slightly resembling Don Quixote in its
plan, describing one of those bombastic orators of the age. It was from the
first successful in its object of destroying the evil at which it aimed, and
preachers of the class of Friar Gerund soon found themselves without an
audience.
The policy of Charles III. (1759-1788) was highly favorable to the
progress of literature. He abridged the power of the Inquisition, and forbade
the condemnation of any book till its writer or publisher had been heard in
its defense; he invited the suggestion of improved plans of study, made
arrangements for popular education, and raised the tone of instruction in the
institutions of learning. Finally, perceiving the Jesuits to be the most active
opponents of these reforms, he expelled them from every part of his
dominions, breaking up their schools, and confiscating their revenues.
During his reign, intellectual life and health were infused into the country,
and its powers, which had been so long wasting away, were revived and
renewed.
Among the writers of this age are Moratin the elder (1737-1780), whose
poems are marked by purity of language and harmony of versification; and
Yriarte (1750-1791), who was most successful in fables, which he applied,
to the correction of the faults and follies of literary men. To this period may
also be referred the school of Salamanca, whose object was to combine in
literature the power and richness of the old writers of the time of the Philips
with the severer taste then prevailing on the continent. Melendez (1754-
1817), who was the founder of this school, devoted his muse to the joys and
sorrows of rustic love, and the leisure and amusements of country life.
Nothing can surpass some of his descriptions in the graceful delineation of
tender feeling, and his verse is considered in sweetness and native strength,
to be such a return to the tones of Garcilasso, as had not been heard in Spain
Page 481
for more than a century. Gonzalez (d. 1794), who, with happy success,
imitated Luis de Leon, Jovellanos (1744-1811), who exerted great influence
on the literary and political condition of his country, and Quintana (b.
1772), whose poems are distinguished by their noble and patriotic tone, are
considered among the principal representatives of the school of Salamanca.
The most considerable movement of the eighteenth century in Spain, is
that relating to the theatre, which it was earnestly attempted to subject to the
rules then prevailing on the French stage. The Spanish theatre, in fact, was
now at its lowest ebb, and wholly in the hands of the populace. The plays
acted for public amusement were still represented as they had been in the
seventeenth century,—in open court-yards, in the daytime, without any
pretense of scenery or of dramatic ingenuity. Soon after, through the
influence of Isabella, the second wife of Philip V., improvements were
made in the external arrangements and architecture of the theatres; yet,
owing to the exclusive favor shown to the opera by the Italian queens, the
old spirit continued to prevail.
In the middle of the eighteenth century a reform of the comedy and
tragedy was undertaken by Montiano and others, who introduced the French
style in dramatic compositions, and from that time an active contest went on
between the innovators and the followers of the old drama. The latter was
attacked, in 1762, by Moratin the elder, who wrote against it, and especially
against the autos sacramentales, showing that such wild, coarse, and
blasphemous exhibitions, as they generally were, ought not to be tolerated
in a civilized and religious community. So far as the autos were concerned,
Moratin was successful; they were prohibited in 1768, and since that time,
in the larger cities, they have not been heard.
The most successful writer for the stage was Ramon de la Cruz (1731-
1799), the author of about three hundred dramatic compositions, founded
imitated Luis de Leon, Jovellanos (1744-1811), who exerted great influence
on the literary and political condition of his country, and Quintana (b.
1772), whose poems are distinguished by their noble and patriotic tone, are
considered among the principal representatives of the school of Salamanca.
The most considerable movement of the eighteenth century in Spain, is
that relating to the theatre, which it was earnestly attempted to subject to the
rules then prevailing on the French stage. The Spanish theatre, in fact, was
now at its lowest ebb, and wholly in the hands of the populace. The plays
acted for public amusement were still represented as they had been in the
seventeenth century,—in open court-yards, in the daytime, without any
pretense of scenery or of dramatic ingenuity. Soon after, through the
influence of Isabella, the second wife of Philip V., improvements were
made in the external arrangements and architecture of the theatres; yet,
owing to the exclusive favor shown to the opera by the Italian queens, the
old spirit continued to prevail.
In the middle of the eighteenth century a reform of the comedy and
tragedy was undertaken by Montiano and others, who introduced the French
style in dramatic compositions, and from that time an active contest went on
between the innovators and the followers of the old drama. The latter was
attacked, in 1762, by Moratin the elder, who wrote against it, and especially
against the autos sacramentales, showing that such wild, coarse, and
blasphemous exhibitions, as they generally were, ought not to be tolerated
in a civilized and religious community. So far as the autos were concerned,
Moratin was successful; they were prohibited in 1768, and since that time,
in the larger cities, they have not been heard.
The most successful writer for the stage was Ramon de la Cruz (1731-
1799), the author of about three hundred dramatic compositions, founded
Page 482
on the manners of the middle and lower classes. They are entirely national
in their tone, and abound in wit and in faithful delineations of character.
While a number of writers pandered to the bad taste of low and vulgar
audiences, a formidable antagonist appeared in the person of Moratin the
younger (1760-1828), son of that poet who first produced, on the Spanish
stage, an original drama written according to the French doctrines.
Notwithstanding the taste of the public, he determined to tread in the
footsteps of his father. Though his comedies have failed to educate a school
strong enough to drive out the bad imitations of the old masters, they have
yet been able to keep their own place.
The eighteenth century was a period of revolution and change with the
Spanish theatre. While the old national drama was not restored to its ancient
rights, the drama founded on the doctrines taught by Luzan, and practiced
by the Moratins, had only a limited success. The audiences did as much to
degrade it as was done by the poets they patronized and the actors they
applauded. On the one side, extravagant and absurd dramas in great
numbers, full of low buffoonery, were offered; on the other, meagre,
sentimental comedies, and stiff, cold translations from the French, were
forced, in almost equal numbers, upon the actors, by the voices of those
from whose authority or support they could not entirely emancipate
themselves.
3. SPANISH LITERATURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.—The
new life and health infused into literature in the age of Charles III. was
checked by the French revolutionary wars in She reign of Charles IV., and
afterwards by the restoration of civil despotism and the Inquisition, brought
again into the country by the return of the Bourbon dynasty in 1814. Amidst
the violence and confusion of the reign of Ferdinand VII. (1814-1833),
elegant letters could hardly hope to find shelter or resting-place. Nearly
in their tone, and abound in wit and in faithful delineations of character.
While a number of writers pandered to the bad taste of low and vulgar
audiences, a formidable antagonist appeared in the person of Moratin the
younger (1760-1828), son of that poet who first produced, on the Spanish
stage, an original drama written according to the French doctrines.
Notwithstanding the taste of the public, he determined to tread in the
footsteps of his father. Though his comedies have failed to educate a school
strong enough to drive out the bad imitations of the old masters, they have
yet been able to keep their own place.
The eighteenth century was a period of revolution and change with the
Spanish theatre. While the old national drama was not restored to its ancient
rights, the drama founded on the doctrines taught by Luzan, and practiced
by the Moratins, had only a limited success. The audiences did as much to
degrade it as was done by the poets they patronized and the actors they
applauded. On the one side, extravagant and absurd dramas in great
numbers, full of low buffoonery, were offered; on the other, meagre,
sentimental comedies, and stiff, cold translations from the French, were
forced, in almost equal numbers, upon the actors, by the voices of those
from whose authority or support they could not entirely emancipate
themselves.
3. SPANISH LITERATURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.—The
new life and health infused into literature in the age of Charles III. was
checked by the French revolutionary wars in She reign of Charles IV., and
afterwards by the restoration of civil despotism and the Inquisition, brought
again into the country by the return of the Bourbon dynasty in 1814. Amidst
the violence and confusion of the reign of Ferdinand VII. (1814-1833),
elegant letters could hardly hope to find shelter or resting-place. Nearly
Page 483
every poet and prose writer, known as such at the end of the reign of
Charles IV., became involved in the fierce political changes of the time,—
changes so various and so opposite, that those who escaped from the
consequences of one, were often, on that very account, sure to suffer in the
next that followed. Indeed, the reign of Ferdinand VII. was an interregnum
in all elegant culture, such as no modern nation has yet seen,—not even
Spain herself during the War of the Succession. This state of things
continued through the long civil war which arose soon after the death of
that king, and, indeed, it is not yet entirely abated. But in despite of the
troubled condition of the country, even while Ferdinand was living, a
movement was begun, the first traces of which are to be found among the
emigrated Spaniards, who cheered with letters their exile in England and
France, and whose subsequent progress from the time when the death of
their unfaithful monarch permitted them to return home, is distinctly
perceptible in their own country.
The two principal writers of the first half of the century are the satirist
José de Larra (d. 1837), and the poet Espronceda (d. 1842); both were
brilliant writers, and both died young. Zorrilla (b. 1817), has great wealth of
imagination, and Fernan Caballero is a gifted woman whose stories have
been often translated. Antonio de Trueba is a writer of popular songs and
short stories not without merit, Campoamor (b. 1817) and Bequer represent
the poetry of twenty years ago. The short lyrics of the first named are
remarkable for their delicacy and finesse. Bequer, who died at the age of
thirty, left behind him poems which have already exercised a wide influence
in his own country and in Spanish America; they tell a story of passionate
love, despair, and death. Perez Galdos, a writer of fiction, attacks the
problem of modern life and thought, and represents with vivid and often
bitter fidelity the conflicting interests and passions of Spanish life. Valera,
the present minister from Spain to the United States, is the author of the
most famous Spanish novel of the day, "Pepita Jimenez," a work of great
Charles IV., became involved in the fierce political changes of the time,—
changes so various and so opposite, that those who escaped from the
consequences of one, were often, on that very account, sure to suffer in the
next that followed. Indeed, the reign of Ferdinand VII. was an interregnum
in all elegant culture, such as no modern nation has yet seen,—not even
Spain herself during the War of the Succession. This state of things
continued through the long civil war which arose soon after the death of
that king, and, indeed, it is not yet entirely abated. But in despite of the
troubled condition of the country, even while Ferdinand was living, a
movement was begun, the first traces of which are to be found among the
emigrated Spaniards, who cheered with letters their exile in England and
France, and whose subsequent progress from the time when the death of
their unfaithful monarch permitted them to return home, is distinctly
perceptible in their own country.
The two principal writers of the first half of the century are the satirist
José de Larra (d. 1837), and the poet Espronceda (d. 1842); both were
brilliant writers, and both died young. Zorrilla (b. 1817), has great wealth of
imagination, and Fernan Caballero is a gifted woman whose stories have
been often translated. Antonio de Trueba is a writer of popular songs and
short stories not without merit, Campoamor (b. 1817) and Bequer represent
the poetry of twenty years ago. The short lyrics of the first named are
remarkable for their delicacy and finesse. Bequer, who died at the age of
thirty, left behind him poems which have already exercised a wide influence
in his own country and in Spanish America; they tell a story of passionate
love, despair, and death. Perez Galdos, a writer of fiction, attacks the
problem of modern life and thought, and represents with vivid and often
bitter fidelity the conflicting interests and passions of Spanish life. Valera,
the present minister from Spain to the United States, is the author of the
most famous Spanish novel of the day, "Pepita Jimenez," a work of great
Page 484
artistic perfection, and his skill and grace are still more evident in his
critical essays. Castelar has gained a European celebrity as an orator and a
political and miscellaneous writer. The works of these authors, and of many
others not named, show clearly that Spain is making vigorous efforts to
bring herself, socially and intellectually, into line with the rest of Europe.
Of the Spanish colonies Cuba has produced some writers of enduring
renown. The most distinguished for poetic fame is Gertrude de Avelleneda;
Heredia and Placido may also be mentioned. In Venezuela, Baralt is known
as a historian, poet, and classical writer; Olmedo as a poet of Bolivia, and
Caro a writer of the United States of Colombia.
critical essays. Castelar has gained a European celebrity as an orator and a
political and miscellaneous writer. The works of these authors, and of many
others not named, show clearly that Spain is making vigorous efforts to
bring herself, socially and intellectually, into line with the rest of Europe.
Of the Spanish colonies Cuba has produced some writers of enduring
renown. The most distinguished for poetic fame is Gertrude de Avelleneda;
Heredia and Placido may also be mentioned. In Venezuela, Baralt is known
as a historian, poet, and classical writer; Olmedo as a poet of Bolivia, and
Caro a writer of the United States of Colombia.
Page 485
PORTUGUESE LITERATURE.
1. The Portuguese Language.—2. Early Literature of Portugal.—3. Poets of
the Fifteenth Century; Macias, Ribeyro.—4. Introduction of the Italian
Style; San de Miranda, Montemayor, Ferreira.—5. Epic Poetry; Camoëns;
The Lusiad.—6. Dramatic Poetry; Gil Vicente.—7. Prose Writing;
Rodriguez Lobo, Barros, Brito, Veira.—8. Portuguese Literature in the
Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries; Antonio José, Manuel
do Nascimento, Manuel de Bocage.
1. THE PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE.—Portugal was long considered
only as an integral part of Spain; its inhabitants called themselves
Spaniards, and conferred on their neighbors the distinctive appellation of
Castilians. Their language was originally the same as the Galician; and had
Portugal remained a province of Spain, its peculiar dialect would probably,
like that of Aragon, have been driven from the fields of literature by the
Castilian. But at the close of the eleventh century, Alphonso VI., celebrated
in Spanish history for his triumphs over the Moors, gave Portugal as a
dowry to his daughter on her marriage with Henry of Burgundy, with
permission to call his own whatever accessions to it the young prince might
be able to conquer from the Moorish territory. Alphonso Henriquez, the son
of this pair, was saluted King of Portugal by his soldiers on the battle-field
of Castro-Verd, in the year 1139, his kingdom comprising all the provinces
we now call Portugal, except the province of Algarve. Thenceforward the
1. The Portuguese Language.—2. Early Literature of Portugal.—3. Poets of
the Fifteenth Century; Macias, Ribeyro.—4. Introduction of the Italian
Style; San de Miranda, Montemayor, Ferreira.—5. Epic Poetry; Camoëns;
The Lusiad.—6. Dramatic Poetry; Gil Vicente.—7. Prose Writing;
Rodriguez Lobo, Barros, Brito, Veira.—8. Portuguese Literature in the
Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries; Antonio José, Manuel
do Nascimento, Manuel de Bocage.
1. THE PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE.—Portugal was long considered
only as an integral part of Spain; its inhabitants called themselves
Spaniards, and conferred on their neighbors the distinctive appellation of
Castilians. Their language was originally the same as the Galician; and had
Portugal remained a province of Spain, its peculiar dialect would probably,
like that of Aragon, have been driven from the fields of literature by the
Castilian. But at the close of the eleventh century, Alphonso VI., celebrated
in Spanish history for his triumphs over the Moors, gave Portugal as a
dowry to his daughter on her marriage with Henry of Burgundy, with
permission to call his own whatever accessions to it the young prince might
be able to conquer from the Moorish territory. Alphonso Henriquez, the son
of this pair, was saluted King of Portugal by his soldiers on the battle-field
of Castro-Verd, in the year 1139, his kingdom comprising all the provinces
we now call Portugal, except the province of Algarve. Thenceforward the
Page 486
Portuguese became a separate nation from the Spaniards, and their language
asserted for itself an independent existence. Still, however, the Castilian
was long considered the proper vehicle for literature; and while few
Portuguese writers wholly disused it, there were many who employed no
other.
Although the Portuguese language, founded on the Galician dialect, bears
much similarity to the Spanish in its roots and structure, it differs widely
from it in its grammatical combinations and derivations, so that it
constitutes a language by itself. It has far more French, and fewer Basque
and Arabic elements than the Spanish; it is softer, but it has, at the same
time, a truncated and incomplete sound, compared with the sonorous beauty
of the Castilian, and a predominance of nasal sounds stronger than those of
the French. It is graceful and easy in its construction, but it is the least
energetic of all the Romance tongues.
2. EARLY LITERATURE OF PORTUGAL.—The people, as well as the
language, of Portugal possess a distinctive character. Early in the history of
the country the extensive and fertile plains were abandoned to pasturage,
and the number of shepherds in proportion to the rest of the population was
so great, that the idea of rural life among them was always associated with
the care of flocks. At the same time, their long extent of coast invited to the
pursuits of commerce and navigation; and the nation, thus divided into
hardy navigators, soldiers, and shepherds, was better calculated for the
display of energy, valor, and enterprise than for laborious and persevering
industry. Accustomed to active intercourse with society, rather than to the
seclusion of castles, they were far less haughty and fanatical than the
Castilians; and the greater number of Moçárabians that were incorporated
among them, diffused over their feelings and manners a much stronger
influence of orientalism. The passion of love seemed to occupy a larger
asserted for itself an independent existence. Still, however, the Castilian
was long considered the proper vehicle for literature; and while few
Portuguese writers wholly disused it, there were many who employed no
other.
Although the Portuguese language, founded on the Galician dialect, bears
much similarity to the Spanish in its roots and structure, it differs widely
from it in its grammatical combinations and derivations, so that it
constitutes a language by itself. It has far more French, and fewer Basque
and Arabic elements than the Spanish; it is softer, but it has, at the same
time, a truncated and incomplete sound, compared with the sonorous beauty
of the Castilian, and a predominance of nasal sounds stronger than those of
the French. It is graceful and easy in its construction, but it is the least
energetic of all the Romance tongues.
2. EARLY LITERATURE OF PORTUGAL.—The people, as well as the
language, of Portugal possess a distinctive character. Early in the history of
the country the extensive and fertile plains were abandoned to pasturage,
and the number of shepherds in proportion to the rest of the population was
so great, that the idea of rural life among them was always associated with
the care of flocks. At the same time, their long extent of coast invited to the
pursuits of commerce and navigation; and the nation, thus divided into
hardy navigators, soldiers, and shepherds, was better calculated for the
display of energy, valor, and enterprise than for laborious and persevering
industry. Accustomed to active intercourse with society, rather than to the
seclusion of castles, they were far less haughty and fanatical than the
Castilians; and the greater number of Moçárabians that were incorporated
among them, diffused over their feelings and manners a much stronger
influence of orientalism. The passion of love seemed to occupy a larger
Page 487
share of their existence, and their poetry was more enthusiastic than that of
any other people of Europe.
Although the literature of Portugal, like the character of its people, is
marked by excessive softness, elegiac sentimentality, and an undefined
melancholy, it affords little originality in the general tone of its productions.
Henry of Burgundy and his knights early introduced Provençal poetry, and
the native genius was nurtured in the succeeding age by Spanish and Italian
taste, and afterwards modified by the influence of French and English
civilization. National songs were not wanting in the early history of the
country, yet no relics of them have been preserved. The earliest monuments
of Portuguese literature relate to the age of the French knights who founded
the political independence of the country, and must be sought in the
"Cancioneros," containing courtly ballads composed in the Galician dialect,
after the Provençal fashion, and sung by wandering minstrels. The
Cancionero of King Dionysius (1279-1325) is the most ancient of those
collections, the king himself being considered by the Portuguese as the
earliest poet. In fact, Galician poetry, modeled after the Provençal, was
cultivated at that time all along the western portion of the Pyrenean
peninsula. Alfonso the Wise, King of Castile, used this dialect in his poems;
and as a poet and patron of the Spanish troubadours, he may be considered
as belonging both to the Spanish and Portuguese literatures.
In the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century, Portuguese
poetry preserved its Provençal character. The poets rallied around the court,
and the kings and princes of the age sang to the Provençal lyre both in the
Castilian and the Galician dialects; but only a few fragments of the poetry
of the fourteenth century are extant.
3. POETS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.—Early in the fifteenth
century, the same chivalrous spirit which had achieved the conquest of the
any other people of Europe.
Although the literature of Portugal, like the character of its people, is
marked by excessive softness, elegiac sentimentality, and an undefined
melancholy, it affords little originality in the general tone of its productions.
Henry of Burgundy and his knights early introduced Provençal poetry, and
the native genius was nurtured in the succeeding age by Spanish and Italian
taste, and afterwards modified by the influence of French and English
civilization. National songs were not wanting in the early history of the
country, yet no relics of them have been preserved. The earliest monuments
of Portuguese literature relate to the age of the French knights who founded
the political independence of the country, and must be sought in the
"Cancioneros," containing courtly ballads composed in the Galician dialect,
after the Provençal fashion, and sung by wandering minstrels. The
Cancionero of King Dionysius (1279-1325) is the most ancient of those
collections, the king himself being considered by the Portuguese as the
earliest poet. In fact, Galician poetry, modeled after the Provençal, was
cultivated at that time all along the western portion of the Pyrenean
peninsula. Alfonso the Wise, King of Castile, used this dialect in his poems;
and as a poet and patron of the Spanish troubadours, he may be considered
as belonging both to the Spanish and Portuguese literatures.
In the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century, Portuguese
poetry preserved its Provençal character. The poets rallied around the court,
and the kings and princes of the age sang to the Provençal lyre both in the
Castilian and the Galician dialects; but only a few fragments of the poetry
of the fourteenth century are extant.
3. POETS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.—Early in the fifteenth
century, the same chivalrous spirit which had achieved the conquest of the
Page 488
country from the Moors, led the Portuguese to cross the Straits of Gibraltar,
and plant their banner on the walls of Ceuta. Many other cities of Africa
were afterwards taken; and in 1487, Bartolomeo Diaz doubled the Cape of
Good Hope, and Vasco da Gama pointed out to Europe the hitherto
unknown track to India. Within fifteen years after, a Portuguese kingdom
was founded in Hindostan, and the treasures of the East flowed into
Portugal. The enthusiasm of the people was thus awakened, and high views
of national importance, and high hopes of national glory, arose in the public
mind. The time was peculiarly favorable to the development of genius, and
especially to the spirit of poetry. Indeed, the last part of the fifteenth
century, and the beginning of the sixteenth, the age of King John (1481-
1495), and of Emanuel (1495-1521), may be called the golden age of the
Portuguese poetry.
At the head of the poetical school of the fifteenth century, stands Macias,
surnamed the Enamored (fl. 1420). He was distinguished as a hero in the
wars against the Moors of Granada, and as a poet in the retinue of the
Marquis of Villena. He became attached to a lady of the same princely
household, who was forced to marry another. Macias continuing to express
his love, though prohibited by the marquis from doing so, was thrown into
prison; but even there, he still poured forth his songs on his ill-fated love,
regarding the hardships of captivity as light, in comparison with the pangs
of absence from his mistress. The husband of the lady, stung with jealousy,
recognizing Macias through the bars of his prison, took deadly aim at him
with his javelin, and killed him on the spot. The weapon was suspended
over the poet's tomb, in the Church of St. Catherine, with the inscription,
"Here lies Macias the Enamored."
The death of Macias produced such a sensation as could only belong to
an imaginative age. All those who desired to be thought cultivated mourned
his fate. His few poems of moderate merit became generally known and
and plant their banner on the walls of Ceuta. Many other cities of Africa
were afterwards taken; and in 1487, Bartolomeo Diaz doubled the Cape of
Good Hope, and Vasco da Gama pointed out to Europe the hitherto
unknown track to India. Within fifteen years after, a Portuguese kingdom
was founded in Hindostan, and the treasures of the East flowed into
Portugal. The enthusiasm of the people was thus awakened, and high views
of national importance, and high hopes of national glory, arose in the public
mind. The time was peculiarly favorable to the development of genius, and
especially to the spirit of poetry. Indeed, the last part of the fifteenth
century, and the beginning of the sixteenth, the age of King John (1481-
1495), and of Emanuel (1495-1521), may be called the golden age of the
Portuguese poetry.
At the head of the poetical school of the fifteenth century, stands Macias,
surnamed the Enamored (fl. 1420). He was distinguished as a hero in the
wars against the Moors of Granada, and as a poet in the retinue of the
Marquis of Villena. He became attached to a lady of the same princely
household, who was forced to marry another. Macias continuing to express
his love, though prohibited by the marquis from doing so, was thrown into
prison; but even there, he still poured forth his songs on his ill-fated love,
regarding the hardships of captivity as light, in comparison with the pangs
of absence from his mistress. The husband of the lady, stung with jealousy,
recognizing Macias through the bars of his prison, took deadly aim at him
with his javelin, and killed him on the spot. The weapon was suspended
over the poet's tomb, in the Church of St. Catherine, with the inscription,
"Here lies Macias the Enamored."
The death of Macias produced such a sensation as could only belong to
an imaginative age. All those who desired to be thought cultivated mourned
his fate. His few poems of moderate merit became generally known and
Page 489
admired, and his melancholy history continued to be the theme of songs and
ballads, until, in the poetry of Lope de Vega and Calderon, the name of
Macias passed into a proverb, and became synonymous with the highest
and tenderest love.
Ribeyro (1495-1521), one of the earliest and best poets of Portugal, was
attached to the court of King Emanuel. Here he indulged a passion for one
of the ladies of the court, which gave rise to some of his most exquisite
effusions. It is supposed that the lady, whose name he studiously conceals,
was the Infanta Beatrice, the king's own daughter. He was so wholly
devoted to the object of his love, that he is said to have passed whole nights
wandering in the woods, or beside the banks of a solitary stream, pouring
forth the tale of his woes in strains of mingled tenderness and despair. The
most celebrated productions of Ribeyro are eclogues. The scene is
invariably laid in his own country; his shepherds are all Portuguese, and his
peasant girls have Christian names. But under the disguise of fictitious
characters, he evidently sought to place before the eyes of his beloved
mistress the feelings of his own breast; and the wretchedness of an
impassioned lover is always his favorite theme.
The bucolic poets of Portugal may be regarded as the earliest in Europe,
and their favorite creed, that pastoral life was the poetical model of human
life, and the ideal point from which every sentiment and passion ought to be
viewed, was first represented by Ribeyro. This idea threw an air of romantic
sweetness and elegance over the poetry of the sixteenth century, but at the
same time it gave to it a monotonous tone and an air of tedious affectation.
4. INTRODUCTION OF THE ITALIAN STYLE.—The poet who first
introduced the Italian style into Portuguese poetry was so successful in
seizing the delicate tone by which the blending of the two was to be
effected that the innovation was accomplished without a struggle. Saa de
ballads, until, in the poetry of Lope de Vega and Calderon, the name of
Macias passed into a proverb, and became synonymous with the highest
and tenderest love.
Ribeyro (1495-1521), one of the earliest and best poets of Portugal, was
attached to the court of King Emanuel. Here he indulged a passion for one
of the ladies of the court, which gave rise to some of his most exquisite
effusions. It is supposed that the lady, whose name he studiously conceals,
was the Infanta Beatrice, the king's own daughter. He was so wholly
devoted to the object of his love, that he is said to have passed whole nights
wandering in the woods, or beside the banks of a solitary stream, pouring
forth the tale of his woes in strains of mingled tenderness and despair. The
most celebrated productions of Ribeyro are eclogues. The scene is
invariably laid in his own country; his shepherds are all Portuguese, and his
peasant girls have Christian names. But under the disguise of fictitious
characters, he evidently sought to place before the eyes of his beloved
mistress the feelings of his own breast; and the wretchedness of an
impassioned lover is always his favorite theme.
The bucolic poets of Portugal may be regarded as the earliest in Europe,
and their favorite creed, that pastoral life was the poetical model of human
life, and the ideal point from which every sentiment and passion ought to be
viewed, was first represented by Ribeyro. This idea threw an air of romantic
sweetness and elegance over the poetry of the sixteenth century, but at the
same time it gave to it a monotonous tone and an air of tedious affectation.
4. INTRODUCTION OF THE ITALIAN STYLE.—The poet who first
introduced the Italian style into Portuguese poetry was so successful in
seizing the delicate tone by which the blending of the two was to be
effected that the innovation was accomplished without a struggle. Saa de
Page 490
Miranda (1495-1558) was one of the most pleasing and accomplished men
of his age. He traveled extensively, and on his return was attached to the
court of Lisbon. It is related of him that he would often sit silent and
abstracted in company, and that tears, of which no one knew the cause,
would flow from his eyes, while he seemed unconscious of the
circumstance, and indifferent to the observation he was thus attracting.
These emotions were of course attributed to poetic thought and romantic
attachments. He insisted on marrying a lady who was neither young nor
handsome, and whom he had never seen, having been captivated by her
reputation for amiability and discretion. He became so attached to her, that
when she died he renounced all his previous pursuits and purposes in life,
remained inconsolable, and soon followed her to the grave. Miranda is
chiefly celebrated for his lyric and pastoral poetry.
Montemayor was a contemporary of Miranda, and a native of Portugal,
but he declined holding any literary position in his own country. The
pastoral romance of "Diana," written in the Castilian language, is his most
celebrated work. It was received with great favor, and extensively imitated.
With many faults, it possesses a high degree of poetic merit, and is entitled
to the esteem of all ages.
Ferreira (1528-1569) has been called the Horace of Portugal. His works
are correct and elegant, but they are wanting in those higher efforts of
genius which strike the imagination and fire the spirit. The glory,
advancement, and civilization of his country were his darling themes, and it
was this enthusiasm of patriotism that made him great. In his tragedy of
Inez de Castro, Ferreira raised himself far above his Italian contemporaries.
Many similar writers shed a lustre on this, the brightest and indeed the only
brilliant period of Portuguese literature; but they are all more remarkable
for taste and elegance than for richness of invention.
of his age. He traveled extensively, and on his return was attached to the
court of Lisbon. It is related of him that he would often sit silent and
abstracted in company, and that tears, of which no one knew the cause,
would flow from his eyes, while he seemed unconscious of the
circumstance, and indifferent to the observation he was thus attracting.
These emotions were of course attributed to poetic thought and romantic
attachments. He insisted on marrying a lady who was neither young nor
handsome, and whom he had never seen, having been captivated by her
reputation for amiability and discretion. He became so attached to her, that
when she died he renounced all his previous pursuits and purposes in life,
remained inconsolable, and soon followed her to the grave. Miranda is
chiefly celebrated for his lyric and pastoral poetry.
Montemayor was a contemporary of Miranda, and a native of Portugal,
but he declined holding any literary position in his own country. The
pastoral romance of "Diana," written in the Castilian language, is his most
celebrated work. It was received with great favor, and extensively imitated.
With many faults, it possesses a high degree of poetic merit, and is entitled
to the esteem of all ages.
Ferreira (1528-1569) has been called the Horace of Portugal. His works
are correct and elegant, but they are wanting in those higher efforts of
genius which strike the imagination and fire the spirit. The glory,
advancement, and civilization of his country were his darling themes, and it
was this enthusiasm of patriotism that made him great. In his tragedy of
Inez de Castro, Ferreira raised himself far above his Italian contemporaries.
Many similar writers shed a lustre on this, the brightest and indeed the only
brilliant period of Portuguese literature; but they are all more remarkable
for taste and elegance than for richness of invention.
Page 491
5. EPIC POETRY.—The chief and only boast of his country, the sole
poet whose celebrity has extended beyond the peninsula, and whose name
appears in the list of those who have conferred honor upon Europe, is Luis
de Camoëns (1524-1579). He was descended from a noble, but by no means
a wealthy family. After having completed his studies at the university, he
conceived a passion for a lady of the court, so violent that for some time he
renounced all literary and worldly pursuits. He entered the military service,
and in an engagement before Ceuta, in which he greatly distinguished
himself, he lost an eye. Neglected and contemned by his country, he
embarked for the East Indies. After various vicissitudes there, he wrote a
bitter satire on the government, which occasioned his banishment to the
island of Macao, where he remained for five years, and where he completed
the great work which was to hand down his name to posterity. There is still
to be seen, on the most elevated point of the isthmus which unites the town
of Macao to the Chinese continent, a sort of natural gallery formed out of
the rocks, apparently almost suspended in the air, and commanding a
magnificent prospect over both seas, and the lofty chain of mountains
which rises above their shores. Here he is said to have invoked the genius of
the epic muse, and tradition has conferred on this retreat the name of the
Grotto of Camoëns.
On his return to Goa, Camoëns was shipwrecked, and of all his little
property, he succeeded only in saving the manuscript of the Lusiad, which
he bore in one hand above the water, while swimming to the shore. Soon
after reaching Goa, he was thrown into prison upon some unjust accusation,
and suffered for a long time to linger there. At length released, he took
passage for his native country, which he reached after an absence of sixteen
years. Portugal was at this time ravaged by the plague, and in the universal
sorrow and alarm, the poet and his great work were alike neglected. The
king at length consented to accept the dedication of this poem, and made to
the author the wretched return of a pension, amounting to about twenty-five
poet whose celebrity has extended beyond the peninsula, and whose name
appears in the list of those who have conferred honor upon Europe, is Luis
de Camoëns (1524-1579). He was descended from a noble, but by no means
a wealthy family. After having completed his studies at the university, he
conceived a passion for a lady of the court, so violent that for some time he
renounced all literary and worldly pursuits. He entered the military service,
and in an engagement before Ceuta, in which he greatly distinguished
himself, he lost an eye. Neglected and contemned by his country, he
embarked for the East Indies. After various vicissitudes there, he wrote a
bitter satire on the government, which occasioned his banishment to the
island of Macao, where he remained for five years, and where he completed
the great work which was to hand down his name to posterity. There is still
to be seen, on the most elevated point of the isthmus which unites the town
of Macao to the Chinese continent, a sort of natural gallery formed out of
the rocks, apparently almost suspended in the air, and commanding a
magnificent prospect over both seas, and the lofty chain of mountains
which rises above their shores. Here he is said to have invoked the genius of
the epic muse, and tradition has conferred on this retreat the name of the
Grotto of Camoëns.
On his return to Goa, Camoëns was shipwrecked, and of all his little
property, he succeeded only in saving the manuscript of the Lusiad, which
he bore in one hand above the water, while swimming to the shore. Soon
after reaching Goa, he was thrown into prison upon some unjust accusation,
and suffered for a long time to linger there. At length released, he took
passage for his native country, which he reached after an absence of sixteen
years. Portugal was at this time ravaged by the plague, and in the universal
sorrow and alarm, the poet and his great work were alike neglected. The
king at length consented to accept the dedication of this poem, and made to
the author the wretched return of a pension, amounting to about twenty-five
Page 492
dollars. Camoëns was not unfrequently in actual want of bread, for which
he was in part indebted to a black servant who had accompanied him from
India, and who was in the habit of stealing out at night to beg in the streets
for what might support his master during the following day. But more
aggravated evils were in store for the unfortunate poet. The young king
perished in the disastrous expedition against Morocco, and with him
expired the royal house of Portugal. The independence of the nation was
lost, her glory eclipsed, and the future pregnant with calamity and disgrace.
Camoëns, who had so nobly supported his own misfortunes, sank under
those of his country. He was seized with a violent fever, and expired in a
public hospital without having a shroud to cover his remains.
The poem on which the reputation of Camoëns depends, is entitled "Os
Lusiadas;" that is, the Lusitanians (or Portuguese), and its design is to
present a poetic and epic grouping of all the great and interesting events in
the annals of Portugal. The discovery of the passage to India, the most
brilliant point in Portuguese history, was selected as the groundwork of the
epic unity of the poem. But with this, and the Portuguese conquests in
India, the author combined all the illustrious actions performed by his
countrymen in other quarters of the world, and whatever of splendid and
heroic achievement history or tradition could supply. Vasco da Gama has
been represented as the hero of the work, and those portions not
immediately connected with his expedition, as episodes. But there is, in
truth, no other leading subject than the country, and no episodes except such
parts as are not immediately connected with her glory. Camoëns was
familiar with the works of his Italian contemporaries, but the circumstance
that essentially distinguishes him from them, and which forms the
everlasting monument of his own and his country's glory, is the national
love and pride breathing through the whole work. His patriotic spirit,
devoting a whole life to raise a monument worthy of his country, seems
he was in part indebted to a black servant who had accompanied him from
India, and who was in the habit of stealing out at night to beg in the streets
for what might support his master during the following day. But more
aggravated evils were in store for the unfortunate poet. The young king
perished in the disastrous expedition against Morocco, and with him
expired the royal house of Portugal. The independence of the nation was
lost, her glory eclipsed, and the future pregnant with calamity and disgrace.
Camoëns, who had so nobly supported his own misfortunes, sank under
those of his country. He was seized with a violent fever, and expired in a
public hospital without having a shroud to cover his remains.
The poem on which the reputation of Camoëns depends, is entitled "Os
Lusiadas;" that is, the Lusitanians (or Portuguese), and its design is to
present a poetic and epic grouping of all the great and interesting events in
the annals of Portugal. The discovery of the passage to India, the most
brilliant point in Portuguese history, was selected as the groundwork of the
epic unity of the poem. But with this, and the Portuguese conquests in
India, the author combined all the illustrious actions performed by his
countrymen in other quarters of the world, and whatever of splendid and
heroic achievement history or tradition could supply. Vasco da Gama has
been represented as the hero of the work, and those portions not
immediately connected with his expedition, as episodes. But there is, in
truth, no other leading subject than the country, and no episodes except such
parts as are not immediately connected with her glory. Camoëns was
familiar with the works of his Italian contemporaries, but the circumstance
that essentially distinguishes him from them, and which forms the
everlasting monument of his own and his country's glory, is the national
love and pride breathing through the whole work. His patriotic spirit,
devoting a whole life to raise a monument worthy of his country, seems
Page 493
never to have indulged a thought which was not true to the glory of an
ungrateful nation.
The Greek mythology forms the epic machinery of the Lusiad. Vasco da
Gama, having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, is steering along the
western coast of Africa, when the gods assemble on Mount Olympus to
deliberate on the fate of India. Venus and Bacchus form two parties; the
former in favor, the latter opposed to the Portuguese. The poet thus gratified
his national pride, as Portugal was eminently the land of love, and
moderation in the use of wine was one of its highest virtues. Bacchus lays
many snares to entrap and ruin the adventurers, who are warned and
protected by Venus. He visits the palace of the gods of the sea, who consent
to let loose the Winds and Waves upon the daring adventurers, but she
summons her nymphs, and adorning themselves with garlands of the
sweetest flowers, they subdue the boisterous Winds, who, charmed by the
blandishments of love, become calm. Vasco is hospitably received by the
African king of Melinda, to whom he relates the most interesting parts of
the history of his native country. On the homeward voyage, Venus prepares
a magic festival for the adventurers, on an enchanted island, and the
goddess Thetis becomes the bride of the admiral. Here the poet finds the
opportunity to complete the narrative of his country's history, and a
prophetic nymph is brought forward to describe the future achievements of
the nation from that period to the time of Camoëns.
The Lusiad is one of the noblest monuments ever raised to the national
glory of any people, and it is difficult to conceive how so grand and
beautiful a whole could be formed on a plan so trivial and irregular. The
plan has been compared to a scaffolding surrounded and concealed by a
majestic building, serving to connect its parts, but having no share in
producing the unity of the effect. One of the most affecting and beautiful of
all the passages of the Lusiad, is the narrative of the tragical fate of Iñez de
ungrateful nation.
The Greek mythology forms the epic machinery of the Lusiad. Vasco da
Gama, having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, is steering along the
western coast of Africa, when the gods assemble on Mount Olympus to
deliberate on the fate of India. Venus and Bacchus form two parties; the
former in favor, the latter opposed to the Portuguese. The poet thus gratified
his national pride, as Portugal was eminently the land of love, and
moderation in the use of wine was one of its highest virtues. Bacchus lays
many snares to entrap and ruin the adventurers, who are warned and
protected by Venus. He visits the palace of the gods of the sea, who consent
to let loose the Winds and Waves upon the daring adventurers, but she
summons her nymphs, and adorning themselves with garlands of the
sweetest flowers, they subdue the boisterous Winds, who, charmed by the
blandishments of love, become calm. Vasco is hospitably received by the
African king of Melinda, to whom he relates the most interesting parts of
the history of his native country. On the homeward voyage, Venus prepares
a magic festival for the adventurers, on an enchanted island, and the
goddess Thetis becomes the bride of the admiral. Here the poet finds the
opportunity to complete the narrative of his country's history, and a
prophetic nymph is brought forward to describe the future achievements of
the nation from that period to the time of Camoëns.
The Lusiad is one of the noblest monuments ever raised to the national
glory of any people, and it is difficult to conceive how so grand and
beautiful a whole could be formed on a plan so trivial and irregular. The
plan has been compared to a scaffolding surrounded and concealed by a
majestic building, serving to connect its parts, but having no share in
producing the unity of the effect. One of the most affecting and beautiful of
all the passages of the Lusiad, is the narrative of the tragical fate of Iñez de
Page 494
Castro, who, after her death, was proclaimed queen of Portugal, upon the
accession of her lover to the throne.
In the poems of Camoëns we find examples of every species of
composition practiced in his age and country. Some of them bear the
impress of his personal character, and of his sad and agitated career. A wild
tone of sorrow runs through them, which strikes the ear like wailings heard
through the gloom of midnight and darkness. We know not by what
calamity they were called forth, but it is the voice of grief, and it awakens
an answering throb within the breast.
6. DRAMATIC POETRY.—The drama is quite a barren field in
Portuguese literature. The stage of Lisbon has been occupied almost
exclusively by the Italian opera and Spanish comedy. Only one poet of any
name has written in the Portuguese spirit. This was Gil Vicente (1490-
1556). He resided constantly at the court, and was employed in providing
occasional pieces for its civil and religious festivities. It is probable that he
was an actor, and it is certain that he educated for the stage his daughter,
Paula, who was equally celebrated as an actress, a poetess, and a musician.
The dramas of Vicente consist of autos, comedies, tragi- comedies, and
farces. The autos, or religious pieces, were written chiefly to furnish
entertainment for the court on Christmas night. The shepherds had naturally
an important part assigned to them, and the whole was pervaded by the
pastoral feeling which distinguishes them remarkably from the Spanish
autos. But the best productions of this author are his farces, which approach
much nearer to the style of true comedy than the plays published under that
name.
Saa de Miranda, desirous of conferring on his country a classical theatre,
produced two erudite comedies, but he was born a pastoral poet, and made
himself a dramatist only by imitation. Ferreira belonged to the same school,
accession of her lover to the throne.
In the poems of Camoëns we find examples of every species of
composition practiced in his age and country. Some of them bear the
impress of his personal character, and of his sad and agitated career. A wild
tone of sorrow runs through them, which strikes the ear like wailings heard
through the gloom of midnight and darkness. We know not by what
calamity they were called forth, but it is the voice of grief, and it awakens
an answering throb within the breast.
6. DRAMATIC POETRY.—The drama is quite a barren field in
Portuguese literature. The stage of Lisbon has been occupied almost
exclusively by the Italian opera and Spanish comedy. Only one poet of any
name has written in the Portuguese spirit. This was Gil Vicente (1490-
1556). He resided constantly at the court, and was employed in providing
occasional pieces for its civil and religious festivities. It is probable that he
was an actor, and it is certain that he educated for the stage his daughter,
Paula, who was equally celebrated as an actress, a poetess, and a musician.
The dramas of Vicente consist of autos, comedies, tragi- comedies, and
farces. The autos, or religious pieces, were written chiefly to furnish
entertainment for the court on Christmas night. The shepherds had naturally
an important part assigned to them, and the whole was pervaded by the
pastoral feeling which distinguishes them remarkably from the Spanish
autos. But the best productions of this author are his farces, which approach
much nearer to the style of true comedy than the plays published under that
name.
Saa de Miranda, desirous of conferring on his country a classical theatre,
produced two erudite comedies, but he was born a pastoral poet, and made
himself a dramatist only by imitation. Ferreira belonged to the same school,
Page 495
and the favor bestowed by the court on the dramas of these two poets, was
one obstacle to the formation of a national drama. Another was, the
pertinacious attachment of the Portuguese to pastoral poetry, and nothing
could be more contrary to dramatic life than the languor, sentimentality, and
monotony peculiar to the eclogue.
7. PROSE WRITING.—After Camoëns, Saa de Miranda, and Ferreira,
the language and the literature of Portugal are indebted to no other writer so
much as to Rodriguez Lobo (b. 1558). The history of Portuguese eloquence
may be said to commence with him, for he laid so good a foundation for the
cultivation of a pure prose style that, in every effort to obtain classic
perfection, subsequent writers have merely followed in his steps. His verse
is nowise inferior to his prose. Among his poetic works appears a whole
series of historic romances, written by way of ridiculing that species of
composition.
Lobo stood alone, in the sixteenth century, in his efforts to improve the
prose of his country. Gongorism had, meanwhile, introduced bombast and
metaphorical obscurity, and no writer of eminence arose to attempt a more
natural style, till the end of the seventeenth century.
Foremost among those who undertook to relate the history of their
country, especially of her oriental discoveries, and who communicated to
their records an ardent patriotic feeling, is Barros (1496-1571); he took
Livy for his model, and his labors are worthy of honorable notice. India was
the favorite topic of Portuguese historians; and several similar works, but
inferior to that of Barros, appeared in the same age. Bernardo de Brito (d.
1617) undertook the task of compiling a history of Portugal. His narration
begins with the creation of the world, and breaks off where the history of
modern Portugal commences. It is eminently distinguished for style and
one obstacle to the formation of a national drama. Another was, the
pertinacious attachment of the Portuguese to pastoral poetry, and nothing
could be more contrary to dramatic life than the languor, sentimentality, and
monotony peculiar to the eclogue.
7. PROSE WRITING.—After Camoëns, Saa de Miranda, and Ferreira,
the language and the literature of Portugal are indebted to no other writer so
much as to Rodriguez Lobo (b. 1558). The history of Portuguese eloquence
may be said to commence with him, for he laid so good a foundation for the
cultivation of a pure prose style that, in every effort to obtain classic
perfection, subsequent writers have merely followed in his steps. His verse
is nowise inferior to his prose. Among his poetic works appears a whole
series of historic romances, written by way of ridiculing that species of
composition.
Lobo stood alone, in the sixteenth century, in his efforts to improve the
prose of his country. Gongorism had, meanwhile, introduced bombast and
metaphorical obscurity, and no writer of eminence arose to attempt a more
natural style, till the end of the seventeenth century.
Foremost among those who undertook to relate the history of their
country, especially of her oriental discoveries, and who communicated to
their records an ardent patriotic feeling, is Barros (1496-1571); he took
Livy for his model, and his labors are worthy of honorable notice. India was
the favorite topic of Portuguese historians; and several similar works, but
inferior to that of Barros, appeared in the same age. Bernardo de Brito (d.
1617) undertook the task of compiling a history of Portugal. His narration
begins with the creation of the world, and breaks off where the history of
modern Portugal commences. It is eminently distinguished for style and
Page 496
descriptive talent. The biography of Juan de Castro, written by Jacinto de
Andrade, is considered as a masterpiece of the Portuguese prose.
The conquered Indians found an eloquent defender in Veira (1608-1697),
a Catholic missionary, who spent a great part of his life in the deserts of
South America, and wrote catechisms in different languages for the use of
the natives. Having returned to the court of John IV., he undertook to defend
the natural rights of Indians against the rapacity of the conquerors. He
undertook also the defense of the Jews in his native country, and showed so
much interest in their cause that he was twice brought before the
Inquisition. His sermons and letters are models of prose writings, full of the
inspiration which springs from the boldness of his subjects.
8. PORTUGUESE LITERATURE IN THE SEVENTEENTH,
EIGHTEENTH, AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES.—Portuguese
literature during the seventeenth century would present an utter blank, but
for the few literary productions to which we have alluded. Previous to that
time, patriotic valor and romantic enterprise expanded the national genius;
but before it could mature, the despotism of the monarchy, the horrors of
the Inquisition, and the influence of wealth and luxury, had done their work
of destruction, and the prostrate nation had in the seventeenth century
reaped the bitter fruits. The most brilliant period of Portuguese poetry had
passed away, and no new era commenced. The flame of patriotism was
extinct, Brazil was the only colony that remained, the spirit of national
enterprise was no more, and a general lethargy overspread the nation. Labor
was reckoned a disgrace, commerce a degradation, and agriculture too
fatiguing for even the lowest classes of the community. Both Spain and
Portugal felt the paralyzing influence of their humbled position in the scale
of nations, and civil and religious despotism had overthrown, in both
countries, the intellectual power which had so long withstood its degrading
influence.
Andrade, is considered as a masterpiece of the Portuguese prose.
The conquered Indians found an eloquent defender in Veira (1608-1697),
a Catholic missionary, who spent a great part of his life in the deserts of
South America, and wrote catechisms in different languages for the use of
the natives. Having returned to the court of John IV., he undertook to defend
the natural rights of Indians against the rapacity of the conquerors. He
undertook also the defense of the Jews in his native country, and showed so
much interest in their cause that he was twice brought before the
Inquisition. His sermons and letters are models of prose writings, full of the
inspiration which springs from the boldness of his subjects.
8. PORTUGUESE LITERATURE IN THE SEVENTEENTH,
EIGHTEENTH, AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES.—Portuguese
literature during the seventeenth century would present an utter blank, but
for the few literary productions to which we have alluded. Previous to that
time, patriotic valor and romantic enterprise expanded the national genius;
but before it could mature, the despotism of the monarchy, the horrors of
the Inquisition, and the influence of wealth and luxury, had done their work
of destruction, and the prostrate nation had in the seventeenth century
reaped the bitter fruits. The most brilliant period of Portuguese poetry had
passed away, and no new era commenced. The flame of patriotism was
extinct, Brazil was the only colony that remained, the spirit of national
enterprise was no more, and a general lethargy overspread the nation. Labor
was reckoned a disgrace, commerce a degradation, and agriculture too
fatiguing for even the lowest classes of the community. Both Spain and
Portugal felt the paralyzing influence of their humbled position in the scale
of nations, and civil and religious despotism had overthrown, in both
countries, the intellectual power which had so long withstood its degrading
influence.
Page 497
Thousands of sonnets, chiefly of an amorous nature, filled up the
seventeenth century in Portugal, while Spain was exhausting its expiring
energies in dramas. Souza, the most eminent of the sonneteers, alone
produced six hundred. In the first, he announces that the collection is
designed to celebrate "the penetrating shafts of love, which were shot from
a pair of heavenly eyes, and which, after inflicting immortal wounds, issued
triumphant from the poet's breast."
In the eighteenth century, the influence of French taste crept quietly into
the literature as well as the manners of the Portuguese nation. Royal
academies of history and language were founded, and an academy of
sciences, which, since 1792, has exercised an influence over literary taste,
and given birth to many excellent treatises on philosophy and criticism.
About the year 1735, the nation seemed on the eve of possessing a drama
of its own. Antonio José, an obscure Jew, composed a number of comic
operas, in the vernacular tongue, which had long been banished from the
theatre of Lisbon. In spite of much coarseness, their genuine humor and
familiar gayety excited the greatest enthusiasm, and for ten years the theatre
was crowded with delighted audiences. But the Jew was seized and burnt,
by order of the Inquisition, at the last auto da fé, which took place in 1745,
and the theatre was closed.
Although French literature continued to exert its influence in the
beginning of the nineteenth century, masterpieces of English literature at
that time found their way into Portugal, and excited much admiration and
imitation. Manuel do Nascimento (1734-1819) is the representative of the
classic style, and his works, both in poetry and prose, are distinguished by
purity of language. Manuel de Bocage (1766-1805) is one of the most
celebrated modern poets, and though his poems are not examples of refined
taste or elegance of style, they evince enthusiasm and poetical fire. Among
seventeenth century in Portugal, while Spain was exhausting its expiring
energies in dramas. Souza, the most eminent of the sonneteers, alone
produced six hundred. In the first, he announces that the collection is
designed to celebrate "the penetrating shafts of love, which were shot from
a pair of heavenly eyes, and which, after inflicting immortal wounds, issued
triumphant from the poet's breast."
In the eighteenth century, the influence of French taste crept quietly into
the literature as well as the manners of the Portuguese nation. Royal
academies of history and language were founded, and an academy of
sciences, which, since 1792, has exercised an influence over literary taste,
and given birth to many excellent treatises on philosophy and criticism.
About the year 1735, the nation seemed on the eve of possessing a drama
of its own. Antonio José, an obscure Jew, composed a number of comic
operas, in the vernacular tongue, which had long been banished from the
theatre of Lisbon. In spite of much coarseness, their genuine humor and
familiar gayety excited the greatest enthusiasm, and for ten years the theatre
was crowded with delighted audiences. But the Jew was seized and burnt,
by order of the Inquisition, at the last auto da fé, which took place in 1745,
and the theatre was closed.
Although French literature continued to exert its influence in the
beginning of the nineteenth century, masterpieces of English literature at
that time found their way into Portugal, and excited much admiration and
imitation. Manuel do Nascimento (1734-1819) is the representative of the
classic style, and his works, both in poetry and prose, are distinguished by
purity of language. Manuel de Bocage (1766-1805) is one of the most
celebrated modern poets, and though his poems are not examples of refined
taste or elegance of style, they evince enthusiasm and poetical fire. Among
Page 498
the poets of the present day, there are some who have emancipated
themselves from the imitation of foreign models, and have attempted to
combine the earliest national elements of their literature with the
characteristic tendencies of the present age.
themselves from the imitation of foreign models, and have attempted to
combine the earliest national elements of their literature with the
characteristic tendencies of the present age.
Page 499
FINNISH LITERATURE.
1. The Finnish Language and Literature: Poetry; the Kalevala; Lönnrot;
Korhonen.—2. The Hungarian Language and Literature: the Age of Stephen
I.; Influence of the House of Anjou; of the Reformation; of the House of
Austria; Kossuth; Josika; Eötvös; Kuthy; Szigligeti; Petöfi.
1. THE FINNISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—On passing
northward from the Iranian plateaux through Turan to the Uralian
mountains, which separate Europe and Asia, we arrive at the primitive seat
of the Finnish race. Driven westward by other invading tribes, it scattered
through northern Europe, and established itself more particularly in Finland,
where, at the present time, we find its principal stock. From the earliest
period of the history of the Finns, until the middle of the twelfth century,
they lived under their own independent kings. They were then subjected by
the Swedes, who established colonies upon their coasts, and introduced
Christianity among them. After having been for many centuries the theatre
of Russian and Swedish wars, in the beginning of the present century
Finland passed under the dominion of Russia; yet, through these ages of
foreign domination, its inhabitants preserved their national character, and
maintained the use of their native tongue.
The Finnish language is a branch of the Turanian family; it is written
with the Roman alphabet, but it has fewer sounds; it is complicated in its
1. The Finnish Language and Literature: Poetry; the Kalevala; Lönnrot;
Korhonen.—2. The Hungarian Language and Literature: the Age of Stephen
I.; Influence of the House of Anjou; of the Reformation; of the House of
Austria; Kossuth; Josika; Eötvös; Kuthy; Szigligeti; Petöfi.
1. THE FINNISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—On passing
northward from the Iranian plateaux through Turan to the Uralian
mountains, which separate Europe and Asia, we arrive at the primitive seat
of the Finnish race. Driven westward by other invading tribes, it scattered
through northern Europe, and established itself more particularly in Finland,
where, at the present time, we find its principal stock. From the earliest
period of the history of the Finns, until the middle of the twelfth century,
they lived under their own independent kings. They were then subjected by
the Swedes, who established colonies upon their coasts, and introduced
Christianity among them. After having been for many centuries the theatre
of Russian and Swedish wars, in the beginning of the present century
Finland passed under the dominion of Russia; yet, through these ages of
foreign domination, its inhabitants preserved their national character, and
maintained the use of their native tongue.
The Finnish language is a branch of the Turanian family; it is written
with the Roman alphabet, but it has fewer sounds; it is complicated in its
Page 500
declension and conjugation, but it has great capacity of expressing
compound ideas in one word; it is harmonious in sound, and free, yet clear,
in its construction.
The Finns at an early period had attained a high degree of civilization,
and they have always been distinguished for their love of poetry, especially
for the melancholy strains of the elegy. They possess a vast number of
popular songs or ballads, which are either lyrical or mythological; they are
sung by the song-men, to the kantele, a kind of harp with five wire strings, a
favorite national instrument. They have also legends, tales, and proverbs,
some of which have recently been collected and published at Helsingfors,
the capital of Finland.
The great monument of Finnish literature is the "Kalevala," a kind of epic
poem, which was arranged in a systematic collection, and given to the
world in 1833, by Elias Lönnrot (d. 1884). He wandered from place to place
in the remote districts of Finland, living with the peasants, and taking down
from their lips the popular songs as he heard them chanted. The importance
of this indigenous epic was at once recognized, and translations were made
in various languages. The poem, which strongly resembles "Hiawatha,"
takes its name from the heroes of Kaleva, the land of happiness and plenty,
who struggle with three others from the cold north and the land of death. It
begins with the creation, and ends in the triumph of the heroes of Kaleva.
Max Müller says of this poem that it possesses merits not dissimilar to those
of the Iliad, and that it will claim its place as the fifth national epic of the
world, beside that of the "Mahabharata," "Shah Nameh," and "Nibelungen."
It is doubtless the product of different minds at different periods, having
evidently received additions from time to time.
During the present century there has been considerable literary activity in
Finland, and we meet with many names of poets and dramatists. The
compound ideas in one word; it is harmonious in sound, and free, yet clear,
in its construction.
The Finns at an early period had attained a high degree of civilization,
and they have always been distinguished for their love of poetry, especially
for the melancholy strains of the elegy. They possess a vast number of
popular songs or ballads, which are either lyrical or mythological; they are
sung by the song-men, to the kantele, a kind of harp with five wire strings, a
favorite national instrument. They have also legends, tales, and proverbs,
some of which have recently been collected and published at Helsingfors,
the capital of Finland.
The great monument of Finnish literature is the "Kalevala," a kind of epic
poem, which was arranged in a systematic collection, and given to the
world in 1833, by Elias Lönnrot (d. 1884). He wandered from place to place
in the remote districts of Finland, living with the peasants, and taking down
from their lips the popular songs as he heard them chanted. The importance
of this indigenous epic was at once recognized, and translations were made
in various languages. The poem, which strongly resembles "Hiawatha,"
takes its name from the heroes of Kaleva, the land of happiness and plenty,
who struggle with three others from the cold north and the land of death. It
begins with the creation, and ends in the triumph of the heroes of Kaleva.
Max Müller says of this poem that it possesses merits not dissimilar to those
of the Iliad, and that it will claim its place as the fifth national epic of the
world, beside that of the "Mahabharata," "Shah Nameh," and "Nibelungen."
It is doubtless the product of different minds at different periods, having
evidently received additions from time to time.
During the present century there has been considerable literary activity in
Finland, and we meet with many names of poets and dramatists. The
Page 501
periodical literature is specially rich and voluminous, and valuable works
on Finnish history and geography have recently appeared. Of recent poets
the most popular is Korrhoinen, a peasant, whose productions are
characterized by their sharp and biting sarcasm. The prose of Finland has a
religious and moral character, and is especially enriched by translations
from Swedish literature.
2. HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—The language of
the Magyars belongs to the Turanian family, and more particularly to the
Finnish branch. The Hungarian differs from most European languages in its
internal structure and external form. It is distinguished by harmony and
energy of sound, richness and vigor of form, regularity of inflexion, and
power of expression.
Towards the close of the seventh century, the Magyars emigrated from
Asia into Europe, and for two hundred years they occupied the country
between the Don and Dneiper. Being at length pressed forward by other
emigrant tribes, they entered and established themselves in Hungary, after
subjugating its former inhabitants.
In the year 1000, Stephen I. founded the kingdom of Hungary. He had
introduced Christianity into the country, and with it a knowledge of the
Latin language, which was now taught in the schools and made use of in
public documents, while the native idiom was spoken by the people, and in
part in the assemblies of the Diet. On the accession of the House of Anjou
to the throne of Hungary, in the fourteenth century, a new impulse was
given to the Hungarian tongue. The Bible was translated into it, and it
became the language of the court; although the Latin was still the organ of
the church and state, and from the fourteenth to the close of the fifteenth
century remained the literary language of the country. This Latin literature
boasted of many distinguished writers, but so little influence had they on
on Finnish history and geography have recently appeared. Of recent poets
the most popular is Korrhoinen, a peasant, whose productions are
characterized by their sharp and biting sarcasm. The prose of Finland has a
religious and moral character, and is especially enriched by translations
from Swedish literature.
2. HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—The language of
the Magyars belongs to the Turanian family, and more particularly to the
Finnish branch. The Hungarian differs from most European languages in its
internal structure and external form. It is distinguished by harmony and
energy of sound, richness and vigor of form, regularity of inflexion, and
power of expression.
Towards the close of the seventh century, the Magyars emigrated from
Asia into Europe, and for two hundred years they occupied the country
between the Don and Dneiper. Being at length pressed forward by other
emigrant tribes, they entered and established themselves in Hungary, after
subjugating its former inhabitants.
In the year 1000, Stephen I. founded the kingdom of Hungary. He had
introduced Christianity into the country, and with it a knowledge of the
Latin language, which was now taught in the schools and made use of in
public documents, while the native idiom was spoken by the people, and in
part in the assemblies of the Diet. On the accession of the House of Anjou
to the throne of Hungary, in the fourteenth century, a new impulse was
given to the Hungarian tongue. The Bible was translated into it, and it
became the language of the court; although the Latin was still the organ of
the church and state, and from the fourteenth to the close of the fifteenth
century remained the literary language of the country. This Latin literature
boasted of many distinguished writers, but so little influence had they on
Page 502
the nation at large, that during this period it appears that many of the high
officers of the kingdom could neither read nor write.
The sixteenth century was more favorable to Hungarian literature, and
the political and religious movements which took place in the reign of
Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. (1527-1576) proved to be most beneficial
to the intellectual development of the people. The Reformation, which was
introduced into Hungary through Bohemia, the example of this neighboring
country, and the close alliance which existed between the two people,
exercised great influence on the public mind. The Hungarian language was
introduced into the church, the schools, and the religious controversies, and
became the vehicle of sacred and popular poetry. It was thus enriched and
polished, and acquired a degree of perfection which it retained until the
latter part of the eighteenth century. Translations of the Bible were
multiplied; chronicles, histories, grammars, and dictionaries were
published, and the number of schools, particularly among the Protestants,
was greatly increased.
But these brilliant prospects were soon blighted when the country came
under the absolute dominion of Austria. In order to crush the national
tendencies of the Magyars, the government now restored the Latin and
German languages; and newspapers, calendars, and publications of all
kinds, including many valuable works, appeared in Latin. Indeed, the
interval from 1702 to 1780 was the golden age of this literature in Hungary.
Maria Theresa and Joseph II., however, by prescribing the use of the
German language in the schools, official acts, and public transactions,
produced a reaction in favor of the national tongue, which was soon after
taught in the schools, heard in the lecture-room, the theatre, and popular
assemblies, and became the organ of the public press. These measures,
however, the good effects of which were mainly confined to the higher
classes, were gradually pursued with less zeal. It is only of late that the
officers of the kingdom could neither read nor write.
The sixteenth century was more favorable to Hungarian literature, and
the political and religious movements which took place in the reign of
Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. (1527-1576) proved to be most beneficial
to the intellectual development of the people. The Reformation, which was
introduced into Hungary through Bohemia, the example of this neighboring
country, and the close alliance which existed between the two people,
exercised great influence on the public mind. The Hungarian language was
introduced into the church, the schools, and the religious controversies, and
became the vehicle of sacred and popular poetry. It was thus enriched and
polished, and acquired a degree of perfection which it retained until the
latter part of the eighteenth century. Translations of the Bible were
multiplied; chronicles, histories, grammars, and dictionaries were
published, and the number of schools, particularly among the Protestants,
was greatly increased.
But these brilliant prospects were soon blighted when the country came
under the absolute dominion of Austria. In order to crush the national
tendencies of the Magyars, the government now restored the Latin and
German languages; and newspapers, calendars, and publications of all
kinds, including many valuable works, appeared in Latin. Indeed, the
interval from 1702 to 1780 was the golden age of this literature in Hungary.
Maria Theresa and Joseph II., however, by prescribing the use of the
German language in the schools, official acts, and public transactions,
produced a reaction in favor of the national tongue, which was soon after
taught in the schools, heard in the lecture-room, the theatre, and popular
assemblies, and became the organ of the public press. These measures,
however, the good effects of which were mainly confined to the higher
classes, were gradually pursued with less zeal. It is only of late that the
Page 503
literature of Hungary has assumed a popular character, and become a
powerful engine for the advancement of political objects.
Kossuth may be considered as the founder of a national party which is at
the head of the contemporary literature of the Magyars. Through the action
of this party and of its leader, the Hungarian Diet passed, in 1840, the
celebrated "Law of the Language," by which the supremacy of the
Hungarian tongue was established, and its use prescribed in the
administration and in the institutions of learning. From 1841 to 1844,
Kossuth published a paper, in which the most serious and important
questions of politics and economy were discussed in a style characterized
by great elegance and simplicity, and by a fervid eloquence, which
awakened in all classes the liveliest emotions of patriotism and
independence. His writings greatly enriched the national language, and
excited the emulation even of those who did not accept his political views.
His memoirs, lately published, have been extensively translated.
The novels of Josika (1865), modeled after those of Walter Scott, the
works of Eötvös and Kemeny after the writers of Germany, and those of
Kuthy and others who have followed the French school, have greatly
contributed to enrich the literature of Hungary. The comedies and the
dramas of Eötvös and Gal, and particularly those of Szigligeti, show great
progress in the Hungarian theatre, while in the poems of Petöfi and others is
heard the harmonious yet sorrowful voice of the national muse.
After 1849, the genius of Hungary seemed for a while buried under the
ruins of the nation. Many of the most eminent writers either fell in the
national struggle, or, being driven into exile, threw aside their pens in
despair. But the intellectual condition of the people has of late been greatly
improved. Public education has been promoted, scholastic institutions have
been established, and at the present time there are eloquent voices heard
powerful engine for the advancement of political objects.
Kossuth may be considered as the founder of a national party which is at
the head of the contemporary literature of the Magyars. Through the action
of this party and of its leader, the Hungarian Diet passed, in 1840, the
celebrated "Law of the Language," by which the supremacy of the
Hungarian tongue was established, and its use prescribed in the
administration and in the institutions of learning. From 1841 to 1844,
Kossuth published a paper, in which the most serious and important
questions of politics and economy were discussed in a style characterized
by great elegance and simplicity, and by a fervid eloquence, which
awakened in all classes the liveliest emotions of patriotism and
independence. His writings greatly enriched the national language, and
excited the emulation even of those who did not accept his political views.
His memoirs, lately published, have been extensively translated.
The novels of Josika (1865), modeled after those of Walter Scott, the
works of Eötvös and Kemeny after the writers of Germany, and those of
Kuthy and others who have followed the French school, have greatly
contributed to enrich the literature of Hungary. The comedies and the
dramas of Eötvös and Gal, and particularly those of Szigligeti, show great
progress in the Hungarian theatre, while in the poems of Petöfi and others is
heard the harmonious yet sorrowful voice of the national muse.
After 1849, the genius of Hungary seemed for a while buried under the
ruins of the nation. Many of the most eminent writers either fell in the
national struggle, or, being driven into exile, threw aside their pens in
despair. But the intellectual condition of the people has of late been greatly
improved. Public education has been promoted, scholastic institutions have
been established, and at the present time there are eloquent voices heard
Page 504
which testify to the presence of a vigorous life latent in the very heart of the
country.
Among many other writers of the present day, are Jokai (b. 1825), the
author of various historical romances which have been extensively
translated, Varga, a lyric poet, and Arany, perhaps the greatest poet Hungary
has produced, some of whose works are worthy of the literature of any age.
3. THE TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—The Turks, or
Osmanlis, are descendants of the Tartars, and their language, which is a
branch of the Turanian family, is at the present day the commercial and
political tongue throughout the Levant. This language is divided into two
principal dialects, the eastern and the western. The eastern, though rough
and harsh, has been the vehicle of certain literary productions, of which the
most important are the biographies of more than three hundred ancient
poets, written by Mir-Ali-Schir, who flourished in the middle of the
fifteenth century, and who was the Maecenas of several Persian poets,
particularly of Jami; several historical memoirs, and a number of ballads,
founded on the traditions of the ancient Turkish tribes, belong also to the
literature of this dialect. The western idiom constitutes what is more
properly called the Turkish language. It is euphonious in sound and regular
in its grammatical forms, though poor in its vocabulary. To supply its
deficiencies, the Osmanlis have introduced many elements of the Arabic
and Persian. They have also adopted the Arabic alphabet, with some
alterations; and, like the Arabians, they write from right to left.
The literature of Turkey, although it is extremely rich, contains little that
is original or national, but is a successful imitation of Persian or Arabic.
Even before the capture of Constantinople works had been produced which
the nation has not let perish. The most flourishing period was during the
reign of Solyman the Magnificent and his son Selim in the sixteenth
country.
Among many other writers of the present day, are Jokai (b. 1825), the
author of various historical romances which have been extensively
translated, Varga, a lyric poet, and Arany, perhaps the greatest poet Hungary
has produced, some of whose works are worthy of the literature of any age.
3. THE TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—The Turks, or
Osmanlis, are descendants of the Tartars, and their language, which is a
branch of the Turanian family, is at the present day the commercial and
political tongue throughout the Levant. This language is divided into two
principal dialects, the eastern and the western. The eastern, though rough
and harsh, has been the vehicle of certain literary productions, of which the
most important are the biographies of more than three hundred ancient
poets, written by Mir-Ali-Schir, who flourished in the middle of the
fifteenth century, and who was the Maecenas of several Persian poets,
particularly of Jami; several historical memoirs, and a number of ballads,
founded on the traditions of the ancient Turkish tribes, belong also to the
literature of this dialect. The western idiom constitutes what is more
properly called the Turkish language. It is euphonious in sound and regular
in its grammatical forms, though poor in its vocabulary. To supply its
deficiencies, the Osmanlis have introduced many elements of the Arabic
and Persian. They have also adopted the Arabic alphabet, with some
alterations; and, like the Arabians, they write from right to left.
The literature of Turkey, although it is extremely rich, contains little that
is original or national, but is a successful imitation of Persian or Arabic.
Even before the capture of Constantinople works had been produced which
the nation has not let perish. The most flourishing period was during the
reign of Solyman the Magnificent and his son Selim in the sixteenth
Page 505
century. Fasli (d. 1563) was an erotic poet, who attained a high reputation;
and Baki (d. 1600), a lyric poet, is ranked by the Orientals with the Persian
Hafiz. In the seventeenth century a new period of literature arose, though
inferior to the last. Nebi was the most admired poet, Nefi a distinguished
satirist, and Hadji Khalfa a historian of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish
literature, who is the chief authority upon this subject for the East and West.
The annals of Saad-El-Din (d. 1599) are important for the student of the
history of the Ottoman Empire. The style of these writers, however, is for
the most part bombastic, consisting of a mixture of poetry and prose
overladen with figures. Novels and tales abound in this literature, and it
affords many specimens of geographical works, many important collections
of juridical decisions, and valuable researches on the Persian and Arabian
languages.
The press was introduced into Constantinople early in the eighteenth
century, and has been actively engaged in publishing translations of the
most important works in Persian and Arabic, as well as in the native tongue.
Societies are established for the promotion of various branches of science,
and many scientific and literary journals are published. There are numerous
primary free schools and high scholastic institutions in Constantinople, and
some public libraries.
4. THE ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—The
language of Armenia belongs to the Indo-European family, and particularly
to the Iranian variety; but it has been greatly modified by contact with other
languages, especially the Turkish. At present the modern dialect is spoken
in southern Russia around the sea of Azof, in Turkey, Galicia, and Hungary.
The ancient Armenian, which was spoken down to the twelfth century, is
preserved in its purity in the ancient books of the people, and is still used in
their best works. This tongue, owing to an abundance of consonants, is
and Baki (d. 1600), a lyric poet, is ranked by the Orientals with the Persian
Hafiz. In the seventeenth century a new period of literature arose, though
inferior to the last. Nebi was the most admired poet, Nefi a distinguished
satirist, and Hadji Khalfa a historian of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish
literature, who is the chief authority upon this subject for the East and West.
The annals of Saad-El-Din (d. 1599) are important for the student of the
history of the Ottoman Empire. The style of these writers, however, is for
the most part bombastic, consisting of a mixture of poetry and prose
overladen with figures. Novels and tales abound in this literature, and it
affords many specimens of geographical works, many important collections
of juridical decisions, and valuable researches on the Persian and Arabian
languages.
The press was introduced into Constantinople early in the eighteenth
century, and has been actively engaged in publishing translations of the
most important works in Persian and Arabic, as well as in the native tongue.
Societies are established for the promotion of various branches of science,
and many scientific and literary journals are published. There are numerous
primary free schools and high scholastic institutions in Constantinople, and
some public libraries.
4. THE ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—The
language of Armenia belongs to the Indo-European family, and particularly
to the Iranian variety; but it has been greatly modified by contact with other
languages, especially the Turkish. At present the modern dialect is spoken
in southern Russia around the sea of Azof, in Turkey, Galicia, and Hungary.
The ancient Armenian, which was spoken down to the twelfth century, is
preserved in its purity in the ancient books of the people, and is still used in
their best works. This tongue, owing to an abundance of consonants, is
Page 506
lacking in euphony; it is deficient in distinction of gender, though it is
redundant in cases and inflexions. Its alphabet is modeled after the Greek.
The Armenians, from the earliest period of their existence, through all the
political disasters which have signalized their history, have exhibited a
strong love for a national literature, and maintained themselves as a
cultivated people amidst all the revolutions which barbarism, despotism,
and war have occasioned. During so many ages they have faithfully
preserved not only their historical traditions, reaching back to the period of
the ancient Hebrew histories, but also their national character. Their first
abode—the vicinity of Mount Ararat—is even at the present day the centre
of their religious and political union. Commerce has scattered them, like the
Israelites, among all nations, but without debasing their character; on the
contrary, they are distinguished by superior cultivation, manners, and
honesty from the barbarians under whose yoke they live. The cause is to be
found in their creed and in their religious union.
Until the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the Armenians were
Parsees; the literature of the country up to this period was contained in a
few songs or ballads, and its civilization was only that which could be
wrought out by the philosophy of Zoroaster. In 319, when Christianity was
introduced into Armenia, the language and learning of the Greeks were
exciting the profound admiration of the most eminent fathers of the church,
and this attention to Greek literature was immediately manifest in the
literary history of Armenia. A multitude of Grecian works was translated,
commented upon, and their philosophy adopted, and the literature was thus
established upon a Grecian basis.
About the same period, the alphabet at present in use in the Armenian
language was invented, or the old alphabet perfected by Mesrob, in
connection with which the language underwent many modifications.
redundant in cases and inflexions. Its alphabet is modeled after the Greek.
The Armenians, from the earliest period of their existence, through all the
political disasters which have signalized their history, have exhibited a
strong love for a national literature, and maintained themselves as a
cultivated people amidst all the revolutions which barbarism, despotism,
and war have occasioned. During so many ages they have faithfully
preserved not only their historical traditions, reaching back to the period of
the ancient Hebrew histories, but also their national character. Their first
abode—the vicinity of Mount Ararat—is even at the present day the centre
of their religious and political union. Commerce has scattered them, like the
Israelites, among all nations, but without debasing their character; on the
contrary, they are distinguished by superior cultivation, manners, and
honesty from the barbarians under whose yoke they live. The cause is to be
found in their creed and in their religious union.
Until the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the Armenians were
Parsees; the literature of the country up to this period was contained in a
few songs or ballads, and its civilization was only that which could be
wrought out by the philosophy of Zoroaster. In 319, when Christianity was
introduced into Armenia, the language and learning of the Greeks were
exciting the profound admiration of the most eminent fathers of the church,
and this attention to Greek literature was immediately manifest in the
literary history of Armenia. A multitude of Grecian works was translated,
commented upon, and their philosophy adopted, and the literature was thus
established upon a Grecian basis.
About the same period, the alphabet at present in use in the Armenian
language was invented, or the old alphabet perfected by Mesrob, in
connection with which the language underwent many modifications.
Page 507
Mesrob, with his three sons, especially educated for the task, commenced
the translation of the Bible 411 A.D., and its completion nearly half a
century later gave a powerful impulse to Armenian learning, and at the
same time stamped upon it a religious character which it has never lost. The
period from the sixth to the tenth century is the golden age of this literature.
Its temporary decline after this period was owing to the invasion of the
Arabians, when many of the inhabitants were converted to the
Mohammedan faith and many more compelled to suffer persecution for
their refusal to abjure Christianity. After the subjection of Armenia to the
Greek empire, literature again revived, and until the fourteenth century was
in a flourishing condition. In 1375, when the Turks took possession of the
country, the inhabitants were again driven from their homes, and from that
time their literature has steadily declined. After their emigration, the
Armenians established themselves in various countries of Europe and Asia,
and amidst all the disadvantages of their position they still preserve not only
the unity of their religious faith, but the same unwearied desire to sustain a
national literature. Wherever they have settled, in Amsterdam, Leghorn,
Venice, Constantinople, and Calcutta, they have established printing presses
and published valuable books. Of their colonies or monasteries, the most
interesting and fruitful in literary works is that of Venice, which was
founded in the eighteenth century by Mechitar, an Armenian, and from him
its monks are called Mechitarists. From the time of their establishment they
have constantly issued translations of important religious works. They now
publish a semi- monthly paper in the Armenian language, which is
circulated and read among the scattered families of the Armenian faith over
the world. They also translate and publish standard works of modern
literature.
About the year 1840, through the influence of American missionaries, the
Bible was translated into Armenian, freed as far as possible from foreign
elements; school-books were also translated, newspapers established, and
the translation of the Bible 411 A.D., and its completion nearly half a
century later gave a powerful impulse to Armenian learning, and at the
same time stamped upon it a religious character which it has never lost. The
period from the sixth to the tenth century is the golden age of this literature.
Its temporary decline after this period was owing to the invasion of the
Arabians, when many of the inhabitants were converted to the
Mohammedan faith and many more compelled to suffer persecution for
their refusal to abjure Christianity. After the subjection of Armenia to the
Greek empire, literature again revived, and until the fourteenth century was
in a flourishing condition. In 1375, when the Turks took possession of the
country, the inhabitants were again driven from their homes, and from that
time their literature has steadily declined. After their emigration, the
Armenians established themselves in various countries of Europe and Asia,
and amidst all the disadvantages of their position they still preserve not only
the unity of their religious faith, but the same unwearied desire to sustain a
national literature. Wherever they have settled, in Amsterdam, Leghorn,
Venice, Constantinople, and Calcutta, they have established printing presses
and published valuable books. Of their colonies or monasteries, the most
interesting and fruitful in literary works is that of Venice, which was
founded in the eighteenth century by Mechitar, an Armenian, and from him
its monks are called Mechitarists. From the time of their establishment they
have constantly issued translations of important religious works. They now
publish a semi- monthly paper in the Armenian language, which is
circulated and read among the scattered families of the Armenian faith over
the world. They also translate and publish standard works of modern
literature.
About the year 1840, through the influence of American missionaries, the
Bible was translated into Armenian, freed as far as possible from foreign
elements; school-books were also translated, newspapers established, and
Page 508
the language awoke to new life. Within the last twenty years the intellectual
progress in Armenia has been very great. In 1863 Christopher Robert, an
American gentleman, established and endowed a college at Constantinople
for the education of pupils of all races, religions, and languages found in the
empire. This institution, not sectarian, though Christian, has met with great
success. It has two hundred and fifty students from fifteen nationalities,
though chiefly Armenian, Bulgarian, and Greek.
progress in Armenia has been very great. In 1863 Christopher Robert, an
American gentleman, established and endowed a college at Constantinople
for the education of pupils of all races, religions, and languages found in the
empire. This institution, not sectarian, though Christian, has met with great
success. It has two hundred and fifty students from fifteen nationalities,
though chiefly Armenian, Bulgarian, and Greek.
Page 509
SLAVIC LITERATURES.
The Slavic Race and Languages; the Eastern and Western Stems; the
Alphabets; the Old or Church Slavic Language; St. Cyril's Bible; the
Pravda Russkaya; the Annals of Nestor.
THE SLAVIC RACE AND LANGUAGES.—The Slavic race, which
belongs to the great Indo-European family of nations, probably first entered
Europe from Asia, seven or eight centuries B.C. About the middle of the
sixth century A.D. we find Slavic tribes crossing the Danube in great
multitudes, and settling on both the banks of that river; from that time they
frequently appear in the accounts of the Byzantine historians, under
different appellations, mostly as involved in the wars of the two Roman
empires; sometimes as allies, sometimes as conquerors, often as vassals,
and oftener as emigrants and colonists, thrust out of their own countries by
the pressing forward of the more warlike Teutonic tribes. In the latter half of
the eleventh century the Slavic nations were already in possession of the
whole extent of territory which they still occupy, from the Arctic Ocean on
the north to the Black and Adriatic seas on the south, and from Kamtschatka
and the Russian islands of the Pacific to the Baltic, and along the banks of
the rivers Elbe, Muhr, and Ruab, again to the Adriatic. They are represented
by early historians as having been a peaceful, industrious, hospitable
people, obedient to their chiefs, and religious in their habits. Wherever they
established themselves, they began to cultivate the earth, and to trade in the
The Slavic Race and Languages; the Eastern and Western Stems; the
Alphabets; the Old or Church Slavic Language; St. Cyril's Bible; the
Pravda Russkaya; the Annals of Nestor.
THE SLAVIC RACE AND LANGUAGES.—The Slavic race, which
belongs to the great Indo-European family of nations, probably first entered
Europe from Asia, seven or eight centuries B.C. About the middle of the
sixth century A.D. we find Slavic tribes crossing the Danube in great
multitudes, and settling on both the banks of that river; from that time they
frequently appear in the accounts of the Byzantine historians, under
different appellations, mostly as involved in the wars of the two Roman
empires; sometimes as allies, sometimes as conquerors, often as vassals,
and oftener as emigrants and colonists, thrust out of their own countries by
the pressing forward of the more warlike Teutonic tribes. In the latter half of
the eleventh century the Slavic nations were already in possession of the
whole extent of territory which they still occupy, from the Arctic Ocean on
the north to the Black and Adriatic seas on the south, and from Kamtschatka
and the Russian islands of the Pacific to the Baltic, and along the banks of
the rivers Elbe, Muhr, and Ruab, again to the Adriatic. They are represented
by early historians as having been a peaceful, industrious, hospitable
people, obedient to their chiefs, and religious in their habits. Wherever they
established themselves, they began to cultivate the earth, and to trade in the
Page 510
productions of the country. There are also early traces of their fondness for
music and poetry.
The analogy between the Slavic and the Sanskrit languages indicates the
Oriental origin of the Slavonians, which appears also from their mythology.
The antithesis of a good and evil principle is met with among most of the
Slavic tribes; and even at the present time, in some of their dialects,
everything good and beautiful is to them synonymous with the purity of the
white color; they call the good spirit the White God, and the evil spirit the
Black God. We find also traces of their Oriental origin in the Slavic trinity,
which is nearly allied to that of the Hindus. Other features of their
mythology remind us of the sprightly and poetical imagination of the
Greeks. Such is the life attributed to the inanimate objects of nature, rocks,
brooks, and trees; such are also the supernatural beings dwelling in the
woods and mountains, nymphs, naiads, and satyrs. Indeed, the Slavic
languages, in their construction, richness, and precision, appear nearly
related to the Greek and Latin, with which they have a common origin.
Following the division of the Slavic nations into the eastern and western
stems, their languages may he divided into two classes, the first containing
the Russian and the Servian idioms, the second embracing the Bohemian
and the Polish varieties. The Slavi of the Greek faith use the Cyrillic
alphabet, so called from St. Cyril, its inventor, a Greek monk, who went
from Constantinople (862 A.D.) to preach to them the gospel. It is founded
on the Greek, with modifications and additions from Oriental sources. The
Hieronymic alphabet, particularly used by the priests of Dalmatia and
Croatia, is so called from the tradition which attributes it to St. Hieronymus.
The Bohemians and Poles use the Roman alphabet, with a few alterations.
St. Cyril translated the Bible into the language called the Old or Church
Slavic, and from the fact that this translation, made in the middle of the
music and poetry.
The analogy between the Slavic and the Sanskrit languages indicates the
Oriental origin of the Slavonians, which appears also from their mythology.
The antithesis of a good and evil principle is met with among most of the
Slavic tribes; and even at the present time, in some of their dialects,
everything good and beautiful is to them synonymous with the purity of the
white color; they call the good spirit the White God, and the evil spirit the
Black God. We find also traces of their Oriental origin in the Slavic trinity,
which is nearly allied to that of the Hindus. Other features of their
mythology remind us of the sprightly and poetical imagination of the
Greeks. Such is the life attributed to the inanimate objects of nature, rocks,
brooks, and trees; such are also the supernatural beings dwelling in the
woods and mountains, nymphs, naiads, and satyrs. Indeed, the Slavic
languages, in their construction, richness, and precision, appear nearly
related to the Greek and Latin, with which they have a common origin.
Following the division of the Slavic nations into the eastern and western
stems, their languages may he divided into two classes, the first containing
the Russian and the Servian idioms, the second embracing the Bohemian
and the Polish varieties. The Slavi of the Greek faith use the Cyrillic
alphabet, so called from St. Cyril, its inventor, a Greek monk, who went
from Constantinople (862 A.D.) to preach to them the gospel. It is founded
on the Greek, with modifications and additions from Oriental sources. The
Hieronymic alphabet, particularly used by the priests of Dalmatia and
Croatia, is so called from the tradition which attributes it to St. Hieronymus.
The Bohemians and Poles use the Roman alphabet, with a few alterations.
St. Cyril translated the Bible into the language called the Old or Church
Slavic, and from the fact that this translation, made in the middle of the
Page 511
ninth century, is distinguished by great copiousness, and bears the stamp of
uncommon perfection in its forms, it is evident that this language must have
been flourishing long before that time. The celebrated "Pravda Russkaya," a
collection of the laws of Jaroslav (1035 A.D.), and the "Annals of Nestor,"
of the thirteenth century, are the most remarkable monuments of the old
Slavic language. This, however, has for centuries ceased to be a living
tongue.
uncommon perfection in its forms, it is evident that this language must have
been flourishing long before that time. The celebrated "Pravda Russkaya," a
collection of the laws of Jaroslav (1035 A.D.), and the "Annals of Nestor,"
of the thirteenth century, are the most remarkable monuments of the old
Slavic language. This, however, has for centuries ceased to be a living
tongue.
Page 512
RUSSIAN LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. Literature in the Reign of Peter the Great; of
Alexander; of Nicholas; Danilof, Lomonosof, Kheraskof, Derzhavin,
Karamzin.—3. History, Poetry, the Drama: Kostrof, Dmitrief, Zhukoffski,
Krylof, Pushkin, Lermontoff, Gogol.—4. Literature in Russia since the
Crimean War: School of Nature; Turgenieff; Ultra-realistic School;
Science: Mendeleéff.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—In the Russian language three principal dialects
are to be distinguished; but the Russian proper, as it is spoken in Moscow
and all the central and northern parts of European Russia, is the literary
language of the nation. It is distinguished by its immense copiousness, the
consequence of its great flexibility in adopting foreign words, merely as
roots, from which, by means of its own resources, stems and branches seem
naturally to spring. Another excellence is the great freedom of construction
which it allows, without any danger of becoming ambiguous. It is clear,
euphonious, and admirably adapted to poetry.
The germs of Russian civilization arose with the foundation of the empire
by the Varegians of Scandinavia (862 A.D.), but more particularly with the
introduction of Christianity by Vladimir the Great, who, towards the close
of the tenth century, established the first schools, introduced the Bible of St.
Cyril, called Greek artists from Constantinople, and became the patron, and
1. The Language.—2. Literature in the Reign of Peter the Great; of
Alexander; of Nicholas; Danilof, Lomonosof, Kheraskof, Derzhavin,
Karamzin.—3. History, Poetry, the Drama: Kostrof, Dmitrief, Zhukoffski,
Krylof, Pushkin, Lermontoff, Gogol.—4. Literature in Russia since the
Crimean War: School of Nature; Turgenieff; Ultra-realistic School;
Science: Mendeleéff.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—In the Russian language three principal dialects
are to be distinguished; but the Russian proper, as it is spoken in Moscow
and all the central and northern parts of European Russia, is the literary
language of the nation. It is distinguished by its immense copiousness, the
consequence of its great flexibility in adopting foreign words, merely as
roots, from which, by means of its own resources, stems and branches seem
naturally to spring. Another excellence is the great freedom of construction
which it allows, without any danger of becoming ambiguous. It is clear,
euphonious, and admirably adapted to poetry.
The germs of Russian civilization arose with the foundation of the empire
by the Varegians of Scandinavia (862 A.D.), but more particularly with the
introduction of Christianity by Vladimir the Great, who, towards the close
of the tenth century, established the first schools, introduced the Bible of St.
Cyril, called Greek artists from Constantinople, and became the patron, and
Page 513
at the same time the hero of poetry. Indeed, he and his knights are the
Russian Charlemagne and his peers, and their deeds have proved a rich
source for the popular tales and songs of succeeding times. Jaroslav, the son
of Vladimir, was not less active than his father in advancing the cause of
Christianity; he sent friars through the country to instruct the people,
founded theological schools, and continued the translation of the church
books. To this age is referred the epic, "Igor's Expedition against the
Polovtzi," discovered in the eighteenth century, a work characterized by
uncommon grace, beauty, and power.
From 1238 to 1462 A.D. the Russian princes were vassals of the
Mongols, and during this time nearly every trace of cultivation perished.
The invaders burned the cities, destroyed all written documents, and
demolished the monuments of national culture; but at length Ivan I. (1462-
1505) delivered his country from the Mongols, and prepared a new era in
the history of Russian civilization.
At this early period the first germs of dramatic art were carried from
Poland to Russia. In Kief the theological students performed ecclesiastical
dramas, and traveled about, during the holidays, to exhibit their skill in
other cities. The tragedies of Simeon of Polotzk (1628- 1680), in the old
Slavic language, penetrated from the convents to the court, where they were
performed in the middle of the seventeenth century. At this time the first
secular drama, a translation from Molière, was also represented.
2. THE LITERATURE.—Peter the Great (1689-1725) raised the Russian
dialect to the dignity of a written language, introduced it into the
administration and courts of justice, and caused many books to be translated
from foreign languages. He rendered the Slavic characters more
conformable to the Latin, and these letters, then generally adopted, continue
in use at the present time. Among the writers of the age of Peter the Great
Russian Charlemagne and his peers, and their deeds have proved a rich
source for the popular tales and songs of succeeding times. Jaroslav, the son
of Vladimir, was not less active than his father in advancing the cause of
Christianity; he sent friars through the country to instruct the people,
founded theological schools, and continued the translation of the church
books. To this age is referred the epic, "Igor's Expedition against the
Polovtzi," discovered in the eighteenth century, a work characterized by
uncommon grace, beauty, and power.
From 1238 to 1462 A.D. the Russian princes were vassals of the
Mongols, and during this time nearly every trace of cultivation perished.
The invaders burned the cities, destroyed all written documents, and
demolished the monuments of national culture; but at length Ivan I. (1462-
1505) delivered his country from the Mongols, and prepared a new era in
the history of Russian civilization.
At this early period the first germs of dramatic art were carried from
Poland to Russia. In Kief the theological students performed ecclesiastical
dramas, and traveled about, during the holidays, to exhibit their skill in
other cities. The tragedies of Simeon of Polotzk (1628- 1680), in the old
Slavic language, penetrated from the convents to the court, where they were
performed in the middle of the seventeenth century. At this time the first
secular drama, a translation from Molière, was also represented.
2. THE LITERATURE.—Peter the Great (1689-1725) raised the Russian
dialect to the dignity of a written language, introduced it into the
administration and courts of justice, and caused many books to be translated
from foreign languages. He rendered the Slavic characters more
conformable to the Latin, and these letters, then generally adopted, continue
in use at the present time. Among the writers of the age of Peter the Great
Page 514
may be mentioned Kirsha Danilof, who versified the popular traditions of
Vladimir and his heroes; and Kantemir, a satirist, who translated many
epistles of Horace, and the work of Fontenelle on the plurality of worlds.
Peter the Great laid the corner-stone of a national literature, but the
temple was not reared above the ground until the reign of Elizabeth and of
Catharine II. Lomonosof (1711-1765), a peasant, born in the dreary regions
of Archangel, has the honor of being the true founder of the Russian
literature. In his Russian grammar he first laid down the principles and
fixed the rules of the language; he first ventured to draw the boundary line
between the old Slavic and the Russian, and endeavored to fix the rules of
poetry according to the Latin standard. Among his contemporaries may be
mentioned Sumarokof (1718-1777) and Kheraskof (1733-1807), both very
productive writers in prose and verse, and highly admired by their
contemporaries.
In the middle of the eighteenth century the dramatic talent of the
Russians was awakened, through the establishment of theatres at Jaroslav,
St. Petersburg, and Moscow; and several gifted literary men employed
themselves in dramatic compositions; but of all the productions of this time,
those of Von Wisin (1745-1792) only have continued to hold possession of
the stage.
Among the poets of the eighteenth century, Derzhavin (1743-1816) sang
the glory of Catharine II., and of the Russian arms. His "Ode to God" has
obtained the distinction of being translated into several European
languages, and also into Chinese, and hung up in the Emperor's palace,
printed on white satin in golden letters.
The reign of Alexander I. (1801-1825) opened a new era in the literature.
He manifested great zeal for the mental elevation of his subjects; he
increased the number of universities, established theological seminaries and
Vladimir and his heroes; and Kantemir, a satirist, who translated many
epistles of Horace, and the work of Fontenelle on the plurality of worlds.
Peter the Great laid the corner-stone of a national literature, but the
temple was not reared above the ground until the reign of Elizabeth and of
Catharine II. Lomonosof (1711-1765), a peasant, born in the dreary regions
of Archangel, has the honor of being the true founder of the Russian
literature. In his Russian grammar he first laid down the principles and
fixed the rules of the language; he first ventured to draw the boundary line
between the old Slavic and the Russian, and endeavored to fix the rules of
poetry according to the Latin standard. Among his contemporaries may be
mentioned Sumarokof (1718-1777) and Kheraskof (1733-1807), both very
productive writers in prose and verse, and highly admired by their
contemporaries.
In the middle of the eighteenth century the dramatic talent of the
Russians was awakened, through the establishment of theatres at Jaroslav,
St. Petersburg, and Moscow; and several gifted literary men employed
themselves in dramatic compositions; but of all the productions of this time,
those of Von Wisin (1745-1792) only have continued to hold possession of
the stage.
Among the poets of the eighteenth century, Derzhavin (1743-1816) sang
the glory of Catharine II., and of the Russian arms. His "Ode to God" has
obtained the distinction of being translated into several European
languages, and also into Chinese, and hung up in the Emperor's palace,
printed on white satin in golden letters.
The reign of Alexander I. (1801-1825) opened a new era in the literature.
He manifested great zeal for the mental elevation of his subjects; he
increased the number of universities, established theological seminaries and
Page 515
institutions for the study of oriental languages, and founded gymnasia and
numerous common schools for the people; he richly endowed the Asiatic
museum of St. Petersburg, and for a time patronized the Russian Bible
Society, and promoted the printing of books on almost all subjects. But
toward the close of his reign, in consequence of certain political measures,
literature sank with great rapidity.
Karamzin (1765-1826), the representative of this age, undertook to shake
off the yoke of the classical rules established by Lomonosof, and introduced
more simplicity and naturalness. His reputation rests chiefly upon his
"History of the Russian Empire," which, with many faults, is a standard
work in Slavic literature. The reign of the Emperor Nicholas opened with a
bloody tragedy, which exhibited in a striking manner the dissatisfied and
unhealthy spirit of the literary youth of Russia. Several poets and men of
literary fame were among the conspirators; and to awaken patriotism and to
counteract the tendencies of the age, the government promoted historical
and archaeological researches, but at the same time abolished
professorships of philosophy, increased the vigilance of its censorship of the
press, lengthened the catalogue of forbidden books, and reduced the term of
lawful absence for its subjects. It took the most energetic measures to
promote national education, and to cultivate those fields of science where
no political tares could be sown.
The leading idea of the time was Panslavism, the object of which was the
union of the Slavic race, an opposition to all foreign domination, and the
attainment of a higher intellectual and political condition in the general
march of mankind. Panslavism rose to a special branch of literature, and its
principal writers were Kollar, Grabowski, and Gurowski.
3. HISTORY, POETRY, THE DRAMA.—History is a department of
letters which has been treated very successfully in Russia; critical
numerous common schools for the people; he richly endowed the Asiatic
museum of St. Petersburg, and for a time patronized the Russian Bible
Society, and promoted the printing of books on almost all subjects. But
toward the close of his reign, in consequence of certain political measures,
literature sank with great rapidity.
Karamzin (1765-1826), the representative of this age, undertook to shake
off the yoke of the classical rules established by Lomonosof, and introduced
more simplicity and naturalness. His reputation rests chiefly upon his
"History of the Russian Empire," which, with many faults, is a standard
work in Slavic literature. The reign of the Emperor Nicholas opened with a
bloody tragedy, which exhibited in a striking manner the dissatisfied and
unhealthy spirit of the literary youth of Russia. Several poets and men of
literary fame were among the conspirators; and to awaken patriotism and to
counteract the tendencies of the age, the government promoted historical
and archaeological researches, but at the same time abolished
professorships of philosophy, increased the vigilance of its censorship of the
press, lengthened the catalogue of forbidden books, and reduced the term of
lawful absence for its subjects. It took the most energetic measures to
promote national education, and to cultivate those fields of science where
no political tares could be sown.
The leading idea of the time was Panslavism, the object of which was the
union of the Slavic race, an opposition to all foreign domination, and the
attainment of a higher intellectual and political condition in the general
march of mankind. Panslavism rose to a special branch of literature, and its
principal writers were Kollar, Grabowski, and Gurowski.
3. HISTORY, POETRY, THE DRAMA.—History is a department of
letters which has been treated very successfully in Russia; critical
Page 516
researches have been extended to all branches of archaeology, philology,
mythology, and kindred subjects, and valuable works have been produced.
Dmitrief (1760-1827) combined in his poems imagination, taste,
correctness, and purity of language. Zhukoffski (b. 1785) a poet of deep
feeling, took his models from the Germans.
The fables of Krylof (b. 1768) are equally celebrated among all classes
and ages, and are among the first books read by Russian children.
Above all the others, Pushkin (1799-1835) must be considered as the
representative of Russian poetry in the nineteenth century. He was in the
service of the government, when an ode "to Liberty," written in too bold a
spirit, induced Alexander I. to banish him from St. Petersburg. The Emperor
Nicholas recalled him, and became his patron. Though by no means a mere
imitator, his poetry bears strong marks of the influence of Byron.
Lermontoff (d. 1841) was a poet and novelist whose writings, like those
of Pushkin, were strongly influenced by Byron. Koltsoff (d. 1842) is the
first song writer of Russia, and his favorite theme is the joys and sorrows of
the people. Through the influence of Pushkin and Gogol (d. 1852), Russian
literature became emancipated from the classic rule and began to develop
original tendencies. Gogol in his writings manifests a deep sentiment of
patriotism, a strong love of nature, and a fine sense of humor.
The Russians have few ballads of great antiquity, and these rarely have
any reference to the subjects of the heroic prose tales which are the delight
of Russian nurseries, the favorite subjects of which are the traditions of
Vladimir and his giant heroes, which doubtless once existed in the form of
ballads. The Russians have ever been a singing race. Every festival day and
every extraordinary event has its accompanying song. Though these songs
have been modernized in language and form, that they date from the age of
mythology, and kindred subjects, and valuable works have been produced.
Dmitrief (1760-1827) combined in his poems imagination, taste,
correctness, and purity of language. Zhukoffski (b. 1785) a poet of deep
feeling, took his models from the Germans.
The fables of Krylof (b. 1768) are equally celebrated among all classes
and ages, and are among the first books read by Russian children.
Above all the others, Pushkin (1799-1835) must be considered as the
representative of Russian poetry in the nineteenth century. He was in the
service of the government, when an ode "to Liberty," written in too bold a
spirit, induced Alexander I. to banish him from St. Petersburg. The Emperor
Nicholas recalled him, and became his patron. Though by no means a mere
imitator, his poetry bears strong marks of the influence of Byron.
Lermontoff (d. 1841) was a poet and novelist whose writings, like those
of Pushkin, were strongly influenced by Byron. Koltsoff (d. 1842) is the
first song writer of Russia, and his favorite theme is the joys and sorrows of
the people. Through the influence of Pushkin and Gogol (d. 1852), Russian
literature became emancipated from the classic rule and began to develop
original tendencies. Gogol in his writings manifests a deep sentiment of
patriotism, a strong love of nature, and a fine sense of humor.
The Russians have few ballads of great antiquity, and these rarely have
any reference to the subjects of the heroic prose tales which are the delight
of Russian nurseries, the favorite subjects of which are the traditions of
Vladimir and his giant heroes, which doubtless once existed in the form of
ballads. The Russians have ever been a singing race. Every festival day and
every extraordinary event has its accompanying song. Though these songs
have been modernized in language and form, that they date from the age of
Page 517
paganism is evident from their frequent invocations of heathen deities and
allusions to heathen customs. Allied to these songs are the various ditties
which the peasant girls and lads sing on certain occasions, consisting of
endless repetitions of words or syllables; yet through this melodious tissue,
apparently without meaning, sparks of real poetry often shine.
The Russian songs, like the language, have a peculiar tenderness, and are
full of caressing epithets, which are often applied even to inanimate objects.
Russian lovers are quite inexhaustible in their endearing expressions, and
the abundance of diminutives which the language possesses is especially
favorable to their affectionate mode of address. With this exquisite
tenderness of the love-song is united a pensive feeling, which, indeed,
pervades the whole popular poetry of Russia, and which may be
characterized as melancholy musical, and in harmony with the Russian
national music, the expressive sweetness of which has been the admiration
of all foreign composers to whom it has been known.
In the rich and fertile steppes of the Ukraine, where every forest tree
seems to harbor a singer, and every blade of grass on the boundless plains
seems to whisper the echo of a song, this pensive character of Russian
poetry deepens into a melancholy that finds expression in a variety of sweet
elegiac melodies. A German writer says of them, "they are the sorrows of
whole centuries blended in one everlasting sigh." The spirit of the past
indeed breathes through their mournful strains. The cradle of the Kozak was
rocked to the music of clashing swords, and for centuries the country, on
both banks of the Dnieper to the northwestern branch of the Carpathian
Mountains, the seat of this race, was the theatre of constant warfare. Their
narrative ballads, therefore, have few other subjects than the feuds with the
Poles and Tartars, the Kozak's parting with his beloved one, his lonely death
on the border or on the bloody field of battle.
allusions to heathen customs. Allied to these songs are the various ditties
which the peasant girls and lads sing on certain occasions, consisting of
endless repetitions of words or syllables; yet through this melodious tissue,
apparently without meaning, sparks of real poetry often shine.
The Russian songs, like the language, have a peculiar tenderness, and are
full of caressing epithets, which are often applied even to inanimate objects.
Russian lovers are quite inexhaustible in their endearing expressions, and
the abundance of diminutives which the language possesses is especially
favorable to their affectionate mode of address. With this exquisite
tenderness of the love-song is united a pensive feeling, which, indeed,
pervades the whole popular poetry of Russia, and which may be
characterized as melancholy musical, and in harmony with the Russian
national music, the expressive sweetness of which has been the admiration
of all foreign composers to whom it has been known.
In the rich and fertile steppes of the Ukraine, where every forest tree
seems to harbor a singer, and every blade of grass on the boundless plains
seems to whisper the echo of a song, this pensive character of Russian
poetry deepens into a melancholy that finds expression in a variety of sweet
elegiac melodies. A German writer says of them, "they are the sorrows of
whole centuries blended in one everlasting sigh." The spirit of the past
indeed breathes through their mournful strains. The cradle of the Kozak was
rocked to the music of clashing swords, and for centuries the country, on
both banks of the Dnieper to the northwestern branch of the Carpathian
Mountains, the seat of this race, was the theatre of constant warfare. Their
narrative ballads, therefore, have few other subjects than the feuds with the
Poles and Tartars, the Kozak's parting with his beloved one, his lonely death
on the border or on the bloody field of battle.
Page 518
These ballads have sometimes a spirit and boldness which presents noble
relief to the habitual melancholy of this poetry in general. Professional
singers, with a kind of guitar in their hand, wander through the country, sure
to find a willing audience in whatever village they may stop. Their ballads
are not confined to the scenes of their early history, but find subjects in the
later wars with the Turks and Tartars, and in the campaigns of more modern
times; they illustrate the warlike spirit, as well as the domestic relations of
the Kozaks, and their skill in narrative, as well as their power of expressing
in lyric strains the unsophisticated emotions of a tender heart.
The poets of the present age exercise little or no influence on a society
distracted and absorbed by the political questions of the day.
Although the history of Russia is rich in dramatic episodes, it has failed
to inspire any native dramatist. Count Tolstoi has been one of the most
successful writers in this line, but, with great merits, he has the fault
common to the Russian drama in general, that of great attention to the study
of the chief character, to the neglect of other points which contribute to
secure interest.
4. LITERATURE IN RUSSIA SINCE THE CRIMEAN WAR.—After
the Crimean War, in 1854, the Russian government took the initiative in an
onward movement, and by the abolition of serfdom the country awoke to
new life. In literature this showed itself in the rise of a new school, that of
Nature, in which Turgenieff (1818-1883) is the most prominent figure, a
place which he still holds in contemporary Russian literature. The
publication of his "Diary of a Sportsman" first made the nobility of Russia
aware that the serf was a man capable of feeling and suffering, and not a
brute to be bought and sold with the soil, and this work was not without its
effect in causing the emancipation. No writer has studied so faithfully and
relief to the habitual melancholy of this poetry in general. Professional
singers, with a kind of guitar in their hand, wander through the country, sure
to find a willing audience in whatever village they may stop. Their ballads
are not confined to the scenes of their early history, but find subjects in the
later wars with the Turks and Tartars, and in the campaigns of more modern
times; they illustrate the warlike spirit, as well as the domestic relations of
the Kozaks, and their skill in narrative, as well as their power of expressing
in lyric strains the unsophisticated emotions of a tender heart.
The poets of the present age exercise little or no influence on a society
distracted and absorbed by the political questions of the day.
Although the history of Russia is rich in dramatic episodes, it has failed
to inspire any native dramatist. Count Tolstoi has been one of the most
successful writers in this line, but, with great merits, he has the fault
common to the Russian drama in general, that of great attention to the study
of the chief character, to the neglect of other points which contribute to
secure interest.
4. LITERATURE IN RUSSIA SINCE THE CRIMEAN WAR.—After
the Crimean War, in 1854, the Russian government took the initiative in an
onward movement, and by the abolition of serfdom the country awoke to
new life. In literature this showed itself in the rise of a new school, that of
Nature, in which Turgenieff (1818-1883) is the most prominent figure, a
place which he still holds in contemporary Russian literature. The
publication of his "Diary of a Sportsman" first made the nobility of Russia
aware that the serf was a man capable of feeling and suffering, and not a
brute to be bought and sold with the soil, and this work was not without its
effect in causing the emancipation. No writer has studied so faithfully and
Page 519
profoundly the Russian peasant and better understood the moral needs of
the time and the great questions which agitate it.
Within the last twenty years the new theory of Nihilism has begun to find
expression in literature, particularly in fiction. Rejecting all authority in
religion, politics, science, and art, this school is the reaction from long ages
of oppression. The school of nature lent itself to this new movement until at
last it reached the pessimistic standpoint of Schopenhauer.
Of late, the ultra-realistic school has appeared in Russia, the writers of
which devote themselves to the study of a low realism in its most repulsive
aspects. While it boasts of not idealizing the peasant, like Turgenieff and
others, it presents him in an aspect to excite only aversion. Art being thus
excluded, and the school having neither authority, principle, nor object,
whatever influence it may have cannot but be pernicious.
SCIENCE.—In mathematics and in all the natural sciences Russia keeps
pace with the most advanced European nations. In chemistry Mendeleéff
formulated the theory relating to atoms and their chemical properties and
relations, not then discovered to be the law by which they were governed,
as later experiments proved.
the time and the great questions which agitate it.
Within the last twenty years the new theory of Nihilism has begun to find
expression in literature, particularly in fiction. Rejecting all authority in
religion, politics, science, and art, this school is the reaction from long ages
of oppression. The school of nature lent itself to this new movement until at
last it reached the pessimistic standpoint of Schopenhauer.
Of late, the ultra-realistic school has appeared in Russia, the writers of
which devote themselves to the study of a low realism in its most repulsive
aspects. While it boasts of not idealizing the peasant, like Turgenieff and
others, it presents him in an aspect to excite only aversion. Art being thus
excluded, and the school having neither authority, principle, nor object,
whatever influence it may have cannot but be pernicious.
SCIENCE.—In mathematics and in all the natural sciences Russia keeps
pace with the most advanced European nations. In chemistry Mendeleéff
formulated the theory relating to atoms and their chemical properties and
relations, not then discovered to be the law by which they were governed,
as later experiments proved.
Page 520
THE SERVIAN LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE.
The Servian alphabet was first fixed and the language reduced to certain
general rules only within the present century. The language extends, with
some slight variations of dialect, and various systems of writing, over the
Turkish and Austrian provinces of Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina,
Montenegro, and Dalmatia, and the eastern part of Croatia. The southern
sky, and the beauties of natural scenery that abound in all these regions, so
favorable to the development of poetical genius, appear also to have exerted
a happy influence on the language. While it yields to none of the other
Slavic dialects in richness, clearness, and precision, it far surpasses them all
in euphony.
The most interesting feature of the literature of these countries is their
popular poetry. This branch of literature still survives among the Slavic
race, particularly the Servians and Dalmatians, in its beauty and luxuriance,
while it is almost extinct in other nations. Much of this poetry is of
unknown antiquity, and has been handed down by tradition from generation
to generation. From the gray ages of paganism it reaches us like the chimes
of distant bells, unconnected, and half lost in the air. It often manifests the
strong, deep-rooted superstitions of the Slavic race, and is full of dreams,
omens, and forebodings; witchcraft, and a certain Oriental fatalism,
seeming to direct will and destiny. Love and heroism form the subject of all
LITERATURE.
The Servian alphabet was first fixed and the language reduced to certain
general rules only within the present century. The language extends, with
some slight variations of dialect, and various systems of writing, over the
Turkish and Austrian provinces of Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina,
Montenegro, and Dalmatia, and the eastern part of Croatia. The southern
sky, and the beauties of natural scenery that abound in all these regions, so
favorable to the development of poetical genius, appear also to have exerted
a happy influence on the language. While it yields to none of the other
Slavic dialects in richness, clearness, and precision, it far surpasses them all
in euphony.
The most interesting feature of the literature of these countries is their
popular poetry. This branch of literature still survives among the Slavic
race, particularly the Servians and Dalmatians, in its beauty and luxuriance,
while it is almost extinct in other nations. Much of this poetry is of
unknown antiquity, and has been handed down by tradition from generation
to generation. From the gray ages of paganism it reaches us like the chimes
of distant bells, unconnected, and half lost in the air. It often manifests the
strong, deep-rooted superstitions of the Slavic race, and is full of dreams,
omens, and forebodings; witchcraft, and a certain Oriental fatalism,
seeming to direct will and destiny. Love and heroism form the subject of all
Page 521
Slavic poetry, which is distinguished for the purity of manners it evinces.
Wild passions or complicated actions are seldom represented, but rather the
quiet scenes of domestic grief and joy. The peculiar relation of brother and
sister, particularly among the Servians, often forms an interesting feature of
the popular songs. To have no brother is a misfortune, almost a disgrace,
and the cuckoo, the constant image of a mourning woman in Servian poetry,
was, according to the legend, a sister who had lost her brother.
This poetry was first collected by Vuk Stephanovitch Karadshitch (b.
1786), a Turkish Servian, the author of the first Oriental Servian grammar
and dictionary, who gathered the songs from the lips of the peasantry. His
work, published at Vienna in 1815, has been made known to the world
through a translation into German by the distinguished authoress of the
"Languages and Literature of the Slavic Nations," from which this brief
sketch has been made. Nearly one third of these songs consist of epic tales
several hundred verses in length. The lyric songs compare favorably with
those of other nations, but the long epic extemporized compositions, by
which the peasant bard, in the circle of other peasants, in unpremeditated
but regular and harmonious verse, celebrates the heroic deeds of their
ancestors or contemporaries, have no parallel in the whole history of
literature since the days of Homer.
The poetry of the Servians is intimately interwoven with their daily life.
The hall where the women sit spinning around the fireside, the mountain on
which the boys pasture their flocks, the square where the village youth
assemble to dance, the plains where the harvest is reaped, and the forests
through which the lonely traveler journeys, all resound with song. Short
compositions, sung without accompaniment, are mostly composed by
women, and are called female songs; they relate to domestic life, and are
distinguished by cheerfulness, and often by a spirit of graceful roguery. The
feeling expressed in the Servian love-songs is gentle, often playful,
Wild passions or complicated actions are seldom represented, but rather the
quiet scenes of domestic grief and joy. The peculiar relation of brother and
sister, particularly among the Servians, often forms an interesting feature of
the popular songs. To have no brother is a misfortune, almost a disgrace,
and the cuckoo, the constant image of a mourning woman in Servian poetry,
was, according to the legend, a sister who had lost her brother.
This poetry was first collected by Vuk Stephanovitch Karadshitch (b.
1786), a Turkish Servian, the author of the first Oriental Servian grammar
and dictionary, who gathered the songs from the lips of the peasantry. His
work, published at Vienna in 1815, has been made known to the world
through a translation into German by the distinguished authoress of the
"Languages and Literature of the Slavic Nations," from which this brief
sketch has been made. Nearly one third of these songs consist of epic tales
several hundred verses in length. The lyric songs compare favorably with
those of other nations, but the long epic extemporized compositions, by
which the peasant bard, in the circle of other peasants, in unpremeditated
but regular and harmonious verse, celebrates the heroic deeds of their
ancestors or contemporaries, have no parallel in the whole history of
literature since the days of Homer.
The poetry of the Servians is intimately interwoven with their daily life.
The hall where the women sit spinning around the fireside, the mountain on
which the boys pasture their flocks, the square where the village youth
assemble to dance, the plains where the harvest is reaped, and the forests
through which the lonely traveler journeys, all resound with song. Short
compositions, sung without accompaniment, are mostly composed by
women, and are called female songs; they relate to domestic life, and are
distinguished by cheerfulness, and often by a spirit of graceful roguery. The
feeling expressed in the Servian love-songs is gentle, often playful,
Page 522
indicating more of tenderness than of passion. In their heroic poems the
Servians stand quite isolated; no modern nation can be compared to them in
epic productiveness, and the recent publication of these poems throws new
light on the grand compositions of the ancients. The general character of
these Servian tales is objective and plastic; the poet is, in most cases, in a
remarkable degree above his subject; he paints his pictures, not in glowing
colors, but in prominent features, and no explanation is necessary to
interpret what the reader thinks he sees with his own eyes. The number and
variety of the Servian heroic poems is immense, and many of them, until
recently preserved only by tradition, cannot be supposed to have retained
their original form; they are frequently interwoven with a belief in certain
fanciful creatures of pagan superstition, which exercise a constant influence
on human affairs. The poems are often recited, but most frequently sung to
the music of a rude kind of guitar. The bard chants two lines, then he pauses
and gives a few plaintive strokes on his instrument; then he chants again,
and so on. While in Slavic poetry generally the musical element is
prominent, in the Servian it is completely subordinate. Even the lyric poetry
is in a high degree monotonous, and is chanted rather than sung.
Goethe, Grimm, and "Talvi" drew attention to these songs, many
translations of which were published in Germany, and Bowring, Lytton, and
others have made them known in England.
At present there is much intellectual activity among the Servians in
various departments of literature, tragedy, comedy, satire, and fiction, but
the names of the writers are new to Europeans, and not easily remembered.
Servians stand quite isolated; no modern nation can be compared to them in
epic productiveness, and the recent publication of these poems throws new
light on the grand compositions of the ancients. The general character of
these Servian tales is objective and plastic; the poet is, in most cases, in a
remarkable degree above his subject; he paints his pictures, not in glowing
colors, but in prominent features, and no explanation is necessary to
interpret what the reader thinks he sees with his own eyes. The number and
variety of the Servian heroic poems is immense, and many of them, until
recently preserved only by tradition, cannot be supposed to have retained
their original form; they are frequently interwoven with a belief in certain
fanciful creatures of pagan superstition, which exercise a constant influence
on human affairs. The poems are often recited, but most frequently sung to
the music of a rude kind of guitar. The bard chants two lines, then he pauses
and gives a few plaintive strokes on his instrument; then he chants again,
and so on. While in Slavic poetry generally the musical element is
prominent, in the Servian it is completely subordinate. Even the lyric poetry
is in a high degree monotonous, and is chanted rather than sung.
Goethe, Grimm, and "Talvi" drew attention to these songs, many
translations of which were published in Germany, and Bowring, Lytton, and
others have made them known in England.
At present there is much intellectual activity among the Servians in
various departments of literature, tragedy, comedy, satire, and fiction, but
the names of the writers are new to Europeans, and not easily remembered.
Page 523
THE BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE.
John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Comenius, and others.
The Bohemian is one of the principal Slavic languages. It is spoken in
Bohemia and in Moravia, and is used by the Slovaks of Hungary in their
literary productions. Of all the modern Slavic dialects, the Bohemian was
the first cultivated; it early adopted the Latin characters, and was developed
under the influence of the German language. In its free construction, the
Bohemian approaches the Latin, and is capable of imitating the Greek in all
its lighter shades.
The first written documents of the Bohemians are not older than the
introduction of Christianity into their country; but there exists a collection
of national songs celebrating battles and victories, which probably belongs
to the eighth or ninth century. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries the
influence of German customs and habits is apparent in Bohemian literature;
and in the thirteenth and fourteenth this influence increased, and was
manifest in the lyric poetry, which echoed the lays of the German
Minnesingers. Of these popular songs, however, very few are left.
In 1348 the first Slavic university was founded in Prague, on the plan of
those of Paris and Bologna, by the Emperor Charles IV., who united the
LITERATURE.
John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Comenius, and others.
The Bohemian is one of the principal Slavic languages. It is spoken in
Bohemia and in Moravia, and is used by the Slovaks of Hungary in their
literary productions. Of all the modern Slavic dialects, the Bohemian was
the first cultivated; it early adopted the Latin characters, and was developed
under the influence of the German language. In its free construction, the
Bohemian approaches the Latin, and is capable of imitating the Greek in all
its lighter shades.
The first written documents of the Bohemians are not older than the
introduction of Christianity into their country; but there exists a collection
of national songs celebrating battles and victories, which probably belongs
to the eighth or ninth century. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries the
influence of German customs and habits is apparent in Bohemian literature;
and in the thirteenth and fourteenth this influence increased, and was
manifest in the lyric poetry, which echoed the lays of the German
Minnesingers. Of these popular songs, however, very few are left.
In 1348 the first Slavic university was founded in Prague, on the plan of
those of Paris and Bologna, by the Emperor Charles IV., who united the
Page 524
crowns of Germany and Bohemia. The influence of this institution was felt,
not merely in the two countries, but throughout Europe.
The name of John Huss (1373-1415) stands at the head of a new period
in Bohemian literature. He was professor at the university of Prague, and
early became acquainted with the writings of Wickliffe, whose doctrines he
defended in his lectures and sermons. The care and attention he bestowed
on his compositions exerted a decided and lasting influence on the
language. The old Bohemian alphabet he arranged anew, and first settled
the Bohemian orthography according to fixed principles. Summoned to
appear before the council of Constance to answer to the charges of heresy,
he obeyed the call under a safe-conduct from the Emperor Sigismund. But
he was soon arrested by order of the council, condemned, and burned alive.
Among the coadjutors of Huss was Jerome of Prague, a professor in the
same university, who in his erudition and eloquence surpassed his friend,
whose doctrinal views he adopted, but he had not the mildness of
disposition nor the moderation of conduct which distinguished Huss. He
wrote several works for the instruction of the people, and translated some of
the writings of Wickliffe into the Bohemian language. On hearing of the
dangerous situation of his friend he hastened to Constance to assist and
support him. He, too, was arrested, and even terrified into temporary
submission; but at the next audience of the council he reaffirmed his faith,
and declared that of all his sins he repented of none more than his apostasy
from the doctrines he had maintained. In consequence of this avowal he was
condemned to the same fate as his friend.
These illustrious martyrs were, with the exception of Wickliffe, the first
advocates of truth a century before the Reformation. Since then, in no
language has the Bible been studied with more zeal and devotion than in the
Bohemian. The long contest for freedom of conscience which desolated the
not merely in the two countries, but throughout Europe.
The name of John Huss (1373-1415) stands at the head of a new period
in Bohemian literature. He was professor at the university of Prague, and
early became acquainted with the writings of Wickliffe, whose doctrines he
defended in his lectures and sermons. The care and attention he bestowed
on his compositions exerted a decided and lasting influence on the
language. The old Bohemian alphabet he arranged anew, and first settled
the Bohemian orthography according to fixed principles. Summoned to
appear before the council of Constance to answer to the charges of heresy,
he obeyed the call under a safe-conduct from the Emperor Sigismund. But
he was soon arrested by order of the council, condemned, and burned alive.
Among the coadjutors of Huss was Jerome of Prague, a professor in the
same university, who in his erudition and eloquence surpassed his friend,
whose doctrinal views he adopted, but he had not the mildness of
disposition nor the moderation of conduct which distinguished Huss. He
wrote several works for the instruction of the people, and translated some of
the writings of Wickliffe into the Bohemian language. On hearing of the
dangerous situation of his friend he hastened to Constance to assist and
support him. He, too, was arrested, and even terrified into temporary
submission; but at the next audience of the council he reaffirmed his faith,
and declared that of all his sins he repented of none more than his apostasy
from the doctrines he had maintained. In consequence of this avowal he was
condemned to the same fate as his friend.
These illustrious martyrs were, with the exception of Wickliffe, the first
advocates of truth a century before the Reformation. Since then, in no
language has the Bible been studied with more zeal and devotion than in the
Bohemian. The long contest for freedom of conscience which desolated the
Page 525
country until the extinction of the nation is one of the great tragedies of
human history.
The period from 1520 to 1620 is considered the golden age of Bohemian
literature. Nearly two hundred writers distinguished the reign of Rudolph I.
(1526-1611), and among them were many ladies and gentlemen of the
court, of which Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and other scientific men, from foreign
countries, were the chief ornaments. Numerous historical works were
published, theology was cultivated with talent and zeal, the eloquence of the
pulpit and the bar acquired a high degree of cultivation, and in religious
hymns all sects were equally productive.
The triumph of the Catholic party, which followed the battle of the White
Mountain, near Prague (1620), gave a fatal blow to Bohemia. The leading
men of the country were executed, exiled, or imprisoned; the Protestant
religion was abolished, and the country was declared a hereditary Catholic
monarchy. The Bohemian language ceased to be used in public transactions;
and every book written in it was condemned to the flames as necessarily
heretical. Great numbers of monks came from southern Europe, and seized
whatever native books they could find; and this destruction continued to go
on until the close of the last century.
Among the Bohemian emigrants who continued to write in their foreign
homes, Comenius (1592-1691) surpassed all others. When the great
persecution of the Protestants broke out he fled to Poland, and in his exile
he published several works in Latin and in Bohemian, distinguished for the
classical perfection of their style.
In the latter part of the eighteenth century the efforts to introduce into
Bohemia the German as the official language of the country awoke the
national feeling of the people, and produced a strong reaction in favor of
their native tongue. When the tolerant views of Joseph II. were known,
human history.
The period from 1520 to 1620 is considered the golden age of Bohemian
literature. Nearly two hundred writers distinguished the reign of Rudolph I.
(1526-1611), and among them were many ladies and gentlemen of the
court, of which Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and other scientific men, from foreign
countries, were the chief ornaments. Numerous historical works were
published, theology was cultivated with talent and zeal, the eloquence of the
pulpit and the bar acquired a high degree of cultivation, and in religious
hymns all sects were equally productive.
The triumph of the Catholic party, which followed the battle of the White
Mountain, near Prague (1620), gave a fatal blow to Bohemia. The leading
men of the country were executed, exiled, or imprisoned; the Protestant
religion was abolished, and the country was declared a hereditary Catholic
monarchy. The Bohemian language ceased to be used in public transactions;
and every book written in it was condemned to the flames as necessarily
heretical. Great numbers of monks came from southern Europe, and seized
whatever native books they could find; and this destruction continued to go
on until the close of the last century.
Among the Bohemian emigrants who continued to write in their foreign
homes, Comenius (1592-1691) surpassed all others. When the great
persecution of the Protestants broke out he fled to Poland, and in his exile
he published several works in Latin and in Bohemian, distinguished for the
classical perfection of their style.
In the latter part of the eighteenth century the efforts to introduce into
Bohemia the German as the official language of the country awoke the
national feeling of the people, and produced a strong reaction in favor of
their native tongue. When the tolerant views of Joseph II. were known,
Page 526
more than a hundred thousand Protestants returned to their country; books
long hidden were brought to light, and many works were reprinted. During
the reign of his two successors, the Bohemians received still more
encouragement; the use of the language was ordained in all the schools, and
a knowledge of it was made a necessary qualification for office. Among the
writers who exerted a favorable influence in this movement may be
mentioned Kramerius (1753-1808), the editor of the first Bohemian
newspaper, and the author of many original works; Dobrovsky (1753-
1829), the patriarch of modern Slavic literature, and one of the profoundest
scholars of the age; and Kollar (b. 1763), the leading poet of modern times
in the Bohemian language. Schaffarik (b. 1795), a Slovak, is the author of a
"History of the Slavic Language and Literature," in German, which has,
perhaps, contributed more than any other work to a knowledge of Slavic
literature. Palacky, a Moravian by birth, was the faithful fellow- laborer of
Schaffarik; his most important work is a "History of Bohemia."
Since 1848 there has arisen a school of poets whose writings are more in
accordance with those of the western nations. Among them are Hálek (d.
1874) and Cech, the most celebrated of living Bohemian poets. Caroline
Soêtla (b. 1830) is the originator of the modern Bohemian novel. Since
1879 many poems have appeared, epic in their character, taking their
materials both from the past and the present. In various branches of
literature able writers are found, too numerous even to name.
long hidden were brought to light, and many works were reprinted. During
the reign of his two successors, the Bohemians received still more
encouragement; the use of the language was ordained in all the schools, and
a knowledge of it was made a necessary qualification for office. Among the
writers who exerted a favorable influence in this movement may be
mentioned Kramerius (1753-1808), the editor of the first Bohemian
newspaper, and the author of many original works; Dobrovsky (1753-
1829), the patriarch of modern Slavic literature, and one of the profoundest
scholars of the age; and Kollar (b. 1763), the leading poet of modern times
in the Bohemian language. Schaffarik (b. 1795), a Slovak, is the author of a
"History of the Slavic Language and Literature," in German, which has,
perhaps, contributed more than any other work to a knowledge of Slavic
literature. Palacky, a Moravian by birth, was the faithful fellow- laborer of
Schaffarik; his most important work is a "History of Bohemia."
Since 1848 there has arisen a school of poets whose writings are more in
accordance with those of the western nations. Among them are Hálek (d.
1874) and Cech, the most celebrated of living Bohemian poets. Caroline
Soêtla (b. 1830) is the originator of the modern Bohemian novel. Since
1879 many poems have appeared, epic in their character, taking their
materials both from the past and the present. In various branches of
literature able writers are found, too numerous even to name.
Page 527
THE POLISH LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE.
Rey, Bielski, Copernicus, Czartoryski, Niemcewicz, Mickiewicz, and
others.
The Polish language is the only existing representative of that variety of
idioms originally spoken by the Slavic tribes, which, under the name of
Lekhes, in the sixth or seventh century, settled on the banks of the Vistula
and Varta. Although very little is known of the progress of the language into
its present state, it is sufficiently obvious that it has developed from the
conflict of its natural elements with the Latin and German idioms. Of the
other Slavic dialects, the Bohemian is the only one which has exerted any
influence upon this tongue. The Polish language is refined and artificial in
its grammatical structure, rich in its words and phrases, and, like the
Bohemian, capable of faithfully imitating the refinements of the classical
languages. It has a great variety and nicety of shades in the pronunciation of
the vowels, and such combinations of consonants as can only be conquered
by a Slavic tongue.
The literary history of Poland begins, like that of Bohemia, at the epoch
of the introduction of Christianity. In the year 965, Miecislav, Duke of
Poland, married the Bohemian princess Dombrovka, who consented to the
marriage on the condition of the duke becoming a convert to Christianity;
LITERATURE.
Rey, Bielski, Copernicus, Czartoryski, Niemcewicz, Mickiewicz, and
others.
The Polish language is the only existing representative of that variety of
idioms originally spoken by the Slavic tribes, which, under the name of
Lekhes, in the sixth or seventh century, settled on the banks of the Vistula
and Varta. Although very little is known of the progress of the language into
its present state, it is sufficiently obvious that it has developed from the
conflict of its natural elements with the Latin and German idioms. Of the
other Slavic dialects, the Bohemian is the only one which has exerted any
influence upon this tongue. The Polish language is refined and artificial in
its grammatical structure, rich in its words and phrases, and, like the
Bohemian, capable of faithfully imitating the refinements of the classical
languages. It has a great variety and nicety of shades in the pronunciation of
the vowels, and such combinations of consonants as can only be conquered
by a Slavic tongue.
The literary history of Poland begins, like that of Bohemia, at the epoch
of the introduction of Christianity. In the year 965, Miecislav, Duke of
Poland, married the Bohemian princess Dombrovka, who consented to the
marriage on the condition of the duke becoming a convert to Christianity;
Page 528
and from that time the Polish princes, and the greater part of the nation,
adopted the new faith. The clergy in those early ages in Poland, as well as
elsewhere, were the depositaries of mental light; and the Benedictine monks
who, with others, had been invited to the converted country, founded
convents, to which they early attached schools. Their example was
followed, at a later period, by other orders, and for several centuries the
natives were excluded from all clerical dignities and privileges, and the
education of the country was directed by foreign monks. They burned the
few writings which they found in the vernacular tongue, and excited
unnatural prejudices against it. From the ninth to the sixteenth century
Polish literature was almost entirely confined to the translation of a part of
the Bible and a few chronicles written in Latin. Among these must be
noticed the chronicle of Martin Gallus (d. 1132), an emigrant Frenchman,
who is considered as the oldest historian of Poland.
Casimir (1333-1370) was one of the few princes who acquired the name
of the Great, not by conquests, but by the substantial benefits of laws,
courts of justice, and means of education, which he procured for his
subjects. In his reign was formed the first code of laws, known by the name
of "Statute of Wislica," a part of which is written in the Polish language;
and he laid the foundation of the university of Cracow (1347), which,
however, was only organized half a century later. Hedevig, the
granddaughter of Casimir, married Jagello of Lithuania, and under their
descendants, who reigned nearly two centuries, Poland rose to the summit
of power and glory. With Sigismund I. (1505-1542), and Sigismund
Augustus (1542-1613), a new period of Polish literature begins. The
university of Cracow had been organized in 1400, on the model of that of
Prague, and this opened a door for the doctrines, first of the Bohemian, then
of the German reformers. The wild flame of superstition which kindled the
fagots for the disciples of the new doctrines in Poland was extinguished by
Sigismund I. and Sigismund II., in whom the Reformation found a decided
adopted the new faith. The clergy in those early ages in Poland, as well as
elsewhere, were the depositaries of mental light; and the Benedictine monks
who, with others, had been invited to the converted country, founded
convents, to which they early attached schools. Their example was
followed, at a later period, by other orders, and for several centuries the
natives were excluded from all clerical dignities and privileges, and the
education of the country was directed by foreign monks. They burned the
few writings which they found in the vernacular tongue, and excited
unnatural prejudices against it. From the ninth to the sixteenth century
Polish literature was almost entirely confined to the translation of a part of
the Bible and a few chronicles written in Latin. Among these must be
noticed the chronicle of Martin Gallus (d. 1132), an emigrant Frenchman,
who is considered as the oldest historian of Poland.
Casimir (1333-1370) was one of the few princes who acquired the name
of the Great, not by conquests, but by the substantial benefits of laws,
courts of justice, and means of education, which he procured for his
subjects. In his reign was formed the first code of laws, known by the name
of "Statute of Wislica," a part of which is written in the Polish language;
and he laid the foundation of the university of Cracow (1347), which,
however, was only organized half a century later. Hedevig, the
granddaughter of Casimir, married Jagello of Lithuania, and under their
descendants, who reigned nearly two centuries, Poland rose to the summit
of power and glory. With Sigismund I. (1505-1542), and Sigismund
Augustus (1542-1613), a new period of Polish literature begins. The
university of Cracow had been organized in 1400, on the model of that of
Prague, and this opened a door for the doctrines, first of the Bohemian, then
of the German reformers. The wild flame of superstition which kindled the
fagots for the disciples of the new doctrines in Poland was extinguished by
Sigismund I. and Sigismund II., in whom the Reformation found a decided
Page 529
support. Under their administration Poland was the seat of a toleration then
unequaled in the world; the Polish language became more used in literary
productions, and was fixed as the medium through which laws and decrees
were promulgated.
Rey of Naglowic (1515-1569), who lived at the courts of the Sigismunds,
is called the father of Polish poetry. Most of his productions are of a
religious nature, and bear the stamp of a truly poetical talent. John
Kochanowski (1530-1584) published a translation of the Psalms, which is
still considered as a classical work. His other poems, in which Pindar,
Anacreon, and Horace were alternately his models, are distinguished for
their conciseness and terseness of style. Rybinski (fl. 1581) and Simon
Szymonowicz (d. 1629), the former as a lyric poet, the latter as a writer of
idyls, maintain a high rank.
The Poles possess all the necessary qualities for oratory, and the sixteenth
century was eminent for forensic and pulpit eloquence. History was
cultivated with much zeal, but mostly in the Latin language. Martin Bielski
(1500-1576) was the author of the "Chronicle of Poland," the first historical
work in Polish. Scientific works were mostly written in Latin, the
cultivation of which, in Poland, has ever kept pace with the study of the
vernacular tongue. Indeed, the most eminent writers and orators of the
sixteenth century, who made use of the Polish language, managed the Latin
with equal skill and dexterity, and in common conversation both Latin and
Polish were used.
Among the scientific writers of Latin is the astronomer Copernicus
(1473- 1543). He early went to Italy, and was appointed professor of
mathematics at Rome. He at length returned to Poland, and devoted himself
to the study of astronomy. Having spent twenty years in observations and
unequaled in the world; the Polish language became more used in literary
productions, and was fixed as the medium through which laws and decrees
were promulgated.
Rey of Naglowic (1515-1569), who lived at the courts of the Sigismunds,
is called the father of Polish poetry. Most of his productions are of a
religious nature, and bear the stamp of a truly poetical talent. John
Kochanowski (1530-1584) published a translation of the Psalms, which is
still considered as a classical work. His other poems, in which Pindar,
Anacreon, and Horace were alternately his models, are distinguished for
their conciseness and terseness of style. Rybinski (fl. 1581) and Simon
Szymonowicz (d. 1629), the former as a lyric poet, the latter as a writer of
idyls, maintain a high rank.
The Poles possess all the necessary qualities for oratory, and the sixteenth
century was eminent for forensic and pulpit eloquence. History was
cultivated with much zeal, but mostly in the Latin language. Martin Bielski
(1500-1576) was the author of the "Chronicle of Poland," the first historical
work in Polish. Scientific works were mostly written in Latin, the
cultivation of which, in Poland, has ever kept pace with the study of the
vernacular tongue. Indeed, the most eminent writers and orators of the
sixteenth century, who made use of the Polish language, managed the Latin
with equal skill and dexterity, and in common conversation both Latin and
Polish were used.
Among the scientific writers of Latin is the astronomer Copernicus
(1473- 1543). He early went to Italy, and was appointed professor of
mathematics at Rome. He at length returned to Poland, and devoted himself
to the study of astronomy. Having spent twenty years in observations and
Page 530
calculations, he brought his scheme to perfection, and established the theory
of the universe which is now everywhere received.
The interval between 1622 and 1760 marks a period of a general
decadence in Polish literature. The perversion of taste which, at the
beginning of that age, reigned in Italy, and thence spread over Europe,
reached Poland; and for nearly a hundred and fifty years the country, under
the influence of the Jesuits, was the victim of a stifling intolerance, and of a
general mental paralysis. But in the reign of Stanislaus Augustus (1762-
1795), Poland began to revive, and the national literature received a new
impulse. Though the French language and manners prevailed, and the
bombastic school of Marini was only supplanted by that of the cold and
formal poets of France, the cultivation of the Polish language was not
neglected; a periodical work, to which the ablest men of the country
contributed, was published, public instruction was made one of the great
concerns of the government, and the power of the Jesuits was destroyed.
The dissolution of the kingdom which soon followed, its partition and
amalgamation with foreign nations, kindled anew the patriotic spirit of the
Poles, who devoted themselves with more zeal than ever to the cultivation
of their native language, the sole tie which still binds them together. The
following are the principal representatives of this period: Stephen Konarski
(1700-1773), a writer on politics and education, who devoted himself
entirely to the literary and mental reform of his country; Zaluski (1724-
1786), known more especially as the founder of a large library, which, at the
dismemberment of Poland, was transferred to St. Petersburg; and, above all,
Adam Czartoryski (1731-1823), and the two brothers Potocki, distinguished
as statesmen, orators, writers, and patrons of literature and art. At the head
of the historical writers of the eighteenth century stands Naruszewicz
(1753-1796), whose history of Poland is considered as a standard work. In
respect to erudition, philosophical conception, and purity of style, it is a
of the universe which is now everywhere received.
The interval between 1622 and 1760 marks a period of a general
decadence in Polish literature. The perversion of taste which, at the
beginning of that age, reigned in Italy, and thence spread over Europe,
reached Poland; and for nearly a hundred and fifty years the country, under
the influence of the Jesuits, was the victim of a stifling intolerance, and of a
general mental paralysis. But in the reign of Stanislaus Augustus (1762-
1795), Poland began to revive, and the national literature received a new
impulse. Though the French language and manners prevailed, and the
bombastic school of Marini was only supplanted by that of the cold and
formal poets of France, the cultivation of the Polish language was not
neglected; a periodical work, to which the ablest men of the country
contributed, was published, public instruction was made one of the great
concerns of the government, and the power of the Jesuits was destroyed.
The dissolution of the kingdom which soon followed, its partition and
amalgamation with foreign nations, kindled anew the patriotic spirit of the
Poles, who devoted themselves with more zeal than ever to the cultivation
of their native language, the sole tie which still binds them together. The
following are the principal representatives of this period: Stephen Konarski
(1700-1773), a writer on politics and education, who devoted himself
entirely to the literary and mental reform of his country; Zaluski (1724-
1786), known more especially as the founder of a large library, which, at the
dismemberment of Poland, was transferred to St. Petersburg; and, above all,
Adam Czartoryski (1731-1823), and the two brothers Potocki, distinguished
as statesmen, orators, writers, and patrons of literature and art. At the head
of the historical writers of the eighteenth century stands Naruszewicz
(1753-1796), whose history of Poland is considered as a standard work. In
respect to erudition, philosophical conception, and purity of style, it is a
Page 531
masterpiece of Polish literature. Krasicki (1739-1802), the most
distinguished poet under Stanislaus Augustus, was called the Polish
Voltaire. His poems and prose writings are replete with wit and spirit,
though bearing evident marks of French influence, which was felt in almost
all the poetical productions of that age.
Niemcewicz (1787-1846) is regarded as one of the greatest poets of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Having fought by the side of
Kosciusko, and shared his fate as a prisoner, he accompanied him to
America, where he became the friend and associate of Washington, whose
life he afterwards described. His other works consist of historical songs,
dramas, and a history of the reign of Sigismund.
There is no branch of literature in which the Poles have manifested
greater want of original power than in the drama, where the influence of the
French school is decided, and, indeed, exclusive. Novels and tales, founded
on domestic life, are not abundant in Polish literature; philosophy has had
few votaries, and the other sciences, with the exception of the mathematical
and physical branches, have been, till recently, neglected.
The failure of the revolution of 1830 forms a melancholy epoch in Polish
history, and especially in Polish literature. The universities of Warsaw and
Wilna were broken up, and their rich libraries removed to St. Petersburg.
Even the lower schools were mostly deprived of their funds, and changed to
Russian government schools. The press was placed under the strictest
control, the language and the national peculiarities of the country were
everywhere persecuted, the Russian tongue and customs substituted, and the
poets and learned men either silenced or banished. Yet since that time the
national history has become more than ever a chosen study with the people;
and as the results of these researches, since 1830, cannot be written in
Poland, Paris has become the principal seat of Polish learning. One of the
distinguished poet under Stanislaus Augustus, was called the Polish
Voltaire. His poems and prose writings are replete with wit and spirit,
though bearing evident marks of French influence, which was felt in almost
all the poetical productions of that age.
Niemcewicz (1787-1846) is regarded as one of the greatest poets of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Having fought by the side of
Kosciusko, and shared his fate as a prisoner, he accompanied him to
America, where he became the friend and associate of Washington, whose
life he afterwards described. His other works consist of historical songs,
dramas, and a history of the reign of Sigismund.
There is no branch of literature in which the Poles have manifested
greater want of original power than in the drama, where the influence of the
French school is decided, and, indeed, exclusive. Novels and tales, founded
on domestic life, are not abundant in Polish literature; philosophy has had
few votaries, and the other sciences, with the exception of the mathematical
and physical branches, have been, till recently, neglected.
The failure of the revolution of 1830 forms a melancholy epoch in Polish
history, and especially in Polish literature. The universities of Warsaw and
Wilna were broken up, and their rich libraries removed to St. Petersburg.
Even the lower schools were mostly deprived of their funds, and changed to
Russian government schools. The press was placed under the strictest
control, the language and the national peculiarities of the country were
everywhere persecuted, the Russian tongue and customs substituted, and the
poets and learned men either silenced or banished. Yet since that time the
national history has become more than ever a chosen study with the people;
and as the results of these researches, since 1830, cannot be written in
Poland, Paris has become the principal seat of Polish learning. One of the
Page 532
first works of importance published there was the "History of the Polish
Insurrection," by Mochnachi (1804- 1835), known before as the author of a
work on the Polish literature of the nineteenth century, and as the able
editor of several periodicals. Lelewel, one of the leaders of the revolution,
wrote a work on the civil rights of the Polish peasantry, which has exercised
a more decided influence in Poland than that of any modern author.
Miekiewicz (1798- 1843), a leader of the same revolution, is the most
distinguished of the modern poets of Poland. His magnificent poem of "The
Feast of the Dead" is a powerful expression of genius. His "Sonnets on the
Crimea" are among his happiest productions, and his "Sir Thaddeus" is a
graphic description of the civil and domestic life of Lithuania. Mickiewicz
is the founder of the modern romantic school in Poland, to which belong the
most popular productions of Polish literature. Zalesski, Grabowski, and
others of this school have chosen the Ukraine as the favorite theatre of their
poems, and give us pictures of that country, alternately sweet, wild, and
romantic.
Of all the Slavic nations, the Poles have most neglected their popular
poetry, a fact which may be easily explained in a nation among whom
whatever refers to mere boors and serfs has always been regarded with the
utmost contempt. Their beautiful national dances, however, the graceful
Polonaise, the bold Masur, the ingenious Cracovienne, are equally the
property of the nobility and peasantry, and were formerly always
accompanied by singing instead of instrumental music. These songs were
extemporized, and were probably never committed to writing.
The centre of literary activity in Poland is Warsaw, which, in spite of the
severe restrictions on the press, has always maintained its preëminence.
Insurrection," by Mochnachi (1804- 1835), known before as the author of a
work on the Polish literature of the nineteenth century, and as the able
editor of several periodicals. Lelewel, one of the leaders of the revolution,
wrote a work on the civil rights of the Polish peasantry, which has exercised
a more decided influence in Poland than that of any modern author.
Miekiewicz (1798- 1843), a leader of the same revolution, is the most
distinguished of the modern poets of Poland. His magnificent poem of "The
Feast of the Dead" is a powerful expression of genius. His "Sonnets on the
Crimea" are among his happiest productions, and his "Sir Thaddeus" is a
graphic description of the civil and domestic life of Lithuania. Mickiewicz
is the founder of the modern romantic school in Poland, to which belong the
most popular productions of Polish literature. Zalesski, Grabowski, and
others of this school have chosen the Ukraine as the favorite theatre of their
poems, and give us pictures of that country, alternately sweet, wild, and
romantic.
Of all the Slavic nations, the Poles have most neglected their popular
poetry, a fact which may be easily explained in a nation among whom
whatever refers to mere boors and serfs has always been regarded with the
utmost contempt. Their beautiful national dances, however, the graceful
Polonaise, the bold Masur, the ingenious Cracovienne, are equally the
property of the nobility and peasantry, and were formerly always
accompanied by singing instead of instrumental music. These songs were
extemporized, and were probably never committed to writing.
The centre of literary activity in Poland is Warsaw, which, in spite of the
severe restrictions on the press, has always maintained its preëminence.
Page 533
ROUMANIAN LITERATURE.
Carmen Sylva.
The kingdom of Roumania, composed of the principalities of Moldavia
and Wallachia, united in 1859, has few literary monuments. The language is
Wallachian, in which the Latin predominates, with a mixture of Slavic,
Turkish, and Tartar, and has only of late been classed with the Romance
languages, by the side of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. There are some
historical fragments of the fifteenth century remaining; the literature that
followed was mostly theological. In recent times a great number of learned
and poetical works have been produced, and political movements have led
to many political writings and to the establishment of many newspapers.
The most distinguished name in Roumanian literature is that of "Carmen
Sylva," the nom de plume of the beautiful and gifted queen of that country,
whose writings in prose and verse are remarkable for passionate feeling,
grace, and finished execution.
Carmen Sylva.
The kingdom of Roumania, composed of the principalities of Moldavia
and Wallachia, united in 1859, has few literary monuments. The language is
Wallachian, in which the Latin predominates, with a mixture of Slavic,
Turkish, and Tartar, and has only of late been classed with the Romance
languages, by the side of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. There are some
historical fragments of the fifteenth century remaining; the literature that
followed was mostly theological. In recent times a great number of learned
and poetical works have been produced, and political movements have led
to many political writings and to the establishment of many newspapers.
The most distinguished name in Roumanian literature is that of "Carmen
Sylva," the nom de plume of the beautiful and gifted queen of that country,
whose writings in prose and verse are remarkable for passionate feeling,
grace, and finished execution.
Page 534
DUTCH LITERATURE.
1. The Language.—2. Dutch Literature to the Sixteenth Century: Maerlant;
Melis Stoke; De Weert; the Chambers of Rhetoric; the Flemish Chroniclers;
the Rise of the Dutch Republic.—3. The Latin Writers: Erasmus; Grotius;
Arminius; Lipsius; the Scaligers, and others; Salmasius; Spinoza;
Boerhaave; Johannes Secundus.—4. Dutch Writers of the Sixteenth
Century:
Anna Byns; Coornhert; Marnix de St. Aldegonde, Bor, Visscher, and
Spieghel.—5. Writers of the Seventeenth Century: Hooft; Vondel; Cats;
Antonides; Brandt, and others; Decline in Dutch Literature.—6. The
Eighteenth Century: Poot; Langendijk; Hoogvliet; De Marre; Feitama;
Huydecoper; the Van Harens; Smits; Ten Kate; Van Winter; Van Merken;
De
Lannoy; Van Alphen; Bellamy; Nieuwland, Styl, and others.—7. The
Nineteenth Century: Feith; Helmers; Bilderdyk; Van der Palm; Loosjes;
Loots, Tollens, Van Kampen, De s'Gravenweert, Hoevill, and others.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—The Dutch, Flemish, and Frisic languages,
spoken in the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, are branches of the Gothic
family. Toward the close of the fifteenth century, the Dutch gained the
ascendency over the others, which it has never since lost. This language is
energetic and flexible, rich in synonyms and delicate shades, and from its
fullness and strength, better adapted to history, tragedy, and odes, than to
1. The Language.—2. Dutch Literature to the Sixteenth Century: Maerlant;
Melis Stoke; De Weert; the Chambers of Rhetoric; the Flemish Chroniclers;
the Rise of the Dutch Republic.—3. The Latin Writers: Erasmus; Grotius;
Arminius; Lipsius; the Scaligers, and others; Salmasius; Spinoza;
Boerhaave; Johannes Secundus.—4. Dutch Writers of the Sixteenth
Century:
Anna Byns; Coornhert; Marnix de St. Aldegonde, Bor, Visscher, and
Spieghel.—5. Writers of the Seventeenth Century: Hooft; Vondel; Cats;
Antonides; Brandt, and others; Decline in Dutch Literature.—6. The
Eighteenth Century: Poot; Langendijk; Hoogvliet; De Marre; Feitama;
Huydecoper; the Van Harens; Smits; Ten Kate; Van Winter; Van Merken;
De
Lannoy; Van Alphen; Bellamy; Nieuwland, Styl, and others.—7. The
Nineteenth Century: Feith; Helmers; Bilderdyk; Van der Palm; Loosjes;
Loots, Tollens, Van Kampen, De s'Gravenweert, Hoevill, and others.
1. THE LANGUAGE.—The Dutch, Flemish, and Frisic languages,
spoken in the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, are branches of the Gothic
family. Toward the close of the fifteenth century, the Dutch gained the
ascendency over the others, which it has never since lost. This language is
energetic and flexible, rich in synonyms and delicate shades, and from its
fullness and strength, better adapted to history, tragedy, and odes, than to
Page 535
comedy and the lighter kinds of poetry. The Flemish, which still remains the
literary language of the southern provinces, is inferior to the Dutch, and has
been greatly corrupted by the admixture of foreign words. The Frisic,
spoken in Friesland, is an idiom less cultivated than the others, and is
gradually disappearing. In the seventeenth century it boasted of several
writers, of whom the poet Japix was the most eminent. The first grammar of
the Frisic language was published by Professor Rask, of Copenhagen, in
1825. In some parts of Belgium the Walloon, an old dialect of the French, is
still spoken, but the Flemish continues to be the common language of the
people, although since the establishment of Belgium as an independent
kingdom the use of the French language has prevailed among the higher
classes.
2. DUTCH LITERATURE TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.—When
the obscurity of the dark ages began to disappear with the revival of letters,
the Netherlands were not last among the countries of Europe in coming
forth from the darkness. The cities of Flanders were early distinguished for
the commercial activity and industrial skill of their inhabitants. Bruges
reached the height of its splendor in the beginning of the fifteenth century,
and was for some time one of the great commercial emporiums of the
world, to which Constantinople, Genoa, and Venice sent their precious
argosies laden with the products of the East. At the close of the thirteenth
century Ghent, in wealth and power, eclipsed the French metropolis; and at
the end of the fifteenth century there was, according to Erasmus, no town in
all Christendom to compare with it for magnitude, power, political
institutions, or the culture of its citizens. The lays of the minstrels and the
romances of chivalry were early translated, and a Dutch version of
"Reynard the Fox" was made in the middle of the thirteenth century. Jakob
Maerlant (1235-1300), the first author of note, translated the Bible into
Flemish rhyme, and made many versions of the classics; and Melis Stoke,
his contemporary, wrote a rhymed "Chronicle of Holland."
literary language of the southern provinces, is inferior to the Dutch, and has
been greatly corrupted by the admixture of foreign words. The Frisic,
spoken in Friesland, is an idiom less cultivated than the others, and is
gradually disappearing. In the seventeenth century it boasted of several
writers, of whom the poet Japix was the most eminent. The first grammar of
the Frisic language was published by Professor Rask, of Copenhagen, in
1825. In some parts of Belgium the Walloon, an old dialect of the French, is
still spoken, but the Flemish continues to be the common language of the
people, although since the establishment of Belgium as an independent
kingdom the use of the French language has prevailed among the higher
classes.
2. DUTCH LITERATURE TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.—When
the obscurity of the dark ages began to disappear with the revival of letters,
the Netherlands were not last among the countries of Europe in coming
forth from the darkness. The cities of Flanders were early distinguished for
the commercial activity and industrial skill of their inhabitants. Bruges
reached the height of its splendor in the beginning of the fifteenth century,
and was for some time one of the great commercial emporiums of the
world, to which Constantinople, Genoa, and Venice sent their precious
argosies laden with the products of the East. At the close of the thirteenth
century Ghent, in wealth and power, eclipsed the French metropolis; and at
the end of the fifteenth century there was, according to Erasmus, no town in
all Christendom to compare with it for magnitude, power, political
institutions, or the culture of its citizens. The lays of the minstrels and the
romances of chivalry were early translated, and a Dutch version of
"Reynard the Fox" was made in the middle of the thirteenth century. Jakob
Maerlant (1235-1300), the first author of note, translated the Bible into
Flemish rhyme, and made many versions of the classics; and Melis Stoke,
his contemporary, wrote a rhymed "Chronicle of Holland."
Page 536
The most important work of the fourteenth century is the "New
Doctrine," by De Weert, which, for the freedom of its expression on
religious subjects, may be regarded as one of the precursors of the
Reformation.
Towards the close of the fourteenth century there arose a class of
wandering poets called Sprekers, who, at the courts of princes and
elsewhere, rehearsed their maxims in prose or verse. In the fifteenth century
they formed themselves into literary societies, known as "Chambers of
Rhetoric" (poetry being at that time called the "Art of Rhetoric"), which
were similar to the Guilds of the Meistersingers. These institutions were
soon multiplied throughout the country, and the members exercised
themselves in rhyming, or composed and performed mysteries and plays,
which, at length, gave rise to the theatre. They engaged in poetical contests,
distributed prizes, and were prominent in all national fêtes. The number of
the rhetoricians was so immense, that during the reign of Philip II. of Spain
more than thirty chambers, composed of fifteen hundred members, often
entered Antwerp in triumphal procession. But the effect of these
associations, composed for the most part of illiterate men, was to destroy
the purity of the language and to produce degeneracy in the literature. The
Chamber of Amsterdam, however, was an honorable exception, and towards
the close of the sixteenth century it counted among its members
distinguished scholars, such as Spieghel, Coornhert, Marnix, and Visscher,
and it may be considered as the school which formed Hooft and Vondel.
During the reign of the House of Burgundy (1383-1477), which was
essentially French in tastes and manners, the native tongue became
corrupted by the admixture of foreign elements. The poets and chroniclers
of the time were chiefly of Flemish origin; the most widely known among
the latter are Henricourt (d. 1403), Monstrelet (d. 1453), and Chastelain (d.
Doctrine," by De Weert, which, for the freedom of its expression on
religious subjects, may be regarded as one of the precursors of the
Reformation.
Towards the close of the fourteenth century there arose a class of
wandering poets called Sprekers, who, at the courts of princes and
elsewhere, rehearsed their maxims in prose or verse. In the fifteenth century
they formed themselves into literary societies, known as "Chambers of
Rhetoric" (poetry being at that time called the "Art of Rhetoric"), which
were similar to the Guilds of the Meistersingers. These institutions were
soon multiplied throughout the country, and the members exercised
themselves in rhyming, or composed and performed mysteries and plays,
which, at length, gave rise to the theatre. They engaged in poetical contests,
distributed prizes, and were prominent in all national fêtes. The number of
the rhetoricians was so immense, that during the reign of Philip II. of Spain
more than thirty chambers, composed of fifteen hundred members, often
entered Antwerp in triumphal procession. But the effect of these
associations, composed for the most part of illiterate men, was to destroy
the purity of the language and to produce degeneracy in the literature. The
Chamber of Amsterdam, however, was an honorable exception, and towards
the close of the sixteenth century it counted among its members
distinguished scholars, such as Spieghel, Coornhert, Marnix, and Visscher,
and it may be considered as the school which formed Hooft and Vondel.
During the reign of the House of Burgundy (1383-1477), which was
essentially French in tastes and manners, the native tongue became
corrupted by the admixture of foreign elements. The poets and chroniclers
of the time were chiefly of Flemish origin; the most widely known among
the latter are Henricourt (d. 1403), Monstrelet (d. 1453), and Chastelain (d.
Page 537
1475). A translation of the Bible and a few more works close the literary
record of the fifteenth century.
The invention of printing, the great event of the age, is claimed by the
cities of Mayence, Strasbourg, and Harlem; but if the art which preserves
literature originated in the Netherlands, it did not at once create a native
literature, the growth of which was greatly retarded by the use of the Latin
tongue, which long continued to be the organ of expression with the
principal writers of the country, nearly all of whom, even to the present day,
are distinguished for the purity and elegance with which they compose in
this language.
The Reformation and the great political agitations of the sixteenth
century ended in the independence of the northern provinces and the
establishment of the Dutch Republic (1581) under the name of the United
Provinces, commonly called Holland, from the province of that name,
which was superior to the others in extent, population, and influence. The
new republic rose rapidly in power; and while intolerance and religious
disputes distracted other European states, it offered a safe asylum to the
persecuted of all sects. The expanding energies of the people soon sought a
field beyond the narrow boundaries of the country; their ships visited every
sea, and they monopolized the richest commerce of the world. They alone
supplied Europe with the productions of the Spice Islands, and the gold,
pearls, and jewels of the East all passed through their hands; and in the
middle of the seventeenth century the United Provinces were the first
commercial and the first maritime power in the world. A rapid development
of the literature was the natural consequence of this increasing national
development, which was still more powerfully promoted by the great and
wise William I., Prince of Orange, who in 1575 founded the university of
Leyden as a reward to that city for its valiant defense against the Spaniards.
Similar institutions were soon established at Groningen, Utrecht, and
record of the fifteenth century.
The invention of printing, the great event of the age, is claimed by the
cities of Mayence, Strasbourg, and Harlem; but if the art which preserves
literature originated in the Netherlands, it did not at once create a native
literature, the growth of which was greatly retarded by the use of the Latin
tongue, which long continued to be the organ of expression with the
principal writers of the country, nearly all of whom, even to the present day,
are distinguished for the purity and elegance with which they compose in
this language.
The Reformation and the great political agitations of the sixteenth
century ended in the independence of the northern provinces and the
establishment of the Dutch Republic (1581) under the name of the United
Provinces, commonly called Holland, from the province of that name,
which was superior to the others in extent, population, and influence. The
new republic rose rapidly in power; and while intolerance and religious
disputes distracted other European states, it offered a safe asylum to the
persecuted of all sects. The expanding energies of the people soon sought a
field beyond the narrow boundaries of the country; their ships visited every
sea, and they monopolized the richest commerce of the world. They alone
supplied Europe with the productions of the Spice Islands, and the gold,
pearls, and jewels of the East all passed through their hands; and in the
middle of the seventeenth century the United Provinces were the first
commercial and the first maritime power in the world. A rapid development
of the literature was the natural consequence of this increasing national
development, which was still more powerfully promoted by the great and
wise William I., Prince of Orange, who in 1575 founded the university of
Leyden as a reward to that city for its valiant defense against the Spaniards.
Similar institutions were soon established at Groningen, Utrecht, and
Page 538
elsewhere; these various seats of learning produced a rivalry highly
advantageous to the diffusion of knowledge, and great men arose in all
branches of science and literature. Among the distinguished names of the
sixteenth century those of the Latin writers occupy the first place.
3. LATIN WRITERS.—One of the great restorers of letters in Europe,
and one of the most elegant of modern Latin authors, was Gerard Didier, a
native of Rotterdam, who took the name of Erasmus (1467-1536). To
profound learning he joined a refined taste and a delicate wit, and few men
have been so greatly admired as he was during his lifetime. The principal
sovereigns of Europe endeavored to draw him into their kingdoms. He
several times visited England, where he was received with great deference
by Henry VIII., and where he gave lectures on Greek literature at
Cambridge. He made many translations from Greek authors, and a very
valuable translation of the New Testament into Latin. His writings
introduced the spirit of free inquiry on all subjects, and to his influence may
be attributed the first dawning of the Reformation. But his caution offended
some of the best men of the times. His treatise on "Free Will" made an open
breach between him and Luther, whose opinions favored predestination; his
"Colloquies" gave great offense to the Catholics; and as he had not declared
for the Protestants, he had but lukewarm friends in either party. It has been
said of Erasmus, that he would have purified and repaired the venerable
fabric of the church, with a light and cautious touch, fearful lest learning,
virtue, and religion should be buried in its fall, while Luther struck at the
tottering ruin with a bold and reckless hand, confident that a new and more
beautiful temple would rise from its ruins.
Hugo de Groot, who, according to the fashion of the time, took the Latin
name of Grotius (1583-1645), was a scholar and statesman of the most
diversified talents, and one of the master minds of the age. He was involved
in the religious controversy which at that time disturbed Holland, and he
advantageous to the diffusion of knowledge, and great men arose in all
branches of science and literature. Among the distinguished names of the
sixteenth century those of the Latin writers occupy the first place.
3. LATIN WRITERS.—One of the great restorers of letters in Europe,
and one of the most elegant of modern Latin authors, was Gerard Didier, a
native of Rotterdam, who took the name of Erasmus (1467-1536). To
profound learning he joined a refined taste and a delicate wit, and few men
have been so greatly admired as he was during his lifetime. The principal
sovereigns of Europe endeavored to draw him into their kingdoms. He
several times visited England, where he was received with great deference
by Henry VIII., and where he gave lectures on Greek literature at
Cambridge. He made many translations from Greek authors, and a very
valuable translation of the New Testament into Latin. His writings
introduced the spirit of free inquiry on all subjects, and to his influence may
be attributed the first dawning of the Reformation. But his caution offended
some of the best men of the times. His treatise on "Free Will" made an open
breach between him and Luther, whose opinions favored predestination; his
"Colloquies" gave great offense to the Catholics; and as he had not declared
for the Protestants, he had but lukewarm friends in either party. It has been
said of Erasmus, that he would have purified and repaired the venerable
fabric of the church, with a light and cautious touch, fearful lest learning,
virtue, and religion should be buried in its fall, while Luther struck at the
tottering ruin with a bold and reckless hand, confident that a new and more
beautiful temple would rise from its ruins.
Hugo de Groot, who, according to the fashion of the time, took the Latin
name of Grotius (1583-1645), was a scholar and statesman of the most
diversified talents, and one of the master minds of the age. He was involved
in the religious controversy which at that time disturbed Holland, and he
Page 539
advocated the doctrines of Arminius, in common with the great statesman,
Barneveldt, whom he supported and defended by his pen and influence. On
the execution of Barneveldt, Grotius was condemned to imprisonment for
life in the castle of Louvestein; but after nearly two years spent in the
prison, his faithful wife planned and effected his escape. She had procured
the privilege of sending him a chest of books, which occasionally passed
and repassed, closely scrutinized. On one occasion the statesman took the
place of the books, and was borne forth from the prison in the chest, which
is still in the possession of the descendants of Grotius, in his native city of
Delft. The States-General perpetuated the memory of the devoted wife by
continuing to give her name to a frigate in the Dutch navy. After his escape
from prison, Grotius found an asylum in Sweden, from whence he was sent
ambassador to France. His countrymen at length repented of having
banished the man who was the honor of his native land, and he was
recalled; but on his way to Holland he was taken ill and died before he
could profit by this tardy act of justice. The writings of Grotius greatly
tended to diffuse an enlightened and liberal manner of thinking in all
matters of science. He was a profound theologian, a distinguished scholar,
an acute philosopher and jurist, and among the modern Latin poets he holds
a high place. The philosophy of jurisprudence has been especially promoted
by his great work on natural and national law, which laid the foundation of
a new science.
Arminius (1560-1609), the founder of the sect of Arminians or
Remonstrants, was distinguished as a preacher and for his zeal in the
Reformed Religion. He attempted to soften the Calvinistic doctrines of
predestination, in which he was violently opposed by Gomarus. He counted
among his adherents Grotius, Barneveldt, and many of the eminent men of
Holland. Other eminent theologians of this period were Drusius and
Coeceius.
Barneveldt, whom he supported and defended by his pen and influence. On
the execution of Barneveldt, Grotius was condemned to imprisonment for
life in the castle of Louvestein; but after nearly two years spent in the
prison, his faithful wife planned and effected his escape. She had procured
the privilege of sending him a chest of books, which occasionally passed
and repassed, closely scrutinized. On one occasion the statesman took the
place of the books, and was borne forth from the prison in the chest, which
is still in the possession of the descendants of Grotius, in his native city of
Delft. The States-General perpetuated the memory of the devoted wife by
continuing to give her name to a frigate in the Dutch navy. After his escape
from prison, Grotius found an asylum in Sweden, from whence he was sent
ambassador to France. His countrymen at length repented of having
banished the man who was the honor of his native land, and he was
recalled; but on his way to Holland he was taken ill and died before he
could profit by this tardy act of justice. The writings of Grotius greatly
tended to diffuse an enlightened and liberal manner of thinking in all
matters of science. He was a profound theologian, a distinguished scholar,
an acute philosopher and jurist, and among the modern Latin poets he holds
a high place. The philosophy of jurisprudence has been especially promoted
by his great work on natural and national law, which laid the foundation of
a new science.
Arminius (1560-1609), the founder of the sect of Arminians or
Remonstrants, was distinguished as a preacher and for his zeal in the
Reformed Religion. He attempted to soften the Calvinistic doctrines of
predestination, in which he was violently opposed by Gomarus. He counted
among his adherents Grotius, Barneveldt, and many of the eminent men of
Holland. Other eminent theologians of this period were Drusius and
Coeceius.
Page 540
Lipsius (1547-1606) is known as a philologist and for his treatises on the
military art of the Romans, on the Latin classics, and on the philosophy of
the Stoics. Another scholar of extensive learning, whose editions of the
principal Greek and Latin classics have rendered him famous all over
Europe, was Daniel Heinsius (1580-1655). Gronovius and several of the
members of the Spanheim family became also eminent for their scholarship
in various branches of ancient learning.
The two Scaligers, father and son (1483-1554) (1540-1609), Italians,
resident in Holland, are eminent for their researches in chronology and
archaeology, and for their valuable works on the classics. Prominent among
those who followed in the new path of philological study opened by the
elder Scaliger was Vossius, or Voss (1577-1649), who excelled in many
branches of learning, and particularly in Latin philology, which owes much
to him. He left five sons, all scholars of note, especially the youngest, Isaac
Vossius (1618-1689).
Peter Burmann (1668-1741) was a scholar of great erudition and industry.
Christian Huyghens (1629-1695) was a celebrated astronomer and
mathematician, and many great men in those branches of science flourished
in Holland in the seventeenth century. Among the great philologists and
scholars must also be mentioned Hemsterhuis, Ruhnkenius, and Valckenaer.
Menno van Coehorn (1641-1704) was a general and engineer
distinguished for his genius in military science; his great work on
fortifications has been translated into many foreign languages. Helmont and
Boerhaave have acquired world-wide fame by their labors in chemistry;
Linnaeus collected the materials for his principal botanical work from the
remarkable botanical treasures of Holland; and zoology and the natural
sciences generally counted many devoted and eminent champions in that
country.
military art of the Romans, on the Latin classics, and on the philosophy of
the Stoics. Another scholar of extensive learning, whose editions of the
principal Greek and Latin classics have rendered him famous all over
Europe, was Daniel Heinsius (1580-1655). Gronovius and several of the
members of the Spanheim family became also eminent for their scholarship
in various branches of ancient learning.
The two Scaligers, father and son (1483-1554) (1540-1609), Italians,
resident in Holland, are eminent for their researches in chronology and
archaeology, and for their valuable works on the classics. Prominent among
those who followed in the new path of philological study opened by the
elder Scaliger was Vossius, or Voss (1577-1649), who excelled in many
branches of learning, and particularly in Latin philology, which owes much
to him. He left five sons, all scholars of note, especially the youngest, Isaac
Vossius (1618-1689).
Peter Burmann (1668-1741) was a scholar of great erudition and industry.
Christian Huyghens (1629-1695) was a celebrated astronomer and
mathematician, and many great men in those branches of science flourished
in Holland in the seventeenth century. Among the great philologists and
scholars must also be mentioned Hemsterhuis, Ruhnkenius, and Valckenaer.
Menno van Coehorn (1641-1704) was a general and engineer
distinguished for his genius in military science; his great work on
fortifications has been translated into many foreign languages. Helmont and
Boerhaave have acquired world-wide fame by their labors in chemistry;
Linnaeus collected the materials for his principal botanical work from the
remarkable botanical treasures of Holland; and zoology and the natural
sciences generally counted many devoted and eminent champions in that
country.
Page 541
Salmasius (1588-1653), though born in France, is ranked among the
writers of Holland. He was professor in the University of Leyden, and was
celebrated for the extent and depth of his erudition. He wrote a defense of
Charles I. of England, which was answered by Milton, in a work entitled "A
Defense of the English People against Salmasius' Defense of the King."
Salmasius died soon after, and some did not scruple to say that Milton
killed him by the acuteness of his reply.
Boerhaave (1668-1738) was one of the most eminent writers on medical
science in the eighteenth century, and from the time of Hippocrates no
physician had excited so much admiration. Spinoza (1632-1677) holds a
commanding position as a philosophical writer. His metaphysical system, as
expounded in his principal work, "Ethica," merges everything individual
and particular in the Divine substance, and is thus essentially pantheistic.
The philosophy of Spinoza exercised a powerful influence upon the mind of
Kant, and the master-minds and great poets of modern times, particularly of
Germany, have drawn copiously from the deep wells of his suggestive
thought.
Among the many Latin poets of Holland, John Everard (1511-1536)
(called Jan Second or Johannes Secundus, because he had an uncle of the
same name) is most celebrated. His poem entitled "The Basia or Kisses" has
been translated into the principal European languages. Nicholas Heinsius
(1620- 1681), son of the great philologist and poet Heinsius, wrote various
Latin poems, the melody of which is so sweet that he was called by his
contemporaries the "Swan of Holland."
4. DUTCH WRITERS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.—The first
writer of this century in the native language was Anna Byns, who has been
called the Flemish Sappho. She was bitterly opposed to the Reformation,
and such of her writings as were free from religious intolerance evince
writers of Holland. He was professor in the University of Leyden, and was
celebrated for the extent and depth of his erudition. He wrote a defense of
Charles I. of England, which was answered by Milton, in a work entitled "A
Defense of the English People against Salmasius' Defense of the King."
Salmasius died soon after, and some did not scruple to say that Milton
killed him by the acuteness of his reply.
Boerhaave (1668-1738) was one of the most eminent writers on medical
science in the eighteenth century, and from the time of Hippocrates no
physician had excited so much admiration. Spinoza (1632-1677) holds a
commanding position as a philosophical writer. His metaphysical system, as
expounded in his principal work, "Ethica," merges everything individual
and particular in the Divine substance, and is thus essentially pantheistic.
The philosophy of Spinoza exercised a powerful influence upon the mind of
Kant, and the master-minds and great poets of modern times, particularly of
Germany, have drawn copiously from the deep wells of his suggestive
thought.
Among the many Latin poets of Holland, John Everard (1511-1536)
(called Jan Second or Johannes Secundus, because he had an uncle of the
same name) is most celebrated. His poem entitled "The Basia or Kisses" has
been translated into the principal European languages. Nicholas Heinsius
(1620- 1681), son of the great philologist and poet Heinsius, wrote various
Latin poems, the melody of which is so sweet that he was called by his
contemporaries the "Swan of Holland."
4. DUTCH WRITERS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.—The first
writer of this century in the native language was Anna Byns, who has been
called the Flemish Sappho. She was bitterly opposed to the Reformation,
and such of her writings as were free from religious intolerance evince
Page 542
more poetic fire than is found in those of her contemporaries. Coornhert
(1522-1605) was a poet and philosopher, distinguished not less by his
literary works than by his participation in the revolution of the Provinces. In
purity of style and vigor of thought he far surpassed his predecessors.
Marnix de St. Aldegonde (d. 1598) was a soldier, a statesman, a theologian,
and a poet. He was the author of the celebrated "Compromise of the
Nobles," and his satire on the Roman Catholic Church was one of the most
effective productions of the time. He translated the Psalms from the original
Hebrew, and was the author of a lyric which, after two centuries and a half,
is still the rallying song of the nation on all occasions of peril or triumph.
Bor (1559-1635) was commissioned by the States to write a history of
their struggles with Spain, and his work is still read and valued for its
truthfulness and impartiality. Meteren, the contemporary of Bor, wrote the
history of the country from the accession of the House of Burgundy to the
year 1612—a work which, with some faults, has a high place in the
literature.
Visscher (d. 1612) and Spieghel (d. 1613) form the connecting link
between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Visscher, the Maecenas of
the day, was distinguished for his epigrammatic and fugitive poems, and
rendered immense service to letters by his influence on the literary men of
his time. His charming daughters were both distinguished in literature.
Spieghel is best remembered by his poem, the "Mirror of the Heart," which
abounds in lofty ideas, and in sentiments of enlightened patriotism.
5. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.—At the close of the sixteenth
century, although the language was established, it still remained hard and
inflexible, and the literature was still destitute of dramatic, erotic, and the
lighter kinds of poetry; but an earnest, patriotic, religious, and national
character was impressed upon it, and its golden age was near at hand.
(1522-1605) was a poet and philosopher, distinguished not less by his
literary works than by his participation in the revolution of the Provinces. In
purity of style and vigor of thought he far surpassed his predecessors.
Marnix de St. Aldegonde (d. 1598) was a soldier, a statesman, a theologian,
and a poet. He was the author of the celebrated "Compromise of the
Nobles," and his satire on the Roman Catholic Church was one of the most
effective productions of the time. He translated the Psalms from the original
Hebrew, and was the author of a lyric which, after two centuries and a half,
is still the rallying song of the nation on all occasions of peril or triumph.
Bor (1559-1635) was commissioned by the States to write a history of
their struggles with Spain, and his work is still read and valued for its
truthfulness and impartiality. Meteren, the contemporary of Bor, wrote the
history of the country from the accession of the House of Burgundy to the
year 1612—a work which, with some faults, has a high place in the
literature.
Visscher (d. 1612) and Spieghel (d. 1613) form the connecting link
between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Visscher, the Maecenas of
the day, was distinguished for his epigrammatic and fugitive poems, and
rendered immense service to letters by his influence on the literary men of
his time. His charming daughters were both distinguished in literature.
Spieghel is best remembered by his poem, the "Mirror of the Heart," which
abounds in lofty ideas, and in sentiments of enlightened patriotism.
5. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.—At the close of the sixteenth
century, although the language was established, it still remained hard and
inflexible, and the literature was still destitute of dramatic, erotic, and the
lighter kinds of poetry; but an earnest, patriotic, religious, and national
character was impressed upon it, and its golden age was near at hand.
Page 543
The commencement of the seventeenth century saw the people of the
United Provinces animated by the same spirit and energy, preferring death
to the abandonment of their principles, struggling with a handful of men
against the most powerful monarchy of the time; conquering their political
and religious independence, after more than half a century of conflict, and
giving to the world a great example of freedom and toleration; covering the
ocean with their fleets, and securing possessions beyond the sea a hundred
times more vast than the mother country; becoming the centre of universal
commerce, and cultivating letters, the sciences, and the arts, with equal
success. Poetry was national, for patriotism predominated over all other
sentiments; and it was original, because it recognized no models of
imitation but the classics.
The spirit of the age naturally communicated itself to the men of letters,
who soon raised the literature of the country to a classic height; first among
these were Hooft, Vondel, and Jacob Cats.
Hooft (1581-1647), a tragic and lyric poet as well as a historian, greatly
developed and perfected the language, and by a careful study of the Italian
poets imparted to his native tongue that sonorous sweetness which has since
characterized the poetry of Holland. He was the creator of native tragedy, as
well as of erotic verse, in which his style is marked by great sweetness,
tenderness, and grace. He rendered still greater service to the native prose.
His histories of "Henry IV.," of the "House of Medici," and above all the
history of the "War of Independence in the Low Countries," without
sacrificing truth, often border on poetry, in their brilliant descriptions and
paintings of character, and in their nervous and energetic style. Hooft was a
man of noble heart; he dared to protect Grotius in the days of his
persecution; he defended Descartes and offered an asylum to Galileo.
United Provinces animated by the same spirit and energy, preferring death
to the abandonment of their principles, struggling with a handful of men
against the most powerful monarchy of the time; conquering their political
and religious independence, after more than half a century of conflict, and
giving to the world a great example of freedom and toleration; covering the
ocean with their fleets, and securing possessions beyond the sea a hundred
times more vast than the mother country; becoming the centre of universal
commerce, and cultivating letters, the sciences, and the arts, with equal
success. Poetry was national, for patriotism predominated over all other
sentiments; and it was original, because it recognized no models of
imitation but the classics.
The spirit of the age naturally communicated itself to the men of letters,
who soon raised the literature of the country to a classic height; first among
these were Hooft, Vondel, and Jacob Cats.
Hooft (1581-1647), a tragic and lyric poet as well as a historian, greatly
developed and perfected the language, and by a careful study of the Italian
poets imparted to his native tongue that sonorous sweetness which has since
characterized the poetry of Holland. He was the creator of native tragedy, as
well as of erotic verse, in which his style is marked by great sweetness,
tenderness, and grace. He rendered still greater service to the native prose.
His histories of "Henry IV.," of the "House of Medici," and above all the
history of the "War of Independence in the Low Countries," without
sacrificing truth, often border on poetry, in their brilliant descriptions and
paintings of character, and in their nervous and energetic style. Hooft was a
man of noble heart; he dared to protect Grotius in the days of his
persecution; he defended Descartes and offered an asylum to Galileo.
Page 544
Vondel (1587-1660), as a lyric, epic, and tragic poet, far surpassed all his
contemporaries, and his name is honored in Holland as that of Shakspeare is
in England. His tragedies, which are numerous, are his most celebrated
productions, and among them "Palamedes Unjustly Sacrificed" is
particularly interesting as representing the heroic firmness of Barneveldt,
who repeated one of the odes of Horace when undergoing the torture.
Vondel excelled as a lyric and epigrammatic poet, and the faults of his style
belonged rather to his age than to himself.
No writer of the time acquired a greater or more lasting reputation than
Jacob Cats (1577-1660), no less celebrated for the purity of his life than for
the sound sense and morality of his writings, and the statesmanlike abilities
which he displayed as ambassador in England, and as grand pensioner of
Holland. His style is simple and touching, his versification easy and
harmonious, and his descriptive talent extraordinary. His works consist
chiefly of apologues and didactic and descriptive poems. No writer of
Holland has been more read than Father Cats, as the people affectionately
call him; and up to the present hour, in all families his works have their
place beside the Bible, and his verses are known by heart all over the
country. An illustrated edition of his poems in English has been recently
published in London.
Hooft and Vondel left many disciples and imitators, among whom are
Antonides (1647-1684), surnamed Van der Goes, whose charming poem on
the River Y, the model of several similar compositions, is still read and
admired. Among numerous other writers were Huygens (b. 1596), a poet
who wrote in many languages besides his own; Heinsius (b. 1580), a pupil
of Scaliger, the author of many valuable works in prose and poetry;
Vallenhoven, contemporary with Antonides, a religious poet; Rotgans, the
author of an epic poem on William of England; Elizabeth Hoofman (b.
1664), a poetess of rare elegance and taste, and Wellekens (b. 1658), whose
contemporaries, and his name is honored in Holland as that of Shakspeare is
in England. His tragedies, which are numerous, are his most celebrated
productions, and among them "Palamedes Unjustly Sacrificed" is
particularly interesting as representing the heroic firmness of Barneveldt,
who repeated one of the odes of Horace when undergoing the torture.
Vondel excelled as a lyric and epigrammatic poet, and the faults of his style
belonged rather to his age than to himself.
No writer of the time acquired a greater or more lasting reputation than
Jacob Cats (1577-1660), no less celebrated for the purity of his life than for
the sound sense and morality of his writings, and the statesmanlike abilities
which he displayed as ambassador in England, and as grand pensioner of
Holland. His style is simple and touching, his versification easy and
harmonious, and his descriptive talent extraordinary. His works consist
chiefly of apologues and didactic and descriptive poems. No writer of
Holland has been more read than Father Cats, as the people affectionately
call him; and up to the present hour, in all families his works have their
place beside the Bible, and his verses are known by heart all over the
country. An illustrated edition of his poems in English has been recently
published in London.
Hooft and Vondel left many disciples and imitators, among whom are
Antonides (1647-1684), surnamed Van der Goes, whose charming poem on
the River Y, the model of several similar compositions, is still read and
admired. Among numerous other writers were Huygens (b. 1596), a poet
who wrote in many languages besides his own; Heinsius (b. 1580), a pupil
of Scaliger, the author of many valuable works in prose and poetry;
Vallenhoven, contemporary with Antonides, a religious poet; Rotgans, the
author of an epic poem on William of England; Elizabeth Hoofman (b.
1664), a poetess of rare elegance and taste, and Wellekens (b. 1658), whose
Page 545
eclogues and idyls occupy the first place among that class of poems. As a
historian Hooft found a worthy successor in Brandt (1626-1683), also a
poet, but best known by his "History of the Reformation in the
Netherlands," which has been translated into French and English, and which
is a model in point of style. At this period the Bible was translated and
commented upon, and biographies, criticisms, and many other prose works
appeared. The voyages and discoveries of the Dutch merchants and
navigators were illustrated by numerous narratives, which, for their interest
both in style and detail, deserve honorable mention.
From the commencement of the last quarter of the seventeenth century,
however, many causes combined to produce a decline in the literature of the
Netherlands. The honors which were accorded not only by the Dutch
universities, but by all Europe to their Latin writers and learned professors,
were rarely bestowed on writers in the native tongue, and thus the minds of
men of genius were turned to the study of the classics and the sciences. The
Dutch merchants, while they cultivated all other languages for the facilities
they thus gained in their commercial transactions, restricted by so much the
diffusion of their own. Other causes of this decline are to be found in the
indifference of the republican government to the interests of literature, and
in the increasing number of alliances with foreigners, who were attracted to
Holland by the mildness of its laws, in the growing commercial spirit and
taste for luxury, and especially in the influence of French literature, which,
towards the close of the seventeenth century, became predominant in
Holland as elsewhere.
6. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.—For the first three quarters of the
eighteenth century the literature of Holland, like that of other countries of
Europe, with the exception of France, remained stationary, or slowly
declined. But in the midst of universal mediocrity, a few names shine with
distinguished lustre. Among them that of Poot (1689-1732) is commonly
historian Hooft found a worthy successor in Brandt (1626-1683), also a
poet, but best known by his "History of the Reformation in the
Netherlands," which has been translated into French and English, and which
is a model in point of style. At this period the Bible was translated and
commented upon, and biographies, criticisms, and many other prose works
appeared. The voyages and discoveries of the Dutch merchants and
navigators were illustrated by numerous narratives, which, for their interest
both in style and detail, deserve honorable mention.
From the commencement of the last quarter of the seventeenth century,
however, many causes combined to produce a decline in the literature of the
Netherlands. The honors which were accorded not only by the Dutch
universities, but by all Europe to their Latin writers and learned professors,
were rarely bestowed on writers in the native tongue, and thus the minds of
men of genius were turned to the study of the classics and the sciences. The
Dutch merchants, while they cultivated all other languages for the facilities
they thus gained in their commercial transactions, restricted by so much the
diffusion of their own. Other causes of this decline are to be found in the
indifference of the republican government to the interests of literature, and
in the increasing number of alliances with foreigners, who were attracted to
Holland by the mildness of its laws, in the growing commercial spirit and
taste for luxury, and especially in the influence of French literature, which,
towards the close of the seventeenth century, became predominant in
Holland as elsewhere.
6. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.—For the first three quarters of the
eighteenth century the literature of Holland, like that of other countries of
Europe, with the exception of France, remained stationary, or slowly
declined. But in the midst of universal mediocrity, a few names shine with
distinguished lustre. Among them that of Poot (1689-1732) is commonly
Page 546
cited with those of Hooft and Vondel. He was a young peasant, whose rare
genius found expression in a sweet and unaffected style. He excelled in
idyllic and erotic poetry, and while he has no rival in Holland, he may
perhaps be compared to Burns in Scotland, and Béranger in France. The
theatre of Amsterdam, the only one of the country, continued to confine
itself to translations or imitations from the French. There appeared,
however, at the commencement of this period, an original comic author,
Langendijk (1662-1735), whose works still hold their place upon the stage,
partly for their merit, and partly to do honor to the only comic poet Holland
has produced.
Hoogvliet (1689-1763) was distinguished as the author of a poem entitled
"Abraham," which had great and merited success, and which still ranks
among the classics; for some years after it appeared, it produced a flood of
imitations.
De Marre (b. 1696), among numerous writers of tragedy, occupies the
first place. From his twelfth year he was engaged in the merchant marine
service, and besides his tragedies his voyages inspired many other works,
the chief of which, a poem entitled "Batavia," celebrates the Dutch
domination in the Asiatic archipelago. Feitama (1694-1758), with less
poetic merit than De Marre, had great excellence. He was the first translator
of the classics who succeeded in imparting to his verse the true spirit of his
originals.
Huydecoper (d. 1778) was the first grammarian of merit, and he united
great erudition with true poetic power. His tragedies are still represented.
Onno Zwier Van Haren (1713-1789) was also a writer of tragedy, and the
author of a long poem in the epic style, called the Gueux (beggars), a name
given in derision to the allied noblemen of the Netherlands in the time of
Philip, and adopted by them. This poem represents the great struggle of the
genius found expression in a sweet and unaffected style. He excelled in
idyllic and erotic poetry, and while he has no rival in Holland, he may
perhaps be compared to Burns in Scotland, and Béranger in France. The
theatre of Amsterdam, the only one of the country, continued to confine
itself to translations or imitations from the French. There appeared,
however, at the commencement of this period, an original comic author,
Langendijk (1662-1735), whose works still hold their place upon the stage,
partly for their merit, and partly to do honor to the only comic poet Holland
has produced.
Hoogvliet (1689-1763) was distinguished as the author of a poem entitled
"Abraham," which had great and merited success, and which still ranks
among the classics; for some years after it appeared, it produced a flood of
imitations.
De Marre (b. 1696), among numerous writers of tragedy, occupies the
first place. From his twelfth year he was engaged in the merchant marine
service, and besides his tragedies his voyages inspired many other works,
the chief of which, a poem entitled "Batavia," celebrates the Dutch
domination in the Asiatic archipelago. Feitama (1694-1758), with less
poetic merit than De Marre, had great excellence. He was the first translator
of the classics who succeeded in imparting to his verse the true spirit of his
originals.
Huydecoper (d. 1778) was the first grammarian of merit, and he united
great erudition with true poetic power. His tragedies are still represented.
Onno Zwier Van Haren (1713-1789) was also a writer of tragedy, and the
author of a long poem in the epic style, called the Gueux (beggars), a name
given in derision to the allied noblemen of the Netherlands in the time of
Philip, and adopted by them. This poem represents the great struggle of the
Page 547
country with Spain, which ended in the establishment of the Dutch republic,
and is distinguished for its fine episodes, its brilliant pictures, and its
powerful development of character.
The only strictly epic poem that Holland has produced is the "Friso" of
William Van Haren (1710-1758), the brother of the one already named.
Friso, the mythical founder of the Frisons, is driven from his home on the
shores of the Ganges, and, after many adventures, finds an asylum and
establishes his government in the country to which he gives his name. This
work with many faults is full of beauties. The brothers Van Haren were free
from all foreign influence, and may justly be regarded as the two great
poets of their time. The poems of Smits (1702-1750) are full of grace and
sentiment, but, like those of almost all the Dutch poets, they are
characterized by a seriousness of tone nearly allied to melancholy. Ten Kate
(1676-1723) stands first among the grammarians and etymologists, and his
works are classical authorities on the subject of the language.
Preëminent among the crowd of historians is Wagenaar (1709-1773), the
worthy successor of Hooft and Brandt, whose "History of the United
Provinces" is particularly valuable for its simplicity of style and truthfulness
of detail.
Of the lighter literature, Van Effen, who had visited England, produced in
French the "Spectator," in imitation of the English periodical, and, like that,
it is still read and considered classical.
Towards the conclusion of the century, other periodicals were
established, which, in connection with literary societies and academies,
exercised great influence on literature. The contemporary writers of
Germany were also read and translated, and henceforth in some degree they
counterbalanced French influence.
and is distinguished for its fine episodes, its brilliant pictures, and its
powerful development of character.
The only strictly epic poem that Holland has produced is the "Friso" of
William Van Haren (1710-1758), the brother of the one already named.
Friso, the mythical founder of the Frisons, is driven from his home on the
shores of the Ganges, and, after many adventures, finds an asylum and
establishes his government in the country to which he gives his name. This
work with many faults is full of beauties. The brothers Van Haren were free
from all foreign influence, and may justly be regarded as the two great
poets of their time. The poems of Smits (1702-1750) are full of grace and
sentiment, but, like those of almost all the Dutch poets, they are
characterized by a seriousness of tone nearly allied to melancholy. Ten Kate
(1676-1723) stands first among the grammarians and etymologists, and his
works are classical authorities on the subject of the language.
Preëminent among the crowd of historians is Wagenaar (1709-1773), the
worthy successor of Hooft and Brandt, whose "History of the United
Provinces" is particularly valuable for its simplicity of style and truthfulness
of detail.
Of the lighter literature, Van Effen, who had visited England, produced in
French the "Spectator," in imitation of the English periodical, and, like that,
it is still read and considered classical.
Towards the conclusion of the century, other periodicals were
established, which, in connection with literary societies and academies,
exercised great influence on literature. The contemporary writers of
Germany were also read and translated, and henceforth in some degree they
counterbalanced French influence.
Page 548
First among the writers who mark the close of the eighteenth century are
Van Winter (d. 1795), and his distinguished wife, Madame Van Merken (d.
1789). They published conjointly a volume of tragedies in which the chief
merit of those of Van Winter consists in their originality and in the
expression of those sentiments of justice, humanity, and equality before the
law, which were just then beginning to find a voice in Europe.
Madame Van Merken, who, late in life, married Van Winter, has been
called the Racine of Holland. To masculine energy and power she united all
the virtues and sweetness of her own sex. Besides many long poems, she
was the author of several tragedies, many of which have remarkable merit.
Madame Van Merken gave a new impulse to the literature of her country, of
which she is one of the classic ornaments, and prepared the way for Feith
and Bilderdyk.
The Baroness De Lannoy, the contemporary of Madame Van Merken,
was, like her, eminent in tragedy and other forms of poetry, though less a
favorite, for in that free country an illustrious birth has been ever a serious
obstacle to distinction in the republic of letters.
Nomz (d. 1803) furnished the theatre of Amsterdam with many pieces,
original and translated, and merited a better fate from his native city than to
die in the public hospital.
The poets who mark the age from Madame Van Merken to Bilderdyk, are
Van Alphen, Bellamy, and Nieuwland. Van Alphen (d. 1803) is
distinguished for his patriotism, originality, and deeply religious spirit. His
poems for children are known by heart by all the children of Holland, and
he is their national poet, as Cats is the poet of mature life and old age.
Bellamy, who died at the early age of twenty-eight years (1786), left many
poems characterized by originality, force, and patriotic fervor, no less than
by beauty and harmony of style. Nieuwland (d. 1794), like Bellamy, rose
Van Winter (d. 1795), and his distinguished wife, Madame Van Merken (d.
1789). They published conjointly a volume of tragedies in which the chief
merit of those of Van Winter consists in their originality and in the
expression of those sentiments of justice, humanity, and equality before the
law, which were just then beginning to find a voice in Europe.
Madame Van Merken, who, late in life, married Van Winter, has been
called the Racine of Holland. To masculine energy and power she united all
the virtues and sweetness of her own sex. Besides many long poems, she
was the author of several tragedies, many of which have remarkable merit.
Madame Van Merken gave a new impulse to the literature of her country, of
which she is one of the classic ornaments, and prepared the way for Feith
and Bilderdyk.
The Baroness De Lannoy, the contemporary of Madame Van Merken,
was, like her, eminent in tragedy and other forms of poetry, though less a
favorite, for in that free country an illustrious birth has been ever a serious
obstacle to distinction in the republic of letters.
Nomz (d. 1803) furnished the theatre of Amsterdam with many pieces,
original and translated, and merited a better fate from his native city than to
die in the public hospital.
The poets who mark the age from Madame Van Merken to Bilderdyk, are
Van Alphen, Bellamy, and Nieuwland. Van Alphen (d. 1803) is
distinguished for his patriotism, originality, and deeply religious spirit. His
poems for children are known by heart by all the children of Holland, and
he is their national poet, as Cats is the poet of mature life and old age.
Bellamy, who died at the early age of twenty-eight years (1786), left many
poems characterized by originality, force, and patriotic fervor, no less than
by beauty and harmony of style. Nieuwland (d. 1794), like Bellamy, rose
Page 549
from the lower order of society by the force of his genius; at the age of
twenty-three he was called to the chair of philosophy, mathematics, and
astronomy at Utrecht, and later to the university of Leyden. He was equally
great as a mathematician and as a poet in the Latin language as well as his
own. All his productions are marked by elegance and power.
Styl (d. 1804) was a poet as well as a historian; one of the most valuable
works on the history of the country is his "Growth and Prospects of the
United Provinces." Te Water, Bondam, and Van de Spiegel contributed to
the same department.
Romance writing has, with few exceptions, been surrendered to women.
Among the romances of character and manners, those of Elizabeth Bekker
Wolff (d. 1804) are distinguished for their brilliant and caustic style, and
those of Agatha Deken for their earnest and enlightened piety. The works of
both present lively pictures of national character and manners.
7. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.—The political convulsions of the
last years of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth,
which overthrew the Dutch Republic, revolutionized the literature not less
than the state,—and the new era was illustrated by its poets, historians, and
orators. But in the elevation of inferior men by the popular party, the more
eminent men of letters for a time withdrew from the field, and the noblest
productions of native genius were forgotten in the flood of poor translations
which inundated the country and corrupted the taste and the language by
their Germanisms and Gallicisms.
Among the crowd of poets, a few only rose superior to the influences of
the time. Feith (d. 1824) united a lofty patriotism to a brilliant poetical
genius; his odes and other poems possess rare merit, and his prose is
original, forcible, and elegant.
twenty-three he was called to the chair of philosophy, mathematics, and
astronomy at Utrecht, and later to the university of Leyden. He was equally
great as a mathematician and as a poet in the Latin language as well as his
own. All his productions are marked by elegance and power.
Styl (d. 1804) was a poet as well as a historian; one of the most valuable
works on the history of the country is his "Growth and Prospects of the
United Provinces." Te Water, Bondam, and Van de Spiegel contributed to
the same department.
Romance writing has, with few exceptions, been surrendered to women.
Among the romances of character and manners, those of Elizabeth Bekker
Wolff (d. 1804) are distinguished for their brilliant and caustic style, and
those of Agatha Deken for their earnest and enlightened piety. The works of
both present lively pictures of national character and manners.
7. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.—The political convulsions of the
last years of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth,
which overthrew the Dutch Republic, revolutionized the literature not less
than the state,—and the new era was illustrated by its poets, historians, and
orators. But in the elevation of inferior men by the popular party, the more
eminent men of letters for a time withdrew from the field, and the noblest
productions of native genius were forgotten in the flood of poor translations
which inundated the country and corrupted the taste and the language by
their Germanisms and Gallicisms.
Among the crowd of poets, a few only rose superior to the influences of
the time. Feith (d. 1824) united a lofty patriotism to a brilliant poetical
genius; his odes and other poems possess rare merit, and his prose is
original, forcible, and elegant.
Page 550
Helmers (d. 1813) is most honored for his poem, "The Dutch Nation,"
which, with some faults, abounds in beautiful episodes and magnificent
passages.
Bilderdyk (1756-1831) is not only the greatest poet Holland has
produced, but he is equally eminent as a universal scholar. He was a lawyer,
a physician, a theologian, a historian, astronomer, draftsman, engineer, and
antiquarian, and he was acquainted with nearly all the ancient and modern
languages. In 1820 he published five cantos of a poem on "The Destruction
of the Primitive World," which, though it remains unfinished, is a superb
monument of genius and one of the literary glories of Holland. Bilderdyk
excelled in every species of poetry, tragedy only excepted, and his
published works fill more than one hundred octavo volumes.
Van der Palm (b. 1763) occupies the same place among the prose writers
of the nineteenth century that Bilderdyk does among the poets. He held the
highest position as a pulpit orator and member of the Council of State, and
his discourses, orations, and other prose works are models of style, and are
counted among the classics of the country. His great work, however, was
the translation of the Bible.
Since the time of Bilderdyk and Van der Palm no remarkable genius has
appeared in Holland.
Loosjes (d. 1806) added to his reputation as a poet by his historical
romances, and Fokke (d. 1812) was a satirist of the follies and errors of his
age. Among the historians who have devoted themselves to the history of
foreign countries are Stuart, Van Hamelsveld, and Muntinghe, who, in a
short space of time, enriched their native literature with more than sixty
volumes of history, of a profoundly religious and philosophical character,
which bear the stamp of originality and nationality.
which, with some faults, abounds in beautiful episodes and magnificent
passages.
Bilderdyk (1756-1831) is not only the greatest poet Holland has
produced, but he is equally eminent as a universal scholar. He was a lawyer,
a physician, a theologian, a historian, astronomer, draftsman, engineer, and
antiquarian, and he was acquainted with nearly all the ancient and modern
languages. In 1820 he published five cantos of a poem on "The Destruction
of the Primitive World," which, though it remains unfinished, is a superb
monument of genius and one of the literary glories of Holland. Bilderdyk
excelled in every species of poetry, tragedy only excepted, and his
published works fill more than one hundred octavo volumes.
Van der Palm (b. 1763) occupies the same place among the prose writers
of the nineteenth century that Bilderdyk does among the poets. He held the
highest position as a pulpit orator and member of the Council of State, and
his discourses, orations, and other prose works are models of style, and are
counted among the classics of the country. His great work, however, was
the translation of the Bible.
Since the time of Bilderdyk and Van der Palm no remarkable genius has
appeared in Holland.
Loosjes (d. 1806) added to his reputation as a poet by his historical
romances, and Fokke (d. 1812) was a satirist of the follies and errors of his
age. Among the historians who have devoted themselves to the history of
foreign countries are Stuart, Van Hamelsveld, and Muntinghe, who, in a
short space of time, enriched their native literature with more than sixty
volumes of history, of a profoundly religious and philosophical character,
which bear the stamp of originality and nationality.
Page 551
The department of oratory in Dutch literature, with the exception of that
of the pulpit, is poor, and this is to be explained in part by the fact that the
deliberations of the States-General were always held with closed doors.
Holland was an aristocratic republic, and the few families who monopolized
the power had no disposition to share it with the people, who, on the other
hand, were too much occupied with their own affairs and too confident of
the wisdom and moderation of their rulers, to wish to mingle in the business
of state. The National Assembly, however, from 1775 to 1800, had its
orators, chiefly men carried into public life by the events of the age, but
they were far inferior to those of other countries.
The impulse given to literature by Bilderdyk and Van der Palm is not
arrested. Among the numerous authors who have since distinguished
themselves, are Loots, a patriotic poet of the school of Vondel; Tollens, who
ranks with the best native authors in descriptive poetry and romance;
Wiselius, the author of several tragedies, a scholar and political writer; Klyn
(d. 1856); Van Walré and Van Halmaal, dramatic poets of great merit; Da
Costa and Madame Bilderdyk, who, as a poetess, shared the laurels of her
husband. In romance, there are Anna Toussaint, Bogaers, and Jan Van
Lennep, son of the celebrated professor of that name, who introduced into
Holland historical romances modeled after those of Scott, and who
contributed much to discard French and to popularize the national literature.
In prose, De Vries must be named for his eloquent history of the poetry of
the Netherlands; Van Kampen (1776-1839) for his historical works;
Geysbeck for his biographical dictionary and anthology of the poets, and
De s'Gravenweert, a poet and the translator of the Iliad and Odyssey. Von
Hoevell is the author of a work on slavery, which appeared not many years
since, the effect of which can be compared only to that of "Uncle Tom's
Cabin."
of the pulpit, is poor, and this is to be explained in part by the fact that the
deliberations of the States-General were always held with closed doors.
Holland was an aristocratic republic, and the few families who monopolized
the power had no disposition to share it with the people, who, on the other
hand, were too much occupied with their own affairs and too confident of
the wisdom and moderation of their rulers, to wish to mingle in the business
of state. The National Assembly, however, from 1775 to 1800, had its
orators, chiefly men carried into public life by the events of the age, but
they were far inferior to those of other countries.
The impulse given to literature by Bilderdyk and Van der Palm is not
arrested. Among the numerous authors who have since distinguished
themselves, are Loots, a patriotic poet of the school of Vondel; Tollens, who
ranks with the best native authors in descriptive poetry and romance;
Wiselius, the author of several tragedies, a scholar and political writer; Klyn
(d. 1856); Van Walré and Van Halmaal, dramatic poets of great merit; Da
Costa and Madame Bilderdyk, who, as a poetess, shared the laurels of her
husband. In romance, there are Anna Toussaint, Bogaers, and Jan Van
Lennep, son of the celebrated professor of that name, who introduced into
Holland historical romances modeled after those of Scott, and who
contributed much to discard French and to popularize the national literature.
In prose, De Vries must be named for his eloquent history of the poetry of
the Netherlands; Van Kampen (1776-1839) for his historical works;
Geysbeck for his biographical dictionary and anthology of the poets, and
De s'Gravenweert, a poet and the translator of the Iliad and Odyssey. Von
Hoevell is the author of a work on slavery, which appeared not many years
since, the effect of which can be compared only to that of "Uncle Tom's
Cabin."
Page 552
In Belgium, Conscience is a successful author of fiction and history, and
his works have been frequently translated into other languages. De Laet,
one of the ablest writers of the country in connection with Conscience, has
done much for the revival of Flemish literature, which now boasts of many
original writers in various departments.
The literature of the Netherlands, like the people, is earnest, religious,
always simple, and often elevated and sublime. It is especially distinguished
for its reflective and patriotic character, and bears the mark of that accurate
study of the classic models which has formed the basis of the national
education, and to which its purity of taste, naturalness, and simplicity are
undoubtedly to be attributed. There exists no nation of equal population
which, within the course of two or three centuries, has produced a greater
number of eminent men.
From the age of Hooft and Vondel to the present day, though the Dutch
literature may have submitted at times to foreign influence, and though, like
all others, it may have paid its tribute to the fashions and faults of the day, it
has still preserved its nationality, and is worthy of being known and
admired.
his works have been frequently translated into other languages. De Laet,
one of the ablest writers of the country in connection with Conscience, has
done much for the revival of Flemish literature, which now boasts of many
original writers in various departments.
The literature of the Netherlands, like the people, is earnest, religious,
always simple, and often elevated and sublime. It is especially distinguished
for its reflective and patriotic character, and bears the mark of that accurate
study of the classic models which has formed the basis of the national
education, and to which its purity of taste, naturalness, and simplicity are
undoubtedly to be attributed. There exists no nation of equal population
which, within the course of two or three centuries, has produced a greater
number of eminent men.
From the age of Hooft and Vondel to the present day, though the Dutch
literature may have submitted at times to foreign influence, and though, like
all others, it may have paid its tribute to the fashions and faults of the day, it
has still preserved its nationality, and is worthy of being known and
admired.
Page 553
SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE.
1. Introduction. The Ancient Scandinavians; their Influence on the English
Race.—2. The Mythology.—3. The Scandinavian Languages.—4.
Icelandic, or
Old Norse Literature: the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, the Scalds, the
Sagas, the "Heimskringla," The Folks-Sagas and Ballads of the Middle
Ages.—5. Danish Literature: Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric; Arreboe,
Kingo, Tycho Brahe, Holberg, Evald, Baggesen, Oehlenschläger,
Grundtvig,
Blicher, Ingemann, Heiberg, Gyllenbourg, Winther, Hertz, Müller, Hans
Andersen, Plong, Goldschmidt, Hastrup, and others; Malte Brun, Rask,
Rafn,
Magnusen, the brothers Oersted.—6. Swedish Literature: Messenius,
Stjernhjelm, Lucidor, and others. The Gallic period: Dalin, Nordenflycht,
Crutz and Gyllenborg, Gustavus III., Kellgren, Leopold, Oxenstjerna. The
New Era: Bellman, Hallman, Kexel, Wallenberg, Lidnor, Thorild, Lengren,
Franzen, Wallin. The Phosphorists: Atterborn, Hammarsköld, and Palmblad.
The Gothic School: Geijer, Tegnér, Stagnelius, Almquist, Vitalis,
Runeberg, and others. The Romance Writers: Cederborg, Bremer, Carlén,
Knorring. Science: Swedenborg, Linnaeus, and others.
1. INTRODUCTION.—It is a singular fact that the progressive and
expanding spirit which characterizes the English race should be so
1. Introduction. The Ancient Scandinavians; their Influence on the English
Race.—2. The Mythology.—3. The Scandinavian Languages.—4.
Icelandic, or
Old Norse Literature: the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, the Scalds, the
Sagas, the "Heimskringla," The Folks-Sagas and Ballads of the Middle
Ages.—5. Danish Literature: Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric; Arreboe,
Kingo, Tycho Brahe, Holberg, Evald, Baggesen, Oehlenschläger,
Grundtvig,
Blicher, Ingemann, Heiberg, Gyllenbourg, Winther, Hertz, Müller, Hans
Andersen, Plong, Goldschmidt, Hastrup, and others; Malte Brun, Rask,
Rafn,
Magnusen, the brothers Oersted.—6. Swedish Literature: Messenius,
Stjernhjelm, Lucidor, and others. The Gallic period: Dalin, Nordenflycht,
Crutz and Gyllenborg, Gustavus III., Kellgren, Leopold, Oxenstjerna. The
New Era: Bellman, Hallman, Kexel, Wallenberg, Lidnor, Thorild, Lengren,
Franzen, Wallin. The Phosphorists: Atterborn, Hammarsköld, and Palmblad.
The Gothic School: Geijer, Tegnér, Stagnelius, Almquist, Vitalis,
Runeberg, and others. The Romance Writers: Cederborg, Bremer, Carlén,
Knorring. Science: Swedenborg, Linnaeus, and others.
1. INTRODUCTION.—It is a singular fact that the progressive and
expanding spirit which characterizes the English race should be so
Page 554
universally referred to their Anglo-Saxon blood, while the transcendent
influence of the Scandinavian element is entirely overlooked. The so-called
Anglo- Saxons were a handful of people in Holstein, where they may still
be found in inglorious obscurity, the reluctant subjects of Denmark. The
early emigrants who bore that name, were, it is true, from various portions
of Germany; but even if the glory of our English ancestry be transferred
from Anglen, and spread over the whole country, we find a race bearing no
resemblance to the English in their more active and powerful qualities, but
an intellectual people, possessed of a patient and conceding nature, which,
without other more aspiring attributes, doubtless would have left the
English people in the same condition of political slavery that the Germans
continue in to this day. Of all those institutions so commonly and
gratuitously ascribed to them, of representative government, trial by jury,
and such machinery of political and social independence, there is not a
vestige to be found in any age in Germany, from the Christian era to the
present time. During the period of their dominion in England, the Anglo-
Saxons, so far from showing themselves an enterprising people were
notoriously weak, slothful, and degenerate, overrun by the Danes, and soon
permanently subjected by the Normans. It is evident, from the trifling
resistance they made, that they had neither energy to fight, nor property,
laws, nor institutions to defend, and that they were merely serfs on the lands
of the nobles or of the church, who had nothing to lose by a change of
masters. It is to the renewal of the original spirit of the Anglo- Saxons, by
the fresh infusion of the Danish conquerors into a very large proportion of
the whole population, in the eleventh century, that we must look for the
actual origin of the national character and institutions of the English people,
and for that check of popular opinion and will upon arbitrary rule which
grew up by degrees, and which slowly but necessarily produced the English
law, character, and institutions. These belong not to the German or Anglo-
Saxon race settled in England previous to the tenth or eleventh century, but
influence of the Scandinavian element is entirely overlooked. The so-called
Anglo- Saxons were a handful of people in Holstein, where they may still
be found in inglorious obscurity, the reluctant subjects of Denmark. The
early emigrants who bore that name, were, it is true, from various portions
of Germany; but even if the glory of our English ancestry be transferred
from Anglen, and spread over the whole country, we find a race bearing no
resemblance to the English in their more active and powerful qualities, but
an intellectual people, possessed of a patient and conceding nature, which,
without other more aspiring attributes, doubtless would have left the
English people in the same condition of political slavery that the Germans
continue in to this day. Of all those institutions so commonly and
gratuitously ascribed to them, of representative government, trial by jury,
and such machinery of political and social independence, there is not a
vestige to be found in any age in Germany, from the Christian era to the
present time. During the period of their dominion in England, the Anglo-
Saxons, so far from showing themselves an enterprising people were
notoriously weak, slothful, and degenerate, overrun by the Danes, and soon
permanently subjected by the Normans. It is evident, from the trifling
resistance they made, that they had neither energy to fight, nor property,
laws, nor institutions to defend, and that they were merely serfs on the lands
of the nobles or of the church, who had nothing to lose by a change of
masters. It is to the renewal of the original spirit of the Anglo- Saxons, by
the fresh infusion of the Danish conquerors into a very large proportion of
the whole population, in the eleventh century, that we must look for the
actual origin of the national character and institutions of the English people,
and for that check of popular opinion and will upon arbitrary rule which
grew up by degrees, and which slowly but necessarily produced the English
law, character, and institutions. These belong not to the German or Anglo-
Saxon race settled in England previous to the tenth or eleventh century, but
Page 555
to that small, cognate branch of Northmen or Danes, who, between the
ninth and twelfth centuries, brought their paganism, energy, and social
institutions to conquer, mingle with, and invigorate the inert descendants of
the old race. That this northern branch of the common race has been the
more influential in the society of modern Europe, we need only compare
England and the United States with Saxony, Prussia, Hanover, or any
country of strictly ancient Teutonic descent, to be satisfied. From whatever
quarter civil, religious, and political liberty and independence of mind may
have come, it was not from the banks of the Rhine or the forests of
Germany.
The difference in the spirit of the two branches of the same original race
was immense, even at the earliest period. When the Danes and Norwegians
overran England, the Germans had, for six centuries, been growing more
and more pliant to despotic government, and the Scandinavians more and
more bold and independent. At home they elected their kings, and decided
everything by the general voice of the Althing, or open Parliament. Abroad
they became the most daring of adventurers; their Vikings spread
themselves along the shores of Europe, plundering and planting colonies;
they subdued England, seized Normandy, besieged Paris, conquered a large
portion of Belgium, and made extensive inroads into Spain. They made
themselves masters of lower Italy and Sicily under Robert Guiscard, in the
eleventh century; during the Crusades they ruled Antioch and Tiberias,
under Tancred; and in the same century they marched across Germany, and
established themselves in Switzerland, where the traditions of their arrival,
and traces of their language still remain. In 861 they discovered Iceland,
and soon after peopled it; thence they stretched still farther west, discovered
Greenland, and proceeding southward, towards the close of the tenth
century they struck upon the shores of North America, it would appear, near
the coast of Massachusetts. They seized on Novogorod, and became the
founders of the Russian Empire, and of a line of Czars which became
ninth and twelfth centuries, brought their paganism, energy, and social
institutions to conquer, mingle with, and invigorate the inert descendants of
the old race. That this northern branch of the common race has been the
more influential in the society of modern Europe, we need only compare
England and the United States with Saxony, Prussia, Hanover, or any
country of strictly ancient Teutonic descent, to be satisfied. From whatever
quarter civil, religious, and political liberty and independence of mind may
have come, it was not from the banks of the Rhine or the forests of
Germany.
The difference in the spirit of the two branches of the same original race
was immense, even at the earliest period. When the Danes and Norwegians
overran England, the Germans had, for six centuries, been growing more
and more pliant to despotic government, and the Scandinavians more and
more bold and independent. At home they elected their kings, and decided
everything by the general voice of the Althing, or open Parliament. Abroad
they became the most daring of adventurers; their Vikings spread
themselves along the shores of Europe, plundering and planting colonies;
they subdued England, seized Normandy, besieged Paris, conquered a large
portion of Belgium, and made extensive inroads into Spain. They made
themselves masters of lower Italy and Sicily under Robert Guiscard, in the
eleventh century; during the Crusades they ruled Antioch and Tiberias,
under Tancred; and in the same century they marched across Germany, and
established themselves in Switzerland, where the traditions of their arrival,
and traces of their language still remain. In 861 they discovered Iceland,
and soon after peopled it; thence they stretched still farther west, discovered
Greenland, and proceeding southward, towards the close of the tenth
century they struck upon the shores of North America, it would appear, near
the coast of Massachusetts. They seized on Novogorod, and became the
founders of the Russian Empire, and of a line of Czars which became
Page 556
extinct only in 1598, when the Slavonic dynasty succeeded. From Russia
they made their way to the Black Sea, and in 866 appeared before
Constantinople, where their attacks were bought off only on the payment of
large sums by the degenerate emperors. From. 902 to the fall of the empire,
the emperors retained a large body-guard of Scandinavians, who, armed
with double-edged battle-axes, were renowned through the world, under the
name of Varengar, or the Väringjar of the old Icelandic Sagas.
Such were the ancient Scandinavians. To this extraordinary people the
English and their descendants alone bear any resemblance. In them the old
Norse fire still burns, and manifests itself in the same love of martial daring
and fame, the same indomitable seafaring spirit, the same passion for the
discovery of new seas and new lands, and the same insatiable longing,
when discovered, to seize and colonize them.
2. THE MYTHOLOGY.—The mythology of the northern nations, as
represented in the Edda, was founded on Polytheism; but through it, as
through the religion of all nations, there is dimly visible, like the sun
shining through a dense cloud, the idea of one Supreme Being, of infinite
power, boundless knowledge, and incorruptible justice, who could not be
represented by any corporeal form. Such, according to Tacitus, was the
supreme God of the Germans, and such was the primitive belief of
mankind. Doubtless, the poet priests, who elaborated the imaginative, yet
philosophical mythology of the north, were aware of the true and only God,
infinitely elevated above the attributes of that Nature, which they shaped
into deities for the multitude whom they believed incapable of more than
the worship of the material powers which they saw working in everything
around them.
The dark, hostile powers of nature, such as frost and fire, are represented
as giants, "jotuns," huge, chaotic demons; while the friendly powers, the
they made their way to the Black Sea, and in 866 appeared before
Constantinople, where their attacks were bought off only on the payment of
large sums by the degenerate emperors. From. 902 to the fall of the empire,
the emperors retained a large body-guard of Scandinavians, who, armed
with double-edged battle-axes, were renowned through the world, under the
name of Varengar, or the Väringjar of the old Icelandic Sagas.
Such were the ancient Scandinavians. To this extraordinary people the
English and their descendants alone bear any resemblance. In them the old
Norse fire still burns, and manifests itself in the same love of martial daring
and fame, the same indomitable seafaring spirit, the same passion for the
discovery of new seas and new lands, and the same insatiable longing,
when discovered, to seize and colonize them.
2. THE MYTHOLOGY.—The mythology of the northern nations, as
represented in the Edda, was founded on Polytheism; but through it, as
through the religion of all nations, there is dimly visible, like the sun
shining through a dense cloud, the idea of one Supreme Being, of infinite
power, boundless knowledge, and incorruptible justice, who could not be
represented by any corporeal form. Such, according to Tacitus, was the
supreme God of the Germans, and such was the primitive belief of
mankind. Doubtless, the poet priests, who elaborated the imaginative, yet
philosophical mythology of the north, were aware of the true and only God,
infinitely elevated above the attributes of that Nature, which they shaped
into deities for the multitude whom they believed incapable of more than
the worship of the material powers which they saw working in everything
around them.
The dark, hostile powers of nature, such as frost and fire, are represented
as giants, "jotuns," huge, chaotic demons; while the friendly powers, the
Page 557
sun, the summer heat, all vivifying principles, were gods. From the
opposition of light and darkness, water and fire, cold and heat, sprung the
first life, the giant Ymer and his evil progeny the frost giants, the cow
Adhumla, and Bor, the father of the god Odin. Odin, with his brothers, slew
the giant Ymer, and from his body formed the heavens and earth. From two
stems of wood they also shaped the first man and woman, whom they
endowed with life and spirit, and from whom descended all the human race.
There were twelve principal deities among the Scandinavians, of whom
Odin was the chief. There is a tradition in the north of a celebrated warrior
of that name, who, near the period of the Christian era, fled from his
country, between the Caspian and the Black Sea, to escape the vengeance of
the Romans, and marched toward the north and west of Europe, subduing
all who opposed him, and finally established himself in Sweden, where he
received divine honors. According to the Eddas, however, Odin was the son
of Bor, and the most powerful of the gods; the father of Thor, Balder, and
others; the god of war, eloquence, and poetry. He was made acquainted with
everything that happened on earth, through two ravens, Hugin and Munin
(mind and memory); they flew daily round the world, and returned every
night to whisper in his ear all that they had seen and heard. Thor, the god of
thunder, was the implacable and dreaded enemy of the giants, and the
avenger and defender of the gods. His stature was so lofty that no horse
could bear him, and lightning flashed from his eyes and from his chariot
wheels as they rolled along. His mallet or hammer, his belt of strength and
his gauntlets of iron, were of wonderful power, and with them he could
overthrow the giants and monsters who were at war with the gods. Balder,
the second son of Odin, was the noblest and fairest of the gods, beloved by
everything in nature. He exceeded all beings in gentleness, prudence, and
eloquence, and he was so fair and graceful that light emanated from him as
he moved. In his palace nothing impure could exist. The death of Balder is
the principal event in the mythological drama of the Scandinavians. It was
opposition of light and darkness, water and fire, cold and heat, sprung the
first life, the giant Ymer and his evil progeny the frost giants, the cow
Adhumla, and Bor, the father of the god Odin. Odin, with his brothers, slew
the giant Ymer, and from his body formed the heavens and earth. From two
stems of wood they also shaped the first man and woman, whom they
endowed with life and spirit, and from whom descended all the human race.
There were twelve principal deities among the Scandinavians, of whom
Odin was the chief. There is a tradition in the north of a celebrated warrior
of that name, who, near the period of the Christian era, fled from his
country, between the Caspian and the Black Sea, to escape the vengeance of
the Romans, and marched toward the north and west of Europe, subduing
all who opposed him, and finally established himself in Sweden, where he
received divine honors. According to the Eddas, however, Odin was the son
of Bor, and the most powerful of the gods; the father of Thor, Balder, and
others; the god of war, eloquence, and poetry. He was made acquainted with
everything that happened on earth, through two ravens, Hugin and Munin
(mind and memory); they flew daily round the world, and returned every
night to whisper in his ear all that they had seen and heard. Thor, the god of
thunder, was the implacable and dreaded enemy of the giants, and the
avenger and defender of the gods. His stature was so lofty that no horse
could bear him, and lightning flashed from his eyes and from his chariot
wheels as they rolled along. His mallet or hammer, his belt of strength and
his gauntlets of iron, were of wonderful power, and with them he could
overthrow the giants and monsters who were at war with the gods. Balder,
the second son of Odin, was the noblest and fairest of the gods, beloved by
everything in nature. He exceeded all beings in gentleness, prudence, and
eloquence, and he was so fair and graceful that light emanated from him as
he moved. In his palace nothing impure could exist. The death of Balder is
the principal event in the mythological drama of the Scandinavians. It was
Page 558
foredoomed, and a prognostic of the approaching dissolution of the universe
and of the gods themselves. Heimdall was the warder of the gods; his post
was on the summit of Bifrost, called by mortals the rainbow—the bridge
which connects heaven and earth, and down which the gods daily traveled
to hold their councils under the shade of the tree Yggdrasil. The red color
was the flaming fire, which served as a defense against the giants. Heimdall
slept more lightly than a bird, and his ear was so exquisite that he could
hear the grass grow in the meadows and the wool upon the backs of the
sheep. He carried a trumpet, the sound of which echoed through all worlds.
Loke was essentially of an evil nature, and descended from the giants, the
enemies of the gods; but he was mysteriously associated with Odin from the
infancy of creation. He instilled a spark of his fire into a man at his creation,
and he was the father of three monsters, Hela or Death, the Midgard
Serpent, and the wolf Fenris, the constant terror of the gods, and destined to
be the means of their destruction.
Besides these deities, there were twelve goddesses, the chief of whom
was Frigga, the wife of Odin, and the queen and mother of the gods. She
knew the future, but never revealed it; and she understood the language of
animals and plants. Freya was the goddess of love, unrivaled in grace and
beauty—the Scandinavian Venus. Iduna was possessed of certain apples, of
such virtue that, by eating of them, the gods became exempted from the
consequences of old age, and retained, unimpaired, all the freshness of
youth. The gods dwelt above, in Asgard, the garden of the Asen or the
Divinities; the home of the giants, with whom they were in perpetual war,
was Jotunheim, a distant, dark, chaotic land, of which Utgard was the chief
seat. Midgard, or the earth, the abode of man, was represented as a disk in
the midst of a vast ocean; its caverns and recesses were peopled with elves
and dwarfs, and around it lay coiled the huge Midgard Serpent.
Muspelheim, or Flameland, and Nifelheim or Mistland, lay without the
organized universe, and were the material regions of light and darkness, the
and of the gods themselves. Heimdall was the warder of the gods; his post
was on the summit of Bifrost, called by mortals the rainbow—the bridge
which connects heaven and earth, and down which the gods daily traveled
to hold their councils under the shade of the tree Yggdrasil. The red color
was the flaming fire, which served as a defense against the giants. Heimdall
slept more lightly than a bird, and his ear was so exquisite that he could
hear the grass grow in the meadows and the wool upon the backs of the
sheep. He carried a trumpet, the sound of which echoed through all worlds.
Loke was essentially of an evil nature, and descended from the giants, the
enemies of the gods; but he was mysteriously associated with Odin from the
infancy of creation. He instilled a spark of his fire into a man at his creation,
and he was the father of three monsters, Hela or Death, the Midgard
Serpent, and the wolf Fenris, the constant terror of the gods, and destined to
be the means of their destruction.
Besides these deities, there were twelve goddesses, the chief of whom
was Frigga, the wife of Odin, and the queen and mother of the gods. She
knew the future, but never revealed it; and she understood the language of
animals and plants. Freya was the goddess of love, unrivaled in grace and
beauty—the Scandinavian Venus. Iduna was possessed of certain apples, of
such virtue that, by eating of them, the gods became exempted from the
consequences of old age, and retained, unimpaired, all the freshness of
youth. The gods dwelt above, in Asgard, the garden of the Asen or the
Divinities; the home of the giants, with whom they were in perpetual war,
was Jotunheim, a distant, dark, chaotic land, of which Utgard was the chief
seat. Midgard, or the earth, the abode of man, was represented as a disk in
the midst of a vast ocean; its caverns and recesses were peopled with elves
and dwarfs, and around it lay coiled the huge Midgard Serpent.
Muspelheim, or Flameland, and Nifelheim or Mistland, lay without the
organized universe, and were the material regions of light and darkness, the
Page 559
antagonism of which had produced the universe with its gods and men.
Nifelheim was a dark and dreary realm, where Hela, or Death, ruled with
despotic sway over those who had died ingloriously of disease or old age.
Helheim, her cold and gloomy palace, was thronged with their shivering
and shadowy spectres. She was livid and ghastly pale, and her very looks
inspired horror.
The chief residence of Odin, in Asgard, was Valhalla, or the Hall of the
Slain; it was hung round with golden spears, and shields, and coats of mail;
and here he received the souls of warriors killed in battle, who were to
assist him in the final conflict with the giants; and here, every day, they
armed themselves for battle, and rode forth by thousands to their mimic
combat on the plains of Asgard, and at night they returned to Valhalla to
feast on the flesh of the boar, and to drink the intoxicating mead. Here
dwelt, also, the numerous virgins called the Valkyriur, or Choosers of the
Slain, whom Odin sent forth to every battle-field to sway the victory, to
make choice of those who should fall in the combat, and to direct them on
their way to Valhalla. They were called, also, the Sisters of War; they
watched with intense interest over their favorite warriors and sometimes
lent an ear to their love. In the field they were always in complete armor;
led on by Skulda, the youngest of the Fates, they were foremost in battle,
with helmets on their heads, armed with flaming swords, and surrounded by
lightning and meteors. Sometimes they were seen riding through the air and
over the sea on shadowy horses, from whose manes fell hail on the
mountains and dew on the valleys; and at other times their fiery lances
gleamed in the spectral lights of the aurora borealis; and again, they were
represented clothed in white, with flowing hair, as cupbearers to the heroes
at the feasts of Valhalla.
In the centre of the world stood the great ash tree Yggdrasil, the Tree of
Life, of which the Christmas tree and the Maypole of northern nations are
Nifelheim was a dark and dreary realm, where Hela, or Death, ruled with
despotic sway over those who had died ingloriously of disease or old age.
Helheim, her cold and gloomy palace, was thronged with their shivering
and shadowy spectres. She was livid and ghastly pale, and her very looks
inspired horror.
The chief residence of Odin, in Asgard, was Valhalla, or the Hall of the
Slain; it was hung round with golden spears, and shields, and coats of mail;
and here he received the souls of warriors killed in battle, who were to
assist him in the final conflict with the giants; and here, every day, they
armed themselves for battle, and rode forth by thousands to their mimic
combat on the plains of Asgard, and at night they returned to Valhalla to
feast on the flesh of the boar, and to drink the intoxicating mead. Here
dwelt, also, the numerous virgins called the Valkyriur, or Choosers of the
Slain, whom Odin sent forth to every battle-field to sway the victory, to
make choice of those who should fall in the combat, and to direct them on
their way to Valhalla. They were called, also, the Sisters of War; they
watched with intense interest over their favorite warriors and sometimes
lent an ear to their love. In the field they were always in complete armor;
led on by Skulda, the youngest of the Fates, they were foremost in battle,
with helmets on their heads, armed with flaming swords, and surrounded by
lightning and meteors. Sometimes they were seen riding through the air and
over the sea on shadowy horses, from whose manes fell hail on the
mountains and dew on the valleys; and at other times their fiery lances
gleamed in the spectral lights of the aurora borealis; and again, they were
represented clothed in white, with flowing hair, as cupbearers to the heroes
at the feasts of Valhalla.
In the centre of the world stood the great ash tree Yggdrasil, the Tree of
Life, of which the Christmas tree and the Maypole of northern nations are
Page 560
doubtless emblems. It spread its life-giving arms through the heavens, and
struck its three roots down through the three worlds. It nourished all life,
even that of Nedhog, the most venomous of serpents, which continually
gnawed at the root that penetrated Nifelheim. A second root entered the
region of the frost giants, where was the well in which wisdom and
understanding were concealed. A third root entered the region of the gods;
and there, beside it, dwelt the three Nornor or Fates, over whom even the
gods had no power, and who, every day, watered it from the primeval
fountain, so that its boughs remained green.
The gods were benevolent spirits—the friends of mankind, but they were
not immortal. A destiny more powerful than they or their enemies, the
giants, was one day to overwhelm them. At the Ragnarök, or twilight of the
gods, foretold in the Edda, the monsters shall be unloosed, the heavens be
rent asunder, and the sun and moon disappear; the great Midgard Serpent
shall lash the waters of the ocean till they overflow the earth; the wolf
Fenris, whose enormous mouth reaches from heaven to earth, shall rush
upon and devour all within his reach; the genii of fire shall ride forth,
clothed in flame, and lead on the giants to the storming of Asgard. Heimdall
sounds his trumpet, which echoes through all worlds; the gods fly to arms;
Odin appears in his golden casque, his resplendent cuirass, with his vast
scimitar in his hand, and marshals his heroes in battle array. The great ash
tree is shaken to its roots, heaven and earth are full of horror and affright,
and gods, giants, and heroes are at length buried in one common ruin. Then
comes forth the mighty one, who is above all gods, who may not be named.
He pronounces his decrees, and establishes the doctrines which shall endure
forever. A new earth, fairer and more verdant, springs forth from the bosom
of the waves, the fields bring forth without culture, calamities are unknown,
and in Heaven, the abode of the good, a palace is reared, more shining than
the sun, where the just shall dwell forevermore.
struck its three roots down through the three worlds. It nourished all life,
even that of Nedhog, the most venomous of serpents, which continually
gnawed at the root that penetrated Nifelheim. A second root entered the
region of the frost giants, where was the well in which wisdom and
understanding were concealed. A third root entered the region of the gods;
and there, beside it, dwelt the three Nornor or Fates, over whom even the
gods had no power, and who, every day, watered it from the primeval
fountain, so that its boughs remained green.
The gods were benevolent spirits—the friends of mankind, but they were
not immortal. A destiny more powerful than they or their enemies, the
giants, was one day to overwhelm them. At the Ragnarök, or twilight of the
gods, foretold in the Edda, the monsters shall be unloosed, the heavens be
rent asunder, and the sun and moon disappear; the great Midgard Serpent
shall lash the waters of the ocean till they overflow the earth; the wolf
Fenris, whose enormous mouth reaches from heaven to earth, shall rush
upon and devour all within his reach; the genii of fire shall ride forth,
clothed in flame, and lead on the giants to the storming of Asgard. Heimdall
sounds his trumpet, which echoes through all worlds; the gods fly to arms;
Odin appears in his golden casque, his resplendent cuirass, with his vast
scimitar in his hand, and marshals his heroes in battle array. The great ash
tree is shaken to its roots, heaven and earth are full of horror and affright,
and gods, giants, and heroes are at length buried in one common ruin. Then
comes forth the mighty one, who is above all gods, who may not be named.
He pronounces his decrees, and establishes the doctrines which shall endure
forever. A new earth, fairer and more verdant, springs forth from the bosom
of the waves, the fields bring forth without culture, calamities are unknown,
and in Heaven, the abode of the good, a palace is reared, more shining than
the sun, where the just shall dwell forevermore.
Page 561
Traces of the worship of these deities by our pagan ancestors still remain
in the names given to four days of the week. Tuesday was consecrated to
Tyr, a son of Odin; Wednesday, Odin's or Wooden's day, to Odin; Thursday,
or Thor's day, to Thor; and Friday, or Freya's day, was sacred to the goddess
Freya.
3. THE LANGUAGE.—The Scandinavian or Norse languages include
the Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian dialects.
The Icelandic or Old Norse, which was the common language of
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in the ninth century, was carried into
Iceland, where, to the present time, it has wonderfully retained its early
characteristics. The written alphabet was called Runic, and the letters,
Runes, of which the most ancient specimens are the inscriptions on Rune
stones, rings, and wooden tablets.
The Danish and Swedish, may be called the New Norse languages; they
began to assume a character distinct from the Old Norse about the
beginning of the twelfth century. The Danish language is not confined to
Denmark, but is used in the literature, and by the cultivated society of
Norway.
The Swedish is the most musical of the Scandinavian dialects, its
pronunciation being remarkably soft and agreeable. Its character is more
purely Norse than the Danish, which has been greatly affected by its contact
with the German.
The Norwegian exists only in the form of dialects spoken by the
peasantry. It is distinguished from the other two by a rich vocabulary of
words peculiar to itself, and by its own pronunciation and peculiar
construction; only literary cultivation is wanted to make it an independent
language like the others.
in the names given to four days of the week. Tuesday was consecrated to
Tyr, a son of Odin; Wednesday, Odin's or Wooden's day, to Odin; Thursday,
or Thor's day, to Thor; and Friday, or Freya's day, was sacred to the goddess
Freya.
3. THE LANGUAGE.—The Scandinavian or Norse languages include
the Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian dialects.
The Icelandic or Old Norse, which was the common language of
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in the ninth century, was carried into
Iceland, where, to the present time, it has wonderfully retained its early
characteristics. The written alphabet was called Runic, and the letters,
Runes, of which the most ancient specimens are the inscriptions on Rune
stones, rings, and wooden tablets.
The Danish and Swedish, may be called the New Norse languages; they
began to assume a character distinct from the Old Norse about the
beginning of the twelfth century. The Danish language is not confined to
Denmark, but is used in the literature, and by the cultivated society of
Norway.
The Swedish is the most musical of the Scandinavian dialects, its
pronunciation being remarkably soft and agreeable. Its character is more
purely Norse than the Danish, which has been greatly affected by its contact
with the German.
The Norwegian exists only in the form of dialects spoken by the
peasantry. It is distinguished from the other two by a rich vocabulary of
words peculiar to itself, and by its own pronunciation and peculiar
construction; only literary cultivation is wanted to make it an independent
language like the others.
Page 562
4. ICELANDIC OR OLD NORSE LITERATURE.—In 868 one of the
Norwegian vikings or sea rovers, being driven on the coast of Iceland, first
made known the existence of the island. Harold, the fair-haired, having
soon after subdued or slain the petty kings of Norway, and introduced the
feudal system, many of the inhabitants, disdaining to sacrifice their
independence, set forth to colonize this dreary and inhospitable region,
whose wild and desolate aspect seemed to attract their imaginations. Huge
mountains of ice here rose against the northern sky, from which the smoke
of volcanoes rolled balefully up; and the large tracts of lava, which had
descended from them to the sea, were cleft into fearful abysses, where no
bottom could be found. Here were strange, desolate valleys, with beds of
pure sulphur, torn and overhanging precipices, gigantic caverns, and
fountains of boiling water, which, mingled with flashing fires, soared up
into the air, amid the undergroans of earthquakes, and howlings and
hissings as of demons in torture. Subterranean fires, in terrific contest with
the wintry ocean, seemed to have made sport of rocks, mountains, and
rivers, tossing them into the most fantastic and appalling shapes. Yet such
was the fondness of the Scandinavian imagination for the wild and desolate,
and such their hatred of oppression, that they soon peopled this chaotic
island to an extent it has never since reached. In spite of the rigor of the
climate, where corn refused to ripen, and where the labors of fishing and
agriculture could only be pursued for four months of the year, the people
became attached to this wild country. They established a republic which
lasted four hundred years, and for ages it was destined to be the sanctuary
and preserver of the grand old literature of the North. The people took with
them their Scalds and their traditions, and for a century after the peopling of
the island, they retained their Pagan belief. Ages rolled away; the religion of
Odin had perished from the mainland, and the very hymns and poems in
which its doctrines were recorded had perished with it, when, in the middle
of the seventeenth century, the Rhythmical Edda of Samund was
Norwegian vikings or sea rovers, being driven on the coast of Iceland, first
made known the existence of the island. Harold, the fair-haired, having
soon after subdued or slain the petty kings of Norway, and introduced the
feudal system, many of the inhabitants, disdaining to sacrifice their
independence, set forth to colonize this dreary and inhospitable region,
whose wild and desolate aspect seemed to attract their imaginations. Huge
mountains of ice here rose against the northern sky, from which the smoke
of volcanoes rolled balefully up; and the large tracts of lava, which had
descended from them to the sea, were cleft into fearful abysses, where no
bottom could be found. Here were strange, desolate valleys, with beds of
pure sulphur, torn and overhanging precipices, gigantic caverns, and
fountains of boiling water, which, mingled with flashing fires, soared up
into the air, amid the undergroans of earthquakes, and howlings and
hissings as of demons in torture. Subterranean fires, in terrific contest with
the wintry ocean, seemed to have made sport of rocks, mountains, and
rivers, tossing them into the most fantastic and appalling shapes. Yet such
was the fondness of the Scandinavian imagination for the wild and desolate,
and such their hatred of oppression, that they soon peopled this chaotic
island to an extent it has never since reached. In spite of the rigor of the
climate, where corn refused to ripen, and where the labors of fishing and
agriculture could only be pursued for four months of the year, the people
became attached to this wild country. They established a republic which
lasted four hundred years, and for ages it was destined to be the sanctuary
and preserver of the grand old literature of the North. The people took with
them their Scalds and their traditions, and for a century after the peopling of
the island, they retained their Pagan belief. Ages rolled away; the religion of
Odin had perished from the mainland, and the very hymns and poems in
which its doctrines were recorded had perished with it, when, in the middle
of the seventeenth century, the Rhythmical Edda of Samund was
Page 563
discovered, followed by the Prose Edda of Snorre Sturleson. These
discoveries roused the zeal of the Scandinavian literati, and led to further
investigations, which resulted in the discovery of a vast number of
chronicles and sagas, and much has since been done by the learned men of
Iceland and Denmark to bring to light the remote annals of northern Europe.
These remains fall into the three divisions of Eddaic, Scaldic, and Saga
literature. Samund the Wise (1056-1131), a Christian priest of Iceland, was
the first to collect and commit to writing the oral traditions of the
mythology and poetry of the Scandinavians. His collection has been termed
the "Edda," a word by some supposed to signify grandmother, and by others
derived, with more probability, from the obsolete word oeda, to teach. The
elder or poetic Edda consists of thirty-eight poems, and is divided into two
parts. The first, or mythological cycle, contains everything relating to the
Scandinavian ideas of the creation of the world, the origin of man, the
morals taught by the priests, and stories of the gods; the second, or heroic
cycle, contains the original materials of the "Nibelungen Lied" of Germany.
The poems consist of strophes of six or eight lines each, with little of the
alliteration by which the Scalds were afterwards distinguished. One of the
oldest and most interesting is the "Voluspa," or Song of the Prophetess, a
kind of sibylline lay, which contains an account of the creation, the origin of
man and of evil, and concludes with a prediction of the destruction and
renovation of the universe, and a description of the future abodes of
happiness and misery. "Vafthrudnir's Song" is in the form of a dialogue
between Odin, disguised as a mortal, and the giant Vafthrudnir, in which the
same subjects are discussed. "Grimner's Song" contains a description of
twelve habitations of the celestial deities, considered as symbolical of the
signs of the zodiac. "Rig's Song" explains, allegorically, the origin of the
three castes: the thrall, the churl, and the noble, which, at a very early
period, appear to have formed the framework of Scandinavian society. "The
Havamal," or the High Song of Odin, is the complete code of Scandinavian
discoveries roused the zeal of the Scandinavian literati, and led to further
investigations, which resulted in the discovery of a vast number of
chronicles and sagas, and much has since been done by the learned men of
Iceland and Denmark to bring to light the remote annals of northern Europe.
These remains fall into the three divisions of Eddaic, Scaldic, and Saga
literature. Samund the Wise (1056-1131), a Christian priest of Iceland, was
the first to collect and commit to writing the oral traditions of the
mythology and poetry of the Scandinavians. His collection has been termed
the "Edda," a word by some supposed to signify grandmother, and by others
derived, with more probability, from the obsolete word oeda, to teach. The
elder or poetic Edda consists of thirty-eight poems, and is divided into two
parts. The first, or mythological cycle, contains everything relating to the
Scandinavian ideas of the creation of the world, the origin of man, the
morals taught by the priests, and stories of the gods; the second, or heroic
cycle, contains the original materials of the "Nibelungen Lied" of Germany.
The poems consist of strophes of six or eight lines each, with little of the
alliteration by which the Scalds were afterwards distinguished. One of the
oldest and most interesting is the "Voluspa," or Song of the Prophetess, a
kind of sibylline lay, which contains an account of the creation, the origin of
man and of evil, and concludes with a prediction of the destruction and
renovation of the universe, and a description of the future abodes of
happiness and misery. "Vafthrudnir's Song" is in the form of a dialogue
between Odin, disguised as a mortal, and the giant Vafthrudnir, in which the
same subjects are discussed. "Grimner's Song" contains a description of
twelve habitations of the celestial deities, considered as symbolical of the
signs of the zodiac. "Rig's Song" explains, allegorically, the origin of the
three castes: the thrall, the churl, and the noble, which, at a very early
period, appear to have formed the framework of Scandinavian society. "The
Havamal," or the High Song of Odin, is the complete code of Scandinavian
Page 564
ethics. The maxims here brought together more resemble the Proverbs of
Solomon than anything in human literature, but without the high religious
views of the Scripture maxims. It shows a worldly wisdom, experience, and
sagacity, to which modern life can add nothing. In the Havamal is included
the Rune Song.
Runes, the primitive rudely-shaped letters of the Gothic race, appear
never to have been used to record their literature, which was committed to
the Scalds and Sagamen, but they were reserved for inscriptions on rocks or
memorial stones, or they were cut in staves of wood, as a rude calendar to
assist the memory. Odin was the great master of runes, but all the gods,
many of the giants, kings, queens, prophetesses, and poets possessed the
secret of their power. In the ballads of the Middle Ages, long after the
introduction of Christianity, we find everywhere the boast of Runic
knowledge and of its power. Queens and princesses cast the runic spell over
their enemies; ladies, by the use of runes, inspire warriors with love; and
weird women by their means perform witchcraft and sorcery. Some of their
rune songs taught the art of healing; others had power to stop flying spears
in battle, and to excite or extinguish hatred and love. There were runes of
victory inscribed on swords; storm runes, which gave power over sails,
inscribed on rudders of ships, drink runes, which gave power over others,
inscribed on drinking horns; and herb runes, cut in the bark of trees which
cured sickness and wounds. These awful characters, which struck terror into
the hearts of our heathen ancestors, and which appalled and subdued alike
kings, warriors, and peasants, were simple letters of the alphabet; but they
prove to what a stupenduous extent knowledge was power in the dark ages
of the earth. The poet who sings the Rune Song in the Havamal does it with
every combination of mystery, calculated to inspire awe and wonder in the
hearer.
Solomon than anything in human literature, but without the high religious
views of the Scripture maxims. It shows a worldly wisdom, experience, and
sagacity, to which modern life can add nothing. In the Havamal is included
the Rune Song.
Runes, the primitive rudely-shaped letters of the Gothic race, appear
never to have been used to record their literature, which was committed to
the Scalds and Sagamen, but they were reserved for inscriptions on rocks or
memorial stones, or they were cut in staves of wood, as a rude calendar to
assist the memory. Odin was the great master of runes, but all the gods,
many of the giants, kings, queens, prophetesses, and poets possessed the
secret of their power. In the ballads of the Middle Ages, long after the
introduction of Christianity, we find everywhere the boast of Runic
knowledge and of its power. Queens and princesses cast the runic spell over
their enemies; ladies, by the use of runes, inspire warriors with love; and
weird women by their means perform witchcraft and sorcery. Some of their
rune songs taught the art of healing; others had power to stop flying spears
in battle, and to excite or extinguish hatred and love. There were runes of
victory inscribed on swords; storm runes, which gave power over sails,
inscribed on rudders of ships, drink runes, which gave power over others,
inscribed on drinking horns; and herb runes, cut in the bark of trees which
cured sickness and wounds. These awful characters, which struck terror into
the hearts of our heathen ancestors, and which appalled and subdued alike
kings, warriors, and peasants, were simple letters of the alphabet; but they
prove to what a stupenduous extent knowledge was power in the dark ages
of the earth. The poet who sings the Rune Song in the Havamal does it with
every combination of mystery, calculated to inspire awe and wonder in the
hearer.
Page 565
The two poems, "Odin's Raven Song" and the "Song of the Way-Tamer,"
are among the most deeply poetical hymns of the Edda. They relate to the
same great event—the death of Balder—and are full of mystery and fear. A
strange trouble has fallen upon the gods, the oracles are silent, and a dark,
woeful foreboding seizes on all things living. Odin mounts his steed,
Sleipner, and descends to hell to consult the Vala there in her tomb, and to
extort from her, by runic incantations, the fate of his son. This "Descent of
Odin" is familiar to the English reader through Gray's Ode. In all
mythologies we have glimpses continually of the mere humanity of the
gods, we witness their limited powers and their consciousness of a coming
doom. In this respect every mythology is kept in infinite subordination to
the true faith, in which all is sublime, infinite, and worthy of the Deity—in
which God is represented as pure spirit, whom the heaven of heavens
cannot contain; and all assumption of divinity by false gods is treated as a
base superstition.
The remaining songs of the first part of the Edda relate chiefly to the
exploits, wanderings, and love adventures of the gods. The "Sun Song,"
with which it concludes, is believed to be the production of Samund, the
collector of the Edda, In this he retains some of the machinery of the old
creed, but introduces the Christian Deity and doctrines.
The second part of the elder Edda contains the heroic cycle of Icelandic
poems, the first part of which is the Song of Voland. the renowned northern
smith. The story of Voland, or Wayland, the Vulcan of the North, is of
unknown antiquity; and his fame, which spread throughout Europe, still
lives in the traditions of all northern nations. The poems concerning Sigurd
and the Niflunga form a grand epic of the simplest construction. The
versification consists of strophes of six or eight lines, without rhyme or
alliteration. The sad and absorbing story here narrated was wonderfully
popular throughout the ancient Scandinavian and Teutonic world, and it is
are among the most deeply poetical hymns of the Edda. They relate to the
same great event—the death of Balder—and are full of mystery and fear. A
strange trouble has fallen upon the gods, the oracles are silent, and a dark,
woeful foreboding seizes on all things living. Odin mounts his steed,
Sleipner, and descends to hell to consult the Vala there in her tomb, and to
extort from her, by runic incantations, the fate of his son. This "Descent of
Odin" is familiar to the English reader through Gray's Ode. In all
mythologies we have glimpses continually of the mere humanity of the
gods, we witness their limited powers and their consciousness of a coming
doom. In this respect every mythology is kept in infinite subordination to
the true faith, in which all is sublime, infinite, and worthy of the Deity—in
which God is represented as pure spirit, whom the heaven of heavens
cannot contain; and all assumption of divinity by false gods is treated as a
base superstition.
The remaining songs of the first part of the Edda relate chiefly to the
exploits, wanderings, and love adventures of the gods. The "Sun Song,"
with which it concludes, is believed to be the production of Samund, the
collector of the Edda, In this he retains some of the machinery of the old
creed, but introduces the Christian Deity and doctrines.
The second part of the elder Edda contains the heroic cycle of Icelandic
poems, the first part of which is the Song of Voland. the renowned northern
smith. The story of Voland, or Wayland, the Vulcan of the North, is of
unknown antiquity; and his fame, which spread throughout Europe, still
lives in the traditions of all northern nations. The poems concerning Sigurd
and the Niflunga form a grand epic of the simplest construction. The
versification consists of strophes of six or eight lines, without rhyme or
alliteration. The sad and absorbing story here narrated was wonderfully
popular throughout the ancient Scandinavian and Teutonic world, and it is
Page 566
impossible to say for how many centuries these great tragic ballads had
agitated the hearts of the warlike races of the north. It is clear that Sigurd
and Byrnhilda, with all their beauty, noble endowment, and sorrowful
history, were real personages, who had taken powerful hold on the popular
affections in the most ancient times, and had come down from age to age,
receiving fresh incarnations and embellishments from the popular Scalds.
There is a great and powerful nature living through these poems. They are
pictures of men and women of godlike beauty and endowments, and full of
the vigor of simple but impetuous natures. Though fragmentary, they stand
in all the essentials of poetry far beyond the German Lied, and, in the tragic
force of passion which they portray, they are superior to any remains of
ancient poetry except that of Greece. Their greatness lies less in their
language than their spirit, which is sublime and colossal. Passion,
tenderness, and sorrow are here depicted with the most vivid power; and the
noblest sentiments and the most heroic actions are crossed by the foulest
crimes and the most terrific tragedies. They contain materials for a score of
dramas of the most absorbing character.
The Prose or Younger Edda was the work of Snorre Sturleson (1178-
1241), who was born of a distinguished Icelandic family, and, after leading
a turbulent and ambitious life, and being twice supreme magistrate of the
republic, was at last assassinated. The younger Edda repeats in prose the
sublime poetry of the elder Edda, mixed with many extravagances and
absurdities; and in point of literary and philosophical value it bears no
comparison with it. It marks the transition from the art of the Scalds to the
prose relation of the Sagaman. This work concludes with a treatise on the
poetic phraseology of the Scalds, and a system of versification by Snorre.
The Bard, or Scald (literally smoothers of language, from scaldre, to
polish), formed an important feature of the courts of the princes and more
powerful nobles. They often acted, at the same time, as bard, councilor, and
agitated the hearts of the warlike races of the north. It is clear that Sigurd
and Byrnhilda, with all their beauty, noble endowment, and sorrowful
history, were real personages, who had taken powerful hold on the popular
affections in the most ancient times, and had come down from age to age,
receiving fresh incarnations and embellishments from the popular Scalds.
There is a great and powerful nature living through these poems. They are
pictures of men and women of godlike beauty and endowments, and full of
the vigor of simple but impetuous natures. Though fragmentary, they stand
in all the essentials of poetry far beyond the German Lied, and, in the tragic
force of passion which they portray, they are superior to any remains of
ancient poetry except that of Greece. Their greatness lies less in their
language than their spirit, which is sublime and colossal. Passion,
tenderness, and sorrow are here depicted with the most vivid power; and the
noblest sentiments and the most heroic actions are crossed by the foulest
crimes and the most terrific tragedies. They contain materials for a score of
dramas of the most absorbing character.
The Prose or Younger Edda was the work of Snorre Sturleson (1178-
1241), who was born of a distinguished Icelandic family, and, after leading
a turbulent and ambitious life, and being twice supreme magistrate of the
republic, was at last assassinated. The younger Edda repeats in prose the
sublime poetry of the elder Edda, mixed with many extravagances and
absurdities; and in point of literary and philosophical value it bears no
comparison with it. It marks the transition from the art of the Scalds to the
prose relation of the Sagaman. This work concludes with a treatise on the
poetic phraseology of the Scalds, and a system of versification by Snorre.
The Bard, or Scald (literally smoothers of language, from scaldre, to
polish), formed an important feature of the courts of the princes and more
powerful nobles. They often acted, at the same time, as bard, councilor, and
Page 567
warrior. Until the twelfth century, when the monks and the art of writing put
an end to the Scaldic art, this race of poets continued to issue from Iceland,
and to travel from country to country, welcomed as the honored guests of
kings, and receiving in return for their songs, rings and jewels of great
value, but never money. There is preserved a list of two hundred and thirty
scalds, who had distinguished themselves from the time of Ragnor Lodbrok
to that of Vladimir II., or from the latter end of the eighth, to the beginning
of the thirteenth century. Ragnor Lodbrok was a Danish king, who, in one
of his predatory excursions, was taken prisoner in England and thrown into
a dungeon, to be stung to death by serpents. His celebrated death song is
said to have been composed during his torments. The best of the scaldic
lays, however, are greatly inferior to the Eddaic poems. Alliteration is the
chief characteristic of the versification.
The word Saga means literally a tale or narrative, and is used in Iceland
to denote every species of tradition, whether fabulous or true. In amount,
the Saga literature of ancient Scandinavia is surprisingly extensive,
consisting of more than two hundred volumes. The Sagas are, for the most
part, unconnected biographies or narratives of greater or less length,
principally describing events which took place from the ninth to the
thirteenth century. They are historical, mythic, heroic, and romantic.
The first annalist of Iceland of whom we have any remains was Ari the
Wise (b. 1067), the contemporary of Samund, and his annals, for the most
part, have been lost. Snorre Sturleson, already spoken of as the collector of
the Prose Edda, was the author of a great original work, the "Heimskringla,"
or Home-Circle, so called from the first word of the manuscript, a most
admirable history of a great portion of northern Europe from the period of
the Christian Era to 1177, including every species of Saga composition. It
traces Odin and his followers from the East, from Asaland and Asgard, its
chief city, to their settlement in Scandinavia. It narrates the contests of the
an end to the Scaldic art, this race of poets continued to issue from Iceland,
and to travel from country to country, welcomed as the honored guests of
kings, and receiving in return for their songs, rings and jewels of great
value, but never money. There is preserved a list of two hundred and thirty
scalds, who had distinguished themselves from the time of Ragnor Lodbrok
to that of Vladimir II., or from the latter end of the eighth, to the beginning
of the thirteenth century. Ragnor Lodbrok was a Danish king, who, in one
of his predatory excursions, was taken prisoner in England and thrown into
a dungeon, to be stung to death by serpents. His celebrated death song is
said to have been composed during his torments. The best of the scaldic
lays, however, are greatly inferior to the Eddaic poems. Alliteration is the
chief characteristic of the versification.
The word Saga means literally a tale or narrative, and is used in Iceland
to denote every species of tradition, whether fabulous or true. In amount,
the Saga literature of ancient Scandinavia is surprisingly extensive,
consisting of more than two hundred volumes. The Sagas are, for the most
part, unconnected biographies or narratives of greater or less length,
principally describing events which took place from the ninth to the
thirteenth century. They are historical, mythic, heroic, and romantic.
The first annalist of Iceland of whom we have any remains was Ari the
Wise (b. 1067), the contemporary of Samund, and his annals, for the most
part, have been lost. Snorre Sturleson, already spoken of as the collector of
the Prose Edda, was the author of a great original work, the "Heimskringla,"
or Home-Circle, so called from the first word of the manuscript, a most
admirable history of a great portion of northern Europe from the period of
the Christian Era to 1177, including every species of Saga composition. It
traces Odin and his followers from the East, from Asaland and Asgard, its
chief city, to their settlement in Scandinavia. It narrates the contests of the
Page 568
kings, the establishment of the kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark, the Viking expeditions, the discovery and settlement of Iceland
and Greenland, the discovery of America, and the conquests of England and
Normandy. The stories are told with a life and freshness that belong only to
true genius, and a picture is given of human life in all its reality, genuine,
vivid, and true. Some of the Sagas of the "Heimskringla" are grand
romances, full of brilliant adventures, while at the same time they lie so
completely within the range of history that they may be regarded as
authentic. That of Harold Haardrada narrates his expedition to the East, his
brilliant exploits in Constantinople, Syria, and Sicily, his scaldic
accomplishments, and his battles in England against Harold, the son of Earl
Godwin, where he fell only a few days before Godwin's son himself fell at
the battle of Hastings. This Saga is a splendid epic in prose, and is
particularly interesting to the English race. The first part of the
"Heimskringla" is necessarily derived from tradition; as it advances fable
and fact all curiously intermingle, and it terminates in authentic history.
Among the most celebrated Sagas of the remaining divisions are the
"Sagas of Erik the Wanderer," who went in search of the Island of
Immortality; "Frithiof's Saga," made the subject of Tegnér's great poem; the
Saga of Ragnor Lodbrok, of Dietrich of Bern, and the Volsunga Saga,
relating to the ancestors of Sigurd or Siegfried, the hero of the Nibelungen
Lied. There are, besides, Sagas of all imaginable fictions of heroes, saints,
magicians, conquerors, and fair women. Almost every leading family of
Iceland had its written saga. The Sagamen, like the Scalds, traveled over all
Scandinavia, visited the courts and treasured up and transmitted to posterity
the whole history of the North. This wonderful activity of the Scandinavian
mind from the ninth to the thirteenth century, both in amount and
originality, throws completely into the shade the literary achievements of
the Anglo-Saxons during the same period.
Denmark, the Viking expeditions, the discovery and settlement of Iceland
and Greenland, the discovery of America, and the conquests of England and
Normandy. The stories are told with a life and freshness that belong only to
true genius, and a picture is given of human life in all its reality, genuine,
vivid, and true. Some of the Sagas of the "Heimskringla" are grand
romances, full of brilliant adventures, while at the same time they lie so
completely within the range of history that they may be regarded as
authentic. That of Harold Haardrada narrates his expedition to the East, his
brilliant exploits in Constantinople, Syria, and Sicily, his scaldic
accomplishments, and his battles in England against Harold, the son of Earl
Godwin, where he fell only a few days before Godwin's son himself fell at
the battle of Hastings. This Saga is a splendid epic in prose, and is
particularly interesting to the English race. The first part of the
"Heimskringla" is necessarily derived from tradition; as it advances fable
and fact all curiously intermingle, and it terminates in authentic history.
Among the most celebrated Sagas of the remaining divisions are the
"Sagas of Erik the Wanderer," who went in search of the Island of
Immortality; "Frithiof's Saga," made the subject of Tegnér's great poem; the
Saga of Ragnor Lodbrok, of Dietrich of Bern, and the Volsunga Saga,
relating to the ancestors of Sigurd or Siegfried, the hero of the Nibelungen
Lied. There are, besides, Sagas of all imaginable fictions of heroes, saints,
magicians, conquerors, and fair women. Almost every leading family of
Iceland had its written saga. The Sagamen, like the Scalds, traveled over all
Scandinavia, visited the courts and treasured up and transmitted to posterity
the whole history of the North. This wonderful activity of the Scandinavian
mind from the ninth to the thirteenth century, both in amount and
originality, throws completely into the shade the literary achievements of
the Anglo-Saxons during the same period.
Page 569
When Christianity superseded the ancient religion, the spirit and
traditions of the old mythology remained in the minds of the people, and
became their fireside literature under the name of "Folk Sagas." Their
legends and nursery tales are diffused over modern Scandinavia, and
appear, with many variations, through all the literature of Europe. Among
them are found the originals of "Jack the Giant Killer," "Cinderella," "Blue
Beard," the "Little Old Woman Cut Shorter," "The Giant who smelt the
Blood of an Englishman," and many others.
The Folk Sagas have only recently been collected, but they are the true
productions of ancient Scandinavians.
The art of the Scald and Sagaman, which was extinguished with the
introduction of Christianity, revived after a time in the Romances of
Chivalry and the popular ballads. These ballads are classified as heroic,
supernatural, historic, and ballads of love and romance; they successively
describe all the changes in the life and opinions of society, and closely
resemble those of England, Scotland, and Germany. They are the common
expression of the life and feelings of a common race, under the prevailing
influences of the same period, and the same stories often inspired the
nameless bards of both countries. They are composed in the same form and
possess the same curious characteristic of the refrain or chorus which
distinguishes this poetry in its transition from the epic to the lyric form.
They express a peculiar poetic feeling which is sought for in vain in the
epic age—a sentiment which, without art and without name, wanders on
until it is caught up by fresh lips, and becomes the regular interpreter of the
same feelings. Thus this simple voice of song travels onward from mouth to
month, from heart to heart, the language of the general sorrows, hopes, and
memories; strange, and yet near to every one, centuries old, yet never
growing older, since the human heart, whose history it relates in so many
changing images and notes, remains forever the same.
traditions of the old mythology remained in the minds of the people, and
became their fireside literature under the name of "Folk Sagas." Their
legends and nursery tales are diffused over modern Scandinavia, and
appear, with many variations, through all the literature of Europe. Among
them are found the originals of "Jack the Giant Killer," "Cinderella," "Blue
Beard," the "Little Old Woman Cut Shorter," "The Giant who smelt the
Blood of an Englishman," and many others.
The Folk Sagas have only recently been collected, but they are the true
productions of ancient Scandinavians.
The art of the Scald and Sagaman, which was extinguished with the
introduction of Christianity, revived after a time in the Romances of
Chivalry and the popular ballads. These ballads are classified as heroic,
supernatural, historic, and ballads of love and romance; they successively
describe all the changes in the life and opinions of society, and closely
resemble those of England, Scotland, and Germany. They are the common
expression of the life and feelings of a common race, under the prevailing
influences of the same period, and the same stories often inspired the
nameless bards of both countries. They are composed in the same form and
possess the same curious characteristic of the refrain or chorus which
distinguishes this poetry in its transition from the epic to the lyric form.
They express a peculiar poetic feeling which is sought for in vain in the
epic age—a sentiment which, without art and without name, wanders on
until it is caught up by fresh lips, and becomes the regular interpreter of the
same feelings. Thus this simple voice of song travels onward from mouth to
month, from heart to heart, the language of the general sorrows, hopes, and
memories; strange, and yet near to every one, centuries old, yet never
growing older, since the human heart, whose history it relates in so many
changing images and notes, remains forever the same.
Page 570
Though the great majority of the popular ballads of Scandinavia are
attributed to the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, the
composition of them by no means ceased then. This voice of the people
continued more or less to find expression down to the close of the last
century, when it became the means of leading back its admirers to truth and
genuine feeling, and, more than anything else, contributed to the revival of
a new era in literature.
5. DANISH LITERATURE—In taking leave of the splendid ancient
literature of Scandinavia, we find before us a waste of nearly four centuries
from the thirteenth, which presents scarcely a trace of intellectual
cultivation. The ballads and tales, indeed, lingered in the popular memory
and heart; fresh notes of genuine music were from time to time added to
them, and they form the connecting link between the ancient and modern
literature. Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric the monk, in the thirteenth
century, adopted the Latin language in their chronicles of Denmark and
Norway, and from that time it usurped the place of the native tongue among
the educated. In the sixteenth century the spirit of the Reformation began to
exert an influence, and the Bible was translated into the popular tongue.
New fields of thought were opened, a passion for literature was excited, and
translations, chiefly from the German, were multiplied; a knowledge of the
classics was cultivated, and, in time, a noble harvest of literature followed.
The first author who marks the new era is Arreboe (1587-1637), who has
been called the Chaucer of Denmark. His chief work was the "Hexameron,"
or "The World's First Week." It abounds with learning, and displays great
poetic beauty. The religious psalms and hymns of Kingo (1634-1703) are
characterized by a simple yet powerfully expressed spirit of piety, and are
still held in high esteem. His Morning and Evening Prayers, or, as he
beautifully terms them, "Sighs," are admirable.
attributed to the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, the
composition of them by no means ceased then. This voice of the people
continued more or less to find expression down to the close of the last
century, when it became the means of leading back its admirers to truth and
genuine feeling, and, more than anything else, contributed to the revival of
a new era in literature.
5. DANISH LITERATURE—In taking leave of the splendid ancient
literature of Scandinavia, we find before us a waste of nearly four centuries
from the thirteenth, which presents scarcely a trace of intellectual
cultivation. The ballads and tales, indeed, lingered in the popular memory
and heart; fresh notes of genuine music were from time to time added to
them, and they form the connecting link between the ancient and modern
literature. Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric the monk, in the thirteenth
century, adopted the Latin language in their chronicles of Denmark and
Norway, and from that time it usurped the place of the native tongue among
the educated. In the sixteenth century the spirit of the Reformation began to
exert an influence, and the Bible was translated into the popular tongue.
New fields of thought were opened, a passion for literature was excited, and
translations, chiefly from the German, were multiplied; a knowledge of the
classics was cultivated, and, in time, a noble harvest of literature followed.
The first author who marks the new era is Arreboe (1587-1637), who has
been called the Chaucer of Denmark. His chief work was the "Hexameron,"
or "The World's First Week." It abounds with learning, and displays great
poetic beauty. The religious psalms and hymns of Kingo (1634-1703) are
characterized by a simple yet powerfully expressed spirit of piety, and are
still held in high esteem. His Morning and Evening Prayers, or, as he
beautifully terms them, "Sighs," are admirable.
Page 571
Many other names of note are found in the literature of this period, but
the only one who achieved a world-wide celebrity, was Tycho Brahe (1546-
1601), who, for a time, was the centre of a brilliant world of science and
literature. The learned and celebrated, from all countries, visited him, and
he was loaded with gifts and honors, in return for the honor which he
conferred upon his native land. But at length, through the machinations of
his enemies, he lost the favor of the king, and was forced to exile himself
forever from his country. The services rendered to astronomy by Tycho
Brahe were great, although his theory of the universe, in which our own
planet constituted the centre, has given way before the more profound one
of Copernicus.
Holberg (1684-1754), a native of Norway, is commonly styled the creator
of the modern literature of Denmark, and would take a high place in that of
any country. In the field of satire and comedy he was a great and
unquestionable master. All his actors are types, and are as real and existent
at the present hour as they were actual when he sketched them. Besides
satires and numerous comedies, Holberg was the author of various histories,
several volumes of letters, and a book of fables.
The principal names which appear in Danish literature, from Holberg to
Evald, are those of Stub, Sneedorf, Tullin, and Sheersen. Evald (1743-
1780) was the first who perceived the superb treasury of poetic wealth
which lay in the far antiquity of Scandinavia, among the gods of the Odinic
mythology, and who showed to his nation the grandeur and beauty which
the national history had reserved for the true poetic souls who should dare
to appropriate them. But the sound which he drew from the old heroic harp
startled his contemporaries, while it did not fascinate them. The august
figures which he brought before them seemed monstrous and uncouth.
Neglected in life, and doomed to an early death, the history of this poet was
painfully interesting; a strangely brilliant web of mingled gold and ordinary
the only one who achieved a world-wide celebrity, was Tycho Brahe (1546-
1601), who, for a time, was the centre of a brilliant world of science and
literature. The learned and celebrated, from all countries, visited him, and
he was loaded with gifts and honors, in return for the honor which he
conferred upon his native land. But at length, through the machinations of
his enemies, he lost the favor of the king, and was forced to exile himself
forever from his country. The services rendered to astronomy by Tycho
Brahe were great, although his theory of the universe, in which our own
planet constituted the centre, has given way before the more profound one
of Copernicus.
Holberg (1684-1754), a native of Norway, is commonly styled the creator
of the modern literature of Denmark, and would take a high place in that of
any country. In the field of satire and comedy he was a great and
unquestionable master. All his actors are types, and are as real and existent
at the present hour as they were actual when he sketched them. Besides
satires and numerous comedies, Holberg was the author of various histories,
several volumes of letters, and a book of fables.
The principal names which appear in Danish literature, from Holberg to
Evald, are those of Stub, Sneedorf, Tullin, and Sheersen. Evald (1743-
1780) was the first who perceived the superb treasury of poetic wealth
which lay in the far antiquity of Scandinavia, among the gods of the Odinic
mythology, and who showed to his nation the grandeur and beauty which
the national history had reserved for the true poetic souls who should dare
to appropriate them. But the sound which he drew from the old heroic harp
startled his contemporaries, while it did not fascinate them. The august
figures which he brought before them seemed monstrous and uncouth.
Neglected in life, and doomed to an early death, the history of this poet was
painfully interesting; a strangely brilliant web of mingled gold and ordinary
Page 572
thread—a strangely blended fabric of glory and of grief. Solitary, poor,
bowed down with physical and mental suffering, from his heart's wound, as
out of a dark cleft in a rock, swelled the clear stream of song. The poem of
"Adam and Eve," "Rolf Krage," the first original Danish tragedy, "Balder's
Death," and "The Fishermen," are his principal productions. "Rolf Krage" is
the outpouring of a noble heart, in which the most generous and exalted
sentiments revel in all the inexperience of youth. "Balder's Death" is a
masterpiece of beauty, sentiment, and eloquence of diction. It is full of the
passion of an unhappy love, and thus expresses the burning emotions of the
poet's own heart. The old northern gods and mythic personages are
introduced, and the lyric element is blended with the dramatic. The lyrical
drama of "The Fishermen" is perhaps the most perfect and powerful of all
Evald's works. The intense interest it excites testifies to the power of the
writer, while the music of the versification delights the ear. His lyric of
"King Christian," now the national song of Denmark, is a masterly
production of its kind.
During the forty years which succeeded the death of Evald, Denmark
produced a great number of poets and authors of various kinds, who
advanced the fame of their country; but the chief of those who closed the
eighteenth century are Baggesen (1764-1826) and Rahbek (1760-1830).
Though they still wrote in the nineteenth century, they belonged in spirit
essentially to the eighteenth. The life of Baggesen was a genuine romance,
with all its sunshine and shade. He was born in poverty and obscurity, and
when a child of seven years old, on one occasion, attracted the momentary
attention of the young and lovely Queen Caroline, who took him in her
arms and kissed him. "Still, after half a century," he writes, "glows the
memory of that kiss; to all eternity I shall never forget it. From that kiss
sprang the germ of my entire succeeding fate." After a long and severe
struggle with poverty, he suddenly found himself the most popular poet of
the country, and for a quarter of a century he was the petted favorite of the
bowed down with physical and mental suffering, from his heart's wound, as
out of a dark cleft in a rock, swelled the clear stream of song. The poem of
"Adam and Eve," "Rolf Krage," the first original Danish tragedy, "Balder's
Death," and "The Fishermen," are his principal productions. "Rolf Krage" is
the outpouring of a noble heart, in which the most generous and exalted
sentiments revel in all the inexperience of youth. "Balder's Death" is a
masterpiece of beauty, sentiment, and eloquence of diction. It is full of the
passion of an unhappy love, and thus expresses the burning emotions of the
poet's own heart. The old northern gods and mythic personages are
introduced, and the lyric element is blended with the dramatic. The lyrical
drama of "The Fishermen" is perhaps the most perfect and powerful of all
Evald's works. The intense interest it excites testifies to the power of the
writer, while the music of the versification delights the ear. His lyric of
"King Christian," now the national song of Denmark, is a masterly
production of its kind.
During the forty years which succeeded the death of Evald, Denmark
produced a great number of poets and authors of various kinds, who
advanced the fame of their country; but the chief of those who closed the
eighteenth century are Baggesen (1764-1826) and Rahbek (1760-1830).
Though they still wrote in the nineteenth century, they belonged in spirit
essentially to the eighteenth. The life of Baggesen was a genuine romance,
with all its sunshine and shade. He was born in poverty and obscurity, and
when a child of seven years old, on one occasion, attracted the momentary
attention of the young and lovely Queen Caroline, who took him in her
arms and kissed him. "Still, after half a century," he writes, "glows the
memory of that kiss; to all eternity I shall never forget it. From that kiss
sprang the germ of my entire succeeding fate." After a long and severe
struggle with poverty, he suddenly found himself the most popular poet of
the country, and for a quarter of a century he was the petted favorite of the
Page 573
nation. Supplanted in public favor by the rising glory of Oehlenschläger, he
had the misfortune to see the poetic crown of Denmark placed on the head
of his rival; and the last years of his life were embittered by disappointment
and care. The works of Baggesen fill twelve volumes, and consist of comic
stories, numerous letters, satires and impassioned lyrics, songs and ballads,
besides dramas and operas. His "Poems to Nanna," who, in the northern
mythology, is the bride of Balder, are among the most beautiful in the
Danish language, and no poet could have written them until he had gone
through the deep and ennobling baptism of suffering. In these, Nanna is the
symbol of the pure and eternal principle of love, and Balder is the type of
the human heart, perpetually yearning after it in sorrow, yet in hope. Nanna
appears lost—departed into a higher and invisible world; and Balder, while
forever seeking after her, bears with him an internal consciousness that
there he shall overtake her, and possess her eternally. One of Baggesen's
characteristics was the projection of great schemes, which were never
accomplished. He was too fond of living in the present—in the charmed
circle of admiring friends— to achieve works otherwise within the limit of
his powers. Bat with all his faults, his works will always remain brilliant
and beautiful amid the literary wealth of his country.
In the early part of the nineteenth century the new light which radiated
from Germany found its way into Denmark, and in no country was the
result so rapid or so brilliant. There soon arose a school of poets who
created for themselves a reputation in all parts of Europe that would have
done honor to any age or country. A new epoch in the language began with
Oehlenschläger (1779-1856), the greatest poet of Denmark, and the
representative, not only of the North, but, like Scott, Byron, Goethe, and
Schiller, the outgrowth of a great era as well, and the incarnation of the
broader and more natural spirit of his time. In 1819 he published the "Gods
of the North," in which he combines all the legends of the Edda into one
connected whole. He entered fully into the spirit of these grand old poems,
had the misfortune to see the poetic crown of Denmark placed on the head
of his rival; and the last years of his life were embittered by disappointment
and care. The works of Baggesen fill twelve volumes, and consist of comic
stories, numerous letters, satires and impassioned lyrics, songs and ballads,
besides dramas and operas. His "Poems to Nanna," who, in the northern
mythology, is the bride of Balder, are among the most beautiful in the
Danish language, and no poet could have written them until he had gone
through the deep and ennobling baptism of suffering. In these, Nanna is the
symbol of the pure and eternal principle of love, and Balder is the type of
the human heart, perpetually yearning after it in sorrow, yet in hope. Nanna
appears lost—departed into a higher and invisible world; and Balder, while
forever seeking after her, bears with him an internal consciousness that
there he shall overtake her, and possess her eternally. One of Baggesen's
characteristics was the projection of great schemes, which were never
accomplished. He was too fond of living in the present—in the charmed
circle of admiring friends— to achieve works otherwise within the limit of
his powers. Bat with all his faults, his works will always remain brilliant
and beautiful amid the literary wealth of his country.
In the early part of the nineteenth century the new light which radiated
from Germany found its way into Denmark, and in no country was the
result so rapid or so brilliant. There soon arose a school of poets who
created for themselves a reputation in all parts of Europe that would have
done honor to any age or country. A new epoch in the language began with
Oehlenschläger (1779-1856), the greatest poet of Denmark, and the
representative, not only of the North, but, like Scott, Byron, Goethe, and
Schiller, the outgrowth of a great era as well, and the incarnation of the
broader and more natural spirit of his time. In 1819 he published the "Gods
of the North," in which he combines all the legends of the Edda into one
connected whole. He entered fully into the spirit of these grand old poems,
Page 574
and condensed and elaborated them into one. In the various regions of gods,
giants, dwarfs, and men, in the striking variety of characters, the great and
wise Odin, the mighty Thor, the good Balder, the malicious Loke, the
queenly Frigga, the genial Freya, the lovely Iduna, the gentle Nanna—in all
the magnificent scenery of Midgard, Asgard, and Nifelheim, with the
glorious tree Yggdrasil and the rainbow bridge, the poet found
inexhaustible scope for poetical embellishment, and he availed himself of it
all with a genuine poet's power. The dramas of Oehlenschläger are his
masterpieces, but they form only a small portion of his works. His prose
stories and romances fill several volumes, and his smaller poems would of
themselves have established almost a greater reputation than that of any
Danish poet who went before him.
Grundtvig (b. 1783) is one of the most original and independent minds of
the North. As a preacher he was fervid and eloquent; as a writer on the
Scandinavian mythology and hero-life, he gave, perhaps, the truest idea of
the spirit of the northern myths.
Blicher (1782-1868) was a stern realist, who made his native province of
Jutland the scene of his poems and stories, which in many respects resemble
those of Crabbe.
Ingemann (1789-1862) is a voluminous writer in every department of
literature. His historical romances are the delight of the people, who, by
their winter firesides, forget their snow-barricaded woods and mountains in
listening to his pages.
Heiberg (1791-1860) as a critic ruled the Danish world of taste for many
years, and by his writings did much to elevate dramatic art and public
sentiment. The greatest authoress that Denmark has produced is the
Countess Gyllenbourg (1773-1856). Her knowledge of life, sparkling wit,
giants, dwarfs, and men, in the striking variety of characters, the great and
wise Odin, the mighty Thor, the good Balder, the malicious Loke, the
queenly Frigga, the genial Freya, the lovely Iduna, the gentle Nanna—in all
the magnificent scenery of Midgard, Asgard, and Nifelheim, with the
glorious tree Yggdrasil and the rainbow bridge, the poet found
inexhaustible scope for poetical embellishment, and he availed himself of it
all with a genuine poet's power. The dramas of Oehlenschläger are his
masterpieces, but they form only a small portion of his works. His prose
stories and romances fill several volumes, and his smaller poems would of
themselves have established almost a greater reputation than that of any
Danish poet who went before him.
Grundtvig (b. 1783) is one of the most original and independent minds of
the North. As a preacher he was fervid and eloquent; as a writer on the
Scandinavian mythology and hero-life, he gave, perhaps, the truest idea of
the spirit of the northern myths.
Blicher (1782-1868) was a stern realist, who made his native province of
Jutland the scene of his poems and stories, which in many respects resemble
those of Crabbe.
Ingemann (1789-1862) is a voluminous writer in every department of
literature. His historical romances are the delight of the people, who, by
their winter firesides, forget their snow-barricaded woods and mountains in
listening to his pages.
Heiberg (1791-1860) as a critic ruled the Danish world of taste for many
years, and by his writings did much to elevate dramatic art and public
sentiment. The greatest authoress that Denmark has produced is the
Countess Gyllenbourg (1773-1856). Her knowledge of life, sparkling wit,
Page 575
and faultless style, make her stories, the authorship of which was unknown
before her death, masterpieces of their kind.
The greatest pastoral lyrist of this country is Winther (1796-1876). His
descriptions of scenery and rural life have an extraordinary charm. Hertz
(1796-1870) is the most cosmopolitan Danish writer of his time. Müller
(1809-1876) is celebrated for his comedies, tragedies, lyrics, and satires, all
of which prove the immense breadth of his compass and the inexhaustible
riches of his imagination.
Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875) is known to the English reader by
his stories and legends for the young, his romances, and autobiography. He
was born of humble peasants, and early attracted the attention of persons in
power, who, with that liberality to youthful genius so characteristic of
Denmark, enabled him to enter the university, and afterwards to travel over
Europe. The "Improvisatore" is considered the best of his romances.
Three writers connect the age of romanticism with the present day,—
Plong (b. 1812), a vigorous politician and poet; Goldschmidt (b. 1818),
author of novels and poems in the purest Danish; Hastrup (b. 1818), the
author of a series of comedies unrivaled in delicacy and wit.
Among the names distinguished in science are those of Malte Brun in
geography; Rask, Grundtvig, Molbech, Warsaae, Rafn, Finn Magnusen and
others in philology and literary antiquities. Of the two brothers Oersted,
one, a lawyer and statesman, has done much to establish the principles of
state economy, while the discoveries of the other entitle him to the highest
rank in physical science.
6. SWEDISH LITERATURE.—The first independent literature of
modern Scandinavia was, as we have seen, the popular songs and ballads
which, during the Middle Ages, kept alive the germ of intellectual life. The
before her death, masterpieces of their kind.
The greatest pastoral lyrist of this country is Winther (1796-1876). His
descriptions of scenery and rural life have an extraordinary charm. Hertz
(1796-1870) is the most cosmopolitan Danish writer of his time. Müller
(1809-1876) is celebrated for his comedies, tragedies, lyrics, and satires, all
of which prove the immense breadth of his compass and the inexhaustible
riches of his imagination.
Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875) is known to the English reader by
his stories and legends for the young, his romances, and autobiography. He
was born of humble peasants, and early attracted the attention of persons in
power, who, with that liberality to youthful genius so characteristic of
Denmark, enabled him to enter the university, and afterwards to travel over
Europe. The "Improvisatore" is considered the best of his romances.
Three writers connect the age of romanticism with the present day,—
Plong (b. 1812), a vigorous politician and poet; Goldschmidt (b. 1818),
author of novels and poems in the purest Danish; Hastrup (b. 1818), the
author of a series of comedies unrivaled in delicacy and wit.
Among the names distinguished in science are those of Malte Brun in
geography; Rask, Grundtvig, Molbech, Warsaae, Rafn, Finn Magnusen and
others in philology and literary antiquities. Of the two brothers Oersted,
one, a lawyer and statesman, has done much to establish the principles of
state economy, while the discoveries of the other entitle him to the highest
rank in physical science.
6. SWEDISH LITERATURE.—The first independent literature of
modern Scandinavia was, as we have seen, the popular songs and ballads
which, during the Middle Ages, kept alive the germ of intellectual life. The
Page 576
effect of the Reformation was soon seen in the literature of Sweden, as of
other countries. The first intellectual development displayed itself in the
dramatic attempt of Messenius and his son, who changed and substituted
actual history for legendary and scriptural subjects. The genius of Sweden,
however, is essentially lyrical, rather than dramatic or epic. Stjernhjelm
(1598-1672) was a writer of great merit,—the author of many dramas,
lyrics, and epic and didactic poems. He so far surpassed his contemporaries
that he decided the character of his country's literature for a century; but his
influence was finally lost in the growing Italian and German taste. The
principal names of this period are those of Lucidor, a wild, erratic genius;
Mrs. Brenner, the first female writer of Sweden, whose numerous poems
are distinguished for their neat and easy style; and Spegel (d. 1711), whose
Psalms, full of the simplest beauty, give him a lasting place in the literature
of the country. The literary taste of Sweden, in the seventeenth century,
made great progress; native genius awoke to conscious power, and the
finest productions of Europe were quoted and commented on.
During the eighteenth century, French taste prevailed all over Europe; not
only the manners, etiquette, and toilets of France were imitated, the fashion
of its literature was also adopted. Corneille, Racine, Molière, and Boileau
stamped their peculiar philosophy of literature on the greater portion of the
civilized world. Imagination was frozen by these cold, glittering models;
life and originality became extinct, imitator followed upon imitator, until
there was a universal dearth of soul; and men gravely asserted that
everything had been said and done in poetry and literature that could be said
and done. What a glorious reply has since been given to this utterance of
inanity and formalism, in a countless host of great and original names, all
the world knows. But in no country was this Gallomania more strongly and
enduringly prevalent than in Sweden. The principal writers of the early part
of the Gallic period are Dalin, Nordenflycht, Creutz, and Gyllenborg. As a
prose writer, rather than a poet, Dalin deserves remembrance. He
other countries. The first intellectual development displayed itself in the
dramatic attempt of Messenius and his son, who changed and substituted
actual history for legendary and scriptural subjects. The genius of Sweden,
however, is essentially lyrical, rather than dramatic or epic. Stjernhjelm
(1598-1672) was a writer of great merit,—the author of many dramas,
lyrics, and epic and didactic poems. He so far surpassed his contemporaries
that he decided the character of his country's literature for a century; but his
influence was finally lost in the growing Italian and German taste. The
principal names of this period are those of Lucidor, a wild, erratic genius;
Mrs. Brenner, the first female writer of Sweden, whose numerous poems
are distinguished for their neat and easy style; and Spegel (d. 1711), whose
Psalms, full of the simplest beauty, give him a lasting place in the literature
of the country. The literary taste of Sweden, in the seventeenth century,
made great progress; native genius awoke to conscious power, and the
finest productions of Europe were quoted and commented on.
During the eighteenth century, French taste prevailed all over Europe; not
only the manners, etiquette, and toilets of France were imitated, the fashion
of its literature was also adopted. Corneille, Racine, Molière, and Boileau
stamped their peculiar philosophy of literature on the greater portion of the
civilized world. Imagination was frozen by these cold, glittering models;
life and originality became extinct, imitator followed upon imitator, until
there was a universal dearth of soul; and men gravely asserted that
everything had been said and done in poetry and literature that could be said
and done. What a glorious reply has since been given to this utterance of
inanity and formalism, in a countless host of great and original names, all
the world knows. But in no country was this Gallomania more strongly and
enduringly prevalent than in Sweden. The principal writers of the early part
of the Gallic period are Dalin, Nordenflycht, Creutz, and Gyllenborg. As a
prose writer, rather than a poet, Dalin deserves remembrance. He
Page 577
established a periodical in imitation of the "Spectator," and through this
conferred the same benefits on Swedish literature that Addison conferred on
that of England,—a great improvement in style, and the origination of a
national periodical literature. Charlotte Nordenflycht (b. 1718) is called the
Swedish Sappho. Her poetry is all love and sorrow, as her life was; in a
better age she would have been a better poetess, for she possessed great
feeling, passion, and imagination. She exerted a wide influence on the
literary life of her time, in the capital, where the coteries which sprung up
about her embraced all the poets of the day. Gyllenborg and Creutz were
deficient in lyric depth, and were neither of them poets of the first order.
Of the midday of the Gallic era, the king, Gustavus III. (1771-1792),
Kellgren, Leopold, and Oxenstjerna are the chiefs. Gustavus was a master
of rhetoric, and in all his poetical tendencies fast bound to the French
system. He was, however, the true friend of literature, and did whatever lay
in his power to promote it, and to honor and reward literary men. In 1786 he
established the Swedish Academy, which for a long time continued to direct
the public taste. As an orator, Gustavus has rarely found a rival in the annals
of Sweden, and his dramas in prose possess much merit, and are still read
with interest.
Kellgren (1751-1795) was the principal lyric poet of this period. His
works betray a tendency to escape from the bondage of his age, and open a
new spring-time in Swedish poetry. For his own fame, and that of his age,
his early death was a serious loss. Leopold (1756-1829) continued to sway
the literary sceptre, after the death of Kellgren, for the remainder of the
century. He is best known by his dramas and miscellaneous poems. His
plays have the faults that belong to his school, but many of his poems
abound with striking thoughts, and are elastic and graceful in style. The
great writer of this period, however, was Oxenstjerna (1750-1818), a
descriptive poet, who, with all the faults of his age and school, displays a
conferred the same benefits on Swedish literature that Addison conferred on
that of England,—a great improvement in style, and the origination of a
national periodical literature. Charlotte Nordenflycht (b. 1718) is called the
Swedish Sappho. Her poetry is all love and sorrow, as her life was; in a
better age she would have been a better poetess, for she possessed great
feeling, passion, and imagination. She exerted a wide influence on the
literary life of her time, in the capital, where the coteries which sprung up
about her embraced all the poets of the day. Gyllenborg and Creutz were
deficient in lyric depth, and were neither of them poets of the first order.
Of the midday of the Gallic era, the king, Gustavus III. (1771-1792),
Kellgren, Leopold, and Oxenstjerna are the chiefs. Gustavus was a master
of rhetoric, and in all his poetical tendencies fast bound to the French
system. He was, however, the true friend of literature, and did whatever lay
in his power to promote it, and to honor and reward literary men. In 1786 he
established the Swedish Academy, which for a long time continued to direct
the public taste. As an orator, Gustavus has rarely found a rival in the annals
of Sweden, and his dramas in prose possess much merit, and are still read
with interest.
Kellgren (1751-1795) was the principal lyric poet of this period. His
works betray a tendency to escape from the bondage of his age, and open a
new spring-time in Swedish poetry. For his own fame, and that of his age,
his early death was a serious loss. Leopold (1756-1829) continued to sway
the literary sceptre, after the death of Kellgren, for the remainder of the
century. He is best known by his dramas and miscellaneous poems. His
plays have the faults that belong to his school, but many of his poems
abound with striking thoughts, and are elastic and graceful in style. The
great writer of this period, however, was Oxenstjerna (1750-1818), a
descriptive poet, who, with all the faults of his age and school, displays a
Page 578
deep feeling for nature. His pictures of simple life, amid the fields and
woods of Sweden, are full of idyllic beauty and attractive grace.
As the French taste overspread Europe at very nearly the same time, so
its influence decayed and died out almost simultaneously. In France itself,
long before the close of the eighteenth century, elements were at work
destined to produce the most extraordinary changes in the political, social,
and literary condition of the world. Even those authors who were most
French were most concerned in preparing this astounding revolution. In
many countries it was not the French doctrines, but the French events, that
startled, dazzled, and excited the human heart and imagination, and
produced the greatest effects on literature. Those who sympathized least
with French views were often most influenced by the magnificence of the
scenes which swept over the face of the civilized world, and antagonism
was not less potent than sympathy to arouse the energies of mind. But even
before these movements had produced any marked effect, Gallic influence
began to give way, and genius began freely to range the earth and choose its
materials wherever God and man were to be found.
The heralds of the new era in Sweden were Bellman, Hallman, Kexel,
Wallenberg, Lidner, Thorild, and Lengren. Bellman (1740-1795) is regarded
by the Swedes with great enthusiasm. There is something so perfectly
national in his spirit that he finds an echo of infinite delight in all Swedish
hearts. Everything patriotic, connected with home life and feelings, home
memories, the loves and pleasures of the past, all seem to be associated with
the songs of Bellman. Hallman, his friend, wrote comedies and farces. His
characters are drawn from the bacchanalian class described in Bellman's
lyrics, but they are not sufficiently varied in their scope and sphere to create
an actual Swedish drama. Kexel, the friend of the two last named, lived a
gay and vagabond life, and is celebrated for his comedies. Wallenberg was a
clergyman, full of the enjoyment of life, and disposed to see the most
woods of Sweden, are full of idyllic beauty and attractive grace.
As the French taste overspread Europe at very nearly the same time, so
its influence decayed and died out almost simultaneously. In France itself,
long before the close of the eighteenth century, elements were at work
destined to produce the most extraordinary changes in the political, social,
and literary condition of the world. Even those authors who were most
French were most concerned in preparing this astounding revolution. In
many countries it was not the French doctrines, but the French events, that
startled, dazzled, and excited the human heart and imagination, and
produced the greatest effects on literature. Those who sympathized least
with French views were often most influenced by the magnificence of the
scenes which swept over the face of the civilized world, and antagonism
was not less potent than sympathy to arouse the energies of mind. But even
before these movements had produced any marked effect, Gallic influence
began to give way, and genius began freely to range the earth and choose its
materials wherever God and man were to be found.
The heralds of the new era in Sweden were Bellman, Hallman, Kexel,
Wallenberg, Lidner, Thorild, and Lengren. Bellman (1740-1795) is regarded
by the Swedes with great enthusiasm. There is something so perfectly
national in his spirit that he finds an echo of infinite delight in all Swedish
hearts. Everything patriotic, connected with home life and feelings, home
memories, the loves and pleasures of the past, all seem to be associated with
the songs of Bellman. Hallman, his friend, wrote comedies and farces. His
characters are drawn from the bacchanalian class described in Bellman's
lyrics, but they are not sufficiently varied in their scope and sphere to create
an actual Swedish drama. Kexel, the friend of the two last named, lived a
gay and vagabond life, and is celebrated for his comedies. Wallenberg was a
clergyman, full of the enjoyment of life, and disposed to see the most
Page 579
amusing side of everything. Lidner and Thorild, unlike the writers just
named, were grave, passionate, and sorrowful. Lidner was a nerve-sick,
over-excited genius; but many of his inspired thoughts struck deep into the
heart of the time, and Swedish literature is highly indebted to Thorild for
the spirit of manly freedom and the principles of sound reasoning and taste
which he introduced into it.
One of the most interesting names of the transition period is that of Anna
Maria Lengren (1754-1811). She has depicted the scenes of domestic and
social life with a skill and firmness, yet a delicacy of touch that is perhaps
more difficult of attainment than the broad lines of a much more ambitious
style. Her scenes and personages are all types, and her heroes and heroines
continually present themselves in Swedish life in perpetual and amusing
reproduction. These poems will secure her a place among the classical
writers of her country.
The political revolution of 1809 secured the freedom of the press, new
men arose for the new times, and a deadly war was waged between the old
school and the new, until the latter triumphed. The first distinguished names
of the new school are those of Franzén and Wallin. Franzén (1772-1847), a
bishop, was celebrated for his lyrics of social life, and in many points
resembles Wordsworth. The qualities of heart, the home affections, and the
gladsome and felicitous appreciation of the beauty of life and nature found
in his poems, give him his great charm. Archbishop Wallin (1779- 1839) is
the great religious poet of Sweden. In his hymns there is a strength and
majesty, a solemn splendor and harmony of intonation, that have no parallel
in the Swedish language.
Among other writers of the time are Atterbom, Hammarsköld, and
Palmblad. The works of Atterbom (b. 1790) indicate great lyrical talent, but
they have an airy unreality, which disappoints the healthy appetite of
named, were grave, passionate, and sorrowful. Lidner was a nerve-sick,
over-excited genius; but many of his inspired thoughts struck deep into the
heart of the time, and Swedish literature is highly indebted to Thorild for
the spirit of manly freedom and the principles of sound reasoning and taste
which he introduced into it.
One of the most interesting names of the transition period is that of Anna
Maria Lengren (1754-1811). She has depicted the scenes of domestic and
social life with a skill and firmness, yet a delicacy of touch that is perhaps
more difficult of attainment than the broad lines of a much more ambitious
style. Her scenes and personages are all types, and her heroes and heroines
continually present themselves in Swedish life in perpetual and amusing
reproduction. These poems will secure her a place among the classical
writers of her country.
The political revolution of 1809 secured the freedom of the press, new
men arose for the new times, and a deadly war was waged between the old
school and the new, until the latter triumphed. The first distinguished names
of the new school are those of Franzén and Wallin. Franzén (1772-1847), a
bishop, was celebrated for his lyrics of social life, and in many points
resembles Wordsworth. The qualities of heart, the home affections, and the
gladsome and felicitous appreciation of the beauty of life and nature found
in his poems, give him his great charm. Archbishop Wallin (1779- 1839) is
the great religious poet of Sweden. In his hymns there is a strength and
majesty, a solemn splendor and harmony of intonation, that have no parallel
in the Swedish language.
Among other writers of the time are Atterbom, Hammarsköld, and
Palmblad. The works of Atterbom (b. 1790) indicate great lyrical talent, but
they have an airy unreality, which disappoints the healthy appetite of
Page 580
modern readers. Hammarsköld (1785-1827) was an able critic and literary
historian, though his poems are of little value. Palmblad, besides being a
critic, is the author of several novels and translations from the Greek. These
three writers belonged to the Phosphoric School, so called from a periodical
called "The Phosphorus," which advocated their opinions.
The most distinguished school in Swedish literature is the Gothic, which
took its rise in 1811, and which, aiming at a national spirit and character,
embraced in that nationality all the Gothic race as one original family,
possessing the same ancestry, original religion, traditions, and even still the
same spirit, predilections, and language, although broken into several
dialects. This new school had truth, nature, and the spirit of the nation and
the times with it, and it speedily triumphed. First in the rank of its
originators may be placed Geijer (1783-1847), who was at once a poet,
musician, and historian; his poems are among the most precious treasures of
Swedish literature. In his "Chronicles of Sweden" he penetrates far into the
mists and darkness of antiquity, and brings thence magnificent traces of
men and ages that point still onward to the times and haunts of the world's
youth. The work presents all that belongs to the North, its gods, its mythic
doctrines, its grand traditions, its heroes, vikings, runes, and poets, carrying
whole ages of history in their trains. In his hands the dry bones of history
and chronology live like the actual flesh and blood of the present time. As
Geijer is the first historian of Sweden, so is Tegnér (1782-1848) the first
poet; and in his "Frithiof's Saga" he has made the nearest approach to a
successful epic writer. Although this poem has rather the character of a
series of lyrical poems woven into an epic cycle, it is still a complete and
great poem. It is characterized by tender, sensitive, and delicate feeling
rather than by deep and overwhelming passion. In the story he has, for the
most part, adhered to the ancient Saga. Tegner is as yet only the most
popular poet of Sweden; but the bold advance which he has made beyond
the established models of the country shows what Swedish poets may yet
historian, though his poems are of little value. Palmblad, besides being a
critic, is the author of several novels and translations from the Greek. These
three writers belonged to the Phosphoric School, so called from a periodical
called "The Phosphorus," which advocated their opinions.
The most distinguished school in Swedish literature is the Gothic, which
took its rise in 1811, and which, aiming at a national spirit and character,
embraced in that nationality all the Gothic race as one original family,
possessing the same ancestry, original religion, traditions, and even still the
same spirit, predilections, and language, although broken into several
dialects. This new school had truth, nature, and the spirit of the nation and
the times with it, and it speedily triumphed. First in the rank of its
originators may be placed Geijer (1783-1847), who was at once a poet,
musician, and historian; his poems are among the most precious treasures of
Swedish literature. In his "Chronicles of Sweden" he penetrates far into the
mists and darkness of antiquity, and brings thence magnificent traces of
men and ages that point still onward to the times and haunts of the world's
youth. The work presents all that belongs to the North, its gods, its mythic
doctrines, its grand traditions, its heroes, vikings, runes, and poets, carrying
whole ages of history in their trains. In his hands the dry bones of history
and chronology live like the actual flesh and blood of the present time. As
Geijer is the first historian of Sweden, so is Tegnér (1782-1848) the first
poet; and in his "Frithiof's Saga" he has made the nearest approach to a
successful epic writer. Although this poem has rather the character of a
series of lyrical poems woven into an epic cycle, it is still a complete and
great poem. It is characterized by tender, sensitive, and delicate feeling
rather than by deep and overwhelming passion. In the story he has, for the
most part, adhered to the ancient Saga. Tegner is as yet only the most
popular poet of Sweden; but the bold advance which he has made beyond
the established models of the country shows what Swedish poets may yet
Page 581
accomplish by following on in the track of a higher and freer enterprise.
The other most prominent poets of the new school are Stagnelius (1793-
1828), who bears a strong resemblance to Shelley in his tendency to the
mythic and speculative, and in his wonderful power of language and
affluence of inspired phrase; Almquist (d. 1866), an able and varied writer,
who has written with great wit, brilliancy, and power in almost every
department; Vitalis (d. 1828), the author of some religious poetry;
Dahlgren, an amusing author, and Fahlcrantz, who wrote "Noah's Ark," a
celebrated humorous poem. Runeberg, one of the truest and greatest poets
of the North, is a Finn by birth, though he writes in Swedish; with all the
wild melancholy character of his country he mingles a deep feeling of its
sufferings and its wrongs. His verse is solemn and strong, like the spirit of
its subject. He brings before you the wild wastes and the dark woods of his
native land, and its brave, simple, enduring people. You feel the wind blow
fresh from the vast, dark woodlands; you follow the elk- hunters through
the pine forests or along the shores of remote lakes; you lie in desert huts
and hear the narratives of the struggles of the inhabitants with the ungenial
elements, or their contentions with more ungenial men. Runeberg seizes on
life wherever it presents itself in strong and touching forms,—in the beggar,
the gypsy, or the malefactor,— it is enough for him that it is human nature,
doing and suffering, and in these respects he stands preeminently above all
the poets of Sweden.
Besides the poets already spoken of, there are many others who cannot
here be even named.
If the literature of Sweden is almost wholly modern, its romance
literature is especially so. Cederborg was not unlike Dickens in his peculiar
walk and character, and in all his burlesque there is something kind,
amiable, and excellent. He was followed by many others, who displayed
The other most prominent poets of the new school are Stagnelius (1793-
1828), who bears a strong resemblance to Shelley in his tendency to the
mythic and speculative, and in his wonderful power of language and
affluence of inspired phrase; Almquist (d. 1866), an able and varied writer,
who has written with great wit, brilliancy, and power in almost every
department; Vitalis (d. 1828), the author of some religious poetry;
Dahlgren, an amusing author, and Fahlcrantz, who wrote "Noah's Ark," a
celebrated humorous poem. Runeberg, one of the truest and greatest poets
of the North, is a Finn by birth, though he writes in Swedish; with all the
wild melancholy character of his country he mingles a deep feeling of its
sufferings and its wrongs. His verse is solemn and strong, like the spirit of
its subject. He brings before you the wild wastes and the dark woods of his
native land, and its brave, simple, enduring people. You feel the wind blow
fresh from the vast, dark woodlands; you follow the elk- hunters through
the pine forests or along the shores of remote lakes; you lie in desert huts
and hear the narratives of the struggles of the inhabitants with the ungenial
elements, or their contentions with more ungenial men. Runeberg seizes on
life wherever it presents itself in strong and touching forms,—in the beggar,
the gypsy, or the malefactor,— it is enough for him that it is human nature,
doing and suffering, and in these respects he stands preeminently above all
the poets of Sweden.
Besides the poets already spoken of, there are many others who cannot
here be even named.
If the literature of Sweden is almost wholly modern, its romance
literature is especially so. Cederborg was not unlike Dickens in his peculiar
walk and character, and in all his burlesque there is something kind,
amiable, and excellent. He was followed by many others, who displayed
Page 582
much talent, correct sketching of costumes and manners, and touches of
true descriptive nature.
But an authoress now appeared who was to create a new era in Swedish
novel-writing, and to connect the literary name and interests of Sweden
more intimately with the whole civilized world. In 1828, Fredrika Bremer
(1802-1865) published her first works, which were soon followed by others,
all of which attracted immediate attention. Later they were made known to
the English and American public through the admirable translations of Mrs.
Howitt, and now they are as familiar as "Robinson Crusoe," or the "Vicar of
Wakefield," wherever the English language is spoken. Wherever these
works have been known they have awakened a more genial judgment of
life, a better view of the world and its destinies, a deeper trust in
Providence, and a persuasion that to enjoy existence truly ourselves is to
spread that enjoyment around us to our fellow-men, and especially by the
daily evidences of good-will, affection, cheerfulness, and graceful attention
to the feelings of others, which, in the social and domestic circle, are so
small in their appearance, but immense in their consequences. As a teacher
of this quiet, smiling, but deeply penetrating philosophy of life, no writer
has yet arisen superior to Fredrika Bremer, while she has all the time not
even professed to teach, but only to entertain.
The success of Miss Bremer's writings produced two contemporaneous
female novelists of no ordinary merit—the Baroness Knorring (d. 1833) and
Emily Carlon (b. 1833). The works of the former are distinguished by a
brilliant wit and an extraordinary power of painting life and passion, while a
kind and amiable feeling pervades those of the latter. Among the later
novelists of Sweden are many names distinguished in other departments of
literature.
true descriptive nature.
But an authoress now appeared who was to create a new era in Swedish
novel-writing, and to connect the literary name and interests of Sweden
more intimately with the whole civilized world. In 1828, Fredrika Bremer
(1802-1865) published her first works, which were soon followed by others,
all of which attracted immediate attention. Later they were made known to
the English and American public through the admirable translations of Mrs.
Howitt, and now they are as familiar as "Robinson Crusoe," or the "Vicar of
Wakefield," wherever the English language is spoken. Wherever these
works have been known they have awakened a more genial judgment of
life, a better view of the world and its destinies, a deeper trust in
Providence, and a persuasion that to enjoy existence truly ourselves is to
spread that enjoyment around us to our fellow-men, and especially by the
daily evidences of good-will, affection, cheerfulness, and graceful attention
to the feelings of others, which, in the social and domestic circle, are so
small in their appearance, but immense in their consequences. As a teacher
of this quiet, smiling, but deeply penetrating philosophy of life, no writer
has yet arisen superior to Fredrika Bremer, while she has all the time not
even professed to teach, but only to entertain.
The success of Miss Bremer's writings produced two contemporaneous
female novelists of no ordinary merit—the Baroness Knorring (d. 1833) and
Emily Carlon (b. 1833). The works of the former are distinguished by a
brilliant wit and an extraordinary power of painting life and passion, while a
kind and amiable feeling pervades those of the latter. Among the later
novelists of Sweden are many names distinguished in other departments of
literature.
Page 583
In conclusion, there are in Sweden hosts of able authors in whose hands
all sciences, history, philology, antiquities, theology, every branch of natural
and moral philosophy and miscellaneous literature have been elaborated
with a talent and industry of which any nation might be proud. Among the
names of a world-wide fame are those, of Swedenborg (1688-1772), not
more remarkable for his peculiar religious ideas than for his profound and
varied acquirements in science; Linnaeus (1707-1778), the founder of the
established system of botany; and Scheele (1742-1786), eminent in
chemistry.
If the literature of Scandinavia continues to develop during the present
century with the strength and rapidity it has manifested during the last, it
will present to the mind of the English race rich sources of enjoyment of a
more congenial spirit than that of any other part of the European continent;
and the more this literature Is cultivated the more it will be perceived that
we are less an Anglo-Saxon than a Scandinavian race.
The last few years in Sweden have been a period of political rather than
literary activity, yielding comparatively few works of high aesthetic value,
Rydborg, a statesman and metaphysician, has produced a powerful work of
fiction, "The Last Athenian," and other works of minor importance have
been produced in various departments of literature.
LITERATURE OF NORWAY.—Norway cannot be said to have had a
literature distinct from the Danish until after its union with Sweden in 1814.
The period from that time to the present has been one of great literary
activity in all departments, and many distinguished names might be
mentioned, among them that of Björnson (b. 1832), whose tales have been
extensively translated. Jonas Lie who enjoys a wide popularity, Camilla
Collett, and Magdalene Thoresen are also favorite writers. Wergeland and
Welhaven were two distinguished poets of the first half of the century.
all sciences, history, philology, antiquities, theology, every branch of natural
and moral philosophy and miscellaneous literature have been elaborated
with a talent and industry of which any nation might be proud. Among the
names of a world-wide fame are those, of Swedenborg (1688-1772), not
more remarkable for his peculiar religious ideas than for his profound and
varied acquirements in science; Linnaeus (1707-1778), the founder of the
established system of botany; and Scheele (1742-1786), eminent in
chemistry.
If the literature of Scandinavia continues to develop during the present
century with the strength and rapidity it has manifested during the last, it
will present to the mind of the English race rich sources of enjoyment of a
more congenial spirit than that of any other part of the European continent;
and the more this literature Is cultivated the more it will be perceived that
we are less an Anglo-Saxon than a Scandinavian race.
The last few years in Sweden have been a period of political rather than
literary activity, yielding comparatively few works of high aesthetic value,
Rydborg, a statesman and metaphysician, has produced a powerful work of
fiction, "The Last Athenian," and other works of minor importance have
been produced in various departments of literature.
LITERATURE OF NORWAY.—Norway cannot be said to have had a
literature distinct from the Danish until after its union with Sweden in 1814.
The period from that time to the present has been one of great literary
activity in all departments, and many distinguished names might be
mentioned, among them that of Björnson (b. 1832), whose tales have been
extensively translated. Jonas Lie who enjoys a wide popularity, Camilla
Collett, and Magdalene Thoresen are also favorite writers. Wergeland and
Welhaven were two distinguished poets of the first half of the century.
Page 584
Kielland is an able novelist of the realistic school, and Professor Boyesen is
well known in the United States for his tales and poems in English. Henrick
Ibsen is the most distinguished dramatic writer of Norway and belongs to
the realistic school. Among other writers of the present time are Börjesson
whose "Eric XIV." is a masterpiece of Swedish drama; Tekla Knös, a
poetess whose claims have been sanctioned by the Academy; and Claude
Gérard (nom de plume), very popular as a novelist. Charles XV. and Oscar
II. are poets of merit.
well known in the United States for his tales and poems in English. Henrick
Ibsen is the most distinguished dramatic writer of Norway and belongs to
the realistic school. Among other writers of the present time are Börjesson
whose "Eric XIV." is a masterpiece of Swedish drama; Tekla Knös, a
poetess whose claims have been sanctioned by the Academy; and Claude
Gérard (nom de plume), very popular as a novelist. Charles XV. and Oscar
II. are poets of merit.
Page 585
GERMAN LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. German Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Mythology. —3. The Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early Literature; Translation of the Bible by
Ulphilas; the Hildebrand Lied.—2. The Age of Charlemagne; his
Successors; the Ludwig's Lied; Roswitha; the Lombard Cycle.—3. The
Suabian Age; the Crusades; the Minnesingers; the Romances of Chivalry;
the Heldenbuch; the Nibelungen Lied.—4. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries; the Mastersingers; Satires and Fables; Mysteries and Dramatic
Representations; the Mystics; the Universities; the Invention of Printing.
PERIOD SECOND.—From 1517 to 1700.—1. The Lutheran Period:
Luther,
Melanchthon.—2. Manuel, Zwingle, Fischart, Franck, Arnd, Boehm.—3.
Poetry, Satire, and Demonology; Paracelsus and Agrippa; the Thirty Years'
War.—4. The Seventeenth Century: Opitz, Leibnitz, Puffendorf, Kepler,
Wolf, Thomasius, Gerhard; Silesian Schools; Hoffmannswaldau,
Lohenstein.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. The Swiss and Saxon Schools: Gottsched,
Bodmer, Rabener,
Gellert, Kästner, and others.—2. Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, and Herder.
—3. Goethe and Schiller.—4. The Göttingen School: Voss, Stolberg,
INTRODUCTION.—1. German Literature and its Divisions.—2. The
Mythology. —3. The Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Early Literature; Translation of the Bible by
Ulphilas; the Hildebrand Lied.—2. The Age of Charlemagne; his
Successors; the Ludwig's Lied; Roswitha; the Lombard Cycle.—3. The
Suabian Age; the Crusades; the Minnesingers; the Romances of Chivalry;
the Heldenbuch; the Nibelungen Lied.—4. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries; the Mastersingers; Satires and Fables; Mysteries and Dramatic
Representations; the Mystics; the Universities; the Invention of Printing.
PERIOD SECOND.—From 1517 to 1700.—1. The Lutheran Period:
Luther,
Melanchthon.—2. Manuel, Zwingle, Fischart, Franck, Arnd, Boehm.—3.
Poetry, Satire, and Demonology; Paracelsus and Agrippa; the Thirty Years'
War.—4. The Seventeenth Century: Opitz, Leibnitz, Puffendorf, Kepler,
Wolf, Thomasius, Gerhard; Silesian Schools; Hoffmannswaldau,
Lohenstein.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. The Swiss and Saxon Schools: Gottsched,
Bodmer, Rabener,
Gellert, Kästner, and others.—2. Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, and Herder.
—3. Goethe and Schiller.—4. The Göttingen School: Voss, Stolberg,
Page 586
Claudius, Bürger, and others.—5. The Romantic School: the Schlegels,
Novalis; Tieck, Körner, Arndt, Uhland, Heine, and others.—6. The Drama:
Goethe and Schiller; the Power Men; Müllner, Werner, Howald, and
Grillparzer.—7. Philosophy: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer,
and Hartmann; Science: Liebig, Du Bois-Raymond, Virchow, Helmholst,
Haeckel.—8. Miscellaneous Writings.
INTRODUCTION.
1. GERMAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—Central Europe,
from the Adriatic to the Baltic, is occupied by a people who, however
politically divided as respects language and race, form but one nation. The
name Germans is that given to them by the Romans; the appellation which
they apply to themselves is Deutsch, a term derived from Teutones, by
which they were generally known, as also by the term Goths, in the early
history of Europe.
In glancing at the various phases of German literature, we see the bards
at first uttering in primitive strains their war songs and traditions. The
introduction of Christianity brought with it the cultivation of the classic
languages, although the people had no part in this learned literature, which
was confined to the monasteries and schools. In the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, letters, so long monopolized by the clergy, passed from their
hands to those of the princes and nobles; and in the next century the songs
of the minnesingers gave way to the pedantic craft of the mastersingers.
A great intellectual regeneration followed the Reformation, but it was of
brief duration. With the death of Luther and Melanchthon the lofty spirit of
reform degenerated into scholasticism, and the scholars were as exclusive in
their dispensation of intellectual light as the clergy had been at an earlier
period. While the priests, the minstrels, and the bookmen had each enlarged
Novalis; Tieck, Körner, Arndt, Uhland, Heine, and others.—6. The Drama:
Goethe and Schiller; the Power Men; Müllner, Werner, Howald, and
Grillparzer.—7. Philosophy: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer,
and Hartmann; Science: Liebig, Du Bois-Raymond, Virchow, Helmholst,
Haeckel.—8. Miscellaneous Writings.
INTRODUCTION.
1. GERMAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—Central Europe,
from the Adriatic to the Baltic, is occupied by a people who, however
politically divided as respects language and race, form but one nation. The
name Germans is that given to them by the Romans; the appellation which
they apply to themselves is Deutsch, a term derived from Teutones, by
which they were generally known, as also by the term Goths, in the early
history of Europe.
In glancing at the various phases of German literature, we see the bards
at first uttering in primitive strains their war songs and traditions. The
introduction of Christianity brought with it the cultivation of the classic
languages, although the people had no part in this learned literature, which
was confined to the monasteries and schools. In the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, letters, so long monopolized by the clergy, passed from their
hands to those of the princes and nobles; and in the next century the songs
of the minnesingers gave way to the pedantic craft of the mastersingers.
A great intellectual regeneration followed the Reformation, but it was of
brief duration. With the death of Luther and Melanchthon the lofty spirit of
reform degenerated into scholasticism, and the scholars were as exclusive in
their dispensation of intellectual light as the clergy had been at an earlier
period. While the priests, the minstrels, and the bookmen had each enlarged
Page 587
the avenues to knowledge, they were still closed and locked to the masses
of the people; and so they remained, until philosophy arose to break down
all barriers and to throw open to humanity at large the whole domain of
knowledge and literature.
In the midst of the convulsions which marked the close of the eighteenth
century, the leading minds of Germany sought a solution of the great
problems of civilization in the abysses of philosophy. Kant and his
compeers gave an electric impulse to the German mind, the effects of which
were manifest in the men who soon arose to apply the new discoveries of
philosophy to literature. In Lessing, Herder, Goethe, and Schiller, the
clergy, the minstrels, and the bookmen were each represented, but
philosophy had breathed into them an all-embracing, cosmical spirit of
humanity, and under their influence German literature soon lost its
exclusive and sectional character, and became cosmopolitan and universal.
The long cycle of literary experiments, however, is not yet completed.
Since the philosophers have accomplished their mission by establishing
principles, and the poets have made themselves intelligible to the masses,
the German mind has entered upon the exploration of all spheres of
learning, and is making new and great advances in the solution of the
problems of humanity. The most eminent scholars, no longer pursuing their
studies as a matter of art or taste, are inspired by the noble desire of
diffusing knowledge and benefiting their fellow-beings; and to grapple with
the laws of nature, and to secure those conditions best adapted to the
highest human welfare, are their leading aims. The German explorers of the
universe have created a new school of natural philosophers; German
historians are sifting the records of the past and bringing forth great
political, social, and scientific revelations. In geography, ethnology,
philology, and in all branches of science, men of powerful minds are at
work, carrying the same enthusiasm into the world of fact that the poets
of the people; and so they remained, until philosophy arose to break down
all barriers and to throw open to humanity at large the whole domain of
knowledge and literature.
In the midst of the convulsions which marked the close of the eighteenth
century, the leading minds of Germany sought a solution of the great
problems of civilization in the abysses of philosophy. Kant and his
compeers gave an electric impulse to the German mind, the effects of which
were manifest in the men who soon arose to apply the new discoveries of
philosophy to literature. In Lessing, Herder, Goethe, and Schiller, the
clergy, the minstrels, and the bookmen were each represented, but
philosophy had breathed into them an all-embracing, cosmical spirit of
humanity, and under their influence German literature soon lost its
exclusive and sectional character, and became cosmopolitan and universal.
The long cycle of literary experiments, however, is not yet completed.
Since the philosophers have accomplished their mission by establishing
principles, and the poets have made themselves intelligible to the masses,
the German mind has entered upon the exploration of all spheres of
learning, and is making new and great advances in the solution of the
problems of humanity. The most eminent scholars, no longer pursuing their
studies as a matter of art or taste, are inspired by the noble desire of
diffusing knowledge and benefiting their fellow-beings; and to grapple with
the laws of nature, and to secure those conditions best adapted to the
highest human welfare, are their leading aims. The German explorers of the
universe have created a new school of natural philosophers; German
historians are sifting the records of the past and bringing forth great
political, social, and scientific revelations. In geography, ethnology,
philology, and in all branches of science, men of powerful minds are at
work, carrying the same enthusiasm into the world of fact that the poets
Page 588
have shown in the fairy-land of the imagination. To these earnest
questioners, these untiring explorers, nature is reluctantly unveiling her
mysteries, and history is giving up the buried secrets of the ages. The lyre of
the bard may be silent for a time, but this mighty struggle with the forces of
nature and with the obscurities of the past will at last inspire a new race of
poets and open a new vein of poetry, far more rich than the world of fancy
has ever afforded. Science, regarded from this lofty point of view, will
gradually assume epic proportions, and other and more powerful Schillers
and Goethes will arise to illustrate its achievements.
The history of German literature may be divided into three periods.
The first, extending from the earliest times to the beginning of the
Reformation, 1517, embraces the early literature; that of the reign of
Charlemagne and his successors; that of the Suabian age (1138-1272), and
of the first centuries of the reign of the House of Hapsburg.
The second period, extending from 1517 to 1700, includes the literature
of the age of the Reformation, and of the Thirty Years' War.
The third period, from 1700 to the present time, contains the
development of German literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries.
2. THE MYTHOLOGY.—The German mythology is almost identical
with the Scandinavian, and in it, as in all the legends of the North, women
play an important part. Indeed, they occupied a far higher position among
these ancient barbarians than in the polished nations of Greece and Rome.
"It is believed," says Tacitus, "that there is something holy and prophetic
about them, and therefore the warriors neither despise their counsels nor
disregard their responses."
questioners, these untiring explorers, nature is reluctantly unveiling her
mysteries, and history is giving up the buried secrets of the ages. The lyre of
the bard may be silent for a time, but this mighty struggle with the forces of
nature and with the obscurities of the past will at last inspire a new race of
poets and open a new vein of poetry, far more rich than the world of fancy
has ever afforded. Science, regarded from this lofty point of view, will
gradually assume epic proportions, and other and more powerful Schillers
and Goethes will arise to illustrate its achievements.
The history of German literature may be divided into three periods.
The first, extending from the earliest times to the beginning of the
Reformation, 1517, embraces the early literature; that of the reign of
Charlemagne and his successors; that of the Suabian age (1138-1272), and
of the first centuries of the reign of the House of Hapsburg.
The second period, extending from 1517 to 1700, includes the literature
of the age of the Reformation, and of the Thirty Years' War.
The third period, from 1700 to the present time, contains the
development of German literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries.
2. THE MYTHOLOGY.—The German mythology is almost identical
with the Scandinavian, and in it, as in all the legends of the North, women
play an important part. Indeed, they occupied a far higher position among
these ancient barbarians than in the polished nations of Greece and Rome.
"It is believed," says Tacitus, "that there is something holy and prophetic
about them, and therefore the warriors neither despise their counsels nor
disregard their responses."
Page 589
The Paganism of the North, less graceful and beautiful than that of
Greece, had still the same tendency to people earth, air, and water with
beings of its own creation. The rivers had their Undines, the ocean its
Nixes, the caverns their Gnomes, and the woods their Sprites. Christianity
did not deny the existence of these supernatural races, but it invested them
with a demoniac character. They were not regarded as immortal, although
permitted to attain an age far beyond that granted to mankind, and they
were denied the hope of salvation, unless purchased by a union with
creatures of an earthly mould.
According to the Edda, the Dwarfs were formed by Odin from the dust.
They were either Cobolds—house spirits who attach themselves to the
fortunes of the family, and, if well fed and treated, nestle beside the
domestic hearth—or Gnomes, who haunt deserted mansions and deep
caverns. The mountain echoes are the mingled sounds of their voices as
they mock the cries of the wanderer, and the fissures of the rocks are the
entrances to their subterranean abodes. Here they have heaped up countless
treasures of gold, silver, and precious stones, and here they pass their time
in fabricating costly armor. The German Elves, like those of other climes,
have an irresistible propensity to dance and song, especially the Nixes, who,
rising from their river or ocean home, will seat themselves on the shore and
pour forth such sweet music as to enchant all who hear them, and are ever
ready to impart their wondrous skill for the hope or promise of salvation. To
secure this, they also lure young maidens to their watery domains, and force
or persuade them to become their brides. If they submit, they are allowed to
sit on the rocks and wreathe their tresses with corals, sea-weeds, and shells;
but if they manifest any desire to return to their homes, a streak of blood on
the surface of the waters tells the dark story of their doom.
The Walkyres are the youthful maidens who have died upon their bridal
eve, and who, unable to rest in their graves, return to earth and dance in the
Greece, had still the same tendency to people earth, air, and water with
beings of its own creation. The rivers had their Undines, the ocean its
Nixes, the caverns their Gnomes, and the woods their Sprites. Christianity
did not deny the existence of these supernatural races, but it invested them
with a demoniac character. They were not regarded as immortal, although
permitted to attain an age far beyond that granted to mankind, and they
were denied the hope of salvation, unless purchased by a union with
creatures of an earthly mould.
According to the Edda, the Dwarfs were formed by Odin from the dust.
They were either Cobolds—house spirits who attach themselves to the
fortunes of the family, and, if well fed and treated, nestle beside the
domestic hearth—or Gnomes, who haunt deserted mansions and deep
caverns. The mountain echoes are the mingled sounds of their voices as
they mock the cries of the wanderer, and the fissures of the rocks are the
entrances to their subterranean abodes. Here they have heaped up countless
treasures of gold, silver, and precious stones, and here they pass their time
in fabricating costly armor. The German Elves, like those of other climes,
have an irresistible propensity to dance and song, especially the Nixes, who,
rising from their river or ocean home, will seat themselves on the shore and
pour forth such sweet music as to enchant all who hear them, and are ever
ready to impart their wondrous skill for the hope or promise of salvation. To
secure this, they also lure young maidens to their watery domains, and force
or persuade them to become their brides. If they submit, they are allowed to
sit on the rocks and wreathe their tresses with corals, sea-weeds, and shells;
but if they manifest any desire to return to their homes, a streak of blood on
the surface of the waters tells the dark story of their doom.
The Walkyres are the youthful maidens who have died upon their bridal
eve, and who, unable to rest in their graves, return to earth and dance in the
Page 590
silver rays of the moon; but if a mortal chances to meet them, they surround
and draw him within their magic ring, till, faint and exhausted, he falls
lifeless to the earth. Not less dangerous are the river-maids, who, rising to
the surface of the stream, lure the unwary traveler into the depths below.
There are also the White Women, who often appear at dawn or evening,
with their pale faces and shadowy forms; these are the goddesses of ancient
Paganism, condemned to wander through ages to expiate the guilt of having
received divine worship, and to suffer eternal punishment if not redeemed
by mortal aid. Among the goddesses who, in the form of White Women,
were long believed to exercise an influence for good or ill on human affairs,
Hertha and Frigga play the most conspicuous parts, and figure in many wild
legends; proving how strong was the hold which the creed of their ancestors
had on the minds of the Germans long after its idols had been broken and its
shrines destroyed. Hertha still cherished the same beneficent disposition
ascribed to her in the old mythology, and continued to watch over and aid
mankind until driven away by the calumnies of which she was the victim,
while Frigga appears as a fearful ogress and sorceress.
These popular superstitions, which retained their power over the minds of
the people during the Middle Ages, and which even now are not wholly
eradicated, have furnished a rich mine from which the poets and tale-
writers of Germany have derived that element of the supernatural by which
they are so often characterized.
3. THE LANGUAGE.—The Teutonic languages, which belong to the
Indo- European stock, consist of two branches; the Northern or
Scandinavian, and the Southern or German of the continent. The latter has
three subdivisions; the Eastern or Gothic, with its kindred idioms, the high
German or German proper,—the literary idiom of Germany,—and the low
German, which includes the Frisian, old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, and
Flemish. The high German, or German proper, comprehends the language
and draw him within their magic ring, till, faint and exhausted, he falls
lifeless to the earth. Not less dangerous are the river-maids, who, rising to
the surface of the stream, lure the unwary traveler into the depths below.
There are also the White Women, who often appear at dawn or evening,
with their pale faces and shadowy forms; these are the goddesses of ancient
Paganism, condemned to wander through ages to expiate the guilt of having
received divine worship, and to suffer eternal punishment if not redeemed
by mortal aid. Among the goddesses who, in the form of White Women,
were long believed to exercise an influence for good or ill on human affairs,
Hertha and Frigga play the most conspicuous parts, and figure in many wild
legends; proving how strong was the hold which the creed of their ancestors
had on the minds of the Germans long after its idols had been broken and its
shrines destroyed. Hertha still cherished the same beneficent disposition
ascribed to her in the old mythology, and continued to watch over and aid
mankind until driven away by the calumnies of which she was the victim,
while Frigga appears as a fearful ogress and sorceress.
These popular superstitions, which retained their power over the minds of
the people during the Middle Ages, and which even now are not wholly
eradicated, have furnished a rich mine from which the poets and tale-
writers of Germany have derived that element of the supernatural by which
they are so often characterized.
3. THE LANGUAGE.—The Teutonic languages, which belong to the
Indo- European stock, consist of two branches; the Northern or
Scandinavian, and the Southern or German of the continent. The latter has
three subdivisions; the Eastern or Gothic, with its kindred idioms, the high
German or German proper,—the literary idiom of Germany,—and the low
German, which includes the Frisian, old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, and
Flemish. The high German, or German proper, comprehends the language
Page 591
of three periods: the old high German, which prevailed from the seventh to
the eleventh century; the middle high German, from the eleventh century to
the time of the Reformation; and the new high German, which dates from
the time of Luther, and is the present literary language of the country.
No modern language equals the German in its productiveness and its
capacity of constant and homogeneous growth, in its aesthetical and
philosophical character, and in its originality and independence. Instead of
borrowing from the Greek, Latin, and other languages, to find expressions
for new combinations of ideas, it develops its own resources by manifold
compositions of its own roots, words, and particles. To express one idea in
its various modifications, the English requires Teutonic, Greek, and Latin
elements, while the German tongue unfolds all the varieties of the same
idea by a series of compositive words founded upon one Gothic root. The
German language, therefore, while it is far superior in originality, flexibility,
richness, and universality, does not admit the varieties which distinguish the
English.
PERIOD FIRST
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REFORMATION (360-1517).
1. EARLY LITERATURE.—Previous to the introduction of Christianity
the Germans had nothing worthy of the name of literature. The first
monument that has come down to us is the translation of the Bible into
Moeso- Gothic, by Ulphilas, bishop of the Goths (360-388), who thus
anticipated the work of Luther by a thousand years.
As the art of writing was unknown to the Goths, Ulphilas formed an
alphabet by combining Runic, Greek, and Roman, letters, and down to the
ninth century this version was held in high esteem and seems to have been
the eleventh century; the middle high German, from the eleventh century to
the time of the Reformation; and the new high German, which dates from
the time of Luther, and is the present literary language of the country.
No modern language equals the German in its productiveness and its
capacity of constant and homogeneous growth, in its aesthetical and
philosophical character, and in its originality and independence. Instead of
borrowing from the Greek, Latin, and other languages, to find expressions
for new combinations of ideas, it develops its own resources by manifold
compositions of its own roots, words, and particles. To express one idea in
its various modifications, the English requires Teutonic, Greek, and Latin
elements, while the German tongue unfolds all the varieties of the same
idea by a series of compositive words founded upon one Gothic root. The
German language, therefore, while it is far superior in originality, flexibility,
richness, and universality, does not admit the varieties which distinguish the
English.
PERIOD FIRST
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REFORMATION (360-1517).
1. EARLY LITERATURE.—Previous to the introduction of Christianity
the Germans had nothing worthy of the name of literature. The first
monument that has come down to us is the translation of the Bible into
Moeso- Gothic, by Ulphilas, bishop of the Goths (360-388), who thus
anticipated the work of Luther by a thousand years.
As the art of writing was unknown to the Goths, Ulphilas formed an
alphabet by combining Runic, Greek, and Roman, letters, and down to the
ninth century this version was held in high esteem and seems to have been
Page 592
in general use. For nearly four hundred years after Ulphilas, no trace of
literature is discovered among the Teutonic tribes. They, however, had their
war-songs, and minstrel skill seems to have been highly prized by them.
These lays were collected by Charlemagne, and are described by Eginhardt
as "ancient barbarous poems, celebrating the deeds and wars of the men of
old;" but they have nearly all disappeared, owing, probably, to the refusal of
the monks, then the only scribes, to transmit to paper aught which tended to
recall the rites and myths of Paganism. Only two relics of this age, in their
primitive form, remain; they are rhymeless, but alliterated,—a kind of
versification common to the German, Anglo- Saxon, and Scandinavian
poetry, and which, early in the ninth century, gave place to rhyme. Of these
two poems, the Hildebrand Lied Is probably a fragment of the traditions
which had circulated orally for centuries, and which, with many
modifications, were transcribed by the Scandinavians in their sagas, and by
Charlemagne in his collection. None of the other poems which have come
down to us from this period bear an earlier date than the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, when they were remodeled and appeared in the form of
the Heldenbuch and Nibelungen Lied. The Hildebrand Lied belongs to the
cycle of Theodoric the Great, or Dietrich of Bern or Verona, as he is called
in poetry, from that town being the seat of his government after he had
subdued the Empire of the West. This poem, though rude and wild, is not
without grandeur and dramatic effect.
2. CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS SUCCESSORS.—The era of
Charlemagne, in all respects so memorable, could not be without influence
on the literature of Germany, then in a condition of almost primitive
rudeness. The German, language was taught by his command in the schools
and academies which he established in all parts of the empire; he caused the
monks to preach in the vernacular tongue, and he himself composed the
elements of a grammar for the use of his subjects. He recompensed with
imperial munificence the learned men who resorted to his court; Alcuin,
literature is discovered among the Teutonic tribes. They, however, had their
war-songs, and minstrel skill seems to have been highly prized by them.
These lays were collected by Charlemagne, and are described by Eginhardt
as "ancient barbarous poems, celebrating the deeds and wars of the men of
old;" but they have nearly all disappeared, owing, probably, to the refusal of
the monks, then the only scribes, to transmit to paper aught which tended to
recall the rites and myths of Paganism. Only two relics of this age, in their
primitive form, remain; they are rhymeless, but alliterated,—a kind of
versification common to the German, Anglo- Saxon, and Scandinavian
poetry, and which, early in the ninth century, gave place to rhyme. Of these
two poems, the Hildebrand Lied Is probably a fragment of the traditions
which had circulated orally for centuries, and which, with many
modifications, were transcribed by the Scandinavians in their sagas, and by
Charlemagne in his collection. None of the other poems which have come
down to us from this period bear an earlier date than the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, when they were remodeled and appeared in the form of
the Heldenbuch and Nibelungen Lied. The Hildebrand Lied belongs to the
cycle of Theodoric the Great, or Dietrich of Bern or Verona, as he is called
in poetry, from that town being the seat of his government after he had
subdued the Empire of the West. This poem, though rude and wild, is not
without grandeur and dramatic effect.
2. CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS SUCCESSORS.—The era of
Charlemagne, in all respects so memorable, could not be without influence
on the literature of Germany, then in a condition of almost primitive
rudeness. The German, language was taught by his command in the schools
and academies which he established in all parts of the empire; he caused the
monks to preach in the vernacular tongue, and he himself composed the
elements of a grammar for the use of his subjects. He recompensed with
imperial munificence the learned men who resorted to his court; Alcuin,
Page 593
Theodophilus, Paul Winifred, and Eginhardt were honored with his peculiar
confidence. Under his influence the monasteries became literary as well as
ecclesiastical seminaries, which produced such men as Otfried (fl. 840), the
author of the rhymed Gospel-book, and Notker Teutonicus, the translator of
the Psalms.
After the death of Charlemagne the intellectual prospects of Germany
darkened. The empire was threatened by the Normans from the west, and
the Hungarians from the east, and there were few places where the peaceful
pursuits of the monasteries and schools could be carried on without
interruption.
The most important relic of the last part of the ninth century is the
"Ludwig's Lied," a hymn celebrating the victory of Louis over the
Normans, composed by a monk with whom that monarch was on terms of
great intimacy. The style is coarse and energetic, and blends the triumphant
emotions of the warrior with the pious devotion of the recluse. Towards the
close of the tenth century, Roswitha, a nun, composed several dramas in
Latin, characterized by true Christian feeling and feminine tenderness.
The eleventh century presents almost an entire blank in the history of
German literature. The country was invaded by the Hungarian and Slavonic
armies from abroad, or was the scene of contest between the emperors and
their vassals at home, and in the struggle between Henry IV. and Pope
Gregory VII., the clergy, who had hitherto been the chief supporters of their
literature, became estranged from the German people.
A series of lays or poems, however, known as the Lombard Cycle,
belongs to this age, among which are "Duke Ernest," "Count Rudolph," and
others, which combine the wild legends of Paganism with the more courtly
style of the next period.
confidence. Under his influence the monasteries became literary as well as
ecclesiastical seminaries, which produced such men as Otfried (fl. 840), the
author of the rhymed Gospel-book, and Notker Teutonicus, the translator of
the Psalms.
After the death of Charlemagne the intellectual prospects of Germany
darkened. The empire was threatened by the Normans from the west, and
the Hungarians from the east, and there were few places where the peaceful
pursuits of the monasteries and schools could be carried on without
interruption.
The most important relic of the last part of the ninth century is the
"Ludwig's Lied," a hymn celebrating the victory of Louis over the
Normans, composed by a monk with whom that monarch was on terms of
great intimacy. The style is coarse and energetic, and blends the triumphant
emotions of the warrior with the pious devotion of the recluse. Towards the
close of the tenth century, Roswitha, a nun, composed several dramas in
Latin, characterized by true Christian feeling and feminine tenderness.
The eleventh century presents almost an entire blank in the history of
German literature. The country was invaded by the Hungarian and Slavonic
armies from abroad, or was the scene of contest between the emperors and
their vassals at home, and in the struggle between Henry IV. and Pope
Gregory VII., the clergy, who had hitherto been the chief supporters of their
literature, became estranged from the German people.
A series of lays or poems, however, known as the Lombard Cycle,
belongs to this age, among which are "Duke Ernest," "Count Rudolph," and
others, which combine the wild legends of Paganism with the more courtly
style of the next period.
Page 594
3. THE SUABIAN AGE.—A splendid epoch of belles-lettres dates from
the year 1138, when Conrad III., of the Hohenstauffen dynasty, ascended
the throne of the German Empire. The Crusades, which followed, filled
Germany with religious and martial excitement, and chivalry was soon in
the height of its splendor. The grand specimens of Gothic architecture
produced during this period, the cathedrals of Ulm, Strasbourg, and
Cologne, in which ponderous piles of matter were reduced to forms of
beauty, speak of the great ideas and the great powers called into exercise to
fulfill them. The commercial wealth of Germany was rapidly developed;
thousands of serfs became freemen; large cities arose, mines were
discovered, and a taste for luxury began to prevail.
In 1149, when the emperor undertook a crusade in concert with Louis
VII. of France, the nobility of Germany were brought into habitual
acquaintance with the nobility of France, who at that time cultivated
Provençal poetry, and the result was quickly apparent in German literature.
The poets began to take their inspiration from real life, and though far from
being imitators, they borrowed their models from the romantic cycles of
Brittany and Provence.
The emperors of the Suabian or Hohenstauffen dynasty formed a new
rallying-point for the national sympathies, and their courts and the castles of
their vassals proved a more genial home for the Muses than the monasteries
of Fulda and St. Gall. In the Crusades, the various divisions of the German
race, separated after their inroad into the seats of Roman civilization, again
met; no longer with the impetuosity of Franks and Goths, but with the
polished reserve of a Godfrey of Bouillon and the chivalrous bearing of a
Frederic Barbarossa. The German emperors and nobles opened their courts
and received their guests with brilliant hospitality; the splendor of their
tournaments and festivals attracted crowds from great distances, and
foremost among them poets and singers; thus French and German poetry
the year 1138, when Conrad III., of the Hohenstauffen dynasty, ascended
the throne of the German Empire. The Crusades, which followed, filled
Germany with religious and martial excitement, and chivalry was soon in
the height of its splendor. The grand specimens of Gothic architecture
produced during this period, the cathedrals of Ulm, Strasbourg, and
Cologne, in which ponderous piles of matter were reduced to forms of
beauty, speak of the great ideas and the great powers called into exercise to
fulfill them. The commercial wealth of Germany was rapidly developed;
thousands of serfs became freemen; large cities arose, mines were
discovered, and a taste for luxury began to prevail.
In 1149, when the emperor undertook a crusade in concert with Louis
VII. of France, the nobility of Germany were brought into habitual
acquaintance with the nobility of France, who at that time cultivated
Provençal poetry, and the result was quickly apparent in German literature.
The poets began to take their inspiration from real life, and though far from
being imitators, they borrowed their models from the romantic cycles of
Brittany and Provence.
The emperors of the Suabian or Hohenstauffen dynasty formed a new
rallying-point for the national sympathies, and their courts and the castles of
their vassals proved a more genial home for the Muses than the monasteries
of Fulda and St. Gall. In the Crusades, the various divisions of the German
race, separated after their inroad into the seats of Roman civilization, again
met; no longer with the impetuosity of Franks and Goths, but with the
polished reserve of a Godfrey of Bouillon and the chivalrous bearing of a
Frederic Barbarossa. The German emperors and nobles opened their courts
and received their guests with brilliant hospitality; the splendor of their
tournaments and festivals attracted crowds from great distances, and
foremost among them poets and singers; thus French and German poetry
Page 595
were brought face to face. While the Hohenstauffen dynasty remained on
the imperial throne (1138-1272) the Suabian dialect prevailed, the literature
of chivalry was patronized at the court, and the Suabian minstrels were
everywhere heard. These poets, who sang their love-songs, or minne songs
(so called from an old German word signifying love), have received the
name of Minnesingers. During a century and a half, from 1150 to 1300,
emperors, princes, barons, priests, and minstrels vied with each other in
translating and producing lays of love, satiric fables, sacred legends,
fabliaux, and metrical romances. Some of the bards were poor, and recited
their songs from court to court; but many of them sang merely for pleasure
when their swords were unemployed. This poetry was essentially chivalric;
ideal love for a chosen lady, the laments of disappointed affection, or the
charms of spring, formed the constant subjects of their verse. They
generally sang their own compositions, and accompanied themselves on the
harp; yet some even among the titled minstrels could neither read nor write,
and it is related of of one that he was forced to keep a letter from his lady-
love in his bosom for ten days until he could find some one to decipher it.
Among the names of nearly two hundred Minnesingers that have come
down to us, the most celebrated are Wolfram of Eschenbach (fl. 1210),
Henry of Ofterdingen (fl. 1250), and Walter of the Vogel Weide (1170-
1227).
The numerous romances of chivalry which were translated into German
rhyme during the Suabian period have been divided into classes, or cycles.
The first and earliest cycle relates to Arthur and the Knights of the Round
Table; the are of Anglo-Norman origin, and were probably derived from
Welsh chronicles extant in Britain and Brittany before the poets on either
side of the Channel began to rhyme in the Langue d'oui. Of all the Round
Table traditions, none became so popular in Germany as that of the "San
Graal," or "Sang Réal" (the real blood). By this was understood a cup or
the imperial throne (1138-1272) the Suabian dialect prevailed, the literature
of chivalry was patronized at the court, and the Suabian minstrels were
everywhere heard. These poets, who sang their love-songs, or minne songs
(so called from an old German word signifying love), have received the
name of Minnesingers. During a century and a half, from 1150 to 1300,
emperors, princes, barons, priests, and minstrels vied with each other in
translating and producing lays of love, satiric fables, sacred legends,
fabliaux, and metrical romances. Some of the bards were poor, and recited
their songs from court to court; but many of them sang merely for pleasure
when their swords were unemployed. This poetry was essentially chivalric;
ideal love for a chosen lady, the laments of disappointed affection, or the
charms of spring, formed the constant subjects of their verse. They
generally sang their own compositions, and accompanied themselves on the
harp; yet some even among the titled minstrels could neither read nor write,
and it is related of of one that he was forced to keep a letter from his lady-
love in his bosom for ten days until he could find some one to decipher it.
Among the names of nearly two hundred Minnesingers that have come
down to us, the most celebrated are Wolfram of Eschenbach (fl. 1210),
Henry of Ofterdingen (fl. 1250), and Walter of the Vogel Weide (1170-
1227).
The numerous romances of chivalry which were translated into German
rhyme during the Suabian period have been divided into classes, or cycles.
The first and earliest cycle relates to Arthur and the Knights of the Round
Table; the are of Anglo-Norman origin, and were probably derived from
Welsh chronicles extant in Britain and Brittany before the poets on either
side of the Channel began to rhyme in the Langue d'oui. Of all the Round
Table traditions, none became so popular in Germany as that of the "San
Graal," or "Sang Réal" (the real blood). By this was understood a cup or
Page 596
charger, supposed to have served the Last Supper, and to have been
employed in receiving the precious blood of Christ from the side-wound
given on the cross. This relic is stated to have been brought by Joseph of
Arimathea into northern Europe, and to have been intrusted by him to the
custody of Sir Parsifal. Wolfram of Eschenbach, in his "Parsifal," relates the
adventures of the hero who passed may years of pilgrimage in search of the
sanctuary of the Graal. The second cycle of romance, respecting
Charlemagne and his twelve peers, was mostly translated from the literature
of France. The third cycle relates to the heroes of classical antiquity, and
exhibits them in the costume of chivalry. Among them are the stories of
Alexander the Great, and "Aeneid," and the "Trojan War."
But the age of German chivalry and chivalric poetry soon passed away.
Toward the end of the thirteenth century the Crusades languished, and the
contest between the imperial and papal powers raged fiercely; with the
death of Frederic I. the star of the Suabian dynasty set, and the sweet
sounds of the Suabian lyre died away with the last breath of Conradin on
the scaffold at Naples, in 1268.
During this period there was a wide difference between the minstrelsy
patronized by the nobility and the old ballads preserved by the popular
memory. These, however, were seized upon by certain poets of the time,
probably Henry of Ofterdingen, Wolfram of Eschenbach, and others, and
reduced to the epic form, in which they have come down to us under the
titles of the Heldenbuch and the Nibelungen Lied. They contain many
singular traits of a warlike age, and we have proof of their great antiquity in
the morals and manners which they describe.
The Heldenbuch, or Book of Heroes, which, in its present form, belongs
to the close of the twelfth century, is a collection of poems, containing
traditions of events which happened in the time of Attila, and the irruptions
employed in receiving the precious blood of Christ from the side-wound
given on the cross. This relic is stated to have been brought by Joseph of
Arimathea into northern Europe, and to have been intrusted by him to the
custody of Sir Parsifal. Wolfram of Eschenbach, in his "Parsifal," relates the
adventures of the hero who passed may years of pilgrimage in search of the
sanctuary of the Graal. The second cycle of romance, respecting
Charlemagne and his twelve peers, was mostly translated from the literature
of France. The third cycle relates to the heroes of classical antiquity, and
exhibits them in the costume of chivalry. Among them are the stories of
Alexander the Great, and "Aeneid," and the "Trojan War."
But the age of German chivalry and chivalric poetry soon passed away.
Toward the end of the thirteenth century the Crusades languished, and the
contest between the imperial and papal powers raged fiercely; with the
death of Frederic I. the star of the Suabian dynasty set, and the sweet
sounds of the Suabian lyre died away with the last breath of Conradin on
the scaffold at Naples, in 1268.
During this period there was a wide difference between the minstrelsy
patronized by the nobility and the old ballads preserved by the popular
memory. These, however, were seized upon by certain poets of the time,
probably Henry of Ofterdingen, Wolfram of Eschenbach, and others, and
reduced to the epic form, in which they have come down to us under the
titles of the Heldenbuch and the Nibelungen Lied. They contain many
singular traits of a warlike age, and we have proof of their great antiquity in
the morals and manners which they describe.
The Heldenbuch, or Book of Heroes, which, in its present form, belongs
to the close of the twelfth century, is a collection of poems, containing
traditions of events which happened in the time of Attila, and the irruptions
Page 597
of the German nations into the Roman Empire. The principal personages
who figure in these tales of love and war are Etzel or Attila, Dietrich or
Theodoric the Great, Siegfried, the Achilles of the North, Gudrune, Hagan,
and others, who reappear in the Nibelungen Lied, and who have been
already alluded to in the heroic legends of the Scandinavian Edda. The
Nibelungen Lied (from Nibelungen, the name of an ancient powerful
Burgundian race, and Lied, a lay or song) occupies an important place in
German literature, and in grandeur of design and beauty of execution it far
surpasses any other poetical production of this period. The "Horny
Siegfried," one of the poems of the Heldenbuch, serves as a sort of prelude
to the Nibelungen. In that, Siegfried appears as the personification of manly
beauty, virtue, and prowess; invulnerable, from having bathed in the blood
of some dragons which he had slain, save in one spot between his
shoulders, upon which a leaf happened to fall. Having rescued the beautiful
Chriemhild from, the power of a giant or dragon, and possessed himself of
the treasures of the dwarfs, he restores her to her father, the King of the
ancient city of Worms, where he is received with regal honors, and his
marriage with Chriemhild celebrated with unparalleled splendor.
In the Nibelungen, Chriemhild is represented as the sister of Günther the
King of Burgundy; the gallant Siegfried having heard of her surpassing
beauty, resolves to woo her for his bride, but all his splendid achievements
fail to secure her favors. In the mean time tidings reach the court of the
fame of the beautiful Brunhild, queen of Isenland, of her matchless courage
and strength; every suitor for her hand being forced to abide three combats
with her, and if vanquished to suffer a cruel death. Günther resolves to try
his fortune, and to win her or perish, and Siegfried accompanies him on
condition that the hand of Chriemhild shall be his reward if they succeed.
At the court of Brunhild, Siegfried presents himself as the vassal of
Günther, to increase her sense of his friend's power, and this falsehood is
who figure in these tales of love and war are Etzel or Attila, Dietrich or
Theodoric the Great, Siegfried, the Achilles of the North, Gudrune, Hagan,
and others, who reappear in the Nibelungen Lied, and who have been
already alluded to in the heroic legends of the Scandinavian Edda. The
Nibelungen Lied (from Nibelungen, the name of an ancient powerful
Burgundian race, and Lied, a lay or song) occupies an important place in
German literature, and in grandeur of design and beauty of execution it far
surpasses any other poetical production of this period. The "Horny
Siegfried," one of the poems of the Heldenbuch, serves as a sort of prelude
to the Nibelungen. In that, Siegfried appears as the personification of manly
beauty, virtue, and prowess; invulnerable, from having bathed in the blood
of some dragons which he had slain, save in one spot between his
shoulders, upon which a leaf happened to fall. Having rescued the beautiful
Chriemhild from, the power of a giant or dragon, and possessed himself of
the treasures of the dwarfs, he restores her to her father, the King of the
ancient city of Worms, where he is received with regal honors, and his
marriage with Chriemhild celebrated with unparalleled splendor.
In the Nibelungen, Chriemhild is represented as the sister of Günther the
King of Burgundy; the gallant Siegfried having heard of her surpassing
beauty, resolves to woo her for his bride, but all his splendid achievements
fail to secure her favors. In the mean time tidings reach the court of the
fame of the beautiful Brunhild, queen of Isenland, of her matchless courage
and strength; every suitor for her hand being forced to abide three combats
with her, and if vanquished to suffer a cruel death. Günther resolves to try
his fortune, and to win her or perish, and Siegfried accompanies him on
condition that the hand of Chriemhild shall be his reward if they succeed.
At the court of Brunhild, Siegfried presents himself as the vassal of
Günther, to increase her sense of his friend's power, and this falsehood is
Page 598
one cause of the subsequent calamities. In the combats, Siegfried, becoming
invisible by means of a magic cap he had obtained from the dwarfs, seizes
the arm of Günther and enables him to overcome the martial maid in every
feat of arms: and the vanquished Brunhild bids her vassals do homage to
him as their lord. A double union is now celebrated with the utmost pomp
and rejoicing. The proud Brunhild, however, is indignant at her sister-in-law
wedding a vassal. In vain Günther assures her that Siegfried is a mighty
prince in his own country; the offended queen determines to punish his
deception, and ties him hand and foot with her magic girdle, and hangs him
upon a nail; Siegfried pitying the condition of the king, promises his aid in
depriving the haughty queen of the girdle, the source of all her magic
strength. He successfully accomplishes the feat, and in a luckless hour
presents the trophy to Chriemhild, and confides the tale to her ear. A dispute
having afterwards arisen between the two queens, Chriemhild, carried away
by pride and passion, produces the fatal girdle, a token which, if found in
the possession of any save the husband, was regarded as an almost
irrefutable proof of guilt among the nations of the North. At this Brunhild
vows revenge, and is aided by the fierce Hagan, Günther's most devoted
follower, who, having induced Chriemhild to confide to him the secret of
the spot where Siegfried is mortal, seizes the first occasion to plunge a
lance between his shoulders, and afterwards bears the body to the chamber
door of Chriemhild, who is overwhelmed with grief and burning with
resentment. To secure her revenge she at length marries Etzel, or Attila,
king of the Huns, who invites the Burgundians to his court, and at a grand
festival Chriemhild involves them in a bloody battle, in which thousands
are slain on both sides. Günther and Hagan are taken prisoners by Dietrich
of Berne, and put to death by Chriemhild, who in turn suffers death at the
hands of one of the followers of Dietrich.
Such is an imperfect outline of this ancient poem, which, despite all its
horrors and improbabilities, has many passages of touching beauty, and
invisible by means of a magic cap he had obtained from the dwarfs, seizes
the arm of Günther and enables him to overcome the martial maid in every
feat of arms: and the vanquished Brunhild bids her vassals do homage to
him as their lord. A double union is now celebrated with the utmost pomp
and rejoicing. The proud Brunhild, however, is indignant at her sister-in-law
wedding a vassal. In vain Günther assures her that Siegfried is a mighty
prince in his own country; the offended queen determines to punish his
deception, and ties him hand and foot with her magic girdle, and hangs him
upon a nail; Siegfried pitying the condition of the king, promises his aid in
depriving the haughty queen of the girdle, the source of all her magic
strength. He successfully accomplishes the feat, and in a luckless hour
presents the trophy to Chriemhild, and confides the tale to her ear. A dispute
having afterwards arisen between the two queens, Chriemhild, carried away
by pride and passion, produces the fatal girdle, a token which, if found in
the possession of any save the husband, was regarded as an almost
irrefutable proof of guilt among the nations of the North. At this Brunhild
vows revenge, and is aided by the fierce Hagan, Günther's most devoted
follower, who, having induced Chriemhild to confide to him the secret of
the spot where Siegfried is mortal, seizes the first occasion to plunge a
lance between his shoulders, and afterwards bears the body to the chamber
door of Chriemhild, who is overwhelmed with grief and burning with
resentment. To secure her revenge she at length marries Etzel, or Attila,
king of the Huns, who invites the Burgundians to his court, and at a grand
festival Chriemhild involves them in a bloody battle, in which thousands
are slain on both sides. Günther and Hagan are taken prisoners by Dietrich
of Berne, and put to death by Chriemhild, who in turn suffers death at the
hands of one of the followers of Dietrich.
Such is an imperfect outline of this ancient poem, which, despite all its
horrors and improbabilities, has many passages of touching beauty, and
Page 599
wonderful power. Siegfried, the hero, is one of the most charming
characters of romance or poetry. Chriemhild, at first all that the poet could
fancy of loveliness, becomes at last an avenging fury. Brunhild is proud,
haughty, stern, and vindictive, though not incapable of softer emotions.
In the Scandinavian legend we find the same personages in grander
outlines and more gigantic proportions. The mythological portion of the
story occupies the most prominent place, and Brunhild is there represented
as a Valkyriur.
The time in which the scene of this historical tragedy is laid is about 430
A.D. From the thirteenth to the sixteenth century it was widely read, and
highly appreciated. But in the succeeding age it was almost entirely
forgotten. It was brought again to light in the beginning of the present
century, and since that time, it has been the subject of many learned
commentaries and researches.
4. THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES.—The period
from the accession of the House of Hapsburg to the beginning of the
Reformation was crowded with events of great social importance, but its
literature was remarkably poor. The palmy days of the minstrels and
romancists had passed away. Rudolph was an economical prince, who
mended his own doublet to spare money, and as he had no taste for
minstrelsy, the composers of songs who went to his court found no rewards
there. The rank and influence of the metropolis were transferred from
Frankfort to Vienna, and the communication with the southern and
southwestern parts of Europe was greatly impeded. The Germans were
occupied in crusades against the Huns; the court language was changed
from west Gothic to an east Gothic dialect, which was less national, and
much of the southern culture and the European sympathies which had
characterized the reign of the Suabian emperors disappeared.
characters of romance or poetry. Chriemhild, at first all that the poet could
fancy of loveliness, becomes at last an avenging fury. Brunhild is proud,
haughty, stern, and vindictive, though not incapable of softer emotions.
In the Scandinavian legend we find the same personages in grander
outlines and more gigantic proportions. The mythological portion of the
story occupies the most prominent place, and Brunhild is there represented
as a Valkyriur.
The time in which the scene of this historical tragedy is laid is about 430
A.D. From the thirteenth to the sixteenth century it was widely read, and
highly appreciated. But in the succeeding age it was almost entirely
forgotten. It was brought again to light in the beginning of the present
century, and since that time, it has been the subject of many learned
commentaries and researches.
4. THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES.—The period
from the accession of the House of Hapsburg to the beginning of the
Reformation was crowded with events of great social importance, but its
literature was remarkably poor. The palmy days of the minstrels and
romancists had passed away. Rudolph was an economical prince, who
mended his own doublet to spare money, and as he had no taste for
minstrelsy, the composers of songs who went to his court found no rewards
there. The rank and influence of the metropolis were transferred from
Frankfort to Vienna, and the communication with the southern and
southwestern parts of Europe was greatly impeded. The Germans were
occupied in crusades against the Huns; the court language was changed
from west Gothic to an east Gothic dialect, which was less national, and
much of the southern culture and the European sympathies which had
characterized the reign of the Suabian emperors disappeared.
Page 600
Some inferior princes, however, encouraged versification, but the prizes
were so reduced in value that the knights and noblemen left the field in
favor of inferior competitors. A versifying mania now began to pervade all
classes of society; chaplains, doctors, schoolmasters, weavers, blacksmiths,
shoemakers—all endeavored to mend their fortunes by rhyming. Poetry
sank rapidly into dullness and mediocrity, while the so-called poets rose in
conceit and arrogance. The spirit of the age soon embodied these votaries of
the muse in corporations, and the Emperor Charles IV. (1346-1378) gave
them a charter. They generally called twelve poets among the minnesingers
their masters, and hence their name Mastersingers. They met on certain
days and criticised each other's productions. Correctness was their chief
object, and they seemed to have little idea of the difference between
poetical and prosaic expressions. Every fault was marked, and he who had
fewest received the prize, and was allowed to take apprentices in the art. At
the expiration of his poetical apprenticeship the young poet was admitted to
the corporation and declared a master.
Though the institution of the Mastersingers was established at the close
of the thirteenth century, it was not until the fifteenth and sixteenth that it
really flourished, particularly through the genius of Hans Sachs. The
institution, survived, however, though languishing, through the seventeenth
century, and the calamities of the Thirty Years' War. At Ulm it outlasted
even the changes which the French Revolution effected in Europe, and as
late as 1830 twelve old Mastersingers yet remained, who, after being driven
from one asylum to another, sang their ancient melodies from memory in
the little hostelry where the workmen used to meet in the evening to drink
together. In 1839 four only were living, and in that year these veterans
assembled with great solemnity, and declaring the society of Mastersingers
forever closed, presented their songs, hymns, books, and pictures to a
modern musical institution at Ulm.
were so reduced in value that the knights and noblemen left the field in
favor of inferior competitors. A versifying mania now began to pervade all
classes of society; chaplains, doctors, schoolmasters, weavers, blacksmiths,
shoemakers—all endeavored to mend their fortunes by rhyming. Poetry
sank rapidly into dullness and mediocrity, while the so-called poets rose in
conceit and arrogance. The spirit of the age soon embodied these votaries of
the muse in corporations, and the Emperor Charles IV. (1346-1378) gave
them a charter. They generally called twelve poets among the minnesingers
their masters, and hence their name Mastersingers. They met on certain
days and criticised each other's productions. Correctness was their chief
object, and they seemed to have little idea of the difference between
poetical and prosaic expressions. Every fault was marked, and he who had
fewest received the prize, and was allowed to take apprentices in the art. At
the expiration of his poetical apprenticeship the young poet was admitted to
the corporation and declared a master.
Though the institution of the Mastersingers was established at the close
of the thirteenth century, it was not until the fifteenth and sixteenth that it
really flourished, particularly through the genius of Hans Sachs. The
institution, survived, however, though languishing, through the seventeenth
century, and the calamities of the Thirty Years' War. At Ulm it outlasted
even the changes which the French Revolution effected in Europe, and as
late as 1830 twelve old Mastersingers yet remained, who, after being driven
from one asylum to another, sang their ancient melodies from memory in
the little hostelry where the workmen used to meet in the evening to drink
together. In 1839 four only were living, and in that year these veterans
assembled with great solemnity, and declaring the society of Mastersingers
forever closed, presented their songs, hymns, books, and pictures to a
modern musical institution at Ulm.
Page 601
While the early Mastersingers were pouring forth their strains with
undiminished confidence in their own powers, a new species of poetic
literature was growing up beside them in the form of simple and humorous
fables, or daring satires, often directed against the clergy and nobility,
which were among the most popular productions of the Middle Ages. Such
were "Friar Amis" and the "Ship of Fools." Indeed, from the year 1300 to
the era of the Reformation, we may clearly trace the progress of a school of
lay doctrine which was opposed to a great part of the teaching of the
church, and which was yet allowed to prevail among the people.
Among the fables, "Reynard the Fox" had a very early origin, and has
remained a favorite of the German people for several centuries. After many
transformations it reappeared as a popular work at the era of the
Reformation, and it was at last immortalized by the version of Goethe.
5. THE DRAMA.—We find the first symptoms of a German drama as
early as the thirteenth century, in rude attempts to perform religious pieces
like the old Mysteries once so popular throughout Europe. At first these
dramatic readings were conducted in the churches and by the priests, but
when the people introduced burlesque digressions, they were banished to
the open fields, where they assumed still greater license. Students in the
universities delighted to take part in them, and these exhibitions were
continued after the Reformation. There is no reason to suppose that the
early Christians objected to these sacred dramas or mysteries when they
were compatible with their religion. They were imported into Europe from
Constantinople, by crusaders and pilgrims, and became favorite shows to an
illiterate populace. Indeed, Christianity was first taught throughout the north
of Europe by means of these Mysteries and miracle plays, and the first
missionaries had familiarized their rude audiences with the prominent
incidents of Biblical history, long before the art of reading could have been
called in to communicate the chronicles themselves.
undiminished confidence in their own powers, a new species of poetic
literature was growing up beside them in the form of simple and humorous
fables, or daring satires, often directed against the clergy and nobility,
which were among the most popular productions of the Middle Ages. Such
were "Friar Amis" and the "Ship of Fools." Indeed, from the year 1300 to
the era of the Reformation, we may clearly trace the progress of a school of
lay doctrine which was opposed to a great part of the teaching of the
church, and which was yet allowed to prevail among the people.
Among the fables, "Reynard the Fox" had a very early origin, and has
remained a favorite of the German people for several centuries. After many
transformations it reappeared as a popular work at the era of the
Reformation, and it was at last immortalized by the version of Goethe.
5. THE DRAMA.—We find the first symptoms of a German drama as
early as the thirteenth century, in rude attempts to perform religious pieces
like the old Mysteries once so popular throughout Europe. At first these
dramatic readings were conducted in the churches and by the priests, but
when the people introduced burlesque digressions, they were banished to
the open fields, where they assumed still greater license. Students in the
universities delighted to take part in them, and these exhibitions were
continued after the Reformation. There is no reason to suppose that the
early Christians objected to these sacred dramas or mysteries when they
were compatible with their religion. They were imported into Europe from
Constantinople, by crusaders and pilgrims, and became favorite shows to an
illiterate populace. Indeed, Christianity was first taught throughout the north
of Europe by means of these Mysteries and miracle plays, and the first
missionaries had familiarized their rude audiences with the prominent
incidents of Biblical history, long before the art of reading could have been
called in to communicate the chronicles themselves.
Page 602
The most important writings of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are
the works of the monks of the mystic school, which form the connecting
link between the great era of the Crusades and the greater era of the
Reformation. They kindled and kept alive a new religious fervor among the
inferior clergy and the middle and lower classes, and without the labors of
these reformers of the faith, the reformers of the church would never have
found a whole nation waiting to receive them, and ready to support them.
While the scholastic divines who wrote in Latin introduced abstruse
metaphysics into their theology, the mystics represented religion as abiding
in the sentiments of the heart, rather than in doctrines. Their main principle
was that piety depended not on ecclesiastical forms and ceremonies, but
that it consisted in the abandonment of all selfish passions. The sentiments
of the mystic writers were collected and arranged by Tauler (1361), in a
well-known work, entitled "German Theology." Luther, in a preface to this
book, expresses his admiration of its contents, and asserts that he had found
in it the doctrines of the Reformation.
Another celebrated work of this school is "The Imitation of Christ,"
written in Latin, and generally attributed to Thomas à Kempis, a monk who
died 1471. It has passed through numberless editions, and still maintains its
place among the standard devotional works of Germany and other
countries.
Two other events prepared the way for the German reformers of the
sixteenth century—the foundation of the universities, (1350), and the
invention of printing. The universities were national institutions, open alike
to rich and poor, to the knight, the clerk, and the citizen. The nation itself
called these schools into life, and in them the great men who inaugurated
the next period of literature were fostered and formed.
the works of the monks of the mystic school, which form the connecting
link between the great era of the Crusades and the greater era of the
Reformation. They kindled and kept alive a new religious fervor among the
inferior clergy and the middle and lower classes, and without the labors of
these reformers of the faith, the reformers of the church would never have
found a whole nation waiting to receive them, and ready to support them.
While the scholastic divines who wrote in Latin introduced abstruse
metaphysics into their theology, the mystics represented religion as abiding
in the sentiments of the heart, rather than in doctrines. Their main principle
was that piety depended not on ecclesiastical forms and ceremonies, but
that it consisted in the abandonment of all selfish passions. The sentiments
of the mystic writers were collected and arranged by Tauler (1361), in a
well-known work, entitled "German Theology." Luther, in a preface to this
book, expresses his admiration of its contents, and asserts that he had found
in it the doctrines of the Reformation.
Another celebrated work of this school is "The Imitation of Christ,"
written in Latin, and generally attributed to Thomas à Kempis, a monk who
died 1471. It has passed through numberless editions, and still maintains its
place among the standard devotional works of Germany and other
countries.
Two other events prepared the way for the German reformers of the
sixteenth century—the foundation of the universities, (1350), and the
invention of printing. The universities were national institutions, open alike
to rich and poor, to the knight, the clerk, and the citizen. The nation itself
called these schools into life, and in them the great men who inaugurated
the next period of literature were fostered and formed.
Page 603
The invention of printing (1438) admitted the middle classes, who had
been debarred from the use of books, to the privileges hitherto enjoyed
almost exclusively by the clergy and the nobility, and placed in their hands
weapons more powerful than the swords of the knights, or the thunderbolts
of the clergy. The years from 1450 to 1500 form a period of preparation for
the great struggle that was to signalize the coming age.
PERIOD SECOND.
THE REFORMATION TO THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY (1517-
1700).
1. THE LUTHERAN PERIOD.—With the sixteenth century we enter
upon the modern history and modern literature of Germany. The language
now becomes settled, and the literature for a time becomes national. Luther
and the Reformers belonged to the people, who, through them, now for the
first time claimed an equality with the old estates of the realm, the two
representatives of which, the emperor and the pope, were never more
powerful than at this period. The armies of the emperor were recruited from
Spain, Austria, Naples, Sicily, and Burgundy while the pope, armed with the
weapons of the Inquisition, and the thunderbolts of excommunication,
levied his armies of priests and monks from all parts of the Christian world.
Against these formidable powers a poor Augustine monk came forth from
his study in the small university of Wittenberg, with no armies, no treasures,
with no weapon in his hand but the Bible, and in his clear manly voice
defied both emperor and pope, clergy and nobility. There never was a more
memorable spectacle.
After the Reformation nearly all eminent men in Germany, poets,
philosophers, and historians, belonged to the Protestant party, and resided
chiefly in the universities, which were what the monasteries had been under
been debarred from the use of books, to the privileges hitherto enjoyed
almost exclusively by the clergy and the nobility, and placed in their hands
weapons more powerful than the swords of the knights, or the thunderbolts
of the clergy. The years from 1450 to 1500 form a period of preparation for
the great struggle that was to signalize the coming age.
PERIOD SECOND.
THE REFORMATION TO THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY (1517-
1700).
1. THE LUTHERAN PERIOD.—With the sixteenth century we enter
upon the modern history and modern literature of Germany. The language
now becomes settled, and the literature for a time becomes national. Luther
and the Reformers belonged to the people, who, through them, now for the
first time claimed an equality with the old estates of the realm, the two
representatives of which, the emperor and the pope, were never more
powerful than at this period. The armies of the emperor were recruited from
Spain, Austria, Naples, Sicily, and Burgundy while the pope, armed with the
weapons of the Inquisition, and the thunderbolts of excommunication,
levied his armies of priests and monks from all parts of the Christian world.
Against these formidable powers a poor Augustine monk came forth from
his study in the small university of Wittenberg, with no armies, no treasures,
with no weapon in his hand but the Bible, and in his clear manly voice
defied both emperor and pope, clergy and nobility. There never was a more
memorable spectacle.
After the Reformation nearly all eminent men in Germany, poets,
philosophers, and historians, belonged to the Protestant party, and resided
chiefly in the universities, which were what the monasteries had been under
Page 604
Charlemagne, and the castles under Frederic Barbarossa—the centres of
gravitation for the intellectual and political life of the country. A new
aristocracy now arose, founded on intellectual preëminence, which counted
among its members princes, nobles, divines, soldiers, lawyers, and artists.
But the danger which threatens all aristocracies was not averted from the
intellectual nobility of Germany; the spirit of caste, which soon pervaded all
their institutions, deprived the second generation of that power which men
like Luther had gained at the beginning of the Reformation. The moral
influence of the universities was great, but it would have been far greater if
the intellectual leaders of the realm had not separated themselves from the
ranks whence they themselves had risen, and to which alone they owed
their influence. This intellectual aristocracy manifested a disregard of the
real wants of the people, a contempt of all knowledge which did not wear
the academic garb, and the same exclusive spirit of caste that characterizes
all aristocracies. Latin continued to be the literary medium of scholars, and
at the close of the seventeenth century German was only beginning to assert
its capabilities as a vehicle of elegant and refined literature.
The sixteenth century may be called the Lutheran period, for Martin
Luther (1483-1546) was the most prominent character in the general
literature as well as in the theology of Germany. He was the exponent of the
national feeling, he gave shape and utterance to thoughts and sentiments
which had been before only obscurely expressed, and his influence was felt
in almost every department of life and literature. The remodeling of the
German tongue may be said to have gone hand in hand with the
Reformation, and it is to Luther more than to any other that it owes its rapid
progress. His translation of the Bible was the great work of the period, and
gives to him the deserved title of creator of German prose. The Scriptures
were now familiarly read by all classes, and never has their beautiful
simplicity been more admirably rendered. The hymns of Luther are no less
remarkable for their vigor of style, than for their high devotional feeling.
gravitation for the intellectual and political life of the country. A new
aristocracy now arose, founded on intellectual preëminence, which counted
among its members princes, nobles, divines, soldiers, lawyers, and artists.
But the danger which threatens all aristocracies was not averted from the
intellectual nobility of Germany; the spirit of caste, which soon pervaded all
their institutions, deprived the second generation of that power which men
like Luther had gained at the beginning of the Reformation. The moral
influence of the universities was great, but it would have been far greater if
the intellectual leaders of the realm had not separated themselves from the
ranks whence they themselves had risen, and to which alone they owed
their influence. This intellectual aristocracy manifested a disregard of the
real wants of the people, a contempt of all knowledge which did not wear
the academic garb, and the same exclusive spirit of caste that characterizes
all aristocracies. Latin continued to be the literary medium of scholars, and
at the close of the seventeenth century German was only beginning to assert
its capabilities as a vehicle of elegant and refined literature.
The sixteenth century may be called the Lutheran period, for Martin
Luther (1483-1546) was the most prominent character in the general
literature as well as in the theology of Germany. He was the exponent of the
national feeling, he gave shape and utterance to thoughts and sentiments
which had been before only obscurely expressed, and his influence was felt
in almost every department of life and literature. The remodeling of the
German tongue may be said to have gone hand in hand with the
Reformation, and it is to Luther more than to any other that it owes its rapid
progress. His translation of the Bible was the great work of the period, and
gives to him the deserved title of creator of German prose. The Scriptures
were now familiarly read by all classes, and never has their beautiful
simplicity been more admirably rendered. The hymns of Luther are no less
remarkable for their vigor of style, than for their high devotional feeling.
Page 605
His prose works consist chiefly of twenty volumes of sermons, and eight
volumes of polemical writings, besides his "Letters" and "Table Talk,"
which give us a view of the singular mixture of qualities which formed the
character of the great Reformer.
The literature of that period also owes much to Melanchthon (1497-
1560), the author of the "Confession of Augsburg," who by his classical
learning, natural sagacity, simplicity and clearness of style, and above all by
his moderation and mildness, greatly contributed to the progress of the
Reformation. He devoted himself to the improvement of schools and the
diffusion of learning, and through his influence the Protestant princes of
Germany patronized native literature, established public libraries, and
promoted the general education of the people.
The earnest polemical writings of the age must be passed over, as they
belong rather to ecclesiastical and political than to literary history. Yet these
are the most characteristic productions of the times, and display the effects
of controversy in a very unfavorable light. The license, personality,
acrimony, and grossness of the invectives published by the controversial
writers, particularly of the sixteenth century, can hardly be imagined by a
modern reader who has not read the originals. The better specimens of this
style of writing are found in the remains of Manuel and Zwingle. Manuel
(1484-1530), a native of Switzerland, is an instance of the versatility of
talent, which was not uncommon at this time; he was a soldier, a poet, a
painter, a sculptor, and a wood- engraver. The boldness and license of his
satires are far beyond modern toleration. Zwingle (1484-1531), the leading
reformer of Switzerland, was a statesman, a theologian, a musician, and a
soldier. His principal work is the "Exposition of the Christian Faith." A
celebrated writer of prose satire was Fischart (1530-1590), whose numerous
works, under the most extravagant titles, are distinguished by wit and
extensive learning. His "Prophetic Almanac" was the selling book at all the
volumes of polemical writings, besides his "Letters" and "Table Talk,"
which give us a view of the singular mixture of qualities which formed the
character of the great Reformer.
The literature of that period also owes much to Melanchthon (1497-
1560), the author of the "Confession of Augsburg," who by his classical
learning, natural sagacity, simplicity and clearness of style, and above all by
his moderation and mildness, greatly contributed to the progress of the
Reformation. He devoted himself to the improvement of schools and the
diffusion of learning, and through his influence the Protestant princes of
Germany patronized native literature, established public libraries, and
promoted the general education of the people.
The earnest polemical writings of the age must be passed over, as they
belong rather to ecclesiastical and political than to literary history. Yet these
are the most characteristic productions of the times, and display the effects
of controversy in a very unfavorable light. The license, personality,
acrimony, and grossness of the invectives published by the controversial
writers, particularly of the sixteenth century, can hardly be imagined by a
modern reader who has not read the originals. The better specimens of this
style of writing are found in the remains of Manuel and Zwingle. Manuel
(1484-1530), a native of Switzerland, is an instance of the versatility of
talent, which was not uncommon at this time; he was a soldier, a poet, a
painter, a sculptor, and a wood- engraver. The boldness and license of his
satires are far beyond modern toleration. Zwingle (1484-1531), the leading
reformer of Switzerland, was a statesman, a theologian, a musician, and a
soldier. His principal work is the "Exposition of the Christian Faith." A
celebrated writer of prose satire was Fischart (1530-1590), whose numerous
works, under the most extravagant titles, are distinguished by wit and
extensive learning. His "Prophetic Almanac" was the selling book at all the
Page 606
fairs and markets of the day, and was read with an excitement far exceeding
that produced by any modern novels. In his "Garagantua," he borrowed
some of his descriptions from Rabelais; and this extravagant, satirical, and
humorous book, though full of the uncouth and far-fetched combinations of
words found in his other writings, contains many ludicrous caricatures of
the follies of society in his age.
Franck (fl. 1533), one of the best writers of German prose on history and
theology during the sixteenth century, was the representative of the mystic
school, and opposed Luther, whom he called the new pope. His religious
views in many respects correspond with those of the Society of Friends.
Rejecting all ecclesiastical authority, he maintained that there is an internal
light in man which is better fitted than even the Scriptures to guide him
aright in religious matters. He wrote with bitterness and severity, though he
seldom used the coarse style of invective common to his age.
Arnd (1555-1621) may be classed among the best theological writers of
the period. His treatise "On True Christianity" is still read and esteemed. He
belonged to the mystic school, and the pious and practical character of his
work made it a favorite among religious men of various sects.
Jacob Boehm (1575-1624) was a poor shoemaker, who, without the
advantages of education, devoted his mind to the most abstruse studies, and
professed that his doctrines were derived from immediate revelation; his
works contain many profound and lofty ideas mingled with many confused
notions.
2. POETRY, SATIRE, AND DEMONOLOGY.—In the sixteenth century
the old poetry of Germany was in a great measure forgotten; the Nibelungen
Lied and the Heldenbuch were despised by the learned as relics of barbarian
life; classical studies engaged the attention of all who loved elegant
literature, and while Horace was admired, the title of German poet was
that produced by any modern novels. In his "Garagantua," he borrowed
some of his descriptions from Rabelais; and this extravagant, satirical, and
humorous book, though full of the uncouth and far-fetched combinations of
words found in his other writings, contains many ludicrous caricatures of
the follies of society in his age.
Franck (fl. 1533), one of the best writers of German prose on history and
theology during the sixteenth century, was the representative of the mystic
school, and opposed Luther, whom he called the new pope. His religious
views in many respects correspond with those of the Society of Friends.
Rejecting all ecclesiastical authority, he maintained that there is an internal
light in man which is better fitted than even the Scriptures to guide him
aright in religious matters. He wrote with bitterness and severity, though he
seldom used the coarse style of invective common to his age.
Arnd (1555-1621) may be classed among the best theological writers of
the period. His treatise "On True Christianity" is still read and esteemed. He
belonged to the mystic school, and the pious and practical character of his
work made it a favorite among religious men of various sects.
Jacob Boehm (1575-1624) was a poor shoemaker, who, without the
advantages of education, devoted his mind to the most abstruse studies, and
professed that his doctrines were derived from immediate revelation; his
works contain many profound and lofty ideas mingled with many confused
notions.
2. POETRY, SATIRE, AND DEMONOLOGY.—In the sixteenth century
the old poetry of Germany was in a great measure forgotten; the Nibelungen
Lied and the Heldenbuch were despised by the learned as relics of barbarian
life; classical studies engaged the attention of all who loved elegant
literature, and while Horace was admired, the title of German poet was
Page 607
generally applied as a badge of ridicule. A propensity to satire of the most
violent and personal description seems to have been almost universal in
these excited times. Hutten (1488-1523) shared the general excitement of
the age, and warmly defended the views of Luther. He addressed many
satirical pamphlets in prose and verse to the people, and was compelled to
flee from one city to another, his life being always in danger from the
numerous enemies excited by his severity. Next to invectives and satires,
comic stories and fables were the characteristic productions of these times.
Hans Sachs (1494-1576), the most distinguished of the Mastersingers of the
sixteenth century, excelled in that kind of poetry as well as in all other
styles of composition, and following his business as shoemaker, he made
verses with equal assiduity. He employed his pen chiefly in writing
innumerable tales and fables containing common morality for common
people. In one of these he represents the Apostle St. Peter as being greatly
perplexed by the disorder and injustice prevailing in the world. Peter longs
to have the reins of government in his own hand, and believes that he could
soon reduce the world to order. While he is thinking thus, a peasant girl
comes to him and complains that she has to do a day's work in the field, and
at the same time to keep within bounds a frolicsome young goat. Peter
kindly takes the goat into custody, but it escapes into the wood, and the
apostle is so much fatigued by his efforts to recover the animal that he is led
to this conclusion: "If I am not competent to keep even one young goat in
my care, it cannot be my proper business to perplex myself about the
management of the whole world."
The best lyrical poetry was devoted to the service of the church. Its merit
consists in its simple, energetic language. Hymns were the favorite
literature of the people; they were the cradle songs which lulled the children
to sleep, they were sung by mechanics and maid-servants engaged in their
work; and they were heard in the streets and market-places instead of
ballads. Luther, who loved music and psalmody, encouraged the people to
violent and personal description seems to have been almost universal in
these excited times. Hutten (1488-1523) shared the general excitement of
the age, and warmly defended the views of Luther. He addressed many
satirical pamphlets in prose and verse to the people, and was compelled to
flee from one city to another, his life being always in danger from the
numerous enemies excited by his severity. Next to invectives and satires,
comic stories and fables were the characteristic productions of these times.
Hans Sachs (1494-1576), the most distinguished of the Mastersingers of the
sixteenth century, excelled in that kind of poetry as well as in all other
styles of composition, and following his business as shoemaker, he made
verses with equal assiduity. He employed his pen chiefly in writing
innumerable tales and fables containing common morality for common
people. In one of these he represents the Apostle St. Peter as being greatly
perplexed by the disorder and injustice prevailing in the world. Peter longs
to have the reins of government in his own hand, and believes that he could
soon reduce the world to order. While he is thinking thus, a peasant girl
comes to him and complains that she has to do a day's work in the field, and
at the same time to keep within bounds a frolicsome young goat. Peter
kindly takes the goat into custody, but it escapes into the wood, and the
apostle is so much fatigued by his efforts to recover the animal that he is led
to this conclusion: "If I am not competent to keep even one young goat in
my care, it cannot be my proper business to perplex myself about the
management of the whole world."
The best lyrical poetry was devoted to the service of the church. Its merit
consists in its simple, energetic language. Hymns were the favorite
literature of the people; they were the cradle songs which lulled the children
to sleep, they were sung by mechanics and maid-servants engaged in their
work; and they were heard in the streets and market-places instead of
ballads. Luther, who loved music and psalmody, encouraged the people to
Page 608
take a more prominent part in public worship, and wrote for them several
German hymns and psalms.
The belief in demonology and witchcraft, which was universally diffused
through Europe in the Middle Ages, raged in Germany with fearful intensity
and fury. While in other countries persecution was limited to the old, the
ugly, and the poor, here neither rank nor age offered any exemption from
suspicion and torture. While this persecution was at its height, from 1580 to
1680, more than one hundred thousand individuals, mostly women, were
consigned to the flames, or otherwise sacrificed to this blood-thirsty
insanity. Luther himself was a devout believer in witchcraft, and in the
bodily presence of the Spirit of Evil upon the earth; all his harassing doubts
and mental struggles he ascribes to his visible agency. Germany, indeed,
seemed to live and breathe in an atmosphere of mysticism.
Among the mystic philosophers and speculators on natural history and
the occult sciences who flourished in this period are Paracelsus (1493-
1546), and Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1539). Camerarius was distinguished
in the classics and philosophy; Gesner in botany, zoölogy, and the classics;
Fuchs in botany and medicine; and Agricola in mineralogy.
Among the legends of the period, that of Faust, or Dr. Faustus, has
obtained the most lasting popularity. There are good reasons for believing
that the hero of this tale was a real personage, who lived in Suabia in the
early part of the sixteenth century. He is frequently mentioned as a well-
known character who gained his celebrity by the profession of magic. In the
"History of Dr. Faustus," first published 1587, he is represented as a
magician, who gained by unlawful arts a mastery over nature. The legend
rapidly spread; It was versified by the English dramatist Marlowe, it
became the foundation of innumerable tales and dramas, until, transformed
German hymns and psalms.
The belief in demonology and witchcraft, which was universally diffused
through Europe in the Middle Ages, raged in Germany with fearful intensity
and fury. While in other countries persecution was limited to the old, the
ugly, and the poor, here neither rank nor age offered any exemption from
suspicion and torture. While this persecution was at its height, from 1580 to
1680, more than one hundred thousand individuals, mostly women, were
consigned to the flames, or otherwise sacrificed to this blood-thirsty
insanity. Luther himself was a devout believer in witchcraft, and in the
bodily presence of the Spirit of Evil upon the earth; all his harassing doubts
and mental struggles he ascribes to his visible agency. Germany, indeed,
seemed to live and breathe in an atmosphere of mysticism.
Among the mystic philosophers and speculators on natural history and
the occult sciences who flourished in this period are Paracelsus (1493-
1546), and Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1539). Camerarius was distinguished
in the classics and philosophy; Gesner in botany, zoölogy, and the classics;
Fuchs in botany and medicine; and Agricola in mineralogy.
Among the legends of the period, that of Faust, or Dr. Faustus, has
obtained the most lasting popularity. There are good reasons for believing
that the hero of this tale was a real personage, who lived in Suabia in the
early part of the sixteenth century. He is frequently mentioned as a well-
known character who gained his celebrity by the profession of magic. In the
"History of Dr. Faustus," first published 1587, he is represented as a
magician, who gained by unlawful arts a mastery over nature. The legend
rapidly spread; It was versified by the English dramatist Marlowe, it
became the foundation of innumerable tales and dramas, until, transformed
Page 609
by the genius of Goethe, it has acquired a prominent place in German
literature.
At the conclusion of the sixteenth century, owing to the disturbed state of
religious, social, and political life, and to the fact that the best minds of the
age were occupied in Latin writings on theology, while a few, devoted to
quiet study, cultivated only the classics, the hopes which had been raised of
a national poetry and literature were blighted, and a scholastic and
polemical theology continued to prevail. The native tongue was again
neglected for the Latin; the national poems were translated into Latin to
induce the learned to read them; native poets composed their verses in
Latin, and all lectures at the universities were delivered in that tongue. The
work of Luther was undone: ambitious princes and quarrelsome divines
continued the rulers of Germany, and everything seemed drifting back into
the Middle Ages. Then came the Thirty Years' War (1618- 1648), with all its
disastrous consequences. At the close of that war the public mind was
somewhat awakened, literary societies were organized, and literature was
fostered; but the nation was so completely demoralized that it hardly cared
for the liberty sanctioned by the treaty of Westphalia, or for the efforts of a
few princes and scholars to better its intellectual condition. The population
of Germany was reduced by one half; thousands of villages and towns had
been burnt to the ground; the schools, the churches, the universities, were
deserted; and a whole generation had grown up during the war, particularly
among the lower classes, with no education at all. The once wealthy
merchants were reduced to small traders. The Hanse League was broken up;
commerce was suspended, and intellectual activity paralyzed. Where any
national feeling was left, it was a feeling of shame and despair.
3. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.—During the seventeenth century
the German language was regarded by comparatively few writers as a fit
literature.
At the conclusion of the sixteenth century, owing to the disturbed state of
religious, social, and political life, and to the fact that the best minds of the
age were occupied in Latin writings on theology, while a few, devoted to
quiet study, cultivated only the classics, the hopes which had been raised of
a national poetry and literature were blighted, and a scholastic and
polemical theology continued to prevail. The native tongue was again
neglected for the Latin; the national poems were translated into Latin to
induce the learned to read them; native poets composed their verses in
Latin, and all lectures at the universities were delivered in that tongue. The
work of Luther was undone: ambitious princes and quarrelsome divines
continued the rulers of Germany, and everything seemed drifting back into
the Middle Ages. Then came the Thirty Years' War (1618- 1648), with all its
disastrous consequences. At the close of that war the public mind was
somewhat awakened, literary societies were organized, and literature was
fostered; but the nation was so completely demoralized that it hardly cared
for the liberty sanctioned by the treaty of Westphalia, or for the efforts of a
few princes and scholars to better its intellectual condition. The population
of Germany was reduced by one half; thousands of villages and towns had
been burnt to the ground; the schools, the churches, the universities, were
deserted; and a whole generation had grown up during the war, particularly
among the lower classes, with no education at all. The once wealthy
merchants were reduced to small traders. The Hanse League was broken up;
commerce was suspended, and intellectual activity paralyzed. Where any
national feeling was left, it was a feeling of shame and despair.
3. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.—During the seventeenth century
the German language was regarded by comparatively few writers as a fit
Page 610
vehicle for polite literature, and was reserved almost exclusively for satires,
novels, and religious discourses.
Opitz (1597-1639) attempted to introduce the use of his native tongue,
and, in a work on German poetry, explained the laws of poetic composition
and the mechanism of versification.
Several scholars at length directed their attention to the grammar of the
language, which, through their influence, now began to be used in the
treatment of scientific subjects. Meantime great mathematical and physical
discoveries were made through the Academy of Berlin, which was founded
under the auspices of Leibnitz, and scientific and literary associations were
everywhere established. Books became a vast branch of commerce and
great philologists and archaeologists devoted themselves to the study of
classical antiquity. Puffendorf expounded his theories of political history,
Kepler, of astronomy, Arnold, of ecclesiastical history; and Leibnitz laid a
basis for the scientific study of philosophy in Germany. Wolf shaped the
views of Leibnitz into a comprehensive system, and popularized them by
publishing his works in the German language. Thomasius, the able jurist
and pietistic philosopher, was the first, in 1688, to substitute in the
universities the German for the Latin language as the medium of
instruction.
Satirical novels form a prominent feature in the prose literature of the
time, and took the place of the invectives and satires of the sixteenth
century. No work of fiction, however, produced such an excitement as the
translation of Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe." Soon after its publication more
than forty imitations appeared.
During this century the Mastersingers went on composing, according to
the rules of their guilds, but we look in vain for the raciness and simplicity
of Hans Sachs. Some poets wrote plays in the style of Terence, or after
novels, and religious discourses.
Opitz (1597-1639) attempted to introduce the use of his native tongue,
and, in a work on German poetry, explained the laws of poetic composition
and the mechanism of versification.
Several scholars at length directed their attention to the grammar of the
language, which, through their influence, now began to be used in the
treatment of scientific subjects. Meantime great mathematical and physical
discoveries were made through the Academy of Berlin, which was founded
under the auspices of Leibnitz, and scientific and literary associations were
everywhere established. Books became a vast branch of commerce and
great philologists and archaeologists devoted themselves to the study of
classical antiquity. Puffendorf expounded his theories of political history,
Kepler, of astronomy, Arnold, of ecclesiastical history; and Leibnitz laid a
basis for the scientific study of philosophy in Germany. Wolf shaped the
views of Leibnitz into a comprehensive system, and popularized them by
publishing his works in the German language. Thomasius, the able jurist
and pietistic philosopher, was the first, in 1688, to substitute in the
universities the German for the Latin language as the medium of
instruction.
Satirical novels form a prominent feature in the prose literature of the
time, and took the place of the invectives and satires of the sixteenth
century. No work of fiction, however, produced such an excitement as the
translation of Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe." Soon after its publication more
than forty imitations appeared.
During this century the Mastersingers went on composing, according to
the rules of their guilds, but we look in vain for the raciness and simplicity
of Hans Sachs. Some poets wrote plays in the style of Terence, or after
Page 611
English models; and fables in the style of Phaedrus became fashionable.
But there was no trace anywhere of originality, truth, taste, or feeling,
except in sacred poetry. Paul Gerhard (1606-1696) is yet without an equal
in his sacred songs; many of the best hymns which are still heard in the
churches of Germany date from the age of this poet. Soon, however, even
this class of poetry degenerated on one side into dry theological
phraseology, on the other into sentimental affectation.
This century saw the rise and the fall of the first and the second Silesian
schools. The first is represented by Opitz (1597-1639), Paul Flemming, a
writer of hymns (1609-1640), and a number of less gifted poets. Its
character is pseudo-classical. All these poets endeavored to write correctly,
sedately, and eloquently. Some of them aimed at a certain simplicity and
sincerity, particularly Flemming. But it would be difficult to find in all their
writings one single thought or expression that had not been used before;
although the works of Opitz and of his followers were marked by a servile
imitation of French and Dutch poets, they exerted an influence on the
literary taste of their country, enriched the German language with new
words and phrases, and established the rules of prosody.
The second Silesian school is represented by Hoffmanswaldan (1618-
1679) and Lohenstein (1635-1683), who undertook to introduce into the
German poetry the bad taste of Marini which at that time so corrupted the
literature of Italy. Their compositions are bombastic and full of metaphors,
—the poetry of adjectives, without substance, truth, or taste.
Dramatic writing rose little above the level of the first period, The
Mysteries and Moralities still continued popular, and some of them were
altered to suit the new doctrines. Opitz wrote some operas in imitation of
the Italian, and Gryphius acquired popularity by his translations from
Marini and his introduction of the pastoral drama. The theatrical
But there was no trace anywhere of originality, truth, taste, or feeling,
except in sacred poetry. Paul Gerhard (1606-1696) is yet without an equal
in his sacred songs; many of the best hymns which are still heard in the
churches of Germany date from the age of this poet. Soon, however, even
this class of poetry degenerated on one side into dry theological
phraseology, on the other into sentimental affectation.
This century saw the rise and the fall of the first and the second Silesian
schools. The first is represented by Opitz (1597-1639), Paul Flemming, a
writer of hymns (1609-1640), and a number of less gifted poets. Its
character is pseudo-classical. All these poets endeavored to write correctly,
sedately, and eloquently. Some of them aimed at a certain simplicity and
sincerity, particularly Flemming. But it would be difficult to find in all their
writings one single thought or expression that had not been used before;
although the works of Opitz and of his followers were marked by a servile
imitation of French and Dutch poets, they exerted an influence on the
literary taste of their country, enriched the German language with new
words and phrases, and established the rules of prosody.
The second Silesian school is represented by Hoffmanswaldan (1618-
1679) and Lohenstein (1635-1683), who undertook to introduce into the
German poetry the bad taste of Marini which at that time so corrupted the
literature of Italy. Their compositions are bombastic and full of metaphors,
—the poetry of adjectives, without substance, truth, or taste.
Dramatic writing rose little above the level of the first period, The
Mysteries and Moralities still continued popular, and some of them were
altered to suit the new doctrines. Opitz wrote some operas in imitation of
the Italian, and Gryphius acquired popularity by his translations from
Marini and his introduction of the pastoral drama. The theatrical
Page 612
productions of Lohenstein, characterized by pedantry and bad taste,
together with the multitude of others belonging to this age, are curious
instances of the folly and degradation to which the stage may be reduced.
PERIOD THIRD.
FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE
PRESENT TIME (1700-1885.)
1. THE SAXONIC AND SWISS SCHOOLS.—In contrast to the
barrenness of the last period, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries present
us with a brilliant constellation of writers in every department of letters,
whose works form an era in the intellectual development of Germany
unsurpassed in many respects by any other in the history of literature.
Gottsched and Bodmer each succeeded in establishing schools of poetry
which exerted great influence on the literary taste of the country. Gottsched
(1700- 1766), the founder of the Saxonic school, exercised the same
dictatorship as a poet and critic which Opitz had exercised at the beginning
of the seventeenth century. He was the advocate and copyist of French
models in art and poetry, and he used his widespread influence in favor of
the correct and so-called classical style. After having rendered good service
in putting down the senseless extravagance of the school of Lohenstein, he
became himself a pedantic and arrogant critic; then followed a long literary
warfare between him and Bodmer (1698-1783), the founder of the Swiss
school. Gottsched and his followers at Leipsic defended the French and
insisted on classical forms and traditional rules; Bodmer and his friends in
Switzerland defended the English style, and insisted on natural sentiment
and spontaneous expression. A paper war was carried on in their respective
journals, which at length ended favorably to the Swiss or Bodmer's school,
together with the multitude of others belonging to this age, are curious
instances of the folly and degradation to which the stage may be reduced.
PERIOD THIRD.
FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE
PRESENT TIME (1700-1885.)
1. THE SAXONIC AND SWISS SCHOOLS.—In contrast to the
barrenness of the last period, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries present
us with a brilliant constellation of writers in every department of letters,
whose works form an era in the intellectual development of Germany
unsurpassed in many respects by any other in the history of literature.
Gottsched and Bodmer each succeeded in establishing schools of poetry
which exerted great influence on the literary taste of the country. Gottsched
(1700- 1766), the founder of the Saxonic school, exercised the same
dictatorship as a poet and critic which Opitz had exercised at the beginning
of the seventeenth century. He was the advocate and copyist of French
models in art and poetry, and he used his widespread influence in favor of
the correct and so-called classical style. After having rendered good service
in putting down the senseless extravagance of the school of Lohenstein, he
became himself a pedantic and arrogant critic; then followed a long literary
warfare between him and Bodmer (1698-1783), the founder of the Swiss
school. Gottsched and his followers at Leipsic defended the French and
insisted on classical forms and traditional rules; Bodmer and his friends in
Switzerland defended the English style, and insisted on natural sentiment
and spontaneous expression. A paper war was carried on in their respective
journals, which at length ended favorably to the Swiss or Bodmer's school,
Page 613
which, although the smaller party, obtained a splendid victory over its
antagonist.
Many of the followers of Gottsched, disgusted with his pedantry, finally
separated themselves from him and formed a new poetical union, called the
Second Saxonic School. They established at the same time a periodical,
which was at once the channel of their communications and the point
around which they centred. The principal representatives of this school
were Rabener (1714-1771), very popular for the cheerful strain of wit that
runs through his satires, and for the correctness of his language and style;
Gellert (1715-1769), whose "Fables" contain great moral truth enlivened by
vivid pictures of life, full of sprightliness and humor, and expressed in a
style of extraordinary ease and clearness; Kästner (1719-1800), a celebrated
and acute mathematician, and the author of many epigrams, elegies, odes,
and songs; John Elias Schlegel (1718-1749), distinguished for his dramatic
compositions; and Zachariae (1726-1777), endowed with a poetical and
witty invention, which he displayed in his comic epopees and descriptive
poems.
The following two poets were the most celebrated of them all: Hagedorn
(1708-1754), whose fables and poems are remarkable for their fancy and
wit; and Haller (1708-1777), who acquired an enduring fame as a poet,
anatomist, physiologist, botanist, and scholar. Of inferior powers, but yet of
great popularity, were: Gleim (1719-1803), upon whom the Germans
bestowed the title of "father," which shows at once how high he ranked
among the poets of his time; Kleist (1715-1759), whose poems are
characterized by pleasant portraitures, harmonious numbers, great ease, and
richness of thought, conciseness of expression, and a noble morality;
Ramler (1725-1798), who has been styled the German Horace, from his
odes in praise of Frederic the Great; Nicolai (1733-1811), who acquired
considerable fame, both for the promotion of literature and for the
antagonist.
Many of the followers of Gottsched, disgusted with his pedantry, finally
separated themselves from him and formed a new poetical union, called the
Second Saxonic School. They established at the same time a periodical,
which was at once the channel of their communications and the point
around which they centred. The principal representatives of this school
were Rabener (1714-1771), very popular for the cheerful strain of wit that
runs through his satires, and for the correctness of his language and style;
Gellert (1715-1769), whose "Fables" contain great moral truth enlivened by
vivid pictures of life, full of sprightliness and humor, and expressed in a
style of extraordinary ease and clearness; Kästner (1719-1800), a celebrated
and acute mathematician, and the author of many epigrams, elegies, odes,
and songs; John Elias Schlegel (1718-1749), distinguished for his dramatic
compositions; and Zachariae (1726-1777), endowed with a poetical and
witty invention, which he displayed in his comic epopees and descriptive
poems.
The following two poets were the most celebrated of them all: Hagedorn
(1708-1754), whose fables and poems are remarkable for their fancy and
wit; and Haller (1708-1777), who acquired an enduring fame as a poet,
anatomist, physiologist, botanist, and scholar. Of inferior powers, but yet of
great popularity, were: Gleim (1719-1803), upon whom the Germans
bestowed the title of "father," which shows at once how high he ranked
among the poets of his time; Kleist (1715-1759), whose poems are
characterized by pleasant portraitures, harmonious numbers, great ease, and
richness of thought, conciseness of expression, and a noble morality;
Ramler (1725-1798), who has been styled the German Horace, from his
odes in praise of Frederic the Great; Nicolai (1733-1811), who acquired
considerable fame, both for the promotion of literature and for the
Page 614
correction of German taste particularly, through his critical reviews; and
Gessner (1730-1787), who gained a great reputation for his "Idyls," which
are distinguished by freshness of thought and grace and eloquence of style.
2. KLOPSTOCK, LESSING, WIELAND, AND HERDER.—Klopstock
(1724-1803), inspired by the purest enthusiasm for Christianity, and by an
exalted love for his fatherland, expressed his thoughts and feelings in
eloquent but somewhat mystic strains. He was hailed as the herald of a new
school of sacred and national literature, and his "Messiah" announced him
in some respects as the rival of Milton. In comparing the Messiah with the
"Paradise Lost," Herder says: "Milton's poem Is a building resting on
mighty pillars; Klopstock's, a magic picture hovering between heaven and
earth, amid the tenderest emotions and the most moving scenes of human
nature."
Lessing (1729-1781) produced a reformation in German literature second
only to that effected by Luther in theology. He was equally eminent as a
dramatist, critic, and philosopher. His principal dramatic productions are
"Emilie Galotti" and "Nathan the Wise." As a critic he demanded creative
imagination from all who would claim the title of poet, and spared neither
friends nor foes in his efforts to maintain a high standard of literary
excellence. The writings of Lessing exerted a commanding influence on the
best minds of Germany in almost all departments of thought. They mark,
and in a great measure produced, the important change in the tone of
German literature, from the national and Christian character of Klopstock to
the cosmopolitan character which prevails in the writings of Goethe and
Schiller.
Wieland (1733-1813) was, in his youth, the friend of Klopstock, and
would tolerate nothing but religious poetry; but he suddenly turned to the
opposite extreme, and began to write epicurean romances as vehicles of his
Gessner (1730-1787), who gained a great reputation for his "Idyls," which
are distinguished by freshness of thought and grace and eloquence of style.
2. KLOPSTOCK, LESSING, WIELAND, AND HERDER.—Klopstock
(1724-1803), inspired by the purest enthusiasm for Christianity, and by an
exalted love for his fatherland, expressed his thoughts and feelings in
eloquent but somewhat mystic strains. He was hailed as the herald of a new
school of sacred and national literature, and his "Messiah" announced him
in some respects as the rival of Milton. In comparing the Messiah with the
"Paradise Lost," Herder says: "Milton's poem Is a building resting on
mighty pillars; Klopstock's, a magic picture hovering between heaven and
earth, amid the tenderest emotions and the most moving scenes of human
nature."
Lessing (1729-1781) produced a reformation in German literature second
only to that effected by Luther in theology. He was equally eminent as a
dramatist, critic, and philosopher. His principal dramatic productions are
"Emilie Galotti" and "Nathan the Wise." As a critic he demanded creative
imagination from all who would claim the title of poet, and spared neither
friends nor foes in his efforts to maintain a high standard of literary
excellence. The writings of Lessing exerted a commanding influence on the
best minds of Germany in almost all departments of thought. They mark,
and in a great measure produced, the important change in the tone of
German literature, from the national and Christian character of Klopstock to
the cosmopolitan character which prevails in the writings of Goethe and
Schiller.
Wieland (1733-1813) was, in his youth, the friend of Klopstock, and
would tolerate nothing but religious poetry; but he suddenly turned to the
opposite extreme, and began to write epicurean romances as vehicles of his
Page 615
new views of human life and happiness. Among his tales are "Agathon,"
"Musarion," and "Aristippus," which last is considered his best work. In all
these writings his purpose was to represent pleasure or utility as the only
criterion of truth. Although there is much in his prose writings to subject
him to severe censure, he maintains his place in the literature of his native
country as one of its most gay, witty, and graceful poets. His "Oberon" is
one of the most charming and attractive poems of modern times.
Herder (1741-1803) was deeply versed in almost all branches of study,
and exercised great influence, not only as a poet, but as a theologian,
philosopher, critic, and philologist. He studied philosophy under Kant, and,
after filling the offices of teacher and clergyman, he was invited to join the
circle of poets and other literary men at Weimar, under the patronage of the
Grand Duke Karl August. Here he produced a series of works on various
subjects, all marked by a kindly and noble spirit of humanity. Among them
are a treatise "On the Origin of Language," an essay on "Hebrew Poetry,"
and a work entitled "Ideas for the Philosophy of Humanity," besides
poetical and critical writings. In his collection of popular ballads from
various nations he showed his power of appreciating the various national
tomes of poetry.
The most noble feature in Herder's character was his constant striving for
the highest interests of mankind. He did not employ literature as the means
of satisfying personal ambition, and the melancholy of his last days arose
from his lofty and unfulfilled aspirations.
His friend Richter said of him: "Herder was no poet,—he was something
far more sublime and better than a poet,—he was himself a poem,—an
Indian Greek Epic composed by one of the purest of the gods."
3. GOETHE AND SCHILLER.—The close of the eighteenth and the
beginning of the nineteenth century, the age of Herder, Goethe, and Schiller,
"Musarion," and "Aristippus," which last is considered his best work. In all
these writings his purpose was to represent pleasure or utility as the only
criterion of truth. Although there is much in his prose writings to subject
him to severe censure, he maintains his place in the literature of his native
country as one of its most gay, witty, and graceful poets. His "Oberon" is
one of the most charming and attractive poems of modern times.
Herder (1741-1803) was deeply versed in almost all branches of study,
and exercised great influence, not only as a poet, but as a theologian,
philosopher, critic, and philologist. He studied philosophy under Kant, and,
after filling the offices of teacher and clergyman, he was invited to join the
circle of poets and other literary men at Weimar, under the patronage of the
Grand Duke Karl August. Here he produced a series of works on various
subjects, all marked by a kindly and noble spirit of humanity. Among them
are a treatise "On the Origin of Language," an essay on "Hebrew Poetry,"
and a work entitled "Ideas for the Philosophy of Humanity," besides
poetical and critical writings. In his collection of popular ballads from
various nations he showed his power of appreciating the various national
tomes of poetry.
The most noble feature in Herder's character was his constant striving for
the highest interests of mankind. He did not employ literature as the means
of satisfying personal ambition, and the melancholy of his last days arose
from his lofty and unfulfilled aspirations.
His friend Richter said of him: "Herder was no poet,—he was something
far more sublime and better than a poet,—he was himself a poem,—an
Indian Greek Epic composed by one of the purest of the gods."
3. GOETHE AND SCHILLER.—The close of the eighteenth and the
beginning of the nineteenth century, the age of Herder, Goethe, and Schiller,
Page 616
was one of remarkable intellectual excitement, and it has produced a
literature richer, more voluminous, and more important than that of all
preceding periods taken collectively.
The time extending between 1150 and 1300 has been styled the First
Classic Period, and that we are now entering upon is regarded as the
second. These two epochs resemble each other not only in their
productiveness, but in the failure of both to maintain a distinct national
school of poetry. In the thirteenth century the national epic appeared, but
was soon neglected for the foreign legends and sentimental verses of the
romancists and minnesingers. In the eighteenth century, when Lessing had
made a path for original genius by clearing away French pedantry and
affectation, there appeared some hope of a revival of true national literature.
But Herder directed the literary enthusiasm of his time towards foreign
poetry and universal studies, and a cosmopolitan rather than a national style
has been the result; although for thoughtfuless and sincerity, and for the
number of important ideas which it has brought into circulation, modern
German literature may justly claim the highest honor.
Goethe (1749-1832) was a man of universal genius; he was born at
Frankfort-on-the-Maine, and of his boyhood he gives a pleasant account in
his work entitled "Poetry and Truth." In 1773 the appearance of his "Götz
von Berlichingen," a drama founded upon the autobiography of that
national and popular hero, was regarded as the commencement of an
entirely new period in German dramatic literature. It was followed, in 1774,
by the sentimental novel, "The Sorrows of Werther," in which Goethe gave
expression to the morbid sentiments of many of his contemporaries. The
Grand Duke of Weimar invited him to his court, where he was elevated to
an honorable position. Here he produced his dramatic poems, "Iphigenia,"
"Egmont," "Tasso," and "Faust," besides many occasional poems and other
literature richer, more voluminous, and more important than that of all
preceding periods taken collectively.
The time extending between 1150 and 1300 has been styled the First
Classic Period, and that we are now entering upon is regarded as the
second. These two epochs resemble each other not only in their
productiveness, but in the failure of both to maintain a distinct national
school of poetry. In the thirteenth century the national epic appeared, but
was soon neglected for the foreign legends and sentimental verses of the
romancists and minnesingers. In the eighteenth century, when Lessing had
made a path for original genius by clearing away French pedantry and
affectation, there appeared some hope of a revival of true national literature.
But Herder directed the literary enthusiasm of his time towards foreign
poetry and universal studies, and a cosmopolitan rather than a national style
has been the result; although for thoughtfuless and sincerity, and for the
number of important ideas which it has brought into circulation, modern
German literature may justly claim the highest honor.
Goethe (1749-1832) was a man of universal genius; he was born at
Frankfort-on-the-Maine, and of his boyhood he gives a pleasant account in
his work entitled "Poetry and Truth." In 1773 the appearance of his "Götz
von Berlichingen," a drama founded upon the autobiography of that
national and popular hero, was regarded as the commencement of an
entirely new period in German dramatic literature. It was followed, in 1774,
by the sentimental novel, "The Sorrows of Werther," in which Goethe gave
expression to the morbid sentiments of many of his contemporaries. The
Grand Duke of Weimar invited him to his court, where he was elevated to
an honorable position. Here he produced his dramatic poems, "Iphigenia,"
"Egmont," "Tasso," and "Faust," besides many occasional poems and other
Page 617
works, and continued writing until his eighty-second year, while he varied
his literary life with the pleasures of society.
As a poet, Goethe is chiefly known by his dramas, "Faust," "Tasso," and
"Egmont;" his lyrical and occasional poems, and his domestic epic, entitled
"Herman and Dorothea." The first part of "Faust" is the poem by which the
fame of this author has been most widely extended. Though incomplete, it
is remarkably original, and suggests important reflections on human
character and destiny. The narrative is partly founded on the old legend of
Faust, the magician. We are introduced to the hero at the moment when he
despairs of arriving at any valuable result, after years of abstruse study, and
is about to put the cup of poison to his lips. The church bells of Easter
Sunday recall to his mind the scenes of his innocent childhood, and he puts
aside the cup and resolves to commence a new career of life. At this
moment, his evil genius, Mephistopheles, appears, and persuades him to
abandon philosophy and to enjoy the pleasures of the world. Faust yields to
his advice, and after many adventures ends his career in crime and in
misery. Many parts of the poem are written in a mystical vein, and intimate
rather than express the various reflections to be deduced from it. The
second part of "Faust" is remarkable for its varied and harmonious
versification.
Goethe was a voluminous writer, and much devoted to the fine arts and
the natural sciences, as is attested by his remarkable work on the theory of
colors. He extended his wide sympathies over almost every department of
literature.
The great merit of Goethe lies not so much in his separate productions, as
in the philosophy of life and individual development which pervades his
works, all of which, from "Faust," his greatest achievement, to his songs,
elegies, and shorter poems, have the same peculiar character, and are tinged
his literary life with the pleasures of society.
As a poet, Goethe is chiefly known by his dramas, "Faust," "Tasso," and
"Egmont;" his lyrical and occasional poems, and his domestic epic, entitled
"Herman and Dorothea." The first part of "Faust" is the poem by which the
fame of this author has been most widely extended. Though incomplete, it
is remarkably original, and suggests important reflections on human
character and destiny. The narrative is partly founded on the old legend of
Faust, the magician. We are introduced to the hero at the moment when he
despairs of arriving at any valuable result, after years of abstruse study, and
is about to put the cup of poison to his lips. The church bells of Easter
Sunday recall to his mind the scenes of his innocent childhood, and he puts
aside the cup and resolves to commence a new career of life. At this
moment, his evil genius, Mephistopheles, appears, and persuades him to
abandon philosophy and to enjoy the pleasures of the world. Faust yields to
his advice, and after many adventures ends his career in crime and in
misery. Many parts of the poem are written in a mystical vein, and intimate
rather than express the various reflections to be deduced from it. The
second part of "Faust" is remarkable for its varied and harmonious
versification.
Goethe was a voluminous writer, and much devoted to the fine arts and
the natural sciences, as is attested by his remarkable work on the theory of
colors. He extended his wide sympathies over almost every department of
literature.
The great merit of Goethe lies not so much in his separate productions, as
in the philosophy of life and individual development which pervades his
works, all of which, from "Faust," his greatest achievement, to his songs,
elegies, and shorter poems, have the same peculiar character, and are tinged
Page 618
with the same profound reflections. The service he rendered to the German
language was immense. The clearness and simplicity of his prose style
make the best model for the imitation of his countrymen. During his
lifetime, professors of various universities lectured on his works, and other
authors wrote commentaries on his productions, while his genius has been
amply recognized in foreign countries, especially within the last thirty
years.
Schiller (1759-1805) was born at Marbach, a town of Wurtemberg. At the
age of fourteen he was admitted to the military academy at Stuttgart, where,
in spite of its dull routine, he secretly educated himself as a poet. At the age
of twenty-two, he gave to the world his tragedy of the "Robbers"
(composed when he was only seventeen), in which his own wild longings
for intellectual liberty found a turbulent and exaggerated expression. The
public received it with great enthusiasm, as the production of a vigorous
and revolutionary genius, and Schiller soon after escaped from the academy
to try his fortune as a theatrical author. Accompanied by a young musician,
with only twenty-three florins in his pocket, he set out for Manheim, on the
night when the Grand Duke Paul of Russia paid a visit to Stuttgart, and all
the people were too full of the excitement of the royal preparations and
illuminations to observe the departure of the young poet. The good citizens
did not dream that an obscure youth was leaving the city gate, of whom
they would one day be far more proud than of the glittering visit of the
Grand Duke. Yet the royal entrance is only now remembered because on
that night young Schiller ran away; and the people of Stuttgart, when they
would show a stranger their objects of interest, point first of all to the statue
of Friedrich Schiller.
After many adventures, Schiller was appointed poet to the theatre at
Manheim. At a later period he was made Professor of History at the
University of Jena, a position for which his genius eminently fitted him, and
language was immense. The clearness and simplicity of his prose style
make the best model for the imitation of his countrymen. During his
lifetime, professors of various universities lectured on his works, and other
authors wrote commentaries on his productions, while his genius has been
amply recognized in foreign countries, especially within the last thirty
years.
Schiller (1759-1805) was born at Marbach, a town of Wurtemberg. At the
age of fourteen he was admitted to the military academy at Stuttgart, where,
in spite of its dull routine, he secretly educated himself as a poet. At the age
of twenty-two, he gave to the world his tragedy of the "Robbers"
(composed when he was only seventeen), in which his own wild longings
for intellectual liberty found a turbulent and exaggerated expression. The
public received it with great enthusiasm, as the production of a vigorous
and revolutionary genius, and Schiller soon after escaped from the academy
to try his fortune as a theatrical author. Accompanied by a young musician,
with only twenty-three florins in his pocket, he set out for Manheim, on the
night when the Grand Duke Paul of Russia paid a visit to Stuttgart, and all
the people were too full of the excitement of the royal preparations and
illuminations to observe the departure of the young poet. The good citizens
did not dream that an obscure youth was leaving the city gate, of whom
they would one day be far more proud than of the glittering visit of the
Grand Duke. Yet the royal entrance is only now remembered because on
that night young Schiller ran away; and the people of Stuttgart, when they
would show a stranger their objects of interest, point first of all to the statue
of Friedrich Schiller.
After many adventures, Schiller was appointed poet to the theatre at
Manheim. At a later period he was made Professor of History at the
University of Jena, a position for which his genius eminently fitted him, and
Page 619
every prospect of happiness opened before him. But his health soon failed,
and, after a short illness, he expired at the early age of forty- five.
The principal works of Schiller are the dramas of "Wallenstein", "Marie
Stuart", "The Maid of Orleans", "The Bride of Messina", and the celebrated
ode called the "Song of the Bell". Besides these, he wrote many ballads,
didactic poems, and lyrical pieces. The "Song of the Bell" stands alone as a
successful attempt to unite poetry with the interests of daily life and
industry. In his lyrical ballads and romances, Schiller rises above the
didactic and descriptive style, and is inspired with noble purposes. The
"Cranes of Ibycus" and the "Fight with the Dragon" may be mentioned as
instances. Schiller was so interesting as a man, a philosopher, a historian,
and critic, as well as poet, that, as Carlyle observes, in the general praise of
his labors, his particular merits have been overlooked. His aspirations in
literature were noble and benevolent. He regarded poetry especially as
something other than a trivial amusement,—as the companion and cherisher
of the best hopes and affections that can be developed in human life.
While Goethe excels Schiller in completeness of aesthetical and
philosophical perception, and in the versatility of his world-embracing and
brilliant attainments, as a lover of his race, and as a poet who knew how to
embody that love in the most exquisite conceptions, Schiller far surpassed
him, and stands preeminent among all other poets. While Goethe
represented the actual thoughts and feelings of his age, Schiller reflected its
ideal yearnings; while the practical result of Goethe's influence was to
develop the capacities of each individual to their utmost extent, Schiller's
aim was to lead men to consecrate their gifts to the good, the beautiful, and
the true, the ethical trinity of the ages. The one poet represents the majesty,
and at the same time the tyranny of the intellect; the other, the power and
the loveliness of the affections; and although Goethe will always receive the
respect and admiration of the world, Schiller will command its love.
and, after a short illness, he expired at the early age of forty- five.
The principal works of Schiller are the dramas of "Wallenstein", "Marie
Stuart", "The Maid of Orleans", "The Bride of Messina", and the celebrated
ode called the "Song of the Bell". Besides these, he wrote many ballads,
didactic poems, and lyrical pieces. The "Song of the Bell" stands alone as a
successful attempt to unite poetry with the interests of daily life and
industry. In his lyrical ballads and romances, Schiller rises above the
didactic and descriptive style, and is inspired with noble purposes. The
"Cranes of Ibycus" and the "Fight with the Dragon" may be mentioned as
instances. Schiller was so interesting as a man, a philosopher, a historian,
and critic, as well as poet, that, as Carlyle observes, in the general praise of
his labors, his particular merits have been overlooked. His aspirations in
literature were noble and benevolent. He regarded poetry especially as
something other than a trivial amusement,—as the companion and cherisher
of the best hopes and affections that can be developed in human life.
While Goethe excels Schiller in completeness of aesthetical and
philosophical perception, and in the versatility of his world-embracing and
brilliant attainments, as a lover of his race, and as a poet who knew how to
embody that love in the most exquisite conceptions, Schiller far surpassed
him, and stands preeminent among all other poets. While Goethe
represented the actual thoughts and feelings of his age, Schiller reflected its
ideal yearnings; while the practical result of Goethe's influence was to
develop the capacities of each individual to their utmost extent, Schiller's
aim was to lead men to consecrate their gifts to the good, the beautiful, and
the true, the ethical trinity of the ages. The one poet represents the majesty,
and at the same time the tyranny of the intellect; the other, the power and
the loveliness of the affections; and although Goethe will always receive the
respect and admiration of the world, Schiller will command its love.
Page 620
4. THE GÖTTINGEN SCHOOL.—This association was formed at the
epoch of Goethe and Schiller, when poets such as no other times had
produced started up in quick succession. The following are among the
principal members of this school: Voss (1756-1826) is distinguished by a
classical taste and great fluency of style. His "Louise" is a masterpiece of
bucolic poetry. His "Idyls" are the best of his minor poems. Christian
Stolberg (1748-1821) was the author of two dramas, many elegiac poems
and translations from the Greek. Leopold Stolberg (1750-1817), his brother,
was still more successful as a poet, and distinguished for his acute
observation of the beautiful in nature. Hoelty (1748-1776) was a poet of the
gentler affections, the eloquent advocate of love, friendship, and
benevolence. Claudius (1743-1815), in his poetical productions, ranges
through song, elegy, romance, and fable. Bürger (1748-1794) was
remarkable as the author of wild, picturesque ballads and songs. His most
celebrated poem is "Leonore", which was at one time known by heart all
over Germany. Schubart (1739-1791), though not belonging to the
Göttingen association, may be here referred to. His songs and poems evince
a warm imagination, and his descriptions are true and beautiful. One of the
most powerful writers of this period was Klinger (1753-1831), whose
highly wrought productions reflected most vividly the vehemence of
thought and feeling of his time, and whose drama, "Storm and Stress", gave
the name to that peculiar school known as the Storm and Stress literature.
5. THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.—The founders of the Romantic School,
Novalis, the two Schlegels, and Tieck, opposed the system which held up
the great masters of antiquity as exclusive models of excellence; they
condemned this theory as cold and narrow, and opposed alike to the true
interests of literature and progress. They pointed out the vast changes in
religion, morality, thought, habits, and manners which separated the ancient
from the modern world, and declared that to follow blindly the works of
Virgil and Cicero was to repress all originality and creative power. From the
epoch of Goethe and Schiller, when poets such as no other times had
produced started up in quick succession. The following are among the
principal members of this school: Voss (1756-1826) is distinguished by a
classical taste and great fluency of style. His "Louise" is a masterpiece of
bucolic poetry. His "Idyls" are the best of his minor poems. Christian
Stolberg (1748-1821) was the author of two dramas, many elegiac poems
and translations from the Greek. Leopold Stolberg (1750-1817), his brother,
was still more successful as a poet, and distinguished for his acute
observation of the beautiful in nature. Hoelty (1748-1776) was a poet of the
gentler affections, the eloquent advocate of love, friendship, and
benevolence. Claudius (1743-1815), in his poetical productions, ranges
through song, elegy, romance, and fable. Bürger (1748-1794) was
remarkable as the author of wild, picturesque ballads and songs. His most
celebrated poem is "Leonore", which was at one time known by heart all
over Germany. Schubart (1739-1791), though not belonging to the
Göttingen association, may be here referred to. His songs and poems evince
a warm imagination, and his descriptions are true and beautiful. One of the
most powerful writers of this period was Klinger (1753-1831), whose
highly wrought productions reflected most vividly the vehemence of
thought and feeling of his time, and whose drama, "Storm and Stress", gave
the name to that peculiar school known as the Storm and Stress literature.
5. THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.—The founders of the Romantic School,
Novalis, the two Schlegels, and Tieck, opposed the system which held up
the great masters of antiquity as exclusive models of excellence; they
condemned this theory as cold and narrow, and opposed alike to the true
interests of literature and progress. They pointed out the vast changes in
religion, morality, thought, habits, and manners which separated the ancient
from the modern world, and declared that to follow blindly the works of
Virgil and Cicero was to repress all originality and creative power. From the
Page 621
times of Pericles or Augustus they turned to the Middle Ages, and,
forgetting their crimes and miseries, threw around them a halo of illusive
romance. It was not only in poetry that this reaction was visible—in art and
architecture the same tendency appeared. The stiff and quaint but vigorous
productions of the old German painters were drawn forth from the obscurity
where they had long mouldered; the glorious old cathedrals were repaired
and embellished; the lays of the minnesingers, collected by Tieck, were on
every lip, and the records of the olden times were ransacked for historic and
traditionary lore.
Although the Romantic School soon fell into extravagances which did
much to diminish its influence, the whole of Germany was to some extent
affected by it. The love for particular epochs led to researches in the
language and antiquities, as such, as in Oriental studies, and during the
calamitous period of the French invasion the national feeling was revived
and kept alive by the stirring and patriotic songs which recalled the glories
of the past.
The brothers Schlegel are more celebrated as philologists and critics than
as poets; although their metrical compositions are numerous, they are
wholly deficient in warmth, passion, and imagination. Tieck is more
distinguished as a novelist than a poet, but even his prose tales are so
pervaded by the spirit of poetry that they may be said to belong to this
department.
Among other poets, Körner and Arndt are best remembered by their
patriotic songs, which once thrilled every German heart.
Seldom in romance or history is there found a more noble or heroic
character than Theodore Körner (1791-1813). Short as was his existence, he
had already struck, with more or less success, almost every chord of the
poetic lyre. His dramas, with many faults, abound in scenes glowing with
forgetting their crimes and miseries, threw around them a halo of illusive
romance. It was not only in poetry that this reaction was visible—in art and
architecture the same tendency appeared. The stiff and quaint but vigorous
productions of the old German painters were drawn forth from the obscurity
where they had long mouldered; the glorious old cathedrals were repaired
and embellished; the lays of the minnesingers, collected by Tieck, were on
every lip, and the records of the olden times were ransacked for historic and
traditionary lore.
Although the Romantic School soon fell into extravagances which did
much to diminish its influence, the whole of Germany was to some extent
affected by it. The love for particular epochs led to researches in the
language and antiquities, as such, as in Oriental studies, and during the
calamitous period of the French invasion the national feeling was revived
and kept alive by the stirring and patriotic songs which recalled the glories
of the past.
The brothers Schlegel are more celebrated as philologists and critics than
as poets; although their metrical compositions are numerous, they are
wholly deficient in warmth, passion, and imagination. Tieck is more
distinguished as a novelist than a poet, but even his prose tales are so
pervaded by the spirit of poetry that they may be said to belong to this
department.
Among other poets, Körner and Arndt are best remembered by their
patriotic songs, which once thrilled every German heart.
Seldom in romance or history is there found a more noble or heroic
character than Theodore Körner (1791-1813). Short as was his existence, he
had already struck, with more or less success, almost every chord of the
poetic lyre. His dramas, with many faults, abound in scenes glowing with
Page 622
power and passion, and prove what he might have achieved had life been
spared to him. But it is his patriotic poems, his "Lyre and Sword," which
have invested the name of Körner with the halo of fame and rendered his
memory sacred to his countrymen.
The name of Arndt (1769-1860) is also associated in every German mind
with the cause of national liberty; and his poems have incited many German
hearts to the achievement of heroic deeds. His patriotic song, "Where is the
German's fatherland," is a universal favorite. Arndt is not less celebrated for
his historical and scientific works than for his poems.
The Suabian School is represented by Uhland, Schwab, Kerner, and
others who have enriched German poetry with many original lyrics. Uhland
(1787- 1862) is the most distinguished ballad writer of the present age in
Germany. The conceptions embodied in his poetry refer chiefly to the
Middle Ages, and his stories are many of them founded on well-known
legends.
Kerner (b. 1786) is more intrinsically romantic than Uhland, but he is
equally at home in other species of composition. Schwab (1792-1850) is
distinguished among the lyric poets. An epic tendency, combined with great
facility in depicting scenery and describing events, is the main feature of his
metrical romances.
Rückert (1789-1866), one of the most original lyric poets of Germany, is
distinguished for the versatility of his descriptive powers, the richness of his
imagination, and his bold, fiery spirit. He has been followed by Daumer,
Bodenstedt, and others.
The most remarkable poet whom Germany has produced in the present
century is Heinrich Heine (1800-1856), and his poems are among the most
fascinating lyrics in European literature. The delicacy, wit, and humor of his
spared to him. But it is his patriotic poems, his "Lyre and Sword," which
have invested the name of Körner with the halo of fame and rendered his
memory sacred to his countrymen.
The name of Arndt (1769-1860) is also associated in every German mind
with the cause of national liberty; and his poems have incited many German
hearts to the achievement of heroic deeds. His patriotic song, "Where is the
German's fatherland," is a universal favorite. Arndt is not less celebrated for
his historical and scientific works than for his poems.
The Suabian School is represented by Uhland, Schwab, Kerner, and
others who have enriched German poetry with many original lyrics. Uhland
(1787- 1862) is the most distinguished ballad writer of the present age in
Germany. The conceptions embodied in his poetry refer chiefly to the
Middle Ages, and his stories are many of them founded on well-known
legends.
Kerner (b. 1786) is more intrinsically romantic than Uhland, but he is
equally at home in other species of composition. Schwab (1792-1850) is
distinguished among the lyric poets. An epic tendency, combined with great
facility in depicting scenery and describing events, is the main feature of his
metrical romances.
Rückert (1789-1866), one of the most original lyric poets of Germany, is
distinguished for the versatility of his descriptive powers, the richness of his
imagination, and his bold, fiery spirit. He has been followed by Daumer,
Bodenstedt, and others.
The most remarkable poet whom Germany has produced in the present
century is Heinrich Heine (1800-1856), and his poems are among the most
fascinating lyrics in European literature. The delicacy, wit, and humor of his
Page 623
writings, their cruel and cynical laughter, and their tender pathos, give him a
unique place in the literature of his country. A school of writers known as
Young Germany was deeply influenced by Heine. Their object was to
revolutionize the political, social, and religious institutions of the country.
Börne (d. 1837), the rival of Heine in the leadership of the party, was
inferior to him in poetical power, but his superior in earnestness, moral
beauty, and elevation. Börne was the nightmare of the German princes, at
whom he darted, from his place of exile in Paris, the arrows of his bitter
satire. Some of his writings are among the most eloquent of modern
German compositions. Prominent among the followers of Heine and Börne
are Gutzkow (b. 1811), a novelist, essayist, and dramatist; Laube (b. 1806);
and Mundt (b. 1808).
From about 1830 a group of Austrian poets, more or less political in
tendency, commanded the respect of all Germans, the chief among them
was Count Auersperg, who, under the assumed name of Anastasius Grün,
wrote lyrical and other brilliant and effective poems. Of the writers who
before 1848 attempted to force poetry into the service of freedom, the best
known is Herwegh, who advocated liberty with a vehemence that won for
him immense popularity. The poems of Freiligrath (1810-1876) have
graphic force, and possess merit of a high order. He has a rich imagination,
great power of language, and musical versification. Among the more
distinguished contemporary poets, Hamerling is remarkable for the
boldness of his conceptions, and the passionate vehemence of his
expression.
6. THE DRAMA.—At the beginning of the eighteenth century,
Gottsched and his followers had rendered good service to the stage, not so
much by their own productions as by driving from it the bombast of
Lohenstein. Lessing followed this movement by attacking the French
dramas, which had hitherto been esteemed the highest productions of
unique place in the literature of his country. A school of writers known as
Young Germany was deeply influenced by Heine. Their object was to
revolutionize the political, social, and religious institutions of the country.
Börne (d. 1837), the rival of Heine in the leadership of the party, was
inferior to him in poetical power, but his superior in earnestness, moral
beauty, and elevation. Börne was the nightmare of the German princes, at
whom he darted, from his place of exile in Paris, the arrows of his bitter
satire. Some of his writings are among the most eloquent of modern
German compositions. Prominent among the followers of Heine and Börne
are Gutzkow (b. 1811), a novelist, essayist, and dramatist; Laube (b. 1806);
and Mundt (b. 1808).
From about 1830 a group of Austrian poets, more or less political in
tendency, commanded the respect of all Germans, the chief among them
was Count Auersperg, who, under the assumed name of Anastasius Grün,
wrote lyrical and other brilliant and effective poems. Of the writers who
before 1848 attempted to force poetry into the service of freedom, the best
known is Herwegh, who advocated liberty with a vehemence that won for
him immense popularity. The poems of Freiligrath (1810-1876) have
graphic force, and possess merit of a high order. He has a rich imagination,
great power of language, and musical versification. Among the more
distinguished contemporary poets, Hamerling is remarkable for the
boldness of his conceptions, and the passionate vehemence of his
expression.
6. THE DRAMA.—At the beginning of the eighteenth century,
Gottsched and his followers had rendered good service to the stage, not so
much by their own productions as by driving from it the bombast of
Lohenstein. Lessing followed this movement by attacking the French
dramas, which had hitherto been esteemed the highest productions of
Page 624
human genius, and by bringing forward Shakspeare as the true model of
dramatic style. This attack was so successful that the influence of the
French drama soon declined, and in the reaction, Greeks, Romans, kings
and princesses were replaced by honest, tiresome burghers, with their
commonplace wives and daughters, and the toga and tunic gave way to
woolen petticoats and dress-coats. Everything like poetry, either in language
or sentiment, was banished from the stage. Such was the state of things
when Goethe appeared. His rapid glance at once discerned the poverty of
dramatic art, and his flexible and many-sided genius set itself to supply the
deficiency. His "Götz von Berlichingen" illustrated the possibility of a
dramatic literature founded upon national history and national character.
His "Egmont" is a highly poetic and eloquent dramatization of that popular
hero, and of the struggles of the Netherlands against the tyranny of Spain.
His "Tasso" is a poem of psychological interest, illustrating a favorite
maxim of the author that a poet, like every other artist, for his true
development, needs education. "A hundred times," says Goethe, "have I
heard artists boast that they owed everything to themselves, and I am often
provoked to add, 'Yes, and the result is just what might be expected.' What,
let me ask, is a man in and of himself?"
The lesson of the drama of "Tasso" is this—that the poet cannot fulfill his
duty by cultivating merely his imagination, however splendid and powerful
it may be. Like all other men who would be good and great, he must
exercise patience and moderation; must learn the value of self- denial; must
endure the hardships and contradictions of the real world; contentedly
occupy his place, with its pains and pleasures, as a part of the great whole,
and patiently wait to see the beauty and brightness which flow from his
soul, win their way through the obstacles presented by human society. The
singular merit of this dramatic poem is this: that it is the fruit of genuine
experience, adorned with the hues of a beautiful imagination, and clothed in
classical language; but it is a work written for the few.
dramatic style. This attack was so successful that the influence of the
French drama soon declined, and in the reaction, Greeks, Romans, kings
and princesses were replaced by honest, tiresome burghers, with their
commonplace wives and daughters, and the toga and tunic gave way to
woolen petticoats and dress-coats. Everything like poetry, either in language
or sentiment, was banished from the stage. Such was the state of things
when Goethe appeared. His rapid glance at once discerned the poverty of
dramatic art, and his flexible and many-sided genius set itself to supply the
deficiency. His "Götz von Berlichingen" illustrated the possibility of a
dramatic literature founded upon national history and national character.
His "Egmont" is a highly poetic and eloquent dramatization of that popular
hero, and of the struggles of the Netherlands against the tyranny of Spain.
His "Tasso" is a poem of psychological interest, illustrating a favorite
maxim of the author that a poet, like every other artist, for his true
development, needs education. "A hundred times," says Goethe, "have I
heard artists boast that they owed everything to themselves, and I am often
provoked to add, 'Yes, and the result is just what might be expected.' What,
let me ask, is a man in and of himself?"
The lesson of the drama of "Tasso" is this—that the poet cannot fulfill his
duty by cultivating merely his imagination, however splendid and powerful
it may be. Like all other men who would be good and great, he must
exercise patience and moderation; must learn the value of self- denial; must
endure the hardships and contradictions of the real world; contentedly
occupy his place, with its pains and pleasures, as a part of the great whole,
and patiently wait to see the beauty and brightness which flow from his
soul, win their way through the obstacles presented by human society. The
singular merit of this dramatic poem is this: that it is the fruit of genuine
experience, adorned with the hues of a beautiful imagination, and clothed in
classical language; but it is a work written for the few.
Page 625
"Iphigenia" is a fine imitation of the ancient Greek style, but not well
suited to the stage.
In his dramatic, as in all his other works, the only end and aim of Goethe
was to carry to perfection the art in which he was so great a master. Virtue
and vice, truth and falsehood, are each portrayed with the same graceful
complacency and the same exquisite skill. His immense and wide-
spreading influence renders this singular indifference, which seems to
confound the very sense of right and wrong, doubly lamentable.
In plastic skill and variety, the dramatic creations of Schiller are
regarded, in some respects, inferior to those of Goethe, but they all glow
with the love of true goodness and greatness, and with an enthusiasm for
virtue and liberty which communicates itself, as by an electric spark, to his
readers. The violent tone of Schiller's first tragedy, the "Robbers," was
suggested by other theatrical writers of the period, who esteemed wildness
and absurdity the chief characteristics of poetical genius. Schiller gave to
his dramatic works more movement and popular interest than can be found
in Goethe's dramas, but yielded in some instances to the sentimental tone so
prevalent in German poetry. "Fiesco" was written in a better style than the
"Robbers," though less suited to please the low theatrical taste of the time.
"Don Carlos" showed more maturity of thought, and is pervaded by a
coloring of poetic sentiment; "Wallenstein" won for the poet a universal
reputation in his native land, and was translated into English by Coleridge.
"Marie Stuart," the "Maid of Orleans," and the "Bride of Messina,"
contributed still more to increase the poet's fame. "Wilhelm Tell" was the
most popular of Schiller's plays, and is still esteemed by some as his best
production. Here the love of liberty, so wildly expressed in the "Robbers,"
appears in its true and refined character.
suited to the stage.
In his dramatic, as in all his other works, the only end and aim of Goethe
was to carry to perfection the art in which he was so great a master. Virtue
and vice, truth and falsehood, are each portrayed with the same graceful
complacency and the same exquisite skill. His immense and wide-
spreading influence renders this singular indifference, which seems to
confound the very sense of right and wrong, doubly lamentable.
In plastic skill and variety, the dramatic creations of Schiller are
regarded, in some respects, inferior to those of Goethe, but they all glow
with the love of true goodness and greatness, and with an enthusiasm for
virtue and liberty which communicates itself, as by an electric spark, to his
readers. The violent tone of Schiller's first tragedy, the "Robbers," was
suggested by other theatrical writers of the period, who esteemed wildness
and absurdity the chief characteristics of poetical genius. Schiller gave to
his dramatic works more movement and popular interest than can be found
in Goethe's dramas, but yielded in some instances to the sentimental tone so
prevalent in German poetry. "Fiesco" was written in a better style than the
"Robbers," though less suited to please the low theatrical taste of the time.
"Don Carlos" showed more maturity of thought, and is pervaded by a
coloring of poetic sentiment; "Wallenstein" won for the poet a universal
reputation in his native land, and was translated into English by Coleridge.
"Marie Stuart," the "Maid of Orleans," and the "Bride of Messina,"
contributed still more to increase the poet's fame. "Wilhelm Tell" was the
most popular of Schiller's plays, and is still esteemed by some as his best
production. Here the love of liberty, so wildly expressed in the "Robbers,"
appears in its true and refined character.
Page 626
Kotzebue (1760-1819) was one of the most successful playwrights of
Germany. He composed an almost countless number of plays, and his plots
were equally versatile and amusing; but he was entirely destitute of poetic
and moral beauty. His opposition to liberal principles caused him to be
regarded as the enemy of liberty, and to be assassinated by an enthusiastic
student named George Sand, who, on obtaining admittance to him under the
pretense of business, stabbed him to the heart.
While the influence of the Romantic School tended to invest all poetry
with a dreamy and transcendental character, in the drama it was mingled
with stormy and exciting incidents, often carried to the extreme of
exaggeration and absurdity. The Romancists dealt almost exclusively with
the perturbed elements of the human mind and the fearful secrets of the
heart. They called to their aid the mysteries of the dark side of nature, and
ransacked the supernatural world for its marvels and its horrors. The
principal of these "Power Men," as they were called, are Müllner, Werner,
Howald, and Grillparzer.
Müllner (1774-1829) displayed no common order of poetic genius; but
the elements of crime, horror, and remorse often supply the place of
originality of thought and delineation of character. Werner (1768-1823),
after a youth of alternate profligacy and remorse, embraced the Catholic
faith and became a preacher. His dramas of "Martin Luther," "Attila," and
the "Twenty-ninth of February," have rendered him one of the most popular
authors in Germany. Grillparzer (b. 1790) is the author of a drama entitled
the "Ancestress." The wildest dreams of Müllner and Werner sink into
insignificance before the extravagance of this production, both in language
and sentiment. The "Sappho" of this author displays much lyric beauty.
Iffland (1759-1814) was a fertile but dull dramatist. One of the best national
tragedies was written by Münch Bellinghausen. Charlotte Birchpfeifer has
dramatized a great number of stories. Raupach (1784-1852) was one of the
Germany. He composed an almost countless number of plays, and his plots
were equally versatile and amusing; but he was entirely destitute of poetic
and moral beauty. His opposition to liberal principles caused him to be
regarded as the enemy of liberty, and to be assassinated by an enthusiastic
student named George Sand, who, on obtaining admittance to him under the
pretense of business, stabbed him to the heart.
While the influence of the Romantic School tended to invest all poetry
with a dreamy and transcendental character, in the drama it was mingled
with stormy and exciting incidents, often carried to the extreme of
exaggeration and absurdity. The Romancists dealt almost exclusively with
the perturbed elements of the human mind and the fearful secrets of the
heart. They called to their aid the mysteries of the dark side of nature, and
ransacked the supernatural world for its marvels and its horrors. The
principal of these "Power Men," as they were called, are Müllner, Werner,
Howald, and Grillparzer.
Müllner (1774-1829) displayed no common order of poetic genius; but
the elements of crime, horror, and remorse often supply the place of
originality of thought and delineation of character. Werner (1768-1823),
after a youth of alternate profligacy and remorse, embraced the Catholic
faith and became a preacher. His dramas of "Martin Luther," "Attila," and
the "Twenty-ninth of February," have rendered him one of the most popular
authors in Germany. Grillparzer (b. 1790) is the author of a drama entitled
the "Ancestress." The wildest dreams of Müllner and Werner sink into
insignificance before the extravagance of this production, both in language
and sentiment. The "Sappho" of this author displays much lyric beauty.
Iffland (1759-1814) was a fertile but dull dramatist. One of the best national
tragedies was written by Münch Bellinghausen. Charlotte Birchpfeifer has
dramatized a great number of stories. Raupach (1784-1852) was one of the
Page 627
most able of recent German writers of plays, Gutzkow is distinguished
among contemporary dramatists; and Freytag and Bauernfeld are excellent
writers of comedy. Kleist (d. 1811) was also a distinguished writer of
dramas of the Romantic School. Mosenthal, the author of "Deborah," has
achieved distinction by aiming at something higher than stage effect.
7. PHILOSOPHY.—The appearance of Kant (1724-1804) created a new
era in German philosophy. Previous to his time, the two systems most in
vogue were the sensualism of Locke and his followers and the idealism of
Leibnitz, Wolf, and others. Kant, in his endeavors to ascertain what we can
know and what we originally do know, was led to the fundamental laws of
the mind, and to investigate original or transcendental ideas, those
necessary and unchangeable forms of thought, without which we can
perceive nothing. For instance, our perceptions are submitted to the two
forms of time and space. Hence these two ideas must be within us, not in
the objects and not derived from experience, but the necessary and pure
intuitions of the internal sense. The work in which Kant endeavored to
ascertain those ideas, and the province of certain human knowledge, is
entitled the "Critique of Pure Reason," and the doctrines there expounded
have been called the Critical Philosophy and also the Transcendental. In the
"Critique of Practical Reason" the subject of morals is treated, and that of
aesthetics in the "Observations on the Sublime and Beautiful."
The advent of Kant created a host of philosophical writers and critics,
and besides Lessing and Herder there were Moses Mendelssohn, Hamann
(the Magus of the North), Reinhold, Jacobi, and many others who
speculated in various directions upon the most momentous problems of
humanity and of the human soul.
Fichte (1762-1814) carried the doctrine of Kant to its extreme point, and
represented all that the individual perceives without himself, or all that is
among contemporary dramatists; and Freytag and Bauernfeld are excellent
writers of comedy. Kleist (d. 1811) was also a distinguished writer of
dramas of the Romantic School. Mosenthal, the author of "Deborah," has
achieved distinction by aiming at something higher than stage effect.
7. PHILOSOPHY.—The appearance of Kant (1724-1804) created a new
era in German philosophy. Previous to his time, the two systems most in
vogue were the sensualism of Locke and his followers and the idealism of
Leibnitz, Wolf, and others. Kant, in his endeavors to ascertain what we can
know and what we originally do know, was led to the fundamental laws of
the mind, and to investigate original or transcendental ideas, those
necessary and unchangeable forms of thought, without which we can
perceive nothing. For instance, our perceptions are submitted to the two
forms of time and space. Hence these two ideas must be within us, not in
the objects and not derived from experience, but the necessary and pure
intuitions of the internal sense. The work in which Kant endeavored to
ascertain those ideas, and the province of certain human knowledge, is
entitled the "Critique of Pure Reason," and the doctrines there expounded
have been called the Critical Philosophy and also the Transcendental. In the
"Critique of Practical Reason" the subject of morals is treated, and that of
aesthetics in the "Observations on the Sublime and Beautiful."
The advent of Kant created a host of philosophical writers and critics,
and besides Lessing and Herder there were Moses Mendelssohn, Hamann
(the Magus of the North), Reinhold, Jacobi, and many others who
speculated in various directions upon the most momentous problems of
humanity and of the human soul.
Fichte (1762-1814) carried the doctrine of Kant to its extreme point, and
represented all that the individual perceives without himself, or all that is
Page 628
distinguished from the individual, as the creation of this I or ego; that the
life of the mind is the only real life, and that everything else is a delusion.
Schelling (1775-1854), in his "Philosophy of Identity," argues that the
same laws prevail throughout the material and the intellectual world. His
later writings contain theories in which the doctrines of Christianity are
united with philosophical speculations. The leading principle of Schelling is
found in a supposed intuition, which he describes as superior to all
reasoning, and admitting neither doubt nor explanation. Coleridge adopted
many views of this philosopher, and some of his ideas may be found in the
contemplative poems of Wordsworth.
Hegel (1770-1831), in his numerous, profound, and abstruse writings, has
attempted to reduce all the departments of knowledge to one science,
founded on a method which is expounded in his work on Logic. The
"Identity System" of Schelling and the "Absolute Logic" of Hegel have
already produced an extensive library of philosophical controversy, and the
indirect influence of the German schools of philosophy has affected the
tone of the literature in France, England, America, Denmark, and Sweden.
The effect of German philosophy has been to develop intense intellectual
activity. The habit of searching into the hidden mysteries of being has
inclined the German mind to what is deepest, and sometimes to what is
most obscure in thought; and the tendency to rise to the absolute, which is
characteristic of this philosophy, manifests its influence not only in the
blending of poetry and metaphysics, but in every department of science,
literature, and art. The literary theory thus developed, that ideal beauty and
not the imitation of nature is the highest principle of art, is everywhere
applied even to the study of the great monuments of the past, and in the
writings of the German archaeologists new youth seems to spring from the
ruins of the ancient world. The physical sciences are also introduced into
life of the mind is the only real life, and that everything else is a delusion.
Schelling (1775-1854), in his "Philosophy of Identity," argues that the
same laws prevail throughout the material and the intellectual world. His
later writings contain theories in which the doctrines of Christianity are
united with philosophical speculations. The leading principle of Schelling is
found in a supposed intuition, which he describes as superior to all
reasoning, and admitting neither doubt nor explanation. Coleridge adopted
many views of this philosopher, and some of his ideas may be found in the
contemplative poems of Wordsworth.
Hegel (1770-1831), in his numerous, profound, and abstruse writings, has
attempted to reduce all the departments of knowledge to one science,
founded on a method which is expounded in his work on Logic. The
"Identity System" of Schelling and the "Absolute Logic" of Hegel have
already produced an extensive library of philosophical controversy, and the
indirect influence of the German schools of philosophy has affected the
tone of the literature in France, England, America, Denmark, and Sweden.
The effect of German philosophy has been to develop intense intellectual
activity. The habit of searching into the hidden mysteries of being has
inclined the German mind to what is deepest, and sometimes to what is
most obscure in thought; and the tendency to rise to the absolute, which is
characteristic of this philosophy, manifests its influence not only in the
blending of poetry and metaphysics, but in every department of science,
literature, and art. The literary theory thus developed, that ideal beauty and
not the imitation of nature is the highest principle of art, is everywhere
applied even to the study of the great monuments of the past, and in the
writings of the German archaeologists new youth seems to spring from the
ruins of the ancient world. The physical sciences are also introduced into
Page 629
that universal sphere of ideas where the most minute observations, as well
as the most important results, pertain to general interests.
From 1818 to the time of his death, in 1831, the influence of Hegel
dominated the highest thought. Later, his school broke into three divisions;
Ruge, one of the most brilliant writers of the school, led the extreme
radicals; Strauss resolved the narratives of the gospel into myths, and found
the vital elements of Christianity in its spiritual teaching; while Feuerbach
urged that all religion should be replaced by a sentiment of humanity. Ulrici
and the younger Fichte exercised considerable influence as advocates of a
pantheistic doctrine which aims to reconcile religion and science. None of
these names, however, have the importance which attaches to that of
Schopenhauer (d. 1860), who, at the present day, stirs a deeper interest than
any other thinker. His main doctrine is that Will is the foundation principle
of existence, the one reality in the universe, and all else is mere appearance.
History is a record of turmoil and wretchedness, and the world and life
essentially evil. High moral earnestness and great literary genius are shown
in his graphic and scornful pictures of the darker aspects of the world.
Van Hartmann, the most prominent leader of the Pessimistic School
(1842- 1872), the latest original thinker of Germany, in his "Philosophy of
the Unconscious," follows essentially the same line of thought. He assumes
that there is in nature a blind, impersonal, unconscious, all-pervading will
and idea, a pure and spiritual activity, independent of brain and nerve, and
manifesting itself in thought, emotion, instinct, morals, language,
perception, and history. He teaches that this is the last principle of
philosophy, described by Spinoza as substance, by Fichte as the absolute I,
by Plato and Hegel as the absolute idea, and by Schopenhauer as Will. He
believes the world to be utterly and hopelessly bad, and the height of
wisdom to suppress the desire to live. At the same time he believes that
there is no peace for the heart and intellect until religion, philosophy, and
as the most important results, pertain to general interests.
From 1818 to the time of his death, in 1831, the influence of Hegel
dominated the highest thought. Later, his school broke into three divisions;
Ruge, one of the most brilliant writers of the school, led the extreme
radicals; Strauss resolved the narratives of the gospel into myths, and found
the vital elements of Christianity in its spiritual teaching; while Feuerbach
urged that all religion should be replaced by a sentiment of humanity. Ulrici
and the younger Fichte exercised considerable influence as advocates of a
pantheistic doctrine which aims to reconcile religion and science. None of
these names, however, have the importance which attaches to that of
Schopenhauer (d. 1860), who, at the present day, stirs a deeper interest than
any other thinker. His main doctrine is that Will is the foundation principle
of existence, the one reality in the universe, and all else is mere appearance.
History is a record of turmoil and wretchedness, and the world and life
essentially evil. High moral earnestness and great literary genius are shown
in his graphic and scornful pictures of the darker aspects of the world.
Van Hartmann, the most prominent leader of the Pessimistic School
(1842- 1872), the latest original thinker of Germany, in his "Philosophy of
the Unconscious," follows essentially the same line of thought. He assumes
that there is in nature a blind, impersonal, unconscious, all-pervading will
and idea, a pure and spiritual activity, independent of brain and nerve, and
manifesting itself in thought, emotion, instinct, morals, language,
perception, and history. He teaches that this is the last principle of
philosophy, described by Spinoza as substance, by Fichte as the absolute I,
by Plato and Hegel as the absolute idea, and by Schopenhauer as Will. He
believes the world to be utterly and hopelessly bad, and the height of
wisdom to suppress the desire to live. At the same time he believes that
there is no peace for the heart and intellect until religion, philosophy, and
Page 630
science are seen to be one, as root, stem, and leaves are all organic
expressions of one same living tree.
8. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS.—The best German minds of the
nineteenth century have been absorbed by severe labor in all branches of
learning and the sciences. Many memoirs of eminent persons have
appeared, and many books of travel, since the days of George Forster
(1754-1794), the teacher of Humboldt and the inaugurator of a new
scientific and picturesque school of the literature of travel. Lichtenstein has
written his travels in Southern Africa; Prince Maximilian von Wied and
Martius, in Brazil; Pöppig, in Chili, Peru, etc.; Burmeister and Tschudi, in
South America; Lepsius and Brugsch, in Egypt; and more recently,
Gützlaff, in China; Siebold, in Japan; Barth and Vogel, in Africa;
Leichhardt, in Australia; the brothers Schlagintweit, one of whom fell a
victim to his zeal, in Asia; and Ida Pfeiffer (1797-1858), a woman of rare
intrepidity, who visited, mostly on foot, the most remote regions of the
globe. Another tourist and voluminous writer is Kohl (b. 1808). Qualities
rarely united in one individual met in the character of Alexander von
Humboldt (1769- 1859), an enterprising traveler, a man of extensive
science, and an accomplished writer. Accompanied by his friend Bonpland,
he visited South America, and after five years of adventurous research
among the wonders of nature, he returned, and prepared for the press the
results of his travels—the "Aspects of Nature," "Picturesque Views of the
Cordilleras," and "Travels in the Equinoctial Regions of America." This
veteran student produced at an advanced age a remarkable work entitled
"Cosmos," containing the results of a long life of observation and
contemplation. In the first part he gives general views of the economy of
nature, while in the second we find ingenious speculations regarding the
influence of nature on human society, in its various stages of culture.
expressions of one same living tree.
8. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS.—The best German minds of the
nineteenth century have been absorbed by severe labor in all branches of
learning and the sciences. Many memoirs of eminent persons have
appeared, and many books of travel, since the days of George Forster
(1754-1794), the teacher of Humboldt and the inaugurator of a new
scientific and picturesque school of the literature of travel. Lichtenstein has
written his travels in Southern Africa; Prince Maximilian von Wied and
Martius, in Brazil; Pöppig, in Chili, Peru, etc.; Burmeister and Tschudi, in
South America; Lepsius and Brugsch, in Egypt; and more recently,
Gützlaff, in China; Siebold, in Japan; Barth and Vogel, in Africa;
Leichhardt, in Australia; the brothers Schlagintweit, one of whom fell a
victim to his zeal, in Asia; and Ida Pfeiffer (1797-1858), a woman of rare
intrepidity, who visited, mostly on foot, the most remote regions of the
globe. Another tourist and voluminous writer is Kohl (b. 1808). Qualities
rarely united in one individual met in the character of Alexander von
Humboldt (1769- 1859), an enterprising traveler, a man of extensive
science, and an accomplished writer. Accompanied by his friend Bonpland,
he visited South America, and after five years of adventurous research
among the wonders of nature, he returned, and prepared for the press the
results of his travels—the "Aspects of Nature," "Picturesque Views of the
Cordilleras," and "Travels in the Equinoctial Regions of America." This
veteran student produced at an advanced age a remarkable work entitled
"Cosmos," containing the results of a long life of observation and
contemplation. In the first part he gives general views of the economy of
nature, while in the second we find ingenious speculations regarding the
influence of nature on human society, in its various stages of culture.
Page 631
The Chevalier Bunsen (d. 1860) celebrated by his theological and
historico-philosophical researches, has written, among other works, one on
the "Position of Egypt in the History of the World," which is a learned
dissertation on the antiquities and especially on the primitive language of
Egypt.
In the periodicals of Germany every department of letters and science is
represented, and through the book-fairs of Leipsic all the literature of the
ancient and modern world passes. They are the magazines of the
productions of all nations. Every class of contending tastes and opinions is
represented and all the contrasts of thought which have been developed in
the course of ages meet in the Leipsic book-market.
SCIENCE.—The growth of science has been one of the most powerful
factors in the recent development of Germany, and some of the best works
present in a popular form the results of scientific labor. Among these the
first place belongs to the "Cosmos" of Humboldt. Although no longer in
accordance with the best thought, it has enduring merit from the author's
power of handling vast masses of facts, his poetic feeling and purity and
nobility of style.
In chemistry Liebig (d. 1873) is widely and popularly known; DuBois-
Raymond has made great researches in animal electricity, physics, and
physiology; Virchow in biology; Helmholtz in physiological optics and
sound; Haeckel has extended the theories and investigations of Darwin, and
all have made admirable attempts to render science intelligible to ordinary
readers.
With the death of Goethe began a new era in German literature not yet
closed. The period has been one of intense political excitement, and while
much of the best of the nation has been devoted to politics there has also
been great literary activity deeply influenced by the practical struggles,
historico-philosophical researches, has written, among other works, one on
the "Position of Egypt in the History of the World," which is a learned
dissertation on the antiquities and especially on the primitive language of
Egypt.
In the periodicals of Germany every department of letters and science is
represented, and through the book-fairs of Leipsic all the literature of the
ancient and modern world passes. They are the magazines of the
productions of all nations. Every class of contending tastes and opinions is
represented and all the contrasts of thought which have been developed in
the course of ages meet in the Leipsic book-market.
SCIENCE.—The growth of science has been one of the most powerful
factors in the recent development of Germany, and some of the best works
present in a popular form the results of scientific labor. Among these the
first place belongs to the "Cosmos" of Humboldt. Although no longer in
accordance with the best thought, it has enduring merit from the author's
power of handling vast masses of facts, his poetic feeling and purity and
nobility of style.
In chemistry Liebig (d. 1873) is widely and popularly known; DuBois-
Raymond has made great researches in animal electricity, physics, and
physiology; Virchow in biology; Helmholtz in physiological optics and
sound; Haeckel has extended the theories and investigations of Darwin, and
all have made admirable attempts to render science intelligible to ordinary
readers.
With the death of Goethe began a new era in German literature not yet
closed. The period has been one of intense political excitement, and while
much of the best of the nation has been devoted to politics there has also
been great literary activity deeply influenced by the practical struggles,
Page 632
hopes, and fears of the time. There has been a tendency in German writers
hitherto to neglect the laws of expression, although their writings have
evinced great originality and power of imagination, owing doubtless to the
fact that they were addressed only to particular classes of readers. But since
the political unity of the country has been accomplished, increasing
numbers of thinkers and scholars have appealed to the whole nation, and, in
consequence, have cultivated more directness and force of style.
NOVELS, ROMANCES, AND POPULAR LEGENDS.—Poetry and
prose fiction form the general literature of a nation, and are distinguished
from the literature of the study or from special literature, which consists
chiefly of books for the use of distinct classes or parties. Fiction borders
closely on the province of history, which, in its broad and comprehensive
outlines, must necessarily leave unnoticed many of the finer lights and
shades of human life, descriptions of motives, private characters, and
domestic scenes. To supply these in the picture of humanity is the distinct
office of fiction, which, while free in many respects, should still be
essentially true. The poetry and fiction of a country should be the worthy
companion to its history. The true poet should be the interpreter and
illustrator of life. While the historian describes events and the outward lives
of men, the poet penetrates into the inner life, and portrays the spirit that
moves them. The historian records facts; the poet records feelings, thoughts,
hopes, and desires; the historian keeps in view the actual man; the poet, the
ideal man; the historian tells us what man has been; the poet reminds us
either in his dreams of the past, or in his visions of the future, what man can
be; and the true poet who fulfills such a duty is as necessary to the
development and education of mankind as the historian.
The numerous fictitious works of Germany may be arranged in four
different classes. The first, comprehending historical romances, affords few
writers who bear comparison with Scott. In the second class, containing
hitherto to neglect the laws of expression, although their writings have
evinced great originality and power of imagination, owing doubtless to the
fact that they were addressed only to particular classes of readers. But since
the political unity of the country has been accomplished, increasing
numbers of thinkers and scholars have appealed to the whole nation, and, in
consequence, have cultivated more directness and force of style.
NOVELS, ROMANCES, AND POPULAR LEGENDS.—Poetry and
prose fiction form the general literature of a nation, and are distinguished
from the literature of the study or from special literature, which consists
chiefly of books for the use of distinct classes or parties. Fiction borders
closely on the province of history, which, in its broad and comprehensive
outlines, must necessarily leave unnoticed many of the finer lights and
shades of human life, descriptions of motives, private characters, and
domestic scenes. To supply these in the picture of humanity is the distinct
office of fiction, which, while free in many respects, should still be
essentially true. The poetry and fiction of a country should be the worthy
companion to its history. The true poet should be the interpreter and
illustrator of life. While the historian describes events and the outward lives
of men, the poet penetrates into the inner life, and portrays the spirit that
moves them. The historian records facts; the poet records feelings, thoughts,
hopes, and desires; the historian keeps in view the actual man; the poet, the
ideal man; the historian tells us what man has been; the poet reminds us
either in his dreams of the past, or in his visions of the future, what man can
be; and the true poet who fulfills such a duty is as necessary to the
development and education of mankind as the historian.
The numerous fictitious works of Germany may be arranged in four
different classes. The first, comprehending historical romances, affords few
writers who bear comparison with Scott. In the second class, containing
Page 633
novels which describe characters and scenes in real life, German literature
is also comparatively poor. The third class comprises all the fictions marked
by particular tendencies respecting art, literature, or society. In the fourth
class, which includes imaginative tales, German literature is especially rich.
To this department of fiction, in which the imagination is allowed to wander
far beyond the bounds of real life and probability, the Germans apply
distinctively the term poetical. In these imaginative and mystical fictions
there is an important distinction between such tales as convey moral truth
and interest under an array of visionary adventures, and those which are
merely fantastic and almost destitute of meaning.
Goethe's novel, "Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship," may be classed with
fictions intended to convey certain views of life; but its chief defect is, that
the object of the writer remains in a mist, even at the end of the story. The
"Elective Affinities," while it contains many beauties as a work of art, is
objectionable in a moral point of view.
Jean Paul Richter (1763-1825) describes human life in all its aspects of
light and shade, and his voluminous works embrace all subjects, from the
highest problems of transcendental philosophy and the most passionate
poetical delineations to "Instructions in the Art of Falling Asleep;" but his
essential character, however disguised, is that of a philosopher and moral
poet, whose study has been human nature, and whose delight is in all that is
beautiful, tender, and mysteriously sublime in the fate or history of man.
Humor is the ruling quality of his mind, the central fire that pervades and
vivifies his whole being. The chief productions of Jean Paul (the title under
which he wrote) are novels, of which "Hesperus" and "Titan" are considered
his masterpieces. These and the charming prose idyl, "The Years of Wild
Oats," keep their place as works of permanent excellence. In his famous
"Dream," in which he describes a universe without religion, he rises to the
loftiest height of imagination.
is also comparatively poor. The third class comprises all the fictions marked
by particular tendencies respecting art, literature, or society. In the fourth
class, which includes imaginative tales, German literature is especially rich.
To this department of fiction, in which the imagination is allowed to wander
far beyond the bounds of real life and probability, the Germans apply
distinctively the term poetical. In these imaginative and mystical fictions
there is an important distinction between such tales as convey moral truth
and interest under an array of visionary adventures, and those which are
merely fantastic and almost destitute of meaning.
Goethe's novel, "Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship," may be classed with
fictions intended to convey certain views of life; but its chief defect is, that
the object of the writer remains in a mist, even at the end of the story. The
"Elective Affinities," while it contains many beauties as a work of art, is
objectionable in a moral point of view.
Jean Paul Richter (1763-1825) describes human life in all its aspects of
light and shade, and his voluminous works embrace all subjects, from the
highest problems of transcendental philosophy and the most passionate
poetical delineations to "Instructions in the Art of Falling Asleep;" but his
essential character, however disguised, is that of a philosopher and moral
poet, whose study has been human nature, and whose delight is in all that is
beautiful, tender, and mysteriously sublime in the fate or history of man.
Humor is the ruling quality of his mind, the central fire that pervades and
vivifies his whole being. The chief productions of Jean Paul (the title under
which he wrote) are novels, of which "Hesperus" and "Titan" are considered
his masterpieces. These and the charming prose idyl, "The Years of Wild
Oats," keep their place as works of permanent excellence. In his famous
"Dream," in which he describes a universe without religion, he rises to the
loftiest height of imagination.
Page 634
Tieck (1773-1853) was at once a novelist, poet, and critic; but his fairy
tales have perhaps rendered him most popular. His fancy was brilliant and
sportive, and his imagination varied and fantastic. The world of his creation
was peopled by demons who shed their malignant influence on mankind, or
by spirits such as the Rosicrucians had conjured up, nymphs of the air, the
woods, or waters. These airy visions he wove into form and shape with a
master hand, and he invested even the common objects of life with a
supernatural hue. At times he seems almost to have acquired a closer
intimacy with nature than that granted to common men, and to have dived
into the secret of her operations and the working of her laws. But while
Tieck is unrivaled in the world of phantasy, he becomes an ordinary writer
when he descends to that of daily life.
Hardenberg, known by the assumed name of Novalis (1772-1801), by his
unsullied character, his early death, and the mystic tone of his productions,
was long regarded with an enthusiasm which has now greatly declined. His
romance, "Henry von Ofterdingen," contains elements of beauty, but it
deals too exclusively with the shadowy, the distant, and the unreal. His
"Aphorisms" are sometimes deep and original, but often paradoxical and
unintelligible.
La Motte Fouqué (1777-1843) is best known by his charming story of
"Undine," founded on one of those traditions in which the ancient fairy
mythology of Germany abounded. Undine, a beautiful water-spirit, wins the
heart of a noble knight, and consents to be his bride. We have seen it was
only through the union with a being of mortal mould that the spirits of air
and water could obtain the gift of a soul. But before giving her hand to her
lover, Undine reminds him that the relentless laws of her race condemn her
to become herself the instrument of his destruction if he should break his
plighted vow. The knight accepts the conditions, and for a time he remains
true to his beautiful wife. But at length, weary of her charms, he seeks the
tales have perhaps rendered him most popular. His fancy was brilliant and
sportive, and his imagination varied and fantastic. The world of his creation
was peopled by demons who shed their malignant influence on mankind, or
by spirits such as the Rosicrucians had conjured up, nymphs of the air, the
woods, or waters. These airy visions he wove into form and shape with a
master hand, and he invested even the common objects of life with a
supernatural hue. At times he seems almost to have acquired a closer
intimacy with nature than that granted to common men, and to have dived
into the secret of her operations and the working of her laws. But while
Tieck is unrivaled in the world of phantasy, he becomes an ordinary writer
when he descends to that of daily life.
Hardenberg, known by the assumed name of Novalis (1772-1801), by his
unsullied character, his early death, and the mystic tone of his productions,
was long regarded with an enthusiasm which has now greatly declined. His
romance, "Henry von Ofterdingen," contains elements of beauty, but it
deals too exclusively with the shadowy, the distant, and the unreal. His
"Aphorisms" are sometimes deep and original, but often paradoxical and
unintelligible.
La Motte Fouqué (1777-1843) is best known by his charming story of
"Undine," founded on one of those traditions in which the ancient fairy
mythology of Germany abounded. Undine, a beautiful water-spirit, wins the
heart of a noble knight, and consents to be his bride. We have seen it was
only through the union with a being of mortal mould that the spirits of air
and water could obtain the gift of a soul. But before giving her hand to her
lover, Undine reminds him that the relentless laws of her race condemn her
to become herself the instrument of his destruction if he should break his
plighted vow. The knight accepts the conditions, and for a time he remains
true to his beautiful wife. But at length, weary of her charms, he seeks the
Page 635
daughter of a neighboring baron for his bride, and in the midst of the
wedding festivities the faithless knight is suffocated by an embrace from
Undine, who is forced by the race of spirits thus to destroy him. The
sweetness and pathos of this tale and its dream-like beauty have given it a
place among those creations which appeal to all the world, and do not
depend for their popularity on the tendencies of any particular age.
Chamisso (1781-1836), one of the most popular poets of Germany, was
the author of "Peter Schlemihl," a well-known tale describing the
adventures of a man who sold his shadow for a large sum of money, and
found afterward that he had made a very bad bargain. The moral it seems to
indicate is that gold is dearly obtained at the sacrifice of any part, even of
the shadow, of our humanity.
Hoffmann (1776-1822) surpassed all other imaginative writers in
inventing marvelous incidents, while he was inferior to many of them in
poetical genius. His stories mingle the circumstances of real life with
grotesque and visionary adventures.
Zschokke (1771-1847) was remarkable as a man and an author. His
literary activity extended over more than half a century, and his tales and
miscellaneous writings have had extensive popularity. His studies were
generally directed toward human improvement, as in "The Goldmaker's
Village," where he describes the progress of industry and civilization among
a degraded population.
Of the other numerous writers of fiction the names of a few only can be
mentioned.
Theresa Huber (1764-1829) was the authoress of several popular novels.
Benedicte Naubert wrote several historical romances mentioned by Scott as
having afforded him some suggestions. Caroline Pichler's "Tales" were
wedding festivities the faithless knight is suffocated by an embrace from
Undine, who is forced by the race of spirits thus to destroy him. The
sweetness and pathos of this tale and its dream-like beauty have given it a
place among those creations which appeal to all the world, and do not
depend for their popularity on the tendencies of any particular age.
Chamisso (1781-1836), one of the most popular poets of Germany, was
the author of "Peter Schlemihl," a well-known tale describing the
adventures of a man who sold his shadow for a large sum of money, and
found afterward that he had made a very bad bargain. The moral it seems to
indicate is that gold is dearly obtained at the sacrifice of any part, even of
the shadow, of our humanity.
Hoffmann (1776-1822) surpassed all other imaginative writers in
inventing marvelous incidents, while he was inferior to many of them in
poetical genius. His stories mingle the circumstances of real life with
grotesque and visionary adventures.
Zschokke (1771-1847) was remarkable as a man and an author. His
literary activity extended over more than half a century, and his tales and
miscellaneous writings have had extensive popularity. His studies were
generally directed toward human improvement, as in "The Goldmaker's
Village," where he describes the progress of industry and civilization among
a degraded population.
Of the other numerous writers of fiction the names of a few only can be
mentioned.
Theresa Huber (1764-1829) was the authoress of several popular novels.
Benedicte Naubert wrote several historical romances mentioned by Scott as
having afforded him some suggestions. Caroline Pichler's "Tales" were
Page 636
accounted among the best fictions of her times. Henriette Hanke produced
eighty-eight volumes of domestic narratives and other writings of a moral
character; the Countess Hahn-Hahn follows the tendencies of Madame
Dudevant (George Sand), though with less genius.
Brentano, the author of "Godiva," and Arnim, author of the "Countess
Dolores," may also be mentioned among the remarkable writers of fantastic
romances.
Bettina (1785-1859), the sister of Brentano, and the wife of Arnim, who
resembles these authors in her imaginative character, wrote a singularly
enthusiastic book, entitled, "Goethe's Correspondence with a Child."
Imaginative pictures in words, interspersed with sentiments, characterize
the writings of Bettina and many other romancists, while they show little
power in the construction of plots and the development of character.
Among the more renowned female writers are Auguste von Paalzow,
Amalie Schoppe, Johanna Schoppenhauer, Friederike Brun, Talvi (Mrs.
Robinson). Henriette Herz (1764-1841) and Rahel (1771-1844) also
occupied a brilliant position in the literary and social world. The latter was
the wife of Varnhagen von Ense (d. 1859), the most able and attractive
biographical writer of Germany. Wilhelm Häring (Wilibald Alexis) is
particularly eminent as a romance writer.
The historical novelists of the early part of this century, as Van der Velde,
Spindler, Rellstab, Storch, and Rau, have been succeeded by König, Heller,
and several others. Good French and English novels are translated into
German, almost immediately after their appearance, and the comparative
scarcity of interesting German novels is accounted for by the taste for this
foreign literature, and also by the increasing absorption of literary talent in
the periodical press. Schucking is remarkable for his power of vividly
conceiving character. Fanny Lewald is artistic in her methods and true and
eighty-eight volumes of domestic narratives and other writings of a moral
character; the Countess Hahn-Hahn follows the tendencies of Madame
Dudevant (George Sand), though with less genius.
Brentano, the author of "Godiva," and Arnim, author of the "Countess
Dolores," may also be mentioned among the remarkable writers of fantastic
romances.
Bettina (1785-1859), the sister of Brentano, and the wife of Arnim, who
resembles these authors in her imaginative character, wrote a singularly
enthusiastic book, entitled, "Goethe's Correspondence with a Child."
Imaginative pictures in words, interspersed with sentiments, characterize
the writings of Bettina and many other romancists, while they show little
power in the construction of plots and the development of character.
Among the more renowned female writers are Auguste von Paalzow,
Amalie Schoppe, Johanna Schoppenhauer, Friederike Brun, Talvi (Mrs.
Robinson). Henriette Herz (1764-1841) and Rahel (1771-1844) also
occupied a brilliant position in the literary and social world. The latter was
the wife of Varnhagen von Ense (d. 1859), the most able and attractive
biographical writer of Germany. Wilhelm Häring (Wilibald Alexis) is
particularly eminent as a romance writer.
The historical novelists of the early part of this century, as Van der Velde,
Spindler, Rellstab, Storch, and Rau, have been succeeded by König, Heller,
and several others. Good French and English novels are translated into
German, almost immediately after their appearance, and the comparative
scarcity of interesting German novels is accounted for by the taste for this
foreign literature, and also by the increasing absorption of literary talent in
the periodical press. Schucking is remarkable for his power of vividly
conceiving character. Fanny Lewald is artistic in her methods and true and
Page 637
keen in her observation of life; and among novelists of simple village life
Auerbach (1812-1883) takes the first place. Gustave Freytag (b. 1816),
whose "Debit and Credit" is an intensely realistic study of commercial life,
is also one of the distinguished writers of fiction.
The popular legends of Germany are numerous and characteristic of the
country. These narratives are either legends of local interest, associated with
old castles, or other antiquities, or they are purely fabulous. Though they
are sometimes fantastic and in their incidents show little respect to the laws
of probability, they are genuine and fairly represent the play of the popular
imagination; while under their wild imagery they often convey symbolically
a deep and true meaning,
LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM.—Modern German literature
is singularly rich in this department. In the Republic of Letters, German
students have found the liberty they could not enjoy in actual life, and this
cause has promoted investigation in ancient and modern literature. Poets,
historians, philosophers, and other writers have been studied and criticised,
not merely as authors, but with especial reference to their respective
contributions to the progress of ideas and the movements of society. Some
of the most eminent German critical writers have already been mentioned
under various preceding heads. Winckelmann (1717-1768) devoted himself
with enthusiasm to the study of antique sculpture, and wrote elegant
dissertations on the grace and beauty of the works of ancient art. His
writings display true enthusiasm and refined taste. It may be said that the
school of art-criticism in Germany owes its origin to the studies of
Winckelmann. The critical writings of Herder were more remarkable for the
impulse which they gave to the studies of authors than for their intrinsic
merits. Goethe in his prose writings showed with what grace and precision
the German language might be written. The letters of Schiller are pervaded
by a lofty and ideal tone. William von Humboldt (1762-1832) was the
Auerbach (1812-1883) takes the first place. Gustave Freytag (b. 1816),
whose "Debit and Credit" is an intensely realistic study of commercial life,
is also one of the distinguished writers of fiction.
The popular legends of Germany are numerous and characteristic of the
country. These narratives are either legends of local interest, associated with
old castles, or other antiquities, or they are purely fabulous. Though they
are sometimes fantastic and in their incidents show little respect to the laws
of probability, they are genuine and fairly represent the play of the popular
imagination; while under their wild imagery they often convey symbolically
a deep and true meaning,
LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM.—Modern German literature
is singularly rich in this department. In the Republic of Letters, German
students have found the liberty they could not enjoy in actual life, and this
cause has promoted investigation in ancient and modern literature. Poets,
historians, philosophers, and other writers have been studied and criticised,
not merely as authors, but with especial reference to their respective
contributions to the progress of ideas and the movements of society. Some
of the most eminent German critical writers have already been mentioned
under various preceding heads. Winckelmann (1717-1768) devoted himself
with enthusiasm to the study of antique sculpture, and wrote elegant
dissertations on the grace and beauty of the works of ancient art. His
writings display true enthusiasm and refined taste. It may be said that the
school of art-criticism in Germany owes its origin to the studies of
Winckelmann. The critical writings of Herder were more remarkable for the
impulse which they gave to the studies of authors than for their intrinsic
merits. Goethe in his prose writings showed with what grace and precision
the German language might be written. The letters of Schiller are pervaded
by a lofty and ideal tone. William von Humboldt (1762-1832) was the
Page 638
founder of the science of comparative philology, a scholar of remarkable
comprehensiveness and scientific knowledge, and the author of several
highly important works on language and literature. The brothers Schlegel
developed that taste for universal literature which had been introduced by
Herder. The mind of Augustus Schlegel (1767-1845) was rather
comprehensive than endowed with original and creative genius. His poems
are elegant, but not remarkable. Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829), like his
brother, was opposed to the skeptical character of some of the philosophical
theories of his day, and after entering the Catholic Church he expressed his
religious and polemical opinions in his works on literature. His lectures on
"The Philosophy of History" were evidently written with political and
religious purposes. He participated with his brother in the study of Oriental
literature and language, but his lectures on "The Literature of all Nations"
have chiefly extended his fame for great capacity, critical acumen, and
extensive learning. The main purpose of the author is to describe the
development of literature in its connection with the social and religious
institutions of various nations and periods. He thus elevates literature, and
especially poetry, far above the views of trivial and commonplace criticism,
and regards it in its highest aspect as the product of human life and genius
in various stages of cultivation. The history of the world of books is thus
represented as no dry and pedantic study, but as one intimately connected
with the best interests of humanity. In the establishment of this
humanitarian style of literature, the services of this author were of great
value, although many of his works, as well as those of others in this
department, have been written rather for the use of scholars than for the
public. There still remains in Germany that distinction between a popular
and scholastic style which characterized the Middle Ages, when the literati
excluded their thoughts from the people by writing in Latin. The literature
of the past, which is in itself too diffuse to be comprehended by men of
scanty leisure in modern times, is with most writers too often rather
comprehensiveness and scientific knowledge, and the author of several
highly important works on language and literature. The brothers Schlegel
developed that taste for universal literature which had been introduced by
Herder. The mind of Augustus Schlegel (1767-1845) was rather
comprehensive than endowed with original and creative genius. His poems
are elegant, but not remarkable. Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829), like his
brother, was opposed to the skeptical character of some of the philosophical
theories of his day, and after entering the Catholic Church he expressed his
religious and polemical opinions in his works on literature. His lectures on
"The Philosophy of History" were evidently written with political and
religious purposes. He participated with his brother in the study of Oriental
literature and language, but his lectures on "The Literature of all Nations"
have chiefly extended his fame for great capacity, critical acumen, and
extensive learning. The main purpose of the author is to describe the
development of literature in its connection with the social and religious
institutions of various nations and periods. He thus elevates literature, and
especially poetry, far above the views of trivial and commonplace criticism,
and regards it in its highest aspect as the product of human life and genius
in various stages of cultivation. The history of the world of books is thus
represented as no dry and pedantic study, but as one intimately connected
with the best interests of humanity. In the establishment of this
humanitarian style of literature, the services of this author were of great
value, although many of his works, as well as those of others in this
department, have been written rather for the use of scholars than for the
public. There still remains in Germany that distinction between a popular
and scholastic style which characterized the Middle Ages, when the literati
excluded their thoughts from the people by writing in Latin. The literature
of the past, which is in itself too diffuse to be comprehended by men of
scanty leisure in modern times, is with most writers too often rather
Page 639
complicated and extended than simplified and compressed into a readable
form. If the labors of learned historians and critics had been directed to
popularize the results of their extensive scholarship, readers without much
time for study might have acquired a fair general acquaintance with
universal literature. But while concise and masterly summaries are required,
many scholars love to wander in never-ending disquisitions, and the
consequence is that the greater number of readers acquire only a
fragmentary and accidental knowledge of books.
While the brothers Schlegel, and many other writers, followed the
tendencies of Herder in universal literature, a national school of criticism
was founded and supported by the brothers Grimm, with many able
associates. Jacob, the eldest (d. 1863), devoted his researches to the German
literature of the Middle Ages, and collected the scattered remnants of old
popular legends. In conjunction with, his brother William (d. 1860) he
published his "Children's Fables," or "Household Tales," which are marked
by great simplicity, and often convey pleasing sentiments and good morals
mingled with fantastic and supernatural adventures. Later works on the
"German Language," "Legal Antiquities," and "German Mythology," have
secured for this author the highest position among national philologists and
antiquaries. The example of these brothers gave a strong impulse to the
study of German archaeology, and the results have been received with great
enthusiasm. Many relics of old literature have been recovered, and these
remains form a considerable library of literary antiquities.
Menzel (d. 1855), well known as a critical and polemical writer of the
national school, has written the "History of German Literature," "The Spirit
of History," and other works, in which he has warmly opposed the extreme
revolutionary tendencies of recent political and social theorists.
form. If the labors of learned historians and critics had been directed to
popularize the results of their extensive scholarship, readers without much
time for study might have acquired a fair general acquaintance with
universal literature. But while concise and masterly summaries are required,
many scholars love to wander in never-ending disquisitions, and the
consequence is that the greater number of readers acquire only a
fragmentary and accidental knowledge of books.
While the brothers Schlegel, and many other writers, followed the
tendencies of Herder in universal literature, a national school of criticism
was founded and supported by the brothers Grimm, with many able
associates. Jacob, the eldest (d. 1863), devoted his researches to the German
literature of the Middle Ages, and collected the scattered remnants of old
popular legends. In conjunction with, his brother William (d. 1860) he
published his "Children's Fables," or "Household Tales," which are marked
by great simplicity, and often convey pleasing sentiments and good morals
mingled with fantastic and supernatural adventures. Later works on the
"German Language," "Legal Antiquities," and "German Mythology," have
secured for this author the highest position among national philologists and
antiquaries. The example of these brothers gave a strong impulse to the
study of German archaeology, and the results have been received with great
enthusiasm. Many relics of old literature have been recovered, and these
remains form a considerable library of literary antiquities.
Menzel (d. 1855), well known as a critical and polemical writer of the
national school, has written the "History of German Literature," "The Spirit
of History," and other works, in which he has warmly opposed the extreme
revolutionary tendencies of recent political and social theorists.
Page 640
Gervinus (d. 1871) may be considered as a historian, politician, and
critic. In his "History of the Poetical National Literature of the Germans,"
he traces the development of poetry in its relations to civilization and
society. He has also written a work on Shakspeare, and a history of the
nineteenth century, which is characterized by its liberal tendencies. His
views of literature are directly opposed to those of Frederic Schlegel.
As historians of ancient classical literature, German scholars have
maintained the highest position, and to them the world is prodigiously
indebted. Their works, however, are too comprehensive to be described
here, and too numerous even to be mentioned. The idea of classical
erudition, as maintained by them, is extended far beyond its common
limitation, and is connected with researches respecting not the language
only, but also the religion, philosophy, social economy, arts, and sciences of
ancient nations.
Karl Ottfried Müller (d. 1840) must be mentioned as an accomplished
scholar and the author of a standard work, the "History of Greek
Literature." Among the other great writers on ancient history are Böckh,
Duncker, Droysen, Mommsen, and Kortüm.
Several works on the modern literature of European nations have recently
been published in Germany; and much industry and research have been
displayed in numerous criticisms on the fine arts. The principles of
Winckelmann and Lessing have been developed by later authors who have
written excellent critical and historical works on the plastic arts, sculpture,
painting, and architecture. In general, the literary criticism of Germany
deserves the highest commendation for its candor, carefulness, and
philosophical consistency.
HISTORY AND THEOLOGY.—The extensive historical works of the
modern writers of Germany form an important feature in the literature. The
critic. In his "History of the Poetical National Literature of the Germans,"
he traces the development of poetry in its relations to civilization and
society. He has also written a work on Shakspeare, and a history of the
nineteenth century, which is characterized by its liberal tendencies. His
views of literature are directly opposed to those of Frederic Schlegel.
As historians of ancient classical literature, German scholars have
maintained the highest position, and to them the world is prodigiously
indebted. Their works, however, are too comprehensive to be described
here, and too numerous even to be mentioned. The idea of classical
erudition, as maintained by them, is extended far beyond its common
limitation, and is connected with researches respecting not the language
only, but also the religion, philosophy, social economy, arts, and sciences of
ancient nations.
Karl Ottfried Müller (d. 1840) must be mentioned as an accomplished
scholar and the author of a standard work, the "History of Greek
Literature." Among the other great writers on ancient history are Böckh,
Duncker, Droysen, Mommsen, and Kortüm.
Several works on the modern literature of European nations have recently
been published in Germany; and much industry and research have been
displayed in numerous criticisms on the fine arts. The principles of
Winckelmann and Lessing have been developed by later authors who have
written excellent critical and historical works on the plastic arts, sculpture,
painting, and architecture. In general, the literary criticism of Germany
deserves the highest commendation for its candor, carefulness, and
philosophical consistency.
HISTORY AND THEOLOGY.—The extensive historical works of the
modern writers of Germany form an important feature in the literature. The
Page 641
political circumstances of the country have been in many respects favorable
to the progress of these studies. Professors and students, excluded in a great
measure from political life, have explored the histories of ancient nations,
and have given opinions in the form of historical essays, which they could
not venture to apply to the institutions of Germany. While Prussia and
Austria were perilous topics for discussion, liberal and innovating doctrines
might be promulgated in lectures on the progress and decline of liberty in
the ancient world. Accordingly, the study of universal history, to which the
philosophical views of Herder gave the impulse, has been industriously
prosecuted during the last fifty years, and learned and diligent collectors of
historical material are more numerous in Germany than in any other
country.
Müller (d. 1804), a native of Switzerland, displayed true historical genius
and extended erudition in his "Lectures on Universal History." Among other
writers on the same subject are Rotteck, Becker, Böttiger, Dittmar, and
Vehse. Of the two last authors, the one wrote on this vast subject especially
in reference to Christianity, and the other describes the progress of
civilization and intellectual culture.
Schlosser's (b. 1786) "History of the Ancient World and its Culture"
holds a prominent place among historical works. His writings are the result
of laborious and conscientious researches to which he has devoted his life.
Heeren (d. 1842) opened a new vein of ancient history in his learned
work on the "Commercial Relations of Antiquity." While other historians
have been attracted by the sword of the conqueror, Heeren followed the
merchant's caravan laden with corn, wine, oils, silks, and spices. His work
is a valuable contribution to the true history of humanity.
Carl Ritter (d. 1859) has united the studies of geography and history in
his "Geography viewed in its Relations to Nature and History." This great
to the progress of these studies. Professors and students, excluded in a great
measure from political life, have explored the histories of ancient nations,
and have given opinions in the form of historical essays, which they could
not venture to apply to the institutions of Germany. While Prussia and
Austria were perilous topics for discussion, liberal and innovating doctrines
might be promulgated in lectures on the progress and decline of liberty in
the ancient world. Accordingly, the study of universal history, to which the
philosophical views of Herder gave the impulse, has been industriously
prosecuted during the last fifty years, and learned and diligent collectors of
historical material are more numerous in Germany than in any other
country.
Müller (d. 1804), a native of Switzerland, displayed true historical genius
and extended erudition in his "Lectures on Universal History." Among other
writers on the same subject are Rotteck, Becker, Böttiger, Dittmar, and
Vehse. Of the two last authors, the one wrote on this vast subject especially
in reference to Christianity, and the other describes the progress of
civilization and intellectual culture.
Schlosser's (b. 1786) "History of the Ancient World and its Culture"
holds a prominent place among historical works. His writings are the result
of laborious and conscientious researches to which he has devoted his life.
Heeren (d. 1842) opened a new vein of ancient history in his learned
work on the "Commercial Relations of Antiquity." While other historians
have been attracted by the sword of the conqueror, Heeren followed the
merchant's caravan laden with corn, wine, oils, silks, and spices. His work
is a valuable contribution to the true history of humanity.
Carl Ritter (d. 1859) has united the studies of geography and history in
his "Geography viewed in its Relations to Nature and History." This great
Page 642
work, the result of a life devoted to industrious research, has established the
science of comparative geography.
Lepsius and Brugsch have rendered important services to Egyptology,
and
Lachmann, K. O. Müller, Von der Hagen, Böckh, the brothers Grimm,
Moritz
Haupt, and others, to ancient and German philology.
In Roman history, Niebuhr (1776-1831), stands alone as the founder of a
new school of research, by which the fictions so long mingled with the
early history of Rome, and copied from book to book, and from century to
century, have been fully exploded. Through the labors of this historian,
modern readers know the ancient Romans far better than they were known
by nations who were in close contact with them. Niebuhr made great
preparations for his work, and took care not to dissipate his powers by
appearing too soon as an author.
Besides many other histories relating to the Roman Empire, German
literature is especially rich in those relating to the Middle Ages. The
historical writings of Ranke (b. 1795) connect the events of that period with
modern times, and give valuable notices of the age of the Reformation.
"The History of Papacy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries" is
highly esteemed, though Catholic critics have objected to some of its
statements. Histories of the German people, of the Hohenstauffen Dynasty,
of the Crusades; histories of nations, of cities, of events, and of individuals,
all have found their interpreters in German genius. Schlosser (b. 1776), the
vigorous and truthful historian of the eighteenth century; Dahlmann (b.
1785) the German Guizot, and Raumer (b. 1781), the historian of the
Hohenstauffens, deserve particular mention. Nor is the department of
ecclesiastical history and theology less distinguished by its research.
science of comparative geography.
Lepsius and Brugsch have rendered important services to Egyptology,
and
Lachmann, K. O. Müller, Von der Hagen, Böckh, the brothers Grimm,
Moritz
Haupt, and others, to ancient and German philology.
In Roman history, Niebuhr (1776-1831), stands alone as the founder of a
new school of research, by which the fictions so long mingled with the
early history of Rome, and copied from book to book, and from century to
century, have been fully exploded. Through the labors of this historian,
modern readers know the ancient Romans far better than they were known
by nations who were in close contact with them. Niebuhr made great
preparations for his work, and took care not to dissipate his powers by
appearing too soon as an author.
Besides many other histories relating to the Roman Empire, German
literature is especially rich in those relating to the Middle Ages. The
historical writings of Ranke (b. 1795) connect the events of that period with
modern times, and give valuable notices of the age of the Reformation.
"The History of Papacy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries" is
highly esteemed, though Catholic critics have objected to some of its
statements. Histories of the German people, of the Hohenstauffen Dynasty,
of the Crusades; histories of nations, of cities, of events, and of individuals,
all have found their interpreters in German genius. Schlosser (b. 1776), the
vigorous and truthful historian of the eighteenth century; Dahlmann (b.
1785) the German Guizot, and Raumer (b. 1781), the historian of the
Hohenstauffens, deserve particular mention. Nor is the department of
ecclesiastical history and theology less distinguished by its research.
Page 643
No writer of his time contributed more towards the formation of an
improved prose style than Mosbeim (1694-1755); although his
"Ecclesiastical History" is now superseded by works of deeper research. His
contemporary, Reimarus, wrote in favor of natural theology, and may be
considered the founder of the Rationalistic School. Neander (d. 1850) wrote
a history of the church, in ten volumes, distinguished for its liberal views.
The sermons of Reinhard (d. 1812), in thirty-nine volumes, display
earnestness and unaffected solemnity of style. Schleiermacher (d. 1834),
celebrated as a preacher at Berlin, was the author of many works, in which
he attempted to reconcile the doctrines of Protestantism with certain
philosophical speculations. De Wette, the friend of Schleiermacher, is one
of the most learned and able representatives of the Rationalistic School.
Tholuck (b. 1799) is celebrated as a learned exegetical writer.
Mommsen (b. 1817) is the vigorous historian of ancient Rome, and
Curtius (b. 1819), the author of a history of Greece, not more remarkable
for its learning than for the clear and attractive arrangement of its material.
In histories of philosophy recent German literature is absolutely supreme.
Hegel still ranks as one of the greatest writers in this line, and Ueberweg,
Uedmann, and others are important workers in the same department.
Fischer writes the history of philosophy with sympathetic appreciation and
in a fascinating style, and Lange, in his "History of Materialism," does full
justice to the different phases of materialistic philosophy.
Since the time of Lessing, aesthetics have formed a prominent branch of
philosophy with the Germans, and they have been no less successful as
historians of art than of metaphysics. Among the most distinguished are
Kugler, Carrière, and Lübke. Biographers and historians of literature are
numerous.
improved prose style than Mosbeim (1694-1755); although his
"Ecclesiastical History" is now superseded by works of deeper research. His
contemporary, Reimarus, wrote in favor of natural theology, and may be
considered the founder of the Rationalistic School. Neander (d. 1850) wrote
a history of the church, in ten volumes, distinguished for its liberal views.
The sermons of Reinhard (d. 1812), in thirty-nine volumes, display
earnestness and unaffected solemnity of style. Schleiermacher (d. 1834),
celebrated as a preacher at Berlin, was the author of many works, in which
he attempted to reconcile the doctrines of Protestantism with certain
philosophical speculations. De Wette, the friend of Schleiermacher, is one
of the most learned and able representatives of the Rationalistic School.
Tholuck (b. 1799) is celebrated as a learned exegetical writer.
Mommsen (b. 1817) is the vigorous historian of ancient Rome, and
Curtius (b. 1819), the author of a history of Greece, not more remarkable
for its learning than for the clear and attractive arrangement of its material.
In histories of philosophy recent German literature is absolutely supreme.
Hegel still ranks as one of the greatest writers in this line, and Ueberweg,
Uedmann, and others are important workers in the same department.
Fischer writes the history of philosophy with sympathetic appreciation and
in a fascinating style, and Lange, in his "History of Materialism," does full
justice to the different phases of materialistic philosophy.
Since the time of Lessing, aesthetics have formed a prominent branch of
philosophy with the Germans, and they have been no less successful as
historians of art than of metaphysics. Among the most distinguished are
Kugler, Carrière, and Lübke. Biographers and historians of literature are
numerous.
Page 644
ENGLISH LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.—1. English Literature. Its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Celtic Literature. Irish, Scotch, and Cymric Celts;
the Chronicles of Ireland; Ossian's Poems; Traditions of Arthur; the
Triads; Tales.—2. Latin Literature, Bede; Alcuin; Erigena.—3. Anglo-
Saxon Literature. Poetry; Prose; Versions of Scripture: the Saxon
Chronicle; Alfred.
PERIOD SECOND.—The Norman Age and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries.—1. Literature in the Latin Tongue.—2. Literature in
Norman-French. Poetry; Romances of Chivalry.—3. Saxon-English.
Metrical Remains.—4. Literature in the Fourteenth Century.—Prose
Writers; Occam, Duns Scotus, Wickliffe, Mandeville, Chaucer. Poetry;
Langland, Gower, Chaucer.—5. Literature in the Fifteenth Century.
Ballads.—6. Poets of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries in
Scotland. Wyntoun, Barbour, and others.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Age of the Reformation (1509-1558), Classical,
Theological, and Miscellaneous Literature: Sir Thomas More and others.
Poetry: Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville; the Drama.—2. The Age of
Spenser, Shakspeare, Bacon, and Milton (1558-1660). Scholastic and
Ecclesiastical Literature. Translations of the Bible: Hooker, Andrews,
INTRODUCTION.—1. English Literature. Its Divisions.—2. The
Language.
PERIOD FIRST.—1. Celtic Literature. Irish, Scotch, and Cymric Celts;
the Chronicles of Ireland; Ossian's Poems; Traditions of Arthur; the
Triads; Tales.—2. Latin Literature, Bede; Alcuin; Erigena.—3. Anglo-
Saxon Literature. Poetry; Prose; Versions of Scripture: the Saxon
Chronicle; Alfred.
PERIOD SECOND.—The Norman Age and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries.—1. Literature in the Latin Tongue.—2. Literature in
Norman-French. Poetry; Romances of Chivalry.—3. Saxon-English.
Metrical Remains.—4. Literature in the Fourteenth Century.—Prose
Writers; Occam, Duns Scotus, Wickliffe, Mandeville, Chaucer. Poetry;
Langland, Gower, Chaucer.—5. Literature in the Fifteenth Century.
Ballads.—6. Poets of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries in
Scotland. Wyntoun, Barbour, and others.
PERIOD THIRD.—1. Age of the Reformation (1509-1558), Classical,
Theological, and Miscellaneous Literature: Sir Thomas More and others.
Poetry: Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville; the Drama.—2. The Age of
Spenser, Shakspeare, Bacon, and Milton (1558-1660). Scholastic and
Ecclesiastical Literature. Translations of the Bible: Hooker, Andrews,
Page 645
Donne, Hall, Taylor, Baxter: other Prose Writers: Fuller, Cudworth, Bacon,
Hobbes. Raleigh, Milton, Sidney, Selden, Burton, Browne and Cowley.
Dramatic Poetry: Marlowe and Greene, Shakspeare, Beaumont and
Fletcher,
Ben Jonson, and others; Massinger, Ford, and Shirley; Decline of the
Drama. Non-dramatic Poetry: Spenser and the Minor Poets. Lyrical Poets;
Donne, Cowley, Denham, Waller, Milton.—3. The Age of the Restoration
and
Revolution (1660-1702). Prose: Leighton, Tilotson, Barrow, Bunyan, Locke
and others. The Drama: Dryden, Otway. Comedy; Didactic Poetry:
Roscommon,
Marvell, Butler, Pryor, Dryden.—4. The Eighteenth Century. The First
Generation (1702-1727): Pope, Swift, and others; the Periodical Essayists:
Addison, Steele. The Second Generation (1727-1760); Theology;
Warburton,
Butler, Watts, Doddridge. Philosophy: Hume. Miscellaneous Prose:
Johnson;
the Novelists: Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne. The Drama; Non-
dramatic Poetry: Young, Blair, Akenside, Thomson, Gray, and Collins. The
Third Generation (1780-1800); the Historians: Hume, Robertson, and
Gibbon. Miscellaneous Prose: Johnson, Goldsmith, "Junius," Pitt, Fox,
Sheridan, and Burke. Criticism: Burke, Reynolds, Campbell, Kames.
Political Economy: Adam Smith. Ethics: Paley, Smith, Tucker,
Metaphysics:
Reid. Theological and Religious Writers: Campbell, Paley, Watson,
Newton,
Hannah More, and Wilberforce. Poetry: Comedies of Goldsmith and
Sheridan;
Minor Poets; Later Poems; Beattie's Minstrel; Cowper and Burns. 5. The
Nineteenth Century. The Poets: Campbell, Southey, Scott, Byron; Coleridge
Hobbes. Raleigh, Milton, Sidney, Selden, Burton, Browne and Cowley.
Dramatic Poetry: Marlowe and Greene, Shakspeare, Beaumont and
Fletcher,
Ben Jonson, and others; Massinger, Ford, and Shirley; Decline of the
Drama. Non-dramatic Poetry: Spenser and the Minor Poets. Lyrical Poets;
Donne, Cowley, Denham, Waller, Milton.—3. The Age of the Restoration
and
Revolution (1660-1702). Prose: Leighton, Tilotson, Barrow, Bunyan, Locke
and others. The Drama: Dryden, Otway. Comedy; Didactic Poetry:
Roscommon,
Marvell, Butler, Pryor, Dryden.—4. The Eighteenth Century. The First
Generation (1702-1727): Pope, Swift, and others; the Periodical Essayists:
Addison, Steele. The Second Generation (1727-1760); Theology;
Warburton,
Butler, Watts, Doddridge. Philosophy: Hume. Miscellaneous Prose:
Johnson;
the Novelists: Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne. The Drama; Non-
dramatic Poetry: Young, Blair, Akenside, Thomson, Gray, and Collins. The
Third Generation (1780-1800); the Historians: Hume, Robertson, and
Gibbon. Miscellaneous Prose: Johnson, Goldsmith, "Junius," Pitt, Fox,
Sheridan, and Burke. Criticism: Burke, Reynolds, Campbell, Kames.
Political Economy: Adam Smith. Ethics: Paley, Smith, Tucker,
Metaphysics:
Reid. Theological and Religious Writers: Campbell, Paley, Watson,
Newton,
Hannah More, and Wilberforce. Poetry: Comedies of Goldsmith and
Sheridan;
Minor Poets; Later Poems; Beattie's Minstrel; Cowper and Burns. 5. The
Nineteenth Century. The Poets: Campbell, Southey, Scott, Byron; Coleridge
Page 646
and Wordsworth; Wilson, Shelley, Keats; Crabbe, Moore, and others;
Tennyson, Browning, Proctor, and others. Fiction: the Waverley and other
Novels; Dickens, Thackeray, and others. History: Arnold, Thirlwall, Grote,
Macaulay, Alison, Carlyle, Freeman, Buckle. Criticism: Hallam, De
Quincey,
Macaulay, Carlyle, Wilson, Lamb, and others. Theology: Foster, Hall,
Chalmers. Philosophy: Stewart, Brown, Mackintosh, Bentham, Alison, and
others. Political Economy: Mill, Whewell, Whately, De Morgan, Hamilton.
Periodical Writings: the Edinburgh, Quarterly, and Westminster Reviews,
and Blackwood's Magazine. Physical Science: Brewster, Herschel, Playfair,
Miller, Buckland, Whewell.—Since 1860. 1. Poets: Matthew Arnold,
Algernon
Swinburne, Dante Rossetti, Robert Buchanan, Edwin Arnold, "Owen
Meredith,"
William Morris, Jean Ingelow, Adelaide Procter, Christina Rossetti,
Augusta Webster, Mary Robinson, and others. 2. Fiction: "George Eliot,"
MacDonald, Collins, Black, Blackmore, Mrs. Oliphant, Yates, McCarthy,
Trollope, and others. 3. Scientific Writers: Herbert Spencer, Charles
Darwin, Tyndall, Huxley, and others. 4. Miscellaneous.
INTRODUCTION.
1. ENGLISH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—The original
inhabitants of England, belonging to the great race of Celts, were not the
true founders of the English nation; and their language, which is still spoken
unchanged in various parts of the kingdom, has exerted but an incredibly
small influence on the English tongue. During the period of the Roman
domination (55 B.C.-447 A.D.), the relations between the conquerors and
the natives did not materially alter the nationality of the people, nor did the
Latin language permanently displace or modify the native tongue.
Tennyson, Browning, Proctor, and others. Fiction: the Waverley and other
Novels; Dickens, Thackeray, and others. History: Arnold, Thirlwall, Grote,
Macaulay, Alison, Carlyle, Freeman, Buckle. Criticism: Hallam, De
Quincey,
Macaulay, Carlyle, Wilson, Lamb, and others. Theology: Foster, Hall,
Chalmers. Philosophy: Stewart, Brown, Mackintosh, Bentham, Alison, and
others. Political Economy: Mill, Whewell, Whately, De Morgan, Hamilton.
Periodical Writings: the Edinburgh, Quarterly, and Westminster Reviews,
and Blackwood's Magazine. Physical Science: Brewster, Herschel, Playfair,
Miller, Buckland, Whewell.—Since 1860. 1. Poets: Matthew Arnold,
Algernon
Swinburne, Dante Rossetti, Robert Buchanan, Edwin Arnold, "Owen
Meredith,"
William Morris, Jean Ingelow, Adelaide Procter, Christina Rossetti,
Augusta Webster, Mary Robinson, and others. 2. Fiction: "George Eliot,"
MacDonald, Collins, Black, Blackmore, Mrs. Oliphant, Yates, McCarthy,
Trollope, and others. 3. Scientific Writers: Herbert Spencer, Charles
Darwin, Tyndall, Huxley, and others. 4. Miscellaneous.
INTRODUCTION.
1. ENGLISH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.—The original
inhabitants of England, belonging to the great race of Celts, were not the
true founders of the English nation; and their language, which is still spoken
unchanged in various parts of the kingdom, has exerted but an incredibly
small influence on the English tongue. During the period of the Roman
domination (55 B.C.-447 A.D.), the relations between the conquerors and
the natives did not materially alter the nationality of the people, nor did the
Latin language permanently displace or modify the native tongue.
Page 647
The great event of the Dark Ages which succeeded the fall of the Roman
empire was the vast series of emigrations which planted tribes of Gothic
blood over large tracts of Europe, and which was followed by the formation
of all the modern European languages, and by the general profession of
Christianity. The Anglo-Saxon invaders of England continued to emigrate
from the Continent for more than a hundred years, and before many
generations had passed away, their language, customs, and character
prevailed throughout the provinces they had seized. During the six hundred
years of their independence (448-1066), the nation made wonderful
progress in the arts of life and thought. The Pagans accepted the Christian
faith; the piratical sea-kings applied themselves to the tillage of the soil and
the practice of some of the ruder manufactures; the fierce soldiers
constructed, out of the materials of legislation common to the whole
Teutonic race, a manly political constitution.
The few extant literary monuments of the Anglo-Saxons possess a
singular value as illustrations of the character of the people, and have the
additional attraction of being written in what was really our mother tongue.
In the Middle Ages (from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries), the
painful convulsions of infant society gave way to the growing vigor of
healthy though undisciplined youth. All the relations of life were modified,
more or less, by the two influences predominant in the early part of the
period, but decaying in the latter,—Feudalism and the Church of Rome,—
and by the consolidation of the new languages, which were successively
developed in all European countries, and were soon qualified as instruments
for communicating the results of intellectual activity. The Middle Ages
closed by two events occurring nearly at the same time: the erection of the
great monarchies on the ruins of feudalism, and the shattering of the
sovereignty of the Romish Church by the Reformation. At the same period,
empire was the vast series of emigrations which planted tribes of Gothic
blood over large tracts of Europe, and which was followed by the formation
of all the modern European languages, and by the general profession of
Christianity. The Anglo-Saxon invaders of England continued to emigrate
from the Continent for more than a hundred years, and before many
generations had passed away, their language, customs, and character
prevailed throughout the provinces they had seized. During the six hundred
years of their independence (448-1066), the nation made wonderful
progress in the arts of life and thought. The Pagans accepted the Christian
faith; the piratical sea-kings applied themselves to the tillage of the soil and
the practice of some of the ruder manufactures; the fierce soldiers
constructed, out of the materials of legislation common to the whole
Teutonic race, a manly political constitution.
The few extant literary monuments of the Anglo-Saxons possess a
singular value as illustrations of the character of the people, and have the
additional attraction of being written in what was really our mother tongue.
In the Middle Ages (from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries), the
painful convulsions of infant society gave way to the growing vigor of
healthy though undisciplined youth. All the relations of life were modified,
more or less, by the two influences predominant in the early part of the
period, but decaying in the latter,—Feudalism and the Church of Rome,—
and by the consolidation of the new languages, which were successively
developed in all European countries, and were soon qualified as instruments
for communicating the results of intellectual activity. The Middle Ages
closed by two events occurring nearly at the same time: the erection of the
great monarchies on the ruins of feudalism, and the shattering of the
sovereignty of the Romish Church by the Reformation. At the same period,
Page 648
the invention of printing, the most important event in the annals of
literature, became available as a means of enlightenment.
The Norman conquest of England (1066) subjected the nation at once to
both of the ruling mediaeval impulses: feudalism, which metamorphosed
the relative positions of the people and the nobles, and the recognition of
papal supremacy, which altered not less thoroughly the standing of the
church. While these changes were not unproductive of good at that time,
they were distasteful to the nation, and soon became injurious, both to
freedom and knowledge, until at length, under the dynasty of the Tudors,
the ecclesiastical shackles were cast off, and the feudal bonds began
gradually to be loosened.
The Norman invaders of England took possession of the country as
military masters. They suppressed the native polity by overwhelming force,
made Norman-French the fashionable speech of the court and the
aristocracy, and imposed it on the tribunals. Their romantic literature soon
weaned the hearts of educated men from the ancient rudeness of taste, but
the mass of the English people clung so obstinately to their ancestral
tongue, that the Anglo-Saxon language kept its hold in substance until it
was evolved into modern English; and the Norman nobles were at length
forced to learn the dialect which had been preserved among their despised
English vassals.
Emerging from the Middle Ages into the illuminated vista of modern
history, we find the world of action much more powerfully influenced by
the world of letters than ever before. Among the causes which produced this
change are the invention of printing, the use of a cultivated living language,
and in England the vindication of freedom of thought and constitutional
liberty.
literature, became available as a means of enlightenment.
The Norman conquest of England (1066) subjected the nation at once to
both of the ruling mediaeval impulses: feudalism, which metamorphosed
the relative positions of the people and the nobles, and the recognition of
papal supremacy, which altered not less thoroughly the standing of the
church. While these changes were not unproductive of good at that time,
they were distasteful to the nation, and soon became injurious, both to
freedom and knowledge, until at length, under the dynasty of the Tudors,
the ecclesiastical shackles were cast off, and the feudal bonds began
gradually to be loosened.
The Norman invaders of England took possession of the country as
military masters. They suppressed the native polity by overwhelming force,
made Norman-French the fashionable speech of the court and the
aristocracy, and imposed it on the tribunals. Their romantic literature soon
weaned the hearts of educated men from the ancient rudeness of taste, but
the mass of the English people clung so obstinately to their ancestral
tongue, that the Anglo-Saxon language kept its hold in substance until it
was evolved into modern English; and the Norman nobles were at length
forced to learn the dialect which had been preserved among their despised
English vassals.
Emerging from the Middle Ages into the illuminated vista of modern
history, we find the world of action much more powerfully influenced by
the world of letters than ever before. Among the causes which produced this
change are the invention of printing, the use of a cultivated living language,
and in England the vindication of freedom of thought and constitutional
liberty.
Page 649
The period from the accession of Elizabeth to the Restoration (1558-
1660) is the most brilliant in the literary history of England. The literature
assumes its most varied forms, expatiates over the most distant regions of
speculation and investigation; and its intellectual chiefs, while they breathe
the spirit of modern knowledge and freedom, speak to us in tones which
borrow an irregular stateliness from the chivalrous past. But this
magnificent panorama does not meet the eye at once; the unveiling of its
features is as gradual as the passing away of the mists that shroud the
landscape before the morning sun.
The first quarter of the century was unproductive in all departments of
literature. Of the great writers who have immortalized the name of
Elizabeth, scarcely one was born five years before she ascended the throne,
and the immense and invaluable series of literary works which embellished
the period in question may be regarded as beginning only with the earliest
poem of Spenser, 1579.
"There never was anywhere," says Lord Jeffrey, "anything like the sixty
or seventy years that elapsed from the middle of the reign of Elizabeth to
the Restoration. In point of real force and originality of genius, neither the
age of Pericles nor the age of Augustus, nor the times of Leo X., or of Louis
XIV., can come at all into comparison. In that short period we shall find the
names of almost all the very great men that this nation has ever produced."
Among the influences which made the last generation of the sixteenth
century so strong in itself, and capable of bequeathing so much strength to
those who took up its inheritance, was the expanding elasticity, the growing
freedom of thought and action. The chivalry of the Middle Ages began to
seek more useful fields of adventure in search of new worlds, and fame, and
gold. There was an increasing national prosperity, and a corresponding
1660) is the most brilliant in the literary history of England. The literature
assumes its most varied forms, expatiates over the most distant regions of
speculation and investigation; and its intellectual chiefs, while they breathe
the spirit of modern knowledge and freedom, speak to us in tones which
borrow an irregular stateliness from the chivalrous past. But this
magnificent panorama does not meet the eye at once; the unveiling of its
features is as gradual as the passing away of the mists that shroud the
landscape before the morning sun.
The first quarter of the century was unproductive in all departments of
literature. Of the great writers who have immortalized the name of
Elizabeth, scarcely one was born five years before she ascended the throne,
and the immense and invaluable series of literary works which embellished
the period in question may be regarded as beginning only with the earliest
poem of Spenser, 1579.
"There never was anywhere," says Lord Jeffrey, "anything like the sixty
or seventy years that elapsed from the middle of the reign of Elizabeth to
the Restoration. In point of real force and originality of genius, neither the
age of Pericles nor the age of Augustus, nor the times of Leo X., or of Louis
XIV., can come at all into comparison. In that short period we shall find the
names of almost all the very great men that this nation has ever produced."
Among the influences which made the last generation of the sixteenth
century so strong in itself, and capable of bequeathing so much strength to
those who took up its inheritance, was the expanding elasticity, the growing
freedom of thought and action. The chivalry of the Middle Ages began to
seek more useful fields of adventure in search of new worlds, and fame, and
gold. There was an increasing national prosperity, and a corresponding
Page 650
advance of comfort and refinement, and mightier than all these forces was
the silent working of the Reformation on the hearts of the people.
The minor writers of this age deserve great honor, and may almost be
considered the builders of the structure of English literature, whose
intellectual chiefs were Spenser, Shakspeare, and Hooker.
Spenser and Shakspeare were both possessed of thoughts, feelings, and
images, which they could not have had if they had lived a century later, or
much earlier; and, although their views were very dissimilar, they both bear
the characteristic features of the age in which they lived. Spenser dwelt with
animation on the gorgeous scenery which covered the elfin land of
knighthood and romance, and present realities were lost in his dream of
antique grandeur and ideal loveliness. He was the modern poet of the
remote past; the last minstrel of chivalry, though incomparably greater than
his forerunners.
Shakspeare was the poet of the present and the future, and of universal
humanity. He saw in the past the fallen fragments on which men were to
build anew—august scenes of desolation, whose ruin taught men to work
more wisely. He painted them as the accessory features and distant
landscape of colossal pictures, in whose foreground stood figures soaring
beyond the limits of their place, instinct with the spirit of the time in which
the poet lived, yet lifted out of it and above it by the impulse of potent
genius prescient of momentous truths that lay slumbering in the bosom of
futurity.
By the side of poetry contemporary prose shows poorly, with one great
exception. In respect to style, Hooker stands almost alone in his time, and
may be considered the first of the illustrious train of great prose writers. His
"Ecclesiastical Polity" appeared in 1594. Sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia" had
been written before 1587. Bacon's Essays appeared in 1596, and also
the silent working of the Reformation on the hearts of the people.
The minor writers of this age deserve great honor, and may almost be
considered the builders of the structure of English literature, whose
intellectual chiefs were Spenser, Shakspeare, and Hooker.
Spenser and Shakspeare were both possessed of thoughts, feelings, and
images, which they could not have had if they had lived a century later, or
much earlier; and, although their views were very dissimilar, they both bear
the characteristic features of the age in which they lived. Spenser dwelt with
animation on the gorgeous scenery which covered the elfin land of
knighthood and romance, and present realities were lost in his dream of
antique grandeur and ideal loveliness. He was the modern poet of the
remote past; the last minstrel of chivalry, though incomparably greater than
his forerunners.
Shakspeare was the poet of the present and the future, and of universal
humanity. He saw in the past the fallen fragments on which men were to
build anew—august scenes of desolation, whose ruin taught men to work
more wisely. He painted them as the accessory features and distant
landscape of colossal pictures, in whose foreground stood figures soaring
beyond the limits of their place, instinct with the spirit of the time in which
the poet lived, yet lifted out of it and above it by the impulse of potent
genius prescient of momentous truths that lay slumbering in the bosom of
futurity.
By the side of poetry contemporary prose shows poorly, with one great
exception. In respect to style, Hooker stands almost alone in his time, and
may be considered the first of the illustrious train of great prose writers. His
"Ecclesiastical Polity" appeared in 1594. Sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia" had
been written before 1587. Bacon's Essays appeared in 1596, and also
Page 651
Spenser's "View of Ireland," But none of these are comparable in point of
style to Hooker.
The reign of Elizabeth gave the key-note to the literature of the two
succeeding reigns, that of James I. (1603-1625), and Charles (1625-1649),
and the literary works of this period were not only more numerous, but
stand higher in the mass than those which closed the sixteenth century. But
Spenser remained un-imitated and Shakspeare was inimitable; the drama,
however, which in this as in the last generation monopolized the best minds,
received new developments, poetry was enriched beyond precedent, and
prose writing blossomed into a harvest of unexampled eloquence. But
although, under the rule of James, learning did good service in theology and
the classics, English writing began to be infected with pedantic affectations.
The chivalrous temper of the preceding age was on the wane, coarseness
began to pass into licentiousness, and moral degeneracy began to diffuse its
poison widely over the lighter kinds of literature. Bacon, the great pilot of
modern science, gave to the world the rudiments of his philosophy. Bishop
Hall exemplified not only the eloquence and talent of the clergy, but the
beginning of that resistance to the tendencies by which the church was to be
soon overthrown. The drama was headed by Ben Jonson, honorably severe
in morals, and by Beaumont and Fletcher, who heralded the licentiousness
which soon corrupted the art generally, while the poet Donne introduced
fantastic eccentricities into poetical composition.
Some of the most eloquent prose writings of the English language had
their birth amidst the convulsions of the Civil War, or in the strangely
perplexed age of the Commonwealth and protectorate (1649-1660), that
stern era which moulded the mind of one poet gifted with extraordinary
genius. Although Milton would not, in all likelihood, have conceived the
"Paradise Lost" had he not felt and acted with the Puritans, yet it would
style to Hooker.
The reign of Elizabeth gave the key-note to the literature of the two
succeeding reigns, that of James I. (1603-1625), and Charles (1625-1649),
and the literary works of this period were not only more numerous, but
stand higher in the mass than those which closed the sixteenth century. But
Spenser remained un-imitated and Shakspeare was inimitable; the drama,
however, which in this as in the last generation monopolized the best minds,
received new developments, poetry was enriched beyond precedent, and
prose writing blossomed into a harvest of unexampled eloquence. But
although, under the rule of James, learning did good service in theology and
the classics, English writing began to be infected with pedantic affectations.
The chivalrous temper of the preceding age was on the wane, coarseness
began to pass into licentiousness, and moral degeneracy began to diffuse its
poison widely over the lighter kinds of literature. Bacon, the great pilot of
modern science, gave to the world the rudiments of his philosophy. Bishop
Hall exemplified not only the eloquence and talent of the clergy, but the
beginning of that resistance to the tendencies by which the church was to be
soon overthrown. The drama was headed by Ben Jonson, honorably severe
in morals, and by Beaumont and Fletcher, who heralded the licentiousness
which soon corrupted the art generally, while the poet Donne introduced
fantastic eccentricities into poetical composition.
Some of the most eloquent prose writings of the English language had
their birth amidst the convulsions of the Civil War, or in the strangely
perplexed age of the Commonwealth and protectorate (1649-1660), that
stern era which moulded the mind of one poet gifted with extraordinary
genius. Although Milton would not, in all likelihood, have conceived the
"Paradise Lost" had he not felt and acted with the Puritans, yet it would
Page 652
have been less the consummate work of art which it is, had he not fed his
fancy with the courtly pomp of the last days of the monarchy.
The prose writers of this time are represented by Bishop Hall and Jeremy
Taylor, among the clergy, and Selden and Camden among the laymen. The
roughness of speech and manners of Elizabeth's time, followed, in the next
reign, by a real coarseness and lowness of sentiment, grew rapidly worse
under Charles, whose reign was especially prolific in poetry, the tone of
which varied from grave to gay, from devotion to licentiousness, from
severe solemnity to indecent levity; but no great poet appeared in the
crowd. The drama was still rich in genius, its most distinguished names
being those of Ford, Massinger, and Shirley; but here depravity had taken a
deeper root than elsewhere, and it was a blessing that, soon after the
breaking out of the war, the theatres were closed, and the poets left to
idleness or repentance.
The Commonwealth and Protectorate, extending over eleven years
(1649- 1660), made an epoch in literature, as well as in the state and church.
The old English drama was extinct, and poetry had few votaries. Cowley
now closed with great brilliancy the eccentric and artificial school of which
Donne had been the founder, and Milton was undergoing the last steps of
that mental discipline that was to qualify him for standing forth the last and
all but the greatest of the poetical ancients. At the same time, the approach
of a modern era was indicated by the frivolity of sentiment and ease of
versification which prevailed in the poems of Waller.
In philosophy, Hobbes now uttered his defiance to constitutional freedom
and ecclesiastical independence; Henry More expounded his platonic
dreams in the cloisters of Cambridge; and Cudworth vindicated the belief in
the being of the Almighty and in the foundations of moral distinctions. The
Puritans, the ruling power in the state, became also a power in literature,
fancy with the courtly pomp of the last days of the monarchy.
The prose writers of this time are represented by Bishop Hall and Jeremy
Taylor, among the clergy, and Selden and Camden among the laymen. The
roughness of speech and manners of Elizabeth's time, followed, in the next
reign, by a real coarseness and lowness of sentiment, grew rapidly worse
under Charles, whose reign was especially prolific in poetry, the tone of
which varied from grave to gay, from devotion to licentiousness, from
severe solemnity to indecent levity; but no great poet appeared in the
crowd. The drama was still rich in genius, its most distinguished names
being those of Ford, Massinger, and Shirley; but here depravity had taken a
deeper root than elsewhere, and it was a blessing that, soon after the
breaking out of the war, the theatres were closed, and the poets left to
idleness or repentance.
The Commonwealth and Protectorate, extending over eleven years
(1649- 1660), made an epoch in literature, as well as in the state and church.
The old English drama was extinct, and poetry had few votaries. Cowley
now closed with great brilliancy the eccentric and artificial school of which
Donne had been the founder, and Milton was undergoing the last steps of
that mental discipline that was to qualify him for standing forth the last and
all but the greatest of the poetical ancients. At the same time, the approach
of a modern era was indicated by the frivolity of sentiment and ease of
versification which prevailed in the poems of Waller.
In philosophy, Hobbes now uttered his defiance to constitutional freedom
and ecclesiastical independence; Henry More expounded his platonic
dreams in the cloisters of Cambridge; and Cudworth vindicated the belief in
the being of the Almighty and in the foundations of moral distinctions. The
Puritans, the ruling power in the state, became also a power in literature,
Page 653
nobly represented by Richard Baxter. Milton, like many of his remarkable
contemporaries, lived into the succeeding generation, and he may be
accepted as the last representative of the eloquence of English prose in that
brilliant stage of its history which terminated about the date of the
Restoration.
The aspect of the last forty years of the seventeenth century—the age of
the Restoration and the Revolution—is far from being encouraging, and
some features marking many of their literary works are positively revolting.
Of the social evils of the time, none infected literature so deeply as the
depravation of morals, into which the court and aristocracy plunged, and
many of the people followed. The drama sunk to a frightful grossness, and
the tone of all other poetry was lowered. The reinstated courtiers imported a
mania for foreign models, especially French, literary works were anxiously
moulded on the tastes of Paris, and this prevalence of exotic predilections
lasted for more than a century. But amidst these and other weaknesses and
blots there was not wanting either strength or brightness.
The literary career of Dryden covers the whole of this period and marks a
change which contained many improvements. Locke was the leader of
philosophical speculation; and mathematical and physical science had its
distinguished votaries, headed by Sir Isaac Newton, whose illustrious name
alone would have made the age immortal.
The Nonconformists, forbidden to speak, wrote and printed. A younger
generation was growing up among them, and some of the elder race still
survived, such as Baxter, Owen, and Calamy. But greatest of all, and only
now reaching the climax of his strength, was Milton, in his neglected old
age consoling himself for the disappointments which had darkened a weary
life, by consecrating its waning years, with redoubled ardor of devotion, to
religion, to truth, and to the service of a remote posterity.
contemporaries, lived into the succeeding generation, and he may be
accepted as the last representative of the eloquence of English prose in that
brilliant stage of its history which terminated about the date of the
Restoration.
The aspect of the last forty years of the seventeenth century—the age of
the Restoration and the Revolution—is far from being encouraging, and
some features marking many of their literary works are positively revolting.
Of the social evils of the time, none infected literature so deeply as the
depravation of morals, into which the court and aristocracy plunged, and
many of the people followed. The drama sunk to a frightful grossness, and
the tone of all other poetry was lowered. The reinstated courtiers imported a
mania for foreign models, especially French, literary works were anxiously
moulded on the tastes of Paris, and this prevalence of exotic predilections
lasted for more than a century. But amidst these and other weaknesses and
blots there was not wanting either strength or brightness.
The literary career of Dryden covers the whole of this period and marks a
change which contained many improvements. Locke was the leader of
philosophical speculation; and mathematical and physical science had its
distinguished votaries, headed by Sir Isaac Newton, whose illustrious name
alone would have made the age immortal.
The Nonconformists, forbidden to speak, wrote and printed. A younger
generation was growing up among them, and some of the elder race still
survived, such as Baxter, Owen, and Calamy. But greatest of all, and only
now reaching the climax of his strength, was Milton, in his neglected old
age consoling himself for the disappointments which had darkened a weary
life, by consecrating its waning years, with redoubled ardor of devotion, to
religion, to truth, and to the service of a remote posterity.
Page 654
In England, as elsewhere in Europe, the temper of the eighteenth century
was cold, dissatisfied, and hypercritical. Old principles were called in
question, and the literary man, the statesman, the philosopher, and the
theologian found their tasks to be mainly those of attack or defence. The
opinions of the nation and the sentiments which they prompted were neither
speculative nor heroic, and they received adequate literary expression in a
philosophy which acknowledged no higher motive than utility,—in a kind
of poetry which found its field in didactic discussion, and sunk in narrative
into the coarse and domestic. In all departments of literature, the form had
come to be more regarded than the matter; and melody of rhythm, elegance
of phrase, and symmetry of parts were held to be higher excellences than
rich fancy or fervid emotion. Such an age could not give birth to a literature
possessing the loftiest and most striking qualities of poetry or of eloquence;
but it increased the knowledge previously possessed by mankind, swept
away many wrong opinions, produced many literary works, excellent in
thought and expression, and exercised on the English language an influence
partly for good and partly for evil, which is shown in every sentence which
we now speak or write.
The First Generation is named from Queen Anne (1702-1714), but it
includes also the reign of her successor. Our notion of its literary character
is derived from the poetry of Pope and the prose of Addison and his friends.
In its own region, which, though not low, is yet far from the highest, the
lighter and more popular literature of Queen Anne's time is valuable; its
lessons were full of good sense and correct taste, and as literary artists, the
writers of this age attained an excellence as eminent as can be attained by
art not inspired by the enthusiasm of genius nor employed on majestic
themes. In its moral tone, the early part of the eighteenth century was much
better than that of the age before it.
was cold, dissatisfied, and hypercritical. Old principles were called in
question, and the literary man, the statesman, the philosopher, and the
theologian found their tasks to be mainly those of attack or defence. The
opinions of the nation and the sentiments which they prompted were neither
speculative nor heroic, and they received adequate literary expression in a
philosophy which acknowledged no higher motive than utility,—in a kind
of poetry which found its field in didactic discussion, and sunk in narrative
into the coarse and domestic. In all departments of literature, the form had
come to be more regarded than the matter; and melody of rhythm, elegance
of phrase, and symmetry of parts were held to be higher excellences than
rich fancy or fervid emotion. Such an age could not give birth to a literature
possessing the loftiest and most striking qualities of poetry or of eloquence;
but it increased the knowledge previously possessed by mankind, swept
away many wrong opinions, produced many literary works, excellent in
thought and expression, and exercised on the English language an influence
partly for good and partly for evil, which is shown in every sentence which
we now speak or write.
The First Generation is named from Queen Anne (1702-1714), but it
includes also the reign of her successor. Our notion of its literary character
is derived from the poetry of Pope and the prose of Addison and his friends.
In its own region, which, though not low, is yet far from the highest, the
lighter and more popular literature of Queen Anne's time is valuable; its
lessons were full of good sense and correct taste, and as literary artists, the
writers of this age attained an excellence as eminent as can be attained by
art not inspired by the enthusiasm of genius nor employed on majestic
themes. In its moral tone, the early part of the eighteenth century was much
better than that of the age before it.
Page 655
The Second Generation of the century may be reckoned as contained in
the reign of George II. (1727-1760). It was more remarkable than the
preceding for vigor of thinking and often for genuine poetic fancy and
susceptibility, though inferior in the skill and details of literary composition.
Samuel Johnson produced his principal works before the close of this
period. Among the novelists, Richardson alone had anything in common
with him. Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne are equally distant from the
dignified pomp of his manner and the ascetic elevation of his morality. In
contrast to the looseness of the novels and the skepticism of Hume, the
reasoning of Butler was employed in defense of sacred truth, and the stern
dissent of Whitefield and Wesley was entered against religious deadness.
Poetry began to stir with new life; a noble ambition animated Young and
Akenside, and in Thomson, Gray, and Collins a finer poetic sense was
perceptible.
The Third Generation of the eighteenth century, beginning with the
accession of George III. (1760), was by no means so fertile in literary
genius as either of the other two. But the earliest of its remarkable writers,
Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon, produced works which have rarely been
exceeded as literary compositions of their class. In ethics, there were Paley
and Adam Smith; in psychology and metaphysics, Reid and the founders of
the Scottish school; and in the list of poets who adorned these forty years
were Goldsmith, Cowper, and Burns.
The nineteenth century, for us naturally more interesting than any other
period of English literature, is, in its intellectual character, peculiarly
difficult of analysis, from its variety and novelty. For the reason that we
have been moulded on its lessons, we are not favorably placed for
comprehending it profoundly, or for impartially estimating the value of the
monuments it has produced.
the reign of George II. (1727-1760). It was more remarkable than the
preceding for vigor of thinking and often for genuine poetic fancy and
susceptibility, though inferior in the skill and details of literary composition.
Samuel Johnson produced his principal works before the close of this
period. Among the novelists, Richardson alone had anything in common
with him. Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne are equally distant from the
dignified pomp of his manner and the ascetic elevation of his morality. In
contrast to the looseness of the novels and the skepticism of Hume, the
reasoning of Butler was employed in defense of sacred truth, and the stern
dissent of Whitefield and Wesley was entered against religious deadness.
Poetry began to stir with new life; a noble ambition animated Young and
Akenside, and in Thomson, Gray, and Collins a finer poetic sense was
perceptible.
The Third Generation of the eighteenth century, beginning with the
accession of George III. (1760), was by no means so fertile in literary
genius as either of the other two. But the earliest of its remarkable writers,
Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon, produced works which have rarely been
exceeded as literary compositions of their class. In ethics, there were Paley
and Adam Smith; in psychology and metaphysics, Reid and the founders of
the Scottish school; and in the list of poets who adorned these forty years
were Goldsmith, Cowper, and Burns.
The nineteenth century, for us naturally more interesting than any other
period of English literature, is, in its intellectual character, peculiarly
difficult of analysis, from its variety and novelty. For the reason that we
have been moulded on its lessons, we are not favorably placed for
comprehending it profoundly, or for impartially estimating the value of the
monuments it has produced.
Page 656
It has been a time of extraordinary mental activity more widely diffused
than ever before throughout the nation at large. While books have been
multiplied beyond precedent, readers have increased in a yet greater
proportion, and the diffusion of enlightenment has been aimed at as
zealously as the discovery of new truths. While no other time has exhibited
so surprising a variety in the kinds of literature, none has been so
distinguished for the prevalence of enlightened and philanthropic sentiment.
In point of literary merit, the half century presents two successive and
dissimilar stages, of which the first or opening epoch of the century,
embraced in its first thirty years, was by far the most brilliant. The
animation and energy which characterized it arose from the universal
excitation of feeling and the mighty collision of opinions which broke out
over all Europe with the first French Revolution, and the fierce struggle so
long maintained almost single-handed by England against Napoleon I. The
strength of that age was greatest in poetry, but it gave birth to much
valuable speculation and eloquent writing. The poetical literature of that
time has no parallel in English literature, unless in the age of Shakspeare.
A marked feature in the English poetry of the nineteenth century is the
want of skill in execution. Most of the poets not only neglect polishing in
diction but also in symmetry of plan, and this fault is common to the most
reflective as well as the most passionate of them. Byron, in his tales and
sketches, is not more deficient in skill as an artist than Wordsworth in his
"Excursion," the huge fragment of an unfathomable design, cherished
throughout a long and thoughtful lifetime.
Another feature is this, that the poems which made the strongest
impression were of the narrative kind. That and the drama may be said to be
the only forms of representation adequate to embody the spirit or to interest
than ever before throughout the nation at large. While books have been
multiplied beyond precedent, readers have increased in a yet greater
proportion, and the diffusion of enlightenment has been aimed at as
zealously as the discovery of new truths. While no other time has exhibited
so surprising a variety in the kinds of literature, none has been so
distinguished for the prevalence of enlightened and philanthropic sentiment.
In point of literary merit, the half century presents two successive and
dissimilar stages, of which the first or opening epoch of the century,
embraced in its first thirty years, was by far the most brilliant. The
animation and energy which characterized it arose from the universal
excitation of feeling and the mighty collision of opinions which broke out
over all Europe with the first French Revolution, and the fierce struggle so
long maintained almost single-handed by England against Napoleon I. The
strength of that age was greatest in poetry, but it gave birth to much
valuable speculation and eloquent writing. The poetical literature of that
time has no parallel in English literature, unless in the age of Shakspeare.
A marked feature in the English poetry of the nineteenth century is the
want of skill in execution. Most of the poets not only neglect polishing in
diction but also in symmetry of plan, and this fault is common to the most
reflective as well as the most passionate of them. Byron, in his tales and
sketches, is not more deficient in skill as an artist than Wordsworth in his
"Excursion," the huge fragment of an unfathomable design, cherished
throughout a long and thoughtful lifetime.
Another feature is this, that the poems which made the strongest
impression were of the narrative kind. That and the drama may be said to be
the only forms of representation adequate to embody the spirit or to interest
Page 657
the sympathies of an age and nation immersed in the turmoil of energetic
action.
Among the prose writings of this period, two kinds of composition
employed a larger fund of literary genius than any other, and exercised a
wider influence; these were the novels and romances, and the reviews and
other periodicals. Novel-writing acquired an unusually high rank in the
world of letters, through its greatest master, and was remarkable for the
high character imprinted on it. By Scott and two or three precursors and
some not unworthy successors, the novel was made for us nearly all that the
drama in its palmy days had been for our fore-fathers, imbibing as much of
its poetic spirit as its form and purpose allowed, thoughtful in its views of
life, and presenting pictures faithful to nature.
In the beginning of the present century was founded the dynasty of the
reviews, which now began to be chosen as the vehicles of the best prose
writing and the most energetic thinking that the nation could command.
Masses of valuable knowledge have been laid up, and streams of eloquence
have been poured out in the periodicals of our century by authors who have
often left their names to be guessed at. But the best writers have not always
escaped the dangers of this form of writing, which is unfavorable to
completeness and depth of knowledge, and strongly tempting to
exaggeration of style and sentiment. This evil has worked on the ranks of
inferior contributors with a force which has seriously injured the purity of
the public taste. The strong points of periodical writers are their criticism of
literary works and their speculation in social and political philosophy,
which have nowhere been handled so skillfully as in the Reviews. After
poetry, they are the most valuable departments in the literature of the first
age.
action.
Among the prose writings of this period, two kinds of composition
employed a larger fund of literary genius than any other, and exercised a
wider influence; these were the novels and romances, and the reviews and
other periodicals. Novel-writing acquired an unusually high rank in the
world of letters, through its greatest master, and was remarkable for the
high character imprinted on it. By Scott and two or three precursors and
some not unworthy successors, the novel was made for us nearly all that the
drama in its palmy days had been for our fore-fathers, imbibing as much of
its poetic spirit as its form and purpose allowed, thoughtful in its views of
life, and presenting pictures faithful to nature.
In the beginning of the present century was founded the dynasty of the
reviews, which now began to be chosen as the vehicles of the best prose
writing and the most energetic thinking that the nation could command.
Masses of valuable knowledge have been laid up, and streams of eloquence
have been poured out in the periodicals of our century by authors who have
often left their names to be guessed at. But the best writers have not always
escaped the dangers of this form of writing, which is unfavorable to
completeness and depth of knowledge, and strongly tempting to
exaggeration of style and sentiment. This evil has worked on the ranks of
inferior contributors with a force which has seriously injured the purity of
the public taste. The strong points of periodical writers are their criticism of
literary works and their speculation in social and political philosophy,
which have nowhere been handled so skillfully as in the Reviews. After
poetry, they are the most valuable departments in the literature of the first
age.
Page 658
Since the Anglo-Saxon period, English literature has derived much of its
materials and inspiration from the teaching of other countries. In the Middle
Ages, France furnished the models of chivalrous poetry and much of the
social system; the Augustan age of French letters, the reign of Louis XIV.,
ruled the literary taste of England from the Restoration to the middle of the
eighteenth century; and from Germany, more than from any other foreign
nation, have come the influences by which the intellect of Great Britain has
been affected, especially during the last thirty years. Within this time, the
study and translation of German literature have become fashionable
pursuits, and on the whole, highly beneficial. The philology of Germany
and its profound poetical criticism have taught much: the philosophical
tendency of German theology has engaged the attention of teachers of
religion, and had its effect both for good and evil, and the accurate study of
the highest branches of German philosophy has tended decidedly to elevate
the standard of abstract speculation.
The most hopeful symptom of English literature in the last thirty years is
to be found in the zeal and success with which its teachings have been
extended beyond the accustomed limits. Knowledge has been diffused with
a zeal and rapidity never before dreamed of, and the spirit which prompted
it has been worthily embodied in the enlarged and enlightened temper with
which it has been communicated. In the midst of much error, there are many
features prominent which presage the birth of a love of mankind more
expansive and generous than any that has ever yet pervaded society.
The present age possesses no poetry comparable to that of the preceding,
and few men who unite remarkable eloquence with power of thought.
Among the thinkers, there is greater activity of speculation in regard to
questions affecting the nature and destiny of man; and problems have been
boldly propounded, but the solutions have not been found, and amidst much
materials and inspiration from the teaching of other countries. In the Middle
Ages, France furnished the models of chivalrous poetry and much of the
social system; the Augustan age of French letters, the reign of Louis XIV.,
ruled the literary taste of England from the Restoration to the middle of the
eighteenth century; and from Germany, more than from any other foreign
nation, have come the influences by which the intellect of Great Britain has
been affected, especially during the last thirty years. Within this time, the
study and translation of German literature have become fashionable
pursuits, and on the whole, highly beneficial. The philology of Germany
and its profound poetical criticism have taught much: the philosophical
tendency of German theology has engaged the attention of teachers of
religion, and had its effect both for good and evil, and the accurate study of
the highest branches of German philosophy has tended decidedly to elevate
the standard of abstract speculation.
The most hopeful symptom of English literature in the last thirty years is
to be found in the zeal and success with which its teachings have been
extended beyond the accustomed limits. Knowledge has been diffused with
a zeal and rapidity never before dreamed of, and the spirit which prompted
it has been worthily embodied in the enlarged and enlightened temper with
which it has been communicated. In the midst of much error, there are many
features prominent which presage the birth of a love of mankind more
expansive and generous than any that has ever yet pervaded society.
The present age possesses no poetry comparable to that of the preceding,
and few men who unite remarkable eloquence with power of thought.
Among the thinkers, there is greater activity of speculation in regard to
questions affecting the nature and destiny of man; and problems have been
boldly propounded, but the solutions have not been found, and amidst much
Page 659
doubt and dimness, the present generation seems to be struggling toward a
new organization of social and intellectual life.
The literature of England may be divided into three periods: the first,
extending from the departure of the Romans to the Norman Conquest (448-
1066), comprises the literature in the Celtic, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon
tongues.
The second period, extending from the Norman Conquest to the
accession of Henry VIII. (1066-1509), contains the literature of the Norman
period from 1066 to 1307, in the Latin, Norman-French, and Anglo-Saxon
tongues, the transition of the Anglo-Saxon into English, and the literature of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
The third period, extending from 1509 to 1884, includes the literature of
the age of the Reformation, that of the age of Spenser, Shakspeare, Bacon,
and Milton, of the Restoration and Revolution, and of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The English language is directly descended from
the Anglo-Saxon, but derives much from the Norman-French, and from the
Latin. Although the Celtic in its branches of Cymric and Gaelic still
continues to be the speech of a portion of the inhabitants of Great Britain, it
has never exercised any influence on the language of the nation.
The origin of the Anglo-Saxon tongue is involved in obscurity. It most
nearly resembles the Frisic, a Low German dialect once spoken between the
Rhine and the Elbe, and which is the parent of modern Dutch.
Before the battle of Hastings, the Anglo-Saxon tongue had been spoken
in England for at least six hundred years, during which time it must have
undergone many changes and dialectic variations. On the subjugation of the
new organization of social and intellectual life.
The literature of England may be divided into three periods: the first,
extending from the departure of the Romans to the Norman Conquest (448-
1066), comprises the literature in the Celtic, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon
tongues.
The second period, extending from the Norman Conquest to the
accession of Henry VIII. (1066-1509), contains the literature of the Norman
period from 1066 to 1307, in the Latin, Norman-French, and Anglo-Saxon
tongues, the transition of the Anglo-Saxon into English, and the literature of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
The third period, extending from 1509 to 1884, includes the literature of
the age of the Reformation, that of the age of Spenser, Shakspeare, Bacon,
and Milton, of the Restoration and Revolution, and of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries.
2. THE LANGUAGE.—The English language is directly descended from
the Anglo-Saxon, but derives much from the Norman-French, and from the
Latin. Although the Celtic in its branches of Cymric and Gaelic still
continues to be the speech of a portion of the inhabitants of Great Britain, it
has never exercised any influence on the language of the nation.
The origin of the Anglo-Saxon tongue is involved in obscurity. It most
nearly resembles the Frisic, a Low German dialect once spoken between the
Rhine and the Elbe, and which is the parent of modern Dutch.
Before the battle of Hastings, the Anglo-Saxon tongue had been spoken
in England for at least six hundred years, during which time it must have
undergone many changes and dialectic variations. On the subjugation of the
Page 660
conflicting states by the kings of Wessex, the language of the West Saxons
came to be the ruling one, and its use was extended and confirmed by the
example of Alfred, himself a native of Berks. But it does not necessarily
follow that this dialect is the parent of the English language. We must look
for the probable ground-work of this in the gradual coalescence of the
leading dialects.
The changes by which the Anglo-Saxon passed into the modern English
assumed in succession two distinct types, marking two eras quite dissimilar.
First came the Semi-Saxon, or transition period, throughout which the old
language was suffering disorganization and decay, a period of confusion,
perplexing alike to those who then used the tongue, and to those who now
endeavor to trace its vicissitudes. This chaotic state came to an end about
the middle of the thirteenth century, after a duration of nearly two hundred
years. The second era, or period of reconstruction, follows, during which
the language may be described as English.
A late critic divides the Old English Period, extending from 1250 to
1500, into the Early English (1250-1330) and the Middle English (1330-
1500). The latter was used by Chaucer and Wickliffe, and is in all essentials
so like the modern tongue, except in the spelling, that a tolerable English
scholar may easily understand it. A great change was effected in the
vocabulary by the introduction and naturalization of words from the French.
The poems of Chaucer and Gower are studded with them, and the style of
these favorite writers exercised a commanding influence ever after.
The grammar of the English language, in all points of importance, is a
simplification of the grammar of the Anglo-Saxon. In considering the
sources of the English vocabulary, we find that from the Anglo-Saxon are
derived first, almost all those words which import relations; secondly, not
only all the adjectives, but all the other words, nouns, and verbs which
came to be the ruling one, and its use was extended and confirmed by the
example of Alfred, himself a native of Berks. But it does not necessarily
follow that this dialect is the parent of the English language. We must look
for the probable ground-work of this in the gradual coalescence of the
leading dialects.
The changes by which the Anglo-Saxon passed into the modern English
assumed in succession two distinct types, marking two eras quite dissimilar.
First came the Semi-Saxon, or transition period, throughout which the old
language was suffering disorganization and decay, a period of confusion,
perplexing alike to those who then used the tongue, and to those who now
endeavor to trace its vicissitudes. This chaotic state came to an end about
the middle of the thirteenth century, after a duration of nearly two hundred
years. The second era, or period of reconstruction, follows, during which
the language may be described as English.
A late critic divides the Old English Period, extending from 1250 to
1500, into the Early English (1250-1330) and the Middle English (1330-
1500). The latter was used by Chaucer and Wickliffe, and is in all essentials
so like the modern tongue, except in the spelling, that a tolerable English
scholar may easily understand it. A great change was effected in the
vocabulary by the introduction and naturalization of words from the French.
The poems of Chaucer and Gower are studded with them, and the style of
these favorite writers exercised a commanding influence ever after.
The grammar of the English language, in all points of importance, is a
simplification of the grammar of the Anglo-Saxon. In considering the
sources of the English vocabulary, we find that from the Anglo-Saxon are
derived first, almost all those words which import relations; secondly, not
only all the adjectives, but all the other words, nouns, and verbs which
Page 661
grammarians call irregular; thirdly, the Saxon gives us in most instances our
only names, and in all instances those which suggest themselves most
readily for the objects perceived through the senses; fourthly, all words,
with a few exceptions, whose signification is specific, are Anglo-Saxon. For
instance, we use a foreign, naturalized term when we speak of color, or
motion, in general, but the Saxon in speaking of the particular color or
motion, and the style of a writer becomes animated and suggestive in
proportion to the frequency with which he uses these specific terms; fifthly,
it furnishes a rich fund of expressions for the feelings and affections, for the
persons who are the earliest and most natural objects of our attachment, and
for those inanimate things whose names are figuratively significant of
domestic union; sixthly, the Anglo-Saxon is, for the most part, the language
of business; of the counting-house, the shop, the street, the market, the
farm. Among an eminently practical people it is eminently the organ of
practical action, and it retains this prerogative in defiance alike of the
necessary innovations caused by scientific discovery and of the corruptions
of ignorance and affectation. Seventhly, a very large proportion of the
language of invective, humor, satire, and colloquial pleasantry is Anglo-
Saxon. In short, the Teutonic elements of our vocabulary are equally
valuable in enabling us to speak and write perspicuously and with
animation; and besides dictating the laws which connect our words, and
furnishing the cement which binds them together, they yield all our aptest
means of describing imagination, feeling, and the every-day facts of life.
From the Latin the English has borrowed more or less for two thousand
years, and freely for more than six centuries; but from the time of the
Conquest it is difficult to distinguish words of Latin origin from those of
French. The Latinisms of the language have arisen chiefly in three epochs.
The first was the thirteenth century, which followed an age devoted to
classical studies, and its theological writers and poets coined freely in the
Roman mint. The second was the Elizabethan age, when, in the enthusiasm
only names, and in all instances those which suggest themselves most
readily for the objects perceived through the senses; fourthly, all words,
with a few exceptions, whose signification is specific, are Anglo-Saxon. For
instance, we use a foreign, naturalized term when we speak of color, or
motion, in general, but the Saxon in speaking of the particular color or
motion, and the style of a writer becomes animated and suggestive in
proportion to the frequency with which he uses these specific terms; fifthly,
it furnishes a rich fund of expressions for the feelings and affections, for the
persons who are the earliest and most natural objects of our attachment, and
for those inanimate things whose names are figuratively significant of
domestic union; sixthly, the Anglo-Saxon is, for the most part, the language
of business; of the counting-house, the shop, the street, the market, the
farm. Among an eminently practical people it is eminently the organ of
practical action, and it retains this prerogative in defiance alike of the
necessary innovations caused by scientific discovery and of the corruptions
of ignorance and affectation. Seventhly, a very large proportion of the
language of invective, humor, satire, and colloquial pleasantry is Anglo-
Saxon. In short, the Teutonic elements of our vocabulary are equally
valuable in enabling us to speak and write perspicuously and with
animation; and besides dictating the laws which connect our words, and
furnishing the cement which binds them together, they yield all our aptest
means of describing imagination, feeling, and the every-day facts of life.
From the Latin the English has borrowed more or less for two thousand
years, and freely for more than six centuries; but from the time of the
Conquest it is difficult to distinguish words of Latin origin from those of
French. The Latinisms of the language have arisen chiefly in three epochs.
The first was the thirteenth century, which followed an age devoted to
classical studies, and its theological writers and poets coined freely in the
Roman mint. The second was the Elizabethan age, when, in the enthusiasm
Page 662
of a new revival of admiration for antiquity, the privilege of naturalization
was used to an extent which threatened serious danger to the purity and ease
of speech. In the third epoch, the latter part of the eighteenth century,
Johnson was the dictator of form and style, and the pompous rotundity that
then prevailed has been permanently injurious, although our Latin words,
on the whole, have done much more good than harm.
The introduction of French words began with the Conquest, when the
political condition of the country made it imperative that many words
should be understood. The second stage began about a century later, when
the few native Englishmen who loved letters entered on the study of French
poetry. The third era of English Gallicisms opened in the fourteenth century,
when the French tastes of the nobles, and the zeal with which Chaucer and
other men of letters studied the poetry of France, greatly contributed to
introduce that tide of French diction which flowed on to the close of the
Middle Ages. By that time the new words were so numerous and so
strongly ingrafted on the native stock that all subsequent additions are
unimportant. The dictionaries of modern English are said to contain about
38,000 words, of which about 23,000 or five eighths of the whole number,
come from the Anglo-Saxon.
The English language, by its remarkable combination of strength,
precision, and copiousness, is worthy of being, as it already is, spoken by
many millions, and these the part of the human race that appear likely to
control, more than any others, the future destinies of the world.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM THE DEPARTURE OF THE ROMANS TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST (448-1066).
was used to an extent which threatened serious danger to the purity and ease
of speech. In the third epoch, the latter part of the eighteenth century,
Johnson was the dictator of form and style, and the pompous rotundity that
then prevailed has been permanently injurious, although our Latin words,
on the whole, have done much more good than harm.
The introduction of French words began with the Conquest, when the
political condition of the country made it imperative that many words
should be understood. The second stage began about a century later, when
the few native Englishmen who loved letters entered on the study of French
poetry. The third era of English Gallicisms opened in the fourteenth century,
when the French tastes of the nobles, and the zeal with which Chaucer and
other men of letters studied the poetry of France, greatly contributed to
introduce that tide of French diction which flowed on to the close of the
Middle Ages. By that time the new words were so numerous and so
strongly ingrafted on the native stock that all subsequent additions are
unimportant. The dictionaries of modern English are said to contain about
38,000 words, of which about 23,000 or five eighths of the whole number,
come from the Anglo-Saxon.
The English language, by its remarkable combination of strength,
precision, and copiousness, is worthy of being, as it already is, spoken by
many millions, and these the part of the human race that appear likely to
control, more than any others, the future destinies of the world.
PERIOD FIRST.
FROM THE DEPARTURE OF THE ROMANS TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST (448-1066).
Page 663
1. CELTIC LITERATURE.—During this period four languages were
used for literary communication in the British Islands; two Celtic tongues
spoken by nations of that race, who still occupied large portions of the
country; Latin, as elsewhere the organ of the church and of learning; and
Anglo- Saxon. The first of the Celtic tongues, the Erse or Gaelic, was
common only to the Celts of Ireland and Scotland, where it is still spoken.
The second, that of the Cymrians or ancient Britons, has been preserved by
the Welsh.
The literary remains of this period in Ireland consist of bardic songs and
historical legends, some of which are asserted to be older than the ninth
century, the date of the legendary collection called the "Psalter of Cashel,"
which still survives. There exist, also, valuable prose chronicles which are
believed to contain the substance of others of a very early date, and which
furnish an authentic contemporary history of the country in the language of
the people from the fifth century. No other modern nation of Europe is able
to make a similar boast.
All the earliest relics of the Scotch Celts are metrical. The poems which
bear the name of Ossian are professedly celebrations by an eye-witness of
events which occurred in the third century. They were first presented to the
world in 1762 by Macpherson, a Scotch poet, and represented by him to be
translations from the ancient Gaelic poetry handed down by tradition
through so many centuries and still found among the Highlands. The
question of their authenticity excited a fierce literary controversy which still
remains unsettled. By some recent English and German critics, however,
Ossian's poems are considered genuine. The existence of bards among the
Celtic nations is well established, and their songs were preserved with
pride. The name of Ossian is mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis in the
twelfth century, and that of Fingal, the hero of the legends, was so popular
that in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many bishops complained that
used for literary communication in the British Islands; two Celtic tongues
spoken by nations of that race, who still occupied large portions of the
country; Latin, as elsewhere the organ of the church and of learning; and
Anglo- Saxon. The first of the Celtic tongues, the Erse or Gaelic, was
common only to the Celts of Ireland and Scotland, where it is still spoken.
The second, that of the Cymrians or ancient Britons, has been preserved by
the Welsh.
The literary remains of this period in Ireland consist of bardic songs and
historical legends, some of which are asserted to be older than the ninth
century, the date of the legendary collection called the "Psalter of Cashel,"
which still survives. There exist, also, valuable prose chronicles which are
believed to contain the substance of others of a very early date, and which
furnish an authentic contemporary history of the country in the language of
the people from the fifth century. No other modern nation of Europe is able
to make a similar boast.
All the earliest relics of the Scotch Celts are metrical. The poems which
bear the name of Ossian are professedly celebrations by an eye-witness of
events which occurred in the third century. They were first presented to the
world in 1762 by Macpherson, a Scotch poet, and represented by him to be
translations from the ancient Gaelic poetry handed down by tradition
through so many centuries and still found among the Highlands. The
question of their authenticity excited a fierce literary controversy which still
remains unsettled. By some recent English and German critics, however,
Ossian's poems are considered genuine. The existence of bards among the
Celtic nations is well established, and their songs were preserved with
pride. The name of Ossian is mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis in the
twelfth century, and that of Fingal, the hero of the legends, was so popular
that in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many bishops complained that
Page 664
their people were more familiar with Fingal than with the catechism. The
Gaelic original of Ossian was published in 1807.
The literature of the Cymric Celts is particularly interesting, as affording
those fragments of British poetry and history from which the magnificent
legends were built up to immortalize King Arthur and his Knights of the
Round Table. In the bardic songs and elsewhere, frequent allusion is made
to this heroic prince, who with his warriors resisted the Saxon enemies of
his country, and who, we are told, died by domestic treason, the flower of
the British nobles perishing with him. His deeds were magnified among the
Welsh Britons, and among those who sought refuge on the banks of the
Loire. The chroniclers wove these traditions into a legendary history of
Britain. From this compilation Geoffrey of Monmouth, in the twelfth
century, constructed a Latin historical work; and the poets of chivalry,
allured by the beauty and pathos of the tale, made it for ages the centre of
the most animated pictures of romance.
Many ancient Welsh writings are extant which treat of a wonderful
variety of topics, both in prose and verse. The singular pieces called the
Triads show a marked character of primitive antiquity. They are collections
of historical facts, mythological doctrines, maxims, traditions, and rules for
the structure of verse, expressed with extreme brevity, and disposed in
groups of three. Among the Welsh metrical remains, some are plausibly
assigned to celebrated bards of the sixth century. There is also a
considerable stock of old Welsh romances, the most remarkable of which
are contained in a series called the "Mabinogi," or Tales of Youth, many of
which have been translated into English. Some of these stories are very
similar to the older Norse Sagas, and must have sprung from traditions of a
very rude and early generation.
Gaelic original of Ossian was published in 1807.
The literature of the Cymric Celts is particularly interesting, as affording
those fragments of British poetry and history from which the magnificent
legends were built up to immortalize King Arthur and his Knights of the
Round Table. In the bardic songs and elsewhere, frequent allusion is made
to this heroic prince, who with his warriors resisted the Saxon enemies of
his country, and who, we are told, died by domestic treason, the flower of
the British nobles perishing with him. His deeds were magnified among the
Welsh Britons, and among those who sought refuge on the banks of the
Loire. The chroniclers wove these traditions into a legendary history of
Britain. From this compilation Geoffrey of Monmouth, in the twelfth
century, constructed a Latin historical work; and the poets of chivalry,
allured by the beauty and pathos of the tale, made it for ages the centre of
the most animated pictures of romance.
Many ancient Welsh writings are extant which treat of a wonderful
variety of topics, both in prose and verse. The singular pieces called the
Triads show a marked character of primitive antiquity. They are collections
of historical facts, mythological doctrines, maxims, traditions, and rules for
the structure of verse, expressed with extreme brevity, and disposed in
groups of three. Among the Welsh metrical remains, some are plausibly
assigned to celebrated bards of the sixth century. There is also a
considerable stock of old Welsh romances, the most remarkable of which
are contained in a series called the "Mabinogi," or Tales of Youth, many of
which have been translated into English. Some of these stories are very
similar to the older Norse Sagas, and must have sprung from traditions of a
very rude and early generation.
Page 665
2. LATIN LITERATURE.—The Latin learning of the Dark Ages formed
a point of contact between instructed men of all countries. At first it was
necessarily adopted,—the native tongues being in their infancy; and it was
afterwards so tenaciously adhered to, that the Latin literature of the Middle
Ages far exceeds in amount all other. Its cultivation in England arose out of
the introduction of Christianity, and its most valued uses related to the
church.
Almost all who cultivated Latin learning were ecclesiastics, and by far
the larger number of those who became eminent in it were natives of
Ireland. Amidst the convulsions which followed the fall of the Roman
empire, Ireland was a place of rest and safety to fugitives from England and
the Continent, and it contained for some centuries a larger amount of
learning than could have been collected in all Europe.
With the introduction of the Christian faith each nation became a member
of the ecclesiastical community, and maintained its connection with other
nations and with Rome as the common centre; thus communication between
different countries received a new impulse. The churches and schools of
England received many distinguished foreigners, and many of the native
churchmen lived abroad. Of the three scholars who held the highest place in
the literature of this period—Bede (d. 735), Alcuin (d. 804), and Erigena (d.
884), (celebrated for his original views in philosophy)—the two last gave
the benefit of their talents to France. The writings of the Venerable Bede, as
he is called, exhibit an extent of classical scholarship surprising for his
time, and his "Ecclesiastical History of England" is to this day a leading
authority not only for church annals, but for all public events that occurred
in the earlier part of the Saxon period.
3. LITERATURE IN THE ANGLO-SAXON TONGUE.—The remains
of Anglo-Saxon literature, both in prose and verse, differ essentially from
a point of contact between instructed men of all countries. At first it was
necessarily adopted,—the native tongues being in their infancy; and it was
afterwards so tenaciously adhered to, that the Latin literature of the Middle
Ages far exceeds in amount all other. Its cultivation in England arose out of
the introduction of Christianity, and its most valued uses related to the
church.
Almost all who cultivated Latin learning were ecclesiastics, and by far
the larger number of those who became eminent in it were natives of
Ireland. Amidst the convulsions which followed the fall of the Roman
empire, Ireland was a place of rest and safety to fugitives from England and
the Continent, and it contained for some centuries a larger amount of
learning than could have been collected in all Europe.
With the introduction of the Christian faith each nation became a member
of the ecclesiastical community, and maintained its connection with other
nations and with Rome as the common centre; thus communication between
different countries received a new impulse. The churches and schools of
England received many distinguished foreigners, and many of the native
churchmen lived abroad. Of the three scholars who held the highest place in
the literature of this period—Bede (d. 735), Alcuin (d. 804), and Erigena (d.
884), (celebrated for his original views in philosophy)—the two last gave
the benefit of their talents to France. The writings of the Venerable Bede, as
he is called, exhibit an extent of classical scholarship surprising for his
time, and his "Ecclesiastical History of England" is to this day a leading
authority not only for church annals, but for all public events that occurred
in the earlier part of the Saxon period.
3. LITERATURE IN THE ANGLO-SAXON TONGUE.—The remains
of Anglo-Saxon literature, both in prose and verse, differ essentially from
Page 666
the specimens of a similar age which come down to us from other nations.
The ancestral legends, which were at once the poetry and history of their
contemporaries, the Anglo-Saxons entirely neglected; they even avoided the
choice of national themes for their poetry, which consisted of ethical
reflections and religious doctrines or narratives. They eschewed all
expression of impassioned fancy, and embodied in rough but lucid phrases
practical information and every-day shrewdness.
Among the Anglo-Saxon metrical monuments three historical poems are
still preserved, which embody recollections of the Continent, and must have
been composed long before the emigrations to England; of these the most
important is the tale of "Beowulf," consisting of six thousand lines, which is
essentially a Norse Saga.
After the introduction of Christianity there appeared many hymns,
metrical lives of the saints, and religious and reflective poems. The most
remarkable relics of this period are the works attributed to Caedmon (d.
680), whose narrative poems on scriptural events are inspired by a noble
tone of solemn imagination.
The melody of the Saxon verse was regulated by syllabic accent or
emphasis, and not by quantity, like the classical metres. Alliteration, or the
use of several syllables in the same stanza beginning with the same letter,
takes the place of rhyme. The alliterative metres and the strained and
figurative diction common to the Anglo-Saxon poets was common to the
Northmen, and seems to have been derived from them.
Anglo-Saxon prose was remarkable for its straightforward and
perspicuous simplicity, and, especially after the time of Alfred, it had a
marked preference over the Latin. Translations were early made from the
Latin, particularly versions of parts of the Scriptures, which come next, in
point of date, to the Moeso-Gothic translation of Ulphilas, and preceded by
The ancestral legends, which were at once the poetry and history of their
contemporaries, the Anglo-Saxons entirely neglected; they even avoided the
choice of national themes for their poetry, which consisted of ethical
reflections and religious doctrines or narratives. They eschewed all
expression of impassioned fancy, and embodied in rough but lucid phrases
practical information and every-day shrewdness.
Among the Anglo-Saxon metrical monuments three historical poems are
still preserved, which embody recollections of the Continent, and must have
been composed long before the emigrations to England; of these the most
important is the tale of "Beowulf," consisting of six thousand lines, which is
essentially a Norse Saga.
After the introduction of Christianity there appeared many hymns,
metrical lives of the saints, and religious and reflective poems. The most
remarkable relics of this period are the works attributed to Caedmon (d.
680), whose narrative poems on scriptural events are inspired by a noble
tone of solemn imagination.
The melody of the Saxon verse was regulated by syllabic accent or
emphasis, and not by quantity, like the classical metres. Alliteration, or the
use of several syllables in the same stanza beginning with the same letter,
takes the place of rhyme. The alliterative metres and the strained and
figurative diction common to the Anglo-Saxon poets was common to the
Northmen, and seems to have been derived from them.
Anglo-Saxon prose was remarkable for its straightforward and
perspicuous simplicity, and, especially after the time of Alfred, it had a
marked preference over the Latin. Translations were early made from the
Latin, particularly versions of parts of the Scriptures, which come next, in
point of date, to the Moeso-Gothic translation of Ulphilas, and preceded by
Page 667
several generations all similar attempts in any of the new languages of
Europe.
The most important monument of Saxon prose literature is the series of
historical records arranged together under the name of "The Saxon
Chronicle," which is made up from records kept in the monasteries,
probably from the time of Alfred, and brought down to the year 1154.
The illustrious name of Alfred (849-900) closes the record of Anglo-
Saxon literature. From him went forth a spirit of moral strength and a thirst
for enlightenment which worked marvels among an ignorant and half-
barbarous people. Besides his translations from the Scriptures, he made
selections from St. Augustine, Bede, and other writers; he translated "The
Consolations of Philosophy," by Boethius, and he incorporates his own
reflections with all these authors. It is impossible, at this time, to estimate
justly the labors of Alfred, since the obstacles which in his time impeded
the acquisition of knowledge cannot even now be conceived. "I have
wished to live worthily," said he, "while I lived, and after my life, to leave
to the men who should come after me, my remembrance in good works."
PERIOD SECOND.
FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. (1066-1509).
1. LITERATURE IN THE LATIN TONGUE.—The Norman Conquest
introduced into England a foreign race of kings and barons, with their
military vassals, and churchmen, who followed the conqueror and his
successors. The generation succeeding the Conquest gave birth to little that
was remarkable, but the twelfth century was particularly distinguished for
its classical scholarship, and Norman-French poetry began to find English
imitators.
Europe.
The most important monument of Saxon prose literature is the series of
historical records arranged together under the name of "The Saxon
Chronicle," which is made up from records kept in the monasteries,
probably from the time of Alfred, and brought down to the year 1154.
The illustrious name of Alfred (849-900) closes the record of Anglo-
Saxon literature. From him went forth a spirit of moral strength and a thirst
for enlightenment which worked marvels among an ignorant and half-
barbarous people. Besides his translations from the Scriptures, he made
selections from St. Augustine, Bede, and other writers; he translated "The
Consolations of Philosophy," by Boethius, and he incorporates his own
reflections with all these authors. It is impossible, at this time, to estimate
justly the labors of Alfred, since the obstacles which in his time impeded
the acquisition of knowledge cannot even now be conceived. "I have
wished to live worthily," said he, "while I lived, and after my life, to leave
to the men who should come after me, my remembrance in good works."
PERIOD SECOND.
FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. (1066-1509).
1. LITERATURE IN THE LATIN TONGUE.—The Norman Conquest
introduced into England a foreign race of kings and barons, with their
military vassals, and churchmen, who followed the conqueror and his
successors. The generation succeeding the Conquest gave birth to little that
was remarkable, but the twelfth century was particularly distinguished for
its classical scholarship, and Norman-French poetry began to find English
imitators.
Page 668
The thirteenth century was a decisive epoch in the constitutional as well
as in the intellectual history of England. The Great Charter was extorted
from John; the representation of the commons from his successors; the
universities were founded or organized; the romantic poetry of France
began to be transfused into a language intelligible throughout England; and
above all, the Anglo-Saxon tongue was in this century finally transformed
into English. Three of the Crusades had already taken place; the other four
fell within the next century; and these wars diffused knowledge, and
kindled a flame of zeal and devotion to the church.
The only names which adorned the annals of erudition in England in the
latter half of the eleventh century were those of two Lombard priests—
Lanfranc (d. 1089) and Anselm (d. 1109). They prepared the means for
diffusing classical learning among the ecclesiastics, and both acquired high
celebrity as theological writers. Their influence was visible on the two most
learned men whom the country produced in the next century—John of
Salisbury (d. 1181). befriended by Thomas à Becket, and Peter of Blois, the
king's secretary, and an active statesman.
In the thirteenth century, when the teachings of Abelard and Rosellinus
had made philosophy the favorite pursuit of the scholars of Europe,
England possessed many names which, in this field, stood higher than any
others—among them Alexander de Hales, called "the Irrefragable Doctor,"
and Johannes Duns Scotus, one of the most acute of thinkers. In the same
age, while Scotland sent Michael Scott into Germany, where he prosecuted
his studies with a success that earned for him the fame of a sorcerer, a
similar character was acquired by Roger Bacon (d. 1292), a Franciscan
friar, who made many curious conjectures on the possibility of discoveries
which have since been made.
as in the intellectual history of England. The Great Charter was extorted
from John; the representation of the commons from his successors; the
universities were founded or organized; the romantic poetry of France
began to be transfused into a language intelligible throughout England; and
above all, the Anglo-Saxon tongue was in this century finally transformed
into English. Three of the Crusades had already taken place; the other four
fell within the next century; and these wars diffused knowledge, and
kindled a flame of zeal and devotion to the church.
The only names which adorned the annals of erudition in England in the
latter half of the eleventh century were those of two Lombard priests—
Lanfranc (d. 1089) and Anselm (d. 1109). They prepared the means for
diffusing classical learning among the ecclesiastics, and both acquired high
celebrity as theological writers. Their influence was visible on the two most
learned men whom the country produced in the next century—John of
Salisbury (d. 1181). befriended by Thomas à Becket, and Peter of Blois, the
king's secretary, and an active statesman.
In the thirteenth century, when the teachings of Abelard and Rosellinus
had made philosophy the favorite pursuit of the scholars of Europe,
England possessed many names which, in this field, stood higher than any
others—among them Alexander de Hales, called "the Irrefragable Doctor,"
and Johannes Duns Scotus, one of the most acute of thinkers. In the same
age, while Scotland sent Michael Scott into Germany, where he prosecuted
his studies with a success that earned for him the fame of a sorcerer, a
similar character was acquired by Roger Bacon (d. 1292), a Franciscan
friar, who made many curious conjectures on the possibility of discoveries
which have since been made.
Page 669
Very few of the historical works of this period possess any merit, except
as curious records of fact. Chronicles were kept in the various monasteries,
which furnish a series extending through the greater part of the Middle
Ages. Among these historians are William of Malmesbury, who belonged
properly to the twelfth century; Geoffrey of Monmouth, who preserved for
us the stories of Arthur, of Lear, and Cymbeline; Gerald de Barri, or
Giraldus Cambrensis; Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk, of St. Albans;
Henry of Huntingdon; Gervase of Tilbury; and Roger de Hoveden.
The spirit of resistance to secular and ecclesiastical tyranny, which now
began to show itself among the English people, found also a medium of
expression in the Latin tongue. The most biting satires against the church,
and the most lively political pasquinades, were thus expressed, and written
almost always by churchmen. To give these satires a wider circulation, the
Norman-French came to be frequently used, but at the close of the period
the English dialect was almost the only organ of this satirical minstrelsy.
The Latin tongue also became the means of preserving and transmitting
an immense stock of tales, by which the later poetry of Europe profited
largely. One of these legends, narrated by Gervase of Tilbury, suggested to
Scott the combat of Marmion with the spectre knight.
A series of fictions called the "Gesta Romanorum" attained great
celebrity. It is composed of fables, traditions, and familiar pictures of
society, varying with the different countries it passed through. The romance
of Apollonius, in the Gesta, furnished the plot of two or three of Chaucer's
tales, and of Gower's most celebrated poem, which again gave the ground-
work of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The Merchant of Venice, the Three Black
Crows, and Parnell's Hermit, are indebted also to the Gesta Romanorum.
4. LITERATURE IN NORMAN-FRENCH.—From the preference of the
Norman kings of England for the poets of their own country, the
as curious records of fact. Chronicles were kept in the various monasteries,
which furnish a series extending through the greater part of the Middle
Ages. Among these historians are William of Malmesbury, who belonged
properly to the twelfth century; Geoffrey of Monmouth, who preserved for
us the stories of Arthur, of Lear, and Cymbeline; Gerald de Barri, or
Giraldus Cambrensis; Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk, of St. Albans;
Henry of Huntingdon; Gervase of Tilbury; and Roger de Hoveden.
The spirit of resistance to secular and ecclesiastical tyranny, which now
began to show itself among the English people, found also a medium of
expression in the Latin tongue. The most biting satires against the church,
and the most lively political pasquinades, were thus expressed, and written
almost always by churchmen. To give these satires a wider circulation, the
Norman-French came to be frequently used, but at the close of the period
the English dialect was almost the only organ of this satirical minstrelsy.
The Latin tongue also became the means of preserving and transmitting
an immense stock of tales, by which the later poetry of Europe profited
largely. One of these legends, narrated by Gervase of Tilbury, suggested to
Scott the combat of Marmion with the spectre knight.
A series of fictions called the "Gesta Romanorum" attained great
celebrity. It is composed of fables, traditions, and familiar pictures of
society, varying with the different countries it passed through. The romance
of Apollonius, in the Gesta, furnished the plot of two or three of Chaucer's
tales, and of Gower's most celebrated poem, which again gave the ground-
work of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The Merchant of Venice, the Three Black
Crows, and Parnell's Hermit, are indebted also to the Gesta Romanorum.
4. LITERATURE IN NORMAN-FRENCH.—From the preference of the
Norman kings of England for the poets of their own country, the
Page 670
distinguished literary names of the first two centuries after the Conquest are
those of Norman poets. One of the chief of these is Wace (fl. 1160), who
composed in French his "Brut d'Angleterre" (Brutus of England), the
mythical son of Aeneas and founder of Britain. The Britons settled in
Cornwall, Wales, and Bretagne had long been distinguished for their
traditionary legends, which were at length collected by Geoffrey of
Monmouth (fl. 1138), and gravely related by him in Latin as serious history.
This production, composed of incredible stories, furnished the ground-work
for Wace's poem, and proved an unfailing resource for writers of romantic
narration for two centuries; at a later period Shakspeare drew from it the
story of Lear; Sackville that of Ferrex and Porrex; Drayton reproduced it in
his Poly-Olbion, and Milton and other poets frequently draw allusions from
it. The Romances of chivalry, drawn from the same source, were composed
for the English court and nobles, and the translation of them was the most
frequent use to which the infant English was applied. They imprinted on
English poetry characteristics which it did not lose for centuries, if it can be
said to have lost them at all.
A poetess known as Marie of France made copious use of British
materials, and addressed herself to a king, supposed to have been Henry VI.
Her twelve lays, which celebrate the marvels of the Round Table, are
among the most beautiful relics of the Middle Ages, and were freely used
by Chaucer and other English poets.
The romances are, many of them, in parts at least, delightfully
imaginative, spirited, or pathetic, and their history is important as
illustrating mediaeval manners and customs, and for their connection with
early English literature. Among the oldest of these romances is "Havelok,"
relating to the early Norse settlement in England, the "Gest of King Horn,"
and "Guy of Warwick."
those of Norman poets. One of the chief of these is Wace (fl. 1160), who
composed in French his "Brut d'Angleterre" (Brutus of England), the
mythical son of Aeneas and founder of Britain. The Britons settled in
Cornwall, Wales, and Bretagne had long been distinguished for their
traditionary legends, which were at length collected by Geoffrey of
Monmouth (fl. 1138), and gravely related by him in Latin as serious history.
This production, composed of incredible stories, furnished the ground-work
for Wace's poem, and proved an unfailing resource for writers of romantic
narration for two centuries; at a later period Shakspeare drew from it the
story of Lear; Sackville that of Ferrex and Porrex; Drayton reproduced it in
his Poly-Olbion, and Milton and other poets frequently draw allusions from
it. The Romances of chivalry, drawn from the same source, were composed
for the English court and nobles, and the translation of them was the most
frequent use to which the infant English was applied. They imprinted on
English poetry characteristics which it did not lose for centuries, if it can be
said to have lost them at all.
A poetess known as Marie of France made copious use of British
materials, and addressed herself to a king, supposed to have been Henry VI.
Her twelve lays, which celebrate the marvels of the Round Table, are
among the most beautiful relics of the Middle Ages, and were freely used
by Chaucer and other English poets.
The romances are, many of them, in parts at least, delightfully
imaginative, spirited, or pathetic, and their history is important as
illustrating mediaeval manners and customs, and for their connection with
early English literature. Among the oldest of these romances is "Havelok,"
relating to the early Norse settlement in England, the "Gest of King Horn,"
and "Guy of Warwick."
Page 671
But of all the French romances, the most interesting by far are those that
celebrate the glory and fall of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round
Table. The order in which they were composed seems to have been the
same with that of the events narrated.
First comes the romance of "The Saint Graal," relating the history of this
sacred relic which was carried by Joseph of Arimathea or his descendants
into Britain, where it vanished for ages from the eyes of sinful men.
Second, the romance of "Merlin," which derives its name from the fiend-
born prophet and magician, celebrates the birth and exploits of Arthur, and
the gathering round him of the Knights of the Round Table. The historic
origin of this story is from Geoffrey of Monmouth, though it is disguised by
its supernatural and chivalrous features.
In the third romance, that of Launcelot, the hero nurtured by the Lady of
the Lake in her fairy realm beneath the waters, grows up the bravest
champion of chivalry, admired for all its virtues, although guilty of
treachery to Arthur, and from his guilt is to ensue the destruction of the
land.
Fourth, the "Quest of the Saint Graal" relates the solitary wanderings of
the knights in this search, and how the adventure is at last achieved by Sir
Gallahad, who, while the vision passes before him, prays that he may no
longer live, and is immediately taken away from a world of calamity and
sin.
Fifth, "The Mort Artus," or Death of Arthur, winds up with supernatural
horrors the tale into which the fall of the ancient Britons had been thus
transformed. Arthur, wounded and dying, is carried by the fairy of the lake
to the enchanted island of Avalon, there to dream away the ages that must
elapse before his return to reign over the perfected world of chivalry.
celebrate the glory and fall of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round
Table. The order in which they were composed seems to have been the
same with that of the events narrated.
First comes the romance of "The Saint Graal," relating the history of this
sacred relic which was carried by Joseph of Arimathea or his descendants
into Britain, where it vanished for ages from the eyes of sinful men.
Second, the romance of "Merlin," which derives its name from the fiend-
born prophet and magician, celebrates the birth and exploits of Arthur, and
the gathering round him of the Knights of the Round Table. The historic
origin of this story is from Geoffrey of Monmouth, though it is disguised by
its supernatural and chivalrous features.
In the third romance, that of Launcelot, the hero nurtured by the Lady of
the Lake in her fairy realm beneath the waters, grows up the bravest
champion of chivalry, admired for all its virtues, although guilty of
treachery to Arthur, and from his guilt is to ensue the destruction of the
land.
Fourth, the "Quest of the Saint Graal" relates the solitary wanderings of
the knights in this search, and how the adventure is at last achieved by Sir
Gallahad, who, while the vision passes before him, prays that he may no
longer live, and is immediately taken away from a world of calamity and
sin.
Fifth, "The Mort Artus," or Death of Arthur, winds up with supernatural
horrors the tale into which the fall of the ancient Britons had been thus
transformed. Arthur, wounded and dying, is carried by the fairy of the lake
to the enchanted island of Avalon, there to dream away the ages that must
elapse before his return to reign over the perfected world of chivalry.
Page 672
Sixth, "The Adventures of Tristram," or Tristan, is a repetition of those
which had been attributed to Launcelot of the Lake.
These six romances of the British cycle, the originals of all others, were
written in the latter half of the twelfth century for the English court and
nobles, some of them at the suggestion of king Henry II. Although,
composed in French, the authors were Englishmen, and from these prose
romances the poets of France constructed many metrical romances which in
the fifteenth century reappeared as English metrical romances.
5. SAXON ENGLISH.—The Saxon tongue of England decayed, but like
the healthy seed in the ground it germinated again. The Saxon Chronicle
which had been kept in the monasteries ceased abruptly on the accession of
Henry II., 1154, and at the same period the Saxon language began to take a
form in which the beginning of the present English is apparent.
During the thirteenth century appeared a series of rhyming chroniclers,
the chief of whom were Layamon and Robert of Gloucester. All the remains
of the English tongue, in its transition state, are chiefly in verse; among
them are the "Ormulum" (so called from the name of the author, Ormin),
which is a metrical harmony of passages from the gospels contained in the
service of the mass, and the long fable of "The Owl and the Nightingale,"
one of the most pleasing of these early relics. "The Land of Cockayne," a
satirical poem, said to have been written by Michael of Kildare, belongs
also to the thirteenth century, as well as many anonymous poems, both
amatory and religious.
The old English drama was almost contemporaneous with the formation
of the Old English language; but all dramatic efforts previous to the
sixteenth century were so rude as to deserve little notice.
which had been attributed to Launcelot of the Lake.
These six romances of the British cycle, the originals of all others, were
written in the latter half of the twelfth century for the English court and
nobles, some of them at the suggestion of king Henry II. Although,
composed in French, the authors were Englishmen, and from these prose
romances the poets of France constructed many metrical romances which in
the fifteenth century reappeared as English metrical romances.
5. SAXON ENGLISH.—The Saxon tongue of England decayed, but like
the healthy seed in the ground it germinated again. The Saxon Chronicle
which had been kept in the monasteries ceased abruptly on the accession of
Henry II., 1154, and at the same period the Saxon language began to take a
form in which the beginning of the present English is apparent.
During the thirteenth century appeared a series of rhyming chroniclers,
the chief of whom were Layamon and Robert of Gloucester. All the remains
of the English tongue, in its transition state, are chiefly in verse; among
them are the "Ormulum" (so called from the name of the author, Ormin),
which is a metrical harmony of passages from the gospels contained in the
service of the mass, and the long fable of "The Owl and the Nightingale,"
one of the most pleasing of these early relics. "The Land of Cockayne," a
satirical poem, said to have been written by Michael of Kildare, belongs
also to the thirteenth century, as well as many anonymous poems, both
amatory and religious.
The old English drama was almost contemporaneous with the formation
of the Old English language; but all dramatic efforts previous to the
sixteenth century were so rude as to deserve little notice.
Page 673
6. LITERATURE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.—The fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries, the afternoon and evening of the Middle Ages, are
the picturesque period in English history. In the contemporary chronicle of
Froissart, the reign of Edward III. shines with a long array of knightly
pageants, and a loftier cast of imaginative adornment is imparted by the
historical dramas of Shakspeare to the troubled rule of the house of
Lancaster and the crimes and fall of the brief dynasty of York.
The reign of Edward II. was as inglorious in literature as in the history of
the nation. That of his son was not more remarkable for the victories of
Poictiers and Cressy than for the triumphs in poetry and thought. The Black
Prince, the model of historic chivalry, and Occam, the last and greatest of
the English scholastic philosophers, lived in the same century with Chaucer,
the father of English poetry, and Wickliffe, the herald of the Reformation.
The earlier half of the fourteenth century, in its literary aspects, may be
regarded as a separate period from the later. The genius of the nation
seemed to sleep. England, indeed, was the birth-place of Occam (1300-
1347), but he neither remained in his own country, nor imparted any strong
impulse to his countrymen. Educated abroad, he lived chiefly In France,
and died in Munich. While the writings of his master, Duns Scotus (d.
1308), were the chief authorities of the metaphysical sect called Realists,
Occam himself was the ablest and one of the earliest writers among the
Nominalists. While the former of these sects was held especially favorable
to the Romish Church, the latter was discouraged as heretical, and Occam
was persecuted for enunciating those opinions which are now held in one
form or another by almost all metaphysicians. No eminent names appear in
the ecclesiastical literature of this period, nor in that of the spoken tongue;
but the dawn of English literature was close at hand.
and fifteenth centuries, the afternoon and evening of the Middle Ages, are
the picturesque period in English history. In the contemporary chronicle of
Froissart, the reign of Edward III. shines with a long array of knightly
pageants, and a loftier cast of imaginative adornment is imparted by the
historical dramas of Shakspeare to the troubled rule of the house of
Lancaster and the crimes and fall of the brief dynasty of York.
The reign of Edward II. was as inglorious in literature as in the history of
the nation. That of his son was not more remarkable for the victories of
Poictiers and Cressy than for the triumphs in poetry and thought. The Black
Prince, the model of historic chivalry, and Occam, the last and greatest of
the English scholastic philosophers, lived in the same century with Chaucer,
the father of English poetry, and Wickliffe, the herald of the Reformation.
The earlier half of the fourteenth century, in its literary aspects, may be
regarded as a separate period from the later. The genius of the nation
seemed to sleep. England, indeed, was the birth-place of Occam (1300-
1347), but he neither remained in his own country, nor imparted any strong
impulse to his countrymen. Educated abroad, he lived chiefly In France,
and died in Munich. While the writings of his master, Duns Scotus (d.
1308), were the chief authorities of the metaphysical sect called Realists,
Occam himself was the ablest and one of the earliest writers among the
Nominalists. While the former of these sects was held especially favorable
to the Romish Church, the latter was discouraged as heretical, and Occam
was persecuted for enunciating those opinions which are now held in one
form or another by almost all metaphysicians. No eminent names appear in
the ecclesiastical literature of this period, nor in that of the spoken tongue;
but the dawn of English literature was close at hand.
Page 674
The latter half of this century was a remarkable era in the ecclesiastical
and intellectual progress of England. Many colleges were founded, and
learning had munificent patrons. The increase of papal power led to claims
which were resisted by the clergy as well as by the parliament. Foremost
among those who called for reform was the celebrated John Wickliffe
(1324- 1384). A priest of high fame for his knowledge and logical dexterity,
he was placed at the head of several of the colleges of Oxford, and there,
and from the country parsonages to which he was afterwards compelled to
retreat, he thundered forth his denunciations against the abuses of the
church, attacked the papal supremacy, and set forth doctrinal views of his
own nearly approaching to Calvinism. Although repeatedly called to
account for his opinions he was never even imprisoned, and he enjoyed his
church- livings to the last. But the church was weakened by the Great
Schism, and he was protected by powerful nobles. Soon after his death,
however, a storm of persecution burst on his disciples, which crushed
dissent till the sixteenth century. We owe to Wickliffe the earliest version of
the Scriptures into English, which is among the first prose writings in the
old tongue.
The very oldest book in English prose, however, is the account given by
Sir John Mandeville of his thirty-three years' travel in the East, from which
he returned about 1355. It is an odd and amusing compound of facts and
marvelous stories. But the best specimens of English prose of this period
are Chaucer's translation of Boethius, his "Testament of Love," and two of
his Canterbury Tales.
In poetical literature, "The Vision of Piers Plowman," written (1362) by a
priest named Robert Langland, is one of the highest works in point of
genius and one of the most curious as illustrating manners and opinions.
The poet supposes himself falling asleep on Malvern Hills, and in his vision
he describes the vices of the times in an allegorical form, which has been
and intellectual progress of England. Many colleges were founded, and
learning had munificent patrons. The increase of papal power led to claims
which were resisted by the clergy as well as by the parliament. Foremost
among those who called for reform was the celebrated John Wickliffe
(1324- 1384). A priest of high fame for his knowledge and logical dexterity,
he was placed at the head of several of the colleges of Oxford, and there,
and from the country parsonages to which he was afterwards compelled to
retreat, he thundered forth his denunciations against the abuses of the
church, attacked the papal supremacy, and set forth doctrinal views of his
own nearly approaching to Calvinism. Although repeatedly called to
account for his opinions he was never even imprisoned, and he enjoyed his
church- livings to the last. But the church was weakened by the Great
Schism, and he was protected by powerful nobles. Soon after his death,
however, a storm of persecution burst on his disciples, which crushed
dissent till the sixteenth century. We owe to Wickliffe the earliest version of
the Scriptures into English, which is among the first prose writings in the
old tongue.
The very oldest book in English prose, however, is the account given by
Sir John Mandeville of his thirty-three years' travel in the East, from which
he returned about 1355. It is an odd and amusing compound of facts and
marvelous stories. But the best specimens of English prose of this period
are Chaucer's translation of Boethius, his "Testament of Love," and two of
his Canterbury Tales.
In poetical literature, "The Vision of Piers Plowman," written (1362) by a
priest named Robert Langland, is one of the highest works in point of
genius and one of the most curious as illustrating manners and opinions.
The poet supposes himself falling asleep on Malvern Hills, and in his vision
he describes the vices of the times in an allegorical form, which has been
Page 675
compared to "The Pilgrim's Progress." The poetical vigor of many passages
is extraordinary.
John Gower (d. 1408), a contemporary and friend of Chaucer, is chiefly
remembered for his "Confessio Amantis," or Lover's Confession, a long
English poem, containing physical, metaphysical, and ethical reflections
and stories taken from the common repertories of the Middle Ages. It is
tedious, and often feeble, but it has many excellences of language and
description.
Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) was born in London. He was early thrown
into public life and intimacy with men of high rank. John of Gaunt was his
chief patron, and he was several times employed in embassies to France and
Italy. A very large proportion of Chaucer's writings consists of free versions
from the Latin and French, and perhaps also from the Italian; but in some of
these he has incorporated so much that is his own as to make them the most
celebrated and valuable of his works. His originals were not the chivalrous
romances, but the comic Fabliaux, and the allegorical poetry cultivated by
the Trouvères and Troubadours. Three of his largest minor works are thus
borrowed; the "Romance of the Rose," from one of the most popular French
poems of the preceding century; "Troilus and Cressida," a free translation,
probably, from Boccaccio; and the "Legend of Good Women," founded on
Ovid's Epistles. The poetical immortality of Chaucer rests on his
"Canterbury Tales," a series of stories linked together by an ingenious
device. A party of about thirty persons, the poet being one, are bound on a
pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas à Becket, at Canterbury; each person is
to tell two tales, one in going, and the other in returning. Twenty-four only
of the stories are related, but they extend to more than 17,000 lines. In the
prologue, itself a poem of great merit, the poet draws up the curtain from a
scene of life and manners which has not been surpassed in subsequent
literature, a picture whose figures have been studied with the truest
is extraordinary.
John Gower (d. 1408), a contemporary and friend of Chaucer, is chiefly
remembered for his "Confessio Amantis," or Lover's Confession, a long
English poem, containing physical, metaphysical, and ethical reflections
and stories taken from the common repertories of the Middle Ages. It is
tedious, and often feeble, but it has many excellences of language and
description.
Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) was born in London. He was early thrown
into public life and intimacy with men of high rank. John of Gaunt was his
chief patron, and he was several times employed in embassies to France and
Italy. A very large proportion of Chaucer's writings consists of free versions
from the Latin and French, and perhaps also from the Italian; but in some of
these he has incorporated so much that is his own as to make them the most
celebrated and valuable of his works. His originals were not the chivalrous
romances, but the comic Fabliaux, and the allegorical poetry cultivated by
the Trouvères and Troubadours. Three of his largest minor works are thus
borrowed; the "Romance of the Rose," from one of the most popular French
poems of the preceding century; "Troilus and Cressida," a free translation,
probably, from Boccaccio; and the "Legend of Good Women," founded on
Ovid's Epistles. The poetical immortality of Chaucer rests on his
"Canterbury Tales," a series of stories linked together by an ingenious
device. A party of about thirty persons, the poet being one, are bound on a
pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas à Becket, at Canterbury; each person is
to tell two tales, one in going, and the other in returning. Twenty-four only
of the stories are related, but they extend to more than 17,000 lines. In the
prologue, itself a poem of great merit, the poet draws up the curtain from a
scene of life and manners which has not been surpassed in subsequent
literature, a picture whose figures have been studied with the truest
Page 676
observation, and are outlined with the firmest, yet most delicate pencil. The
vein of sentiment in these tales is always unaffected, cheerful, and manly,
the most touching seriousness varying with the keenest humor. In some the
tone rises to the highest flight of heroic, reflective, and even religious
poetry; while in others it sinks below coarseness into positive licentiousness
of thought and sentiment.
LITERATURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.—The fifteenth
century, usually marked in continental history as the epoch of the Revival of
Classical Learning, was not in England a period of erudition or of original
invention. The unwise and unjust wars with France, the revolts of the
populace, and the furious struggles between the partisans of the rival houses
desolated the country, and blighted and dwarfed all intellectual growth. For
more than a hundred years after the death of Chaucer, scarcely any names
of mark distinguish the literary annals of England, and the poetical
compositions of this period are principally valuable as specimens of the
rapid transition of the language into modern English. Almost all the literary
productions previous to the time of Chaucer were designed only for a
limited audience. Neither comprehensive observation of society nor a wish
to instruct or please a wide circle of readers was observable before this
period. Chaucer was indeed a national poet, an active and enlightened
teacher of all classes of men who were susceptible of literary instruction.
John Lydgate (d. 1430), a Benedictine monk, the best and most popular
poet of the fifteenth century, began to write before the death of Chaucer, but
in passing from the works of the latter to those of Lydgate, we seem to be
turning from the open highway into the dark, echoing cloisters. If he was
the pupil of Chaucer in manner and style, his masters in opinion and
sentiment were the compilers of the "Gesta Romanorum."
vein of sentiment in these tales is always unaffected, cheerful, and manly,
the most touching seriousness varying with the keenest humor. In some the
tone rises to the highest flight of heroic, reflective, and even religious
poetry; while in others it sinks below coarseness into positive licentiousness
of thought and sentiment.
LITERATURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.—The fifteenth
century, usually marked in continental history as the epoch of the Revival of
Classical Learning, was not in England a period of erudition or of original
invention. The unwise and unjust wars with France, the revolts of the
populace, and the furious struggles between the partisans of the rival houses
desolated the country, and blighted and dwarfed all intellectual growth. For
more than a hundred years after the death of Chaucer, scarcely any names
of mark distinguish the literary annals of England, and the poetical
compositions of this period are principally valuable as specimens of the
rapid transition of the language into modern English. Almost all the literary
productions previous to the time of Chaucer were designed only for a
limited audience. Neither comprehensive observation of society nor a wish
to instruct or please a wide circle of readers was observable before this
period. Chaucer was indeed a national poet, an active and enlightened
teacher of all classes of men who were susceptible of literary instruction.
John Lydgate (d. 1430), a Benedictine monk, the best and most popular
poet of the fifteenth century, began to write before the death of Chaucer, but
in passing from the works of the latter to those of Lydgate, we seem to be
turning from the open highway into the dark, echoing cloisters. If he was
the pupil of Chaucer in manner and style, his masters in opinion and
sentiment were the compilers of the "Gesta Romanorum."
Page 677
Stephen Hawes, who wrote in the reign of Henry VII., is the author of
"The Pastime of Pleasure," an allegorical poem in the same taste as the
"Romance of the Rose." This allegorical school of poetry, so widely spread
through the Middle Ages, reappears in the Elizabethan age, where the same
turn of thought is seen in the immortal "Faerie Queene."
In leaving this period we bid adieu to metrical romances, which,
introduced into English in the latter half of the thirteenth century, continued
to be composed until the middle of the fifteenth century, and were to the last
almost always translations or imitations. Chivalrous stories next began to be
related in prose. The most famous of these, one of the best specimens of
Old English, and the most delightful of all repositories of romantic fiction is
the "Mort Arthur," in which Sir Thomas Mallory, a priest in the reign of
Edward IV., combined into one narrative the leading adventures of the
Round Table.
As the romances ceased to be produced, the ballads gradually took their
place, many of which indeed are either fragments or abridgments of them.
The ballad-poetry was to the popular audience what the recital of the
romances had been among the nobles. The latter half of the fifteenth
century appears to have been fertile in minstrels and minstrelsy. "Chevy
Chase," of which Sir Philip Sidney said it would move him like the blast of
a trumpet, is one of the most ancient; but, according to Hallam, it relates to
a totally fictitious event. The ballad of "Robin Hood" had probably as little
origin in fact.
Towards the close of the fifteenth century, a mighty revolution took
place. William Caxton, a merchant of London residing abroad, became
acquainted with the recently invented art of printing, and embraced it as a
profession. He introduced it into England about 1474, and practiced it for
nearly twenty years. He printed sixty-four works in all, and the low state of
"The Pastime of Pleasure," an allegorical poem in the same taste as the
"Romance of the Rose." This allegorical school of poetry, so widely spread
through the Middle Ages, reappears in the Elizabethan age, where the same
turn of thought is seen in the immortal "Faerie Queene."
In leaving this period we bid adieu to metrical romances, which,
introduced into English in the latter half of the thirteenth century, continued
to be composed until the middle of the fifteenth century, and were to the last
almost always translations or imitations. Chivalrous stories next began to be
related in prose. The most famous of these, one of the best specimens of
Old English, and the most delightful of all repositories of romantic fiction is
the "Mort Arthur," in which Sir Thomas Mallory, a priest in the reign of
Edward IV., combined into one narrative the leading adventures of the
Round Table.
As the romances ceased to be produced, the ballads gradually took their
place, many of which indeed are either fragments or abridgments of them.
The ballad-poetry was to the popular audience what the recital of the
romances had been among the nobles. The latter half of the fifteenth
century appears to have been fertile in minstrels and minstrelsy. "Chevy
Chase," of which Sir Philip Sidney said it would move him like the blast of
a trumpet, is one of the most ancient; but, according to Hallam, it relates to
a totally fictitious event. The ballad of "Robin Hood" had probably as little
origin in fact.
Towards the close of the fifteenth century, a mighty revolution took
place. William Caxton, a merchant of London residing abroad, became
acquainted with the recently invented art of printing, and embraced it as a
profession. He introduced it into England about 1474, and practiced it for
nearly twenty years. He printed sixty-four works in all, and the low state of
Page 678
taste and information in the public for which they were designated is
indicated by the selection. But the enterprise and patience of Caxton
hastened the time when this mighty discovery became available in England,
and his name deserves to stand with honor at the close of the survey of
English literature in the Middle Ages. Thenceforth literary works were to
undergo a total change of character, brought about by many causes, but
none more active than the substitution of the printed book for the
manuscript.
6. THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN
SCOTLAND.—From the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there might be
collected the names of a few scholastic theologians of Scottish birth, whose
works have survived; but they spent their lives mostly on the continent, as
was the case with Michael Scott, who gained his fame as a wizard at the
court of the Emperor Frederic II. His extant writings are wholly inferior to
those of Friar Bacon, his contemporary.
Two metrical romances of note belong to the fourteenth century, the
"Original Cronykil" of Andrew Wyntoun (d. 1420), a long history of
Scotland, and of the world at large; and "The Bruce" of John Barbour (d.
1396), a narrative of the adventures of King Robert in more than thirteen
thousand rhymed lines. Dramatic vigor and occasional breadth of sentiment
entitle this poem to a high rank. Sir Walter Scott, in his "Lord of the Isles,"
owes much to "The Bruce."
The earliest Scottish poem of the fifteenth century, "The King's Quair," or
Book, in which James I. (d. 1437) celebrates the lady whom he afterwards
married, presents no traces of a distinct Scottish dialect. But James was
educated in England, and probably wrote there, and his pleasing poem
exhibits the influence of those English writers whom he acknowledges as
his masters. From this time, however, the development of the language of
indicated by the selection. But the enterprise and patience of Caxton
hastened the time when this mighty discovery became available in England,
and his name deserves to stand with honor at the close of the survey of
English literature in the Middle Ages. Thenceforth literary works were to
undergo a total change of character, brought about by many causes, but
none more active than the substitution of the printed book for the
manuscript.
6. THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN
SCOTLAND.—From the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there might be
collected the names of a few scholastic theologians of Scottish birth, whose
works have survived; but they spent their lives mostly on the continent, as
was the case with Michael Scott, who gained his fame as a wizard at the
court of the Emperor Frederic II. His extant writings are wholly inferior to
those of Friar Bacon, his contemporary.
Two metrical romances of note belong to the fourteenth century, the
"Original Cronykil" of Andrew Wyntoun (d. 1420), a long history of
Scotland, and of the world at large; and "The Bruce" of John Barbour (d.
1396), a narrative of the adventures of King Robert in more than thirteen
thousand rhymed lines. Dramatic vigor and occasional breadth of sentiment
entitle this poem to a high rank. Sir Walter Scott, in his "Lord of the Isles,"
owes much to "The Bruce."
The earliest Scottish poem of the fifteenth century, "The King's Quair," or
Book, in which James I. (d. 1437) celebrates the lady whom he afterwards
married, presents no traces of a distinct Scottish dialect. But James was
educated in England, and probably wrote there, and his pleasing poem
exhibits the influence of those English writers whom he acknowledges as
his masters. From this time, however, the development of the language of
Page 679
Scotland into a dialect went rapidly on. The "Wallace" of Henry the
Minstrel, or Blind Harry, rivaled the "Bruce" in popularity, on account of
the more picturesque character of the incidents, its passionate fervor, and
the wildness of fancy by which it is distinguished.
Towards the close of this century, and in the beginning of the next,
Scottish poetry, now couched in a dialect decidedly peculiar, was
cultivated by men of high genius. Robert Henryson (d. 1400) wrote "The
Testament of the Faire Cresside," a continuation of Chaucer's poem, and
"Robin and Makyne," a beautiful pastoral, preserved in Percy's "Reliques."
More vigorous in thought and fancy, though inferior in skill and
expression, was Gavin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld (d. 1522). His "King
Hart" and "Palace of Honor" are complex allegories; and his translation of
the Aeneid is the earliest attempt to render classical poetry into the living
language of the country.
William Dunbar (d. 1520), the best British poet of his age, exhibits a
versatility of talent which has rarely been equaled; but in his comic and
familiar pieces, the grossness of language and sentiment destroys the effect
of their force and humor. Allegory is his favorite field. In his "Golden
Terge," the target is Reason, a protection against the assaults of love. "The
Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins" is wonderfully striking; but the design
even of this remarkable poem could not be decorously described.
While Scotland thus redeemed the poetical character of the fifteenth
century, her living tongue was used only in versified compositions. Scottish
prose does not appear in any literary shape until the first decade of the
sixteenth century.
PERIOD THIRD.
Minstrel, or Blind Harry, rivaled the "Bruce" in popularity, on account of
the more picturesque character of the incidents, its passionate fervor, and
the wildness of fancy by which it is distinguished.
Towards the close of this century, and in the beginning of the next,
Scottish poetry, now couched in a dialect decidedly peculiar, was
cultivated by men of high genius. Robert Henryson (d. 1400) wrote "The
Testament of the Faire Cresside," a continuation of Chaucer's poem, and
"Robin and Makyne," a beautiful pastoral, preserved in Percy's "Reliques."
More vigorous in thought and fancy, though inferior in skill and
expression, was Gavin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld (d. 1522). His "King
Hart" and "Palace of Honor" are complex allegories; and his translation of
the Aeneid is the earliest attempt to render classical poetry into the living
language of the country.
William Dunbar (d. 1520), the best British poet of his age, exhibits a
versatility of talent which has rarely been equaled; but in his comic and
familiar pieces, the grossness of language and sentiment destroys the effect
of their force and humor. Allegory is his favorite field. In his "Golden
Terge," the target is Reason, a protection against the assaults of love. "The
Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins" is wonderfully striking; but the design
even of this remarkable poem could not be decorously described.
While Scotland thus redeemed the poetical character of the fifteenth
century, her living tongue was used only in versified compositions. Scottish
prose does not appear in any literary shape until the first decade of the
sixteenth century.
PERIOD THIRD.
Page 680
FROM THE ACCESSION or HENRY VIII. TO THE PRESENT TIME
(1509-1884).
1. AGE OF THE REFORMATION.—In the early part of the sixteenth
century human intellect began to be stirred by impulses altogether new,
while others, which had as yet been held in check, were allowed, one after
another, to work freely. But there was no sudden or universal
metamorphosis in literature, or in those phenomena by which its form and
spirit were determined. It was not until 1568, when the reign of Elizabeth
was within thirty years of its close, that English literature assumed a
character separating it decisively from that of the ages which had gone
before, and took its station as the worthy organ of a new epoch in the
history of civilization. But the literary poverty of the age of the Reformation
was the poverty which the settler in a new country experiences, while he
fells the woods and sows his half-tilled fields; a poverty, in the bosom of
which lay rich abundance.
The students of classical learning profited at first more than others by the
diffusion of the art of printing, from the greater number of classical works
which, were given to the press. Foreign men of letters visited England;
Erasmus, especially, gave a strong impulse to study, and Greek and Latin
were learned with an accuracy never before attained. Among the scholars of
the time were Cardinals Pole and Wolsey, Ridley, Ascham, and Sir Thomas
More, the author of the "Utopia," a romance in the scholastic garb. It
describes an imaginary commonwealth, the chief feature of which is a
community of property, on an imaginary island, from which the book takes
its name. The epithet "Utopian" is still used as descriptive of chimerical
schemes.
The most important works in the living tongue were those devoted to
theology, and first among them were the translations of the Scriptures into
(1509-1884).
1. AGE OF THE REFORMATION.—In the early part of the sixteenth
century human intellect began to be stirred by impulses altogether new,
while others, which had as yet been held in check, were allowed, one after
another, to work freely. But there was no sudden or universal
metamorphosis in literature, or in those phenomena by which its form and
spirit were determined. It was not until 1568, when the reign of Elizabeth
was within thirty years of its close, that English literature assumed a
character separating it decisively from that of the ages which had gone
before, and took its station as the worthy organ of a new epoch in the
history of civilization. But the literary poverty of the age of the Reformation
was the poverty which the settler in a new country experiences, while he
fells the woods and sows his half-tilled fields; a poverty, in the bosom of
which lay rich abundance.
The students of classical learning profited at first more than others by the
diffusion of the art of printing, from the greater number of classical works
which, were given to the press. Foreign men of letters visited England;
Erasmus, especially, gave a strong impulse to study, and Greek and Latin
were learned with an accuracy never before attained. Among the scholars of
the time were Cardinals Pole and Wolsey, Ridley, Ascham, and Sir Thomas
More, the author of the "Utopia," a romance in the scholastic garb. It
describes an imaginary commonwealth, the chief feature of which is a
community of property, on an imaginary island, from which the book takes
its name. The epithet "Utopian" is still used as descriptive of chimerical
schemes.
The most important works in the living tongue were those devoted to
theology, and first among them were the translations of the Scriptures into
Page 681
English, none of which had been publicly attempted since that of Wickliffe.
In 1526, William Tyndale (afterwards strangled and burnt for heresy, at
Antwerp), translated the New Testament, and the five books of Moses. In
1537, after the final breach of Henry VIII. with Rome, there was published
the first complete translation of the Bible, by Miles Coverdale. Many others
followed until the accession of Mary, when the circulation of the translation
was made in secrecy and fear. The theological writers of this period are
chiefly controversial. Among them are Ridley, famous as a preacher;
Cranmer, remarkable for his patronage of theological learning, and Latimer
(d. 1555), whose sermons and letters are highly instructive and interesting.
The "Book of Martyrs," by John Fox (d. 1527), was printed towards the
close of this period.
The miscellaneous writings of this age in prose are most valuable as
specimens of the language in its earliest maturity. None of them are entitled
to high rank as monuments of English literature. The style of Sir Thomas
More (1480-1535) had great excellence; but his works were only the
recreation of an accomplished man in a learned age. The writings of the
learned Ascham (1515-1565) have a value not to be measured by their
inconsiderable bulk. Their language is pure, idiomatic, vigorous English;
and they exhibit a great variety of knowledge, remarkable sagacity, and
sound common sense. His most celebrated work, the "Schoolmaster,"
proposes improvements in education for which there is still both room and
need. Thomas Wilson, who wrote a treatise on the "Art of Logic" and
"Rhetoric," may be considered the first critical writer in the living tongue.
The poetry of England during the reigns of Henry VIII. and his
immediate successors is like the prose, valuable for its relation to other
things, rather than for its own merit. Yet it occupies a higher place than the
prose; it exhibits a decided contrast to that of the times past, and in many
In 1526, William Tyndale (afterwards strangled and burnt for heresy, at
Antwerp), translated the New Testament, and the five books of Moses. In
1537, after the final breach of Henry VIII. with Rome, there was published
the first complete translation of the Bible, by Miles Coverdale. Many others
followed until the accession of Mary, when the circulation of the translation
was made in secrecy and fear. The theological writers of this period are
chiefly controversial. Among them are Ridley, famous as a preacher;
Cranmer, remarkable for his patronage of theological learning, and Latimer
(d. 1555), whose sermons and letters are highly instructive and interesting.
The "Book of Martyrs," by John Fox (d. 1527), was printed towards the
close of this period.
The miscellaneous writings of this age in prose are most valuable as
specimens of the language in its earliest maturity. None of them are entitled
to high rank as monuments of English literature. The style of Sir Thomas
More (1480-1535) had great excellence; but his works were only the
recreation of an accomplished man in a learned age. The writings of the
learned Ascham (1515-1565) have a value not to be measured by their
inconsiderable bulk. Their language is pure, idiomatic, vigorous English;
and they exhibit a great variety of knowledge, remarkable sagacity, and
sound common sense. His most celebrated work, the "Schoolmaster,"
proposes improvements in education for which there is still both room and
need. Thomas Wilson, who wrote a treatise on the "Art of Logic" and
"Rhetoric," may be considered the first critical writer in the living tongue.
The poetry of England during the reigns of Henry VIII. and his
immediate successors is like the prose, valuable for its relation to other
things, rather than for its own merit. Yet it occupies a higher place than the
prose; it exhibits a decided contrast to that of the times past, and in many
Page 682
points bears a close resemblance to the poetry of the energetic age that was
soon to open.
The names of the poets of this age may be arrayed in three groups,
headed by Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville. The poems of Skelton (d. 1529)
are singularly though coarsely energetic. He was the tutor of Henry VIII.,
and during the greater part of the reign of his pupil he continued to satirize
social and ecclesiastical abuses. His poems are exceedingly curious and
grotesque, and the volubility with which he vents his acrid humors is truly
surprising. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516-1547), opened a new era in
English poetry, and by his foreign studies, and his refinement of taste and
feeling, was enabled to turn poetical literature into a path as yet untrodden,
although in vigor and originality this ill-fated poet was inferior to others
who have been long forgotten. His works consist of sonnets and poems of a
lyrical and amatory cast, and a translation of the Aeneid. He first introduced
the sonnet, and the refined and sentimental turn of thought borrowed from
Petrarch and the other Italian masters. In his Aeneid he introduced blank
verse, a form of versification in which the noblest English poetry has since
been couched. This was also taken from Italy, where it had appeared only in
the century. Surrey's versions of some of the Psalms, and those of his
contemporary, Sir Thomas Wyatt, are the most polished of the many similar
attempts made at that time, among which was the collection of Sternhold
and Hopkins.
Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst (1686-1608) wrote those portions
most worthy of notice, of the "Mirror for Magistrates," a collection of
poems celebrating illustrious but unfortunate personages who figure in the
history of England. From his "Induction," or preparatory poem, later writers
have drawn many suggestions.
soon to open.
The names of the poets of this age may be arrayed in three groups,
headed by Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville. The poems of Skelton (d. 1529)
are singularly though coarsely energetic. He was the tutor of Henry VIII.,
and during the greater part of the reign of his pupil he continued to satirize
social and ecclesiastical abuses. His poems are exceedingly curious and
grotesque, and the volubility with which he vents his acrid humors is truly
surprising. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516-1547), opened a new era in
English poetry, and by his foreign studies, and his refinement of taste and
feeling, was enabled to turn poetical literature into a path as yet untrodden,
although in vigor and originality this ill-fated poet was inferior to others
who have been long forgotten. His works consist of sonnets and poems of a
lyrical and amatory cast, and a translation of the Aeneid. He first introduced
the sonnet, and the refined and sentimental turn of thought borrowed from
Petrarch and the other Italian masters. In his Aeneid he introduced blank
verse, a form of versification in which the noblest English poetry has since
been couched. This was also taken from Italy, where it had appeared only in
the century. Surrey's versions of some of the Psalms, and those of his
contemporary, Sir Thomas Wyatt, are the most polished of the many similar
attempts made at that time, among which was the collection of Sternhold
and Hopkins.
Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst (1686-1608) wrote those portions
most worthy of notice, of the "Mirror for Magistrates," a collection of
poems celebrating illustrious but unfortunate personages who figure in the
history of England. From his "Induction," or preparatory poem, later writers
have drawn many suggestions.
Page 683
The dramatic exhibitions of the Middle Ages, which originated in the
church, or were soon appropriated by the clergy, were of a religious cast,
often composed by priests and monks who were frequently the performers
of them in the convents. All the old religious plays called Mysteries were
divided into Miracles, or Miracle plays, founded on Bible narratives or
legends of the saints; and Moralities or Moral plays, which arose out of the
former by the introduction of imaginary features and allegorical personages,
the story being so constructed as to convey an ethical or religious lesson.
They became common in England about the time of the reign of Henry VI.
(1422-1461). Some of the Miracle plays treated of all the events of Bible
history, from the Creation to the Day of Judgment; they were acted on
festivals, and the performance often lasted more than one day. The most
sacred things are here treated with undue freedom, and the broadest and
coarsest mirth is introduced to keep the attention of the rude audience.
Many of them had a character called Iniquity, whose avowed function was
that of buffoonery. The Mysteries were not entirely overthrown by the
Reformation, the Protestant Bishop Bale having composed several, intended
to instruct the people in the errors of popery. After the time of Henry VIII.
these plays are known by the name of Interludes, the most celebrated of
which are those by John Heywood (the epigrammatist). They deal largely in
satire, and are not devoid of spirit and humor. But they have little skill in
character- painting, and little interest in the story.
About the middle of the century (sixteenth) the drama extricated itself
completely from its ancient fetters, and both comedy and tragedy began to
exist in a rude reality. The oldest known comedy was written by Nicholas
Udall (d. 1556); it has the title of "Ralph Roister Doister," a personage
whose misadventures are represented with much comic force.
Ten years later the earliest tragedy, known by two names, "Gorboduc"
and "Ferrex and Porrex," was publicly played in the Lower Temple. It is
church, or were soon appropriated by the clergy, were of a religious cast,
often composed by priests and monks who were frequently the performers
of them in the convents. All the old religious plays called Mysteries were
divided into Miracles, or Miracle plays, founded on Bible narratives or
legends of the saints; and Moralities or Moral plays, which arose out of the
former by the introduction of imaginary features and allegorical personages,
the story being so constructed as to convey an ethical or religious lesson.
They became common in England about the time of the reign of Henry VI.
(1422-1461). Some of the Miracle plays treated of all the events of Bible
history, from the Creation to the Day of Judgment; they were acted on
festivals, and the performance often lasted more than one day. The most
sacred things are here treated with undue freedom, and the broadest and
coarsest mirth is introduced to keep the attention of the rude audience.
Many of them had a character called Iniquity, whose avowed function was
that of buffoonery. The Mysteries were not entirely overthrown by the
Reformation, the Protestant Bishop Bale having composed several, intended
to instruct the people in the errors of popery. After the time of Henry VIII.
these plays are known by the name of Interludes, the most celebrated of
which are those by John Heywood (the epigrammatist). They deal largely in
satire, and are not devoid of spirit and humor. But they have little skill in
character- painting, and little interest in the story.
About the middle of the century (sixteenth) the drama extricated itself
completely from its ancient fetters, and both comedy and tragedy began to
exist in a rude reality. The oldest known comedy was written by Nicholas
Udall (d. 1556); it has the title of "Ralph Roister Doister," a personage
whose misadventures are represented with much comic force.
Ten years later the earliest tragedy, known by two names, "Gorboduc"
and "Ferrex and Porrex," was publicly played in the Lower Temple. It is
Page 684
founded on the traditions of fabulous British history, and is believed to have
been written by Thomas Norton and Lord Buckhurst. The chief merit of this
earliest English tragedy lies in its stately language and solemnly reflective
tone of sentiment.
2. THE AGE OF SPENSER, SHAKSPEARE, BACON, AND MILTON
(1558-1660).—The prose of this illustrious period is vast in amount and
various in range. The study of the Oriental languages and other pursuits
bearing on theology were prosecuted with success, and many of the
philosophical and polemical writings were composed in Latin. A second
series of translations of the Scriptures were among the most important
works of the time. The first of the three versions which now appeared
(1560), came from a knot of English and Scotch exiles who sought refuge
in Geneva, and their work, known as the Geneva Bible, though not adopted
by the Church of England, long continued in favor with the English Puritans
and Scotch Presbyterians. Cranmer's version was next revised (1568) under
the superintendence of Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, eminent
among the fathers of the English church, and called the Bishops' Bible, a
majority of fifteen translators having been selected from the bench. The
Catholic version, known as the Douay Bible, appeared in 1610. Our current
translation, which also appeared in 1610, during the reign of James I.,
occupied forty-seven learned men, assisted by other eminent scholars, for a
period of three years.
Among theological writings, the "Ecclesiastical Polity" of Hooker (1553-
1600) is a striking effort of philosophical thinking, and in point of
eloquence one of the noblest monuments of the language. More than
Ciceronian in its fullness and dignity of style, it wears with all its richness a
sober majesty which is equally admirable and rare. The sermons of Bishop
Andrews (1565-1626), though corrupt as models of style, made an
extraordinary impression, and contain more than any other works of the
been written by Thomas Norton and Lord Buckhurst. The chief merit of this
earliest English tragedy lies in its stately language and solemnly reflective
tone of sentiment.
2. THE AGE OF SPENSER, SHAKSPEARE, BACON, AND MILTON
(1558-1660).—The prose of this illustrious period is vast in amount and
various in range. The study of the Oriental languages and other pursuits
bearing on theology were prosecuted with success, and many of the
philosophical and polemical writings were composed in Latin. A second
series of translations of the Scriptures were among the most important
works of the time. The first of the three versions which now appeared
(1560), came from a knot of English and Scotch exiles who sought refuge
in Geneva, and their work, known as the Geneva Bible, though not adopted
by the Church of England, long continued in favor with the English Puritans
and Scotch Presbyterians. Cranmer's version was next revised (1568) under
the superintendence of Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, eminent
among the fathers of the English church, and called the Bishops' Bible, a
majority of fifteen translators having been selected from the bench. The
Catholic version, known as the Douay Bible, appeared in 1610. Our current
translation, which also appeared in 1610, during the reign of James I.,
occupied forty-seven learned men, assisted by other eminent scholars, for a
period of three years.
Among theological writings, the "Ecclesiastical Polity" of Hooker (1553-
1600) is a striking effort of philosophical thinking, and in point of
eloquence one of the noblest monuments of the language. More than
Ciceronian in its fullness and dignity of style, it wears with all its richness a
sober majesty which is equally admirable and rare. The sermons of Bishop
Andrews (1565-1626), though corrupt as models of style, made an
extraordinary impression, and contain more than any other works of the
Page 685
kind the inwrought materials of oratory. The sermons of Donne (1573-
1631), while they are superior in style, are sometimes fantastic, like his
poetry, but they are never coarse, and they derive a touching interest from
his history.
But the most eloquent of all the old English divines are the two
celebrated prelates of the reign of Charles I., Joseph Hall (1574-1656) and
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1671), alike eminent for Christian piety and
conscientious zeal. Besides his pulpit discourses, Bishop Hall has left a
series of "Contemplations" on passages of the Bible, and "Meditations,"
which are particularly rich in beautiful descriptions. Among the most
practical and popular of Taylor's works are his "Holy Living" and "Holy
Dying," while his sermons distinguish him as one of the great ornaments of
the English pulpit. The chief theologian of the close of the period was
Richard Baxter (1615-1691). His works have great value for their
originality and acuteness of thought, and for their vigorous and passionate
though unpolished eloquence. His "Call to the Unconverted" and "The
Saint's Everlasting Rest" deserve their wide popularity. Among the semi-
theological writers of the time are Fuller, Cudworth, and Henry More,
Fuller (1608-1661) is most widely known through his "Worthies of
England," a book of lively and observant gossip. Cudworth and More, his
contemporaries, deviated in their philosophical writings from the tendencies
of Bacon and the sensualistlc doctrines of Hobbes, and regarded existence
rather from the spiritual point of view of Plato; in the preceding generation,
the skepticism of Lord Herbert of Cherbury taught a different lesson from
theirs.
In this period we encounter in the philosophical field two of the strongest
thinkers who have appeared in modern Europe, Bacon and Hobbes. Bacon
(1561-1620) aimed at the solution of two great problems, the answers to
which were intended to constitute the "Instauratio Magna," the great
1631), while they are superior in style, are sometimes fantastic, like his
poetry, but they are never coarse, and they derive a touching interest from
his history.
But the most eloquent of all the old English divines are the two
celebrated prelates of the reign of Charles I., Joseph Hall (1574-1656) and
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1671), alike eminent for Christian piety and
conscientious zeal. Besides his pulpit discourses, Bishop Hall has left a
series of "Contemplations" on passages of the Bible, and "Meditations,"
which are particularly rich in beautiful descriptions. Among the most
practical and popular of Taylor's works are his "Holy Living" and "Holy
Dying," while his sermons distinguish him as one of the great ornaments of
the English pulpit. The chief theologian of the close of the period was
Richard Baxter (1615-1691). His works have great value for their
originality and acuteness of thought, and for their vigorous and passionate
though unpolished eloquence. His "Call to the Unconverted" and "The
Saint's Everlasting Rest" deserve their wide popularity. Among the semi-
theological writers of the time are Fuller, Cudworth, and Henry More,
Fuller (1608-1661) is most widely known through his "Worthies of
England," a book of lively and observant gossip. Cudworth and More, his
contemporaries, deviated in their philosophical writings from the tendencies
of Bacon and the sensualistlc doctrines of Hobbes, and regarded existence
rather from the spiritual point of view of Plato; in the preceding generation,
the skepticism of Lord Herbert of Cherbury taught a different lesson from
theirs.
In this period we encounter in the philosophical field two of the strongest
thinkers who have appeared in modern Europe, Bacon and Hobbes. Bacon
(1561-1620) aimed at the solution of two great problems, the answers to
which were intended to constitute the "Instauratio Magna," the great
Page 686
Restoration of Philosophy, that colossal work, towards which the chief
writings of this illustrious author were contributions. The first problem was
an Analytic Classification of all departments of Human Knowledge, which
occupies a portion of his treatise "On the Advancement of Learning."
Imperfect and erroneous as his scheme may be allowed to be, D'Alembert
and his coadjutors in the last century were able to do no more than to copy
and distort it. In his "Novum Organum" he undertakes to supply certain
deficiencies of the Aristotelian system of logic, and expounds his mode of
philosophizing; he was the first to unfold the inductive method, which he
did in so masterly a way, that he has earned, with posterity, the title of the
father of experimental science. His "Essays," from the excellence of their
style and the interesting nature of the subjects, are the most generally read
of all the author's productions. No English writer surpasses Bacon in fervor
and brilliancy of style, in force of expression, or in richness and
significance of imagery. His writings, though they received during his
lifetime the neglect for which he had proudly prepared himself, gave a
mighty impulse to scientific thought for at least a century after his time. In
his will, the following strikingly prophetic passage is found: "My name and
memory I leave to foreign nations, and to mine own country, after some
time is passed over."
The influence of Hobbes on philosophy in England has been greater than
that of Bacon. In politics, his theory is that of uncontrolled absolutism,
subjecting religion and morality to the will of the sovereign; in ethics he
resolves all our impulses regarding right and wrong into self-love. His
reasoning is close and consistent, and if his premises are granted, it is
hardly possible to avoid his conclusions. Other departments in the prose
literature of this period were amply filled and richly adorned. Speculations
upon the Theory of Society and Civil Polity were frequent. Among them are
the Latin works of Bellenden "On the State," the "New Atlantis," a romance
writings of this illustrious author were contributions. The first problem was
an Analytic Classification of all departments of Human Knowledge, which
occupies a portion of his treatise "On the Advancement of Learning."
Imperfect and erroneous as his scheme may be allowed to be, D'Alembert
and his coadjutors in the last century were able to do no more than to copy
and distort it. In his "Novum Organum" he undertakes to supply certain
deficiencies of the Aristotelian system of logic, and expounds his mode of
philosophizing; he was the first to unfold the inductive method, which he
did in so masterly a way, that he has earned, with posterity, the title of the
father of experimental science. His "Essays," from the excellence of their
style and the interesting nature of the subjects, are the most generally read
of all the author's productions. No English writer surpasses Bacon in fervor
and brilliancy of style, in force of expression, or in richness and
significance of imagery. His writings, though they received during his
lifetime the neglect for which he had proudly prepared himself, gave a
mighty impulse to scientific thought for at least a century after his time. In
his will, the following strikingly prophetic passage is found: "My name and
memory I leave to foreign nations, and to mine own country, after some
time is passed over."
The influence of Hobbes on philosophy in England has been greater than
that of Bacon. In politics, his theory is that of uncontrolled absolutism,
subjecting religion and morality to the will of the sovereign; in ethics he
resolves all our impulses regarding right and wrong into self-love. His
reasoning is close and consistent, and if his premises are granted, it is
hardly possible to avoid his conclusions. Other departments in the prose
literature of this period were amply filled and richly adorned. Speculations
upon the Theory of Society and Civil Polity were frequent. Among them are
the Latin works of Bellenden "On the State," the "New Atlantis," a romance
Page 687
by Lord Bacon, the "Oceana" of Harrington, and the "Leviathan" of
Hobbes.
In the collection of materials for national history the period was
exceedingly active. Camden and Selden stand at the head of the band of
antiquaries. Hobbes wrote in his old age "Behemoth, or a History of the
Civil Wars," and the "Turkish History" of Knolles has been pronounced one
of the most spirited narratives in the language.
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618), while lying in the Tower under sentence
of death, wrote a "History of the World," from the Creation to the Republic
of Rome. The narrative is spirited and pervaded by a tone of devout
sentiment.
The accomplished Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586), in his "Defense of
Poesy," pays an eloquent tribute to the value of the most powerful of all the
literary arts. His "Arcadia" is a ponderous combination of romantic and
pastoral incidents, the unripe production of a young poet, but it abounds in
isolated passages beautiful alike in sentiment and language.
Towards the close of the period, Milton manifested extraordinary power
in prose writing; his defense of the "Liberty of Unlicensed Printing" is one
of the most impressive pieces of eloquence in the English tongue. His style
is more Latinized than that of most of his contemporaries, and this exotic
infection pervades both his terms and his arrangement; yet he has passages
marvelously sweet, and others in which the grand sweep of his sentences
emulates the cathedral music of Hooker.
The press now began to pour forth shoals of short novels, romances, and
essays, and pamphlets on various subjects. Among other productions is
Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy," a storehouse of odd learning and
quaintly-original ideas; it is deficient, however, in style and power of
Hobbes.
In the collection of materials for national history the period was
exceedingly active. Camden and Selden stand at the head of the band of
antiquaries. Hobbes wrote in his old age "Behemoth, or a History of the
Civil Wars," and the "Turkish History" of Knolles has been pronounced one
of the most spirited narratives in the language.
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618), while lying in the Tower under sentence
of death, wrote a "History of the World," from the Creation to the Republic
of Rome. The narrative is spirited and pervaded by a tone of devout
sentiment.
The accomplished Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586), in his "Defense of
Poesy," pays an eloquent tribute to the value of the most powerful of all the
literary arts. His "Arcadia" is a ponderous combination of romantic and
pastoral incidents, the unripe production of a young poet, but it abounds in
isolated passages beautiful alike in sentiment and language.
Towards the close of the period, Milton manifested extraordinary power
in prose writing; his defense of the "Liberty of Unlicensed Printing" is one
of the most impressive pieces of eloquence in the English tongue. His style
is more Latinized than that of most of his contemporaries, and this exotic
infection pervades both his terms and his arrangement; yet he has passages
marvelously sweet, and others in which the grand sweep of his sentences
emulates the cathedral music of Hooker.
The press now began to pour forth shoals of short novels, romances, and
essays, and pamphlets on various subjects. Among other productions is
Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy," a storehouse of odd learning and
quaintly-original ideas; it is deficient, however, in style and power of
Page 688
consecutive reasoning. Far above Burton in eloquence and strength of
thought is Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682), whose writings have all the
characteristics of the age in a state of extravagant exaggeration. The
thoughtful melancholy, the singular mixture of skepticism and credulity,
and the brilliancy of imaginative illustration, give his essays a peculiarity of
character that renders them exceedingly fascinating. The poet Cowley, in
his prose writings, is distinguished for his undeviating simplicity and
perspicuity, and for smoothness and ease, of which hardly another instance
could be produced from any other book written before the Restoration.
The English drama has been called Irregular in contrast to the Regular
drama of Greece and that of modern France, founded upon the Greek, by
the French critics of the age of Louis XIV. The principal law of this system,
as we have seen, prescribed obedience to the Three Unities, of Time, of
Place, and of Action; the two first being founded on the desire to imitate in
the drama the series of events which it represents, the time of action was
allowed to extend to twenty-four hours, and the scene to change from place
to place in the same city. But by Shakspeare and his contemporaries no
fixed limits were acknowledged in regard either of time or place, the action
stretching through many years, and the scene changing to very wide
distances. The rule prescribing unity of action, that everything shall be
subordinate to the series of events which is taken as the guiding-thread, is a
much more sound one; and in most of Shakspeare's works, as well as those
of his contemporaries, this unity of impression, as it has been called, is fully
preserved.
Before the year 1585 no perceptible advance had been made in the
drama, and for the period of sixty years, from that date to the closing of the
theatres in 1645, on the breaking out of the Civil War, the history of
Shakspeare's works forms the leading thread. Men of eminent genius lived
around and after him, but there were none who do not derive much of their
thought is Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682), whose writings have all the
characteristics of the age in a state of extravagant exaggeration. The
thoughtful melancholy, the singular mixture of skepticism and credulity,
and the brilliancy of imaginative illustration, give his essays a peculiarity of
character that renders them exceedingly fascinating. The poet Cowley, in
his prose writings, is distinguished for his undeviating simplicity and
perspicuity, and for smoothness and ease, of which hardly another instance
could be produced from any other book written before the Restoration.
The English drama has been called Irregular in contrast to the Regular
drama of Greece and that of modern France, founded upon the Greek, by
the French critics of the age of Louis XIV. The principal law of this system,
as we have seen, prescribed obedience to the Three Unities, of Time, of
Place, and of Action; the two first being founded on the desire to imitate in
the drama the series of events which it represents, the time of action was
allowed to extend to twenty-four hours, and the scene to change from place
to place in the same city. But by Shakspeare and his contemporaries no
fixed limits were acknowledged in regard either of time or place, the action
stretching through many years, and the scene changing to very wide
distances. The rule prescribing unity of action, that everything shall be
subordinate to the series of events which is taken as the guiding-thread, is a
much more sound one; and in most of Shakspeare's works, as well as those
of his contemporaries, this unity of impression, as it has been called, is fully
preserved.
Before the year 1585 no perceptible advance had been made in the
drama, and for the period of sixty years, from that date to the closing of the
theatres in 1645, on the breaking out of the Civil War, the history of
Shakspeare's works forms the leading thread. Men of eminent genius lived
around and after him, but there were none who do not derive much of their
Page 689
importance from the relation in which they stand to him, and hardly any
whose works do not owe much of their excellence to the influence of his.
Thus considered, the stages through which the drama now passed may be
said to have been four, three of which occurred chiefly during the life of the
poet, the fourth after his death. The first of these periods witnessed the early
manhood of Shakspeare, and closes about 1593. Among his immediate
predecessors and coadjutors were Marlowe and Greene. The plays of
Marlowe (1562-1593) are stately tragedies, serious in purpose, energetic
and often extravagant in passion and in language, and richly and pompously
imaginative. His "Tragical History of Doctor Faustus" is one of the finest
poems in the language. The productions of Greene are loose, legendary
plays of a form exemplified in Cymbeline.
To the first period of the dramatic life of Shakspeare (1564-1616) belong
the "Two Gentlemen of Verona," the "Comedy of Errors," and "Love's
Labor's Lost," which show that the mighty master, even in these juvenile
essays, had taken a wide step beyond the dramas of the time. Pure comedy
had no existence in England until he created it, and in these comedies it is
evident that everything is juvenile, unripe, and marvelously unlike the
grand pictures of life which he soon afterwards began to paint. But if he
was more than a student in this first stage of his progress, he was a teacher
and model ever after. The second period for Shakspeare and the drama
closes with the year 1600. During this most active part of his literary life, he
produced eight comedies, and re-wrote "Romeo and Juliet." But the most
elevated works of these six years were his magnificent series of historical
plays. The series after 1600 began with the great tragedies, Othello, Hamlet
(recomposed), Macbeth, and Lear, followed by Henry VIII., the three
tragedies on Roman subjects, and the three singular pieces, "Timon of
Athens," "Troilus and Cressida," and "Measure for Measure," apparently of
the same date. "Cymbeline" and the "Winter's Tale" were probably
whose works do not owe much of their excellence to the influence of his.
Thus considered, the stages through which the drama now passed may be
said to have been four, three of which occurred chiefly during the life of the
poet, the fourth after his death. The first of these periods witnessed the early
manhood of Shakspeare, and closes about 1593. Among his immediate
predecessors and coadjutors were Marlowe and Greene. The plays of
Marlowe (1562-1593) are stately tragedies, serious in purpose, energetic
and often extravagant in passion and in language, and richly and pompously
imaginative. His "Tragical History of Doctor Faustus" is one of the finest
poems in the language. The productions of Greene are loose, legendary
plays of a form exemplified in Cymbeline.
To the first period of the dramatic life of Shakspeare (1564-1616) belong
the "Two Gentlemen of Verona," the "Comedy of Errors," and "Love's
Labor's Lost," which show that the mighty master, even in these juvenile
essays, had taken a wide step beyond the dramas of the time. Pure comedy
had no existence in England until he created it, and in these comedies it is
evident that everything is juvenile, unripe, and marvelously unlike the
grand pictures of life which he soon afterwards began to paint. But if he
was more than a student in this first stage of his progress, he was a teacher
and model ever after. The second period for Shakspeare and the drama
closes with the year 1600. During this most active part of his literary life, he
produced eight comedies, and re-wrote "Romeo and Juliet." But the most
elevated works of these six years were his magnificent series of historical
plays. The series after 1600 began with the great tragedies, Othello, Hamlet
(recomposed), Macbeth, and Lear, followed by Henry VIII., the three
tragedies on Roman subjects, and the three singular pieces, "Timon of
Athens," "Troilus and Cressida," and "Measure for Measure," apparently of
the same date. "Cymbeline" and the "Winter's Tale" were probably
Page 690
composed after he had retired from the turmoil of his profession to the
repose of his early home. In the "Tempest." doubtless his last work, he
peopled his haunted island with a group of beings whose conception
indicates a greater variety of imagination, and in some points a greater
depth of thought than any others which he has bequeathed to us.
The name of Shakspeare is the greatest in all literature. No man ever
came near him in creative power—no man had ever such strength combined
with such variety of imagination. Of all authors, he is the most natural in his
style, and yet there is none whose words are so musical in arrangement, so
striking and picturesque in themselves, or contain so many thoughts. Every
page furnishes instances of that intensifying of expression, where some
happy word conveys a whole train of ideas condensed into a single
luminous point—words so new, so full of meaning, yet so unforced and
natural, that the rudest mind intuitively perceives their meaning, and yet
which no study could improve or imitate. This constitutes the most striking
peculiarity of the Shakspearean language, and while it justifies the almost
idolatrous veneration of his countrymen, renders him, of all writers, the
most untranslatable. Of all authors, Shakspeare has least imitated or
repeated himself. While he gives us, in many places, portraits of the same
passion, the delineations are as distinct and dissimilar as they are in nature;
all his personages involuntarily, and in spite of themselves, express their
own characters. From his works may be gleaned a complete collection of
precepts adapted to every condition of life and every conceivable
circumstance of human affairs. His wit is unbounded, his passion
inimitable, and over all he has thrown a halo of human sympathy no less
tender than his genius was immeasurable and profound.
The effect of Shakspeare's influence on his contemporaries was
predominating in everything but the moral aspect of his plays. The
licentiousness, begun in the earlier years of the seventeenth century,
repose of his early home. In the "Tempest." doubtless his last work, he
peopled his haunted island with a group of beings whose conception
indicates a greater variety of imagination, and in some points a greater
depth of thought than any others which he has bequeathed to us.
The name of Shakspeare is the greatest in all literature. No man ever
came near him in creative power—no man had ever such strength combined
with such variety of imagination. Of all authors, he is the most natural in his
style, and yet there is none whose words are so musical in arrangement, so
striking and picturesque in themselves, or contain so many thoughts. Every
page furnishes instances of that intensifying of expression, where some
happy word conveys a whole train of ideas condensed into a single
luminous point—words so new, so full of meaning, yet so unforced and
natural, that the rudest mind intuitively perceives their meaning, and yet
which no study could improve or imitate. This constitutes the most striking
peculiarity of the Shakspearean language, and while it justifies the almost
idolatrous veneration of his countrymen, renders him, of all writers, the
most untranslatable. Of all authors, Shakspeare has least imitated or
repeated himself. While he gives us, in many places, portraits of the same
passion, the delineations are as distinct and dissimilar as they are in nature;
all his personages involuntarily, and in spite of themselves, express their
own characters. From his works may be gleaned a complete collection of
precepts adapted to every condition of life and every conceivable
circumstance of human affairs. His wit is unbounded, his passion
inimitable, and over all he has thrown a halo of human sympathy no less
tender than his genius was immeasurable and profound.
The effect of Shakspeare's influence on his contemporaries was
predominating in everything but the moral aspect of his plays. The
licentiousness, begun in the earlier years of the seventeenth century,
Page 691
increased with accelerated speed down to the closing of the theatres by the
Civil War.
Highest by far, in poetical and dramatic value, stand the works of
Beaumont (1586-1615) and Fletcher (1576-1625). Many of them are said to
have been written by the two jointly, a few by the former alone, and a large
number by the latter after he had lost his friend; such alliances in dramatic
poetry were common in England at this period. But the looseness of fancy
which deformed the drama, and which degenerated at last into deliberate
licentiousness, is nowhere so glaring as in these finest and most imaginative
productions of their day, and which are poetically superior to all of the kind
in the language, except those of Shakspeare.
The classical model was closely approached by Ben Jonson (1574-1637)
in both tragedy and comedy, and he deserves immortality for other reasons
than his comparative purity of morals. He was the one man of his time
besides Shakspeare who deserves to be called a reflective artist, who
perceived the rules of art and worked in obedience to them. His tragedies
are stately, eloquent, and poetical; his comedies are more faithful poetic
portraits of contemporary English life than those of any other dramatist,
Shakspeare excepted.
Jonson wrote for men of sense and knowledge; Beaumont and Fletcher
for men of fashion and the world. A similar audience to that of Jonson may
have been aimed at in the stately tragedies of Chapman, and the other class
would have relished the plays of Middleton and Webster.
Among the dramatists of the commonalty may be named Thomas
Heywood, one of the most moral play writers of his time, who has
sometimes been called the prose Shakspeare, and Decker, a voluminous
writer, who cooperated in several plays of more celebrated men, especially
those of Massinger.
Civil War.
Highest by far, in poetical and dramatic value, stand the works of
Beaumont (1586-1615) and Fletcher (1576-1625). Many of them are said to
have been written by the two jointly, a few by the former alone, and a large
number by the latter after he had lost his friend; such alliances in dramatic
poetry were common in England at this period. But the looseness of fancy
which deformed the drama, and which degenerated at last into deliberate
licentiousness, is nowhere so glaring as in these finest and most imaginative
productions of their day, and which are poetically superior to all of the kind
in the language, except those of Shakspeare.
The classical model was closely approached by Ben Jonson (1574-1637)
in both tragedy and comedy, and he deserves immortality for other reasons
than his comparative purity of morals. He was the one man of his time
besides Shakspeare who deserves to be called a reflective artist, who
perceived the rules of art and worked in obedience to them. His tragedies
are stately, eloquent, and poetical; his comedies are more faithful poetic
portraits of contemporary English life than those of any other dramatist,
Shakspeare excepted.
Jonson wrote for men of sense and knowledge; Beaumont and Fletcher
for men of fashion and the world. A similar audience to that of Jonson may
have been aimed at in the stately tragedies of Chapman, and the other class
would have relished the plays of Middleton and Webster.
Among the dramatists of the commonalty may be named Thomas
Heywood, one of the most moral play writers of his time, who has
sometimes been called the prose Shakspeare, and Decker, a voluminous
writer, who cooperated in several plays of more celebrated men, especially
those of Massinger.
Page 692
The closing period of the old English drama is represented by Massinger,
Ford, and Shirley. Massinger (1584-1640) is by some critics ranked next to
Shakspeare. The theatres have retained unaltered his "New Way to Pay Old
Debts," and his "Fatal Dowry" is preserved in Rowe's plagiarism from it, in
the "Fair Penitent." But the low moral tone of the time is indicated in all
these works, in which heroic sentiments, rising often even to religious
rapture, are mingled with scenes of the grossest ribaldry.
By Ford, incidents of the most revolting kind are laid down as the
foundation of his plots, upon which he wastes a pathos and tenderness
deeper than is elsewhere found in the drama; and with Shirley vice is no
longer held up as a mere picture, but it is indicated, and sometimes directly
recommended, as a fit example. When the drama was at length suppressed,
the act destroyed a moral nuisance.
Spenser (1553-1599), among the English poets, stands lower only than
Shakspeare, Chaucer, and Milton. His works unite rare genius with moral
purity, exquisite sweetness of language, luxuriant beauty of imagination,
and a tenderness of feeling rarely surpassed, and never elsewhere conjoined
with an imagination so vivid. His magnificent poem, the "Faerie Queene,"
though it contains many thousand lines, is yet incomplete, no more than
half of the original design being executed. The diction is studded purposely
with forms of expression already become antiquated, and many peculiarities
are forced upon the author from the difficulties of the complex measure
which he was the first to adopt, and which still bears his name.
The Fairy Land of Spenser is rather the Land of Chivalry than the region
we are accustomed to understand by that term; a scene in which heroic
daring and ideal purity are the objects chiefly presented to our imagination,
in which the principal personages are knights achieving perilous
adventures, ladies rescued from frightful miseries, and good and evil
Ford, and Shirley. Massinger (1584-1640) is by some critics ranked next to
Shakspeare. The theatres have retained unaltered his "New Way to Pay Old
Debts," and his "Fatal Dowry" is preserved in Rowe's plagiarism from it, in
the "Fair Penitent." But the low moral tone of the time is indicated in all
these works, in which heroic sentiments, rising often even to religious
rapture, are mingled with scenes of the grossest ribaldry.
By Ford, incidents of the most revolting kind are laid down as the
foundation of his plots, upon which he wastes a pathos and tenderness
deeper than is elsewhere found in the drama; and with Shirley vice is no
longer held up as a mere picture, but it is indicated, and sometimes directly
recommended, as a fit example. When the drama was at length suppressed,
the act destroyed a moral nuisance.
Spenser (1553-1599), among the English poets, stands lower only than
Shakspeare, Chaucer, and Milton. His works unite rare genius with moral
purity, exquisite sweetness of language, luxuriant beauty of imagination,
and a tenderness of feeling rarely surpassed, and never elsewhere conjoined
with an imagination so vivid. His magnificent poem, the "Faerie Queene,"
though it contains many thousand lines, is yet incomplete, no more than
half of the original design being executed. The diction is studded purposely
with forms of expression already become antiquated, and many peculiarities
are forced upon the author from the difficulties of the complex measure
which he was the first to adopt, and which still bears his name.
The Fairy Land of Spenser is rather the Land of Chivalry than the region
we are accustomed to understand by that term; a scene in which heroic
daring and ideal purity are the objects chiefly presented to our imagination,
in which the principal personages are knights achieving perilous
adventures, ladies rescued from frightful miseries, and good and evil
Page 693
enchanters, whose spells affect the destiny of those human persons. Spenser
would probably not have written precisely as he did, if Ariosto had not
written before him; nor is it unlikely that he was also guided by the later
example of Tasso; but his design was in many features nobler and more
arduous than that of either. His deep seriousness is unlike the mocking tone
of the "Orlando Furioso," and in his moral enthusiasm he rises higher than
the "Jerusalem;" although the poetic effect of his work is marred by his
design of producing a series of ethical allegories.
The hero is the chivalrous Arthur of the British legends, but wrapt in a
cloud of symbols. Gloriana, the Faërie Queene, who was to be the object of
the prince's warmest love, was herself an emblem of Virtuous Renown, and
designed also to represent the poet's queen, Elizabeth. All the incidents are
significant of moral truth, and all the personages are allegorical. The
adventures of the characters, connected by no tie, except the occasional
interposition of Arthur, form really six independent poetic tales. The First
Book, by far the finest of all, relates the Legend of the Red Cross Knight,
who is a type of Holiness, and who shadows forth the history of the Church
of England. In the second, which abounds in exquisite painting of
picturesque landscapes, we have the Legend of Sir Guyon, illustrating the
virtue of Temperance. The theme of the Third Book is the Legend of
Britomart, or of Chastity, in which we are introduced to Belphoebe and
Amoret, two of those beautiful female characters which the poet takes such
pleasure in delineating. Next comes the Legend of Friendship, personified
in the knights Cambel and Triamond. In the Fifth Book, containing the
Legends of Sir Artegal, the emblem of Justice, there is a perceptible falling
off. The Sixth Book, the Legend of Sir Calidore, or Courtesy, though it
lacks unity, is in some scenes inspired with the warmest glow of fancy.
The mind of Spenser embraced a vast range of imaginary creation, but
the interest of real life is wanting. His world is ideal, abstract, and remote,
would probably not have written precisely as he did, if Ariosto had not
written before him; nor is it unlikely that he was also guided by the later
example of Tasso; but his design was in many features nobler and more
arduous than that of either. His deep seriousness is unlike the mocking tone
of the "Orlando Furioso," and in his moral enthusiasm he rises higher than
the "Jerusalem;" although the poetic effect of his work is marred by his
design of producing a series of ethical allegories.
The hero is the chivalrous Arthur of the British legends, but wrapt in a
cloud of symbols. Gloriana, the Faërie Queene, who was to be the object of
the prince's warmest love, was herself an emblem of Virtuous Renown, and
designed also to represent the poet's queen, Elizabeth. All the incidents are
significant of moral truth, and all the personages are allegorical. The
adventures of the characters, connected by no tie, except the occasional
interposition of Arthur, form really six independent poetic tales. The First
Book, by far the finest of all, relates the Legend of the Red Cross Knight,
who is a type of Holiness, and who shadows forth the history of the Church
of England. In the second, which abounds in exquisite painting of
picturesque landscapes, we have the Legend of Sir Guyon, illustrating the
virtue of Temperance. The theme of the Third Book is the Legend of
Britomart, or of Chastity, in which we are introduced to Belphoebe and
Amoret, two of those beautiful female characters which the poet takes such
pleasure in delineating. Next comes the Legend of Friendship, personified
in the knights Cambel and Triamond. In the Fifth Book, containing the
Legends of Sir Artegal, the emblem of Justice, there is a perceptible falling
off. The Sixth Book, the Legend of Sir Calidore, or Courtesy, though it
lacks unity, is in some scenes inspired with the warmest glow of fancy.
The mind of Spenser embraced a vast range of imaginary creation, but
the interest of real life is wanting. His world is ideal, abstract, and remote,
Page 694
yet affording in its multiplied scenes ample scope for those nobler feelings
and heroic virtues which we love to see even in transient connection with
human nature.
The non-dramatic poets of this time begin with Spenser and end with
Milton, and between these two there were writers of great excellence. The
vice of the age was a laboring after conceits or novel turns of thought,
usually false, and resting upon some equivocation of language or remote
analogy. No poet of the time was free from it; Shakspeare indulged in it
occasionally, others incessantly, holding its manifestations to be their finest
strokes of art.
The poetical works of this age were metrical translations from the
classics—narrative, historical, descriptive, didactic, pastoral, and lyrical
poems. One of the most beautiful religious poems in any language is
"Christ's Victory and Triumph," by Giles Fletcher (d. 1623): it is animated
in narrative, lively in fancy, and touching in feeling. Drayton (d. 1631) was
the author of the "Poly-Olbion," a topographical description of England,
and a signal instance of fine fancy and great command of language, almost
thrown away from its prosaic design. Fulke Greville (Lord Brooke), the
friend of Sir Philip Sidney, exhibits great powers of philosophical thought,
in pointed and energetic diction, in his poem on "Human Learning." Among
the religious poets are "Holy George Herbert" (d. 1632), who, by his life
and writings, presented the belief and offices of the church in their most
amiable aspect, and Quarles (d. 1644), best known by his "Divine
Emblems," which abound in quaint and grotesque illustrations.
The lyrical poems of the time were numerous, and were written by
almost all the poets eminent in other departments. In those of Donne, in
spite of their conceits and affectations, are many passages wonderfully fine.
Those of Herrick (b. 1591), in graceful fancy and delicate expression, are
and heroic virtues which we love to see even in transient connection with
human nature.
The non-dramatic poets of this time begin with Spenser and end with
Milton, and between these two there were writers of great excellence. The
vice of the age was a laboring after conceits or novel turns of thought,
usually false, and resting upon some equivocation of language or remote
analogy. No poet of the time was free from it; Shakspeare indulged in it
occasionally, others incessantly, holding its manifestations to be their finest
strokes of art.
The poetical works of this age were metrical translations from the
classics—narrative, historical, descriptive, didactic, pastoral, and lyrical
poems. One of the most beautiful religious poems in any language is
"Christ's Victory and Triumph," by Giles Fletcher (d. 1623): it is animated
in narrative, lively in fancy, and touching in feeling. Drayton (d. 1631) was
the author of the "Poly-Olbion," a topographical description of England,
and a signal instance of fine fancy and great command of language, almost
thrown away from its prosaic design. Fulke Greville (Lord Brooke), the
friend of Sir Philip Sidney, exhibits great powers of philosophical thought,
in pointed and energetic diction, in his poem on "Human Learning." Among
the religious poets are "Holy George Herbert" (d. 1632), who, by his life
and writings, presented the belief and offices of the church in their most
amiable aspect, and Quarles (d. 1644), best known by his "Divine
Emblems," which abound in quaint and grotesque illustrations.
The lyrical poems of the time were numerous, and were written by
almost all the poets eminent in other departments. In those of Donne, in
spite of their conceits and affectations, are many passages wonderfully fine.
Those of Herrick (b. 1591), in graceful fancy and delicate expression, are
Page 695
many of them unsurpassed; in subject and tone they vary from grossly
licentious expression to the utmost warmth of devout aspiration. Cowley
(1618-1667), the latest and most celebrated of the lyric poets, was gifted
with extraordinary poetic sensibility and fancy, but he was prone to strained
analogies and unreal refinements. Among the minor lyrical poets are Carew,
Ayton, Habington, Suckling, and Lovelace. Denham (1615-1668) and
Waller (1605-1687) form a sort of link between the time before the
Restoration and that which followed. The "Cooper's Hill" of the first is a
reflective and descriptive poem in heroic verse, and the diversified poems
of the last were remarkable advances in ease and correctness of diction and
versification.
The poetry of that imaginative period which began with Spenser closes
yet more nobly with Milton (1608-1674). He, standing in some respects
apart from his stern contemporaries of the Commonwealth as from those
who debased literature in the age of the Restoration, yet belongs rather to
the older than the newer period. In the midst of evil men and the gloom of
evil days the brooding thought of a great poetical work was at length
matured, and the Christian epic, chanted at first when there were few
disposed to hear, became an enduring monument of genius, learning, and
art. His early poems alone would indicate his superiority to all the poets of
the period, except Shakspeare and Spenser. The most popular of them,
"L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," are the best of their kind in any language. In
the "Comus" there are passages exquisite for imagination, for sentiment,
and for the musical flow of the rhythm, in which the majestic swell of the
poet's later blank verse begins to be heard. The "Paradise Regained"
abounds with passages in themselves beautiful, but the plan is poorly
conceived, and the didactic tendency prevails to weariness as the work
proceeds. The theme of the "Paradise Lost" is the noblest of any ever
chosen. The stately march of its diction; the organ peal with which its
versification rolls on; the continual overflowing of beautiful illustrations;
licentious expression to the utmost warmth of devout aspiration. Cowley
(1618-1667), the latest and most celebrated of the lyric poets, was gifted
with extraordinary poetic sensibility and fancy, but he was prone to strained
analogies and unreal refinements. Among the minor lyrical poets are Carew,
Ayton, Habington, Suckling, and Lovelace. Denham (1615-1668) and
Waller (1605-1687) form a sort of link between the time before the
Restoration and that which followed. The "Cooper's Hill" of the first is a
reflective and descriptive poem in heroic verse, and the diversified poems
of the last were remarkable advances in ease and correctness of diction and
versification.
The poetry of that imaginative period which began with Spenser closes
yet more nobly with Milton (1608-1674). He, standing in some respects
apart from his stern contemporaries of the Commonwealth as from those
who debased literature in the age of the Restoration, yet belongs rather to
the older than the newer period. In the midst of evil men and the gloom of
evil days the brooding thought of a great poetical work was at length
matured, and the Christian epic, chanted at first when there were few
disposed to hear, became an enduring monument of genius, learning, and
art. His early poems alone would indicate his superiority to all the poets of
the period, except Shakspeare and Spenser. The most popular of them,
"L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," are the best of their kind in any language. In
the "Comus" there are passages exquisite for imagination, for sentiment,
and for the musical flow of the rhythm, in which the majestic swell of the
poet's later blank verse begins to be heard. The "Paradise Regained"
abounds with passages in themselves beautiful, but the plan is poorly
conceived, and the didactic tendency prevails to weariness as the work
proceeds. The theme of the "Paradise Lost" is the noblest of any ever
chosen. The stately march of its diction; the organ peal with which its
versification rolls on; the continual overflowing of beautiful illustrations;
Page 696
the brightly-colored pictures of human happiness and innocence; the
melancholy grandeur with which angelic natures are clothed in their fall,
are features which give the mind images and feelings not soon or easily
effaced.
3. THE AGE OF THE RESTORATION AND THE REVOLUTION
(1660-1702).—Among the able churchmen who passed from the troubles of
the Commonwealth and Protectorate to the Restoration were Jeremy Taylor,
Archbishop Leighton, and others of eminence. South, Tillotson, and Barrow
were more able theologians, but their writings lack the charm of sentiment
which Leighton's warmth of heart diffuses over all his works. South (d.
1716) was a man of remarkable oratorical endowments, sarcastic,
intolerant, and fierce in polemical attacks. The writings of Tillotson (d.
1694) are pervaded by a higher and better spirit, and the sermons of Barrow
(d. 1677) combine comprehensiveness, sagacity, and clearness. Other
divines, such as Stillingfleet, Pearson, Burnet, Bull, hold a more prominent
place in the history of the church than in that of letters. But all the writers of
this age are wanting in that impressiveness and force of undisciplined
eloquence which distinguished the first half of the seventeenth century.
Among the nonconformist clergy, Howe (d. 1715) wrote the "Living
Temple," which is ranked among the religious classics.
The great though untrained genius of John Bunyan (1628-1688) produced
the
"Pilgrim's Progress," which holds a distinguished place in permanent
English literature.
John Locke (1632-1704) may be taken as the representative of the
English Philosophy of the time, and his influence on the speculative
opinions of his day was second only to that of Hobbes. His "Essay on the
Understanding" contains the germ of utter skepticism and was the ground
melancholy grandeur with which angelic natures are clothed in their fall,
are features which give the mind images and feelings not soon or easily
effaced.
3. THE AGE OF THE RESTORATION AND THE REVOLUTION
(1660-1702).—Among the able churchmen who passed from the troubles of
the Commonwealth and Protectorate to the Restoration were Jeremy Taylor,
Archbishop Leighton, and others of eminence. South, Tillotson, and Barrow
were more able theologians, but their writings lack the charm of sentiment
which Leighton's warmth of heart diffuses over all his works. South (d.
1716) was a man of remarkable oratorical endowments, sarcastic,
intolerant, and fierce in polemical attacks. The writings of Tillotson (d.
1694) are pervaded by a higher and better spirit, and the sermons of Barrow
(d. 1677) combine comprehensiveness, sagacity, and clearness. Other
divines, such as Stillingfleet, Pearson, Burnet, Bull, hold a more prominent
place in the history of the church than in that of letters. But all the writers of
this age are wanting in that impressiveness and force of undisciplined
eloquence which distinguished the first half of the seventeenth century.
Among the nonconformist clergy, Howe (d. 1715) wrote the "Living
Temple," which is ranked among the religious classics.
The great though untrained genius of John Bunyan (1628-1688) produced
the
"Pilgrim's Progress," which holds a distinguished place in permanent
English literature.
John Locke (1632-1704) may be taken as the representative of the
English Philosophy of the time, and his influence on the speculative
opinions of his day was second only to that of Hobbes. His "Essay on the
Understanding" contains the germ of utter skepticism and was the ground
Page 697
on which Berkeley denied the existence of the material world, and Hume
involved all human knowledge in doubt.
In classical learning the greatest of the scholars of this period was
Bentley (1662-1742).
In history Lord Clarendon (1608-1774) wrote the "History of the
Rebellion," and Burnet (1643-1715) his "History of the Reformation," one
of the most thoroughly digested works of the century. His "History of his
own Times" is valuable for its facts, and for the shrewdness with which he
describes the state of things around him.
In miscellaneous prose, John Evelyn wrote several useful and tasteful
works, and Izaak Walton (1593-1688), a London tradesman, wrote his
interesting Biographies and the quaint treatise "On Angling." Both in
diction and sentiment these works remind us of the preceding age; and
Walton, surviving Milton, closes the series of old English prose writers.
Samuel Butler (1612-1680), the unfortunate, ill-requited laureate of the
Royalists, who satirized the Puritans and Republicans in his celebrated
"Hudibras," left some exceedingly witty and vigorous prose writings; and
Andrew Marvell (1620-1678), the friend and protector of Milton, was most
successful in sarcastic irony, and in his attacks on the High Church opinions
and doings.
John Dryden (1631-1700) was the literary chief of the interval between
Cromwell and Queen Anne. His prose writings, besides comedies, are few,
but in these he taught principles of poetical art previously unknown to his
countrymen, and showed the capabilities of the tongue in a new light.
Inferior to Dryden in vigor of thought was Sir William Temple (1628-1698),
who may yet share with him the merit of having founded regular English
prose. His literary character rests chiefly on his "Miscellaneous Essays."
involved all human knowledge in doubt.
In classical learning the greatest of the scholars of this period was
Bentley (1662-1742).
In history Lord Clarendon (1608-1774) wrote the "History of the
Rebellion," and Burnet (1643-1715) his "History of the Reformation," one
of the most thoroughly digested works of the century. His "History of his
own Times" is valuable for its facts, and for the shrewdness with which he
describes the state of things around him.
In miscellaneous prose, John Evelyn wrote several useful and tasteful
works, and Izaak Walton (1593-1688), a London tradesman, wrote his
interesting Biographies and the quaint treatise "On Angling." Both in
diction and sentiment these works remind us of the preceding age; and
Walton, surviving Milton, closes the series of old English prose writers.
Samuel Butler (1612-1680), the unfortunate, ill-requited laureate of the
Royalists, who satirized the Puritans and Republicans in his celebrated
"Hudibras," left some exceedingly witty and vigorous prose writings; and
Andrew Marvell (1620-1678), the friend and protector of Milton, was most
successful in sarcastic irony, and in his attacks on the High Church opinions
and doings.
John Dryden (1631-1700) was the literary chief of the interval between
Cromwell and Queen Anne. His prose writings, besides comedies, are few,
but in these he taught principles of poetical art previously unknown to his
countrymen, and showed the capabilities of the tongue in a new light.
Inferior to Dryden in vigor of thought was Sir William Temple (1628-1698),
who may yet share with him the merit of having founded regular English
prose. His literary character rests chiefly on his "Miscellaneous Essays."
Page 698
The symmetrical structure and artificial polish of contemporaneous
French literature, while it was not without some good influence on English
prose, was less beneficial to poetry, and its worst effect was on the drama,
which soon ceased to be pictures of human beings in action and became
only descriptive of such pictures. In this walk as in others Dryden was the
literary chief, and of his plays it can truly be said that the serious ones
contain many striking and poetical pieces of declamation, finely versified.
His comedies are bad morally, and as dramas even worse than those of his
rival Shadwell. Lee was only a poor likeness of Dryden.
In the "Orphan" and "Venice Preserved" of Otway we have southing of
the revival of the ancient strength of feeling though alloyed by false
sentiment and poetic poverty.
Congreve showed great power of language in tragedy, and Southerne not
a little nature and pathos.
In comedy the fame of these writers was eclipsed by a knot of dramatists
who adopted prose, but whose works are the foulest that ever disgraced the
literature of a nation. They are excellent specimens of that which has been
called the comedy of manners; vice is inextricably interwoven in the texture
of all alike, in the broad humor of Wycherly (the most vigorous of the set),
in the wit of Congreve, in the character painting of Vanbrugh, and the lively
invention of Farquhar.
In other kinds of poetry we find similar changes of taste which affected
the art injuriously, although the increased attention paid to correctness and
refinement was a step in improvement. These mischievous changes related
both to the themes and forms of poetry, and in neither can the true functions
of art be forgotten without injury to the work. An age must be held
unpoetical, and cannot produce great poetical works, if its poetry chooses
insufficient topics; and the aims of the age of the Restoration were low,
French literature, while it was not without some good influence on English
prose, was less beneficial to poetry, and its worst effect was on the drama,
which soon ceased to be pictures of human beings in action and became
only descriptive of such pictures. In this walk as in others Dryden was the
literary chief, and of his plays it can truly be said that the serious ones
contain many striking and poetical pieces of declamation, finely versified.
His comedies are bad morally, and as dramas even worse than those of his
rival Shadwell. Lee was only a poor likeness of Dryden.
In the "Orphan" and "Venice Preserved" of Otway we have southing of
the revival of the ancient strength of feeling though alloyed by false
sentiment and poetic poverty.
Congreve showed great power of language in tragedy, and Southerne not
a little nature and pathos.
In comedy the fame of these writers was eclipsed by a knot of dramatists
who adopted prose, but whose works are the foulest that ever disgraced the
literature of a nation. They are excellent specimens of that which has been
called the comedy of manners; vice is inextricably interwoven in the texture
of all alike, in the broad humor of Wycherly (the most vigorous of the set),
in the wit of Congreve, in the character painting of Vanbrugh, and the lively
invention of Farquhar.
In other kinds of poetry we find similar changes of taste which affected
the art injuriously, although the increased attention paid to correctness and
refinement was a step in improvement. These mischievous changes related
both to the themes and forms of poetry, and in neither can the true functions
of art be forgotten without injury to the work. An age must be held
unpoetical, and cannot produce great poetical works, if its poetry chooses
insufficient topics; and the aims of the age of the Restoration were low,
Page 699
producing only a constant crop of poems celebrating contemporary events
or incidents in the lives of individuals. The dramatic and narrative forms of
poetry are undoubtedly those in which that imaginative excitement of
pleasing emotion, which is the immediate and characteristic end of the art,
may be most powerfully worked out, and to one of these forms all the
greatest poems have belonged. But in the age of the Restoration the drama
had lost its elevation and poetic significance, and original narrative poetry
was hardly known. Almost all the poems of the day were didactic, and the
prevalence of this style of poetry is a palpable symptom of an unpoetical
age. The verse-making of these forty years, after setting aside a very few
works, maintains a dead level. Among the dwarfish rhymers of the day
there lingered some of the august shapes of a former age. Milton still
walked his solitary course, and Waller wrote his occasional odes and verses,
but of names not already given there are no more than two or three that
require commemoration. One of the famous poems of the day was an
"Essay on Translated Verse," by Lord Roscommon; and the smaller poems
of Marvell are felicitous in feeling and diction; both writers are
distinguished for their moral purity.
The "Hudibras" of Butler, which properly belongs to the age before, is a
phenomenon in the history of English literature. His pungent wit, his
extraordinary ingenuity, and his command of words are rare endowments,
but he has no poetic vein that yields jewels of the first water, and his place
is not a high one in the path which leads upward to the ethereal regions of
the imagination.
Pryor (1661-1721) in his lighter pieces shows wit of a less manly kind.
His serious poems have great facility of phrase and melody.
Dryden was a man of high endowments as a poet and thinker, condemned
to labor for a corrupt generation, and he has received from posterity no
or incidents in the lives of individuals. The dramatic and narrative forms of
poetry are undoubtedly those in which that imaginative excitement of
pleasing emotion, which is the immediate and characteristic end of the art,
may be most powerfully worked out, and to one of these forms all the
greatest poems have belonged. But in the age of the Restoration the drama
had lost its elevation and poetic significance, and original narrative poetry
was hardly known. Almost all the poems of the day were didactic, and the
prevalence of this style of poetry is a palpable symptom of an unpoetical
age. The verse-making of these forty years, after setting aside a very few
works, maintains a dead level. Among the dwarfish rhymers of the day
there lingered some of the august shapes of a former age. Milton still
walked his solitary course, and Waller wrote his occasional odes and verses,
but of names not already given there are no more than two or three that
require commemoration. One of the famous poems of the day was an
"Essay on Translated Verse," by Lord Roscommon; and the smaller poems
of Marvell are felicitous in feeling and diction; both writers are
distinguished for their moral purity.
The "Hudibras" of Butler, which properly belongs to the age before, is a
phenomenon in the history of English literature. His pungent wit, his
extraordinary ingenuity, and his command of words are rare endowments,
but he has no poetic vein that yields jewels of the first water, and his place
is not a high one in the path which leads upward to the ethereal regions of
the imagination.
Pryor (1661-1721) in his lighter pieces shows wit of a less manly kind.
His serious poems have great facility of phrase and melody.
Dryden was a man of high endowments as a poet and thinker, condemned
to labor for a corrupt generation, and he has received from posterity no
Page 700
higher fame than that of having improved English prose style and
versification. His poems are rather essays couched in vigorous verse, with
here and there passages of great poetical beauty. His "Annus Mirabilis,"
celebrating with great animation the year 1666, is an effusion of historical
panegyric. The "Absalom and Achitophel" is a satire on the unfortunate
Duke of Monmouth and his adviser Shaftesbury. "The Hind and Panther,"
full of poetical and satirical force, was an argument to justify the author's
recent change of religion. One of the most thoroughly sustained poems is
the "Ode on Alexander's Feast." His translation of the Aeneid, as imperfect
a picture of the original as Pope's translation of the Iliad, is yet full of vigor
and one of his best specimens of the heroic couplet, a measure never so well
written in English as by Dryden.
4. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.—The influence of the eighteenth
century on prose style has been great and permanent, and the two dissimilar
manners of writing which were then formed, have contributed to all that is
distinctive in our modern form of expression. The earlier of these is found
in the language of Addison and Swift, the later in that of Johnson. The style
of Addison and his friends reproduced those genuine idiomatic peculiarities
of our speech which had been received into the conversation of intelligent
men. The style of which Johnson was the characteristic example abandons
in part the native and familiar characteristics of the Saxon for those
expressions and forms common to the modern European tongues. Large use
was made of words derived from the Latin, which, in addition to the effect
of novelty, gave greater impressiveness and pomp to the style.
In the First Generation, named from Queen Anne, but including also the
reign of George I. (d. 1727), the drama scarcely deserves more than a
parenthesis. Although the moral tone had improved, it was still not high,
when Gray's "Beggar's Opera" and Cibber's "Careless Husband" were the
most famous works. The "Fair Penitent" has been noticed as a clever
versification. His poems are rather essays couched in vigorous verse, with
here and there passages of great poetical beauty. His "Annus Mirabilis,"
celebrating with great animation the year 1666, is an effusion of historical
panegyric. The "Absalom and Achitophel" is a satire on the unfortunate
Duke of Monmouth and his adviser Shaftesbury. "The Hind and Panther,"
full of poetical and satirical force, was an argument to justify the author's
recent change of religion. One of the most thoroughly sustained poems is
the "Ode on Alexander's Feast." His translation of the Aeneid, as imperfect
a picture of the original as Pope's translation of the Iliad, is yet full of vigor
and one of his best specimens of the heroic couplet, a measure never so well
written in English as by Dryden.
4. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.—The influence of the eighteenth
century on prose style has been great and permanent, and the two dissimilar
manners of writing which were then formed, have contributed to all that is
distinctive in our modern form of expression. The earlier of these is found
in the language of Addison and Swift, the later in that of Johnson. The style
of Addison and his friends reproduced those genuine idiomatic peculiarities
of our speech which had been received into the conversation of intelligent
men. The style of which Johnson was the characteristic example abandons
in part the native and familiar characteristics of the Saxon for those
expressions and forms common to the modern European tongues. Large use
was made of words derived from the Latin, which, in addition to the effect
of novelty, gave greater impressiveness and pomp to the style.
In the First Generation, named from Queen Anne, but including also the
reign of George I. (d. 1727), the drama scarcely deserves more than a
parenthesis. Although the moral tone had improved, it was still not high,
when Gray's "Beggar's Opera" and Cibber's "Careless Husband" were the
most famous works. The "Fair Penitent" has been noticed as a clever
Page 701
plagiarism from Massinger; in Addison's "Cato" the strict rules of the
French stage were preserved, but its stately and impressive speeches cannot
be called dramatic. The "Revenge" of Young had more of tragic passion; but
it wanted the force of characterization which seemed to have been buried
with the old dramatists.
The heroic measure, as it was now used, aimed at smoothness of melody
and pointedness of expression, and in this the great master was Pope.
In the poems of Pope (1688-1744), we find passages beautifully poetical,
exquisite thoughts, vigorous portraits of character, shrewd observation, and
reflective good sense, but we are wafted into no bright world of
imagination, rapt in no dream of strong passion, and seldom raised into any
high region of moral thought. Like all the poets of his day, he set a higher
value on skill of execution than on originality of conception, and
systematically abstained from all attempts to excite imagination or feeling.
The taste of the poet and of his times is most clearly shown in his "Essay on
Criticism," published before his twenty-first year. None of his works unites
more happily, regularity of plan, shrewdness of thought, and beauty of
verse. His most successful effort, the "Rape of the Lock," assumed its
complete shape in his twenty-sixth year, and is the best of all mock-heroic
poems. The sharpest wit, the keenest dissection of the follies of fashionable
life, the finest grace of diction, and the softest flow of melody, come
appropriately to adorn a tale in which we learn how a fine gentleman stole a
lock of a lady's hair. In the "Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard," and in the "Elegy
on an Unfortunate Lady," he attempted the pathetic not altogether in vain.
The last work of his best years was his "Translation of the Iliad;" of the
Odyssey he translated only half. Both misrepresent the natural and simple
majesty of manner which the ancient poet never lost; yet if we could forget
Homer, we might be proud of them. In the "Dunciad" he threw away an
infinity of wit upon writers who would not otherwise have been
French stage were preserved, but its stately and impressive speeches cannot
be called dramatic. The "Revenge" of Young had more of tragic passion; but
it wanted the force of characterization which seemed to have been buried
with the old dramatists.
The heroic measure, as it was now used, aimed at smoothness of melody
and pointedness of expression, and in this the great master was Pope.
In the poems of Pope (1688-1744), we find passages beautifully poetical,
exquisite thoughts, vigorous portraits of character, shrewd observation, and
reflective good sense, but we are wafted into no bright world of
imagination, rapt in no dream of strong passion, and seldom raised into any
high region of moral thought. Like all the poets of his day, he set a higher
value on skill of execution than on originality of conception, and
systematically abstained from all attempts to excite imagination or feeling.
The taste of the poet and of his times is most clearly shown in his "Essay on
Criticism," published before his twenty-first year. None of his works unites
more happily, regularity of plan, shrewdness of thought, and beauty of
verse. His most successful effort, the "Rape of the Lock," assumed its
complete shape in his twenty-sixth year, and is the best of all mock-heroic
poems. The sharpest wit, the keenest dissection of the follies of fashionable
life, the finest grace of diction, and the softest flow of melody, come
appropriately to adorn a tale in which we learn how a fine gentleman stole a
lock of a lady's hair. In the "Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard," and in the "Elegy
on an Unfortunate Lady," he attempted the pathetic not altogether in vain.
The last work of his best years was his "Translation of the Iliad;" of the
Odyssey he translated only half. Both misrepresent the natural and simple
majesty of manner which the ancient poet never lost; yet if we could forget
Homer, we might be proud of them. In the "Dunciad" he threw away an
infinity of wit upon writers who would not otherwise have been
Page 702
remembered. His "Essay on Man" contains much exquisite poetry and
finely solemn thought; it abounds in striking passages which, by their
felicities of fancy, good sense, music, and extraordinary terseness of
diction, have gained a place in the memory of every one.
finely solemn thought; it abounds in striking passages which, by their
felicities of fancy, good sense, music, and extraordinary terseness of
diction, have gained a place in the memory of every one.
Page 703
Among the philosophical writers none holds so prominent a place as
Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753), whose refinement of style and subtlety of
thought have seldom been equaled. His philosophical Idealism exercised
much influence on the course of metaphysical inquiry.
Lord Shaftesbury's brilliant but indistinct treatises have also been the
germ of many discussions in ethics.
Bolingbroke wrote with great liveliness, but with equal shallowness of
thought and knowledge.
Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) is not likely to be forgotten on account of one
of his many novels, "Robinson Crusoe." His idiomatic English style is not
one of the least of his merits.
Among the prose writings of Swift (1667-1745) there is none that is not a
masterpiece of strong Saxon-English, and none quite destitute of his keen
wit or cutting sarcasm. His satirical romances are most pungent when
human nature is his victim, as in "Gulliver's Travels;" and not less amusing
in "The Battle of the Books," or where he treats of church disputes in the
"Tale of a Tub." The burlesque memoir of "Martinus Scriblerus" was the
joint production of Swift, Pope, and Arbuthnot.
