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Title: The Indian To-day: The Past and Future of the First American

Author: Charles A. Eastman

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIAN
TO-DAY: THE PAST AND FUTURE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN ***

THE INDIAN TO-DAY

THE AMERICAN BOOKS

A LIBRARY OF GOOD CITIZENSHIP

"The American Books" are designed as a series of authoritative manuals,
discussing problems of interest in America to-day.

THE AMERICAN BOOKS

THE AMERICAN BY ISAAC
COLLEGE SHARPLESS
BY CHARLES A.
THE INDIAN TO-DAY
EASTMAN
BY FABIAN
COST OF LIVING
FRANKLIN
BY REAR-
THE AMERICAN
ADMIRAL
NAVY
FRENCH
E. CHADWICK,
U.S.N.
MUNICIPAL BY OSWALD
FREEDOM RYAN
AMERICAN BY LEON
LITERATURE KELLNER
(TRANSLATED FROM THE
GERMAN BY JULIA
FRANKLIN)

SOCIALISM IN
BY JOHN MACY
AMERICA
BY CLAYTON S.
AMERICAN IDEALS
COOPER
THE UNIVERSITY
BY IRA REMSEN
MOVEMENT
THE AMERICAN BY WALTER S.
SCHOOL HINCHMAN

(For more extended notice of the series, see the last pages of this book.)

The American Books

The Indian To-day

The Past and Future of
the First American

BY

CHARLES A. EASTMAN (OHIYESA)
Author of
"Old Indian Days," "Indian Boyhood," etc.

GARDEN CITY NEW YORK
Doubleday, Page & Company
1915

Copyright, 1915, by
Doubleday, Page & Company

All rights reserved, including that of
translation into foreign languages,
including the Scandinavian

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The author of this book was born in a teepee of buffalo hide near Redwood
Falls, Minn., during the winter of 1858. His father was a full-blooded Sioux
called "Many Lightnings," (Tawakanhdeota). His mother, the granddaughter
of Chief "Cloud Man" of the Sioux and daughter of a well-known army
officer, died shortly after his birth. He was named Ohiyesa (The Winner).
The baby was reared to boyhood by the care of his grandmother. When he
was four years old, the so-called "Minnesota massacre" of 1862 separated
him from his father and elder brothers and only sister, and drove him with a
remnant of the eastern Sioux into exile in Manitoba. There for over ten
years he lived the original nomadic life of his people in the family of an
uncle, from whom he received the Spartan training of an Indian youth of
that day. The knowledge thus gained of life's realities and the secrets of
nature, as well as of the idealistic philosophy of the Indian, he has always
regarded as a most valuable part of his education.
When Ohiyesa had reached the age of fifteen years, and had been presented
with a flint-lock musket in token of his arrival at the estate of young
manhood, he was astonished by the reappearance of the father whose
supposed death at the hands of white men he had been taught that he must
some day avenge. He learned that this father had adopted the religion and
customs of the hated race, and was come to take home his youngest son.
Ohiyesa's new home was a pioneer log cabin on a farm at Flandreau,
Dakota Territory, where a small group of progressive Indians had taken up
homesteads like white men and were earning an independent livelihood. His
long hair was cropped, he was put into a suit of citizen's clothing and sent
off to a mission day school. At first reluctant, he soon became interested,
and two years later voluntarily walked 150 miles to attend a larger and
better school at Santee, Neb., where he made rapid progress under the
veteran missionary educator, Dr. Alfred L. Riggs, and was soon advanced to
the preparatory department of Beloit College, Wisconsin. His father had

adopted his wife's English name of Eastman, and the boy named himself
Charles Alexander.
After two years at Beloit, young Eastman went on to Knox College, