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Title: Architecture: Gothic and Renaissance

Author: T. Roger Smith

Editor: Edward John Poynter

Release date: October 3, 2010 [eBook #33837]

Language: English

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Transcriber's Note

A considerable number of the page references in the index are
incorrect; however, they have been preserved as printed. The
transcriber has, as far as possible, linked to the correct place in the
text.

ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS OF ART
EDUCATION
EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.

ARCHITECTURE
GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.

P. 114

THE CERTOSA, NEAR PAVIA. From the Cloisters.
Begun by Marco di Campione, A.D. 1393.

TEXT-BOOK OF ART EDUCATION, EDITED BY
EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.

ARCHITECTURE
GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE

BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
Occasional Lecturer on Architecture at University College, London

NEW YORK
SCRIBNER AND WELFORD.
LONDON
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON
CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET
1880

(All rights reserved.)

LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR,

BREAD STREET HILL, E. C.

PREFACE.

T HE history, the features, and the most famous examples of European
architecture, during a period extending from the rise of the Gothic, or
pointed, style in the twelfth century to the general depression which
overtook the Renaissance style at the close of the eighteenth, form the
subject of this little volume. I have endeavoured to adopt as free and simple
a mode of treatment as is compatible with the accurate statement of at least
the outlines of so very technical a subject.
Though it is to be hoped that many professional students of architecture will
find this hand-book serviceable to them in their elementary studies, it has
been my principal endeavour to adapt it to the requirements of those who
are preparing for the professional pursuit of the sister arts, and of that large
and happily increasing number of students who pursue the fine arts as a
necessary part of a complete liberal education, and who know that a solid
and comprehensive acquaintance with art, especially if joined to some skill
in the use of the pencil, the brush, the modelling tool, or the etching needle,
will open sources of pleasure and interest of the most refined description.
The broad facts of all art history; the principles which underlie each of the
fine arts; and the most precious or most noteworthy examples of each,
ought to be familiar to every art student, whatever special branch he may
follow. Beyond these limits I have not attempted to carry this account of
Gothic and Renaissance architecture; within them I have endeavoured to
make the work as complete as the space at my disposal permitted.
Some portions of the text formed part of two courses of lectures delivered
before the students of the School of Military Engineering at Chatham, and
are introduced here by the kind permission of Sir John Stokes. Many of the
descriptive and critical remarks are transcripts of notes made by myself,
almost under the shadow of the buildings to which they refer. It would,
however, have been impossible to give a condensed view of so extended a
subject had not every part of it been treated at much greater length by
previous writers. The number and variety of the books consulted renders it

impossible to make any other acknowledgment here than this general
recognition of my indebtedness to their authors.
T. R. S.

CONTENTS.
PAGE
ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF
TECHNICAL WORDS. xv to xxxix

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION. 1

CHAPTER II.
THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 6

CHAPTER III.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 21

CHAPTER IV.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND.
Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls.
Towers and Spires. Gables. Piers and
Columns 28

CHAPTER V.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND
(continued).
Analysis (continued). Openings. Roofs.
Spires. Ornaments. Stained Glass.
Sculpture 45

CHAPTER VI.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN
EUROPE.

1. France. Chronological Sketch. Analysis
of Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and
Gables. Columns and Piers. Roofs and
Vaults. Openings. Mouldings and
Ornaments. Construction and Design 69
2. Belgium and the Netherlands 87
3. Scotland, Wales, and Ireland 91

CHAPTER VII.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL
AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
1. Germany. Chronological Sketch.
Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls,
Towers and Gables. Roofs and Vaults.
Openings. Ornaments. Construction
and Design 93
2. Northern Europe 111

CHAPTER VIII.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN
EUROPE.
1. Italy and Sicily. Topographical Sketch.
Northern Italy. Central Italy.
Southern Italy. Analysis of
Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers, and
Columns. Openings and Arches.
Roofs and Vaults. Mouldings and
Ornaments. Construction and Design 112
2. Spain. Chronological Sketch 137
3. Portugal 142

CHAPTER IX.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
Principles of Construction and Design.
Materials and Construction 143

CHAPTER X.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.
General View. Analysis of Buildings.
Plans. Walls and Columns. Openings.
Construction and Design 154

CHAPTER XI.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
Florence. Rome. Venice, Vicenza, Verona.
Milan, Pavia. Genoa, Turin, Naples.
Country Villas 165

CHAPTER XII.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN
FRANCE AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
1. France. Chronological Sketch 193
2. Belgium and the Netherlands 206
3. Germany 210

CHAPTER XIII.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT
BRITAIN, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.
1. England. Chronological Sketch 214
2. Scotland 227
3. Spain and Portugal 229

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Certosa, The, near Pavia. From the Cloisters Frontispiece
Saint George. Panel from the Tomb of
Cardinal Amboise in Rouen Cathedral Title Page
Glossary. Forty Engravings of Details xv to xxxix
1.West Entrance, Lichfield Cathedral.
(1275.) 5
2.Ground Plan of Peterborough
Cathedral. (1118 to 1193.) 6
3.Transverse Section of the Nave of
Salisbury Cathedral 7
4.Choir of Worcester Cathedral. (Begun
1224.) 9
5.Nave of Wells Cathedral. (1206 to
1242.) 9
6.Ground Plan of Westminster Abbey 11
7.House of Jaques Cœur at Bourges.
(Begun 1443.) 15
8.Plan of Warwick Castle. (14th and 15th
Centuries.) 16
9.Palaces on the Grand Canal, Venice.
(14th Century.) 18
10.Well at Regensburg. (15th Century.) 20
11.Gothic Ornament. From Sens Cathedral
(Headpiece) 21
12.Lincoln Cathedral. (Mostly Early
English.) 35
13.St. Pierre, Caen, Tower and Spire. (Spire,
1302.) 37
14.House at Chester. (16th Century.) 38

15.Houses at Lisieux, France. (16th
Century.) 41
16.Lancet Window. (12th Century.) 46
17.Two-light Window. (13th Century.) 47
18.Geometrical Tracery. (14th Century.) 48
19.Triforium Arcade, Westminster Abbey.
(1269.) 49
20.Rose Window from the Transept of
Lincoln Cathedral 50
21.Perpendicular Window 51
22.Roof of Hall at Eltham Palace. (15th
Century.) 53
23.Henry VII.’s Chapel. (1503-1512.) 57
24.Spire of St. Mary Magdalene, Warboys,
Lincolnshire 59
25.Decorated Spire. All Saints’ Church,
Oakham 60
26.Early Arch in Receding Planes 62
27.Arch in Receding Planes Moulded 62
28.Doorway, King’s College Chapel,
Cambridge. (15th Cent.) 63
29.Stained Glass Window from Chartres
Cathedral 65
30.Sculpture from Chapter House,
Westminster Abbey 67
31.Church at Fontevrault. (Begun 1125.) 70
32.Doorway at Loches, France. (1180.) 72
33.Notre Dame, Paris, West Front. (1214.) 74
34.Plan of Amiens Cathedral. (1220-1272.) 76
35.Amiens Cathedral, West Front. (1220-
1272.) 78
36.Piers and Superstructure, Rheims
Cathedral. (1211-1240.) 80
37.Capital from St. Nicholas, Blois,
France. (13th Century.) 84

38.Beauvais Cathedral, Interior. (1225-
1537.) 86
39.The Town Hall of Middleburgh. (1518.) 89
40.Tower at Ghent. (Begun 1183.) 90
41.Abbey Church of Arnstein. (12th and
13th Centuries.) 94
42.Church at Andernach. (Early 13th
Century.) 96
43.Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg.
East End. (1358-1548.) 99
44.Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff.
Section. (1158.) 101
45.Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff.
(1158.) 102
46.Cologne Cathedral. Ground Plan.
(Begun 1248.) 104
47.Western Doorway of Church at Thann.
(14th Century.) 106
48.Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim.
(1262 to 1439.) 107
49.St. Sebald’s Church at Nuremberg. The
Bride’s Doorway 109
50.Palace of the Jurisconsults at Cremona 117
51.Cathedral at Florence. With Giotto’s
Campanile 121
52.Cathedral at Siena. West Front and
Campanile 123
53.Cathedral at Orvieto. (Begun 1290;
Façade, 1310.) 125
54.Ogival Window-head 129
55.Tracery in Window-head, from Venice 130
56.Window from Tivoli 134
57.Italian Gothic Window, with Tracery in
Head 136

58.Cathedral at Toledo. Interior. (Begun
1227.) 139
59.The Giralda at Seville. (Begun in 1196;
Finished in 1568.) 141
60.Doorway from Church at Batalha.
(Begun 1385.) 151
61.Strozzi Palace at Florence. (Begun
1489.) 169
62.Part of the Loggia del Consiglio at
Verona 171
63.The Pandolfini Palace, Florence.
Designed by Raphael 173
64.St. Peter’s at Rome. Interior. (1506-
1661.) 177
65.Monument by Sansovino, in Sta. Maria
del Popolo, Rome 179
66.Palazzo Giraud, Rome. By Bramante.
(1506.) 180
67.Italian Shell Ornament 183
68.The Church of the Redentore, Venice.
(1576.) 185
69.Certosa near Pavia. Part of West Front.
(Begun 1473.) 188
70.Villa Medici—On the Pincian Hill near
Rome. By Annibale Lippi (now the
Académie Française). (A.D. 1540.) 191
70a.Early Renaissance Corbel 192
71.Window from a House at Orleans.
(Early 16th Century.) 195
72.Capital from the House of Francis I.,
Orleans. (1540.) 197
73.Pavillon Richelieu of the Louvre, Paris 199
74.Part of the Tuileries, Paris. (Begun
1564.) 201

75.Capital from Delorme’s work at the
Louvre 202
76.Hôtel des Invalides, Paris 204
77.Window from Colmar. (1575.) 208
78.Zeughaus, Dantzic. (1605.) 209
79.Council-house at Leyden. (1599.) 211
80.Quadrangle of the Castle of
Schalaburg 213
81.Holland House, Kensington. (1607.) 216
82.St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. (1675-
1710.) 220
83.Houses at Chester. (16th Century.) 225
84.The Alcazar at Toledo. (Begun 1568.) 231

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.
Abacus.—The upper portion of the capital of a column, upon
which the weight to be carried rests.
Aisle (Lat. ala).—The side subdivision in a church;
occasionally all the subdivisions, including the nave, are called
aisles.
Apse.—A semicircular or polygonal termination to, or projection
from, a church or other public building.
Arcade.—A range of arches, supported on piers or columns.
Arch.—A construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone, or of
bricks, of a curved outline, and spanning an open space. The
principal forms of arch in use are Semicircular; Acutely-pointed,
or Lancet; Equilateral, or Less Acutely-pointed; Four-centred, or
Depressed Tudor; Three-centred, or Elliptic; Ogival; Segmental;
and Stilted. (Figs. a to f.)
Architrave.—(1) The stone which in Classic and Renaissance
architecture is thrown from one column or pilaster to the next.
(2) The moulding which in the same styles is used to ornament
the margin of a door or window opening or arch.
Ashlar.—Finely-wrought masonry, employed for the facing of
a wall of coarser masonry or brick.
Attic (In Renaissance Architecture).—A low upper story,
distinctly marked in the architecture of the building, usually
surmounting an order; (2) in ordinary building, any story in a
roof.

Bailey (from vallum).—The enclosure of the courtyard of a
castle.

Ball-flower.—An ornament representing a globular bud,
placed usually in a hollow moulding.
Baluster.—A species of small column, generally of curved
outline.
Balustrade.—A parapet or rail formed of balusters.

Fig. a.—Semicircular Arch.

Fig. b.—Stilted Arch.

The Semicircular and the Stilted Semicircular Arch
were the only arches in use till the introduction of the
Pointed Arch. Throughout the Early English,
Decorated, and Perpendicular periods they occur as

exceptional features, but they were practically
superseded after the close of the 12th cent.

Fig. c.—Equilateral Arch.

Fig. d.—Lancet Arch.

The Lancet Arch was characteristic of the Early
English period, is never found earlier, and but rarely
occurs later. The Equilateral Arch was the favourite
arch of the architects of the geometrical Decorated, but
is not unfrequently met with in the early part of the
Perpendicular period.

Fig. e.—Ogival Arch.

Fig. f.—Depressed Tudor Arch.

The Depressed (or Four-centred) Tudor Arch is
characteristic of the Perpendicular period, and was
then constantly employed. The Ogival Arch is
occasionally employed late in that period, but was
more used by French and Italian architects than by
those of Great Britain.
Band.—A flat moulding or projecting strip of stone.
Barrel-vaulting.—See Waggon-head vaulting.
Barge-board (or Verge-board).—An inclined and pierced or
ornamented board placed along the edge of a roof when it

overhangs a gable wall.
Base.—(1) The foot of a column; (2) sometimes that of a
buttress or wall.

Fig. g.—Base of Early English Shaft.

Fig. h.—Base of Perpendicular Shaft.

Fig. i.—Base of Decorated Shaft.

Basilica.—(1) A Roman public hall; (2) an early Christian
church, similar to a Roman basilica in disposition.
Bastion (in Fortification).—A bold projecting mass of building,
or earthwork thrown out beyond the general line of a wall.
Battlement.—A notched or indented parapet.
Bay.—One of the compartments in a building which is made up
of several repetitions of the same group of features; e.g., in a
church the space from one column of the nave arcade to the next
is a bay.
Bay-window.—A window projecting outward from the wall. It
may be rectangular or polygonal. It must be built up from the
ground. If thrown out above the ground level, a projecting
window is called an Oriel. (See Bow window.)
Bead.—A small moulding of circular profile.

Belfry.—A chamber fitted to receive a peal of bells.
Belfry Stage.—The story of a tower where the belfry occurs.
Usually marked by large open arches or windows, to let the
sound escape.
Bell (of a capital).—The body between the necking and the
abacus (which see).
Billet Moulding.—A moulding consisting of a group of small
blocks separated by spaces about equal to their own length.
Blind Story.—Triforium (which see).
Boss.—A projecting mass of carving placed to conceal the
intersection of the ribs of a vault, or at the end of a string course
which it is desired to stop, or in an analogous situation.
Bow Window.—Similar to a Bay-window (which see), but
circular or segmental.
Broach-spire.—A spire springing from a tower without a
parapet and with pyramidal features at the feet of its four
oblique sides (see Fig. 22) to connect them to the four angles of
the tower.
Broachead (Spire).—Formed as above described.
Buttress.—A projection built up against a wall to create
additional strength or furnish support (see Flying Buttress).
Byzantine.—The round-arched Christian architecture of the
Eastern Church, which had its origin in Byzantium
(Constantinople).

Canopy.—(1) An ornamented projection over doors, windows,
&c.; (2) a covering over niches, tombs, &c.
Campanile.—The Italian name for a bell-tower.

Fig. j.—Buttress.

Capital.—The head of a column or pilaster (Figs. l to p).
Cathedral.—A church which contains the seat of a bishop;
usually a building of the first class.
Certosa.—A monastery (or church) of Carthusian monks.
Chamfer.—A slight strip pared off from a sharp angle.
Chancel.—The choir or eastern part of a church.
Chantry Chapel.—A chapel connected with a monument or
tomb in which masses were to be chanted. This was usually of
small size and very rich.
Chapel.—(1) A chamber attached to a church and opening out of
it, or formed within it, and in which an altar was placed; (2) a
small detached church.

Chapter House.—The hall of assembly of the chapter (dean and
canons) of a cathedral.

Fig. l.—Early Norman Capital.

Fig. m.—Early English Capital.

Fig. n.—Later Norman Capital.

Fig. o.—Perpendicular Capital.

Fig. p.—Early French Capital.

Château.—The French name for a country mansion.
Chevron.—A zig-zag ornament.
Chevet.—The French name for an apse when surrounded by
chapels; see the plan of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 6).
Choir.—The part of a church in which the services are
celebrated; usually, but not always, the east end or chancel. In a
Spanish church the choir is often at the crossing.
Clerestory.—The upper story or row of windows lighting the
nave of a Gothic church.
Cloister.—A covered way round a quadrangle of a monastic
building.
Clustered (shafts).—Grouped so as to form a pier of some
mass out of several small shafts.
Corbel.—A projecting stone (or timber) supporting, or seeming
to support, a weight (Fig. k).

Fig. k.—Early Renaissance Corbel.

Corbelling.—A series of mouldings doing the same duty as a
corbel; a row of corbels.
Corbel Table.—A row of corbels supporting an overhanging
parapet or cornice.
Cortile (Italian).—The internal arcaded quadrangle of a palace,
mansion, or public building.
Column.—A stone or marble post, divided usually into base,
shaft, and capital; distinguished from a pier by the shaft being
cylindrical or polygonal, and in one, or at most, in few pieces.
Cornice.—The projecting and crowning portion of an order
(which see) or of a building, or of a stage or story of a building.
Course.—A horizontal layer of stones in the masonry of a
building.

Crocket.—A tuft of leaves arranged in a formal shape, used to
decorate ornamental gables, the ribs of spires, &c.

Fig. q.—Decorated Crocket.

Fig. r.—Perpendicular Crocket.

Crossing.—The intersection (which see) in a church or
cathedral.
Cross Vault.—A vault of which the arched surfaces intersect
one another, forming a groin (which see).

Crypt.—The basement under a church or other building (almost
invariably vaulted).
Cusp.—The projecting point thrown out to form the leaf-shaped
forms or foliations in the heads of Gothic windows, and in
tracery and panels.

Dec.
Decorated. } The Gothic architecture of the fourteenth century
in England. Abbreviated Dec.

Detail.—The minuter features of a design or building,
especially its mouldings and carving.
Diaper (Gothic).—An uniform pattern of leaves or flowers
carved or painted on the surface of a wall.

Fig. s.—Diaper in Spandrel, from Westminster Abbey.

Dogtooth.—A sharply-pointed ornament in a hollow moulding
which is peculiar to Early English Gothic. It somewhat
resembles a blunt tooth.
Dormer Window.—A window pierced through a sloping roof
and placed under a small gable or roof of its own.
Dome.—A cupola or spherical convex roof, ordinarily circular
on plan.
Domical Vaulting.—Vaulting in which a series of small domes
are employed; in contradistinction to a waggon-head vault, or an
intersecting vault.
Double Tracery.—Two layers of tracery one behind the other
and with a clear space between.

E. E.
Early } The Gothic architecture of England in the
thirteenth century. Abbreviated E. E.
English.

Eaves.—The verge or edge of a roof overhanging the wall.
Eaves-course.—A moulding carrying the eaves.
Elevation.—(1) A geometrical drawing of part of the exterior or
interior walls of a building; (2) the architectural treatment of the
exterior or interior walls of a building.
Elizabethan.—The architecture of England in, and for some
time after, the reign of Elizabeth.
Embattled.—Finished with battlements, or in imitation of
battlements.

Enrichments.—The carved (or coloured) decorations applied to
the mouldings or other features of an architectural design. (See
Mouldings.)
Entablature (in Classic and Renaissance architecture).—The
superstructure above the columns where an order is employed. It
is divided into the architrave, which rests on the columns, the
frieze and the cornice.

Façade.—The front of a building or of a principal part of a
building.
Fan Vault.—The vaulting in use in England in the fifteenth
century, in which a series of conoids bearing some resemblance
to an open fan are employed.
Fillet.—A small moulding of square flat section.

Fig. t.—Perpendicular Finial.

Finial.—A formally arranged bunch of foliage or other similar
ornament forming the top of a pinnacle, gablet, or other
ornamented feature of Gothic architecture.

Flamboyant Style.—The late Gothic architecture of France at
the end of the fifteenth century, so called from the occurrence of
flame-shaped forms in the tracery.
Flèche.—A name adapted from the French. A slender spire,
mostly placed on a roof; not often so called if on a tower.
Flying Buttress.—A buttress used to steady the upper and inner
walls of a vaulted building, placed at some distance from the
wall which it supports, and connected with it by an arch.

Fig. u.—Flying Buttress.

Foil.—A leaf-shaped form produced by adding cusps to the
curved outline of a window head or piece of tracery.

Foliation.—The decoration of an opening, or of tracery by
means of foils and cusps.
Fosse.—The ditch of a fortress.
François I. Style.—The early Renaissance architecture of
France during part of the sixteenth century.
Frieze.—(1) The middle member of a Classic or Renaissance
entablature; this was often sculptured and carved; (2) any band
of sculptured ornament.

Gable.—The triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of a roof.
Gablet.—A small gable (usually ornamental only).
Gallery.—(1) An apartment of great length in proportion to its
width; (2) a raised floor or stage in a building.
Gargoyle.—A projecting waterspout, usually carved in stone,
more rarely formed of metal.
Geometrical.—The architecture of the earlier part of the
decorated period in England.
Grille.—A grating or ornamental railing of metal.
Groin.—The curved line which is made by the meeting of the
surfaces of two vaults or portions of vaults which intersect.
Group.—An assemblage of shafts or mouldings or other small
features intended to produce a combined effect.
Grouping.—Combining architectural features as above.

Hall.—(1) The largest room in an ancient English mansion, or a
college, &c.; (2) any large and stately apartment.

Half Timbered Construction.—A mode of building in which a
framework of timbers is displayed and the spaces between them
are filled in with plaster or tiles.
Hammer Beam Roof.—A roof peculiar to English architecture of
the fifteenth century, deriving its name from the use of a
hammer beam (a large bracket projecting from the walls) to
partly support the rafters.
Head (of an arch or other opening).—The portion within the
curve; whether filled in by masonry or left open, sometimes
called a tympanum.
Hip.—The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping
sides of a roof where there is no gable.
Hôtel (French).—A town mansion.

Impost.—A moulding or other line marking the top of the jambs
of an arched opening, and the starting point, or apparent starting
point, of the arch.
Inlay.—A mode of decoration in which coloured materials are
laid into sinkings of ornamental shape, cut into the surface to be
decorated.
Intersection (or Crossing).—The point in a church where the
transepts cross the nave.
Intersecting Vaults.—Vaults of which the surfaces cut one
another.
Interpenetration.—A German mode of treating mouldings, as
though two or more sets of them existed in the same stone and
they could pass through (interpenetrate) each other.

Jamb.—The side of a door or window or arch, or other opening.

Fig. v.—Plan of a Jamb and Central Pier of a Gothic
Doorway.

Keep.—The tower which formed the stronghold of a mediæval
castle.
King Post.—The middle post in the framing of a timber roof.

Lancet Arch.—The sharply-pointed window-head and arch,
characteristic of English Gothic in the thirteenth century.
Lantern.—A conspicuous feature rising above a roof or
crowning a dome, and intended usually to light a Hall, but often
introduced simply as an architectural finish to the whole
building.
Lierne (rib).—A rib intermediate between the main ribs in
Gothic vaulting.
Light.—One of the divisions of a window of which the entire
width is divided by one or more mullions.
Lintel.—The stone or beam covering a doorway or other
opening not spanned by an arch. Sometimes applied to the

architrave of an order.
Loggia (Italian).—An open arcade with a gallery behind.
Loop.—Short for loophole. A very narrow slit in the wall of a
fortress, serving as a window, or to shoot through.
Lucarne.—A spire-light. A small window like a slender dormer
window.

Moat (or Fosse).—The ditch round a fortress or semi-fortified
house.
Mosaic.—An ornament for pavements, walls, and the surfaces
of vaults, formed by cementing together small pieces of
coloured material (stone, marble, tile, &c.) so as to produce a
pattern or picture.
Moulding.—A term applied to all varieties of contour or outline
given to the angles, projections, or recesses of the various parts
of a building. The object being either to produce an outline
satisfactory to the eye; or, more frequently, to obtain a play of
light and shade, and to produce the appearance of a line or a
series of lines, broad or narrow, and of varying intensity of
lightness or shade in the building or some of its features.
The contour which a moulding would present when cut across in
a direction at right angles to its length is called its profile.
The profile of mouldings varied with each style of architecture
and at each period (Figs. w to z). When ornaments are carved
out of some of the moulded surfaces the latter are technically
termed enriched mouldings. The enrichments in use varied with
each style and each period, as the mouldings themselves did.
Mullion.—The upright bars of stone frequently employed
(especially in Gothic architecture) to subdivide one window into
two or more lights.

Nave.—(1) The central avenue of a church or cathedral; (2) the
western part of a church as distinguished from the chancel or
choir; (3) occasionally, any avenue in the interior of a building
which is divided by one or more rows of columns running
lengthways is called a nave.
Necking (of a column).—The point (usually marked by a fillet
or other small projecting moulding) where the shaft ends and the
capital begins.
Newel Post.—The stout post at the foot of a staircase from
which the balustrade or the handrail starts.

Fig. w.—Arch Moulding. (Gothic, 12th Century.)

Fig. y.—Arch Moulding. (Decorated, 14th Century.)

Fig. z.—Arch Moulding. (Gothic, 13th Century.)

Niche.—A recess in a wall for a statue, vase, or other upright
ornament.
Norman.—The architecture of England from the Norman
Conquest till the latter part of the twelfth century.

Ogee.—A moulding or line of part concave and part convex
curvature (see Fig. e, showing an ogee-shaped arch).
Ogival.—Ogee-shaped (see Fig. 54).
Open Tracery.—Tracery in which the spaces between the bars
are neither closed by slabs of stone nor glazed.
Order.—(1) In Classical and Renaissance architecture a single
column or pilaster and its appropriate entablature or
superstructure; (2) a series of columns or pilasters with their
entablature; (3) an entire decorative system appropriate to the
kind of column chosen. In Renaissance architecture there are
five orders—the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and
Composite. Each has its own proper column, and its proper
base, shaft, and capital; and its own entablature. The proportions
and the degree of enrichment appropriate to each vary. The
Tuscan being the sturdiest and plainest, the Composite the most
slender and most small, and the others taking place in the
succession in which they stand enumerated above. Where more
than one order occurs in a building, as constantly happens in
Classic and Renaissance buildings, the orders which are the
plainest and most sturdy (and have been named first) if
employed, are invariably placed below the more slender orders;
e.g. the Doric is never placed over the Corinthian or the Ionic,
but if employed in combination with either of those orders it is
always the lowest in position.
Oriel.—A window projecting like a bay or bow window, not
resting on the ground but thrown out above the ground level and
resting on a corbel.

Palladian.—A phase of fully developed Renaissance
architecture introduced by the architect Palladio, and largely
followed in England as well as in Italy.
Panel.—(1) The thinner portions of the framed woodwork of
doors and other such joiner’s work; (2) all sunk compartments in
masonry, ceilings, &c.
Panelling.—(1) Woodwork formed of framework containing
panels; (2) any decoration formed of a series of sunk
compartments.
Parapet.—A breastwork or low wall used to protect the gutters
and screen the roofs of buildings; also, perhaps primarily, to
protect the ramparts of fortifications.

Fig. a a.—Open Parapet, late Decorated.

Fig. b b.—Battlemented Parapet, Perpendicular.

Pavilion.—A strongly marked single block of building; most
frequently applied to those blocks in French and other
Renaissance buildings that are marked out by high roofs.
Pedestal.—(1) A substructure sometimes placed under a column
in Renaissance architecture; (2) a similar substructure intended
to carry a statue, vase, or other ornament.
Pediment.—(1) The gable, where used in Renaissance buildings;
(2) an ornamental gable sometimes placed over windows, doors,
and other features in Gothic buildings.
Perp.
Perpendicular. } The Gothic architecture of the fifteenth
century in England. Abbreviated Perp.

Pier.—(1) A mass of walling, either a detached portion of a wall
or a distinct structure of masonry, taking the place of a column
in the arcade of a church or elsewhere; (2) a group or cluster of
shafts substituted for a column.

Fig. c c.—Early English Piers.

Fig. d d.—Late Decorated and Perpendicular Piers.

Pilaster.—A square column, usually attached to a wall;
frequently used in Classic and Renaissance architecture in
combination with columns.
Pinnacle (in Gothic architecture).—A small turret, or ornament,
usually with a pointed top, employed to mark the summit of
gables, buttresses, and other tall features.
Pitch.—The degree of slope given to a roof, gable, or pediment.
Plan.—(1) A map of the floor of a building, showing the piers,
if any, and the walls which inclose and divide it, with the
openings in them; (2) the actual arrangement and disposition of
the floors, piers, and walls of the building itself.
Plane.—The imaginary surface within which a series of
mouldings lies, and which coincides with the salient and
important points of that series. Mouldings are said to be on an
oblique plane when their plane forms an angle less than a right
angle with the face of the wall; and in receding planes, when

they can be divided into a series of groups of more or less
stepped outline, each within and behind the other, and each
partly bounded by a plane parallel with the face of the wall.
Plaster.—The plastic material, of which the groundwork is
lime and sand, used to cover walls internally and to form
ceilings. Sometimes employed as a covering to walls externally.
Plinth.—The base of a wall or of a column or range of columns.
Portal.—A dignified and important entrance doorway.
Portico.—A range of columns with their entablature (and
usually covered by a pediment), marking the entrance to a
Renaissance or Classic building.
Prismatic Rustication.—In Elizabethan architecture rusticated
masonry with diamond-shaped projections worked on the face
of each stone.
Profile.—The contour or outline of mouldings as they would
appear if sawn across at right angles to their length.
Porch.—A small external structure to protect and ornament the
doorway to a building (rarely met with in Renaissance).

Quatrefoil.—A four-leaved ornament occupying a circle in
tracery or a panel.

Rafters.—The sloping beams of a roof upon which the covering
of the roof rests.
Ragstone.—A coarse stone found in parts of Kent and
elsewhere, and used for walling.
Receding Planes.—(See Plane.)
Recess.—A sinking in a building deeper than a mere panel.

Recessing.—Forming one or more recesses. Throwing back
some part of a building behind the general face.
Renaissance.—The art of the period of the Classic revival which
began in the sixteenth century. In this volume used chiefly to
denote the architecture of Europe in that and the succeeding
centuries.
Rib (in Gothic vaulting).—A bar of masonry or moulding
projecting beyond the general surface of a vault, to mark its
intersections or subdivide its surface, and to add strength.
Ridge.—(1) The straight line or ornament which marks the
summit of a roof; (2) the line or rib, straight or curved, which
marks the summit of a vault.
Roll.—A round moulding.
Rose Window.—A wheel window (which see).
Rubble.—Rough stonework forming the heart of a masonry
wall; sometimes faced with ashlar (which see), sometimes
shown.
Rustication (or Rusticated Masonry).—The sort of ornamental
ashlar masonry (chiefly Classic and Renaissance) in which each
stone is distinguished by a broad channel all round it, marking
the joints.
Rustics.—The individual blocks of stone used in rustication (as
described above).

Screen.—An internal partition or inclosure cutting off part of a
building. At the entrance to the choir of a church screens of
beautiful workmanship were used.
Scroll Moulding.—A round roll moulding showing a line along
its face (distinctive of decorated Gothic).

Scroll Work.—Ornament showing winding spiral lines like the
edge of a scroll of paper (chiefly found in Elizabethan).
Section.—(1) A drawing of a building as it would appear if cut
through at some fixed plane. (2) That part of the construction of
a building which would be displayed by such a drawing as
described above. (3) The profile of a moulding.
Set-off.—A small ledge formed by diminishing the thickness of
a wall or pier.
Sexpartite Vaulting.—Where each bay or compartment is
divided by its main ribs into six portions.
Sgraffito (Italian).—An ornament produced by scratching lines
on the plastered face of a building so as to show a different
colour filling up the lines or surfaces scratched away.
Shaft.—(1) The middle part of a column between its base and
capital. (2) In Gothic, slender columns introduced for
ornamental purposes, singly or in clusters.
Shell Ornament.—A decoration frequently employed in Italian
and French Renaissance, and resembling the interior of a shell.
Sky-line.—The outline which a building will show against the
sky.
Spandrel.—The triangular (or other shaped) space between the
outside of an arch and the mouldings, or surfaces inclosing it or
in contact with it. (See Fig. s, under Diaper.)
Spire.—The steep and pointed roof of a tower (usually a church
tower).
Spire-light (or Lucarne).—A dormer window (which see) in a
spire.
Splay.—A slope making with the face of a wall an angle less
than a right angle.

Stage.—One division in the height of any building or portion of
a building where horizontal divisions are distinctly marked, e.g.,
the belfry stage of a tower, the division in which the bells are
hung.
Steeple.—A tower and spire in combination. Sometimes applied
to a tower or spire separately.
Stepped Gable.—A gable in which, instead of a sloping line, the
outline is formed by a series of steps.
Stilted Arch.—An arch of which the curve does not commence
till above the level of the impost (which see).
Story.—(1) The portion of a building between one floor and the
next; (2) any stage or decidedly marked horizontal compartment
of a building, even if not corresponding to an actual story
marked by a floor.
Strap-work (Elizabethan).—An ornament representing strap-
like fillets interlaced.
String-course.—A projecting horizontal (or occasionally
sloping) band or line of mouldings.

Tabernacle Work.—The richly ornamented and carved work
with which the smaller and more precious features of a church,
e.g., the fittings of a choir, were adorned and made conspicuous.
Terminal (or Finial).—The ornamental top of a pinnacle, gable,
&c.
Terra-cotta.—A fine kind of brick capable of being highly
ornamented, and formed into blocks of some size.
Thrust.—The pressure exercised laterally by an arch or vault, or
by the timbers of a roof on the abutments or supports.
Tie.—A beam of wood, bar of iron, or similar expedient
employed to hold together the feet or sides of an arch, vault, or

roof, and so counteract the thrust.
Torus.—A large convex moulding.
Tower.—A portion of a building rising conspicuously above the
general mass, and obviously distinguished by its height from
that mass. A detached building of which the height is great,
relative to the width and breadth.
Tracery (Gothic).—The ornamental stonework formed by the
curving and interlacing of bars of stone, and occupying the
heads of windows, panels, and other situations where decoration
and lightness have to be combined. The simplest and earliest
tracery might be described as a combination of openings pierced
through the stone head of an arch. Cusping and foliation (which
see) are features of tracery. (See Figs. 18, 19, 55, and 57 in the
text.)

Fig. e e.—Perpendicular Window-head.

Fig. f f.—Late Perpendicular Window-head.

Transept.—The arms of a church or cathedral which cross the
line of the nave.
Transition.—The architecture of a period coming between and
sharing the characteristics of two distinctly marked styles or
phases of architecture, one of which succeeded the other.
Transom.—A horizontal bar (usually of stone) across a window
or panel.
Trefoil.—A three-leaved or three-lobed form found constantly
in the heads of windows and in other situations where tracery is
employed.
Triforium (or Thorough-fare).—The story in a large church or
cathedral intermediate between the arcade separating the nave
and aisles, and the clerestory.
Tudor.—The architecture of England during the reigns of the
Tudor kings. The use of the term is usually, however, restricted
to a period which closes with the end of Henry VIII.’s reign,
1547.

Turret.—A small tower, sometimes rising from the ground, but
often carried on corbels and commencing near the upper part of
the building to which it is an appendage.
Tympanum.—The filling in of the head of an arch, or
occasionally of an ornamental gable.

Undercutting.—A moulding or ornament of which the greater
part stands out from the mouldings or surfaces which it adjoins,
as though almost or quite detached from them, is said to be
undercut.

Vault.—An arched ceiling to a building, or part of a building,
executed in masonry or in some substitute for masonry.
The vaults of the Norman period were simple barrel- or waggon-
headed vaults, and semicircular arches only were used in their
construction. With the Gothic period the use of intersecting, and
as a result of pointed arches, was introduced into vaulting, and
vaults went on increasing in complexity and elaboration till the
Tudor period, when fan-vaulting was employed. Our
illustrations show some of the steps in the development of
Gothic vaults referred to in Chapter V. of the text. No. 1
represents a waggon-head vault with an intersecting vault
occupying part of its length. No. 2 represents one of the
expedients adopted for vaulting an oblong compartment before
the pointed arch was introduced. The narrower arch is stilted and
the line of the groin is not true. No. 3 represents a similar
compartment vaulted without any distortion or irregularity by
the help of the pointed arch. No. 4 represents one lay of a
sexpartite Gothic vault. No. 5 represents a vault with lierne ribs
making a star-shaped pallom on plan, and No. 6 is a somewhat
more intricate example of the same class of vault.

Fig. g g.—Vaults.

Vaults are met with in Renaissance buildings, but they are a less
distinctive feature of such buildings than they were in the Gothic
period; and in many cases where a vault or a series of vaults
would have been employed by a Gothic architect, a Renaissance
architect has preferred to make use of a dome or a series of

domes. This is called domical vaulting. Examples of it occur
occasionally in Gothic work.

Waggon-head Vaulting, or Barrel-Vaulting.—A simple form
of tunnel-like vaulting, which gets its name from its
resemblance to the tilt often seen over large waggons, or to the
half of a barrel.
Wainscot.—(1) The panelling often employed to line the walls
of a room or building; (2) a finely marked variety of oak
imported chiefly from Holland; probably so called because
wainscot oak was at one time largely employed for such
panelling.
Weathering.—A sloping surface of stone employed to cover the
set-off (which see) of a wall or buttress and protect it from the
effects of weather.
Wheel Window.—A circular window, and usually one in which
mullions radiate from a centre towards the circumference like
the spokes of a wheel; sometimes called a rose-window.
Window-head.—For illustrations of the various forms and
filling-in of Gothic window-heads, see the words Arch and
Tracery.

HEAD AND TAILPIECES.
PAGE
Headpiece.—Crête from Notre Dame, Paris 1
” Sculptured Ornament from Rheims Cathedral 6
” ” ” Sens Cathedral 21
” ” ” Westminster Abbey 28
Tailpiece.—Norman Capitals 44
Headpiece.—Sculptured Ornament from Westminster Abbey 45
Tailpiece.—Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral 68
Headpiece.—Stained Glass from Chartres Cathedral 69
Tailpiece.—Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral 92
” Ornament from Rheims Cathedral 153
Headpiece.—Renaissance Ornament from a Frieze 154
” From a terra-cotta Frieze at Lodi 165
Tailpiece.—From a Door in Santa Maria, Venice 192
Headpiece.—Ornament by Giulio Romano 193
” From a Frieze at Venice 235

The End-papers are from a Tapestry in Hardwick Hall.

The Lily of Florence.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

T HE architecture generally known as Gothic, but often described as
Christian Pointed, prevailed throughout Europe to the exclusion of
every rival for upwards of three centuries; and it is to be met with,
more or less, during two others. Speaking broadly, it may be said that its
origin took place in the twelfth century, that the thirteenth was the period of
its development, the fourteenth that of its perfection, and the fifteenth that
of its decline; while many examples of its employment occur in the
sixteenth.
In the following chapters the principal changes in the features of buildings
which occurred during the progress of the style in England will be
described. Subsequently, the manner in which the different stages of
development were reached in different countries will be given; for
architecture passed through very nearly the same phases in all European
nations, though not quite simultaneously.
It must be understood that through the whole Gothic period, growth or at
least change was going on; the transitions from one stage to another were
only periods of more rapid change than usual. The whole process may be
illustrated by the progress of a language. If, for instance, we compare
round-arched architecture in the eleventh century to the Anglo-Saxon form
of speech of the time of Alfred the Great, and the architecture of the twelfth
century to the English of Chaucer, that of the thirteenth will correspond to
the richer language of Shakespeare, that of the fourteenth to the highly
polished language of Addison and Pope, and that of the fifteenth to the
English of our own day. We can thus obtain an apt parallel to the gradual
change and growth which went on in architecture; and we shall find that the
oneness of the language in the former case, and of the architecture in the
latter, was maintained throughout.

For an account of the Christian round-arched architecture which preceded
Gothic, the reader is referred to the companion volume in this series. Here it
will be only necessary briefly to review the circumstances which went
before the appearance of the pointed styles.
The Roman empire had introduced into Europe some thing like a universal
architecture, so that the buildings of any Roman colony bore a strong
resemblance to those of every other colony and of the metropolis; varying,
of course, in extent and magnificence, but not much in design. The
architecture of the Dark Ages in Western Europe exhibited, so far as is
known, the same general similarity. Down to the eleventh century the
buildings erected (almost exclusively churches and monastic buildings)
were not large or rich, and were heavy in appearance and simple in
construction. Their arches were all semicircular.
The first rays of light across the gloom of the Dark Ages seem to have come
from the energy and ability of Charlemagne in the eighth century.
In the succeeding century, this activity received a check; an idea became
generally prevalent that the year one thousand was to see the end of the
world; men’s minds were overshadowed with apprehension; and buildings,
in common with other undertakings of a permanent nature, were but little
attempted.
When the millennium came and passed, and left all as it had been, a kind of
revulsion of feeling was experienced; many important undertakings were
set on foot, such as during the preceding years it had not been thought
worth while to prosecute. The eleventh century thus became a time of great
religious activity; and if the First Crusade, which took place 1095, may be
taken as one outcome of that pious zeal, another can certainly be found in
the large and often costly churches and monasteries which rose in every part
of England, France, Germany, Lombardy, and South Italy. Keen rivalry
raged among the builders of these churches; each one was built larger and
finer than the previous examples, and the details began to grow elaborate.
Construction and ornament were in fact advancing and improving, if not
from year to year, at any rate from decade to decade, so that by the
commencement of the twelfth century a remarkable development had taken

place. The ideas of the dimensions of churches then entertained were really
almost as liberal as during the best period of Gothic architecture.
An illustration of this fact is furnished by the rebuilding of Westminster
Abbey under Edward the Confessor. He pulled down a small church which
he found standing on the site, in order to erect one suitable in size and style
to the ideas of the day. The style of his cathedral (but not its dimensions)
soon became so much out of date that Henry III. pulled the buildings down
in order to re-erect them of the lofty proportions and with the pointed arches
which we now see in the choir and transepts of the Abbey; but the size
remained nearly the same, for there is evidence to show that the Confessor’s
buildings must have occupied very nearly, if not quite, as much ground as
those which succeeded them.
At the beginning of the twelfth century many local peculiarities, some of
them due to accident, some to the nature and quality of the building
materials obtainable, some to differences of race, climate, and habits, and
some to other causes, had begun to make their appearance in the buildings
of various parts of Europe; and through the whole Gothic period such
peculiarities were to be met with. Still the points of similarity were greater
and more numerous than the differences; so much so, that by going through
the course which Gothic architecture ran in one of the countries in which it
flourished, it will readily be possible to furnish a general outline of the
subject as a whole; it will then only be requisite to point out the principal
variations in the practice of other countries. On some grounds France would
be the most suitable country to select for this purpose, for Gothic appeared
earlier and flourished more brilliantly in that country than in any other; the
balance of advantage lies however, when writing for English students, in the
selection of Great Britain. The various phases through which the art passed
are well marked in this country, they have been fully studied and described,
and, what is of the greatest importance, English examples are easily
accessible to the majority of students, while those which cannot be visited
may be very readily studied from engravings and photographs. English
Gothic will therefore be first considered; but as a preliminary a few words
remain to be said describing generally the buildings which have come down
to us from the Gothic period.

The word Gothic, which was in use in the eighteenth century, and probably
earlier, was invented at a time when a Goth was synonymous with
everything that was barbarous; and its use then implied a reproach. It
denotes, according to Mr. Fergusson, “all the styles invented and used by
the Western barbarians who overthrew the Roman empire, and settled
within its limits.”

Fig 1.—West Entrance, Lichfield Cathedral, (1275.) (See Chapter V.)

CHAPTER II.

THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

B Y far the most important specimens of Gothic architecture are the
cathedrals and large churches which were built during the prevalence
of the style. They were more numerous, larger, and more complete as
works of art than any other structures, and accordingly they are to be
considered on every account as the best examples of pointed architecture.

Fig. 2.—Ground Plan of Peterborough Cathedral. (1118 to 1193.)
A. Nave. B B. Transepts. C. Choir. D D. Aisles. E. Principal Entrance.

Fig. 3.—Transverse Section of the Nave of Salisbury Cathedral. (A.D.
1217).

The arrangement and construction of a Gothic cathedral were customarily
as follows:—(See Fig. 2.) The main axis of the building was always east
and west, the principal entrance being at the west end, usually under a grand
porch or portal, and the high altar stood at the east end. The plan (or main
floor) of the building almost always displays the form of a cross. The stem
of the cross is the part from the west entrance to the crossing, and is called
the nave. The arms of the cross are called transepts, and point respectively
north and south. Their crossing with the nave is often called the
intersection. The remaining arm, which prolongs the stem eastwards, is
ordinarily called the choir, but sometimes the presbytery, and sometimes the
chancel. All these names really refer to the position of the internal fittings

of the church, and it is often more accurate simply to employ the term
eastern arm for this portion of a church.
The nave is flanked by two avenues running parallel to it, narrower and
lower than itself, called aisles. They are separated from it by rows of
columns or piers, connected together by arches. Thus the nave has an arcade
on each side of it, and each aisle has an arcade on one side, and a main
external wall on the other. The aisle walls are usually pierced by windows.
The arches of the arcade carry walls which rise above the roofs of the aisles,
and light the nave. These walls are usually subdivided internally into two
heights or stories; the lower story consists of a series of small arches, to
which the name of triforium is given. This arcade usually opens into the
dark space above the ceiling or vault of the aisle, and hence it is sometimes
called the blind story. The upper story is the range of windows already
alluded to as lighting the nave, and is called the clerestory. Thus a spectator
standing in the nave, and looking towards the side (Figs. 4 and 5), will see
opposite him the main arcade, and over that the triforium, and over that the
clerestory, crowned by the nave vault or roof; and looking through the
arches of the nave arcade, he will see the side windows of the aisle. Above
the clerestory of the nave, and the side windows of the aisles, come the
vaults or roofs. In some instances double aisles (two on each side) have
been employed.
The transepts usually consist of well-marked limbs, divided like the nave
into a centre avenue and two side aisles, and these usually are of the same
width and height as the nave and its aisles. Sometimes there are no
transepts; sometimes they do not project beyond the line of the walls, but
still are marked by their rising above the lower height of the nave aisles.
Sometimes the transepts have no aisles, or an aisle only on one side.[1] On
the other hand, it is sometimes customary, especially in English examples,
to form two pairs of transepts. This occurs in Lichfield Cathedral.

Fig. 4.—Choir of Worcester Cathedral. (Begun 1224.)
A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.

Fig. 5.—Nave of Wells Cathedral. (1206 to 1242.)
A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.

The eastern arm of the cathedral is the part to which most importance was
attached, and it is usual to mark that importance by greater richness, and by
a difference in the height of its roof or vault as compared with the nave; its
floor is always raised. It also has its central passage and its aisles; and it has
double aisles much more frequently than the nave. The eastern termination
of the cathedral is sometimes semicircular, sometimes polygonal, and when
it takes this form it is called an apse or an apsidal east end; sometimes it is
square, the apse being most in use on the Continent, and the square east end

in England. Attached to some of the side walls of the church it is usual to
have a series of chapels; these are ordinarily chambers partly shut off from
the main structure, but opening into it by arched openings; each chapel
contains an altar. The finest chapel is usually one placed on the axis of the
cathedral, and east of the east end of the main building; this is called, where
it exists, the Lady Chapel, and was customarily dedicated to the Virgin.
Henry VII.’s Chapel at Westminster (Fig. 6) furnishes a familiar instance of
the lady chapel of a great church. Next in importance rank the side chapels
which open out of the aisles of the apse, when there is one. Westminster
Abbey furnishes good examples of these also. The eastern wall of the
transept is a favourite position for chapels. They are less frequently added
to the nave aisles.
The floor of the eastern arm of the cathedral, as has been pointed out, is
always raised, so as to be approached by steps; it is inclosed by screen work
which shuts off the choir, or inclosure for the performance of divine service,
from the nave. The fittings of this part of the building generally include
stalls for the clergy and choristers and a bishop’s throne, and are usually
beautiful works of art. Tombs, and inclosures connected with them, called
chantry chapels, are constantly met with in various positions, but most
frequently in the eastern arm.

Fig. 6.—Ground Plan of Westminster Abbey.

Below the raised floor of the choir, and sometimes below other parts of the
building, there often exists a subterranean vaulted structure known as the
crypt.

Passing to the exterior of the cathedral, the principal doorway is in the
western front:[2] usually supplemented by entrances at the ends of the
transepts, and one or more side entrances to the nave. A porch on the north
side of the nave is a common feature. The walls are now seen to be
strengthened by stone piers, called buttresses. Frequently arches are thrown
from these buttresses to the higher walls of the building. The whole
arrangement of pier and arch is called a flying buttress,[3] and, as will be
explained later, is used to steady the upper part of the building when a stone
vault is employed (see Chap. V.). The lofty gables in which the nave and
transepts, and the eastern arm when square terminate, form prominent
features, and are often occupied by great windows.
In a complete cathedral, the effect of the exterior is largely due to the towers
with which it was adorned. The most massive tower was ordinarily one
which stood, like the central one of Lichfield Cathedral, at the crossing of
the nave and transepts. Two towers were usually intended at the western
front of the building, and sometimes one, or occasionally two, at the end of
each transept. It is rare to find a cathedral where the whole of these towers
have been even begun, much less completed. In many cases only one, in
others three, have been built. In some instances they have been erected, and
have fallen. In others they have never been carried up at all. During a large
portion of the Gothic period it was usual to add to each tower a lofty
pyramidal roof or spire, and these are still standing in some instances,
though many of them have disappeared. Occasionally a tower was built
quite detached from the church to which it belonged.
To cathedrals and abbey churches a group of monastic buildings was
appended. It will not be necessary to describe these in much detail. They
were grouped round an open square, surrounded by a vaulted and arcaded
passage, which is known as the cloister. This was usually fitted into the
warm and sheltered angle formed by the south side of the nave and the
south transept, though occasionally the cloister is found on the north side of
the nave. The most important building opening out of the cloister is the
chapter-house, frequently a lofty and richly-ornamented room, often
octagonal, and generally standing south of the south transept. The usual
arrangement of the monastic buildings round and adjoining the cloister
varied in details with the requirements of the different monastic orders, and
the circumstances of each individual religious house, but, as in the case of

churches, the general principles of disposition were fixed early. They are
embodied in a manuscript plan, dating as far back as the ninth century, and
found at St. Gall in Switzerland, and never seem to have been widely
departed from. The monks’ dormitory here occupies the whole east side of
the great cloister, there being no chapter-house. It is usually met with as
nearly in this position as the transept and the chapter-house will permit. The
refectory is on the south side of the cloister, and has a connected kitchen.
The west side of the cloister in this instance was occupied by a great cellar.
Frequently a hospitum, or apartment for entertaining guests, stood here. The
north side of the cloister was formed by the church.
For the abbot a detached house was provided in the St. Gall plan to stand on
the north side of the church; and a second superior hospitum for his guests.
Eastward of the church are placed the infirmary with its chapel, and an
infirmarer’s lodging. The infirmary was commonly arranged with a nave
and aisles, much like, a small parish church. Other detached buildings gave
a public school, a school for novices with its chapel, and, more remotely
placed, granaries, mills, a bakehouse, and other offices. A garden and a
cemetery formed part of the scheme, which corresponds tolerably well with
that of many monastic buildings remaining in England, as e.g., those at
Fountains’ Abbey, Furness Abbey, or Westminster Abbey, so far as they can
be traced.
Generally speaking the principal buildings in a monastery were long and
not very wide apartments, with windows on both sides. Frequently they
were vaulted, and they often had a row of columns down the middle. Many
are two stories high. Of the dependencies, the kitchen, which was often a
vaulted apartment with a chimney, and the barn, which was often of great
size, were the most prominent. They are often fine buildings. At
Glastonbury very good examples of a monastic barn and kitchen can be
seen.
Second only in importance to the churches and religious buildings come the
military and domestic buildings of the Gothic period (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7.—House of Jaques Cœur at Bourges. (Begun 1413.)

Every dwelling-house of consequence was more or less fortified, at any rate
during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. A lofty square tower,
called a keep, built to stand a siege, and with a walled inclosure at its feet,
often protected by a wide ditch (fosse or moat), formed the castle of the
twelfth century, and in some cases (e.g. the White Tower of London), this
keep was of considerable size. The first step in enlargement was to increase
the number and importance of the buildings which clustered round the keep,
and to form two inclosures for them, known as an inner and an outer bailey.
The outer buildings of the Tower of London, though much modernised, will

give a good idea of what a first class castle grew to be by successive
additions of this sort. In castles erected near the end of the thirteenth
century (e.g. Conway Castle in North Wales), and later, the square form of
the keep was abandoned, and many more arrangements for the comfort and
convenience of the occupants were introduced; and the buildings and
additions to buildings of the fifteenth century took more the shape of a
modern dwelling-house, partly protected against violence, but by no means
strong enough to stand a siege. Penshurst may be cited as a good example
of this class of building.
It will be understood that, unlike the religious buildings which early
received the form and disposition from which they did not depart widely,
mediæval domestic buildings exhibit an amount of change in which we can
readily trace the effects of the gradual settlement of this country, the
abandonment of habits of petty warfare, the ultimate cessation of civil wars,
the introduction of gunpowder, the increase in wealth and desire for
comfort, and last, but not least, the confiscation by Henry VIII. of the
property of the monastic houses.

Fig. 8.—Plan of Warwick Castle. (14th and following Centuries.)

Warwick Castle, of which we give a plan (Fig. 8), maybe cited as a good
example of an English castellated mansion of the time of Richard II. Below
the principal story there is a vaulted basement containing the kitchens and
many of the offices. On the main floor we find the hall, entered as usual at
the lower or servants’ end, from a porch. The upper end gives access to a
sitting-room, built immediately behind it, and beyond are a drawing-room

and state bed-rooms, while across a passage are placed the private chapel
and a large dining-room (a modern addition). Bed-rooms occupy the upper
floors of the buildings at both ends of the hall.
Perhaps even more interesting as a study than Warwick Castle is Haddon
Hall, the well-preserved residence of the Duke of Rutland, in Derbyshire.
The five or six successive enlargements and additions which this building
has received between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries show the
growth of ideas of comfort and even luxury in this country.
As it now stands, Haddon Hall contains two internal quadrangles, separated
from one another by the great hall with its dais, its minstrels’ gallery, its
vast open fire-place, and its traceried windows, and by the kitchens,
butteries, &c., belonging to it.
The most important apartments are reached from the upper end of the hall,
and consist of the magnificent ball-room, and a dining-room in the usual
position, i.e. adjoining the hall and opening out of it; with, on the upper
floor, a drawing-room, and a suite of state bed-rooms, occupying the south
side of both quadrangles and the east end of one. A large range of
apartments, added at a late period, and many of them finely panelled and
lined with tapestry, occupies the north side of this building and the
northwestern tower. At the south-western corner of the building stands a
chapel of considerable size, and which once seems to have served as a kind
of parochial church; and a very considerable number of rooms of small size,
opening out of both quadrangles, would afford shelter, if not comfortable
lodging, to retainers, servants, and others. The portions built in the
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are more or less fortified. The
ball-room, which is of Elizabethan architecture, opens on to a terraced
garden, accessible from without by no more violent means than climbing
over a not very formidable wall. Probably nowhere in England, can the
growth of domestic architecture be better studied, whether we look to the
alterations which took place in accommodation and arrangement, or to the
changes which occurred in the architectural treatment of windows,
battlements, doorways and other features, than at Haddon Hall.

Fig. 9.—Palaces on the Grand Canal, Venice. (14th Century.)

In towns and cities much beautiful domestic architecture is to be found in
the ordinary dwelling-houses, e.g. houses from Chester and Lisieux (Figs.
14 and 15); but many specimens have of course perished, especially as
timber was freely used in their construction. Dwelling-houses of a high
order of excellence, and of large size, were also built during this period. The

Gothic palaces of Venice, of which many stand on the Grand Canal (Fig. 9),
are the best examples of these, and the lordly Ducal Palace in that city is
perhaps the finest secular building which exists of Gothic architecture.
Municipal buildings of great size and beauty are to be found in North Italy
and Germany, but chiefly in Belgium, where the various town-halls of
Louvain, Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, &c., vie with each other
in magnificence and extent.

Many secular buildings also remain to us of which the architecture is
Gothic. Among these we find public halls and large buildings for public
purposes—as Westminster Hall, or the Palace of Justice at Rouen; hospitals,
as that at Milan; or colleges, as King’s College, Cambridge, with its
unrivalled chapel. Many charming minor works, such as fountains, wells
(Fig. 10), crosses, tombs, monuments, and the fittings of the interior of
churches, also remain to attest the versatility, the power of design, and the
cultivated taste of the architects of the Gothic period.

Fig. 10.—Well at Regensburg. (15th Century.)

FOOTNOTES:
[1] As the north transept at Peterborough (Fig. 2).
[2] At E on the plan of Peterborough (Fig. 2).
[3] See Glossary.

Fig. 11.

CHAPTER III.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.

E NGLISH Gothic architecture has been usually subdivided into three
periods or stages of advancement, corresponding to those enumerated
on page 1; the early stage known as Early English, or sometimes as
Lancet, occupying the thirteenth century and something more; the middle
stage, known as Decorated, occupying most of the fourteenth century; and
the latest stage, known as Perpendicular, occupying the fifteenth century
and part of the sixteenth.
The duration of each of these coincides approximately with the century, the
transition from each phase to the next taking place chiefly in the last quarter
of the century. Adding the periods of the English types of round arched
Architecture, we obtain the following table:—

Up to 1066 or up to middle of 11th century, Saxon.
A.D. 1066 to 1189 or up to end of 12th ” Norman.
A.D. 1189 to 1307 or up to end of 13th ” Early English.
A.D. 1307 to 1377 or up to end of 14th ” Decorated.
A.D. 1377 to 1546 or up to middle of 16th ” Perpendicular.

The term “Early English” (short for Early English Gothic) applied to
English thirteenth-century architecture explains itself.
The term “Lancet” sometimes applied to the Early English style, is derived
from the shape of the ordinary window-heads, which resemble the point of
a lancet in outline (Fig. 16). Whatever term be adopted, it is necessary to
remark that a wide difference exists between the earlier and the late
examples of this period. It will suffice for our purposes if, when speaking of
the fully-developed style of the late examples, we refer to it as Advanced
Early English.

The architecture of the fourteenth century is called “Decorated,” from the
great increase of ornament, especially in window tracery and carved
enrichments.
The architecture of the fifteenth century is called “Perpendicular,” from the
free use made of perpendicular lines, both in general features and in
ornaments, especially in the tracery of the windows and the panelling with
which walls are ornamented.[4]
The following condensed list, partly from Morant,[5] of the most striking
peculiarities of each period, may be found useful for reference, and is on
that account placed here, notwithstanding that it contains many technical
words, for the meaning of which the student must consult the Glossary
which forms part of this volume.
Anglo-Saxon—(Prior to the Norman Conquest).—
Rude work and rough material; walls mostly of rubble or
ragstone with ashlar at the angles in long and short courses
alternately; openings with round or triangular heads, sometimes
divided by a rude baluster. Piers plain, square, and narrow.
Windows splayed externally and internally. Rude square blocks
of stone in place of capitals and bases. Mouldings generally
semi-cylindrical and coarsely chiselled. Corners of buildings
square without buttresses.

Norman. William I. A.D. 1066.
William II. ” 1087.
Henry I. ” 1100.
Stephen ” 1135.
Henry II. ” 1154 to 1189.

Arches semicircular, occasionally stilted; at first plain,
afterwards enriched with chevron or other mouldings; and
frequent repetition of same ornament on each stone. Piers low
and massive, cylindrical, square, polygonal, or composed of
clustered shafts, often ornamented with spiral bands and
mouldings. Windows generally narrow and splayed internally
only; sometimes double and divided by a shaft. Walls sometimes

a series of arcades, a few pierced as windows, the rest left blank.
Doorways deeply recessed and richly ornamented with bands of
mouldings. Doors often square headed, but under arches the
head of the arch filled with carving. Capitals carved in outline,
often grotesquely sculptured with devices of animals and leaves.
Abacus square, lower edge moulded. Bases much resembling
the classic orders. The mouldings at first imperfectly formed.
Pedestals of piers square. Buttresses plain, with broad faces and
small projections. Parapets plain with projecting corbel table
under.
Plain mouldings consist of chamfers, round or pointed rolls at
edges, divided from plain face by shallow channels. Enriched
mouldings—the chevrons or zig-zag, the billet square or round,
the cable, the lozenge, the chain, nail heads, and others. Niches
with figures over doorways. Roofs of moderately high pitch, and
open to the frame; timbers chiefly king-post trusses. Towers
square and massive—those of late date richly adorned with
arcades. Openings in towers often beautifully grouped. Vaulting
waggon-headed, and simple intersecting vaults of semicircular
outline.
Towards the close of the style in reign of Henry II., details of
transitional character begin to appear. Pointed arch with Norman
pier. Arcades of intersecting semicircular arches. Norman
abacus blended with Early English foliage in capitals.

Early English. Richard I. A.D. 1189 Transition.
John ” 1199.
Henry III. ” 1216.
Edward I. ” 1272 to 1307.

General proportions more slender, and height of walls, columns,
&c., greater. Arches pointed, generally lancet; often richly
moulded. Triforium arches and arcades open with trefoiled
heads. Piers slender, composed of a central circular shaft
surrounded by several smaller ones, almost or quite detached;
generally with horizontal bands. In small buildings plain

polygonal and circular piers are used. Capitals concave in
outline, moulded, or carved with conventional foliage delicately
executed and arranged vertically. The abacus always undercut.
Detached shafts often of Purbeck marble. Base a deep hollow
between two rounds. Windows at first long, narrow, and deeply
splayed internally, the glass within a few inches of outer face of
wall; later in the style less acute, divided by mullions, enriched
with cusped circles in the head, often of three or more lights, the
centre light being the highest. Doorways often deeply recessed
and enriched with slender shafts and elaborate mouldings.
Shafts detached. Buttresses about equal in projection to width,
with but one set-off, or without any. Buttresses at angles always
in pairs. Mouldings bold and deeply undercut, consisting chiefly
of round mouldings sometimes pointed or with a fillett,
separated by deep hollows. Great depth of moulded surface
generally arranged on rectangular planes. Hollows of irregular
curve sometimes filled with dogtooth ornament or with foliage.
Roofs of high pitch, timbers plain, and where there is no vault
open.
Early in the style finials were plain bunches of leaves; towards
the close beautifully carved finials and crockets with carved
foliage of conventional character were introduced. Flat surfaces
often richly diapered. Spires broached. Vaulting pointed with
diagonal and main ribs only; ridge ribs not introduced till late in
the style; bosses at intersection of ribs.

Decorated. Edward II. A.D. 1307.
Edward III. ” 1377 to 1379.

Proportions less lofty than in the previous style. Arches mostly
inclosing an equilateral angle, the mouldings often continued
down the pier. Windows large, and divided into two or more
lights by mullions. Tracery in the head, at first composed
geometrical forms, later of flowing character. Clerestory
windows generally small. Diamond shaped piers with shafts
engaged. Capitals with scroll moulding on under side of abacus,
with elegant foliage arranged horizontally. Doors frequently

without shafts, the arch moulding running down the jambs. Rich
doorways and windows often surrounded with triangular and
ogee-shaped canopies. Buttresses in stages variously
ornamented. Parapet pierced with quatrefoils and flowing
tracery. Niches panelled and with projecting canopies. Spires
lofty; the broach rarely used, parapets and angle pinnacles take
the place of it. Roofs of moderate pitch open to the framing.
Mouldings bold and finely proportioned, generally in groups,
the groups separated from each other by hollows, composed of
segments of circles. Deep hollows, now generally confined to
inner angles. Mouldings varying in size and kind, arranged on
diagonal as well as rectangular planes, often ornamented with
ball flower. Foliage chiefly of ivy, oak, and vine leaves; natural,
also conventional. Rich crockets, finials, and pinnacles. Vaulting
with intermediate ribs, ridge ribs, and late in the style lierne ribs,
and bosses.

Perpendicular. Richard II. A.D. 1377. (Transition.)
Henry IV. ” 1399.
Henry V. ” 1413.
Henry VI. ” 1422.
Edward IV. ” 1461.
Edward V. ” 1483.
Richard III. ” 1483.
Tudor. Henry VII. ” 1485.
Henry VIII. ” 1509 to 1546.

Arches at first inclosing an equilateral triangle, afterwards
obtusely pointed and struck from four centres. Piers generally
oblong; longitudinal direction north and south. Mouldings
continued from base through arch. Capitals with mouldings
large, angular, and few, with abacus and bell imperfectly
defined. Foliage of conventional character, shallow, and square
in outline. Bases polygonal. Windows where lofty divided into
stories by transoms. The mullions often continued
perpendicularly into the head. Canopies of ogee character
enriched with crockets. Doors generally with square label over

arch, the spandrels filled with ornament. Buttresses with bold
projection often ending in finials. Flying buttresses pierced with
tracery. Walls profusely ornamented with panelling. Parapets
embattled and panelled. Open timber roofs of moderate pitch, of
elaborate construction, often with hammer beams, richly
ornamented with moulded timbers, carved figures of angels and
with pierced tracery in spandrels. Roofs sometimes of very flat
pitch. Lofty clerestories. Mouldings large, coarse, and with wide
and shallow hollows and hard wiry edges, meagre in appearance
and wanting in minute and delicate detail, generally arranged on
diagonal planes. Early in the style the mouldings partake of
decorated character.
In the Tudor period depressed four-centered arch prevails;
transoms of windows battlemented. Tudor flower, rose,
portcullis, and fleur-de-lis common ornaments. Crockets and
pinnacles much projected. Roofs of low pitch.
Vaulting. Fan vaulting, with tracery and pendants elaborately
carved.
Other modes of distinguishing the periods of English Gothic have been
proposed by writers of authority. The division given above is that of
Rickman, and is generally adopted. A more minute subdivision and a
different set of names were proposed by Sharpe as follows:—

Romanesque. Saxon A.D. to 1066.
Norman ” 1066 to 1145.
Gothic. Transitional ” 1145 to 1190.
Lancet ” 1190 to 1245.
Geometrical ” 1245 to 1315.
Curvilinear ” 1315 to 1360.
Rectilinear ” 1360 to 1550.

Of the new names proposed by Mr. Sharpe “transitional” explains itself;
and “geometrical, curvilinear, and rectilinear” refer to the characters of the
window tracery at the different periods which they denote.[6]

The history of English Gothic proper may be said to begin with the reign of
Henry II., coinciding very nearly with the commencement of the period
named by Mr. Sharpe transitional (1145 to 1190), when Norman
architecture was changing into Gothic. This history we propose now to
consider somewhat in detail, dividing the buildings in the simplest possible
way, namely, into floors, walls, columns, roofs, openings, and ornaments.
After this we shall have to consider the mode in which materials were used
by the builders of the Gothic period, i.e. the construction of the buildings;
and the general artistic principles which guided their architects, i.e. the
design of the buildings.

It may be useful to students in and near London to give Sir G. Gilbert
Scott’s list of striking London examples[7] of Gothic architecture (with the
omission of such examples as are more antiquarian than architectural in
their interest):—
Norman (temp. Conquest).—The Keep and Chapel of the Tower
of London.
Advanced Norman.—Chapel of St. Catherine, Westminster
Abbey; St. Bartholomew’s Priory, Smithfield.
Transitional.—The round part of the Temple Church.

Early English.—Eastern part of the Temple Church; Choir and
Lady Chapel of St. Mary Overy, Southwark; Chapel of Lambeth
Palace.
Advanced Early English (passing to decorated).—Eastern part of
Westminster Abbey generally and its Chapter House.
Early Decorated.—Choir of Westminster, (but this has been
much influenced by the design of the earlier parts adjacent);
Chapel of St. Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn.
Late Decorated.—The three bays of the Cloister at Westminster
opposite the entrance to Chapter House; Crypt of St. Stephen’s
Chapel, Westminster; Dutch Church, Austin Friars.
Early Perpendicular.—South and West walks of the Cloister,
Westminster; Westminster Hall.
Advanced Perpendicular (Tudor period).—Henry VII.’s Chapel;
Double Cloister of St. Stephen’s, Westminster.

FOOTNOTES:
[4] The abbreviations, E. E., Dec., and Perp., will be employed to denote these
three periods.
[5] Notes on English Architecture, Costumes, Monuments, &c. Privately printed.
Quoted here with the author’s permission.
[6] See examples in Chapter V. and in Glossary.
[7] Address to Conference of Architects, Builder, June 24, 1876.

CHAPTER IV.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.—ENGLAND.

ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.—FLOOR, WALLS, TOWERS,
GABLES, COLUMNS.

Floor, or Plan.

T HE excellences or defects of a building are more due to the shape and
size of its floor and, incidentally, of the walls and columns or piers
which inclose and subdivide its floor than to anything else whatever.
A map of the floor and walls (usually showing also the position of the doors
and windows), is known as a plan, but by a pardonable figure of speech the
plan of a building is often understood to mean the shape and size and
arrangement of its floor and walls themselves, instead of simply the
drawing representing them. It is in this sense that the word plan will be used
in this volume.
The plan of a Gothic Cathedral has been described, and it has been already
remarked that before the Gothic period had commenced the dimensions of
great churches had been very much increased. The generally received
disposition of the parts of a church had indeed been already settled or nearly
so. There were consequently few radical alterations in church plans during
the Gothic period. One, however, took place in England in the abandonment
of the apse.
At first the apsidal east end, common in the Norman times, was retained.
For example, it is found at Canterbury, where the choir and transept are
transitional, having been begun soon after 1174 and completed about 1184;
but the eastern end of Chichester, which belongs to the same period (the
transition), displays the square east end, and this termination was almost
invariably preferred in our country after the twelfth century.

A great amount of regularity marks the plans of those great churches which
had vaulted roofs, as will be readily understood when it is remembered that
the vaults were divided into equal and similar compartments, and that the
points of support had to be placed with corresponding regularity. Where,
however, some controlling cause of this nature was not at work much
picturesque irregularity prevailed in the planning of English Gothic
buildings of all periods. The plans of our Cathedrals are noted for their great
length in proportion to their width, for the considerable length given to the
transepts, and for the occurrence in many cases (e.g. Salisbury, thirteenth
century) of a second transept. The principal alterations which took place in
plan as time went on originated in the desire to concentrate material as
much as possible on points of support, leaving the walls between them thin
and the openings wide, and in the use of flying buttresses, the feet of which
occupy a considerable space outside the main walls of the church. The plans
of piers and columns also underwent the alterations which will be presently
described.[8]
Buildings of a circular shape on plan are very rare, but octagonal ones are
not uncommon. The finest chapter-houses attached to our Cathedrals are
octagons, with a central pier to carry the vaulting. On the whole, play of
shape on plan was less cultivated in England than in some continental
countries.
The plans of domestic buildings are usually simple, but grew more
elaborate and extensive as time went on. The cloister with dwelling-rooms
and common-rooms entered from its walk, formed the model on which
colleges, hospitals, and alms-houses were planned. The castle, already
described, was the residence of the wealthy during the earlier part of the
Gothic period, and when, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, houses
which were rather dwellings than fortresses began to be erected, the hall,
with a large bay window and a raised floor or dais at one end and a mighty
open fire-place, was always the most conspicuous feature in the plan.
Towards the close of the Gothic period the plan of a great dwelling, such as
Warwick Castle (Fig. 8), began to show many of the features which
distinguish a mansion of the present day.
In various parts of the country remains of magnificent Gothic dwelling-
houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, and long before the

close of the perpendicular period we had such mansions as Penshurst and
Hever, such palaces as Windsor and Wells, such castellated dwellings as
Warwick and Haddon, differing in many respects but all agreeing in the
possession of a great central hall. Buildings for public purposes also often
took the form of a great hall. Westminster Hall may be cited as the finest
example of such a structure, not only in England but in Europe.
The student who desires to obtain anything beyond the most superficial
acquaintance with architecture must endeavour to obtain enough familiarity
with ground plans, to be able to sketch, measure, and lay down a plan to
scale and to read one. The plan shows to the experienced architect the
nature, arrangement, and qualities of a building better than any other
drawing, and a better memorandum of a building is preserved if a fairly
correct sketch of its plan, or of the plan of important parts of it, is preserved
than if written notes are alone relied upon.

Walls.

The walls of Gothic buildings are generally of stone; brick being the
exception. They were in the transitional and Early English times extremely
thick, and became thinner afterwards. All sorts of ornamental masonry were
introduced into them, so that diapers,[9] bands, arcades, mouldings, and
inlaid patterns are all to be met with occasionally, especially in districts
where building materials of varied colours, or easy to work, are plentiful. In
the perpendicular period the walls were systematically covered with
panelling closely resembling the tracery of the windows (e.g., Henry VII.’s
Chapel at Westminster).
The wall of a building ordinarily requires some kind of base and some kind
of top. The base or plinth in English Gothic buildings was usually well
marked and bold, especially in the perpendicular period, and it is seldom
absent. The eaves of the roof in some cases overhang the walls, resting on a
simple stone band, called an eaves-course, and constitute the crowning
feature. In many instances, however, the eaves are concealed behind a
parapet[10] which is often carried on a moulded cornice or on corbels. This,
in the E. E. period, was usually very simple. In the Dec. it was panelled

with ornamental panels, and often made very beautiful. In the Perp. it was
frequently battlemented as well as panelled.
A distinguishing feature of Gothic walls is the buttress. It existed, but only
in the form of a flat pier of very slight projection in Norman, as in almost
all Romanesque buildings, but in the Gothic period it became developed.
The buttress, like many of the peculiarities of Gothic architecture,
originated in the use of stone vaults and the need for strong piers at these
points, upon which the thrust and weight of those vaults were concentrated.
The use of very large openings, for wide windows full of stained glass also
made it increasingly necessary in the Dec. and Perp. periods to fortify the
walls at regular points.
A buttress[10] is, in fact, a piece of wall set athwart the main wall, usually
projecting considerably at the base and diminished by successive reductions
of its mass as it approaches the top, and so placed as to counteract the thrust
of some arch or vault inside. It had great artistic value; in the feeble and
level light of our Northern climate it casts bold shadows and catches bright
lights, and so adds greatly to the architectural effect of the exterior. In the
E. E. the buttress was simple and ordinarily projected about its own width.
In the Dec. it obtained much more projection, was constructed with several
diminutions (technically called weatherings), and was considerably
ornamented. In the Perp. it was frequently enriched by panelling. The
buttresses in the Dec. period are often set diagonally at the corner of a
building or tower. In the E. E. period this was never done.
The flying buttress[11] is one of the most conspicuous features of the
exterior of those Gothic buildings which possessed elaborate stone vaults. It
was a contrivance for providing an abutment to counterbalance the outward
pressure of the vault covering the highest and central parts of the building in
cases where that vault rested upon and abutted against walls which
themselves were carried by arches, and were virtually internal walls, so that
no buttress could be carried up from the ground to steady them.
A pier of masonry, sometimes standing alone, sometimes thrown out from
the aisle wall opposite the point to be propped, formed the solid part of this
buttress; it was carried to the requisite height and a flying arch spanning the
whole width of the aisles was thrown across from it to the wall at the point

whence the vault sprung. The pier itself was in many cases loaded by an
enormous pinnacle, so that its weight might combine with the pressure
transmitted along the slope of the flying arch to give a resultant which
should fall within the base of the buttress. The back of such an arch was
generally used as a water channel.
The forest of flying buttresses round many French cathedrals produces an
almost bewildering effect, as, for instance, at the east end of Notre Dame;—
our English specimens, at Westminster Abbey for example, are
comparatively simple.

Towers.

The gable and the tower are developments of the walls of the building.
Gothic is par excellence the style of towers. Many towers were built
detached from all other buildings, but no great Gothic building is complete
without one main tower and some subordinate ones.
In the E. E. style church towers were often crowned by low spires,
becoming more lofty as the style advanced. In the Dec. style lofty spires
were almost universal. In the Perp. the tower rarely has a visible roof.[12]
The artistic value of towers in giving unity coupled with variety to a group
of buildings can hardly be exaggerated.
The positions which towers occupy are various. They produce the greatest
effect when central, i.e. placed over the crossing of the nave and transepts.
Lichfield, Chichester, and Salisbury may be referred to as examples of
cathedrals with towers in this position and surmounted by spires.
Canterbury, York, Lincoln, and Gloucester are specimens of the
effectiveness of the tower similarly placed, but without a spire (Fig. 12). At
Wells a fine central octagon occupies the crossing, and is remarkable for the
skill with which it is fitted to the nave and aisles internally. Next to central
towers rank a pair of towers at the western end of the building. These exist
at Lichfield with their spires; they exist (square-topped) at Lincoln, and
(though carried up since the Gothic period) at Westminster.[13] Many
churches have a single tower in this position (Fig. 13).

The obvious purpose of a tower, beyond its serviceableness as a feature of
the building and as a landmark, is to lift up a belfry high into the air:
accordingly, almost without exception, church and cathedral towers are
designed with a large upper story, pierced by openings of great size and
height called the belfry stage; and the whole artistic treatment of the tower
is subordinate to this feature. It is also very often the case that a turret to
contain a spiral staircase which may afford the means of access to the upper
part of the tower, forms a prominent feature of its whole height, especially
in the Dec. and Perp. periods.

Fig. 12.—Lincoln Cathedral. (Mostly Early English.)

In domestic and monastic buildings, low towers were frequently employed
with excellent effect. Many castles retained the Norman keep, or square
strong tower, which had served as the nucleus round which other buildings
had afterwards clustered; but where during the Gothic period a castle was
built, or rebuilt, without such a keep, one or more towers, often of great
beauty, were always added. Examples abound; good ones will be found in
the Edwardian castles in Wales (end of thirteenth century), as for example at
Conway and Caernarvon.

Gables.

The gable forms a distinctive Gothic feature. The gables crowned those
parts of a great church in which the skill of the architect was directed to
producing a regular composition, often called a front, or a façade. The west
fronts of Cathedrals were the most important architectural designs of this
sort, and with them we may include the ends of the transepts and the east
fronts.
The same parts of parish churches are often excellent compositions. The
gable of the nave always formed the central feature of the main front. This
was flanked by the gables, or half-gables, of the aisles where there were no
towers, or by the lower portions of the towers. As a rule the centre and sides
of the façade are separated by buttresses, or some other mode of marking a
vertical division, and the composition is also divided by bands of mouldings
or otherwise, horizontally into storeys. Some of the horizontal divisions are
often strongly marked, especially in the lower part of the building, where in
early examples there is sometimes in addition to the plinth, or base of the
wall, an arcade or a band of sculpture running across the entire front (e.g.
east front of Lincoln Cathedral). The central gable is always occupied by a
large window—or in early buildings a group of windows—sometimes two
storeys in height. A great side window usually occurs at the end of each
aisle. Below these great windows are introduced, at any rate in west fronts,
the doorways, which, even in the finest English examples, are
comparatively small. The gable also contains as a rule one or more
windows often circular which light the space above the vaults.

Fig. 13.—St. Pierre, Caen, Tower and Spire. (Spire, 1302.)

Part of the art in arranging such a composition is to combine and yet
contrast its horizontal and vertical elements. The horizontal lines, or
features, are those which serve to bind the whole together, and the vertical
ones are those which give that upward tendency which is the great charm
and peculiar characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is essential for the

masses of solid masonry and the openings to be properly contrasted and
proportioned to each other, and here, as in every part of a building, such
ornaments and ornamental features as are introduced must be designed to
contribute to the enrichment of the building as a whole, so that no part shall
be conspicuous either by inharmonious treatment, undue plainness, or
excessive enrichment.

Fig. 14.—House at Chester. (16th Century.)

During the transition the gable became steeper in pitch than the
comparatively moderate slope of Norman times. In the E. E. it was acutely
pointed, in the Dec. the usual slope was that of the two sides of an

equilateral triangle: in the Perp. it became extremely flat and ceased to be
so marked a feature as it had formerly been. In domestic buildings the gable
was employed in the most effective manner, and town dwelling-houses
were almost invariably built their gable ends to the street (Fig. 14).

A very effective form of wall was frequently made use of in dwelling-
houses. This consisted of a sturdy framework of stout timbers exposed to
view, with the spaces between them filled in with plaster. Of this work,
which is known as half-timbered work, many beautiful specimens remain
dating from the fifteenth and following centuries (Figs. 14 and 15), and a
few of earlier date. In those parts of England where tiles are manufactured
such framework was often covered by tiles instead of being filled in with
plastering. In half-timbered houses, the fire-places and chimneys, and
sometimes also the basement storeys, are usually of brickwork or masonry;
so are the side walls in the case of houses in streets. It was usual in such
buildings to cause the upper storeys to overhang the lower ones.

Columns and Piers.

The columns and piers of a building virtually form portions of its walls, so
far as aiding to support the weight of the roof is concerned, and are
appropriately considered in connection with them. In Gothic architecture
very little use is made of columns on the outside of a building, and the
porticoes and external rows of columns proper to the classic styles are quite
unknown. On the other hand the series of piers, or columns, from which
spring the arches which separate the central avenues of nave, transepts and
choir from the aisles, are among the most prominent features in every
church. These piers varied in each century.[14]
The Norman piers had been frequently circular or polygonal, but sometimes
nearly square, and usually of enormous mass. Thus, at Durham (Norman),
oblong piers of about eleven feet in diameter occur alternately with round
ones of about seven feet. In transitional examples columns of more slender
proportions were employed either (as in the choir of Canterbury) as single
shafts or collected into groups. Where grouping took place it was intended
that each shaft of the group should be seen to support some definite feature

of the superincumbent structure, as where a separate group of mouldings
springs from each shaft in a doorway, and this principle was very steadily
adhered to during the greater part of the Gothic period.[14]

Fig. 15.—Houses at Lisieux, France. (16th Century.)

Through the E. E. period groups of shafts are generally employed; they are
often formed of detached shafts clustering round a central one, and held
together at intervals by bands or belts of masonry, and generally the entire
group is nearly circular on plan. In the succeeding century (Dec. period) the
piers also take the form of groups of shafts, but they are generally carved
out of one block of stone, and the ordinary arrangement of the pier is on a
lozenge-shaped plan. In the Perp., the piers retain the same general
character, but are slenderer, and the shafts have often shrunk to nothing
more than reedy mouldings.
The column is often employed in Transitional and E. E. churches as a
substitute for piers carrying arches. In every period small columns are
freely used as ornamental features. They are constantly met with, for
example, in the jambs of doorways and of windows.
Every column is divided naturally into three parts, its base, or foot; its shaft,
which forms the main body; and its capital, or head. Each of these went
through a series of modifications. Part of the base usually consisted of a flat
stone larger than the diameter of the column, sometimes called a plinth, and
upon this stood the moulded base which gradually diminished to the size of
the shaft. This plain stone was in E. E. often square, and in that case the
corner spaces which were not covered by the mouldings of the base were
often occupied by an elegantly carved leaf. In Dec. and Perp. buildings the
lower part of the base was often polygonal, and frequently moulded so as to
make it into a pedestal.[15]
The proportions of shafts varied extraordinarily; they were, as a rule,
extremely slender when their purpose was purely decorative, and
comparatively sturdy when they really served to carry a weight.
The capital of the column has been perhaps the most conspicuous feature in
the architecture of every age and every country, and it is one of the features
which a student may make use of as an indication of date and style of
buildings, very much as the botanist employs the flower as an index to the
genus and species of plants. The capital almost invariably starts from a ring,
called the neck of the column. This serves to mark the end of the shaft and
the commencement of the capital. Above this follows what is commonly
called the bell,—the main portion of the capital, which is that part upon

which the skill of the carver and the taste of the designer can be most freely
expended, and on the top of the bell is placed the abacus, a flat block of
stone upon the upper surface of which is built the superstructure or is laid
the beam or block which the column has to support. The shape and
ornaments given to the abacus are often of considerable importance as
indications of the position in architectural history which the building in
which it occurs should occupy.
The Norman capital differed to some extent from the Romanesque capitals
of other parts of Europe. It was commonly of a heavy, strong-looking shape,
and is often appropriately called the cushion capital. In its simpler forms the
cushion capital is nothing but a cubical block of stone with its lower corners
rounded off to make it fit the circular shaft on which it is placed, and with a
slab by way of abacus placed upon it. In later Norman and transitional work
the faces of this block and the edges of the abacus are often richly moulded.
By degrees, however, as the transition to E. E. approached, a new sort of
capital[16] was introduced, having the outline of the bell hollow instead of
convex. The square faces of the Norman capital of course disappeared, and
the square abacus soon (at least in this country) became circular, involving
no small loss of vigour in the appearance of the work. The bell of this
capital was often decorated with rich mouldings, and had finely-designed
and characteristic foliage, which almost always seemed to grow up the
capital, and represented a conventional kind of leaf easily recognised when
once seen.
In the Dec. period the capitals have, as a rule, fewer and less elaborate
mouldings; the foliage is often very beautifully carved in imitation of
natural leaves, and wreathed round the capital instead of growing up it. In
the Perp. this feature is in every way less ornate, the mouldings are plainer,
and the foliage, often absent, is, when it occurs, conventional and stiff.
Polygonal capitals are common in this period.

Later Norman Capital.

FOOTNOTES:
[8] For illustrations consult the Glossary under Pier.
[9] For illustration consult the Glossary.
[10] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
[11] For illustration consult the Glossary under Flying buttress.
[12] For remarks on Spires, see Chap. V.
[13] York, Lichfield, and Lincoln, are the cathedrals distinguished by the
possession of three towers.
[14] For illustrations consult the Glossary under Pier.
[15] For illustrations consult the Glossary under Base.
[16] For illustrations consult the Glossary.

CHAPTER V.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.—ENGLAND.

ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS (continued)—OPENINGS,
ROOFS, SPIRES, ORNAMENTS, STAINED GLASS,
SCULPTURE.

Openings and Arches.

T HE openings (i.e. doors and windows) in the walls of English Gothic
buildings are occasionally covered by flat heads or lintels, but this is
exceptional; ordinarily they have arched heads. The shape of the arch
varies at all periods. Architects always felt themselves free to adopt any
shape which best met the requirements of any special case; but at each
period there was one shape of arch which it was customary to use.
In the first transitional period (end of twelfth century) semicircular and
pointed arches are both met with, and are often both employed in the same
part of the same building. The mouldings and enrichments which are
common in Norman work are usually still in use. In the E. E. period the
doorways are almost invariably rather acutely pointed, the arched heads are
enriched by a large mass of rich mouldings, and the jambs[17] have usually a
series of small columns, each of which is intended to carry a portion of the
entire group of mouldings. Large doorways are often subdivided into two,
and frequently approached by porches. A most beautiful example occurs in
the splendid west entrance to Ely Cathedral. Other examples will be found
at Lichfield (Fig. 1) and Salisbury. It was not uncommon to cover doorways
with a lintel, the whole being under an archway; this left a space above the
head of the door which was occupied by carving often of great beauty.
Ornamental gables are often formed over the entrances of churches, and are
richly sculptured; but though beautiful, these features rarely attained
magnificence. The most remarkable entrance to an English cathedral is the

west portal of Peterborough—a composition of lofty and richly moulded
arches built in front of the original west wall. A portal on a smaller scale,
but added in the same manner adorns the west front of Wells. As a less
exceptional example we may refer to the entrance to Westminster Abbey at
the end of the north transept (now under restoration), which must have been
a noble example of an E. E. portal when in its perfect state.

Fig. 16.—Lancet Window. (12th Century.)

The windows in this style were almost always long, narrow, and with a
pointed head resembling the blade of a lancet (Fig. 16). The glass is
generally near the outside face of the wall, and the sides of the opening are
splayed towards the inside. It was very customary to place these lancet
windows in groups. The best known group is the celebrated one of “the five
sisters,” five lofty single lights, occupying the eastern end of one of the
transepts of York Minster. A common arrangement in designing such a
group was to make the central light the highest, and to graduate the height
of the others. It after a time became customary to render the opening more
ornamental by adding pointed projections called cusps. By these the shape
of the head of the opening was turned into a form resembling a trefoil leaf.

Sometimes two cusps were added on each side. The head is, in the former
case, said to be trefoiled—in the latter, cinqfoiled.

Fig. 17.—Two-light Window. (13th Century.)

Fig. 18.—Geometrical Tracery. (14th Century.)

When two windows were placed close together it began to be customary to
include them under one outer arch, and after a time to pierce the solid head
between them with a circle, which frequently was cusped, forming often a
quatrefoil (Fig. 17). This completed the idea of a group, and was rapidly
followed by ornamental treatment. Three, four, five, or more windows
(which in such a position are often termed lights) were often placed under
one arch, the head of which was filled by a more or less rich group of
circles; mouldings were added, and thus rose the system of decoration for
window-heads known as tracery. So long as the tracery preserves the simple
character of piercings through a flat stone, filling the space between the
window heads, it is known as plate tracery. The thinning down of the blank
space to a comparatively narrow surface went on, and by and by the use of
mouldings caused that plain surface to resemble bars of stone bent into a
circular form: this was called bar tracery, and it is in this form that tracery is
chiefly employed in England (Fig. 18). Westminster Abbey is full of
exquisite examples of E. E. window-tracery (temp. Henry III.); as, for
example, in the windows of the choir, the great circular windows
(technically termed rose-windows) at the ends of the transepts, the windows
of the chapter-house. Last, but not least, the splendid arcade which forms
the triforium is filled with tracery similar in every respect to the best
window tracery of the period (Fig. 19).

Fig. 19.—The Triforium Arcade, Westminster Abbey. (1269.)

In the decorated style of the fourteenth century tracery was developed till it
reached a great pitch of perfection and intricacy. In the earlier half of the
century none save regular geometrical forms, made up of circles and
segments of circles, occur; in other words, the whole design of the most
elaborate window could be drawn with the compasses, and a curve of
contrary flexure rarely occurred. In the latest half of that period flowing
lines are introduced into the tracery, and very much alter its character (Fig.
20). The cusping throughout is bolder than in the E. E. period.

Fig. 20.—Rose Window from the Transept of Lincoln Cathedral.
(1342-1347.)

In perpendicular windows spaces of enormous size are occupied by the
mullions and tracery. Horizontal bars, called transoms, are now for the first
time introduced, and the upright bars or mullions form with them a kind of
stone grating; but below each transom a series of small stone arches forms
heads to the lights below that transom, and a minor mullion often springs
from the head of each of these arches, so that as the window increases in
height, the number of its lights increases. The character of the cusping
changed again, the cusps becoming club-headed in their form (Fig. 21).

Fig. 21.—Perpendicular Window.

Arches in the great arcades of churches, or in the smaller arcades of
cloisters, or used as decorations to the surface of the walls, were made
acute, obtuse, or segmental, to suit the duty they had to perform; but when
there was nothing to dictate any special shape, the arch of the E. E. period
was by preference acute[18] and of lofty proportions, and that of the Dec.
less lofty, and its head equilateral (i.e. described so that if the ends of the
base of an equilateral triangle touch the two points from which it springs,
the apex of the angle shall touch the point of the arch). In the Perp. period
the four centred depressed arch, sometimes called the Tudor arch, was
introduced, and though it did not entirely supersede the equilateral arch, yet
its employment became at last all but universal, and it is one of the
especially characteristic features of the Tudor period.

Roofs and Vaults.

The external and the internal covering of a building are very often not the
same; the outer covering is then usually called a roof—the other, a vault or
ceiling. In not a few Gothic buildings, however, they were the same; such

buildings had what are known as open roofs—i.e. roofs in which the whole
of the timber framing of which they are constructed is open to view from
the interior right up to the tiles or lead. Very few open roofs of E. E.
character are now remaining, but a good many parish churches retain roofs
of the Dec., and more of the Perp. period. The roof of Westminster Hall
(Perp., erected 1397) shows how fine an architectural object such a roof
may become. The roof of the hall of Eltham Palace (Fig. 22) is another
good example. Wooden ceilings, often very rich, are not uncommon,
especially in the churches of Norfolk and Suffolk, but greater interest
attaches to the stone vaults with which the majority of Gothic buildings
were erected, than to any other description of covering to the interiors of
buildings.
The vault was a feature rarely absent from important churches, and the
structural requirements of the Gothic vault were among the most influential
of the elements which determined both the plan and the section of a
mediæval church. There was a regular growth in Gothic vaults. Those of the
thirteenth century are comparatively simple; those of the fourteenth are
much richer and more elaborate, and often involve very great structural
difficulties. Those of the fifteenth are more systematic, and consequently
more simple in principle than the ones which preceded them, but are such
marvels of workmanship, and so enriched by an infinity of parts, that they
astonish the beholder, and it appears, till the secret is known, impossible to
imagine how they can be made to stand.

Fig. 22.—Roof of Hall at Eltham Palace. (15th Century.)

It has been held by some very good authorities that the pointed arch was
first introduced into Gothic architecture to solve difficulties which
presented themselves in the vaulting. In all probability the desire to give to
everything, arches included, a more lofty appearance and more slender
proportions may have had as much to do with the adoption of the pointed
arch as any structural considerations, but there can be no doubt that it was
used for structural arches from the very first, even when window heads and
wall arcades were semicircular, and that the introduction of it cleared the
way for the use of stone vaults of large span to a wonderful extent. It is not

easy to explain this without being more technical than is perhaps desirable
in the present volume, but the subject is one of too much importance for it
to be possible to avoid making the attempt.
Churches, it will be recollected, were commonly built with a wide nave and
narrower aisles, and it was in the Norman period customary to vault the
aisles and cover the nave with a ceiling. There was no difficulty in so
spacing the distances apart of the piers of the main arcade that the
compartments (usually termed bays) of the aisle should be square on plan;
and it was quite possible, without doing more than the Romans had done, to
vault each bay of the aisles with a semicircular intersecting vault (i.e. one
which has the appearance of a semicircular or waggon-head vault,
intersected by another vault of the same outline and height). This produced
a simple series of what are called groined or cross vaults, which allowed
height to be given to the window heads of the aisle and to the arcades
between the aisles and nave.
After a time it was desired to vault the nave also, and to adopt for it an
intersecting vault, so that the heads of the windows of the clerestory might
be raised above the springing line of the vault, but so long as the arches
remained semicircular, this was very difficult to accomplish.
The Romans would probably have contented themselves with employing a
barrel vault and piercing it to the extent required by short lateral vaults, but
the result would have been an irregular, weak, curved line at each
intersection with the main vault; and the aisle vaults having made the
pleasing effect of a perfectly regular intersection familiar, this expedient
does not seem to have found favour, at any rate in England.
Other expedients were however tried, and with curious results. It was for
example attempted to vault the nave with a cross vault, embracing two bays
of the arcade to one of the vault, but the wall space so gained was
particularly ill suited to the clerestory windows, as may be seen by
examining the nave of St. Stephen’s at Caen. In short, if the vaulting
compartment were as wide as the nave one way, but only as wide as the
aisle the other way, and semicircular arches alone were employed, a
satisfactory result seemed to be unattainable.

In the search for some means of so vaulting a bay of oblong plan that the
arches should spring all at one level, and the groins or lines of intersection
should cross one another in the centre of the ceiling, the idea either arose or
was suggested that the curve of the smaller span should be a pointed instead
of a semicircular arch.
The moment this was tried all difficulty vanished, and groined (i.e.
intersecting) vaults, covering compartments of any proportions became easy
to design and simple to construct, for if the vault which spanned the narrow
way of the compartment were acutely pointed, and that which spanned it the
wide way were either semicircular or flatly-pointed, it became easy to
arrange that the startings of both vaults should be at the same level, and that
they should rise to the same height, which is the condition essential to the
production of a satisfactory intersection.
Scott enumerates not fewer than fourteen varieties of mediæval vaults[19]
and points out that specimens of thirteen are to be found at Westminster.
Without such minute detail we may select some well-known varieties:—(1)
The plain waggon-head vault, as at the Chapel of the Tower; (2) in
advanced Norman works, cross-vaults formed by two intersecting
semicircular vaults, the diagonal line being called a groin. (3) The earliest
transitional and E. E. vaults, pointed and with transverse and diagonal ribs,
and bosses at the intersection of ribs, e.g., in the aisles and the early part of
the cloisters at Westminster. (4) In the advanced part of the E. E. period, the
addition of a rib at the ridge, as seen in the presbytery and transepts at
Westminster. (5) At the time of the transition to Dec. (temp. Ed. 1.)
additional ribs began to be introduced between the diagonal and the
transverse ribs. (6) As the Dec. period advanced other ribs, called liernes,
were introduced, running in various directions over the surface of the vault,
making star-like figures on the vault. (7) The vault of the early Perp., which
is similar to the last, but more complicated and approaching No. 8, e.g.,
Abbot Islip’s chapel. (8) Lastly, the distinctive vault of the advanced or
Tudor Perp., is the fan-tracery vault of which Henry VII.’s Chapel roof is
the climax. The vaulting surfaces in these are portions of hollow conoids,
and are covered by a net-work of fine ribs, connected together by bands of
cusping (Fig. 23).

Fig. 23.—Henry VII.’s Chapel. (1503-1512.)

In Scott’s enumeration the vaults of octagons and irregular compartments,
and such varieties as the one called sexpartite, find a place; here they have
been intentionally excluded. Many of them are works of the greatest skill
and beauty, especially the vaults of octagonal chapter houses springing from

one centre pier (e.g., Chapter Houses at Worcester, Westminster, Wells, and
Salisbury).
Externally, the roofs of buildings became very steep in the thirteenth
century; they were not quite so steep in the fourteenth, and in the fifteenth
they were frequently almost flat. They were always relied upon to add to the
effectiveness of a building, and were enriched sometimes by variegated tiles
or other covering, sometimes by the introduction of small windows, known
as dormer windows, each with its own gablet and its little roof, and
sometimes by the addition of a steep sided roof in the shape of a lantern or a
“flèche” on the ridge, or a pyramidal covering to some projecting octagon
or turret.
All these have their value in breaking up the sky-line of the building, and
adding interest and beauty to it. Still more striking, however, in its effect on
the sky-line was the spire, a feature to which great attention was paid in
English architecture.

Spires.

The early square towers of Romanesque churches were sometimes
surmounted by pyramidal roofs of low pitch. We have probably none now
remaining, but we have some examples of large pinnacles, crowned with
pyramids, which show what the shape must have been. They were square in
plan and somewhat steep in slope.
The spire was developed early in the E. E. period. It was octagonal in plan,
and the four sides which coincided with the faces of the tower rose direct
from the walls above a slightly masked eaves course. The four oblique sides
are connected to the tower by a feature called a broach, which may be
described as part of a blunt pyramid. The broach-spire (Fig. 24) is to be met
with in many parts of England, but especially in Northamptonshire. The
chief ornaments of an E. E. spire consist in small windows (called spire-
lights or lucarnes) each surmounted by its gablet.

Fig. 24.—Early English Spire. Church of St. Mary Magdalene,
Warboys, Lincolnshire.

In the Dec. period it was common to finish the tower by a parapet, and to
start the spire behind the parapet, sometimes with a broach, often without.
Pinnacles were frequently added at the corners of the tower, and an arch,
like that of a flying buttress, was sometimes thrown across from the

pinnacle to the spire. Spire-lights occur as before, and the surface of the
spire is often enriched by bands of ornament at intervals. The general
proportions of the spire were more slender than before, and the rib, which
generally ran up each angle, was often enriched by crockets, i.e. tufts of
leaves arranged in a formal shape (Fig. 25).

Fig. 25.—Decorated Spire. All Saints’ Church, Oakham,

Rutlandshire.

Towers were frequently intended to stand without spires in the Perp. period,
and are often finished by four effective angle-pinnacles and a cornice with
battlements. Where spires occur in this period they resemble those of the
Dec. period.
Spires end usually in a boss or finial, surmounted by a weathercock.
Ordinary roofs were usually finished by ornamental cresting, and their
summits were marked by finials,[20] frequently of exquisite workmanship.

Ornaments.

We now come to ornaments, including mouldings, carving, and colour, and
here we are landed upon a mass of details which it would be impossible to
pursue far. Mouldings play a prominent part in Gothic architecture, and
from the first to the last they varied so constantly that their profiles and
grouping may be constantly made use of as a kind of architectural calendar,
to point out the time, to within a few years, when the building in which they
occur was erected.
A moulding is the architect’s means of drawing a line on his building. If he
desires to mark on the exterior the position of an internal floor, or in any
other way to suggest a division into storeys, a moulded string-course is
introduced. If he wishes to add richness and play of light and shade to the
sides of an important arch, he introduces a series of mouldings, the profile
of which has been designed to form lights and shadows such as will answer
his purpose. If again he desires to throw out a projection and to give the
idea of its being properly supported, he places under his projection a corbel
of mouldings which are of strong as well as pleasing form, so as to convey
to the eye the notion of support. Mouldings, it can be understood, differ in
both size and profile, according to the purpose which they are required to
serve, the distance from the spectator at which they are fixed, and the
material out of which they are formed. In the Gothic periods they also
differed according to the date at which they were executed.

Fig. 26.—Early Arch in Receding Planes.

Fig. 27.—Arch in Receding Planes Moulded.

The first step towards the Gothic system of mouldings was taken by the
Romanesque architects when the idea of building arches in thick walls, not
only one within the others, but also in planes receding back from the face of
the wall one behind as well as within another, was formed and carried out,
and when a corresponding recessed arrangement of the jamb of the arch
was made (Fig. 26). The next step was the addition of some simple
moulding to the advancing angle of each rim of such a series of arches
either forming a bead (Fig. 27) or a chamfer.

In the transitional part of the twelfth century and the E. E. period this
process went on till at last, though the separate receding arches still
continued to exist, the mouldings[21] into which they were cut became so
numerous and elaborate as to render it often difficult to detect the
subordination or division into distinct planes which really remained.

Fig. 28.—Doorway, King’s College Chapel, Cambridge. (15th
Century.)

This passion for elaborate mouldings, often extraordinarily undercut,
reached its climax in the thirteenth century, the E. E. period. In the Dec.
period, while almost everything else became more elaborate, mouldings
grew more simple, yet hardly less beautiful. In the Perp. period they were

not only further simplified, but often impoverished, being usually shallow,
formal, and stiff.[22]
Ornaments abounded, and included not only enrichments in the shape of
carved foliage and figures, statuary, mosaics, and so forth, but ornamental
features, such as canopies, pinnacles, arcades, and recesses (Fig. 28).
In each period these are distinct in design from all that went before or came
after, and thus to catch the spirit of any one Gothic period aright, it is not
enough to fix the general shapes of the arches and proportions of the piers
but every feature, every moulding, and every ornament must be wrought in
the true spirit of the work, or the result will be marred.

Stained Glass.

Ornamental materials and every sort of decorative art, such as mosaic,
enamel, metal work and inlays, were freely employed to add beauty in
appropriate positions; but there was one ornament, the crowning invention
of the Gothic artists, which largely influenced the design of the finest
buildings, and which reflected a glory on them such as nothing else can
approach: this was stained glass.
So much of the old glass has perished, and so little modern glass is even
passable, that this praise may seem overcharged to those who have never
seen any of the best specimens still left. We have in the choir at Canterbury
a remnant of the finest sort of glass which England possesses. Some good
fragments remain at Westminster, though not very many; but to judge of the
effect of glass at its best, the student should visit La Sainte Chapelle at
Paris, or the Cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans, Bourges, or Rheims, and he
will find in these buildings effects in colour which are nothing less than
gorgeous in their brilliancy, richness, and harmony.

Fig. 29.—Stained Glass Window from Chartres Cathedral.

The peculiar excellence of stained glass as compared with every other sort
of decoration, is that it is luminous. To some extent fresco-painting may
claim a sort of brightness; mosaic when executed in polished materials
possesses brilliancy; but in stained glass the light which comes streaming in
through the window itself gives radiance, while the quality of the glass

determines the colour, and thus we obtain a glowing, lustre of colour which
can only be compared to the beauty of gems. In order properly to fill their
place as decorations, stained-glass windows must be something quite
different from transparent pictures, and the scenes they represent must not
detach themselves too violently from the general ground. The most perfect
effect is produced by such windows as those at Canterbury or Chartres (Fig.
29), which recall a cluster of jewels rather than a picture.

Coloured Decoration.

Colour was also freely introduced by the lavish employment of coloured
materials where they were to be had, and by painting the interiors with
bright pigments. We meet with traces of rich colour on many parts of
ancient buildings, where we should hardly dare to put it now, and we cannot
doubt that painted decoration was constantly made use of with the happiest
effect.

Sculpture.

Fig. 30.—Sculpture from the Entrance to the Chapter House,
Westminster Abbey. (1250.)

The last, perhaps the noblest ornament, is sculpture. The Gothic architects
were alive to its value, and in all their best works statues abounded; often
conventional to the last degree; sometimes to our eyes uncouth, but always
the best which those who carved them could do at the time; always sure to

contribute to architectural effect; never without a picturesque power,
sometimes rising to grace and even grandeur, and sometimes sinking to
grotesque ugliness. Whatever the quality of the sculpture was, it was always
there, and added life to the whole. Monsters gaped and grinned from the
water-spouts, little figures or strange animals twisted in and out of the
foliage at angles and bosses and corbels. Stately effigies occupied dignified
niches, in places of honour; and in the mouldings and tympanum of the
head of a doorway there was often carved a whole host of figures
representing heaven, earth, and hell, with a rude force and a native
eloquence that have not lost their power to the present day.
In the positions where modest ornamentation was required, as for example
the capitals of shafts, the hollows of groups of mouldings, and the bosses of
vaulting, carving of the most finished execution and masterly design
constantly occurs. Speaking roughly, this was chiefly conventional in the
E. E. period, chiefly natural in the Dec. and mixed, but with perhaps a
preference for the conventional in the Perp. Examples abound, but both for
beauty and accessibility we can refer to no better example than the carving
which enriches the entrance to the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey
(Fig. 30).

Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral.

FOOTNOTES:

[17] For illustrations consult the Glossary under Jamb.
[18] For illustrations consult the Glossary under Arch.
[19] Address to the Conference of Architects. Reported in the Builder of 24th
June, 1876. Outlines illustrating some of these varieties of vault will be found in
the Glossary under Vault.
[20] See Glossary.
[21] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
[22] For further illustrations see the Glossary.

CHAPTER VI.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.

FRANCE.—CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.

T HE architecture of France during the Middle Ages throws much light
upon the history of the country. The features in which it differs from
the work done in England at the same period can, many of them, be
directly traced to differences in the social, political, or religious situation of
the two nations at the time. For example, we find England in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries in the hands of the Normans, a newly-conquered
country under uniform administration; and accordingly few local variations
occur in the architecture of our Norman period. The twelfth-century work,
at Durham or Peterborough for instance, differs but little from that at
Gloucester or Winchester. In France the case is different. That country was
divided into a series of semi-independent provinces, whose inhabitants
differed, not only in the leaders whom they followed, but in speech, race,
and customs. As might be expected, the buildings of each province
presented an aspect different in many respects from those of every other;
and we may as well add that these peculiarities did not die out with the end
of the round-arched period of architecture, but lingered far into the pointed
period.

Fig. 31.—Church at Fontevrault. (Begun 1125.)

The south of France was occupied by people speaking what are now known
as the Romance dialects, and some writers have adopted the name as
descriptive of the peculiarities of the architecture of these districts. The
Romance provinces clung tenaciously to their early forms of art, so that
pointed architecture was not established in the south of France till half a
century, and in some places nearly a whole century, later than in the north.
On the other hand, the Frankish part of the country was the cradle of
Gothic. The transition from round to pointed architecture first took place in
the royal domain, of which Paris was the centre, and it may be assumed that

the new style was already existing when in 1140 Abbot Suger laid the
foundations of the choir of the church of St. Denis, about forty years before
the commencement of the eastern arm of our own Canterbury.
De Caumont, who in his “Abécédaire” did for French architecture
somewhat the same work of analysis and scientific arrangement which
Rickman performed for English, has adopted the following classification:—

Primitive.
5th to 10th century.
Primordiale.
Romanesque
Second. End of 10th to commencement
Architecture.
Secondaire. of 12th century.
Architecture
Romane.
Third or Transition
Tertiaire ou de 12th century.
Transition.

First.
13th century.
Primitive.
Pointed
Architecture. Second.
14th century.
Architecture Secondaire.
ogivale.
Third.
15th century.
Tertiaire.

Fig. 32.—Doorway at Loches, France. (1180.)

The transitional architecture of France is no exception to the rule that the art
of a period of change is full of interest. Much of it has disappeared, but
examples remain in the eastern part of the cathedral of St. Denis already
referred to, in portions of the cathedrals of Noyon and Sens, the west front
of Chartres, the church of St. Germain des Prés at Paris, and elsewhere. We

here often find the pointed arch employed for the most important parts of
the structure, while the round arch is still retained in the window and door-
heads, and in decorative arcades, as shown in our illustrations of a section
of the church at Fontevrault (Fig. 31), and of a doorway at Loches (Fig. 32).
The first pointed architecture of the thirteenth century in France differs
considerably from the early English of this country. The arches are usually
less acute, and the windows not so tall in proportion to their width. The
mouldings employed are few and simple compared with the many and
intricate English ones. Large round columns are much used in place of our
complicated groups of small shafts for the piers of the nave; and the abacus
of the capital remains square. An air of breadth and dignity prevails in the
buildings of this date to which the simple details, noble proportions, and
great size largely contribute. The western front of Notre Dame, Paris (Fig.
33), dates from the early years of this century, the interior being much of it
a little earlier. The well-known cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Laon, and
later in the style, Amiens, and Beauvais, may be taken as grand examples of
French first pointed. To these may be added the very graceful Sainte
Chapelle of Paris, the choir and part of the nave of the cathedral at Rouen,
the church of St. Etienne at Caen, and the cathedrals of Coutances, Lisieux,
Le Mans, and Bourges. This list of churches could be almost indefinitely
extended, and many monastic buildings, and not a few domestic and
military ones, might be added. Among the most conspicuous of these may
be named the monastic fortress at Mont St. Michel, probably the most
picturesque structure in France, the remarkable fortifications of
Carcassonne, and the lordly castle of Couçy.

Fig. 33.—Notre Dame, Paris, West Front. (1214.)

The second pointed, or fourteenth century Gothic of France, bears more
resemblance to contemporary English Gothic than the work of the centuries
preceding or following. Large windows for stained glass, with rich
geometrical tracery prevailed, and much the same sort of ornamental
treatment as in England was adopted in richly decorated buildings.

Specimens of the work of this century occur everywhere in the shape of
additions to the great churches and cathedrals which had been left
unfinished from the previous century, and also of side chapels which it
became customary to add to the aisles of churches. The great and well-
known abbey of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the few first-class churches
which can be named as begun and almost entirely completed in this century.
The tower and spire of the church of St. Pierre at Caen (Fig. 13) are very
well-known and beautiful specimens of this period.
French fifteenth century architecture, or third pointed, is far from being so
dignified or so scientific as English perpendicular, and differs from it
considerably. Exuberant richness in decoration was the rage, and shows
itself both in sculpture, tracery, and general design. Much of the later work
of this period has received the name of flamboyant, because of the flame-
like shapes into which the tracery of the heads of windows was thrown. In
flamboyant buildings we often meet with art which, though certainly over-
florid, is brilliant, rich, and full of true feeling for decoration.
In this century, secular and domestic buildings attained more prominence
than at any previous periods. Some of them are among the best works
which this period produced. Familiar examples will be found in the noble
Palais de Justice at Rouen, and the Hôtel de Bourgtherould in the same city;
in parts of the great château at Blois, the splendid château of Pierrefonds,
and the Hôtels de Ville of Oudenarde and Caen.

FRANCE.—ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.

Plan.

Fig. 34.—Plan of Amiens Cathedral. (1220-1272.)

The plans of French cathedrals and other buildings conform in general to
the description of Gothic plans given in Chapter II., but they have of course
certain distinctive peculiarities (Fig. 34). The cathedrals are as a rule much
broader in proportion to their length than English ones. Double aisles
frequently occur, and not infrequently an added range of side chapels
fringes each of the main side walls, so that the interior of one of these vast
buildings presents, in addition to the main vista along the nave, many
delightful cross views of great extent. The transepts are also much less
strongly marked than our English examples. There are even some great
cathedrals (e.g., Bourges) without transepts; and where they exist it is
common to find that, as in the case of Notre Dame de Paris, they do not
project beyond the line of the side walls, so that, although fairly well-
marked in the exterior and interior of the building, they add nothing to its
floor-space. The eastern end of a French cathedral (and indeed of French

churches generally, with very few exceptions) is terminated in an apse.
When, as is frequently the case, this apse is encircled by a ring of chapels,
with flying buttresses on several stages rising from among them, the whole
arrangement is called a chevet, and very striking and busy is the appearance
which it presents.

Walls, Towers, and Gables.

The walls are rarely built of any other material than stone, and much
splendid masonry is to be found in France. Low towers are often to be met
with, and so are projecting staircase turrets of polygonal or circular forms.
The façades of cathedrals, including ends of transepts as well as west fronts,
are most striking, and often magnificently enriched. It is an interesting
study to examine a series of these fronts, each a little more advanced than
the last, as for example Notre Dame (Fig. 33), the transept at Rouen,
Amiens (Fig. 35), and Rheims, and to note how the horizontal bands and
other level features grow less and less conspicuous, while the vertical ones
are more and more strongly marked; showing an increasing desire, not only
to make the buildings lofty, but to suppress everything which might
interfere with their looking as high as possible.

Fig. 35.—Amiens Cathedral, West Front. (1220-1272.)

Columns and Piers.

The column is a greater favourite than the pier in France, as has already
been said. Sometimes, where the supports of the main arcade are really

piers, they are built like circular shafts of large size; and even when they
have no capital (as was the case in third-pointed examples), these piers still
retain much of the air of solid strength which belongs to the column, and
which the French architects appear to have valued highly. In cases where a
series of mouldings has to be carried—as for example when the main
arcade of a building is richly moulded—English architects would usually
have provided a distinct shaft for each little group (or as Willis named them
order), into which the whole can be subdivided. In France, at any rate
during the earlier periods, the whole series of mouldings would spring from
the square unbroken abacus of a single large column, to which perhaps one
shaft, or as in our illustration (Fig. 36) four shafts, would be attached which
would be carried up to the springing of the nave vault, at which point the
same treatment would be repeated, though on a smaller scale, with the
moulded ribs of that vault.

Fig. 36.—Piers and Superstructure, Rheims Cathedral. (1211-1240.)

A peculiarity of some districts of southern France is the suppression of the
external buttress; the buttresses are in fact built within the church walls
instead of outside, and masonry enough is added to make each into a
separating wall which divides side chapels. Some large churches, e.g., the
cathedral at Alby, in Southern France, consist of a wide nave buttressed in

this way, and having side chapels between the buttresses, but without side
aisles.
The plans of the secular, military, and domestic buildings of France also
present many interesting peculiarities, but not such as it is possible to
review within the narrow limits of this chapter.

Roofs and Vaults.

The peculiarly English feature of an open roof is hardly ever met with in
any shape: yet though stone vaults are almost universal, they are rarely
equal in scientific skill to the best of those in our own country. In
transitional examples, many very singular instances of the expedients
employed before the pointed vault was fully developed can be found. In
some of the central and southern districts, domes, or at least domical vaults,
were employed. (See the section of Fontevrault, Fig. 31). The dome came in
from Byzantium. It was introduced in Perigord, where the very curious and
remarkable church of St. Front (begun early in the eleventh century) was
built. This is to all intents a Byzantine church. It is an almost exact copy in
plan and construction of St. Mark’s at Venice, a church designed and built
by Eastern architects, and it is roofed by a series of domes, a peculiarity
which is as distinctive of Byzantine (i.e., Eastern early Christian), as the
vaulted roof is of Romanesque (or Western early Christian) architecture.
Artists from Constantinople itself probably visited France, and from this
centre a not inconsiderable influence extended itself in various directions,
and led to the use of many Byzantine features both of design and ornament.
As features in the exterior of their buildings, the roofs have been in every
period valued by the French architects; they are almost always steep,
striking, and ornamented. All appropriate modes of giving prominence and
adding ornament to a roof have been very fully developed in French Gothic
architecture, and the roofs of semicircular and circular apses, staircase
towers, &c., may be almost looked upon as typical.[23]

Openings.

The treatment of openings gives occasion for one of the most strongly
marked points of contrast between French and English Gothic architecture.
With us the great windows are unquestionably the prominent features, but
with the French the doors are most elaborated. This result is reached not so
much by any lowering of the quality of the treatment bestowed upon the
windows, but by the greatly increased importance given to doorways.
The great portals of Notre Dame at Paris (Fig. 33), Rheims, or Amiens (Fig.
35), and the grand porches of Chartres may be named as the finest
examples, and are probably the most magnificent single features which
Gothic Art produced in any age or any country; but in its degree the western
portal of every great church is usually an object upon which the best
resources of the architect have been freely lavished. The wall is built very
thick so that enormous jambs, carrying a vast moulded arch, can be
employed. The head of the door is filled with sculpture, which is also
lavishly used in the sides and arch, and over the whole rises an ornamental
gable, frequently profusely adorned with tracery and sculpture, its sides
being richly decorated by crockets or similar ornaments, and crowned by a
sculptured terminal or finial.
The windows in the earliest periods are simpler than in our E. E., as well as
of less slender proportions. In the second and third periods they are full of
rich tracery, and are made lofty and wide to receive the magnificent stained
glass with which it was intended to fill them, and which many churches
retain. Circular windows, sometimes called wheel-windows, often occupy
the gables, and are many of them very fine compositions.

Mouldings and Ornaments.

The mouldings of the French first pointed are usually larger than our own.
Compared with ours they are also fewer, simpler, and designed to produce
more breadth of effect. This may partly result from their originating in a
sunshiny country where effects of shade are easily obtained. In the second
and third periods they more nearly resemble those in use in England at the
corresponding times.
The carving is very characteristic and very beautiful. In the transition and
first pointed a cluster of stalks, ending in a tuft of foliage or flowers, is

constantly employed, especially in capitals. The use of this in England is
rare; and, on the other hand, foliage like E. E. conventional foliage is rare in
France. In the second pointed, natural foliage is admirably rendered (Fig.
37). In the third a somewhat conventional kind of foliage, very luxuriant in
its apparent growth, is constantly met with.
This carving is at every stage accompanied by figure-sculpture of the finest
character. Heads of animals, statues, groups of figures, and has reliefs are
freely employed, but always with the greatest judgment, so that their
introduction adds richness to the very point in the whole composition where
it is most needed. In every part of France, and in every period of Gothic
architecture, good specimens of sculpture abound. Easily accessible
illustrations will be found in the west entrance and south transept front of
Rouen Cathedral, the porches and portals at Chartres, the choir inclosure of
Notre Dame at Paris, and the richly sculptured inclosure of the choir of
Amiens Cathedral.

Fig. 37.—Capital from St. Nicholas, Blois, France. (13th Century.)

Stained glass has been more than once referred to. It is to be found in its
greatest perfection in France, as for example in La Sainte Chapelle at Paris,

and the cathedrals of Le Mans, Bourges, Chartres, and Rheims. All that has
been said in the introductory chapter on this, the crowning ornament of
Gothic architecture, and on its influence upon window design, and through
that, upon the whole structure of the best churches, is to the full as
applicable to French examples. Coloured decoration was also frequently
employed in the interior of churches and other buildings, and is constantly
to be met with in French buildings, both secular and religious. In most
cases, however, it is less easy to appreciate this than the stained glass, for,
as it is now to be seen, the colours are either faded and darkened by time
and smoke, or else restored, not always with the exactness that could be
desired.

Construction and Design.

The construction of the great buildings of the middle ages in France is an
interesting subject of study, but necessarily a thoroughly technical one.
Great sagacity in designing the masonry, carpentry, joinery, and metal-
work; and trained skill in the carrying out the designs, have left their traces
everywhere; and while the construction of the earlier castles and of the
simple churches shows a solidity but little inferior to that of the Romans
themselves, the most elaborate works, such for example as the choir at
Beauvais (Fig. 38), can hardly be surpassed as specimens of skill and
daring, careful forethought, and bold execution.

Fig. 38.—Beauvais Cathedral, Interior. (1225-1537.)

Design, in France, pursued the general principles of Gothic architecture to
their logical conclusions with the most uncompromising consistency.
Perhaps the most distinctive peculiarity in French cathedrals is a love of
abstract beauty, and a strong preference for breadth, regularity, dignity, and
symmetry wherever they come into competition with picturesqueness and
irregular grouping. There is, it is true, plenty of the picturesque element in
French mediæval art; but if we take the finest buildings, and those in which

the greatest effort would be made to secure the qualities which were
considered the greatest and most desirable, we shall find very strong
evidences of a conviction that beauty was to be attained by regularity and
order, rather than by unsymmetrical and irregular treatment.

BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.

Belgium is a country rich in remains of Gothic architecture. Its art was
influenced so largely by its neighbourhood to France, that it will not be
necessary to attempt anything like a chronological arrangement of its
buildings. Fine churches exist in its principal cities, but they cannot be said
to form a series differing widely from the churches of France, with which
they were contemporary, and where they differ the advantage is generally
on the side of the French originals.
The principal cathedral of the Low Countries, that at Antwerp, is a building
remarkable for its great width (having seven aisles), and for the wonderful
picturesqueness of its interior. The exterior, which is unfinished, is also very
effective, with its one lofty spire. The other cathedrals of note include those
of Tournay, Brussels, Mechlin, Louvain, Liége, and Ghent. Belgium also
possesses a great number of large parochial churches.
When we turn to secular buildings we find the Belgian architecture of the
middle ages taking a leading position. The free cities of Belgium acquired
municipal privileges at an early date, and accumulated great wealth.
Accordingly we find town halls, trade halls, belfries, warehouses, and
excellent private dwelling-houses in abundance. The cloth hall at Ypres has
been repeatedly illustrated and referred to as an example of a grand and
effective building for trade purposes; it is of thirteenth-century architecture
and of great size, its centre marked by a massive lofty tower; and its angles
carrying slight turrets; but in other respects it depends for its effectiveness
solely on its repetition of similar features. Examples of the same kind of
architecture exist at Louvain and Ghent.
The Town Halls of Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Mechlin, Ghent, Oudenarde,
and Ypres, are all buildings claiming attention. They were most of them in
progress during the fifteenth century, and are fine, but florid examples of
late Gothic. Some one or two at least of the town halls were begun and

partly carried out in the fourteenth century; on the other hand, the Hôtel de
Ville at Oudenarde, was begun as late as the beginning of the sixteenth; so
were the Exchange at Antwerp (destroyed by fire and rebuilt not long since)
and some other well-known structures: their architecture, though certainly
Gothic, is debased in style.
The general aspect of these famous buildings was noble and bold in mass,
and rich in ornament. Our illustration (Fig. 39) shows the Town Hall of
Middleburgh in Holland; one which is less famous and of smaller
dimensions than those enumerated above, but equally characteristic.
The main building usually consisted of a long unbroken block surmounted
by a high-pitched roof, and usually occupied one side of a public place. The
side of the building presents several storeys, filled by rows of fine windows,
though in some cases the lowest storey is occupied by an open arcade. The
steep roof, usually crowded with dormer windows, carries up the eye to a
lofty ridge, and from the centre of it rises the lofty tower which forms so
conspicuous a feature in most of these buildings. In the Town Hall at
Bruges the tower is comparatively simple, though of a mass and height that
are truly imposing; but in Brussels, Ypres, and other examples, it is a richly
ornamented composition on which every resource of the mason and the
carver has been lavished. Our illustration (Fig. 40) shows the well-known
tower at Ghent.

Fig. 39.—The Town Hall of Middleburgh. (1518.)

Fig. 40.—Tower at Ghent. (Begun 1183.)

The gable ends of the great roof are often adorned by pinnacles and other
ornaments; but they rarely come prominently into view, as it is invariably
the long side of the building which is considered to be the principal front.

SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND.

In Scotland good but simple examples of early work (transition from
Romanesque to E. E.) occur, as for example, at Jedburgh and Kelso,
Dryburgh and Leuchars abbey churches. A very interesting and in many

respects unique cathedral of the thirteenth century, with later additions,
exists at Glasgow. It is a building of much beauty, with good tracery, and
the crypt offers a perfect study of various and often graceful modes of
forming groined vaults. The Cathedral of Elgin (thirteenth century), an
admirable Edwardian building, now in ruins, and the Abbey at Melrose,
also ruined, of fourteenth century architecture (begun 1322), are both
excellent specimens of the art of the periods to which they belong, and bear
a close resemblance to what was being done in England at the same time.
The famous tower of St. Giles’s Cathedral, Edinburgh, and the Chapel at
Roslyn, of the fifteenth century, on the other hand, are of thoroughly un-
English character, resembling in this respect much of the Scotch
architecture of the succeeding centuries; Roslyn is ascribed by Mr.
Fergusson to a Spanish or Portuguese architect, with great probability.
Other abbey churches and remains of architectural work exist at Dumblane,
Arbroath, Dunkeld, and in many other localities; and Holyrood Palace, still
retains part of its elegant early fourteenth-century chapel.
Of secular and domestic work Linlithgow is a fair specimen, but of late
date. Most of the castles and castellated mansions of Scotland belong
indeed to a later time than the Gothic period, though there is a strong
infusion of Gothic feeling in the very picturesque style in which they are
designed.

Wales is distinguished for the splendid series of castles to which allusion
has been made in a previous chapter. They were erected at the best time of
English Gothic architecture (Edward I.) under English direction, and are
finely designed and solidly built. Wales can also boast the interesting
Cathedrals of Chester, Llandaff, St. David’s, and some smaller churches,
but in every case there is little to distinguish them from contemporary
English work.

Ireland is more remarkable for antiquities of a date anterior to the beginning
of the Gothic period than for works belonging to it. A certain amount of
graceful and simple domestic work, however, exists there; and in addition to
the cathedrals of Kildare, Cashel, and Dublin, numerous monastic

buildings, not as a rule large or ambitious, but often graceful and
picturesque, are scattered about.

Miserere Seat in Wells Cathedral.

FOOTNOTE:
[23] For an example of these see the house of Jaques Cœur (Fig. 7).

CHAPTER VII.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND
NORTHERN EUROPE.

GERMANY.—CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.

T HE architecture of Germany, from the twelfth to the sixteenth
centuries, can be divided into an early, a middle, and a late period,
with tolerable distinctness. Of these, the early period possesses the
greatest interest, and the peculiarities of its buildings are the most marked
and most beautiful. In the middle period, German Gothic bore a very close
general resemblance to the Gothic of the same time in France; and, as a
rule, such points of difference as exist are not in favour of the German
work. Late Gothic work in Germany is very fantastic and unattractive.

Fig. 41.—Abbey Church of Arnstein. (12th and 13th Centuries.)

Through the twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, the architects of
Germany pursued a course parallel with that followed in France and in
England, but without adopting the pointed arch. They developed the simple
and rude Romanesque architecture which prevailed throughout Europe in
the tenth and eleventh centuries, and which they learnt originally from
Byzantine artists who fled from their own country during the reign of the
iconoclasts; and they not only carried it to a point of elaboration which was
abreast of the art of our best Norman architecture, but went on further in the
same course; for while the French and ourselves were adopting lancet
windows and pointed arches, they continued to employ the round-headed
window and the semicircular arch in buildings which in their size, richness,
loftiness, and general style, correspond with early Gothic examples in other

countries. This early German architecture has been sometimes called fully
developed Romanesque, and sometimes round-arched Gothic, and both
terms may be applied to it without impropriety, for it partakes of the
qualities implied by each. The Church of the Holy Apostles at Cologne, and
those of St. Martin and St. Maria in Capitolo, in the same city, may be
referred to as among the best works of this class. Each of these has an
eastern apse, and also an apsidal termination to each transept. The Apostles’
church has a low octagon at the crossing, and its sky-line is further broken
up by western and eastern towers, the latter of comparatively small size and
octagonal; and under the eaves of the roof occurs an arcade of small arches.
A view of the Abbey Church of Arnstein (Fig. 41) illustrates some of the
features of these transitional churches. It will be noticed that though there is
no transept, there are no less than four towers, two octagonal, and two
square, and that the apse is a strongly developed feature.
In the church at Andernach, of which we give an illustration (Fig. 42), the
same arrangement, namely, that of four towers, two to the west, and two to
the east, may be noticed; but there is not the same degree of difference
between the towers, and the result is less happy. This example, like the last,
has no central feature, and in both the arcade under the eaves of the roof is
conspicuous only by its absence. It does, however, occur on the western
towers at Andernach.

Fig. 42.—Church at Andernach. (Early 13th Century.)

The pointed arch, when adopted in Germany, was in all probability
borrowed from France, as the general aspect of German churches of pointed
architecture seems to prove. The greatest Gothic cathedral of Germany,
Cologne Cathedral, was not commenced till about the year 1275, and its
choir was probably completed during the first quarter of the fourteenth
century. This cathedral, one of the largest in Europe, is also one of the
grandest efforts of mediæval architecture, and it closely resembles French
examples of the same period, both in its general treatment, and in the detail
of its features. The plan of Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) is one of the most
regular and symmetrical which has come down to us from the middle ages.
The works were carried on slowly after the choir was consecrated, but
without any deviation from the original plan, though some alteration in
style and details crept in. In our own day the works have been resumed and

vigorously pushed on towards completion; and, the original drawings
having been preserved, the two western towers, the front, and other portions
have been carried on in accordance with them. Cologne, accordingly,
presents the almost unique spectacle of a great Gothic church, erected
without deviation from its original plan, and completed in the style in which
it was begun. It is fair to add that though splendid in the extreme, this
cathedral has far less charm, and less of that peculiar quality of mystery and
vitality than many, we might say most, of the great cathedrals of Europe.
The plan consists of a nave of eight bays, two of which form a kind of
vestibule, and five avenues, i.e. two aisles on each side; transepts of four
bays each, with single aisles; and a choir of four bays and an apse, the
double aisle of the nave being continued and carried down the choir. That
part of the outer aisle which sweeps round the apse has been formed into a
series of seven polygonal chapels, thus gaining a complete chevet.[24] Over
the crossing there is a comparatively slender spire, and at the west end stand
two massive towers terminated by a pair of lofty and elaborate spires, of
open tracery, and enriched by crockets, finials, and much ornamentation.
The cathedral is built of stone, without much variation in colour; it is
vaulted throughout, and a forest of flying buttresses surrounds it on all
sides. The beauty of the tracery, the magnificent boldness of the scale of the
whole building, and its orderly regularity, are very imposing, and give it a
high rank among the greatest works of European architecture; but it is
almost too majestic to be lovely, and somewhat cold and uninteresting from
its uniform colour, and perhaps from its great regularity.
Strasburg Cathedral—not so large as Cologne—has been built at various
times; the nave and west front are the work of the best Gothic period. This
building has a nave and single aisles, short transepts, and a short apsidal
choir. There is great richness in much of the work; double tracery, i.e. a
second layer, so to speak, of tracery, is here employed in the windows, and
extended beyond them, but the effect is not happy. The front was designed
to receive two open tracery spires, but only one of them has been erected. It
is amazingly intricate and rich, the workmanship is very astonishing, but the
artistic effect is not half so good as that of many plain stone spires.
Another important German church famous for an open spire is the cathedral
at Friburg. Here only one tower, standing at the middle of the west front,

was ever intended, and partly because the composition is complete as
proposed, and partly because the design of the tracery in the spire itself is
more telling, this building forms a more effective object than Strasburg,
though by no means so lofty or so grandiose.

Fig. 43.—Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg. East End. (1358-
1548.)

The Cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is a large and exceedingly rich
church. In this building the side aisles are carried to almost the same height
as the centre avenue—an arrangement not infrequent in German churches
having little save novelty to recommend it, and by which the triforium, and,
as a rule, the clerestory disappear, and the church is lighted solely by large
side windows. The three avenues are covered by one wide roof, which
makes a vast and rather clumsy display externally. A lofty tower,
surmounted by a fine and elaborate spire of open tracery, stands on one side
of the church—an unusual position—and an unfinished companion tower is
begun on the corresponding side. Great churches and cathedrals are to be
found in many of the cities of Germany, but their salient points are, as a
rule, similar to those of the examples which have been already described.
The incomplete Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, in Bohemia, is one of
somewhat exceptional design. It has double aisles, but the side walls for the
greater part of the length of the church rest upon the arcade dividing the two
aisles, instead of that separating the centre avenue from the side one; and a
vault over the inner side aisle forms in effect a kind of balcony or gallery in
the nave. The illustration (Fig. 43) which we give of the exterior does not of
course indicate this peculiarity, but it shows a very good example of a
German adaptation of the French chevet, and may be considered as a
specimen of German pointed architecture at its ripest stage. The church is
vaulted, as might be inferred from the forest of flying buttresses; and the
vaulting displays some resemblance to our English fan-vaulting in general
idea.
German churches include some specimens of unusual disposition or form,
as for example the Church of St. Gereon at Cologne, with an oval choir, and
one or two double churches, one of the most curious being the one at
Schwartz-Rheindorff, of which we give a section and view. (Figs. 44, 45.)
In their doorways and porches the German architects are often very happy.
Our illustration (Fig. 47) of one of the portals of the church at Thann may
be taken as giving a good idea of the amount of rich ornament often
concentrated here: it displays a wealth of decorative sculpture, which was
one of the great merits of the German architects.

Fig. 44.—Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. Section. (1158.)

The latest development of Gothic in Germany, of which the Church of St.
Catherine at Oppenheim (Fig. 48) is a specimen, was marked (just as late
French was by flamboyant tracery, and late English by fan-vaulting) by a
peculiarity in the treatment of mouldings by which they were robbed of
almost all their grace and beauty, while the execution of them became a
kind of masonic puzzle. Two or more groups of mouldings were supposed
to coexist in the same stone, and sometimes a part of one group, sometimes
a part of the other group, became visible at the surface. The name given to
this eccentric development is interpenetration.

Fig. 45.—Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. (A.D. 1158.)

Secular architecture in Germany, though not carried to such a pitch of
perfection as in Belgium, was by no means overlooked; but the examples
are not numerous. In some of the older cities, such as Prague, Nuremberg,
and Frankfort, much picturesque domestic architecture abounds, most of it
of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and even later, and all full of

piquancy and beauty. In North Germany, where there is a large tract of
country in which building stone is scarce, a style of brick architecture was
developed, which was applied to all sorts of purposes with great success.
The most remarkable of these brick buildings are the large dwelling-houses,
with façades ornamented by brick tracery and panelling, to be found in
Eastern Prussia, together with some town halls and similar buildings.

GERMANY.—ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.

Plan.

The points of difference between German and French Gothic are not so
numerous as to render a very minute analysis of the Gothic of Germany
requisite in order to make them clear.
The plans of German churches usually show internal piers; and columns
occur but rarely. The churches have nave and aisles, transepts and apsidal
choir; but they are peculiar from the frequent use of apses at the ends of the
transepts, and also from the occurrence, in not a few instances, of an apse at
the west end of the nave as well as at the east end of the choir. They are
almost invariably vaulted.
As the style advanced, large churches were constantly planned with double
aisles, and the western apse disappeared. Some German church plans,
notably those of Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) and the great church of St.
Lawrence at Nuremberg, are fine specimens of regularity of disposition,
though full of many parts.

Fig. 46.—Cologne Cathedral. Ground Plan. (Begun 1248.)

Walls, Towers, and Gables.

The German architects delighted in towers with pointed roofs, and in a
multiplicity of them. A highly characteristic feature is a tower of great mass,

but often extremely low, covering the crossing. The Cathedral at Mayence
shows a fine example of this feature, which was often not more than a low
octagon. Western towers, square on plan, are common, and small towers,
frequently octagonal, are often employed to flank the choir or in
combination with the transepts. These in early examples, are always
surmounted by high roofs; in late ones, by stone spires, often of rich open
tracery. A very characteristic feature of the round arched Gothic churches is
an arcade of small arches immediately below the eaves of the roof and
opening into the space above the vaults (Fig. 45). This is rarely wanting in
churches built previous to the time when the French type was followed
implicitly.
The gables are seldom such fine compositions as in France, or even in Italy;
but in domestic and secular buildings many striking gabled fronts occur, the
gable being often stepped in outline and full of windows.

Roofs and Vaults.

Vaults are universal in the great churches, and German vaulting has some
special peculiarities, but they are such as hardly come within the scope of
this hand-book. Roofs, however, are so conspicuous that in any general
account of German architecture attention must be paid to them. They were
from very early times steep in pitch and picturesque in outline, and are
evidently much relied upon as giving play to the sky-line. Indeed, for
variety of form and piquancy of detail the German roofs are the most
successful of the middle ages. The spires, as will have been easily gathered
from the descriptions of those at Strasburg, Cologne, &c., became
extremely elaborate, and were constructed in many cases entirely of open
tracery.

Fig. 47.—Western Doorway of Church at Thann. (14th Century.)

Fig. 48.—Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim. (1262 to 1439.)

Openings.

Openings are, on the whole, treated very much as the French treated them.
A good example is the western doorway at Thann (Fig. 47); but the use of
double tracery in the windows in late examples is characteristic. Sometimes
a partial screen of outside tracery is employed in other features besides

windows, as may be seen by the very elegant doorway of St. Sebald’s
Church at Nuremberg, which we have illustrated (Fig. 49).

Ornaments.

The ornaments of German Gothic are often profuse, but rarely quite happy.
Sculpture, often of a high class, carving of every sort, tracery, and
panelling, are largely employed; but with a hardness and a tendency to
cover all surfaces with a profusion of weak imitations of tracery that
disfigures much of the masonry. The tracery became towards the latter part
of the time intricate and unmeaning, and the interpenetrating mouldings
already described, though of course intended to be ornamental, are more
perplexing and confusing than pleasing: the carving exaggerates the natural
markings of the foliage represented, and being thin, and very boldly
undercut, resembles leaves beaten out in metal, rather than foliage happily
and easily imitated in stone, which is what good architectural carving
should be.
The use of coloured building materials and of inlays and mosaics does not
prevail to any great extent in Germany, though stained glass is often to be
found and coloured wall decoration occasionally.

Fig. 49.—St. Sebald’s Church at Nuremberg. The Bride’s Doorway.
(1303-1377.)

Construction and Design.

The marked peculiarities of construction by which the German Gothic
buildings are most distinguished, are the prevalent high-pitched roofs, the
vaulting with aisle vaults carried to the same height as in the centre, and the
employment in certain districts of brick to the exclusion of stone, all of
which have been already referred to. In a great part of that large portion of
Europe, which is included under the name of Germany, the materials and
modes of construction adopted during the middle ages, bear a close
resemblance to those in general use in France and England.
Some of the characteristics of German Gothic design have been already
alluded to. The German architects display an exuberant fancy, a great love
of the picturesque, and even the grotesque, and a strong predilection for
creating artificial difficulties in order to enjoy the pleasure of surmounting
them. Their work is full of unrest; they attach small value to the artistic
quality of breadth, and destroy the value of the plain surfaces of their
buildings as contrasts to the openings, by cutting them up by mouldings and
enrichments of various sorts. The sculpture introduced is, as a rule,
naturalistic rather than conventional. The capitals of piers and columns are
often fine specimens of effective carving, while the delicate and ornamental
details of the tabernacle work with which church furniture is enriched, are
unsurpassed in elaboration, and often of rare beauty. The churches of
Nuremberg are specially distinguished for the richness and number of their
sculptured fittings. There is, moreover, in some of the best German
buildings a rugged grandeur which approaches the sublime; and in the
humbler ones a large amount of picturesque and thoroughly successful
architecture.
In the smaller objects upon which the art of the architect was often
employed the Germans were frequently happy. Public fountains, such for
example as the one illustrated in Chapter II. (Fig. 10), are to be met within
the streets of many towns, and rarely fail to please by their simple, graceful,
and often quaint design. Crosses, monuments, and individual features in
domestic buildings, such e.g. as bay windows, frequently show a very
skilful and picturesque treatment and happy enrichment.

NORTHERN EUROPE.

Gothic architecture closely resembling German work may be found in
Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, and Denmark; but there are few very
conspicuous buildings, and not enough variety to form a distinct style. In
Norway and Sweden curious and picturesque buildings exist, erected solely
of timber, and both there and in Switzerland many of the traditions of the
Gothic period have been handed down to our own day with comparatively
little change, in the pleasing and often highly enriched timber buildings
which are to be met with in considerable numbers in those countries.

FOOTNOTE:
[24] See p. 77 for an explanation of chevet.

CHAPTER VIII.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.

ITALY AND SICILY.—TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.

G OTHIC architecture in Italy may be considered as a foreign
importation. The Italians, it is true, displayed their natural taste and
artistic instinct in their use of the style, and a large number of their
works possess, as we shall see, strongly-marked characteristics and much
charm; but it is impossible to avoid the feeling that the architects were
working in a style not thoroughly congenial to their instincts nor to the
traditions they had inherited from classical times; and not entirely in
harmony with the requirements of the climate and the nature of their
building materials.
Italian Gothic may be conveniently considered geographically, dividing the
buildings into three groups, the first and most important containing the
architecture of Northern Italy (Lombardy, Venetia, and the neighbourhood),
the second that of Central Italy (Tuscany, &c.), the third that of the south
and of Sicily—a classification which will suit the subject better than the
chronological arrangement which has been our guide in examining the art
of other countries; for the variations occasioned by development as time
went on are less strongly marked in Italy than elsewhere.

Northern Italy.

Lombardy in the Romanesque period was thoroughly under German
influence, and the buildings remaining to us from the eleventh and twelfth
centuries bear a close resemblance to those erected north of the Alps at the
same date. The twelfth century Lombard churches again are specimens of
round-arched Gothic, just as truly as those on the banks of the Rhine. Many
of them are also peculiar as being erected chiefly in brickwork; the great

alluvial plain of Lombardy being deficient in building-stone. St. Michele at
Pavia, a well-known church of this date, may be cited as a good example.
This is a vaulted church, with an apsidal east end and transepts. The round
arch is employed in this building, but the general proportions and treatment
are essentially Gothic. A striking campanile (bell tower) belongs to the
church, and is a good specimen of a feature very frequently met with in
Lombardy; the tower here (and usually) is square, and rises by successive
stages, but with only few and small openings or ornaments, to a
considerable height. There are no buttresses, no diminution of bulk, no
staircase turrets. At the summit is an open belfry-stage, with large
semicircular-headed arches, crowned by a cornice and a low-pitched conical
roof.[25]
In the same city a good example of an Italian Gothic church, erected after
the pointed arch had been introduced, may be found in the church of Sta.
Maria del Carmine. The west front of this church is but clumsy in general
design. Its width is divided into five compartments by flat buttresses. The
gables are crowned by a deep and heavy cornice of moulded brick and the
openings are grouped with but little skill. Individually, however, the
features of this front are very beautiful, and the great wheel-window, full of
tracery, and the two-light windows flanking it, may be quoted as remarkable
specimens of the ornamental elaboration which can be accomplished in
brickwork.
The campanile of this church, like the one just described, is a plain square
tower. It rises by successive stages, each taller than the last, each stage
being marked by a rich brick cornice. The belfry-stage has on each face a
three-light window, with a traceried head, and above the cornice the square
tower is finished by a tall conical roof, circular on plan, an arrangement not
unfrequently met with.
The Certosa, the great Carthusian Church and Monastery near Pavia,[26]
best known by the elaborate marble front added in a different style about a
century after the erection of the main building, is a good example of a
highly-enriched church, with dependencies, built in brickwork, and
possessing most of the distinctive peculiarities of a great Gothic church,
except the general use of the pointed arch. It was begun in 1396, and is
consistent in its exterior architecture, the front excepted, though it took a

long time to build. Attached to it are two cloisters, of which the arches are
semicircular, and the enrichments, of wonderful beauty, are modelled in
terra-cotta.
This church resembles the great German round-arched Gothic churches on
the Rhine in many of its features. Its plan includes a nave, with aisles and
side chapels, transepts and a choir. The eastern arm and the transepts are
each ornamented by an apse, somewhat smaller than would be met with in a
German church; but as a compensation each of these three arms has two
side apses, as well as the one at the end. The exterior possesses the German
arcade of little arches immediately under the eaves of the roof; it is marked
by the same multiplicity of small towers, each with its own steep roof; and
it possesses the same striking central feature, internally a small dome,
externally a kind of light pyramidal structure, ornamented by small arcades
rising tier above tier, and ending in a central pointed roof.
The finest Gothic cathedral in North Italy, if dimensions, general
effectiveness, and beauty of material be the test, is that of Milan. This
building is disfigured by a west front in a totally inappropriate style, but
apart from this it is virtually a German church of the first class, erected
entirely in white marble, and covered with a profusion of decoration. Its
dimensions show that, with the exception of Seville, this was the largest of
all the Gothic cathedrals of Europe. It has double aisles, transepts, and a
polygonal apse. At the crossing of the nave and transepts a low dome rises,
covered by a conical roof, and surmounted by an elegant marble spire.
The structure is vaulted throughout, and each of the great piers which carry
the nave arcade is surmounted by a mass of niches and tabernacle work,
occupied by statues—a splendid substitute for ordinary capitals. The
interior effect of Milan Cathedral is grand and full of beauty. The exterior,
though much of its power is destroyed by the weakly-designed ornament
with which all the surfaces of the walls are covered, is endowed with a
wonderful charm. This building was commenced in the year 1385, and
consecrated in the year 1418. The details of the window-tracery, pinnacles,
&c. (but not the statues which are of Italian character), correspond very
closely to those of German buildings erected at the same period (close of
the fourteenth century).

Milan possesses, among other examples of pointed architecture, one secular
building, the Great Hospital, well known for its Gothic façade. This hospital
was founded in 1456, and most of it is of later date and of renaissance
character; the street front of two storeys in height, with pointed arches, is
very rich. The church of Chiaravalle, near Milan, which has been more than
once illustrated and described, ought not to be passed unnoticed, on account
of the beauty of its fully developed central dome. It was built in the early
part of the thirteenth century (1221).
Almost all the great cities of North Italy possess striking Gothic buildings.
Genoa, for instance, can boast of her cathedral, with a front in alternate
courses of black and white marble, dating from about the year 1300, and
full of beauty; the details bearing much resemblance to the best Western
Gothic work. Passing eastward, Verona possesses a wealth of Gothic work
in the well-known tombs of the Scaligers, the churches of Sta. Anastasia,
San Zenone, and several minor churches and campaniles; and at Como,
Bergamo, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso, Cremona, Bologna, and many other
cities and towns, good churches of pointed architecture are to be found.
Our illustration (Fig. 50) of the ancient Palace of the Jurisconsults at
Cremona, is a good specimen of the secular architecture of North Italy.
Originally the lower storey was a loggia, or open arcaded storey, but the
arches have been built up. Telling, simple, and graceful, this building owes
its effect chiefly to its well-designed openings and a characteristic brick
cornice. It is entirely without buttresses, has no spreading base, no gables,
and no visible roof: some of these features would have been present had it
been designed and erected north of the Alps.

Fig. 50.—The Palace of the Jurisconsults at Cremona.

Venice is the city in the whole of North Italy where Gothic architecture has
had freest scope and has achieved the greatest success, not, however, in
ecclesiastical, but in secular buildings. The great Cathedral of St. Mark,
perhaps the most wonderful church in Europe, certainly the foremost in
Italy, is a Byzantine building, and though it has received some additions in
Gothic times, does not fairly come within the scope of this volume; and the
Gothic churches of Venice are not very numerous nor, with the exception of

the fine brick church of the Frari, extremely remarkable. On the banks of
the Grand Canal and its tributaries, however, stand not a few Gothic palaces
of noble design (see Fig. 9, p. 18), while the Ducal Palace itself alone is
sufficient to confer a reputation upon the city which it adorns.
The Ducal Palace at Venice is a large rectangular block of buildings erected
round a vast quadrangle. Of its exterior two sides only are visible from a
distance, one being the sea front looking over the lagoon, and the other the
land front directed towards the piazzetta. Rather less than one half the
height of each front is occupied by two storeys of arcades; the lower storey
bold, simple, and vigorous; the upper storey lighter, and ending in a mass of
bold tracery. Above this open work, and resting upon it, rises the external
wall of the palace, faced with marble in alternate slabs of rose-colour and
white, pierced by a few large pointed windows and crowned by an open
parapet. Few buildings are so familiar, even to untravelled persons, as this
fine work, which owes its great charm to the extent, beauty, and mingled
solidity and grace of its arcades, and to the fine sculpture by which the
capitals from which they spring are enriched.
The Gothic palaces are almost invariably remarkable for the skill with
which the openings in their fronts are arranged and designed. It was not
necessary to render any other part of the exterior specially architectural, as
the palaces stand side by side like houses in a modern street, as can be seen
from our illustration (Fig. 9). In almost all cases a large proportion of the
openings are grouped together in the centre of the front, and the sides are
left comparatively plain and strong-looking, the composition presenting a
centre and two wings. By this simple expedient each portion of the
composition is made to add emphasis to the other, and a powerful but not
inharmonious contrast between the open centre and the solid sides is called
into existence. The earliest Gothic buildings in point of date are often the
most delicate and graceful, and this rule holds good in the Gothic palaces of
Venice; yet one of the later palaces, the Ca’ d’Oro, must be at least named
on account of the splendid richness of its marble front—of which, however,
only the centre and one wing is built—and the beauty of the ornament
lavishly employed upon it.
The balconies, angle windows, and other minor features with which the
Venetian Gothic palaces abound, are among the most graceful features of

the architecture of Italy.

Central Italy.

Those towns of Central Italy (by which is meant Tuscany and the former
States of the Church), in which the best Gothic buildings are to be found,
are Pisa, Lucca, Florence, Siena, Orvieto, and Perugia. As a general rule the
Gothic work in this district is more developed and more lavishly enriched
than that in Lombardy.
In Pisa, the Cathedral and the Campanile (the famous leaning tower) belong
to the late Romanesque style, but the Baptistry, an elegant circular building,
has a good deal of Gothic ornament in its upper storeys, and may be fairly
classed as a transitional building. The most charming and thoroughly
characteristic work of Gothic architecture in Pisa is, however, a small gem
of a chapel, the church of Sta. Maria della Spina. It displays exquisite
ornament, and, notwithstanding much false construction, the beauty of its
details, of its sculpture, and of the marble of which it is built, invest it with
a great charm.
Pisan Gothic is remarkable as being associated with the name of a family of
highly gifted sculptors and architects, the Pisani, of whom Nicola Pisano
was the earliest and greatest artist; he was followed by his descendants
Giovanni, Nino, and Andrea. With the Pisani and Giotto the series of the
known names of architects of great buildings may be said to begin.
Florence, the most important of the cities we have named, is distinguished
by a cathedral built in the early part of the fourteenth century, and one of the
grandest in Italy. It has very few columns, and its walls and vaults are of
great height. The walls are adorned externally with inlays in coloured
marble, and the windows have stained glass—a rarity in Italy; but its lofty
dome, added after the completion of the rest of the building, is its chief
feature. This was always intended, but the pointed octagonal dome actually
erected by Brunelleschi, between the years 1420 and 1444, though it
harmonises fairly well with the general lines of the building, and forms, as
can be seen from our illustration (Fig. 51), a striking object in all distant
views of the city, is probably very different from what was originally
intended. Near the cathedral stand the Baptistry, famous for the possession

of the finest gates in the world, and the Campanile of Giotto. This tower is
built, or at least faced, entirely with marble; and when it is stated that its
height is not far short of that of the Victoria Tower of our Houses of
Parliament, though of slenderer proportions, it will be seen that it is
magnificently liberal in its general scheme. The tower is covered with
panels of variously coloured marbles from base to summit, and enriched by
fine sculpture. The angles are strengthened by slightly projecting piers. The
windows are comparatively small till the highest or belfry stage is reached,
and here each face of the tower is pierced by a magnificent three-light
window. A deep and elaborate cornice now crowns the whole, but it was
originally designed to add a high-pitched roof or a spire as a terminal.

Fig. 51.—The Cathedral at Florence. With Giotto’s Campanile.
(Begun, 1298; Dome, 1420-1444; Campanile begun, 1324.)

Our illustration (Fig. 52) shows the west front and campanile of the
Cathedral at Siena, an exceedingly good specimen of the beauties and
peculiarities of the style. This building was commenced in 1243. The plan is
simple but singular, for the central feature is a six-sided dome, at the
crossing of the nave and transepts; and some ingenuity has been spent in
fitting this figure to the arches of the main avenues of the building. The
interior is rich and effective; the exterior, as can be seen by the illustration,
is covered with ornament, and the front is the richest and probably the best
designed of all the cathedral fronts of Central Italy. The strongly-marked
horizontal lines of cornices, arcades, &c., the moulded gables, the great
wheel-window set in a square panel, and the use of marble of various
colours, are all points to note. So is the employment of the semicircular arch
for the doorways of this thoroughly Gothic building. The campanile is a
good example of that feature, except that instead of the rich window which
usually occupies the belfry stage, or highest storey, two storeys of small
lights have been formed. The introduction of angle turrets is not very usual,
and it here supplies a deficiency which makes itself felt in other campaniles,
where the junction of tower and spire is not always happy.

Fig. 52.—Cathedral at Siena. West Front and Campanile. (Façade
begun 1284.)

Gothic churches of importance can be found in many of the cities and towns
of Central Italy. None are more remarkable than the singular double church
of St. Francis at Assisi, with its wealth of mural paintings and stained glass,
and the cathedral at Orvieto (Fig. 53) with its splendid front.

In Rome, so rich in specimens of the architecture of many styles and times,
Gothic could find no footing; the one solitary church which can be claimed
as Gothic may be taken as an exception. And south of the Capital there lies
a considerable tract of country, containing few if any examples of the style
we are considering.

Southern Italy.

Southern Italy is conveniently grouped with Sicily, but the mainland is
deficient in examples of Gothic buildings. The old towns of Apulia indeed,
such as Bari, Bitonto and Brindisi, possess an architecture which the few
who have had an opportunity of examining, declare to be surpassingly rich
in its decoration, but it is for the most part Romanesque.
The Gothic work remaining in and about Naples is most of it extremely
florid, and often rich, but seldom possesses the grace and charm of that
which exists further north.
Sicily shows the picturesquely mixed results of a complication of agencies
which have not affected the mainland, and is accordingly an interesting
field for architectural study. The island was first under Byzantine influence;
was next occupied and held by the Saracens; and was later seized and for
some time retained by the Normans.

Fig. 53.—The Cathedral at Orvieto. (Begun 1290; Façade, 1310.)

The most striking early Gothic building in Sicily is the richly adorned
cathedral of Monreale, commenced in the twelfth century. Here very simple
pointed arches are made use of, as the entire surface of the interior is
covered with mosaic pictures of Norman origin. The small Capella Palatina
in Palermo itself is of the same simple and early architectural character, and

adorned with equally magnificent mosaics. In these buildings the splendour
of the colouring is only equalled by the vigorous and often pathetic power
with which the stories of sacred history are embodied in these mosaics. The
cathedral of Cefalu is a building bearing a general resemblance to that at
Monreale, but not enriched in the same manner.
Of the fourteenth century are the richly ornamented cathedral of Palermo
and that of Messina. The latter has been so much altered as to have lost a
good deal of its interest; but at Palermo there is much that is striking and
almost unique. This building has little in common with the works of
northern or central Italy, and not much more alliance with the Gothic of
North Europe. It is richly panelled and decorated, but its most striking
feature is its bold arcaded portal.

ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.

Plan.

The plans of Italian churches are simple, compared with those of the
northern and western architects. As a rule they are also moderate in size,
and they bear a close resemblance to those of the early basilica churches
from which they are directly descended. Though the apse is all but
universal, the French chevet, with its crown of clustering chapels, was not
adopted in Italy. There is very much in common between the churches of
Lombardy and those of Germany, but the German western apse and the
apsidal ends to the transept do not occur. The spaces between the piers of
the main arcade are greater than in French or English examples, so that
there are fewer piers, and the vaults are of wider span. In the churches
founded by the great preaching orders, the division into nave and aisle does
not take place, and the church consists of nothing but a large hall for the
congregation, with a chancel for the choir.
In monastic, secular, and domestic building a general squareness and
simplicity of plan prevails, and where an internal arcaded quadrangle can be
made use of (e.g. in the cloister of a monastery), it is almost always relied
upon to add effect. The famous external arcade at the Ducal Palace, Venice,

was nowhere repeated, though simpler external arcades occur frequently;
but it is so splendid as to form, itself alone a feature in Italian planning.
The arrangements of the mansions and palaces found in the great cities
were a good deal influenced by the circumstance that it was customary, in
order to secure as much cool air as possible, to devote one of the upper
floors to the purpose of a suite of reception rooms; to this was given the
name of piano nobile.

Walls, Towers, Columns.

Walls are usually thick and stand unbuttressed, and rarely have such slopes
and diminutions of apparent thickness towards their upper part as are not
uncommon in England. Base mouldings are not universal. The cornice, on
the other hand, is far more cared for, and is made much more conspicuous
than with us. In the brick buildings especially it attains great development.
Above the cornice a kind of ornamental parapet, bearing some resemblance
to battlements, is common. The strikingly peculiar use of materials of
different colours in alternate courses, or in panels, to decorate the wall
surfaces, has already been referred to. It is very characteristic of the style.
The campanile or bell-tower of an Italian church is a feature very different
from western towers. It is never placed over the crossing of nave and aisles
and rarely forms an essential part of the church, often being quite detached
and not seldom placed at an angle with the walls of the main building. Such
towers are not unfrequently appended to palaces, and are sometimes (e.g. at
Venice) erected alone. Some of the Italian cities were also remarkable for
strong towers erected in the city itself as fortresses by the heads of
influential families. Many of these are still standing in Bologna. The
smaller towers in which northern architects took so much delight are almost
unknown in Italy, though on a few of the great churches of the north (e.g.
the Certosa at Pavia, and St. Antonio at Padua) they are to be found.
The use of constructive columns is general; piers are by no means
unknown, but fine shafts of marble meet the eye frequently in Italian
churches. The constant use of the column for decorative purposes is a
marked characteristic. Not only is it employed where French and English
architects used it, as in the jambs of doorways, but it constantly replaces the

mullion in traceried windows. It is employed as an ornament at the angles
of buildings to take off the harshness of a sharp corner, and it is introduced
in many unexpected and often picturesque situations. Twisted, knotted, and
otherwise carved and ornamental shafts are not unfrequently made use of in
columns that serve purely decorative purposes.

Openings and Arches.

The constructive arches in Italian Gothic buildings are, as a rule, pointed,
but it is remarkable that at every period round and pointed arches are
indiscriminately employed for doors and windows, both being constantly
met with in the same building.
The naves of Italian churches rarely show the division into three, common
in the north. The triforium is almost invariably absent, and the clerestory is
often reduced to a series of small round windows, sufficient to admit the
moderate light which, in a very bright climate, is grateful in the interior of
such a building as a church; but they are far less effective features than our
own well-marked clerestory windows.

Fig. 54.—Ogival Window-head.

The doorways are often very beautiful, and are frequently sheltered by
projecting porches of extreme elegance and lightness. The window
openings are, as a rule, cusped. An ogee-shaped arch (Fig. 54) is constantly

in use in window-heads, especially at Venice, and much graceful design is
lavished on the arched openings of domestic and secular buildings. A great
deal of the tracery employed is plate tracery.[27] The tracery in terra-cotta
has already been referred to. In the large windows of the principal
apartments and other similar positions of the palaces in Venice and Vicenza,
a sort of tracery not met with in other countries is freely employed. The
openings are square-headed, and are divided into separate lights by small
columns; the heads of these lights are ogee-shaped, and the spaces between
them and the horizontal lintel are filled in with circles, richly quatrefoiled or
otherwise cusped (Fig. 55). The upper arcade of the Ducal Palace at Venice
offers the best known and finest example of this class of tracery.

Fig. 55.—Tracery, from Venice.

Roofs and Vaults.

The vaulting of Italian churches is always simple, and the bays, as has been
pointed out, are usually wider than those of the northern Gothic churches.
Frequently there are no ribs of any sort to the groins of the vaults. A
characteristic feature of Italian Gothic is the central dome. It is rarely very
large or overpowering, and in the one instance of a magnificent dome—the
Cathedral at Florence, the feature, though intended from the first, was
added after the Gothic period had closed. Still many churches have a
modest dome, and it frequently forms a striking feature in the interior, while

in some northern instances (e.g. at the Certosa at Pavia, or at Chiaravalle) it
is treated like a many storeyed pyramid and becomes an external feature of
importance. At Sant’ Antonio at Padua there are five domes.
The churches of the preaching orders are some of them covered by timber
ceilings, not perfectly flat but having an outline made up of hollow curves
of rather flat sweep. The great halls at Padua and Vicenza displayed a vast
wooden curved ceiling resembling the hull of a ship turned upside down.
The ordinary church roof is of flat pitch and frequently concealed behind a
parapet. Dormer windows, crestings, and other similar features, by the use
of which northern architects enriched their roofs, are hardly ever employed
by Italian architects.

Mouldings and Ornaments.

Ornament is almost instinctively understood by the Italians, and their
mastery of it is well shown in their architecture. The carving of spandrels,
capitals, and other ornaments, and the sculpture of the heads and statues
introduced is full of power and beauty. The famous capitals of the lower
arcade of the Ducal Palace may be quoted as illustrations.
The employment of coloured materials is carried so far as sometimes to
startle an eye trained to the sombreness of English architecture, but a great
deal of the beauty of this style is derived from colour, and much of the
comparative simplicity and scarcity of mouldings is due to the desire to
leave large unbroken surfaces for marble linings, mosaics or fresco
painting. Mouldings, where they are introduced, differ from northern
mouldings in being flatter and far less bold, their enrichments are chiefly
confined to dentils, notches, and small and simple ornaments. Stained glass
is not so often seen as in France, but is to be met with, as, for example, in
the fine church of San Petronio at Bologna, and in Sta. Maria Novella, and
in the Cathedral at Florence. At Florence the stained glass has a character of
its own both in colour and style of treatment. It is not too much to say that
every kind of decoration which can be employed to add beauty to a building
may be found at its best in Italy. In the churches much of the finest
furniture, such as stall-work, screens, altar frontals, will be found in
profusion; and the church porches and the mural monuments should be

especially studied on account of the singular elegance with which they are
usually designed.

Construction and Design.

The material employed for the external and internal face of the walls in a
very large proportion of the buildings mentioned in this chapter is marble.
This is sometimes used in blocks as stone is with us, but more frequently in
the form of thin slabs as a facing upon masonry or brickwork. In Lombardy,
where brick is the natural building material, most of the walls are not only
built but faced with brick; and the ornamental features, including tracery,
are often executed in ornamental brickwork, or in what is known as terra-
cotta (i.e. bricks or blocks of brick clay of fine quality, moulded or
otherwise ornamented and burnt like bricks). Stone was less commonly
employed as a building material in Italy during the Gothic period, than in
other countries of Europe. The surfaces of the vaults, and the surfaces of the
internal walls were often covered with mosaics, or with paintings in fresco.
Vaulting is frequently met with, but it is generally simple in character, the
flat external roof over it is commonly covered with tiles or metal, while the
apparent gable frequently rises more sharply than the actual roof. The
Italians seem never to have cordially welcomed the Gothic principle of
resisting the thrust of vaults or arches by a counter-thrust, or by the weight
of a buttress. The buttress is almost unknown in Italian Gothic, and as a rule
an iron tie is introduced at the feet of such arches as would in France or
Germany have been buttressed. This expedient is, of course, economical,
but to northern eyes it appears strange and out of place. The Italians,
however, take no pains to conceal it, and many of their lighter works, such
as canopies over tombs, porches, &c., would fall to pieces at once were the
iron ties removed.
Open timber roofs in the English fashion are unknown; but the wooden
ceilings already alluded to are found in San Zeno at Verona, and the
Eremitani at Padua. A kind of open roof of large span, carried by curved
ribs and tied by iron ties, covers the great hall of the Basilica at Vicenza,
and the very similar hall at Padua. The ribs of these roofs are built up of
many thicknesses of material bolted together.

The design of Italian Gothic buildings presents many peculiarities, some of
which are due to the materials made use of. For example, where brick and
terra-cotta are alone employed, wide moulded cornices of no great
projection, and broad masses of enriched moulding encircling arches are
easily executed, and they are accordingly constantly to be found; but bold
mouldings, with deep hollows, similar to those of Early English arches,
could not be constructed of these materials, and are not attempted. These
peculiarities will be found in the Town Hall at Cremona, of which an
illustration (Fig. 50) has already been given.

Fig. 56.—Window from Tivoli.

Where marble is used, the peculiar fineness of its surface, upon which the
bright Italian sun makes the smallest moulding effective, combined with the
fact that the material, being costly, is often used in thin slabs, has given
occasion to extreme flatness of treatment, and to the use of modes of
enrichment which do not require much depth of material. Our illustration of
a window from the Piazza S. Croce at Tivoli, shows these peculiarities
extremely well (Fig. 56), and also illustrates the strong predilection which
the Italian architects retained throughout the Gothic period for squareness
and for horizontal lines. The whole ornamental treatment is here square; the
window rests on a strongly-moulded horizontal sill, and is surrounded by
flatly-carved enrichment, making a square panel of the entire feature. Even
in the richly-decorated window (Fig. 57), which is in its pointed outline
more truly Gothic than the Tivoli example, much of the same quality can be
traced. The arch and jamb are richly moulded, but the whole mass of
mouldings is flat, and the flat cuspings of the tracery, elaborately carved
though it be, more resemble the cusps of early Western Gothic, executed at
a time when tracery was beginning its career, than work belonging to the
period of full maturity to which this feature, as a whole, undoubtedly
belongs.
Where marbles were plentiful enough to be built into the fabric, the national
love of colour gave rise to the use of black and white—or sometimes red
and white—alternate courses, already mentioned. The effect of this striped
masonry may be partly judged of from the illustration of the cathedral at
Siena (Fig. 52), where it is employed to a considerable extent. A finer
method of surface decoration, less simple, however, and perhaps less
frequently practised, was open to the Italian architect, in the use of panels of
various coloured marbles. A beautiful example of the employment of this
expedient exists in Giotto’s campanile at Florence (Fig. 51).

Fig. 57.—Italian Gothic Window, with Tracery in the Head. (13th
Century.)

The flatness of the roofs, which the Italians never abandoned, was always
found difficult to reconcile with the Gothic tendency to height and
steepness. In many cases, the sharp pitched gables which the buildings
display, are only masks, and do not truly denote the pitch of the roofs
behind them. In other instances the walls finish with a horizontal parapet,
plain or ornamental, quite concealing the roof. In the roofs of their
campaniles, however, the Gothic architects of Italy were usually happy;
they almost always adopted a steep conical terminal, with or without
pinnacles, which is very telling against the sky; even if its junction with the
tower is at times clumsy.

The brightness of southern suns prevented the adoption of the great
windows, adapted to masses of stained glass, which were the ambition of
northern architects in the fourteenth century; and the tenacity with which a
love for squareness of effect and for strongly-marked horizontal lines of
various sorts retained its hold, tended to keep Italian Gothic buildings
essentially different from those of northern nations; but the love of colour,
the command of precious materials, and of fine sculpture, the passion for
beauty and for a decorative richness, and the artistic taste of the Italians,
display themselves in these buildings in a hundred ways: all this lends to
them a charm such as few works of the middle ages existing elsewhere can
surpass.

SPAIN.—CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.

An early, middle, and late period can be distinguished in dealing with
Spanish Gothic. The first period reaches to the first quarter of the thirteenth
century, the second occupies the remainder of the thirteenth and the
fourteenth centuries, the third completes the fifteenth and runs on into part
of the sixteenth.
The early style is one of much purity and dignity, and is developed directly
from the Romanesque of the country. The cathedral of St. Iago di
Compostella, a fine cruciform church of round-arched Gothic, with a
magnificent western portal,[28] recalling the great lateral porches at
Chartres, is an early and fine example. Like other churches of the type in
Spain, it is far plainer inside than out, but it is vaulted throughout.
The cathedral of Zamora, and those of Tarragona and Salamanca must also
be referred to. In each of these, the most thoroughly Spanish feature is a
dome, occupying the crossing of the nave and transepts, and apparently
better developed than those in early German churches or in Italian ones. It
is called in Spanish the cimborio. This feature was constructed so as to
consist of an inner dome, decorated by ribs thrown over the central space,
and carried by pendentives; having above it a separate outer dome
somewhat higher and often richly decorated. This feature unfortunately
disappeared when the French designs of the thirteenth century began to be
the rage. A peculiarity of plan, however, which was retained throughout the
whole Gothic period in Spain, is to be found in the early churches; it

consists of an inclosure for the choir quite in the body of the church, and
often west of the transepts,—in such a position, in fact, as the choir at
Westminster Abbey occupies. A third peculiarity is the addition of an outer
aisle, not unlike the arcade of a cloister, to the side walls of the churches,
possibly with a view of protecting them from heat.
With the thirteenth century a strong passion for churches, closely
resembling those being erected in France at the same time, set in, as has just
been remarked. Accordingly the cathedrals of Toledo, Burgos, and Leon,
approach very closely to French types. Toledo is very large, five aisled, and
with a vast chevet. Its exterior is unfinished, but the dignity of its fine
interior may be well understood from the illustration (Fig. 58) here given.
Burgos is not so ambitious in size as Toledo, but has a florid exterior of late
architecture with two lofty, open-traceried spires, like Strasburg and other
German examples. Leon is remarkable for its lofty clerestory. Spanish
Gothic may be said to have culminated in the vast cathedral at Seville
(begun 1401), claiming to be of greater extent than any Gothic cathedral in
the world, larger, therefore, than Milan or Cologne. It stands on the site of a
mosque, and has never been completed externally. The interior is very
imposing and rich, but when it is stated that it was not completed till 1520,
it may be readily understood that many of the details are very late, and far
from the purity of earlier examples.

Fig. 58.—The Cathedral at Toledo. Interior. (Begun 1227.)

In the fourteenth century an innovation, of which French architects
immediately north of the Pyrenees were also availing themselves, found
favour in Barcelona. The great buttresses by which the thrust of the vaults
was met were brought inside the boundary walls of the church, and were
made to serve as division walls between a series of side chapels. Both here

and at Manresa and Gerona, cathedrals were built, resembling in
construction that at Alby, in Southern France; in these this arrangement was
carried a step further, and the side aisles were suppressed, leaving the whole
nave to consist of a very bold vaulted hall, fringed by a series of side
chapels, which were separated from each other by the buttresses which
supported the main vault. These large vaults, however, when bare of
decoration, as most of the Spanish vaults are, appear bald and poor in effect,
though they are grand objects structurally.
The Gothic work of the latest period in Spain became extraordinarily florid
in its details, especially in the variety introduced into the ribs of the vaulting
and the enrichments generally. The great cathedrals of Segovia and
Salamanca were neither of them begun till the sixteenth century had already
well set in. They are the two principal examples of this florid Gothic.

Fig. 59.—The Giralda at Seville. (Begun in 1196. Finished in 1538).

It will not be forgotten that the country we are now considering was fully
occupied by the Moors, and that they left in Southern Spain buildings of
great merit. A certain number of Christian churches exist built in a style
which has been called Moresco, as being a kind of fusion of Moorish and
Gothic. The towers of these churches bear a close resemblance to the

Saracenic towers of which the beautiful bell-tower, called the Giralda, at
Seville (Fig. 59) is the type; with this and similar examples in the country it
is not surprising that at Toledo, Saragoza, and other places, towers of the
same character should be erected as parts of churches in which the
architecture throughout is as much Saracenic as Christian.
To many of these great churches, cloisters, and monastic buildings, which
are often both extensive and of a high order of architectural excellence, are
attached. The secular buildings, of Spain in the Gothic period are, on the
other hand, neither numerous nor remarkable.

PORTUGAL.

The architecture of Portugal has been very little investigated. The great
church at Batalha[29] is probably the most important in the country. This
building, though interesting in plan, is more remarkable for a lavish amount
of florid ornament, of which our illustration (Fig. 60) may furnish some
idea, than for really fine architecture. The conventual church at Belem, near
Lisbon, a work of the beginning of the sixteenth century, and equally florid,
is another of the small number of specimens of Portuguese Gothic of which
descriptions or illustrations have been published.

FOOTNOTES:
[25] An illustration of such a campanile will be found in that belonging to the
Cathedral of Siena (Fig. 52).
[26] See Frontispiece.
[27] For an explanation of this term, see ante, Chapter V., page 48.
[28] A cast of this portal is at the South Kensington Museum.
[29] See Sculptures of the Monastery at Batalha, published by the Arundel
Society.

CHAPTER IX.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN.

Materials and Construction.

T HE Gothic architects adhered, at any rate till the fifteenth century, to
the use of very small stones in their masonry. In many buildings of
large size it is hard to find any stone heavier than two men can lift.
Bad roads and the absence of good mechanical means of hoisting and
moving big blocks led to this.
The mortar, though good, is not equal to the Roman. As a rule in each
period mortar joints are thick. They are finest in the fifteenth century.
The masonry of all important features of the building is always good; it is
often a perfect marvel of dexterity and skill as well as of beauty.
The arts of workers in other materials, such as carpenters, joiners, smiths,
and plumbers were carried to great perfection during the Gothic period.
The appropriate ornamental treatment which each material is best fitted to
receive was invariably given to it, and forms appropriate to one material
were very rarely copied in others. For example, whenever wrought iron, a
material which can be beaten and welded, or rivetted, was employed, those
ornamental forms were selected into which hot iron can with ease be
beaten, and such groups of those forms were designed as can be obtained by
welding or by rivetting them together.
Wood, on the other hand, cannot be bent with ease, but can be readily cut,
drilled with holes, notched and carved; accordingly, where wood had to be
treated ornamentally, we only find such forms as the drill, the chisel, the
saw, or the gouge readily and naturally leave behind them.

Again, the mode into which wood can be best framed together was carefully
considered from a constructional point of view, and mediæval joiners’ work
is always first so designed as to reduce the damage from shrinkage to the
smallest amount possible; and the pieces of which it is composed are then
appropriately ornamented, moulded, or carved.
Stone is now always, at least in this country, worked by being first squared
and then worked-down or “sunk” from the squared faces to the mouldings
required, and this procedure seems to have been common, though not quite
universal, in the Middle Ages. Consequently we usually find the whole of
the external mouldings with which the doorways and arcades of important
buildings were enriched, designed so as to be easily formed out of stones
having squared faces, or, to use the technical phrase, to be “sunk” from the
squared blocks.
The character of sculpture in wood differs from that in stone, the material
being harder, more capable of standing alone; so in stone we find more
breadth, in wood finer lines and more elaboration.
In a word, no material was employed in simulating another (or with the
rarest exceptions), and when any ornament was to be executed in one place
in one material and in another place in a different one, such alterations were
always made in the treatment as corresponded to the different qualities of
the two materials.
The arch was introduced whenever possible, and the structure of a great
Gothic building presents the strongest possible contrast to that of a Greek
building.
In the Greek temple there was no pressure that was not vertical and met by
a vertical support, wall, or column, and no support that was not vastly in
excess of the dimensions actually required to do the work.
A great Gothic building attains stability through the balanced counterpoise
of a vast series of pressures, oblique, perpendicular, or horizontal, so
arranged as to counteract each other. The vault was kept from spreading by
the flying buttress, the thrust of the arcade was resisted by massive walls,
and so on throughout.

The equilibrium thus obtained was sometimes so ticklish that a storm of
wind, a trifling settlement, or a slight concussion sufficed to occasion a
disaster; and many of the daring feats of the masons of the Middle Ages are
lost to us, because they dared a little too much and the entire structure
collapsed. This happened more often in the middle period of the style than
in the earliest, but during the whole Gothic period there is a constant
uniform tendency in one direction: thinner walls, wider arches, loftier
vaults, slenderer buttresses, slighter piers, confront us at every step, and we
need only compare some Norman structure (such as Durham), with a
perpendicular (such as Henry VII.’s Chapel), to see how vast a change took
place in this respect.

The Principles of Gothic Design.

All the germs of Gothic architecture exist in the Romanesque of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries, and became developed as the passion for
more slender proportions, greater lightness, and loftiness of effect, and
more delicate enrichment became marked. It is quite true that the pointed
arch is universally recognised as, so to speak, the badge of Gothic, even to
the extent of having suggested the title of Christian pointed architecture, by
which it is often called. But the pointed arch must be regarded rather as a
token that the series of changes, which, starting from the heavy if majestic
Romanesque of such a cathedral as Peterborough, culminated in the
gracefulness of Salisbury or Lincoln, was far advanced towards completion,
than as really essential to their perfection. Many of the examples of the
transition period exhibit the round arch blended with the pointed (e.g. the
nave of St. David’s Cathedral or the Choir of Canterbury), and when we
come to consider German architecture we shall find that the adoption of the
pointed arch was postponed till long after the development of all, or almost
all, the other features of the Gothic style; so as to place beyond question the
existence, in that country at least, of “round arched Gothic.” Some of the
best authorities have indeed proposed to employ this title as a designation
for much, if not all, the round arched architecture of the west of Europe, but
Scott, Sharpe, and other authorities class mediæval art down to the middle
of the twelfth century under the general head of Romanesque, a course
which has been adopted in this volume.

The proportions of Gothic buildings were well studied, their forms were
always lofty, their gables sharp, and their general composition more or less
pyramidal. Remarkable numerical relations between the dimensions of the
different parts of a great Gothic cathedral can be discovered upon careful
examination in most, if not all instances, and there can be little doubt that a
system of geometrical proportions ran through the earlier design, and that
much of the harmony and beauty which the buildings present is traceable to
this fact. Independent of this the skill with which subordinate features and
important ones are fitted to their respective positions, both by their
dimensions and by their relative elaboration or plainness, forms a complete
system of proportion, making use of the word in its broadest sense; and the
results are extremely happy.
Apparent size was imparted to almost every Gothic building by the
smallness, great number, and variety of its features, and by the small size of
the stones employed. The effect of strength is generally, though not perhaps
so uniformly, also obtained, and dignity, beauty, and harmony are rarely
wanting.
Symmetry, though not altogether overlooked, has but a slender hold upon
Gothic architects. It is far more observed in the interior than in the exterior
of the buildings; but it must be remembered that symmetry formed the basis
of many designs which, owing to the execution having been carried on
through a long series of years and by different hands, came to be varied
from the original intentions. Thus, for example, Chartres is a cathedral with
two western towers. One of these was carried up and its spire completed in
the twelfth century. The companion spire was not added till the end of the
fifteenth, when men’s ideas as to the proportions, shape, ornaments, and
details of a spire had altered entirely;—the later architect did not value
symmetry enough to think himself bound to adhere either to the design or to
the height of the earlier spire, so we have in this great façade two similar
flanking towers but spires entirely unlike. What happened at Chartres
happened elsewhere. The original design of buildings was in the main
symmetrical, but it was never considered that symmetry was a matter so
important as to require that much sacrifice should be made to preserve it.
On the other hand the subordination of a multitude of small features to one
dominant one enters largely into the design of every good Gothic building;

with the result that if the great governing feature or mass has been carried
out in its entirety, almost any feature, no matter how irregular or
unsymmetrical, may be safely introduced, and will only add
picturesqueness and piquancy to the design. This is more or less a leading
principle of Gothic design. A building with no irregularities, none of those
charming additions which add individual character to Gothic churches, and
none of the isolated features which the principle of subordination permits
the architect to employ, has missed one of the chief qualities of the style. It
is here that unskilled architects mostly fail when they attempt Gothic
designs; they either hold on to symmetry as though they were designing a
Greek temple, and they are unaware that the spirit of the style in which they
are trying to work not only permits, but requires some irregular features; or
if they do not fall into this error they are overtaken by the opposite one, and
omit to make their irregular features subordinate to the general effect of the
whole, an error less serious in its effects than the other, but still destructive
of anything like the highest qualities in a building.
Repetition, like symmetry, is recognised by Gothic architecture, but not
adhered to in a rigid way. No buildings gain more from the repetition of
parts than Gothic churches and cathedrals; the series of pillars or piers and
arches inside, the series of buttresses and windows outside, add scale to the
general effect. But so long as it was in the main a series of features which
broadly resembled one another, the Gothic architect was satisfied, and did
not feel bound to exact repetition.
We are often, for example, surprised to find in the columns of a church an
octagonal one alternating with a circular one, and almost invariably, if a
series of capitals be examined, each will be discovered to differ from the
others to some extent. In one bay of a church there may be a two-light
window, and in the next a three-light window, and so on.
This we find in buildings erected at one time and under one architect.
Where, however, a building begun at one period was continued at another
(and this, it must be remembered, was the rule, not the exception, with all
large Gothic buildings), the architect, while usually repeating the same
features, with the same general forms, invariably followed his own
predilections as to detail. There is a very good example of this in
Westminster Abbey, in the western bays of the nave, which were built years

later than the eastern bays. They are, to a superficial observer, identical,
being of the same height and width and shape of arch, but nearly every
detail differs.
Disclosure, rather than concealment, was a principle of Gothic design. This
was demonstrated long ago by Pugin, and many of his followers pushed the
doctrine to such extremes, that they held—and some of them still hold—
that no building is really Gothic in which any part, either of its construction
or arrangement, is not obviously visible inside and out.
This is, however, carrying the principle too far. It is sufficient to say that the
interior disposition of every Gothic building was as much as possible
disclosed by the exterior. Thus, in a secular building, where there is a large
room, there usually was a large window; when a lofty apartment occurs, its
roof was generally proportionately high; where a staircase rises, we usually
can detect it by a sloping row of little windows following the line of the
stair, or by a turret roof.
The mode in which the thrust of vaults is counterpoised is, as has been
shown, frankly displayed by the Gothic architects, and as a rule, every
portion of the structure is freely exhibited. It grows out of this, that when an
ornamental feature is desired, it is not constructed purely for ornament, as
the Romans added the columns and cornices of the orders to the outside of
their massive walls purely as an architectural screen; but some requisite, of
the building is taken and ornamented, and in some cases elaborated. Thus
the belfry grew into the enormous bell tower; the tower roof grew into the
spire; the extra weight required on flying buttresses grew into the
ornamental pinnacle; and the window head grew into tracery.
There were, however, some exceptions. The walls were still constantly
faced with finer masonry than in the heart, and though some are unwilling
to admit the fact, were often plastered outside as well as in; and what is
more remarkable, no other sign of the vault appeared outside the building
than the buttresses required to sustain it.
The external gable conforms to the shape of the roof which covered the
vault, but the vault, perhaps the most remarkable and characteristic feature
of the whole building, does not betray its presence by any external line or
mark corresponding to its position and shape in the interior of the building.

Notwithstanding these and some other exceptions, frank disclosure must be
reckoned one of the main principles of Gothic architecture.

Fig. 60.—Doorway from Church at Batalha. (Begun 1385.)

Elaboration and simplicity were both so well known to the Gothic architect
that it is difficult to say that either of these qualities belongs exclusively to

his work. But he was rarely simple when he had the opportunity of being
elaborate, and simplicity was perhaps rather forced upon him by the
circumstances under which he worked, by rude materials, scanty funds, and
lack of skilled workmen, than freely chosen. Many of the great works of the
Gothic period are as elaborate as they could be made (Fig. 60), and yet,
when simplicity had to be the order of the day, no architecture has lent it
such a grace as Gothic.
The last pair of qualities is similarity and contrast. What has been said about
repetition has anticipated the remarks called for by these qualities, so far as
to point out that even where the arrangement of the building dictated the
repetition of similar features, a general resemblance, and not an exact
similarity, was considered sufficient. In the composition of masses of
building, contrast and not similarity was the ruling principle. Even in the
interiors of great churches which, as a rule, are far more regular than the
exteriors, the contrast between the comparative plainness of the nave and
the richness of the choir was an essential element of design.
External design in Gothic buildings depends almost entirely upon contrast
for its power of charming the eye, and it is this circumstance which has left
the successive generations of men who toiled at our great Gothic cathedrals
so free to follow the bent of their own taste in their additions, rather than
that of their forerunners.
But setting aside the irregularities due to the caprice of various builders, and
the constant changes which took place in detail through the Gothic period, it
is to contrast that we must trace most of the surprising effects attained by
the architecture of the Middle Ages. The rich tracery was made richer by
contrast with plain walls, the loftiest towers appeared higher from their
contrast with the long level lines of roofs and parapets.
It is, in truth, one of the principal marks of the decadence which began in
the fifteenth century that the principle of contrast was, to a considerable
extent, abandoned, at least in the details of the buildings if not in their great
masses. Walls were at that time panelled in imitation of the tracery of the
adjoining windows, and no longer acted as a foil to them by their solid
plainness; long rows of pinnacles, all exactly alike, followed the line of the

parapets, and a repetition of absolutely identical features became the rule
for the first time in the history of Gothic art.
There can be no doubt that had this modification run its natural course
unchecked and undisturbed by the change in taste which abruptly brought
the Gothic period to a close, it must have resulted in the deterioration of the
art.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.

CHAPTER X.

GENERAL VIEW.

G OTHIC architecture had begun, before the close of the fifteenth
century, to show marks of decadence, and men’s minds and tastes
were ripening for a change. The change, when it did take place, arose
in Italy, and was a direct consequence of that burst of modern civilisation
known as the revival of letters. All the characteristics of the middle ages
were rapidly thrown off. The strain of old Roman blood in the modern
Italians asserted itself, and almost at a bound, literature and the arts sprang
back, like a bow unstrung, into the forms they had displayed fifteen
hundred years before.
It became the rage to read the choice Greek and Latin authors, and to write
Latin with a pedantic purity. Can we wonder that in painting, in sculpture,
and in architecture, men reverted to the form, the style, and the decorations
of the antique compositions, statues, and architectural remains? This was
the more easy in Italy, as Gothic art had never at any time taken so firm a
hold upon Italians as it had upon nations north of the Alps.
Though, however, the details and forms employed were all Roman, or
Græco-Roman, they were applied to buildings essentially modern, and used
with much freedom and spirit. This revival of classic taste in art is
commonly and appropriately called Renaissance. In Italy it took place so
rapidly that there was hardly any transition period. Brunelleschi, the first
great Renaissance architect, began his work as early as the middle of the
fifteenth century, and his buildings, in which classic details of great severity
and purity are employed, struck, so to speak, a keynote which had been
responded to all over Italy before the close of the fifteenth century.
To other countries the change spread later, and it found them less prepared
to welcome it unreservedly. Accordingly, in France, in England, and in
many parts of Germany, we find a transition period, during which buildings

were designed in a mixed style. In England, the transition lasted almost
through the sixteenth century.
As the century went on, a most picturesque and telling style, the earlier
phases of which are known as Tudor and the later as Elizabethan, sprang up
in England. It betrays in its mixture of Gothic and classic forms great
incongruities and even monstrosities; but it allows unrestrained play for the
fancies, and the best mansions and manors of the time, such as Hatfield,
Hardwick, Burleigh, Bramshill, and Audley End, are unsurpassed in their
picturesqueness and romantic charm.
The old red-brick, heavily chimneyed, and gabled buildings, with their large
windows divided by bold mullions and transoms, and their simple noble
outlines, are familiar to us all, and so are their characteristic features. The
great hall with its oriel or its bay, the fine plastered ceiling, supported by
heavy beams of timber; the wide oak staircase, with its carved balusters,
and ornamented newel post, and heavy-moulded handrail; the old
wainscoted parlour, with its magnificent chimney-piece reaching to the
ceiling; these are all essentially English features, and are full of vigour and
life, as indeed the work of every period of transition must almost
necessarily prove.
The transitional period in France produced exquisite works more refined
and elegantly treated than ours, but not so vigorous. Its manner is known as
the François Premier (Francis I.) style. No modern buildings are more
profusely ornamented, and yet not spoilt.
In Germany, the Castle of Heidelberg may be named as a well-known
specimen of the transition period, a period over which however we must not
linger. Suffice it to say, that sooner or later the change was fully
accomplished in every European country, and Renaissance architecture,
modified as climate, materials, habits, or even caprice suggested, yet the
same in its essential characteristics, obtained a firm footing: this it has
succeeded in retaining, though not to the exclusion of other styles, for now
nearly three centuries.
In Italy, Renaissance churches, great and small—from St. Peter’s
downwards—and magnificent secular buildings, some, like the Vatican
Palace or the Library of St. Mark at Venice, for public purposes, but most

for the occupation of the great wealthy and princely families, abound in
Naples, Rome, Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan, and indeed every great city.
In France, the transition period was succeeded by a time when vast
undertakings, e.g. the Hôtel de Ville, the Louvre, the Tuileries, Versailles,
were carried out in the revived style with the utmost magnificence, and
were imitated in every part of the country in the structures greater or
smaller which were then built.
In England, the works of Inigo Jones, and of Wren, are the most famous
works of the developed style, and to the last-named architect we owe a
cathedral second to none in Europe for its beauty of outline, and play of
light and shade. To Germany, and the countries of the north-east Europe,
and to Spain and Portugal on the south, the style also extended with no very
great modification, either of its general forms or of its details.

ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.

Plan.

The plan of Renaissance buildings was uniform and symmetrical, and the
picturesqueness of the Gothic times was abandoned. The plans of churches
were not widely different from those in use in Italy before the revival of
classic art took place, but it will be remembered that these were by no
means so irregular or picturesque at any time as the plans of French and
English cathedral churches.
In secular architecture, the vast piles erected in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries by Italian, French, and Spanish architects are to the
last degree orderly in their disposition. They are adapted to a great variety
of purposes, and they display a varying degree of skill. The palaces of
Genoa are, on the one hand, among the cleverest examples of planning
existing; on the other hand, many of the palaces in France are weak and
poor to the last degree. As a rule the scale of the plan is more considerable
than in Gothic work. A very large building is often not divided into more
parts than a small one, or one of moderate size. In St. Peter’s, for example,
there are only four bays between the west front and the dome, everything
being on a most gigantic scale. As a contrast to this principle we may cite

the nave of the Gothic cathedral at Milan, which is not so long at St. Peter’s,
but has at least thrice as many bays, and looks much larger in consequence.
No style affords more room for skill in planning than the Renaissance, and
in no style is the exercise of such skill more repaid by results.

Walls and Columns.

In the treatment of external walls, the mediæval use of small materials,
involving many joints for the exterior of walls has quite disappeared, and
they are universally faced with stone or plaster, and are consequently
uniformly smooth. Perhaps the principal feature to note is the very great use
made of that elaborate sort of masonry in which the joints of the stones are
very carefully channelled or otherwise marked, and which is known by the
singularly inappropriate name of rustic work. The basements of most Italian
and French palaces are rusticated, and in many cases (as the Pitti Palace,
Florence) rustic work covers an entire façade.
The Gothic mouldings in receding planes disappear entirely, and the classic
architrave takes their place. The orders are again revived and are used (as
the Romans often used them) as purely decorative features added for the
mere sake of ornament to a wall sufficient without them, and are freely
piled one upon the other. Palladio (a very influential Italian architect)
reproduced the use of lofty pilasters running through two or even more
storeys of the building, and often combined one tall order and two short
ones in his treatment of the same part of the building, a contrivance which
in less clever hands than his has given rise to the greatest confusion.
The Renaissance architects also revived the late Roman manner of
employing the column and entablature. They frequently carried on the top
of a column a little square pier divided up as the architrave and frieze
proper to the column would be divided, and they surmounted it with a
cornice which was carried quite round this pier, and from this curious
compound pedestal an arch will frequently spring. The classic portico, with
pediments, was constantly employed by them; and small pediments over
window heads were common. A peculiarity worth mention is the
introduction in many Italian palaces of a great crowning cornice,
proportioned not to the size of the columns and of the order upon which it

rests (if an order be employed), but to the height of the whole building.
Much fine effect is obtained by means of this feature; it is, however, better
fitted for sunny Italy than for gloomy England, and it is not an unmixed
success when repeated in our climate.
Towers are less frequently employed than by the Gothic architects, and
indeed in Italy the sky-line was less thought of at this period than it was in
the middle ages. In churches, towers sometimes occur, nowhere more
picturesque than those designed by Sir Christopher Wren for many of his
London parish churches. The frequent use of the dome takes the place of the
tower both in churches and secular buildings.

Openings.

Openings are both flat-headed and semicircular, occasionally elliptical, but
hardly ever pointed. Renaissance buildings may be to some extent divided
into those which depend for effect upon window openings, and those which
depend chiefly upon architectural features such as cornices, pilasters, and
orders. Among the buildings where fenestration (or the treatment of
windows) is relied upon the palaces of Venice stand pre-eminent as
compositions admirably designed for effect and very successful. In them the
openings are massed near the centre of the façade, and strong piers are left
near the angles, a simple expedient when once known, and one inherited
from the Gothic palaces in that city, but giving remarkable individuality of
character to this group of buildings.
In roofs, including vaults and domes, we meet with a divergence of practice
between Italy and France. In Italy low-pitched roofs were the rule: the
parapet alone often formed the sky-line, and the dome and pediment are
usually the only telling features of the outline. France, on the other hand,
revived a most picturesque feature of Gothic days, namely, the high-pitched
roof, employing it in the shape commonly known as the Mansard[30] roof.
Nothing adds more to the effectiveness of the great French Renaissance
buildings than these lofty terminals.
The dome is, however, the glory of this style, as it had been of the Roman.
It is the one feature by which revived and original classic architects retain a
clear and defined advantage over Gothic architects, who, strange to say, all

but abandoned the dome. The mouldings and other ornaments of the
Renaissance are much the same as those of the Roman style, which the
Italians revived; their sculptures and their mural decorations were all
originally drawn from classic sources. These, however, attained very great
excellence, and it is probable that such decorative paintings as Raphael and
his scholars executed in Rome, at Genoa, at Mantua, and elsewhere, far
surpass anything which the old Roman decorative artists ever executed.

Construction and Design.

The earlier Renaissance buildings are remarkable for the great use which
their architects made of carpentry, as the most modern structures are for the
use of wrought and cast-iron construction. As regards carpentry, it is of
course true that all the woodwork of the classic periods, and much of that
done in the Gothic period, has perished, either through decay or fire; but
making every allowance for this, we must still recognise a very great
increase in the employment of timber as an integral part of large structures.
Vaulted roofs for example are comparatively rare, and domes, even when
the inner dome is of brickwork or masonry, have their outer envelope of
carpentry. A disuse of brick and rough masonry, or rather a constant effort
to conceal them from view, is a distinctive mark of Renaissance work. The
Roman method of facing rough walls with fine stone was resorted to in the
best buildings. In humbler buildings plaster is employed.
Renaissance architects made very free use of plaster. Inside and out this
material is utilised, not merely to cover surfaces, but to form architectural
features. Cornices, panels, and enrichments of all kinds modelled in plaster
are constantly employed in the interior of rooms and buildings. On the
exterior we constantly find imitations of similar architectural features
proper to stone executed in plaster and simulating stone; a short-sighted
practice which cannot be commended, and which has only cheapness and
convenience in its favour. There can be no question of the fact that the
features thus executed never equal those done in stone in their effectiveness,
and are far more liable to decay.
Design in Renaissance buildings may be said to be directed towards
producing a telling result by the effect of the buildings taken as a whole,

rather than by the intricacy or the beauty of individual parts; and herein lies
one of the great contrasts between Renaissance and Gothic architecture. A
Renaissance building which fails to produce an impression as a whole is
rarely felt to be successful. No better example of this can be given than the
straggling, unsatisfactory Palace of Versailles, magnificent as it is in
dimensions and rich in treatment. To the production of a homogeneous
impression the arrangement of plan, the proportion of storeys, the contrasts
of voids and solids, and above all the outline of the entire building, should
be devoted.
The general arrangement of buildings is usually strictly symmetrical, one
half corresponding to the other, and with some well-defined feature to mark
the centre. Of course in very large buildings this does not occur, nor in the
nature of things can it often take place in the sides of churches; but the
individual features of such buildings, and all those parts of them which
permit of symmetry in their arrangement, always display it.
Proportion plays an important part in the design of Renaissance buildings.
The actual shape of openings, the proportion which they bear to voids, the
proportion of storeys to one another; and, going into details, the proportions
which the different features—e.g., cornice, and the columns supporting it—
should bear to one another, have to be carefully studied. It is to the
possession of a keen sense of what makes a pleasing proportion and one
satisfactory to the eye, that the great architects of Italy owed the greater part
of their success.
Renaissance architecture is so familiar in its general features, and these
have been so constantly repeated, that we may not easily recognise the great
need for skill and taste which exists if they are to be designed so as to
produce the most refined effect possible. Many of the successful buildings
of the style owe their excellence to the great delicacy and elegance of the
mode in which the details have been studied, rather than to the vigour and
boldness with which the masses have been shaped and disposed; and though
grandeur is the noblest quality of which the style is capable, yet many more
opportunities for displaying grace and refinement than for attaining
grandeur offer themselves, and by nothing are the best works of the style so
well marked out as by the success with which those opportunities have been
grasped and turned to account.

The concealment both of construction and arrangement is largely practised
in Renaissance buildings. Behind an exterior wall filled by windows of
uniform size and equally spaced, rooms large and small, corridors,
staircases, and other features have to be provided for. This is completely in
contrast to the Gothic principle of displaying frankly on the outside the
arrangement of what is within; but it must be remembered that art often
works most happily and successfully when limited by apparently strict and
difficult conditions, and these rules have not prevented the great architects
of the Renaissance from accomplishing works where both the exterior and
the interior are thoroughly successful, and are brought into such happy
harmony that the difficulties have clearly been no bar to success. There is
no canon of art violated by such a method, the simple fact being that Gothic
buildings are designed under one set of conditions and Renaissance under
another.
It is less easy to defend the use of pilasters and columns large enough to
appear as though they were the main support of the building, for purely
decorative purposes; yet here perhaps the fault lies rather in the extent to
which the practice has been carried, and above all the scale upon which it is
carried out, than in anything else. Small columns are constantly employed
in Gothic buildings in positions where they serve the æsthetic purpose of
conveying a sense of support, but where it is impossible for them to carry
any weight. The Renaissance architects have done the same thing on a large
scale, but it must not be forgotten that they only revived a Roman practice
as part of the ancient style to which they reverted, and that they are not
responsible for originating it.
It will be understood therefore that symmetry, strict uniformity, not mere
similarity, in features intended to correspond, and constant repetition, are
leading principles in Renaissance architecture. These qualities tend to
breadth rather than picturesqueness of effect, and to similarity rather than
contrast. Simplicity and elaboration are both compatible with Renaissance
design; the former distinguishes the earlier and purer examples of the style,
the latter those more recent and more grandiose.
It should be observed that in the transition styles, such as our own
Elizabethan, or the French style of Francis the First, these principles of
design are mixed up in a very miscellaneous way with those followed in the

Gothic period. The result is often puzzling and inconsistent if we attempt to
analyse it with exactness, but rarely fails to charm by its picturesque and
irregular vividness.

FOOTNOTE:
[30] Named after a French architect of the 17th century.

CHAPTER XI.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.

R ENAISSANCE architecture—the architecture of the classic revival—
had its origin in Italy, and should be first studied in the land of its
birth. There are more ways than one in which it may be attempted to
classify Italian Renaissance buildings. The names of conspicuous architects
are sometimes adopted for this purpose, for now, for the first time, we meet
with a complete record of the names and performances of all architects of
note: the men who raised the great works of Gothic art are, with a few
exceptions, absolutely unknown to us. An approximate division into three
stages can also be recognised. There is an early, a developed, and a late
Renaissance, but this is very far indeed from being a completely marked
series, and was more interfered with by local circumstances and by the
character and genius of individual artists than in Gothic. For this reason a
local division will be of most service. The best examples exist in the great
cities, with a few exceptions, and it is almost more useful to group them—
as the paintings of the Renaissance are also often grouped—by locality than
in either of the other methods.

FLORENCE.

Renaissance architecture first sprang into existence in Florence. Here
chiefly the works of the early Renaissance are met with, and the names of
the great Florentine architects are Brunelleschi and Alberti.
Brunelleschi was a citizen of Florence, of very ardent temperament and
great energy, and a true artist. He was born in 1377, was originally trained
as a goldsmith and sculptor, but devoted himself to the study of
architecture, and early set his heart upon being appointed to complete the
dome of the then unfinished cathedral of Florence, of which some account
has already been given.

Florence in the fifteenth century was full of artistic life, and the revival of
learning and arts had then begun to take definite shape. The first years of
the century found Brunelleschi studying antiquities at Rome, to fit himself
for the work he desired to undertake. After his return to his native city, he
ultimately succeeded in the object of his ambition; the cathedral was
entrusted to him, and he erected the large pointed dome with which it is
crowned. He also erected two large churches in Florence, which, as
probably the first important buildings designed and built in the new style,
possess great interest. Santo Spirito, one of these, shows a fully matured
system of architectural treatment, and though it is quite true that it was a
revived system, yet the application of it to a modern building, different in
its purpose and in its design from anything the Romans had ever done, is
little short of a work of genius.
Santo Spirito has a very simple and beautifully regular plan, and its interior
has a singular charm and grace: over the crossing is raised a low dome. The
columns of the arcade are Corinthian columns, and the refinement of their
detail and proportions strikes the eye at once on entering the building. The
influence of Brunelleschi, who died in 1440, was perpetuated by the works
and writings of Alberti (born 1398) an architect of literary cultivation who
wrote a systematic treatise which became extremely popular, and helped to
form the taste and guide the practice of his contemporaries. He lived till
near the close of the fifteenth century, and erected some buildings of great
merit. To Alberti we owe the design of the Ruccellai Palace in Florence, a
building begun in 1460, and which had been preceded by somewhat bolder
and simpler designs. This is a three storey building, but has pilasters carried
up the piers between the windows and a regular entablature and cornice[31]
at each storey. The building is elegant and graceful, and though the
employment of the orders[32] as its decoration gives it a distinctive
character, it bears a strong general resemblance to the group of which the
Strozzi Palace (Fig. 61) may be taken as the type.
The earliest Florentine palaces are the Riccardi, which dates from 1430, and
the Pitti of almost the same date; Brunelleschi is said to have been
consulted in the design of both, but Michelozzo was the architect. The
distinguishing characteristic of the early palaces in this city is solidity,
which rises from the fact that they were also fortresses. The Pitti, well
known for its picture gallery, is a building of vast extent, built throughout in

very boldly rusticated masonry, the joints and projections of the stones
being greatly exaggerated. The Riccardi, a square block of building, bears a
considerable resemblance to the Strozzi, but is plainer. It is a most dignified
building in its effect.
The Strozzi Palace (Fig. 61) was the next great palatial pile erected. It was
designed by Cronaca, and begun in 1498. Like the Riccardi, it is of three
storeys, with a bold projecting cornice. The whole wall is covered with
rusticated masonry; the windows of the lower floor are small and square;
those of the two upper floors are larger and semicircular headed, and with a
shaft acting as a mullion, and carrying arches which occupy the window
head with something like tracery. The entrance is by a semicircular headed
archway. There is a great height of unpierced wall in the lowest storey and
above the heads of the two upper ranges of windows; and to this and the
bold overhanging cornice, this building, and those like it, owe much of their
dignity and impressiveness. An elevation, such as our illustration, may
convey a fair idea of the good proportion and ensemble of the front, but it is
difficult without actually seeing the buildings to appreciate the effect
produced by such palaces as these, seen foreshortened in the narrow streets,
and with the shadows from their bold cornices and well-defined openings
intensified by the effect of the Italian sun.

Fig. 61.—Strozzi Palace at Florence. (Begun 1489.)

Many excellent palatial buildings belong to the end of the fifteenth century.
One among them is attributed to Bramante (who died 1513), a Florentine,
whom we shall meet with in Rome and elsewhere. The Guadagni Palace has
an upper storey entirely open, forming a sheltered loggia, but it is
mentioned here chiefly on account of the decorations incised on its walls by
the method known as Sgraffito. Part of the plain wall is covered in this way
with decorative designs, which appear as though drawn with a bold line on
their surface. An example of this decoration will be found in our illustration
(Fig. 62), representing a portion of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona.
The series of great Florentine palaces closes with a charming example, the
Pandolfini, designed by the great Raphael, and commenced in 1520—in

other words, in the first quarter of the sixteenth century.
This palace is only one of many instances to be found in Italy of the skill in
more walks of art than one, of some of the greatest artists. Raphael, though
best known as a painter, executed works of sculpture of great merit, and
designed some other buildings besides the one now under notice. The
Pandolfini Palace (Fig. 63) is small, the main building having only four
windows in the front and two storeys in height, with a low one-storey side
building. Its general design has been very successfully copied in the
Travellers’ Club House, Pall Mall. On comparing this with any of the
previously named designs, it will be seen that the semicircular headed
windows have disappeared, the rusticated masonry is only now retained at
the angles, and to emphasise the side entrance; and a small order with a
little pediment (i.e. gable) is employed to mark each opening, door or
window. In short this building belongs not only to another century, but to
that advanced school of art to which we have given the name of developed
Italian Renaissance.

Fig. 62.—Part of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona. (16th
Century.)
Showing the incised decoration known as Sgraffito.