It contains more good criticism than any of the serious writings of the
generation, and it abounds in the most biting strokes of wit. Arbuthnot is
supposed to have been the sole author of the whimsical, national satire
called the "History of John Bull," the best work of the class produced in that
day. The "Letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu" belong to this age.
Of all the popular writers, however, that adorned the reign of Queen
Anne and her successor, those whose influence has been the greatest and
Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753), whose refinement of style and subtlety of
thought have seldom been equaled. His philosophical Idealism exercised
much influence on the course of metaphysical inquiry.
Lord Shaftesbury's brilliant but indistinct treatises have also been the
germ of many discussions in ethics.
Bolingbroke wrote with great liveliness, but with equal shallowness of
thought and knowledge.
Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) is not likely to be forgotten on account of one
of his many novels, "Robinson Crusoe." His idiomatic English style is not
one of the least of his merits.
Among the prose writings of Swift (1667-1745) there is none that is not a
masterpiece of strong Saxon-English, and none quite destitute of his keen
wit or cutting sarcasm. His satirical romances are most pungent when
human nature is his victim, as in "Gulliver's Travels;" and not less amusing
in "The Battle of the Books," or where he treats of church disputes in the
"Tale of a Tub." The burlesque memoir of "Martinus Scriblerus" was the
joint production of Swift, Pope, and Arbuthnot.
It contains more good criticism than any of the serious writings of the
generation, and it abounds in the most biting strokes of wit. Arbuthnot is
supposed to have been the sole author of the whimsical, national satire
called the "History of John Bull," the best work of the class produced in that
day. The "Letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu" belong to this age.
Of all the popular writers, however, that adorned the reign of Queen
Anne and her successor, those whose influence has been the greatest and
Page 704
most salutary are the Essayists, among whom Joseph Addison and Richard
Steele are preeminently distinguished.
"The Tatler," begun in Ireland by Steele, aided first by Swift, and
afterwards by Addison, appeared three times a week from 1709 to 1711;
"The Spectator," in which Addison took the lead, from 1711 to 1712; and
"The Guardian," a part of the next year. Steele (1676-1729) had his merits
somewhat unfairly clouded by the fame of his coadjutor. The extraordinary
popularity of those periodicals, especially "The Spectator," was creditable
to the reading persons of the community, then much fewer than now. The
writers discarded from their papers all party-spirit, and designed to make
them the vehicle of judicious teaching in morals, manners, and literary
criticism. Thus they widened the circle of readers, and raised the standard of
taste and thinking.
Of some of the more serious papers of the "Spectator," those of Addison
(1672-1719) on the "Immortality of the Soul" and the "Pleasures of the
Imagination" may be cited.
Among the theological writers of the Second Generation of the
eighteenth century (the reign of George II., 1726-1760), one of the most
famous in his day, though not the most meritorious, was Bishop Warburton;
Bishop Butler (d. 1752), wrote his "Analogy of Religion, Natural and
Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature," a work of
extraordinary force of thought; and there is much literary merit in the
writings of the pious Watts and the devout Doddridge. The increasing zeal
both in the Church of England and among the Dissenters, and the more
cordial recognition of the importance of religion, greatly affected the
literature of the times.
Philosophy had also its distinguished votaries. The philosophical works
of Hume (1711-1776) are allowed by those who dissent most strenuously
Steele are preeminently distinguished.
"The Tatler," begun in Ireland by Steele, aided first by Swift, and
afterwards by Addison, appeared three times a week from 1709 to 1711;
"The Spectator," in which Addison took the lead, from 1711 to 1712; and
"The Guardian," a part of the next year. Steele (1676-1729) had his merits
somewhat unfairly clouded by the fame of his coadjutor. The extraordinary
popularity of those periodicals, especially "The Spectator," was creditable
to the reading persons of the community, then much fewer than now. The
writers discarded from their papers all party-spirit, and designed to make
them the vehicle of judicious teaching in morals, manners, and literary
criticism. Thus they widened the circle of readers, and raised the standard of
taste and thinking.
Of some of the more serious papers of the "Spectator," those of Addison
(1672-1719) on the "Immortality of the Soul" and the "Pleasures of the
Imagination" may be cited.
Among the theological writers of the Second Generation of the
eighteenth century (the reign of George II., 1726-1760), one of the most
famous in his day, though not the most meritorious, was Bishop Warburton;
Bishop Butler (d. 1752), wrote his "Analogy of Religion, Natural and
Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature," a work of
extraordinary force of thought; and there is much literary merit in the
writings of the pious Watts and the devout Doddridge. The increasing zeal
both in the Church of England and among the Dissenters, and the more
cordial recognition of the importance of religion, greatly affected the
literature of the times.
Philosophy had also its distinguished votaries. The philosophical works
of Hume (1711-1776) are allowed by those who dissent most strenuously
Page 705
from their results to have constituted an epoch in the history of the science.
In accepting the principles which had been received before him, and
showing that they led to no conclusion but universal doubt, he laid bare the
flaws in the system, and prepared the way for the subtle speculations of
Kant and the more cautious systems of Reid and the Scottish school.
The miscellaneous literature of this, the age of Johnson, cannot stand
comparison with that of the preceding, which was headed by Addison.
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), one of the most celebrated of the
professional authors of the eighteenth century, however, belongs to this
period. Compelled by poverty to leave his education uncompleted, he
sought the means of living in London, where, for a long time, unpatronized
and obscure, he labored with dogged perseverance, until at length he won a
fame which must have satisfied the most grasping ambition, but when, as he
says, "most of those whom he had wished to please had sunk into the grave,
and he had little to fear from censure or praise." That the reputation of his
writings was above their deserts, cannot be denied, though it must also be
admitted that the literature of our time is deficient in many of their
excellences, both of thought and expression. They are the fruit of a strong
and original mind, working with imperfect knowledge and an inadequate
scope for activity. The language of Johnson is superior to his matter; he has
striking force of diction, and many of his sentences roll on the ear like the
sound of the distant sea, while the thoughts they convey impress us so
vividly that we are slow to scrutinize them. His great merit lies in the two
departments of morals and criticism, but everywhere he is inconsistent and
unequal. His Dictionary occupied him for eight years, but it is of little value
now to the student of language, being poor and incorrect in etymology and
unsatisfactory though acute in definition. His poems, which are of Pope's
school, would scarcely have preserved his name. The "Rambler," and
"Rasselas," are characteristic of his merits and defects. The "Tour to the
In accepting the principles which had been received before him, and
showing that they led to no conclusion but universal doubt, he laid bare the
flaws in the system, and prepared the way for the subtle speculations of
Kant and the more cautious systems of Reid and the Scottish school.
The miscellaneous literature of this, the age of Johnson, cannot stand
comparison with that of the preceding, which was headed by Addison.
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), one of the most celebrated of the
professional authors of the eighteenth century, however, belongs to this
period. Compelled by poverty to leave his education uncompleted, he
sought the means of living in London, where, for a long time, unpatronized
and obscure, he labored with dogged perseverance, until at length he won a
fame which must have satisfied the most grasping ambition, but when, as he
says, "most of those whom he had wished to please had sunk into the grave,
and he had little to fear from censure or praise." That the reputation of his
writings was above their deserts, cannot be denied, though it must also be
admitted that the literature of our time is deficient in many of their
excellences, both of thought and expression. They are the fruit of a strong
and original mind, working with imperfect knowledge and an inadequate
scope for activity. The language of Johnson is superior to his matter; he has
striking force of diction, and many of his sentences roll on the ear like the
sound of the distant sea, while the thoughts they convey impress us so
vividly that we are slow to scrutinize them. His great merit lies in the two
departments of morals and criticism, but everywhere he is inconsistent and
unequal. His Dictionary occupied him for eight years, but it is of little value
now to the student of language, being poor and incorrect in etymology and
unsatisfactory though acute in definition. His poems, which are of Pope's
school, would scarcely have preserved his name. The "Rambler," and
"Rasselas," are characteristic of his merits and defects. The "Tour to the
Page 706
Hebrides" is one of the most pleasant and easy of his writings. His "Lives of
the Poets" is admirable for its skill of narration, but it is alternately
enlightened and unsound in criticism, and frequently marred by political
prejudices and personal jealousies.
Of the novels of the time, the series begun by Richardson's (1689-1761)
"Pamela," "Clarissa Harlowe," and "Sir Charles Grandison" have a virtuous
aim, but they err by the plainness with which they describe vice. The
tediousness and overwrought sentimentality of these works go far towards
disqualifying the reader from appreciating their extraordinary skill in
invention and in the portraiture of character.
Fielding (1707-1757) unites these qualities with greater knowledge of the
world, pungent wit, and idiomatic strength of style. His mastery in the art of
fictitious narrative has never been excelled; but his living pictures of
familiar life, as well as the whimsical caricatures of Smollett and the
humorous fantasies of Sterne, are disfigured by faults of which the very
smallest are coarseness of language and bareness of licentious description,
in which they outdid Richardson. Not only is their standard of morality low,
but they display indifference to the essential distinctions of right and wrong,
in regard to some of the cardinal relations of society.
The drama of the period has little literary importance. In non-dramatic
poetry, several men of distinguished genius appeared, and changes occurred
which indicated more just and comprehensive views of the art than those
that had been prevalent in the last generation.
Young (1681-1765), in his "Night Thoughts," produced a work eloquent
rather than poetical, dissertative when true poetry would have been
imaginative, but suggesting much of imagery and feeling as well as
religious reflection.
the Poets" is admirable for its skill of narration, but it is alternately
enlightened and unsound in criticism, and frequently marred by political
prejudices and personal jealousies.
Of the novels of the time, the series begun by Richardson's (1689-1761)
"Pamela," "Clarissa Harlowe," and "Sir Charles Grandison" have a virtuous
aim, but they err by the plainness with which they describe vice. The
tediousness and overwrought sentimentality of these works go far towards
disqualifying the reader from appreciating their extraordinary skill in
invention and in the portraiture of character.
Fielding (1707-1757) unites these qualities with greater knowledge of the
world, pungent wit, and idiomatic strength of style. His mastery in the art of
fictitious narrative has never been excelled; but his living pictures of
familiar life, as well as the whimsical caricatures of Smollett and the
humorous fantasies of Sterne, are disfigured by faults of which the very
smallest are coarseness of language and bareness of licentious description,
in which they outdid Richardson. Not only is their standard of morality low,
but they display indifference to the essential distinctions of right and wrong,
in regard to some of the cardinal relations of society.
The drama of the period has little literary importance. In non-dramatic
poetry, several men of distinguished genius appeared, and changes occurred
which indicated more just and comprehensive views of the art than those
that had been prevalent in the last generation.
Young (1681-1765), in his "Night Thoughts," produced a work eloquent
rather than poetical, dissertative when true poetry would have been
imaginative, but suggesting much of imagery and feeling as well as
religious reflection.
Page 707
Resembling it in some points, but with more force of imagination, is the
train of gloomy scenes which appears in Blair's "Grave." In Akenside's
"Pleasures of Imagination," a vivid fancy and an alluring pomp of language
are lavished on a series of pictures illustrating the feelings of beauty and
sublimity; but, theorizing and poetizing by turns, the poet loses his hold of
the reader.
The more direct and effective forms of poetry now came again into favor,
such as the Scottish pastoral drama of Ramsay, and Falconer's "Shipwreck."
But the most decisive instance of the growing insight into the true functions
of poetry is furnished by Thomson's (1700-1748) "Seasons." No poet has
ever been more inspired by the love of external nature, or felt with more
keenness and delicacy those analogies between the mind and the things it
looks upon, which are the fountains of poetic feeling. The faults of
Thomson are triteness of thought when he becomes argumentative and a
prevalent pomposity and pedantry of diction; though his later work, "The
Castle of Indolence," is surprisingly free from these blemishes.
But the age was an unpoetical one, and two of the finest poetical minds
of the nation were so dwarfed and weakened by the ungenial atmosphere as
to bequeath to posterity nothing more than a few lyrical fragments. In the
age which admired the smooth feebleness of Shenstone's pastorals and
elegies, and which closed when the libels of Churchill were held to be good
examples of poetical satire, Gray turned aside from the unrequited labors of
verse to idle in his study, and Collins lived and died almost unknown. Gray
(1716-1771) was as consummate a poetical artist as Pope. His fancy was
less lively, but his sympathies were warmer and more expanded, though the
polished aptness of language and symmetry of construction which give so
classical an aspect to his Odes bring with them a tinge of classical coldness.
The "Ode on Eton College" is more genuinely lyrical than "The Bards," and
the "Elegy In a Country Churchyard" is perhaps faultless.
train of gloomy scenes which appears in Blair's "Grave." In Akenside's
"Pleasures of Imagination," a vivid fancy and an alluring pomp of language
are lavished on a series of pictures illustrating the feelings of beauty and
sublimity; but, theorizing and poetizing by turns, the poet loses his hold of
the reader.
The more direct and effective forms of poetry now came again into favor,
such as the Scottish pastoral drama of Ramsay, and Falconer's "Shipwreck."
But the most decisive instance of the growing insight into the true functions
of poetry is furnished by Thomson's (1700-1748) "Seasons." No poet has
ever been more inspired by the love of external nature, or felt with more
keenness and delicacy those analogies between the mind and the things it
looks upon, which are the fountains of poetic feeling. The faults of
Thomson are triteness of thought when he becomes argumentative and a
prevalent pomposity and pedantry of diction; though his later work, "The
Castle of Indolence," is surprisingly free from these blemishes.
But the age was an unpoetical one, and two of the finest poetical minds
of the nation were so dwarfed and weakened by the ungenial atmosphere as
to bequeath to posterity nothing more than a few lyrical fragments. In the
age which admired the smooth feebleness of Shenstone's pastorals and
elegies, and which closed when the libels of Churchill were held to be good
examples of poetical satire, Gray turned aside from the unrequited labors of
verse to idle in his study, and Collins lived and died almost unknown. Gray
(1716-1771) was as consummate a poetical artist as Pope. His fancy was
less lively, but his sympathies were warmer and more expanded, though the
polished aptness of language and symmetry of construction which give so
classical an aspect to his Odes bring with them a tinge of classical coldness.
The "Ode on Eton College" is more genuinely lyrical than "The Bards," and
the "Elegy In a Country Churchyard" is perhaps faultless.
Page 708
The Odes of Collins (1720-1759) have more of the fine and spontaneous
enthusiasm of genius than any other poems ever written by one who wrote
so little. We close his tiny volume with the same disappointed surprise
which overcomes us when a harmonious piece of music suddenly ceases
unfinished. His range of tones is very wide, and the delicacy of gradation
with which he passes from thought to thought has an indescribable charm.
His most popular poem, "The Passions," conveys no adequate idea of some
of his most marked characteristics. All can understand the beauty and
simplicity of his odes "To Pity," "To Simplicity," "To Mercy;" and the finely
woven harmonies and the sweetly romantic pictures in the "Ode to
Evening" recall the youthful poems of Milton.
Between the period just reviewed and the reign of George III., or the
Third Generation of the eighteenth century, there were several connecting
links, one of which was formed by a group of historians whose works are
classical monuments of English literature. The publication of Hume's
"History of England" began in 1754. Robertson's "History of Scotland"
appeared in 1759, followed by his "Reign of Charles V." and his "History of
America;" Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" was
completed in twelve years from 1776. The narrative of Hume is told with
great clearness, good sense, and quiet force of representation, and if his
matter had been as carefully studied as his manner, if his social and
religious theories had been as sound as his theory of literary art, his history
would still hold a place from which no rival could hope to degrade it.
The style of Robertson and Gibbon is totally unlike that of Hume. They
want his seemingly unconscious ease, his delicate tact, and his calm yet
lively simplicity. Hume tells his tale to us as a friend to friends; his
successors always seem to hold that they are teachers and we pupils. This
change of tone had long been coming on, and was now very general in all
departments of prose. Very few writers of the last thirty years of Johnson's
enthusiasm of genius than any other poems ever written by one who wrote
so little. We close his tiny volume with the same disappointed surprise
which overcomes us when a harmonious piece of music suddenly ceases
unfinished. His range of tones is very wide, and the delicacy of gradation
with which he passes from thought to thought has an indescribable charm.
His most popular poem, "The Passions," conveys no adequate idea of some
of his most marked characteristics. All can understand the beauty and
simplicity of his odes "To Pity," "To Simplicity," "To Mercy;" and the finely
woven harmonies and the sweetly romantic pictures in the "Ode to
Evening" recall the youthful poems of Milton.
Between the period just reviewed and the reign of George III., or the
Third Generation of the eighteenth century, there were several connecting
links, one of which was formed by a group of historians whose works are
classical monuments of English literature. The publication of Hume's
"History of England" began in 1754. Robertson's "History of Scotland"
appeared in 1759, followed by his "Reign of Charles V." and his "History of
America;" Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" was
completed in twelve years from 1776. The narrative of Hume is told with
great clearness, good sense, and quiet force of representation, and if his
matter had been as carefully studied as his manner, if his social and
religious theories had been as sound as his theory of literary art, his history
would still hold a place from which no rival could hope to degrade it.
The style of Robertson and Gibbon is totally unlike that of Hume. They
want his seemingly unconscious ease, his delicate tact, and his calm yet
lively simplicity. Hume tells his tale to us as a friend to friends; his
successors always seem to hold that they are teachers and we pupils. This
change of tone had long been coming on, and was now very general in all
departments of prose. Very few writers of the last thirty years of Johnson's
Page 709
life escaped this epidemic desire of dictatorship. Robertson (1722-1793) is
an excellent story-teller, perspicuous, lively, and interesting. His opinions
are wisely formed and temperately expressed, his disquisitions able and
instructive, and his research so accurate that he is still a valuable historical
authority.
The learning of Gibbon (1737-1794), though not always exact, was
remarkably extensive, and sufficient to make him a trustworthy guide,
unless in those points where he was inclined to lead astray. There is a
patrician haughtiness in the stately march of his narrative and in the air of
careless superiority with which he treats his heroes and his audience. He is
a master in the art of painting and narration, nor is he less skillful in indirect
insinuation, which is, indeed, his favorite mode of communicating his own
opinions, but he is most striking in those passages in his history of the
church, where he covertly attacks a religion which he neither believed nor
understood.
Other historians produced works useful in their day, but now, for the most
part, superseded; and in various other departments men of letters actively
exerted themselves.
Johnson, seated at last in his easy-chair, talked for twenty years, the
oracle of the literary world, and Boswell, soon after his death, gave to the
world the clever record of these conversations, which has aided to secure
the place in literature he had obtained by his writings. Goldsmith (1728-
1774), had he never written poems, would stand among the classic writers
of English prose from the few trifles on which he was able, in the intervals
of literary drudgery, to exercise his powers of observation and invention,
and to exhibit his warm affections and purity of moral sentiment. Such is
his inimitable little novel, "The Vicar of Wakefield," and that good-natured
satire on society, the "Citizen of the World."
an excellent story-teller, perspicuous, lively, and interesting. His opinions
are wisely formed and temperately expressed, his disquisitions able and
instructive, and his research so accurate that he is still a valuable historical
authority.
The learning of Gibbon (1737-1794), though not always exact, was
remarkably extensive, and sufficient to make him a trustworthy guide,
unless in those points where he was inclined to lead astray. There is a
patrician haughtiness in the stately march of his narrative and in the air of
careless superiority with which he treats his heroes and his audience. He is
a master in the art of painting and narration, nor is he less skillful in indirect
insinuation, which is, indeed, his favorite mode of communicating his own
opinions, but he is most striking in those passages in his history of the
church, where he covertly attacks a religion which he neither believed nor
understood.
Other historians produced works useful in their day, but now, for the most
part, superseded; and in various other departments men of letters actively
exerted themselves.
Johnson, seated at last in his easy-chair, talked for twenty years, the
oracle of the literary world, and Boswell, soon after his death, gave to the
world the clever record of these conversations, which has aided to secure
the place in literature he had obtained by his writings. Goldsmith (1728-
1774), had he never written poems, would stand among the classic writers
of English prose from the few trifles on which he was able, in the intervals
of literary drudgery, to exercise his powers of observation and invention,
and to exhibit his warm affections and purity of moral sentiment. Such is
his inimitable little novel, "The Vicar of Wakefield," and that good-natured
satire on society, the "Citizen of the World."
Page 710
Among the novelists, Mackenzie (1745-1831) wrote his "Man of
Peeling," not unworthy of the companionship of Goldsmith's masterpiece;
and among later novelists, Walpole, Moore, Cumberland, Mrs. Inchbald,
and Charlotte Smith, Miss Burney and Mrs. Radcliffe may also be named.
In literary criticism, the authoritative book of the day was Johnson's
"Lives of the Poets." Percy's "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry" (1765)
was a delightful compilation, which, after being quite neglected for many
years, became the poetical text-book of Sir Walter Scott and the poets of his
time. A more scientific and ambitious effort was Warton's (1729-1790)
"History of English Poetry," which has so much of antiquarian learning,
poetical taste, and spirited writing, that it is not only an indispensable and
valuable authority, but an interesting book to the mere amateur. With many
errors and deficiencies, it has yet little chance of being ever entirely
superseded.
In parliamentary eloquence, before the middle of the eighteenth century,
we have the commanding addresses of the elder Pitt (Lord Chatham), and at
the close, still leading the senate, are the younger Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and
Burke. Burke (1730-1797) must be remembered not only for his speeches
but for his writing on political and social questions, as a great thinker of
comprehensive and versatile intellect, and extraordinary power of
eloquence.
The letters of "Junius," a remarkable series of papers, the authorship of
which is still involved in mystery, appeared in a London daily journal from
1769 to 1772. They were remarkable for the audacity of their attacks upon
the government, the court, and persons high in power, and from their
extraordinary ability and point they produced an indelible impression on the
public mind. The "Letters" of Walpole are poignantly satirical; those of
Peeling," not unworthy of the companionship of Goldsmith's masterpiece;
and among later novelists, Walpole, Moore, Cumberland, Mrs. Inchbald,
and Charlotte Smith, Miss Burney and Mrs. Radcliffe may also be named.
In literary criticism, the authoritative book of the day was Johnson's
"Lives of the Poets." Percy's "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry" (1765)
was a delightful compilation, which, after being quite neglected for many
years, became the poetical text-book of Sir Walter Scott and the poets of his
time. A more scientific and ambitious effort was Warton's (1729-1790)
"History of English Poetry," which has so much of antiquarian learning,
poetical taste, and spirited writing, that it is not only an indispensable and
valuable authority, but an interesting book to the mere amateur. With many
errors and deficiencies, it has yet little chance of being ever entirely
superseded.
In parliamentary eloquence, before the middle of the eighteenth century,
we have the commanding addresses of the elder Pitt (Lord Chatham), and at
the close, still leading the senate, are the younger Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and
Burke. Burke (1730-1797) must be remembered not only for his speeches
but for his writing on political and social questions, as a great thinker of
comprehensive and versatile intellect, and extraordinary power of
eloquence.
The letters of "Junius," a remarkable series of papers, the authorship of
which is still involved in mystery, appeared in a London daily journal from
1769 to 1772. They were remarkable for the audacity of their attacks upon
the government, the court, and persons high in power, and from their
extraordinary ability and point they produced an indelible impression on the
public mind. The "Letters" of Walpole are poignantly satirical; those of
Page 711
Cowper are models of easy writing, and lessons of rare dignity and purity of
sentiment.
In the history of philosophy, the middle of the eighteenth century was a
very important epoch; before the close of the century, almost all of those
works had appeared which have had the greatest influence on more recent
thinking. These works may be divided into four classes. Under the first,
Philosophical Criticism, may be classed Burke's treatise "On the Sublime
and Beautiful," Sir Joshua Reynolds's "Discourse on Painting," Campbell's
"Philosophy of Rhetoric," Kames's "Elements of Criticism," Blair's
"Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres," and Horne Tooke's "Philosophy
of Language."
In the second department, Political Economy, Adam Smith's great work,
"The Wealth of Nations," stands alone, and is still acknowledged as the
standard text-book of this science.
In the third department, Ethics, are Smith's "Theory of Moral Sentiment,"
Tucker's "Light of Nature," and Paley's "Moral and Political Philosophy."
In the fourth or Metaphysical department, we have only to note the rise
of the Scottish School, under Thomas Reid (1710-1796), who combats each
of the three schools, the Sensualistic evolved from Locke, holding that our
ideas are all derived from sensation; the Idealistic, as proposed by Berkeley,
which, allowing the existence of mind, denies that of matter; and the
Skeptical, headed by Hume, which denies that we can know anything at all.
Reid is a bold, dry, but very clear and logical writer, a sincere lover of truth,
and a candid and honorable disputant; his system is original and important
in the history of philosophy.
In the theological literature of this time are found Campbell's "Essay on
Miracles," Paley's "Evidences of Christianity" and "Natural Theology," and
sentiment.
In the history of philosophy, the middle of the eighteenth century was a
very important epoch; before the close of the century, almost all of those
works had appeared which have had the greatest influence on more recent
thinking. These works may be divided into four classes. Under the first,
Philosophical Criticism, may be classed Burke's treatise "On the Sublime
and Beautiful," Sir Joshua Reynolds's "Discourse on Painting," Campbell's
"Philosophy of Rhetoric," Kames's "Elements of Criticism," Blair's
"Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres," and Horne Tooke's "Philosophy
of Language."
In the second department, Political Economy, Adam Smith's great work,
"The Wealth of Nations," stands alone, and is still acknowledged as the
standard text-book of this science.
In the third department, Ethics, are Smith's "Theory of Moral Sentiment,"
Tucker's "Light of Nature," and Paley's "Moral and Political Philosophy."
In the fourth or Metaphysical department, we have only to note the rise
of the Scottish School, under Thomas Reid (1710-1796), who combats each
of the three schools, the Sensualistic evolved from Locke, holding that our
ideas are all derived from sensation; the Idealistic, as proposed by Berkeley,
which, allowing the existence of mind, denies that of matter; and the
Skeptical, headed by Hume, which denies that we can know anything at all.
Reid is a bold, dry, but very clear and logical writer, a sincere lover of truth,
and a candid and honorable disputant; his system is original and important
in the history of philosophy.
In the theological literature of this time are found Campbell's "Essay on
Miracles," Paley's "Evidences of Christianity" and "Natural Theology," and
Page 712
Bishop Watson's "Apology for Christianity."
Among the devout teachers of religion was John Newton of Olney, the
spiritual guide of Cowper; and of the moral writers, Hannah More and
Wilberforce may be mentioned.
The only tragedy that has survived from these last forty years of the
eighteenth century is the "Douglas" of Home, whose melody and romantic
pathos lose much of their effect from its monotony of tone and feebleness in
the representation of character. Comedy was oftener successful. There was
little merit in the plays of the elder Colman or those of Mrs. Cowley, or of
Cumberland. The comedies of Goldsmith abound in humor and gayety, and
those of Sheridan have an unintermitted fire of epigrams, a keen insight into
the follies and weaknesses of society, and great ingenuity in inventing
whimsical situations. Of the verse-writers in the time of Johnson's old age,
Goldsmith has alone achieved immortality. "The Traveller" and "The
Deserted Village" cannot be forgotten while the English tongue is
remembered.
The foundations of a new school of poetry were already laid. Percy's
"Reliques" and Macpherson's "Fingal" attracted great attention, and many
minor poets followed.
The short career of the unhappy Chatterton (1752-1770) held out
wonderful promise of genius.
Darwin, in his "Botanic Garden," went back to the mazes of didactic
verse. Seattle's (1735-1803) "Minstrel" is the outpouring of a mind
exquisitely poetical in feeling; it is a kind of autobiography or analytic
narrative of the early growth of a poet's mind and heart, and is one of the
most delightful poems in our language.
Among the devout teachers of religion was John Newton of Olney, the
spiritual guide of Cowper; and of the moral writers, Hannah More and
Wilberforce may be mentioned.
The only tragedy that has survived from these last forty years of the
eighteenth century is the "Douglas" of Home, whose melody and romantic
pathos lose much of their effect from its monotony of tone and feebleness in
the representation of character. Comedy was oftener successful. There was
little merit in the plays of the elder Colman or those of Mrs. Cowley, or of
Cumberland. The comedies of Goldsmith abound in humor and gayety, and
those of Sheridan have an unintermitted fire of epigrams, a keen insight into
the follies and weaknesses of society, and great ingenuity in inventing
whimsical situations. Of the verse-writers in the time of Johnson's old age,
Goldsmith has alone achieved immortality. "The Traveller" and "The
Deserted Village" cannot be forgotten while the English tongue is
remembered.
The foundations of a new school of poetry were already laid. Percy's
"Reliques" and Macpherson's "Fingal" attracted great attention, and many
minor poets followed.
The short career of the unhappy Chatterton (1752-1770) held out
wonderful promise of genius.
Darwin, in his "Botanic Garden," went back to the mazes of didactic
verse. Seattle's (1735-1803) "Minstrel" is the outpouring of a mind
exquisitely poetical in feeling; it is a kind of autobiography or analytic
narrative of the early growth of a poet's mind and heart, and is one of the
most delightful poems in our language.
Page 713
Opening with Goldsmith, our period closes with Cowper and Burns. The
unequaled popularity of Cowper's (1731-1800) poems is owing, in part, to
the rarity of good religious poetry, and also to their genuine force and
originality. He unhesitatingly made poetry use, always when it was
convenient, the familiar forms of common conversation, and he showed yet
greater boldness by seeking to interest his readers in the scenes of everyday
life. In spite of great faults, the effect of his works is such as only a genuine
poet could have produced. His translation of the Iliad has the simplicity of
the original, though wanting its warlike fervor, and portions of the Odyssey
are rendered with exceeding felicity of poetic effect.
Our estimate of Cowper's poems is heightened by our love and pity for
the poet, writing not for fame but for consolation, and uttering from the
depths of a half-broken heart his reverent homage to the power of religious
truth. Our affection is not colder, and our compassion is more profound,
when we contemplate the agitated and erring life of Robert Burns (1759-
1796), the Scottish peasant, who has given to the literature of the Anglo-
Saxon race some of its most precious jewels, although all which this
extraordinary man achieved was inadequate to the power and the vast
variety of his endowments. It is on his songs that his fame rests most firmly,
and no lyrics in any tongue have a more wonderful union of thrilling
passion, melting tenderness, concentrated expressiveness of language, and
apt and natural poetic fancy. But neither the song nor the higher kinds of
lyrical verse could give scope to the qualities he has elsewhere shown; his
aptness in representing the phases of human character, his genial breadth
and keenness of humor, and his strength of creative imagination, indicate
that if born under a more benignant star he might have been a second
Chaucer.
5. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.—In the illustrious band of poets
who enriched the literature of England during the first generation of the
unequaled popularity of Cowper's (1731-1800) poems is owing, in part, to
the rarity of good religious poetry, and also to their genuine force and
originality. He unhesitatingly made poetry use, always when it was
convenient, the familiar forms of common conversation, and he showed yet
greater boldness by seeking to interest his readers in the scenes of everyday
life. In spite of great faults, the effect of his works is such as only a genuine
poet could have produced. His translation of the Iliad has the simplicity of
the original, though wanting its warlike fervor, and portions of the Odyssey
are rendered with exceeding felicity of poetic effect.
Our estimate of Cowper's poems is heightened by our love and pity for
the poet, writing not for fame but for consolation, and uttering from the
depths of a half-broken heart his reverent homage to the power of religious
truth. Our affection is not colder, and our compassion is more profound,
when we contemplate the agitated and erring life of Robert Burns (1759-
1796), the Scottish peasant, who has given to the literature of the Anglo-
Saxon race some of its most precious jewels, although all which this
extraordinary man achieved was inadequate to the power and the vast
variety of his endowments. It is on his songs that his fame rests most firmly,
and no lyrics in any tongue have a more wonderful union of thrilling
passion, melting tenderness, concentrated expressiveness of language, and
apt and natural poetic fancy. But neither the song nor the higher kinds of
lyrical verse could give scope to the qualities he has elsewhere shown; his
aptness in representing the phases of human character, his genial breadth
and keenness of humor, and his strength of creative imagination, indicate
that if born under a more benignant star he might have been a second
Chaucer.
5. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.—In the illustrious band of poets
who enriched the literature of England during the first generation of the
Page 714
present century, there are four who have gained greater fame than any
others, and exercised greater influence on their contemporaries. These are
Coleridge, Wordsworth, Scott, and Byron, who, though unlike, yet in
respect of their ruling spirit and tendencies may be classed in pairs as they
have been named; and all whose works call for exact scrutiny may be
distributed into four groups. In the first of them stand Thomas Campbell
and Robert Southey, dissimilar to each other, and differing as widely from
their contemporaries. Campbell (1777-1844) employed an unusually
delicate taste in elaborating his verses both in diction and melody. His
"Pleasures of Hope" was written between youth and manhood, and
"Gertrude of Wyoming," the latest of his productions worthy of him,
appeared soon after his thirtieth year. His mind, deficient in manly vigor of
thought, had worked itself out in the few first bursts of youthful emotion,
but no one has clothed with more of romantic sweetness the feelings and
fancies which people the fairy-land of early dreams, or thrown around the
enchanted region a purer atmosphere of moral contemplation.
Southey (1774-1843), with an ethical tone higher and sterner than
Campbell's, offers in other features a marked contrast to him. He is careless
in details, and indulges no poetical reveries; he scorns sentimentalism, and
throws off rapid sketches of human action with great pomp of imagery, but
he seldom touches the key of the pathetic. In much of this he is the man of
his age, but in other respects he is above it. He is the only poet of his clay
who strove to emulate the great masters of epic song, and to give his works
external symmetry of plan. He alone attempted to give poetry internal
union, by making it the representation of one leading idea; a loftier theory
of poetic art than that which ruled the irregular outbursts of Scott and
Byron. But the aspiration was above the competency of the aspirer. He
wanted spontaneous depth of sympathy; his emotion has the measured flow
of the artificial canal, not the leaping gush of the river in its self-worn
channel. In two of the three best poems he has founded the interest on
others, and exercised greater influence on their contemporaries. These are
Coleridge, Wordsworth, Scott, and Byron, who, though unlike, yet in
respect of their ruling spirit and tendencies may be classed in pairs as they
have been named; and all whose works call for exact scrutiny may be
distributed into four groups. In the first of them stand Thomas Campbell
and Robert Southey, dissimilar to each other, and differing as widely from
their contemporaries. Campbell (1777-1844) employed an unusually
delicate taste in elaborating his verses both in diction and melody. His
"Pleasures of Hope" was written between youth and manhood, and
"Gertrude of Wyoming," the latest of his productions worthy of him,
appeared soon after his thirtieth year. His mind, deficient in manly vigor of
thought, had worked itself out in the few first bursts of youthful emotion,
but no one has clothed with more of romantic sweetness the feelings and
fancies which people the fairy-land of early dreams, or thrown around the
enchanted region a purer atmosphere of moral contemplation.
Southey (1774-1843), with an ethical tone higher and sterner than
Campbell's, offers in other features a marked contrast to him. He is careless
in details, and indulges no poetical reveries; he scorns sentimentalism, and
throws off rapid sketches of human action with great pomp of imagery, but
he seldom touches the key of the pathetic. In much of this he is the man of
his age, but in other respects he is above it. He is the only poet of his clay
who strove to emulate the great masters of epic song, and to give his works
external symmetry of plan. He alone attempted to give poetry internal
union, by making it the representation of one leading idea; a loftier theory
of poetic art than that which ruled the irregular outbursts of Scott and
Byron. But the aspiration was above the competency of the aspirer. He
wanted spontaneous depth of sympathy; his emotion has the measured flow
of the artificial canal, not the leaping gush of the river in its self-worn
channel. In two of the three best poems he has founded the interest on
Page 715
supernatural agency of a kind which cannot command even momentary
belief and the splendid panoramas of "Thalaba the Destroyer" pass away
like the shadows of a magic lantern. In the "Curse of Kehama," he strives to
interest us in the monstrous fables of the Hindoo mythology, and in
"Roderick, the Last of the Goths," the story contains circumstances that
deform the fairest proof the author gave of the practicability of his poetic
theory.
The second group of poets, unless Moore find a place in it, will contain
only Scott and Byron, who were in succession the most popular of all, and
owed their popularity mainly to characteristics which they had in common.
They are distinctively the poets of active life. They portray idealized
resemblances of the scenes of reality, events which arise out of the universal
relations of society, hopes, fears, and wishes which are open to the
consciousness of all mankind. The originals of Scott were the romances of
chivalry, and this example was applied by Byron to the construction of
narratives founded on a different kind of sentiment. Scott, wearying of the
narrow round that afforded him no scope for some of his best and strongest
powers, turned aside to lavish them on his prose romances, and Byron, as
his knowledge grew and his meditations became deeper, rose from Turkish
tales to the later cantos of "Childe Harold."
Scott (1771-1832), in his poetical narratives, appealed to national
sympathies through ennobling historic recollections. He painted the
externals of scenery and manners with unrivaled picturesqueness, and
embellished all that was generous and brave in the world of chivalry with
an infectious enthusiasm. "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," a romance of
border chivalry, has a more consistent unity than its successors, and is more
faithful to the ancient models. "Marmion" seeks to combine the chivalrous
romance with the metrical chronicle. "The Lady of the Lake" is a kind of
romantic pastoral, and "Rokeby" is a Waverley novel in verse.
belief and the splendid panoramas of "Thalaba the Destroyer" pass away
like the shadows of a magic lantern. In the "Curse of Kehama," he strives to
interest us in the monstrous fables of the Hindoo mythology, and in
"Roderick, the Last of the Goths," the story contains circumstances that
deform the fairest proof the author gave of the practicability of his poetic
theory.
The second group of poets, unless Moore find a place in it, will contain
only Scott and Byron, who were in succession the most popular of all, and
owed their popularity mainly to characteristics which they had in common.
They are distinctively the poets of active life. They portray idealized
resemblances of the scenes of reality, events which arise out of the universal
relations of society, hopes, fears, and wishes which are open to the
consciousness of all mankind. The originals of Scott were the romances of
chivalry, and this example was applied by Byron to the construction of
narratives founded on a different kind of sentiment. Scott, wearying of the
narrow round that afforded him no scope for some of his best and strongest
powers, turned aside to lavish them on his prose romances, and Byron, as
his knowledge grew and his meditations became deeper, rose from Turkish
tales to the later cantos of "Childe Harold."
Scott (1771-1832), in his poetical narratives, appealed to national
sympathies through ennobling historic recollections. He painted the
externals of scenery and manners with unrivaled picturesqueness, and
embellished all that was generous and brave in the world of chivalry with
an infectious enthusiasm. "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," a romance of
border chivalry, has a more consistent unity than its successors, and is more
faithful to the ancient models. "Marmion" seeks to combine the chivalrous
romance with the metrical chronicle. "The Lady of the Lake" is a kind of
romantic pastoral, and "Rokeby" is a Waverley novel in verse.
Page 716
The moral faults of the poetry of Byron (1788-1824) became more
glaring as he grew older. Starting with the carelessness of ill-trained youth
in regard to most serious truths, he provoked censure without scruple, and
was censured not without caprice; thus placed in a dangerous and false
position, he hardened himself into a contempt for the most sacred laws of
society, and although the closing scenes of his life give reason for a belief
that purer and more elevated views were beginning to dawn upon his mind,
he died before the amendment had found its way into his writings. He
endeavored to inculcate lessons that are positively bad; his delinquency did
not consist in choosing for representation scenes of violent passion and
guilty horror, it lay deeper than in his theatrical fondness for identifying
himself with his misanthropes, pirates, and seducers. He sinned more
grievously still, against morality as against possibility, by mixing up, in one
and the same character, the utmost extremes of vice and virtue, generosity
and vindictiveness, of lofty heroism and actual grossness. But with other
and great faults, he far excelled all the poets of his time in impassioned
strength, varying from vehemence to pathos. He was excelled by few of
them in his fine sense of the beautiful, and his combination of passion with
beauty, standing unapproachable in his own day, has hardly ever been
surpassed.
His tales, except "Parisina" and the "Prisoner of Chillon," rise less often
than his other poems into that flow of poetic imagery, prompted by the
loveliness of nature, which he had attempted in the two first cantos of
"Childe Harold," and poured forth with added fullness of thought and
emotion in the last two. "Manfred," with all its shortcomings, shows
perhaps most adequately his poetic temperament; and his tragedies, though
not worthy of the poet, are of all his works those which do most honor to
the man.
glaring as he grew older. Starting with the carelessness of ill-trained youth
in regard to most serious truths, he provoked censure without scruple, and
was censured not without caprice; thus placed in a dangerous and false
position, he hardened himself into a contempt for the most sacred laws of
society, and although the closing scenes of his life give reason for a belief
that purer and more elevated views were beginning to dawn upon his mind,
he died before the amendment had found its way into his writings. He
endeavored to inculcate lessons that are positively bad; his delinquency did
not consist in choosing for representation scenes of violent passion and
guilty horror, it lay deeper than in his theatrical fondness for identifying
himself with his misanthropes, pirates, and seducers. He sinned more
grievously still, against morality as against possibility, by mixing up, in one
and the same character, the utmost extremes of vice and virtue, generosity
and vindictiveness, of lofty heroism and actual grossness. But with other
and great faults, he far excelled all the poets of his time in impassioned
strength, varying from vehemence to pathos. He was excelled by few of
them in his fine sense of the beautiful, and his combination of passion with
beauty, standing unapproachable in his own day, has hardly ever been
surpassed.
His tales, except "Parisina" and the "Prisoner of Chillon," rise less often
than his other poems into that flow of poetic imagery, prompted by the
loveliness of nature, which he had attempted in the two first cantos of
"Childe Harold," and poured forth with added fullness of thought and
emotion in the last two. "Manfred," with all its shortcomings, shows
perhaps most adequately his poetic temperament; and his tragedies, though
not worthy of the poet, are of all his works those which do most honor to
the man.
Page 717
The third section of this honored file of poets contains the names of
Coleridge and Wordsworth; they are characteristically the poets of
imagination, of reflection, and of a tone of sentiment that owes its attraction
to its ideal elevation. Admired and emulated by a few zealous students,
Coleridge became the poetical leader from the very beginning of his age,
and effects yet wider have since been worked by the extended study of
Wordsworth.
Coleridge (1772-1834) is the most original of the poets of his very
original time, and among the most original of its thinkers. His most frequent
tone of feeling is a kind of romantic tenderness or melancholy, often
solemnized by an intense access of religious awe. This fine passion is
breathed out most finely when it is associated with some of his airy
glimpses of external nature, and his power of suggestive sketching is not
more extraordinary than his immaculate taste and nervous precision of
language. His images may be obscure, from the moonlight haze in which
they float, but they are rarely so through faults of diction. It is disappointing
to remember that this gifted man executed little more than fragments; his
life ebbed away in the contemplation of undertakings still to be achieved,
the result of weakness of will rather than of indolence. The romance of
"Christabel," the most powerful of all his works, and the prompter of Scott
and Byron, was thrown aside when scarce begun, and stands as an
interrupted vision of mysterious adventures clothed in the most exquisite
fancies. His tragedy of "Remorse" is full of poetic pictures; the "Ode to the
Departing Year" shows his force of thought and moral earnestness; "Khubla
Khan" represents in its gorgeous incoherence his singular power of lighting
up landscapes with thrilling fancies; and "The Dark Ladye" is one of the
most tender and romantic love-poems ever written.
The most obvious feature of Wordsworth (1770-1850) is the intense and
unwearied delight which he takes in all the shapes and appearances of rural
Coleridge and Wordsworth; they are characteristically the poets of
imagination, of reflection, and of a tone of sentiment that owes its attraction
to its ideal elevation. Admired and emulated by a few zealous students,
Coleridge became the poetical leader from the very beginning of his age,
and effects yet wider have since been worked by the extended study of
Wordsworth.
Coleridge (1772-1834) is the most original of the poets of his very
original time, and among the most original of its thinkers. His most frequent
tone of feeling is a kind of romantic tenderness or melancholy, often
solemnized by an intense access of religious awe. This fine passion is
breathed out most finely when it is associated with some of his airy
glimpses of external nature, and his power of suggestive sketching is not
more extraordinary than his immaculate taste and nervous precision of
language. His images may be obscure, from the moonlight haze in which
they float, but they are rarely so through faults of diction. It is disappointing
to remember that this gifted man executed little more than fragments; his
life ebbed away in the contemplation of undertakings still to be achieved,
the result of weakness of will rather than of indolence. The romance of
"Christabel," the most powerful of all his works, and the prompter of Scott
and Byron, was thrown aside when scarce begun, and stands as an
interrupted vision of mysterious adventures clothed in the most exquisite
fancies. His tragedy of "Remorse" is full of poetic pictures; the "Ode to the
Departing Year" shows his force of thought and moral earnestness; "Khubla
Khan" represents in its gorgeous incoherence his singular power of lighting
up landscapes with thrilling fancies; and "The Dark Ladye" is one of the
most tender and romantic love-poems ever written.
The most obvious feature of Wordsworth (1770-1850) is the intense and
unwearied delight which he takes in all the shapes and appearances of rural
Page 718
and mountain scenery. He is carried away by an almost passionate rapture
when he broods over the grandeur and loveliness of the earth and air; his
verse lingers with fond reluctance to depart on the wild flowers, the misty
lake, the sound of the wailing blast, or the gleam of sunshine breaking
through the passes among the hills, and the thoughts and feelings these
objects suggest flow forth with an enthusiasm of expression which in a man
less pious and rational might be interpreted as a raising of the inanimate
world to a level with human dignity and intelligence. The tone which
prevails in his contemplation of mortal act and suffering is a serene
seriousness, on which there never breaks in anything rightly to be called
passion; yet it often rises to an intensely solemn awe, and is not less often
relieved by touches of a quiet pathos. Almost all his poems may be called
poems of sentiment and reflection, and his own ambition was that of being
worthy to be honored as a philosophical poet. His theory that the poet's
function is limited to an exact representation of the real and the natural, a
heresy which his own best poems triumphantly refute, often led him to
triviality and meanness in the choice both of subjects and diction, and
marred the beauty of many otherwise fine poems. A fascinating airiness and
delicacy of conception prevail in these poems, and the tender sweetness of
expression is often wonderfully touching. They were the effusions of early
manhood, and the imperfect embodiments of a strength which found a freer
outlet in prose. "Laodamia" and "Dion" are classical gems without a flaw;
many of the sonnets unite original thought and poetic vividness with a
perfection hardly to be surpassed; above all, "The Excursion" rolls on its
thousands of blank verse lines with the soul-felt harmony of a divine hymn
pealed forth from a cathedral organ. We forget the insignificance
characterizing the plan, which embraces nothing but a three days' walk
among the mountains, and we refuse to be aroused from our trance of
meditative pleasure by the occasional tediousness of dissertation. "The
Excursion" abounds in verses and phrases once heard never to be forgotten,
when he broods over the grandeur and loveliness of the earth and air; his
verse lingers with fond reluctance to depart on the wild flowers, the misty
lake, the sound of the wailing blast, or the gleam of sunshine breaking
through the passes among the hills, and the thoughts and feelings these
objects suggest flow forth with an enthusiasm of expression which in a man
less pious and rational might be interpreted as a raising of the inanimate
world to a level with human dignity and intelligence. The tone which
prevails in his contemplation of mortal act and suffering is a serene
seriousness, on which there never breaks in anything rightly to be called
passion; yet it often rises to an intensely solemn awe, and is not less often
relieved by touches of a quiet pathos. Almost all his poems may be called
poems of sentiment and reflection, and his own ambition was that of being
worthy to be honored as a philosophical poet. His theory that the poet's
function is limited to an exact representation of the real and the natural, a
heresy which his own best poems triumphantly refute, often led him to
triviality and meanness in the choice both of subjects and diction, and
marred the beauty of many otherwise fine poems. A fascinating airiness and
delicacy of conception prevail in these poems, and the tender sweetness of
expression is often wonderfully touching. They were the effusions of early
manhood, and the imperfect embodiments of a strength which found a freer
outlet in prose. "Laodamia" and "Dion" are classical gems without a flaw;
many of the sonnets unite original thought and poetic vividness with a
perfection hardly to be surpassed; above all, "The Excursion" rolls on its
thousands of blank verse lines with the soul-felt harmony of a divine hymn
pealed forth from a cathedral organ. We forget the insignificance
characterizing the plan, which embraces nothing but a three days' walk
among the mountains, and we refuse to be aroused from our trance of
meditative pleasure by the occasional tediousness of dissertation. "The
Excursion" abounds in verses and phrases once heard never to be forgotten,
Page 719
and it contains trains of poetical musing through which the poet moves with
a majestic fullness of reflection and imagination not paralleled, by very far,
in anything else of which our century can boast.
Wilson, Shelley, and Keats make up the fourth poetical group. The
principal poems of Professor Wilson (1785-1854) are the "Isle of Palms," a
romance of shipwreck and solitude, full of rich pictures and delicate pathos,
and the "City of the Plague," a series of dramatic scenes, representing with
great depth of emotion a domestic tragedy from the plague of London.
Shelley was the pure apostle of a noble but ideal philanthropy; yet it is
easy to separate his poetry from his philosophy, which, though hostile to
existing conditions of society, is so ethereal, so imbued with love for
everything noble, and yet so abstract and impracticable, that it is not likely
to do much harm.
Keats poured forth with great power the dreams of his immature youth,
and died in the belief that the radiant forms had been seen in vain. In native
felicity of poetic adornment these two were the first minds of their time, but
the inadequacy of their performance to their poetic faculties shows how
needful to the production of effective poetry is a substratum of solid
thought, of practical sense, and of manly and extensive sympathy.
If we would apprehend the fullness and firmness of the powers of Shelley
(1792-1822) without remaining ignorant of his weakness, we might study
the lyrical drama of "Prometheus Unbound," a marvelous galaxy of
dazzling images and wildly touching sentiments, or the "Alastor," a scene in
which the melancholy quiet of solitude is visited but by the despairing poet
who lies down to die. We find here, instead of sympathy with ordinary and
universal feelings, warmth for the abstract and unreal, or, when the poet's
own unrest prompts, as in the "Stanzas Written in Dejection near Naples," a
strain of lamentation which sounds like a passionate sigh. Instead of
a majestic fullness of reflection and imagination not paralleled, by very far,
in anything else of which our century can boast.
Wilson, Shelley, and Keats make up the fourth poetical group. The
principal poems of Professor Wilson (1785-1854) are the "Isle of Palms," a
romance of shipwreck and solitude, full of rich pictures and delicate pathos,
and the "City of the Plague," a series of dramatic scenes, representing with
great depth of emotion a domestic tragedy from the plague of London.
Shelley was the pure apostle of a noble but ideal philanthropy; yet it is
easy to separate his poetry from his philosophy, which, though hostile to
existing conditions of society, is so ethereal, so imbued with love for
everything noble, and yet so abstract and impracticable, that it is not likely
to do much harm.
Keats poured forth with great power the dreams of his immature youth,
and died in the belief that the radiant forms had been seen in vain. In native
felicity of poetic adornment these two were the first minds of their time, but
the inadequacy of their performance to their poetic faculties shows how
needful to the production of effective poetry is a substratum of solid
thought, of practical sense, and of manly and extensive sympathy.
If we would apprehend the fullness and firmness of the powers of Shelley
(1792-1822) without remaining ignorant of his weakness, we might study
the lyrical drama of "Prometheus Unbound," a marvelous galaxy of
dazzling images and wildly touching sentiments, or the "Alastor," a scene in
which the melancholy quiet of solitude is visited but by the despairing poet
who lies down to die. We find here, instead of sympathy with ordinary and
universal feelings, warmth for the abstract and unreal, or, when the poet's
own unrest prompts, as in the "Stanzas Written in Dejection near Naples," a
strain of lamentation which sounds like a passionate sigh. Instead of
Page 720
clearness of thinking, we find an indistinctness which sometimes amounts
to the unintelligible. In the "Revolt of Islam," his most ambitious poem, it is
often difficult to apprehend even the outlines of the story.
No youthful poet ever exhibited more thorough possession of those
faculties that are the foundation of genius than Keats (1798-1820), and it is
impossible to say what he might have been had he lived to become
acquainted with himself and with mankind. It was said of his "Endymion"
most truly, that no book could be more aptly used as a test to determine
whether a reader has a genuine love for poetry. His works have no interest
of story, no insight into human nature, no clear sequence of thought; they
are the rapturous voice of youthful fancy, luxuriating in a world of beautiful
unrealities.
It may be questioned whether Crabbe and Moore are entitled to rank with
the poets already reviewed.
Crabbe's (1754-1832) "Metrical Tales," describing everyday life, are
striking, natural, and sometimes very touching, but they are warmed by no
kindly thoughts and elevated by nothing of ideality.
Moore (1780-1851), one of the most popular of English poets, will long
be remembered for his songs, so melodious and so elegant in phrase. His
fund of imagery is inexhaustible, but oftener ingenious than poetical. His
Eastern romances in "Lalla Rookh," with all their occasional felicities, are
not powerful poetic narratives. He was nowhere so successful as in his
satirical effusions of comic rhyme, in which his fanciful ideas are prompted
by a wit so gayly sharp, and expressed with a neatness and pointedness so
unusual, that it is to be regretted that these pieces should be condemned to
speedy forgetfulness, as they must be, from the temporary interest of their
topics.
to the unintelligible. In the "Revolt of Islam," his most ambitious poem, it is
often difficult to apprehend even the outlines of the story.
No youthful poet ever exhibited more thorough possession of those
faculties that are the foundation of genius than Keats (1798-1820), and it is
impossible to say what he might have been had he lived to become
acquainted with himself and with mankind. It was said of his "Endymion"
most truly, that no book could be more aptly used as a test to determine
whether a reader has a genuine love for poetry. His works have no interest
of story, no insight into human nature, no clear sequence of thought; they
are the rapturous voice of youthful fancy, luxuriating in a world of beautiful
unrealities.
It may be questioned whether Crabbe and Moore are entitled to rank with
the poets already reviewed.
Crabbe's (1754-1832) "Metrical Tales," describing everyday life, are
striking, natural, and sometimes very touching, but they are warmed by no
kindly thoughts and elevated by nothing of ideality.
Moore (1780-1851), one of the most popular of English poets, will long
be remembered for his songs, so melodious and so elegant in phrase. His
fund of imagery is inexhaustible, but oftener ingenious than poetical. His
Eastern romances in "Lalla Rookh," with all their occasional felicities, are
not powerful poetic narratives. He was nowhere so successful as in his
satirical effusions of comic rhyme, in which his fanciful ideas are prompted
by a wit so gayly sharp, and expressed with a neatness and pointedness so
unusual, that it is to be regretted that these pieces should be condemned to
speedy forgetfulness, as they must be, from the temporary interest of their
topics.
Page 721
Among the works of the numerous minor poets, the tragedies of Joanna
Baillie, with all their faults as plays, are noble additions to the literature,
and the closest approach made in recent times to the merit of the old
English drama. After these may be named the stately and imposing dramatic
poems of Milman, Maturin's impassioned "Bertram," and the finely-
conceived "Julian" of Miss Mitford.
Rogers and Bowles have given us much of pleasing and reflective
sentiment, accompanied with great refinement of taste.
To another and more modern school belong Procter (Barry Cornwall) and
Leigh Hunt; the former the purer in taste, the latter the more original and
inventive.
Some of the lyrical and meditative poems of Walter Savage Landor are
very beautiful; his longer poems sometimes delight but oftener puzzle us by
their obscurity of thought and want of constructive skill.
The poems of Mrs. Hemans breathe a singularly attractive tone of
romantic and melancholy sweetness, and many of the ballads and songs of
Hogg and Cunningham will not soon be forgotten.
The poems of Kirke White are more pleasing than original. Montgomery
has written, besides many other poems, not a few meditative and devotional
pieces among the best in the language. Pollok's "Course of Time" is the
immature work of a man of genius who possessed very imperfect
cultivation. It is clumsy in plan and tediously dissertative, but it has
passages of genuine poetry. The pleasing verses of Bishop Heber and the
more recent effusions of Keble may also be named.
Of the Scotch poets, James Hogg (d. 1835) is distinguished for the beauty
and creative power of his fairy tales, and Allan Cunningham (d. 1842) for
Baillie, with all their faults as plays, are noble additions to the literature,
and the closest approach made in recent times to the merit of the old
English drama. After these may be named the stately and imposing dramatic
poems of Milman, Maturin's impassioned "Bertram," and the finely-
conceived "Julian" of Miss Mitford.
Rogers and Bowles have given us much of pleasing and reflective
sentiment, accompanied with great refinement of taste.
To another and more modern school belong Procter (Barry Cornwall) and
Leigh Hunt; the former the purer in taste, the latter the more original and
inventive.
Some of the lyrical and meditative poems of Walter Savage Landor are
very beautiful; his longer poems sometimes delight but oftener puzzle us by
their obscurity of thought and want of constructive skill.
The poems of Mrs. Hemans breathe a singularly attractive tone of
romantic and melancholy sweetness, and many of the ballads and songs of
Hogg and Cunningham will not soon be forgotten.
The poems of Kirke White are more pleasing than original. Montgomery
has written, besides many other poems, not a few meditative and devotional
pieces among the best in the language. Pollok's "Course of Time" is the
immature work of a man of genius who possessed very imperfect
cultivation. It is clumsy in plan and tediously dissertative, but it has
passages of genuine poetry. The pleasing verses of Bishop Heber and the
more recent effusions of Keble may also be named.
Of the Scotch poets, James Hogg (d. 1835) is distinguished for the beauty
and creative power of his fairy tales, and Allan Cunningham (d. 1842) for
Page 722
the fervor, simplicity, and natural grace of his songs.
Edward Lytton Bulwer (Lord Lytton) deserves honorable mention for his
high sense of the functions of poetic art; for the skill with which his dramas
are constructed, and for the overflowing picturesqueness which fills his
"King Arthur." Elliott, the Corn-Law Rhymer, is vigorous in conception,
and Hood has a remarkable union of grotesque humor with depth of serious
feeling.
Henry Taylor (b. 1800) deserves notice for the fine meditativeness and
well-balanced judgment shown in his dramas and prose essays. "Philip Van
Artevelde" is his masterpiece.
The poems of Arthur Hugh Clough (d. 1861) are worthy of attention,
although it may be doubted if his genius reached its full development; in
those of Milnes (Lord Houghton, b. 1809), emotion and intellect are
harmoniously blended. R.H. Horne (d. 1884) is the author of some noble
poems; Aytoun (d. 1865), of many ballads of note; and in Kingsley (d.
1875) the poetic faculty finds its best expression in his popular lyrics.
Alfred Tennyson (b. 1810) is by eminence the representative poet of his
era. The central idea of his poetry is that of the dignity and efficiency of law
in its widest sense and of the progress of the race. The elements which form
his ideal of human character are self-reverence, self- knowledge, self-
control, the recognition of a divine order, of one's own place in that order,
and a faithful adhesion to the law of one's highest life. "In Memoriam" is
his most characteristic work, distinctly a poem of this century, the great
threnody of our language. The "Idylls of the King" present in epic form the
Christian ideal of chivalry.
In Browning (b. 1812) the greatness and glory of man lie not in
submission to law, but in infinite aspiration towards something higher than
Edward Lytton Bulwer (Lord Lytton) deserves honorable mention for his
high sense of the functions of poetic art; for the skill with which his dramas
are constructed, and for the overflowing picturesqueness which fills his
"King Arthur." Elliott, the Corn-Law Rhymer, is vigorous in conception,
and Hood has a remarkable union of grotesque humor with depth of serious
feeling.
Henry Taylor (b. 1800) deserves notice for the fine meditativeness and
well-balanced judgment shown in his dramas and prose essays. "Philip Van
Artevelde" is his masterpiece.
The poems of Arthur Hugh Clough (d. 1861) are worthy of attention,
although it may be doubted if his genius reached its full development; in
those of Milnes (Lord Houghton, b. 1809), emotion and intellect are
harmoniously blended. R.H. Horne (d. 1884) is the author of some noble
poems; Aytoun (d. 1865), of many ballads of note; and in Kingsley (d.
1875) the poetic faculty finds its best expression in his popular lyrics.
Alfred Tennyson (b. 1810) is by eminence the representative poet of his
era. The central idea of his poetry is that of the dignity and efficiency of law
in its widest sense and of the progress of the race. The elements which form
his ideal of human character are self-reverence, self- knowledge, self-
control, the recognition of a divine order, of one's own place in that order,
and a faithful adhesion to the law of one's highest life. "In Memoriam" is
his most characteristic work, distinctly a poem of this century, the great
threnody of our language. The "Idylls of the King" present in epic form the
Christian ideal of chivalry.
In Browning (b. 1812) the greatness and glory of man lie not in
submission to law, but in infinite aspiration towards something higher than
Page 723
himself. He must perpetually grasp at things attainable by his highest
striving, and, finding them unsatisfactory, he is urged on by an endless
series of aspirations and endeavors. In his poetry strength of thought
struggles through obscurity of expression, and he is at once the most
original and unequal of living poets.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (d. 1861) may be regarded as the
representative of her sex in the present age. The instinct of worship, the
religion of humanity, and a spiritual unity of zeal, love, and worship preside
over her work.
To this period belong the writings of Mrs. Norton, Mrs. Blackwood, Mrs.
Crosland, Mary Howitt, and Eliza Cook.
FICTION.—Previous to the appearance of Scott's novels the department
of prose writing had undergone an elevating process in the hands of
Godwin, Miss Austen, Miss Porter, and Miss Edgeworth. "Waverley"
appeared in 1814, and the series which followed with surprising rapidity
obtained universal and unexampled popularity. The Waverley Novels are
not merely love stories, but pictures of human life animated by sentiments
which are cheerful and correct, and they exhibit history in a most effective
light without degrading facts or falsifying them beyond the lawful stretch of
poetical embellishment. These novels stand in literary value as far above all
other prose works of fiction as those of Fielding stand above all others in
the language except these.
The novels of Lockhart are strong in the representation of tragic passion.
Wilson, in his "Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life," shows the visionary
loveliness and pathos which appear in his poems, though they give no scope
to those powers of sarcasm and humor which found expression elsewhere.
Extremes in the tone of thought and feeling are shown in the despondent
imagination of Mrs. Shelley and the coarse and shrewd humor of Galt. To
striving, and, finding them unsatisfactory, he is urged on by an endless
series of aspirations and endeavors. In his poetry strength of thought
struggles through obscurity of expression, and he is at once the most
original and unequal of living poets.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (d. 1861) may be regarded as the
representative of her sex in the present age. The instinct of worship, the
religion of humanity, and a spiritual unity of zeal, love, and worship preside
over her work.
To this period belong the writings of Mrs. Norton, Mrs. Blackwood, Mrs.
Crosland, Mary Howitt, and Eliza Cook.
FICTION.—Previous to the appearance of Scott's novels the department
of prose writing had undergone an elevating process in the hands of
Godwin, Miss Austen, Miss Porter, and Miss Edgeworth. "Waverley"
appeared in 1814, and the series which followed with surprising rapidity
obtained universal and unexampled popularity. The Waverley Novels are
not merely love stories, but pictures of human life animated by sentiments
which are cheerful and correct, and they exhibit history in a most effective
light without degrading facts or falsifying them beyond the lawful stretch of
poetical embellishment. These novels stand in literary value as far above all
other prose works of fiction as those of Fielding stand above all others in
the language except these.
The novels of Lockhart are strong in the representation of tragic passion.
Wilson, in his "Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life," shows the visionary
loveliness and pathos which appear in his poems, though they give no scope
to those powers of sarcasm and humor which found expression elsewhere.
Extremes in the tone of thought and feeling are shown in the despondent
imagination of Mrs. Shelley and the coarse and shrewd humor of Galt. To
Page 724
this time belong Hope's "Anastasius," which unites reflectiveness with
pathos, and the delightful scenes which Miss Mitford has constructed by
embellishing the facts of English rural life.
Among the earlier novels of the time, those of Bulwer had more
decidedly than the others the stamp of native genius. Though not always
morally instructive, they have great force of serious passion, and show
unusual skill of design. In some of his later works he rises into a much
higher sphere of ethical contemplation. The novels of Theodore Hook,
sparkling as they are, have no substance to endure long continuance, nor is
there much promise of life in the showy and fluent tales of James, the sea-
stories of Marryat, or the gay scenes of Lever. The novels and sketches of
Mrs. Marsh and Mrs. Hall are pleasing and tasteful; Mrs. Trollope's
portraits of character are rough and clever caricatures. In describing the
lower departments of Irish life, Banim is the most original, Griffin weaker,
and Carleton better than either. The novels of Disraeli are remarkable for
their brilliant sketches of English life and their embodiment of political and
social theories. Miss Martineau's stories are full of the writer's clearness and
sagacity. Kingsley, the head of the Christian socialistic school, is the author
of many romances, and the eloquent preacher of a more earnest and
practical Christianity. The narrative sketches of Douglas Jerrold deserve a
place among the speculative fictions of the day.
Charlotte Bronté (1816-1855) had consummate mastery of expression,
and a perception of the depth of human nature that is only revealed through
suffering experience. The works of her sister Emily show a powerful
imagination, regulated by no consideration of beauty of proportion, or of
artistic feeling.
Among those writers who aim at making the novel illustrate questions
that agitate society most powerfully are the founders of a new school of
pathos, and the delightful scenes which Miss Mitford has constructed by
embellishing the facts of English rural life.
Among the earlier novels of the time, those of Bulwer had more
decidedly than the others the stamp of native genius. Though not always
morally instructive, they have great force of serious passion, and show
unusual skill of design. In some of his later works he rises into a much
higher sphere of ethical contemplation. The novels of Theodore Hook,
sparkling as they are, have no substance to endure long continuance, nor is
there much promise of life in the showy and fluent tales of James, the sea-
stories of Marryat, or the gay scenes of Lever. The novels and sketches of
Mrs. Marsh and Mrs. Hall are pleasing and tasteful; Mrs. Trollope's
portraits of character are rough and clever caricatures. In describing the
lower departments of Irish life, Banim is the most original, Griffin weaker,
and Carleton better than either. The novels of Disraeli are remarkable for
their brilliant sketches of English life and their embodiment of political and
social theories. Miss Martineau's stories are full of the writer's clearness and
sagacity. Kingsley, the head of the Christian socialistic school, is the author
of many romances, and the eloquent preacher of a more earnest and
practical Christianity. The narrative sketches of Douglas Jerrold deserve a
place among the speculative fictions of the day.
Charlotte Bronté (1816-1855) had consummate mastery of expression,
and a perception of the depth of human nature that is only revealed through
suffering experience. The works of her sister Emily show a powerful
imagination, regulated by no consideration of beauty of proportion, or of
artistic feeling.
Among those writers who aim at making the novel illustrate questions
that agitate society most powerfully are the founders of a new school of
Page 725
novelists, Thackeray and Dickens (1812-1870). The former has given his
pictures of society all that character they could receive from extraordinary
skill of mental analysis, acute observation, and strength of sarcastic irony,
but he has never been able to excite continuous and lively sympathy either
by interesting incidents or by deep passion. Dickens has done more than all
which Thackeray has left unattempted; while his painting of character is as
vigorous and natural, his power of exciting emotion ranges with equal
success from horror sometimes too intense, to melting pathos, and thence to
a breadth of humor which degenerates into caricature. He cannot soar into
the higher worlds of imagination, but he becomes strong, inventive, and
affecting the moment his foot touches the firm ground of reality, and
nowhere is he more at ease, more sharply observant, or more warmly
sympathetic, than in scenes whose meanness might have disgusted, or
whose moral foulness might have appalled. Of the later novelists, the names
of Mrs. Craik (Miss Muloch) and Charles Reade (d. 1884) may be
mentioned as having acquired a wide popularity.
HISTORY.—In history Niebuhr's masterly researches have
communicated their spirit to the "Roman History" of Arnold; the history of
Greece has assumed a new aspect in the hands of Thirlwall and Grote; and
that of Grecian literature has been In part excellently related by Muir (d.
1860). Modern history has likewise been cultivated with great assiduity, and
several works of great literary merit have appeared which are valuable as
storehouses of research. Macaulay, in his great work, "The History of
England," showed that history might be written as it had not been before,
telling the national story with accuracy and force, making it as lively as a
novel, through touches of individual interest and teaching precious truths
with fascinating eloquence. Alison's "History of Europe" takes its place
among the highest works of its kind. Carlyle's "History of the French
Revolution" and "Life of Frederic the Great" are most picturesque,
attractive, and original works. The History of the Norman Conquest of
pictures of society all that character they could receive from extraordinary
skill of mental analysis, acute observation, and strength of sarcastic irony,
but he has never been able to excite continuous and lively sympathy either
by interesting incidents or by deep passion. Dickens has done more than all
which Thackeray has left unattempted; while his painting of character is as
vigorous and natural, his power of exciting emotion ranges with equal
success from horror sometimes too intense, to melting pathos, and thence to
a breadth of humor which degenerates into caricature. He cannot soar into
the higher worlds of imagination, but he becomes strong, inventive, and
affecting the moment his foot touches the firm ground of reality, and
nowhere is he more at ease, more sharply observant, or more warmly
sympathetic, than in scenes whose meanness might have disgusted, or
whose moral foulness might have appalled. Of the later novelists, the names
of Mrs. Craik (Miss Muloch) and Charles Reade (d. 1884) may be
mentioned as having acquired a wide popularity.
HISTORY.—In history Niebuhr's masterly researches have
communicated their spirit to the "Roman History" of Arnold; the history of
Greece has assumed a new aspect in the hands of Thirlwall and Grote; and
that of Grecian literature has been In part excellently related by Muir (d.
1860). Modern history has likewise been cultivated with great assiduity, and
several works of great literary merit have appeared which are valuable as
storehouses of research. Macaulay, in his great work, "The History of
England," showed that history might be written as it had not been before,
telling the national story with accuracy and force, making it as lively as a
novel, through touches of individual interest and teaching precious truths
with fascinating eloquence. Alison's "History of Europe" takes its place
among the highest works of its kind. Carlyle's "History of the French
Revolution" and "Life of Frederic the Great" are most picturesque,
attractive, and original works. The History of the Norman Conquest of
Page 726
England is the most important work of Freeman. Buckle (d. 1882) in his
Introduction to the projected History of Civilization in Europe reiterated the
theory that all events depend upon the action of inevitable law.
CRITICISM AND REVIEWS.—In the art of criticism, Hallam's (d.
1859) "Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth,
and Seventeenth Centuries" has taken its place as a classical standard.
Among the fragments of criticism, the most valuable are those of De
Quincey (d. 1860). The essays of Macaulay (d. 1860) are among the most
impressive of all the periodical papers of our century.
In Carlyle, a generous sentiment alternates with despondent gloom and
passionate restlessness and inconsistency. But it is impossible to hear,
without a deep sense of original power, the oracular voices that issue from
the cell; enigmatical, like the ancient responses, and like them illuminating
doubtful vaticination with flashes of wild and half poetic fantasy. His
language and thoughts alike set aside hereditary rules, and are compounded
of elements, English and German, and elements predominant over all,
which no name would fit except that of the author.
Among numerous other writers may he mentioned the names of William
and Mary Howitt, Isaac Taylor, Arthur Helps, and the brothers Hare, and in
art-criticism the brilliant and paradoxical Ruskin (b. 1819) and the
accomplished Mrs. Jameson (d. 1860).
The writings of Christopher North (Professor Wilson) are characterized
by the quaintest humor and the most practical shrewdness combined with
tender and passionate emotion (d. 1854). Those of Charles Lamb (d. 1835)
it is impossible to describe intelligibly to those who have not read them.
Some of his scenes are in sentiment, imagery, and style the most anomalous
medleys by which readers were ever alternately perplexed and amused,
moved and delighted.
Introduction to the projected History of Civilization in Europe reiterated the
theory that all events depend upon the action of inevitable law.
CRITICISM AND REVIEWS.—In the art of criticism, Hallam's (d.
1859) "Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth,
and Seventeenth Centuries" has taken its place as a classical standard.
Among the fragments of criticism, the most valuable are those of De
Quincey (d. 1860). The essays of Macaulay (d. 1860) are among the most
impressive of all the periodical papers of our century.
In Carlyle, a generous sentiment alternates with despondent gloom and
passionate restlessness and inconsistency. But it is impossible to hear,
without a deep sense of original power, the oracular voices that issue from
the cell; enigmatical, like the ancient responses, and like them illuminating
doubtful vaticination with flashes of wild and half poetic fantasy. His
language and thoughts alike set aside hereditary rules, and are compounded
of elements, English and German, and elements predominant over all,
which no name would fit except that of the author.
Among numerous other writers may he mentioned the names of William
and Mary Howitt, Isaac Taylor, Arthur Helps, and the brothers Hare, and in
art-criticism the brilliant and paradoxical Ruskin (b. 1819) and the
accomplished Mrs. Jameson (d. 1860).
The writings of Christopher North (Professor Wilson) are characterized
by the quaintest humor and the most practical shrewdness combined with
tender and passionate emotion (d. 1854). Those of Charles Lamb (d. 1835)
it is impossible to describe intelligibly to those who have not read them.
Some of his scenes are in sentiment, imagery, and style the most anomalous
medleys by which readers were ever alternately perplexed and amused,
moved and delighted.
Page 727
No man of his time influenced social science so much as Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832). Of his immediate pupils James Mill is the ablest,
Cobbett, a vigorous and idiomatic writer of English, in the course of his
long life advocated all varieties of political principle. In political science we
have the accurate McCulloch; Malthus, known through his Theory of
Population; and Ricardo, the most original thinker in science since Adam
Smith.
Foster (1770-1843) had originality and a wider grasp of mind than the
other two. Hall (1761-1831) is more eloquent, but in oratorical power
Chalmers (1780-1847) was one of the great men of our century, which has
produced few comparable to him in original keenness of intuition, and who
combined so much power of thought with so much power of impressive
communication.
In philosophy, Dugald Stewart (1753-1828) is one of the most attractive
writers. Thomas Brown (1778-1820), his successor in the chair of
Edinburgh, exhibited a subtlety of thought hardly ever exceeded in the
history of philosophy; probably no writings on mental philosophy were ever
so popular.
Equally worthy of a place in the annals of their era are those dissertations
on the History of Philosophy contributed to the Encyclopaedia Britannica
by Playfair, Leslie, and Mackintosh, and a system of Ethics by Bentham.
Among the speculations in mental philosophy must also be placed a group
of interesting treatises on the "Theory of the Sublime and Beautiful," a
matter deeply important to poetry and the other fine arts, represented by
Alison's essays on Taste, Jeffrey's on Beauty, and by contributions from
Stewart, Thomas Brown, and Payne Knight.
In political economy John Mill is one of the most powerful and original
minds of the nineteenth century. The pure sciences of mind have been
Bentham (1748-1832). Of his immediate pupils James Mill is the ablest,
Cobbett, a vigorous and idiomatic writer of English, in the course of his
long life advocated all varieties of political principle. In political science we
have the accurate McCulloch; Malthus, known through his Theory of
Population; and Ricardo, the most original thinker in science since Adam
Smith.
Foster (1770-1843) had originality and a wider grasp of mind than the
other two. Hall (1761-1831) is more eloquent, but in oratorical power
Chalmers (1780-1847) was one of the great men of our century, which has
produced few comparable to him in original keenness of intuition, and who
combined so much power of thought with so much power of impressive
communication.
In philosophy, Dugald Stewart (1753-1828) is one of the most attractive
writers. Thomas Brown (1778-1820), his successor in the chair of
Edinburgh, exhibited a subtlety of thought hardly ever exceeded in the
history of philosophy; probably no writings on mental philosophy were ever
so popular.
Equally worthy of a place in the annals of their era are those dissertations
on the History of Philosophy contributed to the Encyclopaedia Britannica
by Playfair, Leslie, and Mackintosh, and a system of Ethics by Bentham.
Among the speculations in mental philosophy must also be placed a group
of interesting treatises on the "Theory of the Sublime and Beautiful," a
matter deeply important to poetry and the other fine arts, represented by
Alison's essays on Taste, Jeffrey's on Beauty, and by contributions from
Stewart, Thomas Brown, and Payne Knight.
In political economy John Mill is one of the most powerful and original
minds of the nineteenth century. The pure sciences of mind have been
Page 728
enriched by important accessions; logic has been vigorously cultivated in
two departments; on the one hand by Mill and Whewell, the former
following the tendencies of Locke and Hobbes, the latter that of the German
school; on the other hand, Archbishop Whately has expounded the
Aristotelian system with clearness and sagacity, and De Morgan has
attempted to supply certain deficiencies in the old analysis. But by far the
greatest metaphysician who has appeared in the British empire during the
present century is Sir William Hamilton. In his union of powerful thinking
with profound and varied erudition, he stands higher, perhaps, than any
other man whose name is preserved in the annals of modern speculation.
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES.—A most curious and important fact in
the literary history of the age is the prominence acquired by the leading
Reviews and Magazines. Their high position was secured and their power
founded beyond the possibility of overturn by the earliest of the series, the
"Edinburgh Review." Commenced in 1802, it was placed immediately
under the editorship of Francis Jeffrey, who conducted it till 1829. In the
earlier part of its history there were not many distinguished men of letters in
the empire who did not furnish something to its contents; among others
were Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham, Malthus, Playfair, Mackintosh, and
Sydney Smith. Differences of political opinion led to the establishment of
the "London Quarterly," which advocated Tory principles, the Edinburgh
being the organ of the Whigs. Its editors were first Gifford and then
Lockhart, and it numbered among its contributors many of the most famous
men of the time. The "Westminster Review" was established in 1825 as the
organ of Jeremy Bentham and his disciples.
"Blackwood's Magazine," begun 1817, has contained articles of the
highest literary merit. It was the unflinching and idolatrous advocate of
Wordsworth, and some of its writers were the first translators of German
two departments; on the one hand by Mill and Whewell, the former
following the tendencies of Locke and Hobbes, the latter that of the German
school; on the other hand, Archbishop Whately has expounded the
Aristotelian system with clearness and sagacity, and De Morgan has
attempted to supply certain deficiencies in the old analysis. But by far the
greatest metaphysician who has appeared in the British empire during the
present century is Sir William Hamilton. In his union of powerful thinking
with profound and varied erudition, he stands higher, perhaps, than any
other man whose name is preserved in the annals of modern speculation.
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES.—A most curious and important fact in
the literary history of the age is the prominence acquired by the leading
Reviews and Magazines. Their high position was secured and their power
founded beyond the possibility of overturn by the earliest of the series, the
"Edinburgh Review." Commenced in 1802, it was placed immediately
under the editorship of Francis Jeffrey, who conducted it till 1829. In the
earlier part of its history there were not many distinguished men of letters in
the empire who did not furnish something to its contents; among others
were Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham, Malthus, Playfair, Mackintosh, and
Sydney Smith. Differences of political opinion led to the establishment of
the "London Quarterly," which advocated Tory principles, the Edinburgh
being the organ of the Whigs. Its editors were first Gifford and then
Lockhart, and it numbered among its contributors many of the most famous
men of the time. The "Westminster Review" was established in 1825 as the
organ of Jeremy Bentham and his disciples.
"Blackwood's Magazine," begun 1817, has contained articles of the
highest literary merit. It was the unflinching and idolatrous advocate of
Wordsworth, and some of its writers were the first translators of German
Page 729
poetry and the most active introducers of German taste and laws in poetical
criticism.
The best efforts in literary criticism—the most brilliant department of
recent literature, have been with few exceptions essays in the periodicals.
Among the essayists the name of Francis Jeffrey (1773-1850) stands
highest. In his essays selected for republication we find hardly any branch
of general knowledge untouched, and while he treated none without
throwing on them some brilliant ray of light, he contributed to many of
them truths alike valuable and original. His criticisms on Poetry are flowing
and spirited, glittering with a gay wit and an ever-ready fancy, and often
blossoming into exquisite felicities of diction. While Macaulay uses poets
and their works as hints for constructing picturesque dissertations on man
and society, and while poetical reading prompts Wilson to enthusiastic
bursts of original poetry, Jeffrey, fervid in his admiration of genius, but
conscientiously stern in his respect for art, tries poetry by its own laws, and
his writings are invaluable to those who desire to learn the principles of
poetical criticism. A high place among the critical essayists must also be
assigned to William Hazlitt, who in his lectures and elsewhere did manful
service towards reviving the study of ancient poetry, and who prompts to
study and speculation all readers, and not the least those who hesitate to
accept his critical opinions.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE.—The spirit of philosophical inquiry and
discovery is increasing in England, and is everywhere accompanied by a
growing tendency to popularize all branches of science, and to bring them
before the general mind in an attractive form.
The physical sciences have made marvelous advances; many brilliant
discoveries have been made during the present and last generation, and
many scientific men have brought much power of mind to bear on questions
criticism.
The best efforts in literary criticism—the most brilliant department of
recent literature, have been with few exceptions essays in the periodicals.
Among the essayists the name of Francis Jeffrey (1773-1850) stands
highest. In his essays selected for republication we find hardly any branch
of general knowledge untouched, and while he treated none without
throwing on them some brilliant ray of light, he contributed to many of
them truths alike valuable and original. His criticisms on Poetry are flowing
and spirited, glittering with a gay wit and an ever-ready fancy, and often
blossoming into exquisite felicities of diction. While Macaulay uses poets
and their works as hints for constructing picturesque dissertations on man
and society, and while poetical reading prompts Wilson to enthusiastic
bursts of original poetry, Jeffrey, fervid in his admiration of genius, but
conscientiously stern in his respect for art, tries poetry by its own laws, and
his writings are invaluable to those who desire to learn the principles of
poetical criticism. A high place among the critical essayists must also be
assigned to William Hazlitt, who in his lectures and elsewhere did manful
service towards reviving the study of ancient poetry, and who prompts to
study and speculation all readers, and not the least those who hesitate to
accept his critical opinions.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE.—The spirit of philosophical inquiry and
discovery is increasing in England, and is everywhere accompanied by a
growing tendency to popularize all branches of science, and to bring them
before the general mind in an attractive form.
The physical sciences have made marvelous advances; many brilliant
discoveries have been made during the present and last generation, and
many scientific men have brought much power of mind to bear on questions
Page 730
lying apart from their principal studies; among them are Sir David
Brewster, Sir John Herschel, Sir John Playfair, Sir Charles Lyell, Hugh
Miller, Buckland, and Professor Whewell.
SINCE 1860.
1. POETRY.—Matthew Arnold (b. 1822) has written some of the most
refined verse of our day, and among critics holds the first rank. Algernon
Swinburne (b. 1837) excels all living poets in his marvelous gift of rhythm
and command over the resources of the language. Dante Rossetti (d. 1883)
had great lyrical power; Robert Buchanan has large freedom and originality
of style; Edwin Arnold has extraordinary popularity in the United States for
his remarkable poem, "The Light of Asia," and for other poems on Oriental
subjects; Lord Lytton ("Owen Meredith") has a place of honor among poets
as the author of "Lucile" and other poems; William Morris writes in the
choicest fashion of romantic narrative verse. Among other poets of the
present generation whose writings are marked by excellences of various
kinds are Edmund Gosse, Austin Dobson, Cosmo Monkhonse, Andrew
Lang, Philip Marston, and Arthur O'Shaughnessy.
The poems of Jean Ingelow have a merited popularity; those of Adelaide
Procter (d. 1864) are pervaded by a beautiful spirit of faith and hope;
Christina Rossetti shows great originality and deep and serious feeling. The
lyrics and dramas of Augusta Webster are marked by strength and breadth
of thought; the ballads, sonnets, and other poems of Mary Robinson show
that she possesses the true gift of song.
2. FICTION.—The writings of Mrs. Lewes, "George Eliot" (1815-1880),
are the work of a woman of rare genius, and place her among the greatest
novelists England has produced. They are in sympathy with all the varieties
Brewster, Sir John Herschel, Sir John Playfair, Sir Charles Lyell, Hugh
Miller, Buckland, and Professor Whewell.
SINCE 1860.
1. POETRY.—Matthew Arnold (b. 1822) has written some of the most
refined verse of our day, and among critics holds the first rank. Algernon
Swinburne (b. 1837) excels all living poets in his marvelous gift of rhythm
and command over the resources of the language. Dante Rossetti (d. 1883)
had great lyrical power; Robert Buchanan has large freedom and originality
of style; Edwin Arnold has extraordinary popularity in the United States for
his remarkable poem, "The Light of Asia," and for other poems on Oriental
subjects; Lord Lytton ("Owen Meredith") has a place of honor among poets
as the author of "Lucile" and other poems; William Morris writes in the
choicest fashion of romantic narrative verse. Among other poets of the
present generation whose writings are marked by excellences of various
kinds are Edmund Gosse, Austin Dobson, Cosmo Monkhonse, Andrew
Lang, Philip Marston, and Arthur O'Shaughnessy.
The poems of Jean Ingelow have a merited popularity; those of Adelaide
Procter (d. 1864) are pervaded by a beautiful spirit of faith and hope;
Christina Rossetti shows great originality and deep and serious feeling. The
lyrics and dramas of Augusta Webster are marked by strength and breadth
of thought; the ballads, sonnets, and other poems of Mary Robinson show
that she possesses the true gift of song.
2. FICTION.—The writings of Mrs. Lewes, "George Eliot" (1815-1880),
are the work of a woman of rare genius, and place her among the greatest
novelists England has produced. They are in sympathy with all the varieties
Page 731
of human character, and written in a spirit of humanity that is allied with
every honest aspiration.
Anthony Trollope (d. 1884) has produced many works remarkable for
their
accurate pictures of English life and character. George Macdonald and
Wilkie Collins are novelists of great merit, as are William Black, Richard
Blackmore, Mrs. Oliphant, Edmund Yates, Justin McCarthy.
3. SCIENCE.—Herbert Spencer (b. 1820) as early as 1852 advanced the
theory of the natural and gradual coalition of organic life upon this globe. In
1855, in his "Principles of Psychology," he gave a new exposition of the
laws of mind, based upon this principle, and held that it is by experience,
registered in the slowly perfecting nervous system, that the mental faculties
have been gradually evolved through long courses of descent, each
generation inheriting all that had been previously gained, and adding its
own increment to the sum of progress; that all knowledge, and even the
faculties of knowing, originate in experience, but that the primary elements
of thought are a priori intuitions to the individual derived from ancestral
experience. Thus the intuitional and experience hypotheses, over which
philosophers had so long disputed, were here for the first time reconciled.
This work, the first permanent scientific result of the application of the law
of evolution, formed a turning-point in the thought of the scientific world.
Spencer's prospectus of a philosophical system, in which the principles of
evolution were applied to the subjects of life, mind, society, and morals,
appeared in 1858, maturely elaborated in its scientific proofs and
applications, thus preceding the works of other evolutionary writers, the
most distinguished of whom, Charles Darwin (1809-1883), has been more
identified in the popular mind with the theories of evolution than Spencer
himself. The writings of Darwin have had a wider influence and have been
the subject of more controversy than those of any other contemporary
every honest aspiration.
Anthony Trollope (d. 1884) has produced many works remarkable for
their
accurate pictures of English life and character. George Macdonald and
Wilkie Collins are novelists of great merit, as are William Black, Richard
Blackmore, Mrs. Oliphant, Edmund Yates, Justin McCarthy.
3. SCIENCE.—Herbert Spencer (b. 1820) as early as 1852 advanced the
theory of the natural and gradual coalition of organic life upon this globe. In
1855, in his "Principles of Psychology," he gave a new exposition of the
laws of mind, based upon this principle, and held that it is by experience,
registered in the slowly perfecting nervous system, that the mental faculties
have been gradually evolved through long courses of descent, each
generation inheriting all that had been previously gained, and adding its
own increment to the sum of progress; that all knowledge, and even the
faculties of knowing, originate in experience, but that the primary elements
of thought are a priori intuitions to the individual derived from ancestral
experience. Thus the intuitional and experience hypotheses, over which
philosophers had so long disputed, were here for the first time reconciled.
This work, the first permanent scientific result of the application of the law
of evolution, formed a turning-point in the thought of the scientific world.
Spencer's prospectus of a philosophical system, in which the principles of
evolution were applied to the subjects of life, mind, society, and morals,
appeared in 1858, maturely elaborated in its scientific proofs and
applications, thus preceding the works of other evolutionary writers, the
most distinguished of whom, Charles Darwin (1809-1883), has been more
identified in the popular mind with the theories of evolution than Spencer
himself. The writings of Darwin have had a wider influence and have been
the subject of more controversy than those of any other contemporary
Page 732
writer. In his "Origin of Species" he accounts for the diversities of life on
our globe by means of continuous development, without the intervention of
special creative fiats at the origin of each species, and to this organic
evolution he added the important principle of natural selection. He may be
regarded as the great reformer of biology and the most distinguished
naturalist of the age. Tyndall (b. 1810) has done more than any other writer
to popularize great scientific truths. Huxley (b. 1825) stands foremost
among physiologists and naturalists.
Among numerous other writers distinguished in various branches of
science
a few only can be here named. Walter Bagehot writes on Political Society;
Alexander Bain on Mind and Body; Henry Maudsley on Brain and Mind;
Norman
Lockyer on Spectrum Analysis; and Sir John Lubbock on Natural History.
4. MISCELLANEOUS.—The most distinguished historian of the times
is James Anthony Froude (b. 1818), who, in his "Short Studies," shows the
same vigor of thought and power of description that render his history so
fascinating. The histories of John Richard Green are valuable for their
original research, and have a wide celebrity. Max Müller has rendered
important services to the sciences of Philology and Ethnology, by his
researches in Oriental languages and literatures. Lecky is eminent for his
history of "Rationalism in Europe" and "History of Morals." Leslie Stephen,
John Morley, and Addington Symonds are distinguished in various
departments of criticism and history. Justin McCarthy, in his "History of our
own Times," has skillfully presented an intellectual panorama of the period.
Hamerton writes on Art and on general topics with keen and critical
observation. Lewes (d. 1878) is the able expounder of the philosophy of
Comte. Frances Power Cobbe, in her "Intuitive Morals" and other works,
our globe by means of continuous development, without the intervention of
special creative fiats at the origin of each species, and to this organic
evolution he added the important principle of natural selection. He may be
regarded as the great reformer of biology and the most distinguished
naturalist of the age. Tyndall (b. 1810) has done more than any other writer
to popularize great scientific truths. Huxley (b. 1825) stands foremost
among physiologists and naturalists.
Among numerous other writers distinguished in various branches of
science
a few only can be here named. Walter Bagehot writes on Political Society;
Alexander Bain on Mind and Body; Henry Maudsley on Brain and Mind;
Norman
Lockyer on Spectrum Analysis; and Sir John Lubbock on Natural History.
4. MISCELLANEOUS.—The most distinguished historian of the times
is James Anthony Froude (b. 1818), who, in his "Short Studies," shows the
same vigor of thought and power of description that render his history so
fascinating. The histories of John Richard Green are valuable for their
original research, and have a wide celebrity. Max Müller has rendered
important services to the sciences of Philology and Ethnology, by his
researches in Oriental languages and literatures. Lecky is eminent for his
history of "Rationalism in Europe" and "History of Morals." Leslie Stephen,
John Morley, and Addington Symonds are distinguished in various
departments of criticism and history. Justin McCarthy, in his "History of our
own Times," has skillfully presented an intellectual panorama of the period.
Hamerton writes on Art and on general topics with keen and critical
observation. Lewes (d. 1878) is the able expounder of the philosophy of
Comte. Frances Power Cobbe, in her "Intuitive Morals" and other works,
Page 733
shows strong reasoning powers and great earnestness of purpose. John
Stuart Mill (d. 1873) holds a high place as a writer on Political Economy,
Liberty, and on the Subjection of Women. The periodicals and newspapers
of the day show remarkable intellectual ability, and represent the best
contemporary thought in England in all departments.
Stuart Mill (d. 1873) holds a high place as a writer on Political Economy,
Liberty, and on the Subjection of Women. The periodicals and newspapers
of the day show remarkable intellectual ability, and represent the best
contemporary thought in England in all departments.
Page 734
AMERICAN LITERATURE.
THE COLONIAL PERIOD.—1. The Seventeenth Century. George Sandys;
The Bay Psalm Book; Anne Bradstreet, John Eliot, and Cotton Mather.—2.
From 1700 to 1770; Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, Cadwallader
Colden.
FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD FROM 1771 TO 1820.—1. Statesmen and
Political
Writers: Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton. The Federalist: Jay, Madison,
Marshall, Fisher Ames, and others.—2. The Poets: Freneau, Trumbull,
Hopkinson, Barlow, Clifton, and Dwight.—3. Writers in other Departments:
Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop White. Rush, McClurg, Lindley
Murray,
Charles Brockden Brown. Ramsay, Graydon. Count Rumford, Wirt,
Ledyard,
Pinkney, and Pike.
SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD FROM 1820 TO 1860.—1. History,
Biography, and
Travels: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Godwin, Ticknor, Schoolcraft,
Hildreth, Sparks, Irving, Headley, Stephens, Kane, Squier, Perry, Lynch,
Taylor, and others.—2. Oratory: Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Everett,
and others.—3. Fiction: Cooper, Irving, Willis, Hawthorne, Poe, Simms,
Mrs. Stowe, and others.—4. Poetry: Bryant, Dana, Halleck, Longfellow,
THE COLONIAL PERIOD.—1. The Seventeenth Century. George Sandys;
The Bay Psalm Book; Anne Bradstreet, John Eliot, and Cotton Mather.—2.
From 1700 to 1770; Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, Cadwallader
Colden.
FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD FROM 1771 TO 1820.—1. Statesmen and
Political
Writers: Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton. The Federalist: Jay, Madison,
Marshall, Fisher Ames, and others.—2. The Poets: Freneau, Trumbull,
Hopkinson, Barlow, Clifton, and Dwight.—3. Writers in other Departments:
Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop White. Rush, McClurg, Lindley
Murray,
Charles Brockden Brown. Ramsay, Graydon. Count Rumford, Wirt,
Ledyard,
Pinkney, and Pike.
SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD FROM 1820 TO 1860.—1. History,
Biography, and
Travels: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Godwin, Ticknor, Schoolcraft,
Hildreth, Sparks, Irving, Headley, Stephens, Kane, Squier, Perry, Lynch,
Taylor, and others.—2. Oratory: Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Everett,
and others.—3. Fiction: Cooper, Irving, Willis, Hawthorne, Poe, Simms,
Mrs. Stowe, and others.—4. Poetry: Bryant, Dana, Halleck, Longfellow,
Page 735
Willis, Lowell, Allston, Hillhouse, Drake, Whittier, Hoffman, and others.
—5. The Transcendental Movement in New England.—6. Miscellaneous
Writings: Whipple, Tuckerman, Curtis, Briggs, Prentice, and others.—7.
Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, and Educational Books. The Encyclopaedia
Americana. The New American Cyclopaedia. Allibone, Griswold,
Duyckinck,
Webster, Worcester, Anthon, Felton, Barnard, and others.—8. Theology,
Philosophy, Economy, and Jurisprudence: Stuart, Robinson, Wayland,
Barnes,
Channing, Parker. Tappan, Henry, Hickok, Haven. Carey, Kent, Wheaton,
Story, Livingston, Lawrence, Bouvier.—9. Natural Sciences: Franklin,
Morse, Fulton, Silliman, Dana, Hitchcock, Rogers, Bowditch, Peirce,
Bache,
Holbrook, Audubon, Morton, Gliddon, Maury, and others.—10. Foreign
Writers: Paine, Witherspoon, Rowson, Priestley, Wilson, Agassiz, Guyot,
Mrs. Robinson, Gurowski, and others.—11. Newspapers and Periodicals.
—12. Since 1860.
THE COLONIAL PERIOD (1640-1770).
1. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.—Of all the nations which have
sprung into existence through the medium of European colonization, since
the discovery of America, the United States is the only one having a
literature of its own creation, and containing original works of a high order.
Its earliest productions, however, are of little value; they belong not to a
period of literary leisure, but to one of trial and danger, when the colonist
was forced to contend with a savage enemy, a rude soil, and all the
privations of pioneer life. It was not until the spirit of freedom began to
influence the national character, that the literature of the colonies assumed a
—5. The Transcendental Movement in New England.—6. Miscellaneous
Writings: Whipple, Tuckerman, Curtis, Briggs, Prentice, and others.—7.
Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, and Educational Books. The Encyclopaedia
Americana. The New American Cyclopaedia. Allibone, Griswold,
Duyckinck,
Webster, Worcester, Anthon, Felton, Barnard, and others.—8. Theology,
Philosophy, Economy, and Jurisprudence: Stuart, Robinson, Wayland,
Barnes,
Channing, Parker. Tappan, Henry, Hickok, Haven. Carey, Kent, Wheaton,
Story, Livingston, Lawrence, Bouvier.—9. Natural Sciences: Franklin,
Morse, Fulton, Silliman, Dana, Hitchcock, Rogers, Bowditch, Peirce,
Bache,
Holbrook, Audubon, Morton, Gliddon, Maury, and others.—10. Foreign
Writers: Paine, Witherspoon, Rowson, Priestley, Wilson, Agassiz, Guyot,
Mrs. Robinson, Gurowski, and others.—11. Newspapers and Periodicals.
—12. Since 1860.
THE COLONIAL PERIOD (1640-1770).
1. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.—Of all the nations which have
sprung into existence through the medium of European colonization, since
the discovery of America, the United States is the only one having a
literature of its own creation, and containing original works of a high order.
Its earliest productions, however, are of little value; they belong not to a
period of literary leisure, but to one of trial and danger, when the colonist
was forced to contend with a savage enemy, a rude soil, and all the
privations of pioneer life. It was not until the spirit of freedom began to
influence the national character, that the literature of the colonies assumed a
Page 736
distinctive form, although its earliest productions are not without value as
marking its subsequent development.
Among the bold spirits who, with Captain John Smith, braved the
pestilential swamps and wily Indians of Virginia, there were some lovers of
literature, the most prominent of whom was George Sandys, who translated
Ovid's "Metamorphoses" on the banks of James River. The work, published
in London in 1620, was dedicated to Charles I. and received the
commendations of Pope and Dryden. The Puritans, too, carried a love of
letters with them to the shores of New England, and their literary
productions, like their colony, took a far more lasting root than did those of
their more southern brethren. The intellect of the colonies first developed
itself in a theological form, which was the natural consequence of
emigration, induced by difference of religious opinion, the free scope
afforded for discussion, and the variety of creeds represented by the
different races who thus met on a common soil. The clergy, also, were the
best educated and the most influential class, and the colonial era therefore
boasted chiefly a theological literature, though for the most part
controversial and fugitive. While there is no want of learning or reasoning
power in the tracts of many of the theologians of that day, they are now
chiefly referred to by the antiquarian or the curious student of divinity.
The first hook printed in the colonies was the "Bay Psalm Book," which
appeared in 1640; it was reprinted in England, where it passed through
seventy editions, and retained its popularity for more than a century,
although it was not strictly original, and was devoid of literary merit.
This was followed by a volume of original poems, by Mrs. Anne
Bradstreet (d. 1672); though not above mediocrity, these effusions are
chaste in language and not altogether insipid in ideas. A few years later,
John Eliot (1604-1690), the famous Apostle to the Indians, published a
marking its subsequent development.
Among the bold spirits who, with Captain John Smith, braved the
pestilential swamps and wily Indians of Virginia, there were some lovers of
literature, the most prominent of whom was George Sandys, who translated
Ovid's "Metamorphoses" on the banks of James River. The work, published
in London in 1620, was dedicated to Charles I. and received the
commendations of Pope and Dryden. The Puritans, too, carried a love of
letters with them to the shores of New England, and their literary
productions, like their colony, took a far more lasting root than did those of
their more southern brethren. The intellect of the colonies first developed
itself in a theological form, which was the natural consequence of
emigration, induced by difference of religious opinion, the free scope
afforded for discussion, and the variety of creeds represented by the
different races who thus met on a common soil. The clergy, also, were the
best educated and the most influential class, and the colonial era therefore
boasted chiefly a theological literature, though for the most part
controversial and fugitive. While there is no want of learning or reasoning
power in the tracts of many of the theologians of that day, they are now
chiefly referred to by the antiquarian or the curious student of divinity.
The first hook printed in the colonies was the "Bay Psalm Book," which
appeared in 1640; it was reprinted in England, where it passed through
seventy editions, and retained its popularity for more than a century,
although it was not strictly original, and was devoid of literary merit.
This was followed by a volume of original poems, by Mrs. Anne
Bradstreet (d. 1672); though not above mediocrity, these effusions are
chaste in language and not altogether insipid in ideas. A few years later,
John Eliot (1604-1690), the famous Apostle to the Indians, published a
Page 737
version of the Psalms and of the Old and New Testaments in the Indian
tongue, which was the first Bible printed in America. The next production
of value was a "Concordance of the Scriptures," by John Newman (d.
1663), compiled by the light of pine knots in one of the frontier settlements
of New England; the first work of its kind, and for more than a century the
most perfect. Cotton Mather (d. 1728) was one of the most learned men of
his age, and one of its representative writers. His principal work is the
"Magnalia Christi Americana," an ecclesiastical history of New England,
from 1620 to 1698, including the civil history of the times, several
biographies, and an account of the Indian wars, and of New England
witchcraft. Eliot and Mather were the most prominent colonial writers down
to 1700.
2. FROM 1700 TO 1770.—From the year 1700 to the breaking out of the
Revolution, it was the custom of many of the colonists to send their sons to
England to be educated. Yale College and other institutions of learning were
established at home, from which many eminent scholars graduated, and,
although it was the fashion of the day to imitate the writers of the time of
Queen Anne and the two Georges, the productions of this age exhibit a
manly vigor of thought, and mark a transition from the theological to the
more purely literary era of American authorship.
Jonathan Edwards (1703-1785) was the first native writer who gave
unequivocal evidence of great reasoning power and originality of thought;
he may not unworthily be styled the first man of the world during the
second quarter of the eighteenth century; and as a theologian, Dr. Chalmers
and Robert Hall declare him to have been the greatest in all Christian ages.
Of the works of Edwards, consisting of diaries, discourses, and treatises,
that on "The Will" is the most celebrated.
tongue, which was the first Bible printed in America. The next production
of value was a "Concordance of the Scriptures," by John Newman (d.
1663), compiled by the light of pine knots in one of the frontier settlements
of New England; the first work of its kind, and for more than a century the
most perfect. Cotton Mather (d. 1728) was one of the most learned men of
his age, and one of its representative writers. His principal work is the
"Magnalia Christi Americana," an ecclesiastical history of New England,
from 1620 to 1698, including the civil history of the times, several
biographies, and an account of the Indian wars, and of New England
witchcraft. Eliot and Mather were the most prominent colonial writers down
to 1700.
2. FROM 1700 TO 1770.—From the year 1700 to the breaking out of the
Revolution, it was the custom of many of the colonists to send their sons to
England to be educated. Yale College and other institutions of learning were
established at home, from which many eminent scholars graduated, and,
although it was the fashion of the day to imitate the writers of the time of
Queen Anne and the two Georges, the productions of this age exhibit a
manly vigor of thought, and mark a transition from the theological to the
more purely literary era of American authorship.
Jonathan Edwards (1703-1785) was the first native writer who gave
unequivocal evidence of great reasoning power and originality of thought;
he may not unworthily be styled the first man of the world during the
second quarter of the eighteenth century; and as a theologian, Dr. Chalmers
and Robert Hall declare him to have been the greatest in all Christian ages.
Of the works of Edwards, consisting of diaries, discourses, and treatises,
that on "The Will" is the most celebrated.
Page 738
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was equally illustrious in statesmanship
and philosophy. The style of his political and philosophical writings is
admirable for its simplicity, clearness, precision, and condensation; and that
of his letters and essays has all the wit and elegance that characterize the
best writers of Queen Anne's time. His autobiography is one of the most
pleasing compositions in the English language, and his moral writings have
had a powerful influence on the character of the American people.
From the early youth of Franklin until about the year 1770, general
literature received much attention, and numerous productions of merit both
in prose and verse appeared, which, if not decidedly great, were interesting
for the progress they displayed. Many practical minds devoted themselves
to colonial history, and their labors have been of great value to subsequent
historians. Among these historical writings, those of Cadwallader Colden
(1688-1776) take the first rank. As we approach the exciting dawn of the
Revolution, the growing independence of thought becomes more and more
manifest.
FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD (1770-1820).
1. STATESMEN AND POLITICAL WRITERS.—Among the causes which
rapidly developed literature and eloquence in the colonies, the most
important were the oppressions of the mother country, at first silently
endured, then met with murmurs of dissatisfaction, and finally with manful
and boldly-expressed opposition. Speeches and pamphlets were the
weapons of attack, and treating as they did upon subjects affecting the
individual liberty of every citizen, they had a powerful influence on the
public mind, and went far towards severing that mental reliance upon
Europe which American authorship is now so rapidly consummating. The
conventionalism of European literature was cast aside, and the first fruits of
and philosophy. The style of his political and philosophical writings is
admirable for its simplicity, clearness, precision, and condensation; and that
of his letters and essays has all the wit and elegance that characterize the
best writers of Queen Anne's time. His autobiography is one of the most
pleasing compositions in the English language, and his moral writings have
had a powerful influence on the character of the American people.
From the early youth of Franklin until about the year 1770, general
literature received much attention, and numerous productions of merit both
in prose and verse appeared, which, if not decidedly great, were interesting
for the progress they displayed. Many practical minds devoted themselves
to colonial history, and their labors have been of great value to subsequent
historians. Among these historical writings, those of Cadwallader Colden
(1688-1776) take the first rank. As we approach the exciting dawn of the
Revolution, the growing independence of thought becomes more and more
manifest.
FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD (1770-1820).
1. STATESMEN AND POLITICAL WRITERS.—Among the causes which
rapidly developed literature and eloquence in the colonies, the most
important were the oppressions of the mother country, at first silently
endured, then met with murmurs of dissatisfaction, and finally with manful
and boldly-expressed opposition. Speeches and pamphlets were the
weapons of attack, and treating as they did upon subjects affecting the
individual liberty of every citizen, they had a powerful influence on the
public mind, and went far towards severing that mental reliance upon
Europe which American authorship is now so rapidly consummating. The
conventionalism of European literature was cast aside, and the first fruits of
Page 739
native genius appeared. The public documents of the principal statesmen of
the age of the Revolution were declared by Lord Chatham to equal the
finest specimens of Greek or Roman wisdom. The historical
correspondence of this period constitutes a remarkable portion of American
literature, and is valuable not only for its high qualities of wisdom and
patriotism, but for its graces of expression and felicitous illustration. The
letters of Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Jay, Morris, Hamilton,
and many of their compatriots, possess a permanent literary value aside
from that which they derive from their authorship and the gravity of their
subjects.
The speeches of many of the great orators of the age of the Revolution
are not preserved, and are known only by tradition. Of the eloquence of
Otis, which was described as "flames of fire," there are but a few meagre
reports; the passionate appeals of Patrick Henry and of the elder Adams,
which "moved the hearers from their seats," and the resistless declamation
of Pinkney and Rutledge, are preserved only in the history of the effects
which these orators produced.
The writings of Washington (1732-1799), produced chiefly in the camp
surrounded by the din of arms, are remarkable for clearness of expression,
force of language, and a tone of lofty patriotism. They are second to none of
similar character in any nation, and they display powers which, had they
been devoted to literature, would have achieved a position of no secondary
character.
Jefferson (1743-1826) early published a "Summary View of the Rights of
British America," which passed through several editions in London, under
the supervision of Burke. His "Notes on Virginia" is still a standard work,
and his varied and extensive correspondence is a valuable contribution to
American political history.
the age of the Revolution were declared by Lord Chatham to equal the
finest specimens of Greek or Roman wisdom. The historical
correspondence of this period constitutes a remarkable portion of American
literature, and is valuable not only for its high qualities of wisdom and
patriotism, but for its graces of expression and felicitous illustration. The
letters of Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Jay, Morris, Hamilton,
and many of their compatriots, possess a permanent literary value aside
from that which they derive from their authorship and the gravity of their
subjects.
The speeches of many of the great orators of the age of the Revolution
are not preserved, and are known only by tradition. Of the eloquence of
Otis, which was described as "flames of fire," there are but a few meagre
reports; the passionate appeals of Patrick Henry and of the elder Adams,
which "moved the hearers from their seats," and the resistless declamation
of Pinkney and Rutledge, are preserved only in the history of the effects
which these orators produced.
The writings of Washington (1732-1799), produced chiefly in the camp
surrounded by the din of arms, are remarkable for clearness of expression,
force of language, and a tone of lofty patriotism. They are second to none of
similar character in any nation, and they display powers which, had they
been devoted to literature, would have achieved a position of no secondary
character.
Jefferson (1743-1826) early published a "Summary View of the Rights of
British America," which passed through several editions in London, under
the supervision of Burke. His "Notes on Virginia" is still a standard work,
and his varied and extensive correspondence is a valuable contribution to
American political history.
Page 740
Hamilton (1757-1804) was one of the most remarkable men of the time,
and to his profound sagacity the country was chiefly indebted for a
regulated currency and an established credit after the conclusion of the war.
During a life of varied and absorbing occupation as a soldier, lawyer, and
statesman, he found time to record his principles; and his writings, full of
energy and sound sense, are noble in tone, and deep in wisdom and insight.
"The Federalist," a joint production of Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, exhibits
a profundity of research and an acuteness of understanding which would do
honor to the most illustrious statesmen of any age. The name of Madison
(1751-1836) is one of the most prominent in the history of the country, and
his writings, chiefly on political, constitutional, and historical subjects, are
of extraordinary value to the student in history and political philosophy.
Marshall (1755-1835) was for thirty-five years chief-justice of the
Supreme Court of the United States; a court, the powers of which are
greater than were ever before confided to a judicial tribunal. Determining,
without appeal, its own jurisdiction and that of the legislative and executive
departments, this court is not merely the highest estate in the country, but it
settles and continually moulds the constitution of the government. To the
duties of his office, Judge Marshall brought a quickness of conception
commensurate with their difficulty, and the spirit and strength of one
capable of ministering to the development of a nation. The vessel of state, it
has been said, was launched by the patriotism of many; the chart of her
course was designed chiefly by Hamilton; but when the voyage was begun,
the eye that observed, the head that reckoned, and the hand that compelled
the ship to keep her course amid tempests without, and threats of mutiny
within, were those of the great chief-justice, whom posterity will reverence
as one of the founders of the nation. Marshall's "Life of Washington" is a
faithful and conscientious narrative, written in a clear, unpretending style,
and possesses much literary merit.
and to his profound sagacity the country was chiefly indebted for a
regulated currency and an established credit after the conclusion of the war.
During a life of varied and absorbing occupation as a soldier, lawyer, and
statesman, he found time to record his principles; and his writings, full of
energy and sound sense, are noble in tone, and deep in wisdom and insight.
"The Federalist," a joint production of Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, exhibits
a profundity of research and an acuteness of understanding which would do
honor to the most illustrious statesmen of any age. The name of Madison
(1751-1836) is one of the most prominent in the history of the country, and
his writings, chiefly on political, constitutional, and historical subjects, are
of extraordinary value to the student in history and political philosophy.
Marshall (1755-1835) was for thirty-five years chief-justice of the
Supreme Court of the United States; a court, the powers of which are
greater than were ever before confided to a judicial tribunal. Determining,
without appeal, its own jurisdiction and that of the legislative and executive
departments, this court is not merely the highest estate in the country, but it
settles and continually moulds the constitution of the government. To the
duties of his office, Judge Marshall brought a quickness of conception
commensurate with their difficulty, and the spirit and strength of one
capable of ministering to the development of a nation. The vessel of state, it
has been said, was launched by the patriotism of many; the chart of her
course was designed chiefly by Hamilton; but when the voyage was begun,
the eye that observed, the head that reckoned, and the hand that compelled
the ship to keep her course amid tempests without, and threats of mutiny
within, were those of the great chief-justice, whom posterity will reverence
as one of the founders of the nation. Marshall's "Life of Washington" is a
faithful and conscientious narrative, written in a clear, unpretending style,
and possesses much literary merit.
Page 741
Fisher Ames (1758-1808), one of the leaders of the federal party during
the administration of Washington, was equally admired for his learning and
eloquence; although, owing to the temporary interest of many of the
subjects on which he wrote, his reputation has somewhat declined.
Among other writers and orators of the age of the Revolution were
Warren, Adams, and Otis, Patrick Henry, Rutledge, Livingston, Drayton,
Quincy, Dickinson, and numerous firm and gifted men, who, by their
logical and earnest appeals roused the country to the assertion of its rights
and gave a wise direction to the power they thus evoked.
2. THE POETS.—One of the most distinguished poets of the Age of the
Revolution was Philip Freneau (1752-1832). Although many of his
compositions which had great political effect at the time they were written
have little merit, or relate to forgotten events, enough remains to show that
he was not wanting in genius and enthusiasm.
John Trumbull (1750-1831) was the author of "McFingal," a humorous
poem in the style of Butler's Hudibras, the object of which was to render
ludicrous the zeal and logic of the tories. There is no contemporaneous
record which supplies so vivid a representation of the manners of the age,
and the habits and modes of thinking that then prevailed. The popularity of
McFingal was extraordinary, and it had an important influence on the great
events of the time. Trumbull was a tutor in Yale College, and attempted to
introduce an improved course of study and discipline into the institution,
which met with much opposition. His most finished poem, "The Progress of
Dullness," was hardly less serviceable to the cause of education than his
McFingal was to that of liberty. Francis Hopkinson (1738-1791), another
wit of the Revolution, may be ranked beside Trumbull for his efficiency in
the national cause.
the administration of Washington, was equally admired for his learning and
eloquence; although, owing to the temporary interest of many of the
subjects on which he wrote, his reputation has somewhat declined.
Among other writers and orators of the age of the Revolution were
Warren, Adams, and Otis, Patrick Henry, Rutledge, Livingston, Drayton,
Quincy, Dickinson, and numerous firm and gifted men, who, by their
logical and earnest appeals roused the country to the assertion of its rights
and gave a wise direction to the power they thus evoked.
2. THE POETS.—One of the most distinguished poets of the Age of the
Revolution was Philip Freneau (1752-1832). Although many of his
compositions which had great political effect at the time they were written
have little merit, or relate to forgotten events, enough remains to show that
he was not wanting in genius and enthusiasm.
John Trumbull (1750-1831) was the author of "McFingal," a humorous
poem in the style of Butler's Hudibras, the object of which was to render
ludicrous the zeal and logic of the tories. There is no contemporaneous
record which supplies so vivid a representation of the manners of the age,
and the habits and modes of thinking that then prevailed. The popularity of
McFingal was extraordinary, and it had an important influence on the great
events of the time. Trumbull was a tutor in Yale College, and attempted to
introduce an improved course of study and discipline into the institution,
which met with much opposition. His most finished poem, "The Progress of
Dullness," was hardly less serviceable to the cause of education than his
McFingal was to that of liberty. Francis Hopkinson (1738-1791), another
wit of the Revolution, may be ranked beside Trumbull for his efficiency in
the national cause.
Page 742
Joel Barlow (1755-1812) as an author was among the first of his time.
His principal work is the "Columbiad," an epic poem which, with many
faults, has occasional bursts of patriotism and true eloquence, which should
preserve it from oblivion. His pleasing poem celebrating "Hasty Pudding"
has gained a more extensive popularity. The few songs of William Clifton
(1772-1799), a more original and vigorous poet, are imbued with the true
spirit of lyric poetry.
Timothy Dwight (1752-1819) was the author of "Greenfield Hill," the
"Conquest of Canaan," an epic poem, and several other productions; but his
fame rests chiefly on his merits as a theologian, in which department he had
few if any equals. Many other names might be cited, but none of
commanding excellence.
3. WRITERS IN OTHER DEPARTMENTS.—Although in the period
immediately succeeding the Revolution there was a strong tendency to
political discussion, not a few writers found exercise in other departments.
Theology had its able expounders in Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop
White. Barton merits especial notice for his work on botany, and for his
ethnological investigations concerning the Indian race, and Drs. Rush and
McClurg were eminent in various departments of medical science. In 1795,
Lindley Murray (1745-1826) published his English Grammar, which for a
long time held its place as the best work of the kind in the language.
It should be borne in mind, however, that during this period very few
writers devoted themselves exclusively to literature. Charles Brockden
Brown (1771-1810) was the first purely professional author. His chief
productions are two works of fiction, "Wieland" and "Arthur Mervyn,"
which from their merit, and as the first of American creations in the world
of romance, were favorably received, and early attracted attention in
England.
His principal work is the "Columbiad," an epic poem which, with many
faults, has occasional bursts of patriotism and true eloquence, which should
preserve it from oblivion. His pleasing poem celebrating "Hasty Pudding"
has gained a more extensive popularity. The few songs of William Clifton
(1772-1799), a more original and vigorous poet, are imbued with the true
spirit of lyric poetry.
Timothy Dwight (1752-1819) was the author of "Greenfield Hill," the
"Conquest of Canaan," an epic poem, and several other productions; but his
fame rests chiefly on his merits as a theologian, in which department he had
few if any equals. Many other names might be cited, but none of
commanding excellence.
3. WRITERS IN OTHER DEPARTMENTS.—Although in the period
immediately succeeding the Revolution there was a strong tendency to
political discussion, not a few writers found exercise in other departments.
Theology had its able expounders in Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop
White. Barton merits especial notice for his work on botany, and for his
ethnological investigations concerning the Indian race, and Drs. Rush and
McClurg were eminent in various departments of medical science. In 1795,
Lindley Murray (1745-1826) published his English Grammar, which for a
long time held its place as the best work of the kind in the language.
It should be borne in mind, however, that during this period very few
writers devoted themselves exclusively to literature. Charles Brockden
Brown (1771-1810) was the first purely professional author. His chief
productions are two works of fiction, "Wieland" and "Arthur Mervyn,"
which from their merit, and as the first of American creations in the world
of romance, were favorably received, and early attracted attention in
England.
Page 743
One of the earliest laborers in the field of history was David Ramsay
(1749-1815), and his numerous works are monuments of his unwearied
research and patient labor for the public good and the honor of his country.
Graydon's (1742-1818) "Memoirs of his own Times, with Reminiscences of
Men and Events of the Revolution," illustrates the most interesting and
important period of our history, and combines the various excellences of
style, scholarship, and impartiality.
Benjamin Thompson (1753-1814), better known by his title of Count
Rumford, acquired an extensive reputation in the scientific world for his
various philosophical improvements in private and political economy.
William Wirt was the author of the "Letters of the British Spy," which
derives its interest from its descriptions and notices of individuals. His "Life
of Patrick Henry" is a finished piece of biography, surpassed by few works
of its kind in elegance of style and force of narrative.
John Ledyard (1751-1788), who died in Egypt while preparing for the
exploration of Central Africa, was the first important contributor to the
literature of travel, in America, and his journals, abounding in pleasing
description and truthful narratives, have become classic in this department
of letters, A captivating book of travels in France, by Lieutenant Pinkney,
which appeared in 1809, created such a sensation in England, that Leigh
Hunt tells us it set all the idle world going to France. Zebulon Pike, under
the auspices of the government, published the first book ever written on the
country between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains.
SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD (1820-1860).
1. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, AND TRAVELS.—From the year 1820,
American literature may be considered as fairly launched upon its national
career. The early laborers in the field had immense difficulties to encounter
(1749-1815), and his numerous works are monuments of his unwearied
research and patient labor for the public good and the honor of his country.
Graydon's (1742-1818) "Memoirs of his own Times, with Reminiscences of
Men and Events of the Revolution," illustrates the most interesting and
important period of our history, and combines the various excellences of
style, scholarship, and impartiality.
Benjamin Thompson (1753-1814), better known by his title of Count
Rumford, acquired an extensive reputation in the scientific world for his
various philosophical improvements in private and political economy.
William Wirt was the author of the "Letters of the British Spy," which
derives its interest from its descriptions and notices of individuals. His "Life
of Patrick Henry" is a finished piece of biography, surpassed by few works
of its kind in elegance of style and force of narrative.
John Ledyard (1751-1788), who died in Egypt while preparing for the
exploration of Central Africa, was the first important contributor to the
literature of travel, in America, and his journals, abounding in pleasing
description and truthful narratives, have become classic in this department
of letters, A captivating book of travels in France, by Lieutenant Pinkney,
which appeared in 1809, created such a sensation in England, that Leigh
Hunt tells us it set all the idle world going to France. Zebulon Pike, under
the auspices of the government, published the first book ever written on the
country between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains.
SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD (1820-1860).
1. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, AND TRAVELS.—From the year 1820,
American literature may be considered as fairly launched upon its national
career. The early laborers in the field had immense difficulties to encounter
Page 744
from ridicule abroad and want of appreciation at home; but they at last
succeeded in dispelling all doubts as to the capability of the American mind
for the exercise of original power, and to some extent diverted public
thought from Europe as an exclusive source of mental supplies. The era we
are now to consider will be found prolific in works of merit, and the
expansion of mind will be seen to have kept pace with the political, social,
and commercial progress of the nation. No subject of human knowledge has
been overlooked; many European works have been elucidated by the fresh
light of the American mind; a new style of thought has been developed; new
scenes have been opened to the world, and Europe is receiving
compensation in kind for the intellectual treasures she has heretofore sent to
America.
The marvelous growth of the United States, its relations to the past and
future, and to the great problem of humanity, render its history one of the
most suggestive episodes in the annals of the world, and give to it a
universal as well as a special dignity. Justly interpreted, it is the practical
demonstration of principles which the noblest spirits of England advocated
with their pens, and often sealed with their blood. The early colonists were
familiar with the responsibilities and progressive tendency of liberal
institutions, and in achieving the Revolution they only carried out what had
long existed in idea, and actualized the views of Sidney and his illustrious
compeers. Through this intimate relation with the past of the Old World,
and as initiative to its future self-enfranchisement, our history daily unfolds
new meaning and increases in importance and interest. It is only within the
last quarter of a century, however, that this theme has found any adequate
illustration. Before that time the labors of American historians had been
chiefly confined to the collection of materials, the unadorned record of facts
which rarely derived any charm from the graces of style or the resources of
philosophy.
succeeded in dispelling all doubts as to the capability of the American mind
for the exercise of original power, and to some extent diverted public
thought from Europe as an exclusive source of mental supplies. The era we
are now to consider will be found prolific in works of merit, and the
expansion of mind will be seen to have kept pace with the political, social,
and commercial progress of the nation. No subject of human knowledge has
been overlooked; many European works have been elucidated by the fresh
light of the American mind; a new style of thought has been developed; new
scenes have been opened to the world, and Europe is receiving
compensation in kind for the intellectual treasures she has heretofore sent to
America.
The marvelous growth of the United States, its relations to the past and
future, and to the great problem of humanity, render its history one of the
most suggestive episodes in the annals of the world, and give to it a
universal as well as a special dignity. Justly interpreted, it is the practical
demonstration of principles which the noblest spirits of England advocated
with their pens, and often sealed with their blood. The early colonists were
familiar with the responsibilities and progressive tendency of liberal
institutions, and in achieving the Revolution they only carried out what had
long existed in idea, and actualized the views of Sidney and his illustrious
compeers. Through this intimate relation with the past of the Old World,
and as initiative to its future self-enfranchisement, our history daily unfolds
new meaning and increases in importance and interest. It is only within the
last quarter of a century, however, that this theme has found any adequate
illustration. Before that time the labors of American historians had been
chiefly confined to the collection of materials, the unadorned record of facts
which rarely derived any charm from the graces of style or the resources of
philosophy.
Page 745
The most successful attempt to reduce the chaotic but rich materials of
American history to order, beauty, and moral significance has been made by
Bancroft (b. 1800), who has brought to the work not only talent and
scholarship of high order, but an earnest sympathy with the spirit of the age
he was to illustrate. In sentiment and principle his history is thoroughly
American, although in its style and philosophy it has that broad and eclectic
spirit appropriate to the general interest of the subject, and the enlightened
sympathies of the age. Unwearied and patient in research, discriminating
and judicious in the choice of authorities, and possessed of all the qualities
required to fuse into a vital unity the narrative thus carefully gleaned,
Bancroft has written the most accurate and philosophical account that has
been given of the United States.
The works of Prescott (1796-1858) are among the finest models of
historical composition, and they breathe freely the spirit of our liberal
institutions. His "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," of the "Conquest of
Mexico," and the "Conquest of Peru," unite all the fascination of romantic
fiction with the grave interest of authentic events. The picturesque and
romantic character of his subjects, the harmony and beauty of his style, the
dramatic interest of his narrative, and the careful research which renders his
works as valuable for their accuracy as they are attractive for their style,
have given Prescott's histories a brilliant and extensive reputation; and it is
a matter of deep regret that his last and crowning work, "The History of
Philip II.," should remain uncompleted. Another important contribution to
the literature of the country is Motley's (1814- 1877) "History of the Rise of
the Dutch Republic," a work distinguished for its historical accuracy,
philosophical breadth of treatment, and clearness and vigor of style. The
narrative proceeds with a steady and easy flow, and the scenes it traces are
portrayed with the hand of a master; while the whole work is pervaded by a
spirit of humanity and a genuine sympathy with liberty. Parke Godwin's
"History of France" is remarkable for its combination of deep research,
American history to order, beauty, and moral significance has been made by
Bancroft (b. 1800), who has brought to the work not only talent and
scholarship of high order, but an earnest sympathy with the spirit of the age
he was to illustrate. In sentiment and principle his history is thoroughly
American, although in its style and philosophy it has that broad and eclectic
spirit appropriate to the general interest of the subject, and the enlightened
sympathies of the age. Unwearied and patient in research, discriminating
and judicious in the choice of authorities, and possessed of all the qualities
required to fuse into a vital unity the narrative thus carefully gleaned,
Bancroft has written the most accurate and philosophical account that has
been given of the United States.
The works of Prescott (1796-1858) are among the finest models of
historical composition, and they breathe freely the spirit of our liberal
institutions. His "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," of the "Conquest of
Mexico," and the "Conquest of Peru," unite all the fascination of romantic
fiction with the grave interest of authentic events. The picturesque and
romantic character of his subjects, the harmony and beauty of his style, the
dramatic interest of his narrative, and the careful research which renders his
works as valuable for their accuracy as they are attractive for their style,
have given Prescott's histories a brilliant and extensive reputation; and it is
a matter of deep regret that his last and crowning work, "The History of
Philip II.," should remain uncompleted. Another important contribution to
the literature of the country is Motley's (1814- 1877) "History of the Rise of
the Dutch Republic," a work distinguished for its historical accuracy,
philosophical breadth of treatment, and clearness and vigor of style. The
narrative proceeds with a steady and easy flow, and the scenes it traces are
portrayed with the hand of a master; while the whole work is pervaded by a
spirit of humanity and a genuine sympathy with liberty. Parke Godwin's
"History of France" is remarkable for its combination of deep research,
Page 746
picturesqueness of style; and John Poster Kirk is the author of a valuable
history of Charles the Bold.
Ticknor's (1791-1871) "History of Spanish Literature," as an intellectual
achievement, ranks with the best productions of its kind, and is everywhere
regarded by scholars as a standard authority. It is thoroughly penetrated
with the true Castilian spirit, and is a complete record of Spanish
civilization, both social and intellectual, equally interesting to the general
reader and to the student of civil history. It has been translated into several
languages.
Henry R. Schoolcraft has devoted much time to researches among the
Indian tribes of North America, and embodied the result of his labors in
many volumes, containing their traditions, and the most interesting facts of
their history. Catlin's "Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of
the North American Indians," though without literary pretensions or literary
merit; fills an important place in ethnological literature. Another work of a
more historical character is "The History of the Indian Tribes of North
America," the joint production of Hall and McKinney. Bradford's
"American Antiquities and Researches into the Origin of the Red Race" is
also an able and instructive work. In Hildreth's "History of the United
States," rhetorical grace and effect give way to a plain narrative confined to
facts gleaned with great care and conscientiousness. The "Field-Book of the
Revolution," by Lossing, who has visited all the scenes of that memorable
war, and delineated them with pen and pencil, is a work which finds its way
to all the school libraries of the country. Cooper's "Naval History of the
United States" abounds in picturesque and thrilling descriptions of naval
warfare, and is one of the most characteristic histories, both in regard to
style and subject, yet produced in America.
history of Charles the Bold.
Ticknor's (1791-1871) "History of Spanish Literature," as an intellectual
achievement, ranks with the best productions of its kind, and is everywhere
regarded by scholars as a standard authority. It is thoroughly penetrated
with the true Castilian spirit, and is a complete record of Spanish
civilization, both social and intellectual, equally interesting to the general
reader and to the student of civil history. It has been translated into several
languages.
Henry R. Schoolcraft has devoted much time to researches among the
Indian tribes of North America, and embodied the result of his labors in
many volumes, containing their traditions, and the most interesting facts of
their history. Catlin's "Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of
the North American Indians," though without literary pretensions or literary
merit; fills an important place in ethnological literature. Another work of a
more historical character is "The History of the Indian Tribes of North
America," the joint production of Hall and McKinney. Bradford's
"American Antiquities and Researches into the Origin of the Red Race" is
also an able and instructive work. In Hildreth's "History of the United
States," rhetorical grace and effect give way to a plain narrative confined to
facts gleaned with great care and conscientiousness. The "Field-Book of the
Revolution," by Lossing, who has visited all the scenes of that memorable
war, and delineated them with pen and pencil, is a work which finds its way
to all the school libraries of the country. Cooper's "Naval History of the
United States" abounds in picturesque and thrilling descriptions of naval
warfare, and is one of the most characteristic histories, both in regard to
style and subject, yet produced in America.
Page 747
S. G. Goodrich (1793-1860), who, under the name of Peter Parley, has
acquired an extensive popularity in England and the United States, was the
pioneer in the important reform of rendering historical school-books
attractive, and his numerous works occupy a prominent place in the
literature designed for the young. Two other able writers in this department
are John S.C. and Jacob Abbott.
Among the numerous local and special histories, valuable for their
correctness and literary merit, are Brodhead's "History of New York,"
Palfrey's and Elliott's Histories of New England, Trumbull's "History of
Connecticut," Hawks's "History of North Carolina," and Dr. Francis's
"Historical Sketches."
To the department of Biography, Jared Sparks has made many valuable
contributions. Washington Irving's "Life and Voyages of Columbus" and
"Life of Washington" have gained a popularity as extensive as the fame of
this charming writer. Mrs. Kirkland, also, has written a popular "Life of
Washington." The biographies and histories of J.T. Headley are remarkable
for a vivacity and energy, which have given them great popularity. The
"Biographical and Historical Studies" of G.W. Greene, Randall's "Life of
Jefferson," Parton's Biographies of Aaron Burr and other celebrated men,
Mrs. Ellet's "Women of the Revolution" and "Women Artists in all Ages,"
and Mrs. Hale's "Sketches of Distinguished Women in all Ages," are among
the numerous works belonging to this department.
The restlessness of the American character finds a mode of expression in
the love of travel and adventure, and within the last thirty years no nation
has contributed to literature more interesting books of travel than the United
States. Flint's "Wanderings in the Valley of the Mississippi," Schoolcraft's
"Discoveries and Adventures in the Northwest," Irving's "Astoria," and
Fremont's Reports are instructive and entertaining accounts of the West. The
acquired an extensive popularity in England and the United States, was the
pioneer in the important reform of rendering historical school-books
attractive, and his numerous works occupy a prominent place in the
literature designed for the young. Two other able writers in this department
are John S.C. and Jacob Abbott.
Among the numerous local and special histories, valuable for their
correctness and literary merit, are Brodhead's "History of New York,"
Palfrey's and Elliott's Histories of New England, Trumbull's "History of
Connecticut," Hawks's "History of North Carolina," and Dr. Francis's
"Historical Sketches."
To the department of Biography, Jared Sparks has made many valuable
contributions. Washington Irving's "Life and Voyages of Columbus" and
"Life of Washington" have gained a popularity as extensive as the fame of
this charming writer. Mrs. Kirkland, also, has written a popular "Life of
Washington." The biographies and histories of J.T. Headley are remarkable
for a vivacity and energy, which have given them great popularity. The
"Biographical and Historical Studies" of G.W. Greene, Randall's "Life of
Jefferson," Parton's Biographies of Aaron Burr and other celebrated men,
Mrs. Ellet's "Women of the Revolution" and "Women Artists in all Ages,"
and Mrs. Hale's "Sketches of Distinguished Women in all Ages," are among
the numerous works belonging to this department.
The restlessness of the American character finds a mode of expression in
the love of travel and adventure, and within the last thirty years no nation
has contributed to literature more interesting books of travel than the United
States. Flint's "Wanderings in the Valley of the Mississippi," Schoolcraft's
"Discoveries and Adventures in the Northwest," Irving's "Astoria," and
Fremont's Reports are instructive and entertaining accounts of the West. The
Page 748
"Incidents of Travel" of John L. Stephens (1805-1857) has had remarkable
success in Europe as well as in this country. The adventurous Arctic
explorations of E.K. Kane (1822-1857) have elicited universal admiration
for the interest of their descriptions and for the heroism and indomitable
energy of the writer. These narratives have been followed by those of Hayes
in the same field of adventure. The scientific explorations of E.G. Squier
have thrown new light on the antiquities and ethnology of the aboriginal
tribes of America. Wilkes's "Narrative of the United States Exploring
Expedition" and Perry's "Narrative of an Expedition to Japan" are full of
scientific and general information. Lynch's "Exploration of the Dead Sea"
and Herndon's "Valley of the Amazon" belong to the same class. Bartlett's
"Explorations in Texas and New Mexico" is interesting from the accuracy
of its descriptions and the novelty of the scenes it describes. Among the
numerous other entertaining books of travel in foreign countries are those of
Bayard Taylor, who has left few parts of the world unvisited; Dana's "Two
Years Before the Mast;" Curtis's "Nile Notes;" Norman's "Cities of
Yucatan;" Dix's "Winter in Madeira;" Brace's "Hungary," "Home Life in
Germany," and "Norse Folk;" Olmsted's "Travels in the Seaboard Slave
States," and other works; Ross Browne's "Notes," Prime's "Boat" and "Tent
Life," and "Letters of Irenaeus;" Slidell's "Year in Spain;" Willis's
"Pencillings by the Way;" Hillard's "Six Months in Italy" and "Letters;"
"Memories" and "Souvenirs," by Catherine M. Sedgwick, Sarah Haight,
Harriet Beecher Stowe, Grace Greenwood, and Octavia Walton Le Vert.
2. ORATORY.—The public speeches of a nation's chief legislators are
shining landmarks of its policy and lucid developments of the character and
genius of its institutions. Of the statesmen of the present century, the most
eminent are Webster, Clay, and Calhoun. Daniel Webster (1782- 1852) is
acknowledged to be one of the greatest men America has produced. His
speeches and forensic arguments constitute a characteristic as well as an
intrinsically valuable and interesting portion of our native literature, and
success in Europe as well as in this country. The adventurous Arctic
explorations of E.K. Kane (1822-1857) have elicited universal admiration
for the interest of their descriptions and for the heroism and indomitable
energy of the writer. These narratives have been followed by those of Hayes
in the same field of adventure. The scientific explorations of E.G. Squier
have thrown new light on the antiquities and ethnology of the aboriginal
tribes of America. Wilkes's "Narrative of the United States Exploring
Expedition" and Perry's "Narrative of an Expedition to Japan" are full of
scientific and general information. Lynch's "Exploration of the Dead Sea"
and Herndon's "Valley of the Amazon" belong to the same class. Bartlett's
"Explorations in Texas and New Mexico" is interesting from the accuracy
of its descriptions and the novelty of the scenes it describes. Among the
numerous other entertaining books of travel in foreign countries are those of
Bayard Taylor, who has left few parts of the world unvisited; Dana's "Two
Years Before the Mast;" Curtis's "Nile Notes;" Norman's "Cities of
Yucatan;" Dix's "Winter in Madeira;" Brace's "Hungary," "Home Life in
Germany," and "Norse Folk;" Olmsted's "Travels in the Seaboard Slave
States," and other works; Ross Browne's "Notes," Prime's "Boat" and "Tent
Life," and "Letters of Irenaeus;" Slidell's "Year in Spain;" Willis's
"Pencillings by the Way;" Hillard's "Six Months in Italy" and "Letters;"
"Memories" and "Souvenirs," by Catherine M. Sedgwick, Sarah Haight,
Harriet Beecher Stowe, Grace Greenwood, and Octavia Walton Le Vert.
2. ORATORY.—The public speeches of a nation's chief legislators are
shining landmarks of its policy and lucid developments of the character and
genius of its institutions. Of the statesmen of the present century, the most
eminent are Webster, Clay, and Calhoun. Daniel Webster (1782- 1852) is
acknowledged to be one of the greatest men America has produced. His
speeches and forensic arguments constitute a characteristic as well as an
intrinsically valuable and interesting portion of our native literature, and
Page 749
some of his orations on particular occasions are everywhere recognized as
among the greatest instances of genius in this branch of letters to be met
with in modern times. The style of Webster is remarkable for its clearness
and impressiveness, and rises occasionally to absolute grandeur. His dignity
of expression, breadth and force of thought realize the ideal of a republican
statesman; his writings, independent of their literary merit, are invaluable
for the nationality of their tone and spirit.
The speeches of Henry Clay (1777-1852) are distinguished by a sincerity
and warmth which were characteristic of the man, who united the gentlest
affections with the pride of the haughtiest manhood. His style of oratory,
full, flowing, and sensuous, was modulated by a voice of sustained power
and sweetness and a heart of chivalrous courtesy, and his eloquence reached
the heart of the whole nation.
The style of John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) was terse and condensed, and
his eloquence, though sometimes impassioned, was always severe. He had
great skill as a dialectician and remarkable power of analysis, and his works
will have a permanent place in American literature. The writings and
speeches of John Quincy Adams (1769-1848) are distinguished by
universality of knowledge and independence of judgment, and they are
repositories of rich materials for the historian and political philosopher.
Benton's (1783-1858) "Thirty Years' View" of the working of the American
government is a succession of historical pictures which will increase in
value as the scenes they portray become more distant. Edward Everett
(1794-1865), as an orator, has few living equals, and his occasional
addresses and orations have become permanent memorials of many
important occasions of public interest. Of the numerous other orators,
eminent as rhetoricians or debaters, a few only can be named; among them
are Legaré, Randolph, Choate, Sumner, Phillips, Preston, and Prentiss.
among the greatest instances of genius in this branch of letters to be met
with in modern times. The style of Webster is remarkable for its clearness
and impressiveness, and rises occasionally to absolute grandeur. His dignity
of expression, breadth and force of thought realize the ideal of a republican
statesman; his writings, independent of their literary merit, are invaluable
for the nationality of their tone and spirit.
The speeches of Henry Clay (1777-1852) are distinguished by a sincerity
and warmth which were characteristic of the man, who united the gentlest
affections with the pride of the haughtiest manhood. His style of oratory,
full, flowing, and sensuous, was modulated by a voice of sustained power
and sweetness and a heart of chivalrous courtesy, and his eloquence reached
the heart of the whole nation.
The style of John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) was terse and condensed, and
his eloquence, though sometimes impassioned, was always severe. He had
great skill as a dialectician and remarkable power of analysis, and his works
will have a permanent place in American literature. The writings and
speeches of John Quincy Adams (1769-1848) are distinguished by
universality of knowledge and independence of judgment, and they are
repositories of rich materials for the historian and political philosopher.
Benton's (1783-1858) "Thirty Years' View" of the working of the American
government is a succession of historical pictures which will increase in
value as the scenes they portray become more distant. Edward Everett
(1794-1865), as an orator, has few living equals, and his occasional
addresses and orations have become permanent memorials of many
important occasions of public interest. Of the numerous other orators,
eminent as rhetoricians or debaters, a few only can be named; among them
are Legaré, Randolph, Choate, Sumner, Phillips, Preston, and Prentiss.
Page 750
3. FICTION.—Romantic fiction found its first national development in
the writings of James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), and through his works
American literature first became widely known in Europe. His nautical and
Indian tales; his delineations of the American mind in its adventurous
character, and his vivid pictures of the aborigines, and of forest and frontier
life, from their freshness, power, and novelty, attracted universal attention,
and were translated into the principal European languages as soon as they
appeared. "The Spy," "The Pioneers," "The Last of the Mohicans," and
numerous other productions of Cooper, must hold a lasting place in English
literature.
The genial and refined humor of Washington Irving (1783-1859), his
lively fancy and poetic imagination, have made his name a favorite
wherever the English language is known. He depicts a great variety of
scenes and character with singular skill and felicity, and his style has all the
ease and grace, the purity and charm, that distinguish that of Goldsmith,
with whom he may justly be compared. "The Sketch-Book" and
"Knickerbocker's History of New York" are among the most admired of his
earlier writings, and his later works have more than sustained his early
fame.
The tales and prose sketches of N.P. Willis are characterized by genial
wit, and a delicate rather than a powerful imagination, while beneath his
brilliant audacities of phrase there is a current of original thought and
genuine feeling. Commanding all the resources of passion, while he is at the
same time master of all the effects of manner, in the power of ingenious and
subtle comment on passing events, of sketching the lights and shadows
which flit over the surface of society, of playful and felicitous portraiture of
individual traits, and of investing his descriptions with the glow of vitality,
this writer is unsurpassed.
the writings of James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), and through his works
American literature first became widely known in Europe. His nautical and
Indian tales; his delineations of the American mind in its adventurous
character, and his vivid pictures of the aborigines, and of forest and frontier
life, from their freshness, power, and novelty, attracted universal attention,
and were translated into the principal European languages as soon as they
appeared. "The Spy," "The Pioneers," "The Last of the Mohicans," and
numerous other productions of Cooper, must hold a lasting place in English
literature.
The genial and refined humor of Washington Irving (1783-1859), his
lively fancy and poetic imagination, have made his name a favorite
wherever the English language is known. He depicts a great variety of
scenes and character with singular skill and felicity, and his style has all the
ease and grace, the purity and charm, that distinguish that of Goldsmith,
with whom he may justly be compared. "The Sketch-Book" and
"Knickerbocker's History of New York" are among the most admired of his
earlier writings, and his later works have more than sustained his early
fame.
The tales and prose sketches of N.P. Willis are characterized by genial
wit, and a delicate rather than a powerful imagination, while beneath his
brilliant audacities of phrase there is a current of original thought and
genuine feeling. Commanding all the resources of passion, while he is at the
same time master of all the effects of manner, in the power of ingenious and
subtle comment on passing events, of sketching the lights and shadows
which flit over the surface of society, of playful and felicitous portraiture of
individual traits, and of investing his descriptions with the glow of vitality,
this writer is unsurpassed.
Page 751
Hawthorne is remarkable for the delicacy of his psychological insight, his
power of intense characterization, and for his mastery of the spiritual and
the supernatural. His genius is most at home when delineating the darker
passages of life and the enactions of guilt and pain. He does not feel the
necessity of time or space to realize his spells, and the early history of New
England and its stern people have found no more vivid illustration than his
pages afford. The style of Hawthorne is the pure colorless medium of his
thought; the plain current of his language is always equable, full and
unvarying, whether in the company of playful children, among the ancestral
associations of family or history, or in grappling with the mysteries and
terrors of the supernatural world. "The Scarlet Letter" is a psychological
romance, a study of character in which the human heart is anatomized with
striking poetic and dramatic power. "The House of the Seven Gables" is a
tale of retribution and expiation, dating from the time of the Salem
witchcraft. "The Marble Faun" is the most elaborate and powerfully drawn
of his later works.
Edgar A. Poe (1811-1849) acquired much reputation as a writer of tales
and many of his productions exhibit extraordinary metaphysical acuteness,
and an imagination that delights to dwell in the shadowy confines of human
experience, among the abodes of crime and horror. A subtle power of
analysis, a minuteness of detail, a refinement of reasoning in the anatomy of
mystery, give to his most improbable inventions a wonderful reality.
Of the numerous writings of William Gilmore Simms, historical or
imaginative romances form no inconsiderable part. As a novelist he is
vigorous in delineation, dramatic in action, poetic in description, and skilled
in the art of story-telling. His pictures of Southern border scenery and life
are vivid and natural.
power of intense characterization, and for his mastery of the spiritual and
the supernatural. His genius is most at home when delineating the darker
passages of life and the enactions of guilt and pain. He does not feel the
necessity of time or space to realize his spells, and the early history of New
England and its stern people have found no more vivid illustration than his
pages afford. The style of Hawthorne is the pure colorless medium of his
thought; the plain current of his language is always equable, full and
unvarying, whether in the company of playful children, among the ancestral
associations of family or history, or in grappling with the mysteries and
terrors of the supernatural world. "The Scarlet Letter" is a psychological
romance, a study of character in which the human heart is anatomized with
striking poetic and dramatic power. "The House of the Seven Gables" is a
tale of retribution and expiation, dating from the time of the Salem
witchcraft. "The Marble Faun" is the most elaborate and powerfully drawn
of his later works.
Edgar A. Poe (1811-1849) acquired much reputation as a writer of tales
and many of his productions exhibit extraordinary metaphysical acuteness,
and an imagination that delights to dwell in the shadowy confines of human
experience, among the abodes of crime and horror. A subtle power of
analysis, a minuteness of detail, a refinement of reasoning in the anatomy of
mystery, give to his most improbable inventions a wonderful reality.
Of the numerous writings of William Gilmore Simms, historical or
imaginative romances form no inconsiderable part. As a novelist he is
vigorous in delineation, dramatic in action, poetic in description, and skilled
in the art of story-telling. His pictures of Southern border scenery and life
are vivid and natural.
Page 752
Harriet Beecher Stowe was well known as a writer before the appearance
of the work which has given her a world-wide reputation. No work of
fiction of any age ever attained so immediate and extensive a popularity as
"Uncle Tom's Cabin;" before the close of the first year after its publication
it had been translated into all the languages of Europe; many millions of
copies had been sold, and it had been dramatized in twenty different forms,
and performed in every capital of Europe.
Besides the authors already named, there is a crowd of others of various
and high degrees of merit and reputation, but whose traits are chiefly
analogous to those already described. Paulding, in "Westward Ho" and "The
Dutchman's Fireside," has drawn admirable pictures of colonial life; Dana,
in "The Idle Man," has two or three remarkable tales; Flint, Hall, and
Webber have written graphic and spirited tales of Western life. Kennedy has
described Virginia life in olden times in "Swallow Barn;" and Fay has
described "Life in New York;" Hoffman has embodied the early history of
New York in a romantic form, and Dr. Bird, that of Mexico. William Ware's
"Probus" and "Letters from Palmyra" are classical romances, and Judd's
"Margaret" is a tragic story of New England life. Cornelius Mathews has
chosen new subjects, and treated them in an original way; John Neal has
written many novels full of power and incident. The "Hyperion" and
"Kavanagh" of Longfellow establish his success as a writer of fiction; and
in adventurous description, the "Omoo" and "Typee" of Melville, and the
"Kaloolah" and "Berber" of Mayo have gained an extensive popularity.
This department of literature has been ably represented by the women of
the United States, and their contributions form an important part of our
national literature. Catharine M. Sedgwick has written the most pleasing
and graphic tales of New England life. Lydia M. Child is the author of
several fictions, as well as other prose works, which evince great vigor,
beauty, and grace. Maria J. McIntosh has written many charming tales; the
of the work which has given her a world-wide reputation. No work of
fiction of any age ever attained so immediate and extensive a popularity as
"Uncle Tom's Cabin;" before the close of the first year after its publication
it had been translated into all the languages of Europe; many millions of
copies had been sold, and it had been dramatized in twenty different forms,
and performed in every capital of Europe.
Besides the authors already named, there is a crowd of others of various
and high degrees of merit and reputation, but whose traits are chiefly
analogous to those already described. Paulding, in "Westward Ho" and "The
Dutchman's Fireside," has drawn admirable pictures of colonial life; Dana,
in "The Idle Man," has two or three remarkable tales; Flint, Hall, and
Webber have written graphic and spirited tales of Western life. Kennedy has
described Virginia life in olden times in "Swallow Barn;" and Fay has
described "Life in New York;" Hoffman has embodied the early history of
New York in a romantic form, and Dr. Bird, that of Mexico. William Ware's
"Probus" and "Letters from Palmyra" are classical romances, and Judd's
"Margaret" is a tragic story of New England life. Cornelius Mathews has
chosen new subjects, and treated them in an original way; John Neal has
written many novels full of power and incident. The "Hyperion" and
"Kavanagh" of Longfellow establish his success as a writer of fiction; and
in adventurous description, the "Omoo" and "Typee" of Melville, and the
"Kaloolah" and "Berber" of Mayo have gained an extensive popularity.
This department of literature has been ably represented by the women of
the United States, and their contributions form an important part of our
national literature. Catharine M. Sedgwick has written the most pleasing
and graphic tales of New England life. Lydia M. Child is the author of
several fictions, as well as other prose works, which evince great vigor,
beauty, and grace. Maria J. McIntosh has written many charming tales; the
Page 753
"New Home" of Mrs. Kirkland, an admirable picture of frontier life, was
brilliantly successful, and will be permanently valuable as representing
scenes most familiar to the early settlers of the Western States. The works
of the Misses Warner are equally popular in England and the United States.
Among numerous other names are those of Eliza Leslie, Lydia H.
Sigourney, Caroline Gilman, E. Oakes Smith, Alice and Phoebe Cary,
Elizabeth F. Ellet, Sarah J. Hale, Emma Willard, Caroline Lee Hentz, Alice
B. Neal, Caroline Chesebro, Emma Southworth, Ann S. Stephens, Maria
Cummings, Anna Mowatt Ritchie, Rose Terry Cooke, Harriet Prescott
Spofford, Augusta J. Evans, Catharine A. Warfield, and the writers under
the assumed names of Fanny Forrester, Grace Greenwood, Fanny Fern,
Marion Harland, and Mary Forrest, besides many anonymous writers.
4. POETRY.—America has as yet produced no great epic poet, although
the existence of a high degree of poetical talent cannot be denied. Carrying
the same enthusiasm into the world of fancy that he does into the world of
fact, the American finds in the cultivation of the poetic faculty a pleasant
relief from the absorbing pursuits of daily life; hence, while poetry is
sometimes cultivated as an art, it is oftener resorted to as a pastime; the
number of writers is more numerous here than in any other country, and the
facility of poetical expression more universal. William C. Bryant (1794-
1878) is recognized as the best representative of American poetry. He is
extremely felicitous in the use of native materials, and he has a profound
love of nature and of freedom united with great artistic skill. He is
eminently a contemplative poet; in his writings there is a remarkable
absence of those bursts of tenderness and passion which constitute the
essence of a large portion of modern verse. His strength lies in his
descriptive power, in his serene and elevated philosophy, and in his noble
simplicity of language. Richard H. Dana (1787-1879) is the most
psychological of the American poets; the tragic and remorseful elements of
humanity exert a powerful influence over his imagination, while the
brilliantly successful, and will be permanently valuable as representing
scenes most familiar to the early settlers of the Western States. The works
of the Misses Warner are equally popular in England and the United States.
Among numerous other names are those of Eliza Leslie, Lydia H.
Sigourney, Caroline Gilman, E. Oakes Smith, Alice and Phoebe Cary,
Elizabeth F. Ellet, Sarah J. Hale, Emma Willard, Caroline Lee Hentz, Alice
B. Neal, Caroline Chesebro, Emma Southworth, Ann S. Stephens, Maria
Cummings, Anna Mowatt Ritchie, Rose Terry Cooke, Harriet Prescott
Spofford, Augusta J. Evans, Catharine A. Warfield, and the writers under
the assumed names of Fanny Forrester, Grace Greenwood, Fanny Fern,
Marion Harland, and Mary Forrest, besides many anonymous writers.
4. POETRY.—America has as yet produced no great epic poet, although
the existence of a high degree of poetical talent cannot be denied. Carrying
the same enthusiasm into the world of fancy that he does into the world of
fact, the American finds in the cultivation of the poetic faculty a pleasant
relief from the absorbing pursuits of daily life; hence, while poetry is
sometimes cultivated as an art, it is oftener resorted to as a pastime; the
number of writers is more numerous here than in any other country, and the
facility of poetical expression more universal. William C. Bryant (1794-
1878) is recognized as the best representative of American poetry. He is
extremely felicitous in the use of native materials, and he has a profound
love of nature and of freedom united with great artistic skill. He is
eminently a contemplative poet; in his writings there is a remarkable
absence of those bursts of tenderness and passion which constitute the
essence of a large portion of modern verse. His strength lies in his
descriptive power, in his serene and elevated philosophy, and in his noble
simplicity of language. Richard H. Dana (1787-1879) is the most
psychological of the American poets; the tragic and remorseful elements of
humanity exert a powerful influence over his imagination, while the
Page 754
mysteries and aspirations of the human soul fill and elevate his mind. His
verse is sometimes abrupt, but never feeble, The poems of Fitz- Greene
Halleck are spirited and warm with emotion, or sparkling with genuine wit.
His humorous poems are marked by an uncommon ease of versification, a
natural flow of language, and a playful felicity of jest; his serious poems are
distinguished for manly vigor of thought and language, and a beauty of
imagery. The poems of Henry W. Longfellow (1807- 1882) are chiefly
meditative, and often embody and illustrate significant truths. They give
little evidence of the power of overmastering passion, but they are pervaded
with an earnestness and beauty of sentiment, expressed in a finished and
artistic form, which at once wins the ear and impresses the memory and
heart. In "Evangeline" and "Hiawatha," the most popular of his later
productions, he has skillfully succeeded in the use of metres unusual in
English. The poems of N. P. Willis (1807-1867) are characterized by a vivid
imagination and a brilliant wit, combined with grace of utterance and
artistic finish. His picturesque elaborations of some of the incidents
recorded in the Bible are the best of his poetical compositions. His dramas
are delicate creations of sentiment and passion with a relish of the
Elizabethan age. J. R. Lowell (b. 1819) unites in his most effective poems a
philosophic simplicity with a transcendental suggestiveness. Imagination
and philanthropy are the dominant elements in his writings, which are
marked by a graceful flow and an earnest tone. His satires contain many
sharply-drawn portraits, and his humorous poems are replete with wit.
Washington Allston (1779-1843) owed his chief celebrity to his
paintings, but his literary works alone would have given him high rank
among men of genius. His poems are delicate, subtle, and philosophical,
and though few in number, they are exquisite in finish and in the thoughts
which they embody.
verse is sometimes abrupt, but never feeble, The poems of Fitz- Greene
Halleck are spirited and warm with emotion, or sparkling with genuine wit.
His humorous poems are marked by an uncommon ease of versification, a
natural flow of language, and a playful felicity of jest; his serious poems are
distinguished for manly vigor of thought and language, and a beauty of
imagery. The poems of Henry W. Longfellow (1807- 1882) are chiefly
meditative, and often embody and illustrate significant truths. They give
little evidence of the power of overmastering passion, but they are pervaded
with an earnestness and beauty of sentiment, expressed in a finished and
artistic form, which at once wins the ear and impresses the memory and
heart. In "Evangeline" and "Hiawatha," the most popular of his later
productions, he has skillfully succeeded in the use of metres unusual in
English. The poems of N. P. Willis (1807-1867) are characterized by a vivid
imagination and a brilliant wit, combined with grace of utterance and
artistic finish. His picturesque elaborations of some of the incidents
recorded in the Bible are the best of his poetical compositions. His dramas
are delicate creations of sentiment and passion with a relish of the
Elizabethan age. J. R. Lowell (b. 1819) unites in his most effective poems a
philosophic simplicity with a transcendental suggestiveness. Imagination
and philanthropy are the dominant elements in his writings, which are
marked by a graceful flow and an earnest tone. His satires contain many
sharply-drawn portraits, and his humorous poems are replete with wit.
Washington Allston (1779-1843) owed his chief celebrity to his
paintings, but his literary works alone would have given him high rank
among men of genius. His poems are delicate, subtle, and philosophical,
and though few in number, they are exquisite in finish and in the thoughts
which they embody.
Page 755
James A. Hillhouse (1789-1841) excelled in what may be called the
written drama, which, though unsuited to representation, is characterized by
noble sentiment and imagery. His dramatic and other poems are the first
instances in this country of artistic skill in the higher and more elaborate
spheres of poetic writing, and have gained for him a permanent place
among the American poets. The "Culprit Fay" of Joseph Rodman Drake
(1795-1820) is a poem exhibiting a most delicate fancy and much artistic
skill. It was a sudden and brilliant flash of a highly poetical mind which was
extinguished before its powers were fully expanded. The poetry of John G.
Whittier (b. 1809) is characterized by boldness, energy, and simplicity,
often united with tenderness and grace; that of Oliver Wendell Holmes, by
humor and genial sentiment. In poetry, as in prose, Edgar A. Poe was most
successful in the metaphysical treatment of the passions. His poems, which
are constructed with great ingenuity, illustrate a morbid sensitiveness and a
shadowy and gloomy imagination. The poems of Henry T. Tuckerman
(1813-1871) are expressions of graceful and romantic sentiment or the
fruits of reflection, illustrated with a scholar's taste.
Charles Fenno Hoffman (1806-1884) is the author of many admired
convivial and amatory poems, and George P. Morris is a recognized song-
writer of America.
Of numerous other poets, whose names are familiar to all readers of
American literature, a few only can he named; among them are John G.C.
Brainerd, James G. Percival, Richard H. Wilde, James G. Brooks, Charles
Sprague, Alfred B. Street, T. Buchanan Read, T.B. Aldrich, William Allen
Butler, Albert G. Greene, George D. Prentice, William J. Pabodie, Park
Benjamin, William Gilmore Simms, John R. Thompson, William Ross
Wallace,
Charles G. Leland, Thomas Dunn English, William D. Gallagher, Albert
Pike,
written drama, which, though unsuited to representation, is characterized by
noble sentiment and imagery. His dramatic and other poems are the first
instances in this country of artistic skill in the higher and more elaborate
spheres of poetic writing, and have gained for him a permanent place
among the American poets. The "Culprit Fay" of Joseph Rodman Drake
(1795-1820) is a poem exhibiting a most delicate fancy and much artistic
skill. It was a sudden and brilliant flash of a highly poetical mind which was
extinguished before its powers were fully expanded. The poetry of John G.
Whittier (b. 1809) is characterized by boldness, energy, and simplicity,
often united with tenderness and grace; that of Oliver Wendell Holmes, by
humor and genial sentiment. In poetry, as in prose, Edgar A. Poe was most
successful in the metaphysical treatment of the passions. His poems, which
are constructed with great ingenuity, illustrate a morbid sensitiveness and a
shadowy and gloomy imagination. The poems of Henry T. Tuckerman
(1813-1871) are expressions of graceful and romantic sentiment or the
fruits of reflection, illustrated with a scholar's taste.
Charles Fenno Hoffman (1806-1884) is the author of many admired
convivial and amatory poems, and George P. Morris is a recognized song-
writer of America.
Of numerous other poets, whose names are familiar to all readers of
American literature, a few only can he named; among them are John G.C.
Brainerd, James G. Percival, Richard H. Wilde, James G. Brooks, Charles
Sprague, Alfred B. Street, T. Buchanan Read, T.B. Aldrich, William Allen
Butler, Albert G. Greene, George D. Prentice, William J. Pabodie, Park
Benjamin, William Gilmore Simms, John R. Thompson, William Ross
Wallace,
Charles G. Leland, Thomas Dunn English, William D. Gallagher, Albert
Pike,
Page 756
John G, Saxe, James T. Fields, Arthur Cleveland Coxe, Cornelius Mathews,
John Neal, and Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Among the literary women of the United States are many graceful writers
who possess true poetical genius, and enjoy a high local reputation. The
"Zophiel" of Maria Brooks (1795-1845) evinces an uncommon degree of
power in one of the most refined and difficult provinces of creative art.
Frances S. Osgood (1812-1850) was endowed with great playfulness of
fancy, and a facility of expression which rendered her almost an
improvisatrice. Her later poems are marked by great intensity of feeling and
power of expression. The "Sinless Child" of Elizabeth Oakes Smith is a
melodious and imaginative poem, with many passages of deep significance.
Amelia B. Welby's poems are distinguished for sentiment and melody. The
"Passion Flowers" and other poems of Julia Ward Howe are full of ardor
and earnestness. Mrs. Sigourney's metrical writings are cherished by a large
class of readers. Hannah F. Gould has written many pretty and fanciful
poems, and Grace Greenwood's "Ariadne" is a fine burst of womanly pride
and indignation. Among many other equally well known and honored
names, there are those of Elizabeth F. Ellet, Emma C. Embury, Sarah J.
Hale, Anna Mowatt Ritchie, Ann S. Stephens, Sarah H. Whitman, Catharine
A. Warfield, and Eleanor Lee, ("Two Sisters of the West") Alice and Phoebe
Cary, "Edith May," Caroline C. Marsh, Elizabeth C. Kinney, and Maria
Lowell.
Nothing of very decided mark has been contributed to dramatic literature
by American writers, though this branch of letters has been cultivated with
some success. John Howard Payne wrote several successful plays; George
H. Boker is the author of many dramatic works which establish his claim to
an honorable rank among the dramatic writers of the age. Single dramas by
Bird, Sargent, Conrad, and other writers still keep their place upon the
John Neal, and Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Among the literary women of the United States are many graceful writers
who possess true poetical genius, and enjoy a high local reputation. The
"Zophiel" of Maria Brooks (1795-1845) evinces an uncommon degree of
power in one of the most refined and difficult provinces of creative art.
Frances S. Osgood (1812-1850) was endowed with great playfulness of
fancy, and a facility of expression which rendered her almost an
improvisatrice. Her later poems are marked by great intensity of feeling and
power of expression. The "Sinless Child" of Elizabeth Oakes Smith is a
melodious and imaginative poem, with many passages of deep significance.
Amelia B. Welby's poems are distinguished for sentiment and melody. The
"Passion Flowers" and other poems of Julia Ward Howe are full of ardor
and earnestness. Mrs. Sigourney's metrical writings are cherished by a large
class of readers. Hannah F. Gould has written many pretty and fanciful
poems, and Grace Greenwood's "Ariadne" is a fine burst of womanly pride
and indignation. Among many other equally well known and honored
names, there are those of Elizabeth F. Ellet, Emma C. Embury, Sarah J.
Hale, Anna Mowatt Ritchie, Ann S. Stephens, Sarah H. Whitman, Catharine
A. Warfield, and Eleanor Lee, ("Two Sisters of the West") Alice and Phoebe
Cary, "Edith May," Caroline C. Marsh, Elizabeth C. Kinney, and Maria
Lowell.
Nothing of very decided mark has been contributed to dramatic literature
by American writers, though this branch of letters has been cultivated with
some success. John Howard Payne wrote several successful plays; George
H. Boker is the author of many dramatic works which establish his claim to
an honorable rank among the dramatic writers of the age. Single dramas by
Bird, Sargent, Conrad, and other writers still keep their place upon the
Page 757
stage; with many faults, they abound in beauties, and they are valuable as
indications of awakening genius.
5. THE TRANSCENDENTAL MOVEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND.—
The Transcendental Philosophy, so-called, had its distinct origin in the
"Critique of Pure Reason," the work of Immanuel Kant, which appeared in
Germany in 1781, although, under various forms, the questions it discussed
are as old as Plato and Aristotle, The first principle of this philosophy is that
ideas exist in the soul which transcend the senses, while that of the school
of Locke, or the School of Sensation, is that there is nothing in the intellect
that was not first in the senses. The Transcendentalist claimed an intuitive
knowledge of God, belief in immortality, and in man's ability to apprehend
absolute ideas of truth, justice, and rectitude. The one regarded expediency,
prudence, caution, and practical wisdom as the highest of the virtues, and
distrusted alike the seer, the prophet, and the reformer. The other was by
nature a reformer and dissatisfied with men as they are, but with passionate
aspirations for a pure social state, he recognized, above all, the dignity of
the individual man.
These two schools of philosophy aimed at the same results, but by
different methods. The one worked up from beneath by material processes,
the other worked down from above by intellectual ones. There had been in
other countries a transcendental philosophy, but, in New England alone,
where the sense of individual freedom was active, and where there were no
fixed and unalterable social conditions, was this philosophy applied to
actual life. Of late the scientific method, so triumphant in the natural world,
has been applied to the spiritual, and the principles of the sensational
philosophy have been, re-stated by Bain, Mill, Spencer, and other leaders of
speculative opinion, who present it under the name of the "Philosophy of
Experience," and resolve the intuitions of the Ideal into the results of
experience and the processes of organic, life. Mill was the first to organize
indications of awakening genius.
5. THE TRANSCENDENTAL MOVEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND.—
The Transcendental Philosophy, so-called, had its distinct origin in the
"Critique of Pure Reason," the work of Immanuel Kant, which appeared in
Germany in 1781, although, under various forms, the questions it discussed
are as old as Plato and Aristotle, The first principle of this philosophy is that
ideas exist in the soul which transcend the senses, while that of the school
of Locke, or the School of Sensation, is that there is nothing in the intellect
that was not first in the senses. The Transcendentalist claimed an intuitive
knowledge of God, belief in immortality, and in man's ability to apprehend
absolute ideas of truth, justice, and rectitude. The one regarded expediency,
prudence, caution, and practical wisdom as the highest of the virtues, and
distrusted alike the seer, the prophet, and the reformer. The other was by
nature a reformer and dissatisfied with men as they are, but with passionate
aspirations for a pure social state, he recognized, above all, the dignity of
the individual man.
These two schools of philosophy aimed at the same results, but by
different methods. The one worked up from beneath by material processes,
the other worked down from above by intellectual ones. There had been in
other countries a transcendental philosophy, but, in New England alone,
where the sense of individual freedom was active, and where there were no
fixed and unalterable social conditions, was this philosophy applied to
actual life. Of late the scientific method, so triumphant in the natural world,
has been applied to the spiritual, and the principles of the sensational
philosophy have been, re-stated by Bain, Mill, Spencer, and other leaders of
speculative opinion, who present it under the name of the "Philosophy of
Experience," and resolve the intuitions of the Ideal into the results of
experience and the processes of organic, life. Mill was the first to organize
Page 758
the psychological side, while Lewes, Spencer, and Tyndall have approached
the same problem from the side of organization. Should these analyses be
accepted, Idealism as a philosophy must disappear. There is, however, no
cause to apprehend a return to the demoralization which the sensualist
doctrines of the last century were accused of encouraging. The attitude of
the human mind towards the great problems of destiny has so far altered,
and the problems themselves have so far changed their face, that no shock
will be felt in the passage from the philosophy of intuition to that of
experience.
Early in the second quarter of our century the doctrines of Kant and of
his German followers, Jacobi, Fichte, and Schelling, found their way into
New England, and their influence on thought and life was immediate and
powerful, affecting religion, literature, laws, and institutions. As an episode
or special phase of thought, it was of necessity transient, but had it
bequeathed nothing more than the literature that sprang from it and the lives
of the men and women who had their intellectual roots in it, it would have
conferred a lasting benefit on America.
Among the first to plant the seeds of the Transcendental Philosophy in
New England was George Ripley (1802-1880), a philanthropist on ideal
principles, whose faith blossomed into works, and whose well known
attempt to create a new earth in preparation for a new heaven, although it
ended in failure, commanded sympathy and respect. Later, as a critic, he
aided the development of literature in America by erecting a high standard
of judgment and by his just estimation of the rights and duties of literary
men.
Theodore Parker (d. 1860) owed his great power as a preacher to his faith
in the Transcendental philosophy. The Absolute God, the Moral Law, and
the Immortal Life he held to be the three cardinal attestations of the
the same problem from the side of organization. Should these analyses be
accepted, Idealism as a philosophy must disappear. There is, however, no
cause to apprehend a return to the demoralization which the sensualist
doctrines of the last century were accused of encouraging. The attitude of
the human mind towards the great problems of destiny has so far altered,
and the problems themselves have so far changed their face, that no shock
will be felt in the passage from the philosophy of intuition to that of
experience.
Early in the second quarter of our century the doctrines of Kant and of
his German followers, Jacobi, Fichte, and Schelling, found their way into
New England, and their influence on thought and life was immediate and
powerful, affecting religion, literature, laws, and institutions. As an episode
or special phase of thought, it was of necessity transient, but had it
bequeathed nothing more than the literature that sprang from it and the lives
of the men and women who had their intellectual roots in it, it would have
conferred a lasting benefit on America.
Among the first to plant the seeds of the Transcendental Philosophy in
New England was George Ripley (1802-1880), a philanthropist on ideal
principles, whose faith blossomed into works, and whose well known
attempt to create a new earth in preparation for a new heaven, although it
ended in failure, commanded sympathy and respect. Later, as a critic, he
aided the development of literature in America by erecting a high standard
of judgment and by his just estimation of the rights and duties of literary
men.
Theodore Parker (d. 1860) owed his great power as a preacher to his faith
in the Transcendental philosophy. The Absolute God, the Moral Law, and
the Immortal Life he held to be the three cardinal attestations of the
Page 759
universal consciousness. The authority of the "higher law," the absolute
necessity of religion for safely conducting the life of the individual and the
life of the state, he asseverated with all the earnestness of an enthusiastic
believer.
A. Bronson Alcott (b. 1799) is a philosopher of the Mystic school.
Seeking wisdom, not through books, but by intellectual processes, he
appeals at once to consciousness, claims immediate insight, and
contemplates ultimate laws in his own soul. His "Orphic Sayings" amused
and perplexed the critics, who made them an excuse for assailing the entire
Transcendental school.
Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) adopted the spiritual philosophy, and had
the subtlest perception of its bearings. Her vigorous and original writings
possess a lasting value, although they imperfectly represent her remarkable
powers.
Among the representatives of the Spiritual Philosophy the first place
belongs to Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), who lighted up its doctrines
with the rays of ethical and poetical imagination. Without the formality of
dogma, he was a teacher of vigorous morality in line with the ruling
tendencies of the age, and bringing all the aid of abstract teaching towards
the solution of the moral problems of society.
The first article of his faith is the primacy of Mind; that Mind is supreme,
eternal, absolute, one, manifold, subtle, living, immanent in all things,
permanent, flowing, self-manifesting; that the universe is the result of mind;
that nature is the symbol of mind; that finite minds live and act through
concurrence with infinite mind. His second is the connection of the
individual intellect with the primal mind and its ability to draw thence
wisdom, will, virtue, prudence, heroism, all active and passive qualities.
necessity of religion for safely conducting the life of the individual and the
life of the state, he asseverated with all the earnestness of an enthusiastic
believer.
A. Bronson Alcott (b. 1799) is a philosopher of the Mystic school.
Seeking wisdom, not through books, but by intellectual processes, he
appeals at once to consciousness, claims immediate insight, and
contemplates ultimate laws in his own soul. His "Orphic Sayings" amused
and perplexed the critics, who made them an excuse for assailing the entire
Transcendental school.
Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) adopted the spiritual philosophy, and had
the subtlest perception of its bearings. Her vigorous and original writings
possess a lasting value, although they imperfectly represent her remarkable
powers.
Among the representatives of the Spiritual Philosophy the first place
belongs to Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), who lighted up its doctrines
with the rays of ethical and poetical imagination. Without the formality of
dogma, he was a teacher of vigorous morality in line with the ruling
tendencies of the age, and bringing all the aid of abstract teaching towards
the solution of the moral problems of society.
The first article of his faith is the primacy of Mind; that Mind is supreme,
eternal, absolute, one, manifold, subtle, living, immanent in all things,
permanent, flowing, self-manifesting; that the universe is the result of mind;
that nature is the symbol of mind; that finite minds live and act through
concurrence with infinite mind. His second is the connection of the
individual intellect with the primal mind and its ability to draw thence
wisdom, will, virtue, prudence, heroism, all active and passive qualities.
Page 760
In his essays, which are prose poems, he lays incessant emphasis on the
cardinal virtues of humility, sincerity, obedience, aspiration, and
acquiescence to the will of the Supreme Power, and he sustains the mind at
an elevation that makes the heights of accepted morality disappear in the
level of the plain. With many inconsistencies to be allowed for, Emerson
still remains the highest mind that the world of letters has produced in
America, inspiring men by word and example, rebuking their despondency,
awakening them from the slumber of conformity and convention, and lifting
them from low thoughts and sullen moods of helplessness and impiety.
Among other writers identified with the Transcendental movement in
New
England are O. B. Frothingham, Orestes A. Brownson, James Freeman
Clarke,
William H. Channing, Henry Thoreau, John S. Dwight, C. P. Cranch, W. E.
Channing, T. W. Higginson, C. A. Bartol, D. A. Wasson, John Weiss, and
Samuel Longfellow.
6. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS.—Of the essayists, critics, and
miscellaneous writers of the United States, a few only may be here
characterized.
Parke Godwin is a brilliant political essayist. E. P. Whipple is an able
critic and an essayist of great acuteness, insight, and logical power. H. T.
Tuckerman is a genial and appreciative writer, combining extensive
scholarship with elevated sentiment and feeling. Richard Grant White's
"Commentaries on Shakspeare" have met with a cordial reception from all
Shakspearean scholars.
Oliver Wendell Holmes conceals under the garb of wit and humor an
earnest sympathy and a deep knowledge of human nature; George W. Curtis
combines fine powers of observation and satire with delicacy of taste and
cardinal virtues of humility, sincerity, obedience, aspiration, and
acquiescence to the will of the Supreme Power, and he sustains the mind at
an elevation that makes the heights of accepted morality disappear in the
level of the plain. With many inconsistencies to be allowed for, Emerson
still remains the highest mind that the world of letters has produced in
America, inspiring men by word and example, rebuking their despondency,
awakening them from the slumber of conformity and convention, and lifting
them from low thoughts and sullen moods of helplessness and impiety.
Among other writers identified with the Transcendental movement in
New
England are O. B. Frothingham, Orestes A. Brownson, James Freeman
Clarke,
William H. Channing, Henry Thoreau, John S. Dwight, C. P. Cranch, W. E.
Channing, T. W. Higginson, C. A. Bartol, D. A. Wasson, John Weiss, and
Samuel Longfellow.
6. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS.—Of the essayists, critics, and
miscellaneous writers of the United States, a few only may be here
characterized.
Parke Godwin is a brilliant political essayist. E. P. Whipple is an able
critic and an essayist of great acuteness, insight, and logical power. H. T.
Tuckerman is a genial and appreciative writer, combining extensive
scholarship with elevated sentiment and feeling. Richard Grant White's
"Commentaries on Shakspeare" have met with a cordial reception from all
Shakspearean scholars.
Oliver Wendell Holmes conceals under the garb of wit and humor an
earnest sympathy and a deep knowledge of human nature; George W. Curtis
combines fine powers of observation and satire with delicacy of taste and
Page 761
refinement of feeling; and Donald G. Mitchell gives to the world his
"Reveries" in a pleasing and attractive manner. The writings of A. J.
Downing, on subjects relating to rural life and architecture, have exercised a
wide and salutary influence on the taste of the country. Willis Gaylord Clark
(1810-1841) is best remembered by his "Ollapodiana" and his occasional
poems, in which humor and pathos alternately prevail. The "Charcoal
Sketches" of Joseph C. Neal (1807-1847) exhibit a genial humor, and will
be remembered for the curious specimens of character they embody.
Seba Smith has been most successful in adapting the Yankee dialect to
the purposes of humorous writing in his "Jack Downing's Letters" and other
productions. The writings of Henry D. Thoreau, combining essay and
description, are quaint and humorous, while those of "Timothy Titcomb"
(J.G. Holland) are addressed to the practical common sense of the American
people.
Charles T. Brooks (d. 1883) is distinguished for his felicitous translations
from the German poets and writers.
The writings of George D. Prentice abound in wit and humor. W.H.
Hurlburt is an able expositor of political affairs and a brilliant descriptive
writer.
7. ENCYCLOPAEDIAS, DICTIONARIES, AND EDUCATIONAL
BOOKS. The Encyclopaedia Americana, the first work of the kind
undertaken in America, appeared in 1829, under the auspices of Dr. Lieber,
and contains articles on almost every subject of human knowledge. The
New American Cyclopaedia, edited by George Ripley and Charles A. Dana,
is a work on a larger and more original plan, and is particularly valuable as
the repository of all knowledge bearing upon American civilization, while
at the same time it embodies a great amount of interesting and valuable
information on all subjects. Allibone's "Dictionary of English Authors,"
"Reveries" in a pleasing and attractive manner. The writings of A. J.
Downing, on subjects relating to rural life and architecture, have exercised a
wide and salutary influence on the taste of the country. Willis Gaylord Clark
(1810-1841) is best remembered by his "Ollapodiana" and his occasional
poems, in which humor and pathos alternately prevail. The "Charcoal
Sketches" of Joseph C. Neal (1807-1847) exhibit a genial humor, and will
be remembered for the curious specimens of character they embody.
Seba Smith has been most successful in adapting the Yankee dialect to
the purposes of humorous writing in his "Jack Downing's Letters" and other
productions. The writings of Henry D. Thoreau, combining essay and
description, are quaint and humorous, while those of "Timothy Titcomb"
(J.G. Holland) are addressed to the practical common sense of the American
people.
Charles T. Brooks (d. 1883) is distinguished for his felicitous translations
from the German poets and writers.
The writings of George D. Prentice abound in wit and humor. W.H.
Hurlburt is an able expositor of political affairs and a brilliant descriptive
writer.
7. ENCYCLOPAEDIAS, DICTIONARIES, AND EDUCATIONAL
BOOKS. The Encyclopaedia Americana, the first work of the kind
undertaken in America, appeared in 1829, under the auspices of Dr. Lieber,
and contains articles on almost every subject of human knowledge. The
New American Cyclopaedia, edited by George Ripley and Charles A. Dana,
is a work on a larger and more original plan, and is particularly valuable as
the repository of all knowledge bearing upon American civilization, while
at the same time it embodies a great amount of interesting and valuable
information on all subjects. Allibone's "Dictionary of English Authors,"
Page 762
completed in four large volumes, exceeds all similar works in the number of
authors it describes and the details it contains. Among the works containing
abundant materials for the history of American literature are the several
volumes of Rufus W. Griswold, the "Cyclopaedia of American Literature,"
by G.L. and E.A. Duyckinck, and other collections or sketches by Hart,
Cleveland, Tuckerman, Everest, and Caroline May.
The Dictionary of Noah Webster (1778-1843), an elaborate and
successful undertaking, has exercised an influence over the English
language which will probably endure for generations. The more recent
publication of Worcester's Dictionary, which adds many thousand words to
the registered English vocabulary, marks an epoch in the history of the
language. It is regarded by competent critics as the first of all English
dictionaries in point of merit, and as the fitting representative of the
language of the two great branches of the Anglican stock. The "Lectures on
the English Language," by George P. Marsh, exhibit a thorough knowledge
of the subject, and are admirably designed to render the study attractive to
all persons of taste and culture.
The scholars of Europe are much indebted to those of America for their
investigations of the Karen, the Siamese, Asamese, Chinese, and numerous
African languages; and for grammars and dictionaries of the Burmese,
Chinese, the Hawaiian, and the modern Armenian, Syrian, and Chaldee
tongues. Foreign and comparatively unknown languages have thus been
reduced to a system and grammar by which they can readily be acquired by
Europeans. Many valuable works have also appeared on the language of the
American Indians.
The text-books of the United States are unsurpassed by those of any
country, and many of them are in use in England. Among them are Anthon's
admirable series of Latin and Greek Classics and Classical Dictionary,
authors it describes and the details it contains. Among the works containing
abundant materials for the history of American literature are the several
volumes of Rufus W. Griswold, the "Cyclopaedia of American Literature,"
by G.L. and E.A. Duyckinck, and other collections or sketches by Hart,
Cleveland, Tuckerman, Everest, and Caroline May.
The Dictionary of Noah Webster (1778-1843), an elaborate and
successful undertaking, has exercised an influence over the English
language which will probably endure for generations. The more recent
publication of Worcester's Dictionary, which adds many thousand words to
the registered English vocabulary, marks an epoch in the history of the
language. It is regarded by competent critics as the first of all English
dictionaries in point of merit, and as the fitting representative of the
language of the two great branches of the Anglican stock. The "Lectures on
the English Language," by George P. Marsh, exhibit a thorough knowledge
of the subject, and are admirably designed to render the study attractive to
all persons of taste and culture.
The scholars of Europe are much indebted to those of America for their
investigations of the Karen, the Siamese, Asamese, Chinese, and numerous
African languages; and for grammars and dictionaries of the Burmese,
Chinese, the Hawaiian, and the modern Armenian, Syrian, and Chaldee
tongues. Foreign and comparatively unknown languages have thus been
reduced to a system and grammar by which they can readily be acquired by
Europeans. Many valuable works have also appeared on the language of the
American Indians.
The text-books of the United States are unsurpassed by those of any
country, and many of them are in use in England. Among them are Anthon's
admirable series of Latin and Greek Classics and Classical Dictionary,
Page 763
Robinson's Hebrew and English Dictionary of Gesenius, and the Latin and
English Dictionary of Andrews, founded on the celebrated work of Freund.
Felton's "Classical Studies," and his various editions of the classics, have
been ably prepared and evince a scholar's enthusiasm. Henry Barnard, by
his "Journal of Education" and numerous other writings, is identified with
the cause of popular education and has acquired an extensive reputation in
Europe and the United States. Horace Mann is also widely known through
his "Reports" on education; and in the practical carrying out of profound
liberal and national views in our colleges, Presidents Nott, Tappan,
Wayland, Sears, King, and Barnard have been eminently successful.
8. THEOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, ECONOMY, ASD JURISPRUDENCE.
It is generally conceded that the theological writers of this country are
among the ablest of modern times, and the diversity of sects, a curious and
striking fact in our social history, is fully illustrated by the literary organs of
each denomination, from the spiritual commentaries of Bush to the ardent
Catholicism of Brownson. The works of Moses Stuart (1780-1852), Edward
Robinson, Francis Wayland, and Albert Barnes are standard authorities with
all classes of Protestant Christians.
William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) achieved a wide reputation for
genius in ethical literature, and as a moral essayist will hold a permanent
place in English letters. Among other members of the clerical profession
who have had a marked influence on the mind of the age by their
scholarship or eloquence are Drs. Hickok, C.S. Henry, Tappan, H.B. Smith,
Hitchcock, W.R. Williams, Alexander, Bethune, Hawks, Sprague, Bushnell,
Thompson, Tyng, Bartol, Dewey, Norton, Frothingham, Osgood, Chapin,
Bellows, Furness, Livermore, Ware, Peabody, and Henry Ward Beecher.
The philosophical writings of Dr. Tappan, the author of a "Treatise on the
Will" and a work on the "Elements of Logic," those of C.S. Henry,
English Dictionary of Andrews, founded on the celebrated work of Freund.
Felton's "Classical Studies," and his various editions of the classics, have
been ably prepared and evince a scholar's enthusiasm. Henry Barnard, by
his "Journal of Education" and numerous other writings, is identified with
the cause of popular education and has acquired an extensive reputation in
Europe and the United States. Horace Mann is also widely known through
his "Reports" on education; and in the practical carrying out of profound
liberal and national views in our colleges, Presidents Nott, Tappan,
Wayland, Sears, King, and Barnard have been eminently successful.
8. THEOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, ECONOMY, ASD JURISPRUDENCE.
It is generally conceded that the theological writers of this country are
among the ablest of modern times, and the diversity of sects, a curious and
striking fact in our social history, is fully illustrated by the literary organs of
each denomination, from the spiritual commentaries of Bush to the ardent
Catholicism of Brownson. The works of Moses Stuart (1780-1852), Edward
Robinson, Francis Wayland, and Albert Barnes are standard authorities with
all classes of Protestant Christians.
William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) achieved a wide reputation for
genius in ethical literature, and as a moral essayist will hold a permanent
place in English letters. Among other members of the clerical profession
who have had a marked influence on the mind of the age by their
scholarship or eloquence are Drs. Hickok, C.S. Henry, Tappan, H.B. Smith,
Hitchcock, W.R. Williams, Alexander, Bethune, Hawks, Sprague, Bushnell,
Thompson, Tyng, Bartol, Dewey, Norton, Frothingham, Osgood, Chapin,
Bellows, Furness, Livermore, Ware, Peabody, and Henry Ward Beecher.
The philosophical writings of Dr. Tappan, the author of a "Treatise on the
Will" and a work on the "Elements of Logic," those of C.S. Henry,
Page 764
Wayland,
Hickok, and Haven have an extensive reputation; and of the various works
on political economy those of Henry C. Carey are most widely known.
Most prominent among the writings of American jurists are those of
Kent, Wheaton, Story, Livingston, Lawrence, and Bouvier. Kent's (1768-
1847) "Commentaries" on American Law at once took a prominent place in
legal literature, and are now universally considered of the highest authority.
Of Wheaton's (1785-1848) great works on International Law, it is sufficient
to say that one has been formally adopted by the University of Cambridge,
England, as the best work of its kind extant, and as a manual for tuition by
the professors of legal science. Among modern legal writers, Story (1779-
1845) occupies a distinguished position. His "Commentaries" have acquired
a European reputation, and have been translated into French and German.
Livingston's (1764-1833) "System of Penal Laws for the United States,"
since its publication in 1828, has materially modified the penal laws of the
world, and may be considered the first complete penal system based upon
philanthropy, and designed to substitute mildness for severity in the
punishment of criminals. Bouvier's "Institutes of American Law" and
"Dictionary of Law" are considered as among the best works of their kind,
both in the United States and Europe. Other branches of legal research have
been treated in a masterly manner by American writers, and many authors
might be named whose works take a high rank in both hemispheres.
9. NATURAL SCIENCES.—The physical sciences, from an early period,
have found able investigators in the United States. Benjamin Thompson
(Count Rumford) successfully applied his knowledge to increase the
convenience, economy, and comfort of mankind. Franklin's discoveries in
electricity, the most brilliant which had yet been made, have been followed
by those of Morse, whose application of that power to the telegraphic wire
is one of the most wonderful achievements of modern science. Fitch and
Hickok, and Haven have an extensive reputation; and of the various works
on political economy those of Henry C. Carey are most widely known.
Most prominent among the writings of American jurists are those of
Kent, Wheaton, Story, Livingston, Lawrence, and Bouvier. Kent's (1768-
1847) "Commentaries" on American Law at once took a prominent place in
legal literature, and are now universally considered of the highest authority.
Of Wheaton's (1785-1848) great works on International Law, it is sufficient
to say that one has been formally adopted by the University of Cambridge,
England, as the best work of its kind extant, and as a manual for tuition by
the professors of legal science. Among modern legal writers, Story (1779-
1845) occupies a distinguished position. His "Commentaries" have acquired
a European reputation, and have been translated into French and German.
Livingston's (1764-1833) "System of Penal Laws for the United States,"
since its publication in 1828, has materially modified the penal laws of the
world, and may be considered the first complete penal system based upon
philanthropy, and designed to substitute mildness for severity in the
punishment of criminals. Bouvier's "Institutes of American Law" and
"Dictionary of Law" are considered as among the best works of their kind,
both in the United States and Europe. Other branches of legal research have
been treated in a masterly manner by American writers, and many authors
might be named whose works take a high rank in both hemispheres.
9. NATURAL SCIENCES.—The physical sciences, from an early period,
have found able investigators in the United States. Benjamin Thompson
(Count Rumford) successfully applied his knowledge to increase the
convenience, economy, and comfort of mankind. Franklin's discoveries in
electricity, the most brilliant which had yet been made, have been followed
by those of Morse, whose application of that power to the telegraphic wire
is one of the most wonderful achievements of modern science. Fitch and
Page 765
Fulton were the first to apply steam to navigation, a force which has
become one of the most powerful levers of civilization. In chemistry the
works of Hare, Silliman, Henry, Hunt, and Morfit are equally honorable to
themselves and the country. The names of Dana, Hitchcock, Hall, the
brothers Rogers, Eaton, Hodge, Owen, and Whitney are identified with the
science of geology in the United States. The names of Torrey and Gray are
eminent in botany, and the writings of the latter especially rank among the
most valuable botanical works of the age. The mathematical sciences have
found able expounders. The merits of Dr. Bowditch (1773-1838) entitle him
to a high rank among the mathematicians of the world. His Commentary on
the "Mécanique Céleste" of La Place, which he translated, is an original
work, and contains many discoveries of his own. His "Practical Navigator"
is the universally adopted guide in the American marine, and to a great
extent in the naval service of England and France.
In mathematics as well as astronomy, Peirce and Hill have shown
themselves able investigators. Bache, of the United States Coast Survey, has
made many valuable contributions to physical science. The astronomical
works of Professors Loowis, Gould, Norton, Olmsted, and Mitchell hold a
high position in the United States and Europe; and valuable astronomical
observations have been made by Lieutenants Maury and Gillies, and Maria
Mitchell.
In natural history, Holbrook's "North American Herpetology," or a
description of the reptiles of the United States, is a work of great
magnitude, and sustains a high scientific reputation. Audubon's (1780-
1851) "Birds of America" is the most magnificent work on ornithology ever
published. Since the death of Audubon, the subject to which he devoted his
life has been pursued by Cassin and Girard, who rank with him as
naturalists. Goodrich's "Animal Kingdom" is a recent popular work in this
department.
become one of the most powerful levers of civilization. In chemistry the
works of Hare, Silliman, Henry, Hunt, and Morfit are equally honorable to
themselves and the country. The names of Dana, Hitchcock, Hall, the
brothers Rogers, Eaton, Hodge, Owen, and Whitney are identified with the
science of geology in the United States. The names of Torrey and Gray are
eminent in botany, and the writings of the latter especially rank among the
most valuable botanical works of the age. The mathematical sciences have
found able expounders. The merits of Dr. Bowditch (1773-1838) entitle him
to a high rank among the mathematicians of the world. His Commentary on
the "Mécanique Céleste" of La Place, which he translated, is an original
work, and contains many discoveries of his own. His "Practical Navigator"
is the universally adopted guide in the American marine, and to a great
extent in the naval service of England and France.
In mathematics as well as astronomy, Peirce and Hill have shown
themselves able investigators. Bache, of the United States Coast Survey, has
made many valuable contributions to physical science. The astronomical
works of Professors Loowis, Gould, Norton, Olmsted, and Mitchell hold a
high position in the United States and Europe; and valuable astronomical
observations have been made by Lieutenants Maury and Gillies, and Maria
Mitchell.
In natural history, Holbrook's "North American Herpetology," or a
description of the reptiles of the United States, is a work of great
magnitude, and sustains a high scientific reputation. Audubon's (1780-
1851) "Birds of America" is the most magnificent work on ornithology ever
published. Since the death of Audubon, the subject to which he devoted his
life has been pursued by Cassin and Girard, who rank with him as
naturalists. Goodrich's "Animal Kingdom" is a recent popular work in this
department.
Page 766
The "Crania Americana" of Dr. Morton, the "Crania Egyptiaca" of
Gliddon, and the "Types of Mankind," the joint production of the above
writers and Dr. Nott, are important contributions to the department of
ethnology.
De Vere and Dwight are eminent writers on philology; Jarvis, Hough,
Tucker, De Bow, Kennedy, and Wynne, on statistics.
Medical literature has been ably illustrated, and American writers on
naval and military affairs have contributed largely to the effectiveness of
modern warfare. Geographical knowledge has been greatly increased. Many
explorations and publications have been made under the patronage of the
government, and many excellent maps and charts have been executed from
actual surveys. The Wind Charts and other works of Lieutenant Maury have
greatly advanced the science of navigation, and his "Physical Geography of
the Sea" has revealed the mysteries of the submarine world with graphic
power.
10. FOREIGN WRITERS.—Many foreign writers in the United States,
some of whom have had their tastes formed here, and are essentially
American in principle and feeling, have contributed to the literature of the
country. The celebrated Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753), whose prophetic
verses on America are so often quoted, brought with him the prestige which
attached to high literary reputation, and had an influence on the progress of
literature in the colonies. His "Minute Philosopher" contains many passages
descriptive of the scene at Newport, in the midst of which it was written.
Thomas Paine (1736-1809) wrote his pamphlet entitled "Common Sense,"
and his "Crisis," in America, the former of which, especially, powerfully
affected the political condition of the country. John Witherspoon (1722-
1794), lineal descendant of John Knox, was the author of many religious
works, and of some valuable political essays. Susanna Rowson (1762-1824)
Gliddon, and the "Types of Mankind," the joint production of the above
writers and Dr. Nott, are important contributions to the department of
ethnology.
De Vere and Dwight are eminent writers on philology; Jarvis, Hough,
Tucker, De Bow, Kennedy, and Wynne, on statistics.
Medical literature has been ably illustrated, and American writers on
naval and military affairs have contributed largely to the effectiveness of
modern warfare. Geographical knowledge has been greatly increased. Many
explorations and publications have been made under the patronage of the
government, and many excellent maps and charts have been executed from
actual surveys. The Wind Charts and other works of Lieutenant Maury have
greatly advanced the science of navigation, and his "Physical Geography of
the Sea" has revealed the mysteries of the submarine world with graphic
power.
10. FOREIGN WRITERS.—Many foreign writers in the United States,
some of whom have had their tastes formed here, and are essentially
American in principle and feeling, have contributed to the literature of the
country. The celebrated Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753), whose prophetic
verses on America are so often quoted, brought with him the prestige which
attached to high literary reputation, and had an influence on the progress of
literature in the colonies. His "Minute Philosopher" contains many passages
descriptive of the scene at Newport, in the midst of which it was written.
Thomas Paine (1736-1809) wrote his pamphlet entitled "Common Sense,"
and his "Crisis," in America, the former of which, especially, powerfully
affected the political condition of the country. John Witherspoon (1722-
1794), lineal descendant of John Knox, was the author of many religious
works, and of some valuable political essays. Susanna Rowson (1762-1824)
Page 767
was the author of "Charlotte Temple," a novel which had extraordinary
success in its day, and of many books of less fame. Joseph Priestley (1733-
1804) wrote and published many of his most valuable works in the United
States. His friend Thomas Cooper (1759-1840) was one of the most active
minds of the age, and his religious, political, and scientific writings were
not without their influence on the national literature. "The American
Ornithology" of Alexander Wilson (1766-1813), a native of Scotland, is
second only to the great work of Audubon. The names of Matthew Carey,
Peter Duponceau, and Albert Gallatin are also honorably associated with
American letters.
Of the more recent writers, Dr. Lieber has done much for the
advancement of political and philosophical science in the United States.
The names of Agassiz, father and son, and Guyot, prominent among the
scientific investigators of the age, are indissolubly connected with science
in America; and Drs. Draper and Dunglison have made valuable
contributions to the medical literature of the world. Count A. de Gurowski,
an able scholar, has published a work on "Russia as it is," and another on
"America and Europe." Mrs. Robinson's various works entitle her to high
distinction in the more grave as well as the lighter departments of literature.
Professor Koeppen has written two valuable works on the "World in the
Middle Ages." Dr. Brunow has brought a European reputation to the aid of
one of our Western universities. Henry Giles has gained distinction by his
essays and criticisms, and Henry William Herbert by his novels and
miscellaneous writings. Many other foreign men of letters might be named,
who, in various ways, aid the development of the national literature.
11. NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS.—One of the most powerful
engines in creating a taste for literature among the people of the United
States is the newspaper and periodical press. Every interest, every social
and political doctrine has its organ, and every village has its newspaper; not
success in its day, and of many books of less fame. Joseph Priestley (1733-
1804) wrote and published many of his most valuable works in the United
States. His friend Thomas Cooper (1759-1840) was one of the most active
minds of the age, and his religious, political, and scientific writings were
not without their influence on the national literature. "The American
Ornithology" of Alexander Wilson (1766-1813), a native of Scotland, is
second only to the great work of Audubon. The names of Matthew Carey,
Peter Duponceau, and Albert Gallatin are also honorably associated with
American letters.
Of the more recent writers, Dr. Lieber has done much for the
advancement of political and philosophical science in the United States.
The names of Agassiz, father and son, and Guyot, prominent among the
scientific investigators of the age, are indissolubly connected with science
in America; and Drs. Draper and Dunglison have made valuable
contributions to the medical literature of the world. Count A. de Gurowski,
an able scholar, has published a work on "Russia as it is," and another on
"America and Europe." Mrs. Robinson's various works entitle her to high
distinction in the more grave as well as the lighter departments of literature.
Professor Koeppen has written two valuable works on the "World in the
Middle Ages." Dr. Brunow has brought a European reputation to the aid of
one of our Western universities. Henry Giles has gained distinction by his
essays and criticisms, and Henry William Herbert by his novels and
miscellaneous writings. Many other foreign men of letters might be named,
who, in various ways, aid the development of the national literature.
11. NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS.—One of the most powerful
engines in creating a taste for literature among the people of the United
States is the newspaper and periodical press. Every interest, every social
and political doctrine has its organ, and every village has its newspaper; not
Page 768
devoted solely to special, local, or even to national topics, but registering
the principal passing events of the actual as well as of the intellectual world,
and in this respect differing essentially from the press of all other countries.
These papers are offered at so small a price as to place them within the
reach of all; and in a country where every one reads, the influence of such a
power as a public educator, in stimulating and diffusing mental activity, and
in creating cosmopolitan interests, can scarcely be comprehended in its full
significance. While there is much in these publications that is necessarily of
an evanescent character, and much that might perhaps be better excluded, it
cannot be denied that the best of our daily and weekly papers often contain
literary matter which in a less fugitive form would become a permanent and
valuable contribution to the national literature.
The magazines and reviews of the United States take a worthy place
beside those of Great Britain, and present a variety of reading which
exhibits at once the versatility of the people and the cosmopolitan tendency
of the literature which addresses itself to the sympathies of the most
diversified classes of readers. Among the quarterly reviews, the North
American occupies a prominent position. It is associated with the earliest
dawnings of the national literature, and in the list of its contributors is found
almost every name of note in American letters. The Scientific American and
the Popular Science Monthly are the most eminent of the scientific
periodicals; the Bibliotheca Sacra, the Andover and Princeton Reviews, the
Christian Union, the Independent, the Churchman are among the ablest
religious journals.
With the decease of H.S. Legaré, one of the most finished scholars of the
South, the Southern Quarterly, which had been indebted to his pen for many
of its ablest articles, ceased its existence. Putnam's Magazine was long the
medium of the most valuable and interesting fugitive literature; and the
Atlantic Monthly, which has succeeded it, is under the auspices of the most
the principal passing events of the actual as well as of the intellectual world,
and in this respect differing essentially from the press of all other countries.
These papers are offered at so small a price as to place them within the
reach of all; and in a country where every one reads, the influence of such a
power as a public educator, in stimulating and diffusing mental activity, and
in creating cosmopolitan interests, can scarcely be comprehended in its full
significance. While there is much in these publications that is necessarily of
an evanescent character, and much that might perhaps be better excluded, it
cannot be denied that the best of our daily and weekly papers often contain
literary matter which in a less fugitive form would become a permanent and
valuable contribution to the national literature.
The magazines and reviews of the United States take a worthy place
beside those of Great Britain, and present a variety of reading which
exhibits at once the versatility of the people and the cosmopolitan tendency
of the literature which addresses itself to the sympathies of the most
diversified classes of readers. Among the quarterly reviews, the North
American occupies a prominent position. It is associated with the earliest
dawnings of the national literature, and in the list of its contributors is found
almost every name of note in American letters. The Scientific American and
the Popular Science Monthly are the most eminent of the scientific
periodicals; the Bibliotheca Sacra, the Andover and Princeton Reviews, the
Christian Union, the Independent, the Churchman are among the ablest
religious journals.
With the decease of H.S. Legaré, one of the most finished scholars of the
South, the Southern Quarterly, which had been indebted to his pen for many
of its ablest articles, ceased its existence. Putnam's Magazine was long the
medium of the most valuable and interesting fugitive literature; and the
Atlantic Monthly, which has succeeded it, is under the auspices of the most
Page 769
eminent men of letters in New England, and has become the nucleus of a
number of young and able writers. The Magazine of American History is
the repository of much valuable information and many curious incidents in
the history of the country. Harper's Magazine and the Century are
periodicals of high literary character and of wide circulation both in this
country and in England. They have by means of their illustrations done
much to advance and develop the art of engraving.
The language of American literature being that of England, its early
productions were naturally modeled after those of the mother-country. But
the cosmopolitan elements of which the nation is composed, and the
peculiar influences of American civilization in holding out to the human
race opportunities and destinies unparalleled in history, are rapidly
developing a distinct national character which in the future must be
reflected in American literature, and cannot fail to produce great results.
This at least is the belief of all those who have faith in humanity and in the
spirit which laid the foundation of our Republic.
12. SINCE 1800.—The period intervening between 1860 and 1885 has
not been marked by any important literary development. In the great war for
the support of the institution of slavery on one hand and for national
existence on the other, history was enacted rather than written, and the
sudden and rapid development of material interests succeeding the war have
absorbed, to a great extent, the energies of the people.
Many histories of special occurrences of the war have since appeared,
and many biographies of those who played prominent parts in it, and when
time shall have given these, and the great events they commemorate, their
true perspective, the poet, novelist, and historian of the future will find in
them ample material for a truly national literature.
number of young and able writers. The Magazine of American History is
the repository of much valuable information and many curious incidents in
the history of the country. Harper's Magazine and the Century are
periodicals of high literary character and of wide circulation both in this
country and in England. They have by means of their illustrations done
much to advance and develop the art of engraving.
The language of American literature being that of England, its early
productions were naturally modeled after those of the mother-country. But
the cosmopolitan elements of which the nation is composed, and the
peculiar influences of American civilization in holding out to the human
race opportunities and destinies unparalleled in history, are rapidly
developing a distinct national character which in the future must be
reflected in American literature, and cannot fail to produce great results.
This at least is the belief of all those who have faith in humanity and in the
spirit which laid the foundation of our Republic.
12. SINCE 1800.—The period intervening between 1860 and 1885 has
not been marked by any important literary development. In the great war for
the support of the institution of slavery on one hand and for national
existence on the other, history was enacted rather than written, and the
sudden and rapid development of material interests succeeding the war have
absorbed, to a great extent, the energies of the people.
Many histories of special occurrences of the war have since appeared,
and many biographies of those who played prominent parts in it, and when
time shall have given these, and the great events they commemorate, their
true perspective, the poet, novelist, and historian of the future will find in
them ample material for a truly national literature.
Page 770
Among the poets of the time only a few of the more prominent can be
named. Bayard Taylor (1825-1878) is equally distinguished as a poet and
prose writer of fiction and travels. His translation of Faust in the original
metre is accepted as the best representation of the German master in the
English tongue, and apart from its merits as a translation, it has added to the
literature by the beauty and power of its versification. His poem of
"Deukalion" shows great originality and power of imagination. Richard H.
Stoddard (b. 1825) is a poet and critic, equally distinguished in both
departments. Edmund C. Stedman (b. 1833) is known by his translations
from the Greek poets and his original poems marked by vigor and
spontaneity of thought, poetic power, and precision in art. His critical
volume on the Victorian poets is notable for dispassionate, conscientious,
and skillful and sympathetic criticism.
Walt Whitman (b. 1819) writes with great force, originality, and
sympathy with all forms of struggle and suffering, but with utter contempt
for conventionalities and for the acknowledged limits of true art. Richard
W. Gilder has a delicate fancy and power of poetic expression. William
Winter, as a writer of occasional verses, has rare felicity of thought and
execution. William W. Story adds to his many other gifts those of a true
poet. Charles De Kay is the author of many poems original in conception
and execution. Thomas Bailey Aldrich has written much dainty and musical
verse and several successful novels. Will Carleton, the author of "Farm
Ballads," displays a keen sympathy for the harder phases of common life.
Charles G. Leland, in prose and humorous poetry, is widely read, and
known also by his efforts to introduce industrial art into schools. Henry
Howard Brownell is the author of "War Lyrics," among the best of their
kind. Edgar Fawcett is equally known as a poet and novelist. Joaquin
Miller, in his poems, gives pictures of lawless and adventurous life.
named. Bayard Taylor (1825-1878) is equally distinguished as a poet and
prose writer of fiction and travels. His translation of Faust in the original
metre is accepted as the best representation of the German master in the
English tongue, and apart from its merits as a translation, it has added to the
literature by the beauty and power of its versification. His poem of
"Deukalion" shows great originality and power of imagination. Richard H.
Stoddard (b. 1825) is a poet and critic, equally distinguished in both
departments. Edmund C. Stedman (b. 1833) is known by his translations
from the Greek poets and his original poems marked by vigor and
spontaneity of thought, poetic power, and precision in art. His critical
volume on the Victorian poets is notable for dispassionate, conscientious,
and skillful and sympathetic criticism.
Walt Whitman (b. 1819) writes with great force, originality, and
sympathy with all forms of struggle and suffering, but with utter contempt
for conventionalities and for the acknowledged limits of true art. Richard
W. Gilder has a delicate fancy and power of poetic expression. William
Winter, as a writer of occasional verses, has rare felicity of thought and
execution. William W. Story adds to his many other gifts those of a true
poet. Charles De Kay is the author of many poems original in conception
and execution. Thomas Bailey Aldrich has written much dainty and musical
verse and several successful novels. Will Carleton, the author of "Farm
Ballads," displays a keen sympathy for the harder phases of common life.
Charles G. Leland, in prose and humorous poetry, is widely read, and
known also by his efforts to introduce industrial art into schools. Henry
Howard Brownell is the author of "War Lyrics," among the best of their
kind. Edgar Fawcett is equally known as a poet and novelist. Joaquin
Miller, in his poems, gives pictures of lawless and adventurous life.
Page 771
Of the many distinguished women in contemporary American literature
only a few can here be named. Helen Jackson (H. H.) is a brilliant prose
writer and a poet of originality and power. She is the author of many essays
and works of fiction, and of an exhaustive work on the Indian question.
Emma Lazarus has written many poems of a high order. Annie Fields
recalls the spirit and imagination of the Greek mythology. Edith M.
Thomas, in her poems, shows high culture, originality, and imagination.
Those of Lucy Larcom belong to every-day life, and are truthful and
pathetic. Mary Mapes Dodge is a charming writer of tales and poems for
children, and of other poems, Celia Thaxter dwells on the picturesque
features of nature on sea and land. Julia Dorr in her novels and poems gives
proof of great versatility of talents. Ellen Hutchinson is a writer of
imaginative and musical verses. Elizabeth Stoddard is the author of several
powerful novels and of some fine poems. Of equal merit are the productions
of Louise Chandler Moulton, Nora Perry, Edna Dean Proctor, S. M. B. Piatt,
Margaret Preston, Harriet Preston, Elizabeth Akers Allen, Sarah Woolsey
(Susan Coolidge), Laura Johnson, Mary Clemmer, Mary C. Bradley, Kate
Putnam Osgood, Harriet Kimball, Marian Douglas, Mary Prescott, Laura C.
Redden.
In prose Frances Hodgson Burnett is the author of many interesting
novels and stories; Harriet Spofford, of original tales; Elizabeth Stuart
Phelps, of popular and highly wrought novels; Adeline Whitney, of
entertaining novels of every-day life; Rebecca Harding Davis, of powerful
though sombre novels, of pictures of contemporary life, society, and
thought; Louisa Alcott, of a series of charming New England stories for the
young. Rose Terry Cooke, in her short stories, has presented many striking
studies of New England life and character; and Sarah Orne Jewett deals
with the same material in a manner both strong and refined. Julia Fletcher
and Blanche Willis Howard have each written successful novels, and
Constance Fenimore Woolson is the author of many vivid and well written
only a few can here be named. Helen Jackson (H. H.) is a brilliant prose
writer and a poet of originality and power. She is the author of many essays
and works of fiction, and of an exhaustive work on the Indian question.
Emma Lazarus has written many poems of a high order. Annie Fields
recalls the spirit and imagination of the Greek mythology. Edith M.
Thomas, in her poems, shows high culture, originality, and imagination.
Those of Lucy Larcom belong to every-day life, and are truthful and
pathetic. Mary Mapes Dodge is a charming writer of tales and poems for
children, and of other poems, Celia Thaxter dwells on the picturesque
features of nature on sea and land. Julia Dorr in her novels and poems gives
proof of great versatility of talents. Ellen Hutchinson is a writer of
imaginative and musical verses. Elizabeth Stoddard is the author of several
powerful novels and of some fine poems. Of equal merit are the productions
of Louise Chandler Moulton, Nora Perry, Edna Dean Proctor, S. M. B. Piatt,
Margaret Preston, Harriet Preston, Elizabeth Akers Allen, Sarah Woolsey
(Susan Coolidge), Laura Johnson, Mary Clemmer, Mary C. Bradley, Kate
Putnam Osgood, Harriet Kimball, Marian Douglas, Mary Prescott, Laura C.
Redden.
In prose Frances Hodgson Burnett is the author of many interesting
novels and stories; Harriet Spofford, of original tales; Elizabeth Stuart
Phelps, of popular and highly wrought novels; Adeline Whitney, of
entertaining novels of every-day life; Rebecca Harding Davis, of powerful
though sombre novels, of pictures of contemporary life, society, and
thought; Louisa Alcott, of a series of charming New England stories for the
young. Rose Terry Cooke, in her short stories, has presented many striking
studies of New England life and character; and Sarah Orne Jewett deals
with the same material in a manner both strong and refined. Julia Fletcher
and Blanche Willis Howard have each written successful novels, and
Constance Fenimore Woolson is the author of many vivid and well written
Page 772
tales. Mary A. Dadge (Gail Hamilton) is a writer on many subjects,
sparkling, witty, aggressive; Clara Erskine Waters writes ably on art; Kate
Field is a vigorous and brilliant writer in journalism, travels, and criticism.
FICTION.—Theodore Winthrop (1828-1861) fell an early sacrifice in the
war. His descriptions of prairie life, his fresh and vigorous individualization
of character and power of narrative indicate a vein of original genius which
was foil of promise. William Dean Howells and Henry James are foremost
as writers of the analytic and realistic school. Their studies of character are
life-like and finished, their satire keen and good-natured. The romances of
Julian Hawthorne deal with the marvelous and unreal. Bret Harte (b. 1839)
presents us with vivid and lifelike pictures of wild Californian life, of the
rude hate and love which prevail in an atmosphere of lawlessness,
redeemed by touching exhibitions of gratitude and magnanimity. His dialect
poems and those of John Hay enjoy a wide popularity. The latter will also
be remembered for his "Castilian Days," a volume of fascinating studies of
Spanish subjects. George W. Cable is known for his pictures of Creole life;
Edward Eggleston, for his sketches of the shrewd and kindly humorous
Western life. Albion Tourgée has been the first to avail himself in fiction of
the political conditions growing out of the war. Joel Chandler Harris
delineates the character, dialect, and peculiarities of the negro race in his
"Sketches in Black and White," and Richard Malcolm Johnston has
graphically described phases of Southern life which have almost passed
away. F. Marion Crawford shows originality and promise in the novels he
has so far given to the public; the same may be said of Arthur S. Hardy,
George P. Lathrop, W.H. Bishop, Frank R. Stockton, and F.J. Stinson.
SCIENCE.—In astronomy, Young, Henry Draper, and Langley may be
named; in geology, Dana and Leconte; in physiology, Flint and Dalton;
Marsh, in palaeontology, and Leidy, in zöology; Professor Whitney is an
able writer on philology and Oriental literature. Professor E.L. Youmans has
sparkling, witty, aggressive; Clara Erskine Waters writes ably on art; Kate
Field is a vigorous and brilliant writer in journalism, travels, and criticism.
FICTION.—Theodore Winthrop (1828-1861) fell an early sacrifice in the
war. His descriptions of prairie life, his fresh and vigorous individualization
of character and power of narrative indicate a vein of original genius which
was foil of promise. William Dean Howells and Henry James are foremost
as writers of the analytic and realistic school. Their studies of character are
life-like and finished, their satire keen and good-natured. The romances of
Julian Hawthorne deal with the marvelous and unreal. Bret Harte (b. 1839)
presents us with vivid and lifelike pictures of wild Californian life, of the
rude hate and love which prevail in an atmosphere of lawlessness,
redeemed by touching exhibitions of gratitude and magnanimity. His dialect
poems and those of John Hay enjoy a wide popularity. The latter will also
be remembered for his "Castilian Days," a volume of fascinating studies of
Spanish subjects. George W. Cable is known for his pictures of Creole life;
Edward Eggleston, for his sketches of the shrewd and kindly humorous
Western life. Albion Tourgée has been the first to avail himself in fiction of
the political conditions growing out of the war. Joel Chandler Harris
delineates the character, dialect, and peculiarities of the negro race in his
"Sketches in Black and White," and Richard Malcolm Johnston has
graphically described phases of Southern life which have almost passed
away. F. Marion Crawford shows originality and promise in the novels he
has so far given to the public; the same may be said of Arthur S. Hardy,
George P. Lathrop, W.H. Bishop, Frank R. Stockton, and F.J. Stinson.
SCIENCE.—In astronomy, Young, Henry Draper, and Langley may be
named; in geology, Dana and Leconte; in physiology, Flint and Dalton;
Marsh, in palaeontology, and Leidy, in zöology; Professor Whitney is an
able writer on philology and Oriental literature. Professor E.L. Youmans has
Page 773
organized the simultaneous publication, in this country, England, France,
Germany, Italy, and Russia, of an international series of scientific works by
the ablest living writers, which has proved eminently successful. Among the
theologians representing various schools may be named, Philip Schaff,
Roswell D. Hitchcock, Samuel Osgood, Henry W. Bellows, Frederick H.
Hedge, Edward E. Hale, Newman Smyth, William R. Alger, and Octavius
B. Frothingham.
MISCELLANEOUS.—John Fiske is an able and versatile thinker and an
expounder of the philosophy of Herbert Spencer, and a writer on American
history, and on the leading subjects of scientific thought. Charles Brace is
the author of many volumes on various social problems. Moses Coit Tyler
is a writer on American literature and history; Andrew D. White, on French
history, and on science and religion. Professor McMaster's "History of the
People of the United States" is considered a scholarly and picturesque work.
Professor Lounsbury has written, in his "Cooper," one of the best of modern
biographies. Charles Dudley Warner is distinguished by the great geniality
and humor of his writings, alternately quaint, delicate, and pungent. The
charm and purity of his diction recall the best school of English essayists.
Paul Du Chaillu is widely known for his accounts of travel in Africa and
elsewhere; Moncure D. Conway, as a writer on social, literary, and artistic
themes. John Burroughs is a close observer of nature; Eugene Schuyler is
the author of a history of Peter the Great; Parkman throws much light on
early American history; Parton is the author of many attractive biographies;
Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) is known for his humorous writings.
Germany, Italy, and Russia, of an international series of scientific works by
the ablest living writers, which has proved eminently successful. Among the
theologians representing various schools may be named, Philip Schaff,
Roswell D. Hitchcock, Samuel Osgood, Henry W. Bellows, Frederick H.
Hedge, Edward E. Hale, Newman Smyth, William R. Alger, and Octavius
B. Frothingham.
MISCELLANEOUS.—John Fiske is an able and versatile thinker and an
expounder of the philosophy of Herbert Spencer, and a writer on American
history, and on the leading subjects of scientific thought. Charles Brace is
the author of many volumes on various social problems. Moses Coit Tyler
is a writer on American literature and history; Andrew D. White, on French
history, and on science and religion. Professor McMaster's "History of the
People of the United States" is considered a scholarly and picturesque work.
Professor Lounsbury has written, in his "Cooper," one of the best of modern
biographies. Charles Dudley Warner is distinguished by the great geniality
and humor of his writings, alternately quaint, delicate, and pungent. The
charm and purity of his diction recall the best school of English essayists.
Paul Du Chaillu is widely known for his accounts of travel in Africa and
elsewhere; Moncure D. Conway, as a writer on social, literary, and artistic
themes. John Burroughs is a close observer of nature; Eugene Schuyler is
the author of a history of Peter the Great; Parkman throws much light on
early American history; Parton is the author of many attractive biographies;
Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) is known for his humorous writings.
Page 774
CONCLUSION.
In the preceding pages the progress of literature has been briefly traced
through its various periods—from the time when its meagre records were
confined to inscriptions engraved on stone, or inscribed on clay tablets or
papyrus leaves, or in its later and more perfect development when, written
on parchment, it was the possession of the learned few, hidden in libraries
and so precious that a book was sometimes the ransom of a city— till the
invention of printing gave to the world the accumulated treasures of the
past; and from that time to the present, when the press has poured forth
from year to year an ever increasing succession of books, the records of
human thought, achievement, and emotion which constitute literature.
The question here naturally arises as to whether the human mind has now
reached its highest development in this direction, whether it is henceforth to
retrograde or to advance. It was only towards the close of the last century
that the idea of human progress gained ground, after the American and
French revolutions had broken down old barriers, inaugurated new systems,
inspired new hopes, and revealed new possibilities. What was then but a
feeble sentiment, later advances in the direction of science have confirmed.
Among them are the discovery of the correlation and conservation of force,
according to Faraday the highest law which our faculties permit us to
perceive; the spectroscope, that gives the chemist power to analyze the
stars; the microscope, that lays bare great secrets of nature, and almost
In the preceding pages the progress of literature has been briefly traced
through its various periods—from the time when its meagre records were
confined to inscriptions engraved on stone, or inscribed on clay tablets or
papyrus leaves, or in its later and more perfect development when, written
on parchment, it was the possession of the learned few, hidden in libraries
and so precious that a book was sometimes the ransom of a city— till the
invention of printing gave to the world the accumulated treasures of the
past; and from that time to the present, when the press has poured forth
from year to year an ever increasing succession of books, the records of
human thought, achievement, and emotion which constitute literature.
The question here naturally arises as to whether the human mind has now
reached its highest development in this direction, whether it is henceforth to
retrograde or to advance. It was only towards the close of the last century
that the idea of human progress gained ground, after the American and
French revolutions had broken down old barriers, inaugurated new systems,
inspired new hopes, and revealed new possibilities. What was then but a
feeble sentiment, later advances in the direction of science have confirmed.
Among them are the discovery of the correlation and conservation of force,
according to Faraday the highest law which our faculties permit us to
perceive; the spectroscope, that gives the chemist power to analyze the
stars; the microscope, that lays bare great secrets of nature, and almost
Page 775
penetrates the mystery of life itself; the application of steam and electricity,
that puts all nations into communication and binds mankind together with
nerves of steel; above all, the theory of evolution, which opens to man an
almost illimitable vista of progress and development. It is true that these
great intellectual triumphs of the nineteenth century are all in the direction
of science; but literature in its true sense embraces both science and art;
science which discovers through the intellect, and art which transmutes,
through the imagination, knowledge and emotion into beauty. When the
stupendous discoveries of our time have been fully recognized and
appreciated and followed, as they doubtless will be, by a long series of
others equally great, a higher order of thought must follow, and literature,
which, is but the reflection of the thought of any age, cannot but be in
harmony with it.
This consummation more than one poet, with the prescience of genius,
has already foretold. "Poetry," says Wordsworth, "is the first and last of all
knowledge, immortal as the heart of man. If the labors of men of science
should ever create any material revolution, direct or indirect, in our
condition and in the impressions we habitually receive, the poet will sleep
no more then than at present; he will be ready to follow the steps of the man
of science, and if the time should ever come when what is now called
science shall be ready to put on, as it were, a form of flesh and blood, the
poet will lend his divine spirit to aid the transfiguration." "The sublime and
all reconciling revelations of nature," writes Emerson, "will exact of poetry
a corresponding height and scope, or put an end to it." George Eliot says,—
"Presentiment of better things on earth
Sweeps in with every force that stirs our souls."
Throughout the verse of Tennyson the idea of progress is variously
expressed. He dreams of a future
that puts all nations into communication and binds mankind together with
nerves of steel; above all, the theory of evolution, which opens to man an
almost illimitable vista of progress and development. It is true that these
great intellectual triumphs of the nineteenth century are all in the direction
of science; but literature in its true sense embraces both science and art;
science which discovers through the intellect, and art which transmutes,
through the imagination, knowledge and emotion into beauty. When the
stupendous discoveries of our time have been fully recognized and
appreciated and followed, as they doubtless will be, by a long series of
others equally great, a higher order of thought must follow, and literature,
which, is but the reflection of the thought of any age, cannot but be in
harmony with it.
This consummation more than one poet, with the prescience of genius,
has already foretold. "Poetry," says Wordsworth, "is the first and last of all
knowledge, immortal as the heart of man. If the labors of men of science
should ever create any material revolution, direct or indirect, in our
condition and in the impressions we habitually receive, the poet will sleep
no more then than at present; he will be ready to follow the steps of the man
of science, and if the time should ever come when what is now called
science shall be ready to put on, as it were, a form of flesh and blood, the
poet will lend his divine spirit to aid the transfiguration." "The sublime and
all reconciling revelations of nature," writes Emerson, "will exact of poetry
a corresponding height and scope, or put an end to it." George Eliot says,—
"Presentiment of better things on earth
Sweeps in with every force that stirs our souls."
Throughout the verse of Tennyson the idea of progress is variously
expressed. He dreams of a future
Page 776
"When the war-drum throbs no longer and the battle-flags are furled."
"When comes the statelier Eden back to man."
"When springs the crowning race of human kind."
Thus the inspirations of poetry not less than the conclusions of science
indicate that we must look for the Golden Age, not in a mythical past, but in
an actual though far-off future.
"When comes the statelier Eden back to man."
"When springs the crowning race of human kind."
Thus the inspirations of poetry not less than the conclusions of science
indicate that we must look for the Golden Age, not in a mythical past, but in
an actual though far-off future.
Page 777
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