In Florence some of the work of Michelangelo is to be met with. His own
house is here; so is the famous Medici chapel, a work in which we find him
displaying power at once as a sculptor and an architect. This interior is very

fine and very studied both in its proportions and its details. The church of
the Annunziata, remarkable for a fine dome, carried on a drum resting
directly on the ground, is the foremost Renaissance church in Florence.
The contrast between early and matured Renaissance can indeed be better
recognised in Florence than in almost any other city. The early work, that of
Bramante, Brunelleschi, and the architects who drew their inspirations from
these masters, was delicate and refined. The detail was always elegant, the
ornament always unobtrusive, and often most graceful. Features
comparatively small in scale were employed, and were set off by the use of
plain wall-surface, which was unhesitatingly displayed. The classic orders
were used in a restricted, unobtrusive way, and with pilasters in preference
to columns; and though probably the architects themselves would have
repudiated the idea that the Gothic art, which they had cast behind them,
influenced their practice of revived classic in the remotest degree, it is
nevertheless true that many of these peculiarities, and still more the general
quality of the designs, were to a large extent those to which the practice of
Gothic architecture had led them.
A change which was partly due to a natural desire for progress, was helped
on by the great attention paid by students of architecture to the remains of
ancient Roman buildings; but it was the influence excited by the powerful
genius of Michelangelo, and by the gigantic scale and vigorous treatment of
his masterpiece, St. Peter’s, which was the proximate occasion of a
revolution in taste and practice, to which, the labours, both literary and
artistic, of Vignola, and the designs of Palladio, gave form and consistency.
In the fully-developed, or, as it is sometimes called, pure Renaissance of
Italy, great use is made of the classic orders and pediment, and indeed of all
the features which the Romans had employed. Plain wall space almost
disappears under the various architectural features introduced, and all
ornaments, details, and mouldings become bolder and richer, but often less
refined and correct in design.

Fig. 63.—The Pandolfini Palace, Florence. Designed by Raphael.
(Begun 1520.)

ROME.

Rome, the capital of the country, contains, as was fit, the central building of
the fully-developed Renaissance, St. Peter’s. Bramante, the Florentine, was
the architect to whom the task of designing a cathedral to surpass anything
existing in Europe was committed by Pope Julius II. at the opening of the
sixteenth century. Some such project had been entertained, and even begun,
fifty years earlier, but the enterprise was now started afresh, a new design
was made, and the first stone was laid by the Pope in 1506. Bramante died
in some six or seven years, and five or six architects in succession, one of
whom was Raphael, proceeded with the work, without advancing it rapidly,
for nearly half a century, during which time the design was modified again
and again. In 1546 the great Michelangelo was appointed architect, and the
last eighteen years of his life were spent in carrying on this great work. He
completed the magnificent dome in all its essential parts, and left the church

a Greek cross (i.e. one which has all its four arms equal) on plan, with the
dome at the crossing. The boast is attributed to him that he would take the
dome of the Pantheon and hang it in the air; and this he has virtually
accomplished in the dome of St. Peter’s—a work of the greatest beauty of
design and boldness of construction.
Unfortunately, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Maderno was
employed to lengthen the nave. This transformed the plan of the cathedral
into a Latin cross. The existing portico was built at the same time; and in
1661 Bernini added the vast forecourt, lined by colonnades, which now
forms the approach.
This cathedral, of which the history has been briefly sketched, is the largest
in the world. As we now see it, it consists of a vast vestibule; a nave of four
bays with side aisles; a vast square central space over which hangs the great
dome; transepts and a choir, each of one bay and an apse. Outside the great
central space, an aisle, not quite like the ordinary aisle of a church, exists,
and there are two side chapels. It can be well understood that if the largest
church in Christendom is divided into so few parts, these must be
themselves of colossal dimensions, and the truth is that the piers are masses
of masonry which can be called nothing else than vast, while the spaces
spanned by the arches and vaults are prodigious. There is little sense of
mystery about the interior of the building (Fig. 64), the eye soon grasps it as
a whole, and hours must be spent in it before an idea of its gigantic size is at
all taken in. The beauty of the colouring adds wonderfully to the effect of
St. Peter’s upon the spectator, for the walls are rich with mosaics and
coloured marbles; and the interior, the dome especially, with the drum upon
which it rests, are decorated in colour throughout, with fine effect and in
excellent taste. The interior is amply lighted, and, though very rich, not over
decorated; its design is simple and noble in the extreme, and all its parts are
wonderful in their harmony. The connection between the dome and the rest
of the building is admirable, and there is a sense of vast space when the
spectator stands under that soaring vault which belongs to no other building
in the world.
The exterior is disappointing as long as the building is seen in front, for the
façade is so lofty and advances so far forward as to cut off the view of the
lower part of the dome. To have an idea of the building as Michelangelo

designed it, it is necessary to go round to the back; and then, with the height
of the drum fully seen and the contour of the dome, with all its massy lines
of living force, carrying the eye with them right up to the elegant lantern
that crowns the summit, some conception of the hugeness and the symmetry
of this mountain of art seems to dawn on the mind. But even here it is with
the utmost difficulty that one can apply any scale to the mass, so that the
idea which the mind forms of its bulk is continually fluctuating.
The history of this building extends over all the period of developed
Renaissance in Rome, and its list of architects includes all the best known
names. By the side of it every other church, even St. John Lateran, appears
insignificant; so that the secular buildings in Rome, which are numerous,
and some of them excellent, are more worth attention than the churches,
though not a few of the three hundred churches and basilicas of the
metropolis of Italy are good examples of Renaissance.

Fig. 64.—St. Peter’s at Rome. Interior. (1506-1661.)

The altars, tombs, and other architectural or semi-architectural works which
occur in many of the churches of Rome, are, however, finer works of art as
a rule than the buildings which they adorn. Such gems are not confined to
Rome, but are to be found throughout Italy: many of them belong to the
best period of art. Marble is generally the material, and the light as a rule

falls on these works in one direction only. Under these circumstances the
most subtle moulding gives a play of light and shade, and the most delicate
carving produces a richness of effect which cannot be attained in exterior
architecture, executed for the most part in stone, exposed to the weather,
and seen by diffused and reflected light. Nothing of this sort is finer than
the monuments by Sansovino, erected in Sta. Maria del Popolo at Rome,
one of which we illustrate on a small scale (Fig. 65). The magnificent altar-
piece in Sta. Coronale at Vicenza, in which is framed Bellini’s picture of the
baptism of Christ, is another example, on an unusually large scale—fine in
style, and covered with beautiful ornament.
No secular building exists in Rome so early or so simple as the severe
Florentine palaces; but Bramante, who belongs to the early period, erected
there the fine Cancelleria palace; and the Palazzo Giraud (Fig. 66). These
buildings resemble one another very closely; each bears the impress of
refined taste, but delicacy has been carried almost to timidity. The pilasters
and cornices which are employed have the very slightest projection, but the
large mass of the wall as compared with the openings, secures an
appearance of solidity, and hence of dignity. The interior of the Cancelleria
contains an arcaded quadrangle (cortile) of great beauty. Smaller palaces
belonging to the same period and of the same refined, but somewhat weak,
character exist in Rome.

Fig. 65.—Monument, by Sansovino, in Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome.
(15th Century.)

Fig. 66.—Palazzo Giraud (now Torlonia), Rome. By Bramante. (1506.)

The Vatican Palace is so vast that, like St. Peter’s, it took more than one
generation to complete. To Bramante’s time belongs the great Belvedere,
since much altered, but in its original state an admirable work. This palace
also can show some remarkable additions by Bernini, a much later architect,
with much that is not admirable or remarkable by other hands. The finest
Roman palace is the Farnese, begun by San Gallo in 1530, continued by
Michelangelo, and completed by Giacomo della Porta, each architect
having altered the design. This building, notwithstanding its chequered
history, is a dignified, impressive mass. It has only three storeys and a
scarcely marked basement, and is nearly square, with a large quadrangle in
its heart. It is very lofty, and has a great height of unpierced wall over each
storey of windows, and is crowned by a bold and highly-enriched cornice—
an unusual thing for Rome. In this, and in many palaces built about the
same time, the windows are ornamented in the same manner as those of the
Pandolfini Palace at Florence; the use of pilasters instead of columns is
general; the openings are usually square-headed, circular heads being
usually confined to arcades and loggie; the angles are marked by
rustication, and the only cornice is the one that crowns the whole. This
general character will apply to most of the works of Baldassare Peruzzi,
Vignola, Sangallo, and Raphael, who were, with Michelangelo, the

foremost architects in Rome in the sixteenth century. But “the works
executed by Michelangelo are in a bolder and more pictorial style, as are
also many productions grafted on the earlier Italian manner by a numerous
class of succeeding architects. In these is to be remarked a greater use of
columns, engaged and isolated; stronger but less studied details; and a
greater use of colonnades, in which however the combination with the
semicircular arch is still unusual, the antique in this respect being followed
to a great disadvantage. Still there is a nobility, a palatial look about these
large mansions which is very admirable, and is to be remarked in all the
palaces, even up to the time of Borromini, circa 1640, by whom all the
principles and parts of Roman architecture were literally turned topsy-
turvey. Michelangelo’s peculiar style was more thoroughly carried out on
ecclesiastical buildings, and as practised by his successors, exhibits much
that is fine, in large masses, boldly projecting cornices, three-quarter
columns, and noble domes; but it is otherwise debased by great
misconceptions as to the reasonable application of architecture.”—M. D. W.
In the seventeenth century a decline set in. The late Renaissance has neither
the severity of the early, nor the dignified richness of the mature time, but is
extravagant; though at Rome examples of its extreme phase are not
common. Maderno, who erected the west front of St. Peter’s, and Bernini,
who added the outer forecourt and also built the curiously designed state
staircase (the scala regia) in the Vatican, are the foremost architects. To
these must be added Borromini. The great Barberini Palace belongs to this
century; but perhaps its most characteristic works are the fountains, some of
them with elaborate architectural backgrounds, which ornament many of
the open places in Rome. Few of the buildings of the eighteenth century in
Rome, or indeed in Italy generally, claim attention as architectural works of
a high order of merit.
Before leaving central Italy for the north, it is necessary to mention the
masterpiece of Vignola—the great Farnese Palace at Caprarola; and to add
that in every city of importance examples more or less admirable of the art
of the time were erected.

VENICE, VICENZA, AND VERONA.

The next great group of Renaissance buildings is to be found at Venice,
where the style was adopted with some reluctance, and not till far on in the
sixteenth century. At first we meet with some admixture of Gothic
elements; as, for example, in the rebuilding of the internal quadrangle of the
Ducal Palace. Pointed arches are partly employed in this work, which was
completed about the middle of the sixteenth century. In the earlier palaces—
which, it will be remembered, are comparatively narrow buildings standing
side by side on the banks of the canals—the storeys are well marked; the
windows are round headed with smaller arches within the main ones; the
orders when introduced are kept subordinate; the windows are grouped
together in the central portion of the front, as was the case with those of the
Gothic palaces, and very little use is made of rusticated masonry. The
Vendramini, Cornaro, and Trevisano Palaces conform to this type. To the
same period belong one or two fine churches, the most famous being San
Zacaria, a building with a very delicately panelled front, and a semicircular
pediment in lieu of a gable; here, too, semicircular-headed openings are
made use of. In many of these churches and other buildings, a beautiful
ornament, which may be regarded as typical of early Venetian Renaissance,
is to be found. It is the shell ornament, so called from its resemblance to a
flat semicircular shell, ribbed from the centre to the circumference (Fig.
67).

Fig. 67.—Italian Shell Ornament.

As time went on the style was matured into one of great richness, not to say
ostentation, with which the names of Sansovino, Sanmichele, Palladio, and
Scamozzi are identified as the prominent architects of the latter part of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this city of palaces Sansovino, also a
very fine sculptor, built the celebrated Library of St. Mark, facing the Ducal
Palace, which has been followed very closely in the design of the Carlton
Club, Pall Mall. Here, as in the splendid Cornaro Palace, the architect relied
chiefly upon the columns and entablatures of the orders, combined with
grand arcades enriched by sculpture, so arranged as to occupy the spaces
between the columns; almost the whole of the wall-space was so taken up,
and the basement only was covered with rustication, often rough worked, as
at the beautiful Palazzo Pompeii, Verona, and the Grimani Palace, Venice.
“Sanmichele’s works are characterised chiefly by their excellent
proportions, their carefully studied detail, their strength, and their beauty
(qualities so difficult to combine). We believe that the buildings of this great
architect and engineer at Verona are pre-eminent in their peculiar style over
those of any other artist of the sixteenth century. In a different, but no less
meritorious, manner are the buildings designed by Sansovino; they are
characterised by a more sculptural and ornamental character; order over
order with large arched voids in the interspaces of the columns producing a
pictorial effect which might have led his less gifted followers into a false
style, but for the example of the celebrated Palladio.”—M. D. W.
To the latest time of the Renaissance in Venice belongs the picturesque
domed church of St. Maria della Salute, conspicuous in many views of the
Grand Canal, a building which is a work of real genius in spite of what is
considered its false taste. It dates from 1632. The architect is Longhena.

Fig. 68.—The Church of the Redentore, Venice. (1576.)

An almost endless series of palaces and houses can be found in Venice, all
of them rich, but few of great extent, for every foot of space had to be won
from the sea by laborious engineering. There are some features which never
fail to present themselves, and which are consequences of the conditions
under which the structures were designed. All rise from the water, and
require to admit of gondolas coming under the walls; hence there is always
a principal central entrance with steps in front, but this entrance never has
any sort of projecting portico or porch, and is never very much larger than
the other openings in the front. As a straight frontage to the water had to be

preserved, we hardly ever meet with such a thing as a break or projection of
any sort; but the Venetian architects have found other means of giving
interest to their elevations, and it is to the very restrictions imposed by
circumstances that we owe the great originality displayed in their earlier
buildings. The churches do not usually front directly on to the water; and
though they are almost all good of their kind, they are far more
commonplace than the palaces. The system of giving variety to the façade
of the secular buildings by massing openings near the centre, has been
already referred to. Both shadow and richness were also aimed at in the
employment of projecting balconies; in fact the two usually go together, for
the great central window or group of windows mostly has a large and rich
balcony belonging to it.
Not far from Venice is Vicenza, and here Palladio, whose best buildings in
Venice are churches, such, for example, as the Redentore (Fig. 68), enjoyed
an opportunity of erecting a whole group of palaces, the fronts of which are
extremely remarkable as designs; though, being executed in brick and
plastered, they are now falling to ruin. There is much variety in them, and
while some of them rely upon his device of lofty pilasters to include two
storeys of the building under one storey of architectural treatment, others
are handled differently. In all a singularly fine feeling for proportion and for
the appropriate omission as well as introduction of ornament is to be
detected. The worst defect of these fronts is, however, that they appear more
like masks than the exteriors of buildings, for there is little obvious
connection between the features of the exterior and anything which we may
suppose to exist inside the building. The finest architectural work left
behind by Palladio in this city are, however, the great arcades with which he
surrounded the Basilica, a vast building of the middle ages already alluded
to. These arcades are two storeys high, and are rich, yet vigorous; they
ornament the great structure, the roof of which may be seen rising behind,
without overpowering it.

MILAN AND PAVIA.

In Milan two buildings at least belong to the early Renaissance. These are
the sacristy of Sta. Maria presso San Satiro, and the eastern portion of the
church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie; Bramante was the architect of both. The

last-named work is an addition to an existing Gothic church; it is executed
in the terra-cotta and brick of Lombardy, materials which the Renaissance
architects seemed to shun in later times, and is full of the most profuse and
elegant ornaments. The design consists of a dome, treated externally a little
like some of the Lombard domes of earlier date; and three apses forming
choir and transepts. It is divided into several stages, and abundantly varied
in its panelling and arcading, and is full of vigour. By Bramante is also the
very beautiful arcaded quadrangle of the great hospital at Milan, the Gothic
front of which has been already noticed. There are many Renaissance
buildings of later date in Milan, but none very remarkable.

Fig. 69.—The Certosa near Pavia. Part of the West Front. (Begun by
Borgognone 1473.)

To the early period belongs the design of the façade of the Certosa near
Pavia, part of which is shown (Fig. 69). This was begun as early as 1473, by
Ambrogio Borgognone, and was long in hand. It proceeded on the lines
settled thus early, and is probably the richest façade belonging to any

church in Christendom; it is executed entirely in marble. Sculpture is
employed to adorn every part that is near the eye, and especially the portal,
which is flanked by pilasters with their faces panelled and occupied by
splendid alti relievi. The upper part is enriched by inlays of costly marbles,
but the two systems of decoration do not thoroughly harmonise; for the
upper half looks coarse, which it in reality is not, in contrast with the
delicate richness of the carving near the eye. The great features, such as the
entrance, the windows, and the angle pinnacles are thoroughly good, and an
arcade of small arches is twice introduced,—once running completely
across the front at about half its height, and again near the top of the central
portion,—with excellent effect (see Frontispiece).

GENOA, TURIN, AND NAPLES.

Turning now to Genoa we find, as we may in several great cities of Italy,
that very great success has been achieved by an artist whose works are to be
seen in no other city, and whose fame is proportionally restricted. Just as the
power of Luini as a painter can only be fully understood at Milan, or that of
Giulio Romano at Mantua, so the genius of Alessio (1500 to 1572) as an
architect can only be understood at Genoa. From the designs of this
architect were built a series of well planned and imposing palaces. These
buildings have most of them the advantage of fine and roomy sites. The
fronts are varied, but as a rule consist of a very bold basement, with
admirably-treated vigorous mouldings, supporting a lighter superstructure,
and in one or two instances flanked by an open arcade at the wings. The
entrance gives access, through a vaulted hall, to the cortile, which is usually
planned and designed in the most effective manner; and in several instances
the state staircase is so combined with this feature that on ascending the
first flight the visitor comes to a point of sight for which the whole may be
said to have been designed, and from which a splendid composition of
columns and arches is seen. The rooms and galleries in these palaces are
very fine, and in several instances have been beautifully decorated in fresco
by Perino del Vaga.
Alessio was also the architect of a large domical church (il Carignano) in
the same city; but it is far inferior in merit to his series of palaces. Genoa
also possesses a famous church (the Annunziata) of late Renaissance,

attributed to Puget (1622-1694). It is vaulted, and enriched with marbles,
mosaics, and colour to such an extent that it may fairly claim to be the most
gaudy church in Italy, which is unfortunate, as its original undecorated
design is fine and simple.
Turin in the north, and Naples in the south, are chiefly remarkable for
examples of the latest and more or less debased Renaissance, and we
therefore do not propose to illustrate or describe any of the buildings in
either city.

COUNTRY VILLAS.

Fig. 70.—Villa Medici—On the Pincian Hill near Rome. By Annibale
Lippi (now the Académie Française). (A.D. 1540.)

As the ancient Roman patrician had his villa, which was his country resort,
the Italian of the revival followed his example, and, if he was wealthy
enough, built himself a pleasure house, which he called a villa, either in the
immediate suburbs of his city, or at some little distance away in the country.
These buildings occur throughout Italy. Many of them are excellent
examples of Renaissance architecture of a more modest type than that of the
palaces. The Villa Papa Giulio, built from the designs of Vignola, and the
Villa Medici, designed by Annibale Lippi, but attributed, for some unknown
reason, to Michelangelo, may be mentioned as among the most thoroughly
architectural out of some twenty or more splendid villas in the suburbs of
Rome alone. Many of these buildings were erected late in the Renaissance
period, and are better worth attention for their fine decorations and the
many works of art collected within their walls than as architectural studies

—but this is not always the case; and as they were mostly designed to serve
the purpose of elegant museums rather than that of country houses as we
understand the term, they usually possess noble interiors, and exhibit
throughout elaborate finish, choice materials, and lavish outlay.

FOOTNOTES:
[31] An entablature is the superstructure which ordinarily is carried by a column,
and which it is usual to divide into architrave (or beam), frieze, and cornice.
[32] An order consists of a column (or pilaster) with its distinctive base and
capital, its entablature, and the appropriate decorations. There are five orders,
differing in proportions, in the degree of enrichment required, and in the design
of the base and capital of the column or pilaster, and of the entablature.

CHAPTER XII.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND
NORTH EUROPE.

CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.

T HE revived classic architecture came direct from Italy, and did not
reach France till it had been well established in the land of its origin.
It was not however received with the same welcome which hailed its
appearance in Italy. Gothic architecture had a strong hold on France, and
accordingly, instead of a sudden change, we meet with a period of
transition, during which buildings were erected with features partly Gothic
and partly Renaissance, and on varied principles of design.
French Renaissance underwent great fluctuations, and it is less easy to
divide it into broad periods than to refer, as most French writers prefer to
do, to the work of each prominent monarch’s reign separately.
Francis the First (1515-1547) made the architecture of Italy fashionable in
his kingdom, and his name is borne by the beautiful transitional style of his
day. This in most cases retains some Gothic forms, and the principles of
composition are in the main Gothic, but the features are mostly of Italian
origin, though handled with a fineness of detail and a smallness of scale that
is not often met with, even in early Italian Renaissance. There are few
buildings more charming in the architecture of any age or country than the
best specimens of the style of Francis the First, and none that can bear so
much decoration and yet remain so little overladen by the ornaments they
carry. The finest example is the Château of Chambord, a large building,
nearly square on plan, with round corner towers, capped by simple and very
steep roofs, at the angles; and having as its central feature, a large and lofty
mass of towers, windows and arcades, surmounted by steep roofs, ending in
a kind of huge lantern. The windows have mullions and transoms like

Gothic windows, but pilasters of elegant Renaissance design ornament the
walls. The main cornice is a kind of compromise between an Italian and a
Gothic treatment. Dormer windows, high and sharply pointed, but with little
pilasters and pediments as their ornaments, occur constantly; and the
chimneys, which are of immense mass and great height, are panelled
profusely, and almost ostentatiously displayed, especially on the central
portion. In the interior of the central building is a famous staircase; but the
main attractions are the bright and animated appearance of the whole
exterior, and the richness and gracefulness of the details.
The same architecture is to be well seen in the north side of the famous
Château of Blois—a building parts of which were executed in three
different periods of French architecture. The exterior of the François
premier part of Blois is irregular, and portions of the design are wildly
picturesque; on the side which fronts towards the quadrangle, the
architecture is more symmetrically designed, and beauty rather than
picturesque effect has been aimed at. An open staircase is the part of the
quadrangle upon which most care has been lavished. Throughout the whole
block of buildings the character of each individual feature and of every
combination of features is graceful and piquant. The elegance and delicacy
of some of the carved decoration in the interior is unsurpassed.

Fig. 71.—Window from a House at Orleans. (Early 16th Century.)

In the valley of the Loire there exist many noblemen’s châteaux of this date,
corresponding in general character with Chambord and Blois, though on a
smaller scale. Of these Chénonceaux, fortunate alike in its design and its
situation, is the most elegant and the best known: yet many others exist
which approach it closely, such, for example, as the Château de Gaillon—a
fragment of which forms part of the École des Beaux Arts at Paris—the
Hôtel de Ville of Beaugency, the Châteaux of Châteaudun, Azay-le-Rideau,
La Cote, and Ussé; the Hôtel d’Anjou at Angers, and the house of Agnes
Sorel at Orleans.
In the streets of Orleans houses of this date (Fig. 71) are to be found,
showing the style cleverly adapted to the requirements of town dwellings
and shops. Several of them also possess courtyards with arcades or other
architectural features treated with great freedom and beauty, for instance,

the arcades in the house of François Premier (Fig. 72). An arcade in the
courtyard of the Gothic Hôtel de Bourgtherould at Rouen, is one of the best
known examples of the style remaining, and instances of it may be met with
as far apart as at Caen (east end of church of St. Pierre) and Toulouse (parts
of St. Sernin).
One Paris church, that of St. Eustache, belonging to this transitional period
claims mention, since for boldness and completeness it is one of the best of
any date in that city. St. Eustache is a five-aisled church with an apse,
transept, and lateral chapels outside the outer aisle. It is vaulted throughout,
and its plan and structure are those of a Gothic church in all respects. Its
details are however all Renaissance, but not so good as those to be found at
Blois, nor so appropriately used, yet notwithstanding this it has a singularly
impressive interior.

Fig. 72.—Capital from the House of Francis I., Orleans. (1540.)

Meantime, and alongside the buildings resulting from this fusion of styles,
others which were almost direct importations from Italy were rising; in
some cases, if not in all, under the direction of Italian architects. Thus on
Fontainebleau, which Francis I. erected, three or four Italian architects, one
of whom was Vignola, were engaged. It may or may not have been this
connection of the great architect with this work which gave him influence
in France, but certainly almost the whole of the later French Renaissance, or
at any rate its good time, was marked by a conformity to the practice of
Vignola, in whose designs we usually find one order of columns or pilasters
for each storey, rather than to that of Palladio, whose use of tall columns
equalling in height two or more floors of the building has been already
noticed.
Designs for the Louvre, the rebuilding of which was commenced in the
reign of Francis the First (about A.D. 1544), were made by Serlio, an Italian;
and though Pierre Lescot was the architect of the portion built in that reign,
it is probable that the design obtained from Serlio was in the main followed.
The part then finished, which, to a certain extent gave the keynote to the
whole of this vast building, was unquestionably a happy effort, and may be
taken to mark the establishment of a French version of matured Renaissance
architecture. The main building has two orders of pilasters with cornices,
&c., and above them a low attic storey, with short piers: at the angles a
taller pavilion was introduced, and next the quadrangle arcades are
introduced between the pilasters. The sculpture, some of it at least, is from
the chisel of Jean Goujon; it is good and well placed, and the whole has an
air of dignity and richness. The Pavillon Richelieu, shewn in our engraving
(Fig. 73), was not built till the next century. The colossal figures are by
Barye.
A little later in date than the early part of the Louvre was the Hôtel de Ville,
built from the designs of Pietro da Cortona, an Italian, and said to have been
begun in 1549. The building had been greatly extended before its recent
total destruction by fire, but the central part, which was the original portion,
was a fine vigorous composition, having two lofty pavilions, with high

roofs at the extremities, and a remarkably rich stone lantern of great height
for a central feature.

Fig. 73.—Pavillon Richelieu of the Louvre, Paris.

In the reign of Charles IX. the Palace of the Tuileries was commenced
(1564) for Catherine de Médicis, from the designs of Philibert Delorme. Of

this building, that part only which fronted the garden was erected at the
time. Our illustration (Fig. 74) shows the architectural character of a portion
of it, and it is easy to detect that considerable alterations have by this time
been introduced into the treatment of the features of Renaissance
architecture. The bands of rustication passing round the pilasters as well as
the walls, the broken pediments on the upper storey, surmounted by figures,
and supported by long carved pilasters, and the shape of the dormer
windows are all of them quite foreign to Renaissance architecture as
practised in Italy, and may be looked upon as essentially French features.
Similar details were employed in the work executed at about the same
period, by the same and other architects, in other buildings, as may be seen
by our illustration (Fig. 75) of a portion of Delorme’s work at the Louvre.
In these features, which may be found in the Château d’Anet and other
works of the same time, and in the style to which they belong, may be seen
the direct result of Michelangelo’s Medici Chapel at Florence, a work
which had much more effect on French than on Italian architecture. The full
development of the architecture of Michelangelo (or rather the ornamental
portions of it) is to be found in French Renaissance, rather than in the works
of his own successors in Italy.
Much of the late sixteenth century architecture of France was very inferior,
and the parts of the Louvre and Tuileries which date from the reign of
Henry IV. are the least satisfactory portions of those vast piles.

Fig. 74.—Part of the Tuileries, Paris. (Begun 1564.)

Dating from the early part of the seventeenth century, we have the Palais
Royal built for Richelieu, and the Palace of the Luxembourg, a building
perhaps more correct and quiet than original or beautiful, but against which
the reproach of extravagant ornament cannot certainly be brought.

Fig. 75.—Capital from Delorme’s work at the Louvre. (Middle of
16th Century.)

With Louis the Fourteenth (1643 to 1715) came in a great building period,
of which the most striking memorial is the vast and uninteresting Palace of
Versailles. The architect was the younger Mansard (1647 to 1768), and the
vastness of the scale upon which he worked only makes his failure to rise to
his grand opportunity the more conspicuous. The absence of features to
diversify the sky-line is one of the greatest defects of this building, a defect
the less excusable as the high-pitched roof of Gothic origin had never been
abandoned in France. This roof has been employed with great success in
many buildings of the French Renaissance. Apart from this fault, the
architectural features of Versailles are so monotonous, weak, and
uninteresting that the building, though its size may astonish the spectator,
seldom rouses admiration.
Far better is the eastern block of the Louvre (the portion facing the Place du
Louvre), though here also we find the absence of high roofs, and the

consequent monotony of the sky-line—a defect attaching to hardly any
other portion of the building. Bernini was invited from Italy for this work,
and there is a curious story in one of Sir Christopher Wren’s published
letters of an interview he had with Bernini while the latter was in Paris on
this business, and of the glimpse which he was allowed to enjoy of the
design the Italian had made. The building was, however, after all, designed
and carried out by Perrault, and, though somewhat severe, possesses great
beauty and much of that dignity in which Versailles is wanting.
The best French work of this epoch to be found in or out of Paris is
probably the Hôtel des Invalides (Fig. 76), with its fine central feature. This
is crowned by the most striking dome in Paris, one which takes rank as
second only in Europe to our own St. Paul’s, for beauty of form and
appropriateness of treatment. The two domes are indeed somewhat alike in
general outline.
The reign of Louis XIV. witnessed a large amount of building throughout
France, as well as in the metropolis, and to the same period we must refer
an enormous amount of lavish decoration in the interior of buildings, the
taste of which is to our eyes painfully extravagant. Purer taste on the whole
prevailed, if not in the reign of Louis XV. certainly in that of Louis XVI., to
which period much really good decorative work, and some successful
architecture belongs. The chief building of the latter part of the eighteenth
century is the Pantheon (Ste. Geneviève), the best domed church in France,
and one which must always take a high rank among Renaissance buildings
of any age or country. The architect was Soufflot, and his ambition, like that
of the old Gothic masons, was not only to produce a work of art, but a feat
of skill; his design accordingly provided a smaller area of walls and piers
compared with the total floor space than any other Renaissance church, or
indeed than any great church, except a few of the very best specimens of
late Gothic construction, such for example as King’s College Chapel. The
result has been that the fabric has not been quite stout enough to bear the
weight of the dome, and that it has required to be tied and propped and
strengthened in various ways from time to time. The plan of the Pantheon is
a Greek cross, with a short vestibule, and a noble portico at the west, and a
choir corresponding to the vestibule on the east. It has a fine central dome,
which is excellently seen from many points of view externally, and forms
the principal feature of the very effective interior. Each arm of the building

is covered by a flat domical vault; a single order of pilasters and columns
runs quite round the interior of the church occupying the entire height of the
walls; and the light is admitted in a most successful manner by large
semicircular windows at the upper part of the church, starting above the
cornice of the order.

Fig. 76.—L’Église des Invalides, Paris. By J. H. Mansard. (Begun A.D.

1645.)

One other work of the eighteenth century challenges the admiration of
every visitor to Paris and must not be overlooked, because it is at once a
specimen of architecture and of that skilful if formal arrangement of streets
and public places in combination with buildings which the French have
carried so far in the present century. We allude to the two blocks of
buildings, occupied as government offices, which front to the Place de la
Concorde and stand at the corner of the Rue Royale. They are the work of
Gabriel (1710-1782), and are justly admired as dignified if a little heavy
and uninteresting. As specimens of architecture these buildings, with the
Pantheon, are enough to establish a high character for French art at a time
when in most other European countries the standard of taste had fallen to a
very low level.
The hôtels (i.e. town mansions) and châteaux of the French nobility furnish
a series of examples, showing the successive styles of almost every part of
the Renaissance period. The phases of the style, subsequent to that of
Francis the First, can however, be so well illustrated by public buildings in
Paris, that it will be hardly necessary to go through a list of private
residences however commanding; but the Château of Maisons, and the
Royal Château of Fontainebleau, may be named as specimens of a class of
building which shows the capacity of the Renaissance style when freely
treated.
Renaissance buildings in France are distinguished by their large extent and
the ample space which has been in many instances secured in connection
with them. They are rarely of great height or imposing mass like the early
Italian palaces. For the most part they are a good deal broken up, the
surface of the walls is much covered by architectural features, not usually
on a large scale, so that the impression of extent which really belongs to
them is intensified by the treatment which their architects have adopted.
Orders are frequently introduced and usually correspond with the storeys of
the building. However this may be the storeys are always well marked. The
sky-line also is generally picturesque and telling, though Versailles and the
work of Lescot at the Louvre form an exception. Rustication is not much

employed, and the vast but simple crowning cornices of the Italian palaces
are never made use of. Narrow fronts like those at Venice, and open arcades
or loggias like those of Genoa, do not form features of French Renaissance
buildings; but on the other hand, much richness, and many varieties of
treatment which the Italians never attempted, were tried, and as a rule
successfully, in France.
Much good sculpture is employed in external enrichments, and a cultivated
if often luxuriant taste is always shown. Many of the interiors are rich with
carving, gilding, and mirrors, but harmonious coloured decoration is rare,
and the fine and costly mosaics of Italy are almost unknown.

BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.

These countries afford but few examples of Renaissance. The Town Hall at
Antwerp, an interesting building of the sixteenth century, and the Church of
St. Anne at Bruges, are the most conspicuous buildings; and there are other
churches in the style which are characteristic, and parts of which are really
fine. The interiors of some of the town halls display fittings of Renaissance
character, often rich and fanciful in the extreme, and bearing a general
resemblance to French work of the same period.

Fig. 77.—Window from Colmar. (1575.)

Fig. 78.—Zeughaus, Dantzic. (1605.)

GERMANY AND NORTHERN EUROPE.

Buildings of pure Renaissance architecture, anterior to the nineteenth
century, are scarce in Germany, or indeed in North-east Europe; but a
transitional style, resembling our own Elizabethan, grew up and long held

its ground, so that many picturesque buildings can be met with, of which
the design indicates a fusion of the ideas and features of Gothic with those
of classic art. This architectural style took so strong a hold that examples of
it may be found throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in
almost every northern town.
That part of the Castle of Heidelberg, which was built at the beginning of
the seventeenth century, may be cited as belonging to this German
transitional style. The front in this case is regularly divided by pilasters of
the classic orders, but very irregular in their proportions and position. The
windows are strongly marked, and with carved mullions. Large dormer
windows break into the high roof; ornaments abound, and the whole
presents a curiously blended mixture of the regular and the picturesque.
Rather earlier in date, and perhaps rather more Gothic in their general
treatment, are such buildings as the great Council Hall at Rothenberg
(1572), that at Leipzig (1556), the Castle of Stuttgart (1553), with its
picturesque arcaded quadrangle, or the lofty and elaborate Cloth Hall at
Brunswick.

Fig. 79.—Council-house at Leyden. (1599.)

Examples of similar character abound in the old inns of Germany and
Switzerland, and many charming features, such as the window from Colmar
(Fig. 77), dated 1575, which forms one of our illustrations could be brought
forward. Another development of the same mixed style may be illustrated
by the Zeug House at Dantzic (1605), of which we give the rear elevation

(Fig. 78). Not altogether dissimilar from these in character is the finely-
designed Castle of Fredericksberg at Copenhagen, testifying to the wide
spread of the phase of architecture to which we are calling attention. The
date of this building is 1610. A richer example, but one little if at all nearer
to Italian feeling, is the Council House at Leyden, a portion of which we
illustrate (Fig. 79). This building dates from 1599, and bears more
resemblance to English Elizabethan in its ornaments, than to the
architecture of any other country.
Simultaneously with these, some buildings made their appearance in
Germany, which, though still picturesque, showed the dawn of a wish to
adopt the features of pure Renaissance. The quadrangle of the Castle of
Schalaburg (Fig. 80), may be taken as a specimen of the adoption of
Renaissance ideas as well as forms. It is in effect an Italian cortile, though
more ornate than Italian architects would have made it. It was built in the
latter part of the sixteenth century, and seems to point to a wish to make use
of the new style with but little admixture of northern ornament or treatment.
When architecture had quite passed through the transition period, which
fortunately lasted long, the buildings, not only of Germany, but of the north
generally, became uninteresting and tame; in fact, they present so few
distinguishing features, that it is not necessary to describe or illustrate them.
Russia, it is true, contains a few striking buildings belonging to the
eighteenth century, but most of those which we might desire to refer to,
were built subsequent to the close of that century.

Fig. 80.—Quadrangle of the Castle of Schalaburg. (Late 16th
Century.)

CHAPTER XIII.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN,
SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.

ENGLAND.—CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.

I N England, as in France and Germany, the introduction of the Italian
Renaissance was not accomplished without a period of transition. The
architecture of this period is known as Elizabethan, though it lasted long
after Elizabeth’s reign. Sometimes it is called Tudor; but it is more
convenient and not unusual to limit the term Tudor to the latest phase of
English Gothic.
Probably the earliest introduction into any English building of a feature
derived from the newly-revived classic sources is in the tomb of Henry VII.
in Westminster Abbey. The grille inclosing this is of good, though late
Gothic design; but when the tomb itself came to be set up, for which a
contract was made with Torregiano in 1512, it was Italian in its details. The
earliest examples of Renaissance features actually built into a structure, so
far as we are aware, is in the terra-cotta ornamentation of Layer Marney
House in Essex, which it is certain was erected prior to 1525. It is however
long—surprisingly long—after this period before we come upon the traces
of a general use of Renaissance details. In fact, up to the accession of
Elizabeth (1558) they appear to have been little employed. It is however
said that early in her reign the treatises on Renaissance architecture of
Philibert de l’Orme and Lomazzo were translated from Italian into English,
and in 1563 John Shute published a book on Italian architecture.
John of Padua, an Italian architect, was brought to this country by Henry
VIII. and practised here; and Theodore Havenius of Cleves was employed
as architect in the buildings of Caius College, Cambridge (1565-1574).
These two foreigners undoubtedly played an important part in a change of

taste which, though not general so early, certainly did commence before
Elizabeth’s death in 1603.
At the two universities, and in many localities throughout England, new
buildings and enlargements of old ones were carried out during the long and
prosperous reign of Elizabeth; and the style in which they were built will be
found to have admitted of very great latitude. Where the intention was to
obtain an effect of dignity or state, the classic principles of composition
were more or less followed. The buildings at Caius College, Cambridge,
Longleat, built between 1567 and 1579 by John of Padua, Woollaton, built
about 1580 by Smithson, and Burleigh (built 1577), may be named as
instances of this. On the other hand where a manorial or only a domestic
character was desired, the main lines of the building are Gothic, but the
details, in either case, are partly Gothic and partly modified Renaissance.
This description will apply to such buildings as Knowle, Penshurst,
Hardwick, Hatfield, Bramshill, or Holland House (Fig. 81). In the
introductory chapter some account has been given, in general terms, of the
features familiar to most and endeared to many, which mark these
peculiarly English piles of buildings; those remarks may be appropriately
continued here.

Fig. 81.—Holland House at Kensington. (1607.)

The hall of Gothic houses was still retained, but only as one of a series of
fine apartments. In many cases English mansions had no internal
quadrangle, and are built as large solid blocks with boldly projecting wings.
They are often of three storeys in height, the roofs are frequently of flat
pitch, and in that case are hidden behind a parapet which is sometimes of
fantastic design. Where the roofs are steeper and not concealed the gables
are frequently of broken outline. Windows are usually very large, and with
mullions and transoms, and it is to these large openings that Elizabethan
interiors owe their bright and picturesque effects. Entrances are generally
adorned with some classic or semi-classic features, often, however, much
altered from their original model; here balustrades, ornamental recesses,
stone staircases, and similar formal surroundings are commonly found, and
are generally arranged with excellent judgment, though often quaint in
design.

“This style is characterised by a somewhat grotesque application of the
ancient orders and ornaments, by large and picturesquely-formed masses,
spacious staircases, broad terraces, galleries of great length (at times 100
feet long), orders placed on orders, pyramidal gables formed of scroll-work
often pierced, large windows divided by mullions and transoms, bay
windows, pierced parapets, angle turrets, and a love of arcades. The
principal features in the ornament are pierced scroll-work, strap-work, and
prismatic rustication, combined with boldly-carved foliage (usually
conventional) and roughly-formed figures.”—M. D. W.
Interiors are bright and with ample space; very richly ornamented plaster
ceilings are common; the walls of main rooms are often lined with wainscot
panelling, and noble oak staircases are frequent.
In the reign of James I., our first Renaissance architect of mark, Inigo Jones
(1572-1652) became known. He was a man of taste and genius, and had
studied in Italy. He executed many works, the designs for which were more
or less in the style of Palladio. These include the addition of a portico to the
(then Gothic) cathedral of St. Paul’s, and a magnificent design for a palace
which Charles I. desired to build at Whitehall. A fragment of this building,
now known as the Chapel Royal Whitehall, was erected, and small though it
be, has done much by its conspicuous position and great beauty, to keep up
a respect for Inigo Jones’s undoubted high attainments as an artist.
More fortunate than Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren (1632-1723) had just
attained a high position as a young man of science, skill, and cultivation,
and as the architect of the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford, when in 1666 the
great fire of London destroyed the Metropolitan Cathedral, the parochial
churches, the Royal Exchange, the Companies’ Halls, and an immense mass
of private property in London, and created an opportunity which made great
demands upon the energy, skill, and fertility of design of the architect who
might attempt to grasp it. Fortunately, Wren was equal to the occasion, and
he has endowed London with a Cathedral which takes rank among the very
foremost Renaissance buildings in Europe, as well as a magnificent series
of parochial churches, and other public buildings. It is not pretended that his
works are free from defects, but there can be no question that admitting
anything which can be truly said against them, they are works of artistic

genius, full of fresh and original design, and exhibiting rare sagacity in their
practical contrivance and construction.
St. Paul’s stands second only to St. Peter’s as a great domical cathedral of
Renaissance architecture. It falls far short of its great rival in actual size and
internal effect, and is all but entirely devoid of that decoration in which St.
Peter’s is so rich. On the other hand, the exterior of St. Paul’s (Fig. 82) is far
finer, and as the English cathedral had the good fortune to be erected
entirely from the plans and under the supervision of one architect, it is a
building consistent with itself throughout, which, as we have seen, is more
than can be said of St. Peter’s.
The plan of St. Paul’s is a Latin cross, with well marked transepts, a large
portico, and two towers at the western entrance; an apse of small size forms
the end of the eastern arm, and of each of the transepts; a great dome covers
the crossing; the cathedral has a crypt raising the main floor considerably,
and its side walls are carried high above the aisle roofs so as to hide the
clerestory windows from sight.
The dome is very cleverly planted on eight piers instead of four at the
crossing, and is a triple structure; for between the dome seen from within,
and the much higher dome seen from without, a strong cone of brickwork
rises which bears the weight of the stone lantern and ball and cross that
surmount the whole. The skill with which the dome is made the central
feature of a pyramidal composition whatever be the point of view, the great
beauty of the circular colonnade immediately below the dome, the elegant
outline of the western towers, and the unusual but successful distribution of
the great portico, are among the most noteworthy elements which go to
make up the charm of this very successful exterior.

Fig. 82.—St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. (1675-1710.)

Wren may be said to have introduced to Renaissance architecture the tower
and spire, for though many examples occur in Spain, there is reason to
suppose that he was before the architects of that country in his employment
of that feature. He has enriched the City of London with a large number of
steeples, which are Gothic so far as their general idea goes, but thoroughly

classic in details, and all more or less distinctive. The most famous of these
is the one belonging to Bow Church; others of note belong to St. Clement
Danes and St. Bride, Fleet Street.
The interiors of some of these churches, as for example St. Stephen,
Walbrook, St. Andrew, Holborn, and St. James, Piccadilly, are excellent
both for their good design and artistic treatment, and for their being well
contrived and arranged for the special purposes they were intended to fill.
Wren’s secular works were considerable. The Sheldonian Theatre at
Oxford, the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, and the theatre of the
College of Physicians London (long since disused), are a group of special
buildings each of which was undoubtedly a remarkable and successful
work. Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are noteworthy as among the first
specimens of those great buildings for public purposes in which England is
now so rich, and which to a certain extent replace the monastic
establishments of the middle ages. At Chelsea the building is simple and
dignified. Without lavish outlay, or the use of expensive materials, much
ornament, or any extraneous features, an artistic and telling effect has been
produced, such as few hospitals or asylums since built have equalled.
Greenwich takes a higher level, and though Wren’s work had the
disadvantage of having to be accommodated to buildings already erected by
another architect, this building, with its twin domes, its rich outline, and its
noble and dignified masses, will always reflect honour upon its designer.
The view of Greenwich hospital from the river may fairly be said to be
unique for beauty and picturesqueness. At Greenwich, too, we meet with
some of that skill in associating buildings and open spaces together which is
so much more common in France than in this country, and by the exercise
of which the architecture of a good building can be in so many ways set off.
Wren, like Inigo Jones, has left behind him a great unexecuted design which
in many respects is more noble than anything that he actually built. This is
his earlier design for St. Paul’s Cathedral, which he planned as a Greek
cross, with an ampler dome than the present cathedral possesses, but not so
lofty. A large model of this design exists. Had it been carried out the
exterior of the building would probably not have appeared so commanding,
perhaps not so graceful, as it actually is; but the interior would have
surpassed all the churches of the style in Europe, both by the grandeur of

the vast arched space under the dome and by the intricacy and beauty of the
various vistas and combinations of features, for which its admirably-
designed plan makes provision.
Wren had retired from practice before his death in 1723. His immediate
successors were Hawksmoor, whose works were heavy and uninteresting,
and Sir James Vanbrugh. Vanbrugh was a man of genius and has a style of
his own, “bold, original, and pictorial.” His greatest and best work is
Blenheim, in Oxfordshire, built for the Duke of Marlborough. This fine
mansion, equal to any French château in extent and magnificence, is
planned with much dignity. The entrance front looks towards a large space,
inclosed right and left by low buildings, which prolong the wings of the
main block. The angles of the wings and the centre are masked by two
colonnades of quadrant shape, and the central entrance with lofty columns
which form a grand portico, is a noble composition.
The three garden fronts of Blenheim are all fine, and there is a magnificent
entrance hall, but the most successful part of the interior is the library, a
long and lofty gallery, occupying the entire flank of the house and treated
with the most picturesque variety both of plan and ornament.
Vanbrugh also built Castle Howard, Grimesthorpe, Wentworth, King’s
Weston, as well as many other country mansions of more moderate size.
Campbell, Kent, and Gibbs are the best known names next in succession.
Of these Campbell is most famous as an author, but Gibbs (1674-1754) is
the architect of two prominent London churches—St. Martin’s and St. Mary
le Strand, in which the general traditions of Wren’s manner are ably
followed. He was the architect of the Radcliffe Library at Oxford. Kent
(1684-1748) was the architect of Holkham, the Treasury Buildings, and the
Horse Guards. He was associated with the Earl of Burlington, who acquired
a high reputation as an amateur architect, which the design of Burlington
House (now remodelled for the Royal Academy), went far to justify.
Probably the technical part of this and other designs was supplied by Kent.
Sir William Chambers (1726-1796) was the architect of Somerset House, a
building of no small merit, notwithstanding that it is tame and very bare of
sculpture. This building is remarkable as one of the few in London in which
the Italian feature of an interior quadrangle is attempted to be reproduced.

Chambers wrote a treatise which has become a general text-book of revived
classical architecture for English students. Contemporary with him were the
brothers John and Robert Adam, who built much, and began to introduce a
severity of treatment and a fineness of detail which correspond to some
extent to the French style of Louis XVI. The interior decorations in plaster
by these architects are of great elegance and often found in old houses in
London, as in Hanover Square, on the Adelphi Terrace, and elsewhere. The
list of the eighteenth century architects closes with the names of Sir Robert
Taylor and the two Dances, one of whom built the Mansion House and the
other Newgate; and Stuart, who built several country mansions, but who is
best known for the magnificent work on the antiquities of Athens, which he
and Revett published together in 1762, and which went far to create a
revolution in public taste; for before the close of the century there was a
general cry for making every building and every ornamental detail purely
and solely Greek.
The architects above named, and others of less note were much employed
during the eighteenth century in the erection of large country houses of
Italian, usually Palladian design, many of them extremely incongruous and
unsatisfactory. Here and there a design better than the average was
obtained, but as a rule these stately but cold buildings are very far inferior
to the picturesque and home-like manors and mansions built during the
reigns of Elizabeth and James I.

Fig. 83.—Houses at Chester. (16th Century.)

It is worth notice that the picturesque element, inherited from the Gothic
architecture of the middle ages, which before the eighteenth century had
completely vanished from our public buildings, and the mansions of the
wealthy did not entirely die out of works executed in remote places. In the
half-timbered manors and farmhouses which abound in Lancashire,
Cheshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire, and in other minor works, we
always find a tinge, sometimes a very full colouring, of the picturesque and
the irregular; the gables are sharp, upper storeys overhang, and the
treatment of the timbers is thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); so are the

mouldings, transoms and mullions to the windows, and barge boards to the
roofs. In the reign of James I. a mode of enriching the exteriors of dwelling-
houses, as well as their ceilings, chimney-pieces, &c., with ornaments
modelled in plaster came in, and though the remaining specimens are from
year to year disappearing, yet in some old towns (e.g. in Ipswich) examples
of this sort of treatment (known as Jacobean) still linger.
In Queen Anne’s reign a semi-Gothic version of Renaissance architecture
was practised, to which great attention has been directed in the present day.
The Queen Anne style is usually carried out in brickwork, executed in red
bricks and often most admirable in its workmanship. Pilasters, cornices, and
panels are executed in cut bricks, and for arches, niches, and window heads
very finely jointed bricks are employed. The details are usually
Renaissance, but of debased character; a crowning cornice of considerable
projection under a high-pitched hipped roof (i.e. one sloping back every
way like a truncated pyramid) is commonly employed; so also are gables of
broken outline. Dormer windows rich and picturesque, and high brick
chimneys are also employed; so are bow windows, often carried on concave
corbels of a clumsy form. Prominence is given in this style to the joiner’s
work; the windows, which are usually sash windows, are heavily moulded
and divided into small squares by wooded sash bars. The doors have
heavily moulded panels, and are often surmounted by pediments carried by
carved brackets or by pilasters; in the interiors the woodwork of staircases
such as the balusters, newel posts, and handrails is treated in a very
effective and well considered way, the greater part of the work being turned
on the lathe and enriched with mouldings extremely well designed for
execution in that manner. By this style and the modifications of it which
were more or less practised till they finally died out, the traditional
picturesqueness of English architecture which it had inherited from the
middle ages was kept alive, so that it has been handed down, in certain
localities almost, if not quite, to the present century.

SCOTLAND.

The architecture of Scotland during the sixteenth and succeeding centuries
possesses exceptional interest. It was the case here, as it had been in

England, that the most important buildings of the time were domestic; the
erection of churches and monasteries had ceased.
The castles and semi-fortified houses of Scotland form a group apart,
possessing strongly-marked and well-defined character; they are designed
in a mixed style in which the Gothic elements predominated over the classic
ones. But the Scottish domestic Gothic, from which the new style was
partly derived, had borne little or no resemblance to the florid Tudor of
England. It was the severe and simple architecture of strongholds built with
stubborn materials, and on rocky sites, where there was little inducement to
indulge in decoration. Dunstaffnage or Kilchurn Castles may be referred to
as examples of these plain, gloomy keeps with their stepped gables, small
loops for windows, and sometimes angle turrets.
The classic elements of the style were not drawn (as had been the case in
England) direct from Italy, but came from France. The Scotch, during their
long struggles with the English, became intimately allied with the French,
and it is therefore not surprising that Scottish Baronial architecture should
resemble the early Renaissance of French châteaux very closely. The
hardness of the stone in which the Scotch masons wrought forbade their
attempting the extremely delicate detail of the François I. ornament,
executed as it is in fine, easily-worked stone of smooth texture; and the
difference in the climate of the two countries justified in Scotland a
boldness which would have appeared exaggerated and extreme in France.
Accordingly the style in passing from one country to the other has changed
its details to no inconsiderable extent.
Many castles were erected in the sixteenth and following centuries in
Scotland, or were enlarged and altered; the most characteristic features in
almost all of them are short round angle turrets, thrown out upon bold
corbellings near the upper part of towers and other square masses. These are
often capped by pointed roofs; and the corbels which carry them, and which
are always of bold, vigorous character, are frequently enriched by a kind of
cable ornament, which is very distinctive. Towers of circular plan, like
bastions, and projecting from the general line of the walls, or at the angles,
constantly occur. They are frequently crowned by conical roofs, but
sometimes (as at Fyvie Castle) they are made square near the top by means
of a series of corbels, and finished with gables or otherwise. Parapets are in

general use, and are almost always battlemented. Roofs, when visible, are
of steep pitch, and their gables are almost always of stepped outline, while
dormer windows, frequently of fantastic form, are not infrequent. Chimneys
are prominent and lofty. Windows are square-headed, and, as a rule, small;
sometimes they retain the Gothic mullions and transom, but in many cases
these features are absent. Doorways are generally arched, and not often
highly ornamented.
Cawdor Castle, Glamis Castle, Fyvie Castle, Castle Fraser, the old portions
of Dunrobin Castle, Tyninghame House, the extremely picturesque palace
at Falkland, and a considerable part of Stirling Castle, may be all quoted as
good specimens of this thoroughly national style, but it would be easy to
name two or three times as many buildings nearly, if not quite, equal to
these in architectural merit.
Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh, may be quoted (with part of Holyrood Palace)
as showing the style of the seventeenth century. Heriot’s Hospital was built
between the years 1628 and 1660. It is built round a great quadrangle, and
has square towers at the four corners, each relieved by small corbelled angle
turrets. The entrance displays columns and an entablature of debased but
not unpleasing Renaissance architecture, and the building altogether
resembles an English Elizabethan or Jacobean building to a greater extent
than most Scottish designs.
When this picturesque style, which appears indeed to have retained its hold
for long, at last died out, very little of any artistic value was substituted for
it. Late in the eighteenth century, it is true, the Brothers Adam erected
public buildings in Edinburgh and Glasgow, and carried out various works
of importance in a classic style which has certainly some claim to respect;
but if correct it was tame and uninteresting, and a poor exchange for the
vigorous vitality which breathes in the works of the architects of the early
Renaissance in Scotland.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

In the Spanish peninsula, Renaissance architecture ran through three phases,
very strongly distinguished from one another, each being marked by
peculiarities of more than ordinary prominence. The early stage, to which

the Spaniards give the name of Plateresco, exhibits the same sort of fusion
of Gothic with classic which we find in France and Scotland. The masses
are often simple, but the individual features are overladen with an
extravagant amount of ornament, and, as in France, many things which are
essentially Gothic, such as pinnacles, gargoyles, and parapets, are retained.
The Renaissance style was introduced at the latter part of the fifteenth
century, and a very considerable number of buildings to which the
description given above will apply were erected prior to the middle of the
sixteenth. Among these may be enumerated the cathedral at Granada, the
Hospital of Santa Cruz at Toledo (1504-1514), the dome of Burgos
Cathedral (1567), the Cathedral of Malaga, San Juan della Penitencia at
Toledo (1511), the façade of the Alcazar at Toledo (1548), the Town Hall
(1551), and Casa Zaporta (1560) at Zarragoza, and the Town Hall of Seville
(1559).
A great number of tombs, staircases, doorways, and other smaller single
features, executed during this period from the designs of good artists, are to
be found scattered through the country. “These Renaissance monuments
exhibit an extraordinary degree of variety in their ornaments, which are of
the most fantastic nature; an exuberant fancy would seem to have sought a
vent, especially in the sculptured ornament of the style, which though at
times crowded, overladen, and we must add disfigured by the most
grotesque ideas, is very striking for its originality and excellent
workmanship.”—(M. D. W.)

Fig. 84.—The Alcazar at Toledo. (Begun 1568.)

The second phase of Spanish architecture was marked by a plain and simple
dignity, equally in contrast with the Plateresco which had preceded it and
with the extravagant style to which it at length gave place. The earliest
architect who introduced into Spain an architectural style founded on the
best examples of Italy, was Juan Baptista de Toledo. He in the year 1563

commenced the Escurial Palace—the Versailles of Spain; but the principal
part of the building was erected by his more celebrated pupil, Juan de
Herrera, who carried on the works during the years from 1567 to 1579. This
building, one of the most extensive palaces in Europe, is noble in its
external aspect from a distance, thanks to its great extent, its fine central
dome, and its many towers, but it is disappointing when approached. Of the
interior the most noteworthy feature is a magnificently decorated church, of
great size and unusual arrangement; and this dignified central feature has
raised the Escurial, in spite of many faults, to the position of the most
famous and probably most deservedly admired among the great
Renaissance palaces of Europe.
By the same architect numerous buildings were erected, among others the
beautiful, if somewhat cold, arcaded interior of the Alcazar of Toledo (Fig.
84), which may be taken as a fair specimen of the noble qualities to be
found in his dignified and comparatively simple designs. About the middle
of the sixteenth century Charles V. erected his palace at Granada; but here
the architecture is strongly coloured by Italian or French examples, and
much of the building resembles Perrault’s work at the Louvre very closely.
Herrera and his school were probably too severe in taste to suit the fancy of
their countrymen, for Spanish architecture in the eighteenth century fell a
victim to debased forms and a fantastic and exaggerated style of ornament.
Churriguera was the architect who has the credit of having introduced this
unfortunate third manner, and has lent it his name. For a time
“Churriguerismo” found general acceptance, and the century closed under
its influence.
We must not pass over the excellent and varied Renaissance towers and
steeples of Spain in silence. They are not unlike Wren’s spires in general
idea; they are to be met with in many parts of the country attached to the
churches, and their variety and picturesqueness increase the claim of
Spanish architecture to our respect.

The one Renaissance building in Portugal which has been much illustrated,
and is spoken of in high terms, is the Convent at Mafra, a building of the
eighteenth century, of great extent and picturesque effect. Great skill is
shown in dealing with the unwieldy bulk of an overgrown establishment

which does not yield even to the Escurial in point of extent. We are,
however, up to the present time without the means of forming an opinion
upon the nature and value of the architecture of Portugal as a whole.

INDEX.
See also Contents at beginning.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPRSTVW

Adam, John and Robert, 223.
Alberti, Architect, 167.
Amiens Cathedral, 76, 78.
Andernach, Church at, 96.
Anne, Queen, Style of, 225.
Arnstein Abbey, 94.

Baptista, Architect, 232.
Batalha, Monastery at, 142, 153.
Beauvais Cathedral, Interior, 86.
Belgium and Netherlands, Gothic, 87.
—— Renaissance, 206.
Bernini, Architect, 175, 181, 203.
Blenheim, 221.
Blois, Château of, 194.
Blois, Capital from St. Nicholas, 84.
Bourges, House of Jaques Cœur, 15.

Bramante, Architect, 168, 174, 180.
Brunelleschi, Architect, 120, 166.
Buttresses, 32.

Caen, Saint Pierre at, 37.
Cambridge, King’s College, 63.
Campaniles in Italy, 128.
Capitals, Gothic, 43.
Certosa, near Pavia, frontispiece, 183.
Chambers, Architect, 222.
Chambord, Château of, 194.
Chartres, Stained glass at, 65, 69.
Chester, Old Houses at, 38, 224.
Churriguera, Architect, 230.
Colmar, Window at, 206.
Cologne Cathedral, 97, 104.
Columns and Piers, 40.
Cortona, Pietro da, Architect, 198.
Cremona, Palace at, 117.

Dantzic, Zeughaus at, 203.
De Caumont. Abécédaire, 71.
Decorated style of Architecture, 24.

Delorme, Architect, 200, 214.
Domestic Buildings, Gothic, 14.

Early English Architecture, 24.
Eltham Palace, Roof of, 53.
England, Gothic Architecture in, 21.
—— Renaissance in, 213.

Florence, Cathedral at, 121.
—— Pandolfini Palace, 170, 173.
—— Riccardi Palace, 167.
—— Strozzi Palace, 169.
Fontevrault, Church at, 70.
France, Gothic Architecture in, 69.
—— Renaissance in, 193.
Francis the First of France, 193.
Friburg Cathedral, 98.

Gables in Gothic Architecture, 36.
Germany, Gothic Architecture in, 93.
—— Renaissance, 209.
Ghent, Tower at, 90.

Gibbs, Architect, 222.
Giotto’s Campanile at Florence, 120.
Gothic, The word, 5.
Goujon, Jean, Sculptor, 198.

Haddon Hall, 17.
Havenius of Cleves, Architect, 214.
Hawksmoor, Architect, 221.
Heidelberg, Castle of, 156, 209.
Herrera, Juan de, Architect, 217.
Holland House, 215.

Italy, Gothic Architecture in, 112.
—— Renaissance in, 165.

John of Padua, Architect, 214.
Jones, Inigo, Architect, 217.

Kent, Architect, 222.
Kuttenberg, St. Barbara at, 99.

Lescot, Architect, 198.

Leyden, Council-house at, 210.
Lichfield Cathedral, West Door, 5.
Lincoln Cathedral, General view, 35.
Lippi Annibale, Architect, 192.
Lisieux, Old Houses at, 41.
Loches, Doorway at, 72.
London, St. Paul’s Cathedral, 218.

Maderno, Architect, 175, 181.
Mafra, Convent at, 232.
Mansard, Architect, 160.
Michelangelo as an Architect, 170, 174.
Michelozzo, Architect, 167.
Middleburgh, Town Hall at, 89.
Milan Cathedral, 115.
Misereres in Wells Cathedral, 68, 92.
Mouldings, Gothic, 62.

Nuremberg, St. Sebald’s at, 109.

Oakham, Decorated Spire of, 60.
Ogee-shaped arch, 129.

Oppenheim, St. Catherine at, 107.
Orleans, Capital from house at, 197.
Orleans, Window at, 196.

Pavia, Certosa, near, 114, 188.
Palladio, Architect, 172, 184, 187.
Paris, Cathedral of Notre Dame, 74.
—— Hôtel des Invalides at, 205.
—— Louvre, Capital from, 202.
—— Louvre, Pavillon Richelieu, 199.
—— Pantheon at, 204.
—— Tuileries, by Delorme, 200.
Perpendicular Architecture, 25.
Peruzzi, Architect, 181.
Peterborough Cathedral, Plan, 6.
Pisano, Nicola, Sculptor, 120.
Plateresco, Spanish, 230.
Principles of Gothic Design, 146.

Raphael as an Architect, 170.
Renaissance Architecture, 154.
Regensburg (Ratisbon), Well at, 20.
Rheims Cathedral, Piers, 80.

Rome, Monument in Santa Maria del Popolo, 179.
Rome, Palazzo Giraud, 178, 180.
—— St. Peter’s, 174, 177.
—— Villa Medici, 191.

Saint Gall Manuscript, The, 13.
Salisbury Cathedral, Section, 7.
Saint Iago di Compostella, 137.
Sangallo, Architect, 181.
Sansovino, Architect, 178, 184.
Scamozzi, Architect, 184.
Scotland, Cawdor Castle, 227.
—— Dunrobin Castle, 228.
—— Heriot’s Hospital, 228.
Schalaburg, Castle of, 212.
Schwartz-Rheindorff, Church at, 101.
Serlio, Architect, 198.
Seville, The Giralda at, 140.
Siena Cathedral, 123.
Spain, Gothic Architecture in, 137.
—— Renaissance in, 228.
Spires, 58.
Stained Glass, 64.

Strasburg Cathedral, 98.

Thann, Doorway at, 106.
Tivoli, Window from, 134.
Toledo, Alcazar at, 232.
—— Cathedral, 138.
Towers and Spires, 33.
Tracery, Venetian, 130.
Tudor Architecture, 25.

Vanbrugh, Architect, 221.
Venice, 182.
Venice, Church of Redentore, 186.
—— Ducal Palace at, 118.
—— Palaces on Grand Canal, 18.
Vienna, St. Stephen at, 98.
Vignola, Architect, 172, 181, 182.

Warboys, Early English Spire, 59.
Warwick Castle, Plan, 16.
Wells Cathedral, Nave, 9.
Westminster Abbey, Plan, 11.

Westminster Abbey, Carving, 67.
—— Henry VII.’s Chapel, 57.
—— Triforium, 49.
Windows, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51.
Window, Italian Gothic, 134, 136.
Worcester Cathedral, Choir, 9.
Wren, Sir C., Architect, 203, 217, 220.

LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR.

Now in course of Publication.

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Transcriber's Note
Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.
Hyphenation and accent usage has been made consistent.
Spelling was made consistent as follows:
Page xxxvii—Transome amended to Transom—"Transom.
—A horizontal bar (usually of stone) ..."
Page xl—Hardwicke amended to Hardwick—"The End-
papers are from a Tapestry in Hardwick Hall."

Page 198—di amended to da—"... built from the designs of
Pietro da Cortona, ..."
Page 217—transomes amended to transoms—"... and with
mullions and transoms, ..."
Page 217—transomes amended to transoms—"... large
windows divided by mullions and transoms, ..."
Page 224—Cotemporary amended to Contemporary
—"Contemporary with him were the brothers John and
Robert Adam, ..."
Page 226—transomes amended to transoms—"... so are the
mouldings, transoms and mullions to the windows, ..."
Page 236—Middleburg amended to Middleburgh
—"Middleburgh, Town Hall at, 89."
Page 236—Nícolo amended to Nicola—"Pisano, Nicola,
Sculptor, 120."
Page 236—Strassburg amended to Strasburg—"Strasburg
Cathedral, 98."

Page 236—Van Brugh amended to Vanbrugh—"Vanbrugh,
Architect, 221."
The following amendments have been made:
Page x—omitted page number added—"3. Scotland,
Wales, and Ireland 91"
Page xxiv—frize amended to frieze—"... the architrave,
which rests on the columns, the frieze and the cornice."
Page xxiv—The entry for Entablature originally followed
Embattled. It has been moved to the correct place in the
glossary.
Page xxv—Styl amended to Style—"François I. Style.—
The early Renaissance architecture of France during part of
the sixteenth century."
Page xxvii—Lintol amended to Lintel—"Lintel.—The
stone or beam covering a doorway ..."
Page 12—arrangment amended to arrangement—"The
whole arrangement of pier and arch ..."
Page 25—ierced amended to pierced—"Parapet pierced
with quatrefoils and flowing tracery."
Page 30—repeated 'and' deleted—"... Gothic dwelling-
houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, ..."
Page 36—constrast amended to contrast—"... is to combine
and yet contrast its horizontal and vertical elements."
Page 39—storys amended to storeys—"... and sometimes
also the basement storeys, ..."
Page 46—and amended to end—"... occupying the eastern
end of one of the transepts ..."
Page 82—semi-circula amended to semicircular—"... and
the roofs of semicircular and circular apses, ..."

Page 88—achitecture amended to architecture—"... their
architecture, though certainly Gothic, is debased in style."
Page 114—laboration amended to elaboration—"...
remarkable specimens of the ornamental elaboration which
can be accomplished in brickwork."
Page 142—Ths amended to The—"The great church at
Batalha ..."
Page 159—omitted 'the' added before building—"... in his
treatment of the same part of the building ..."
Page 176—repeated 'is' deleted—"... as long as the building
is seen in front ..."
Page 186—builing amended to building—"... lofty pilasters
to include two storeys of the building ..."
Page 194—first amended to First—"...than the best
specimens of the style of Francis the First ..."
Page 226—82 amended to 83—"... the treatment of the
timbers is thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); ..."
Page 230—archiect amended to architect—"The earliest
architect who introduced into Spain an architectural style
..."
Page 233—picuresque amended to picturesque—"... a
building of the eighteenth century, of great extent and
picturesque effect."
Page 235—page references put into numerical order
—"Brunelleschi, Architect, 120, 166."
Page 235—137 amended to 173—"Florence ... ——
Pandolfini Palace, 170, 173."
Page 235—omitted 7 added—"Haddon Hall, 17."

Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in
the middle of a paragraph.
There was an error in the List of Illustrations. The original read:

66.Palazzo Giraud, Rome. By Bramante. (1506.) 180
67.The Church of St. Francesco, at Ferrara. Interior 183
68.Italian Shell Ornament 184
69.The Church of the Redentore, Venice. (1576.) 186
70.Certosa near Pavia. Part of West Front. (Begun 1473.) 189
70a.Early Renaissance Corbel 192
71.Window from a House at Orleans. (Early 16th Century.) 195

The listed Fig. 67 does not appear anywhere in the text. The List of
Illustrations has been amended to accurately list the figures in the
main body of the book, by removing the erroneous listing,
renumbering the figures as necessary, including a previously omitted
figure, Fig. 70.—Villa Medici—On the Pincian Hill near Rome. By
Annibale Lippi (now the Académie Française). (A.D. 1540.), and
amending the page numbers.
Alphabetic links have been added to the index for ease of navigation.
The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.
Omitted page numbers were blank pages or full page illustrations
(moved for this e-text) in the original.

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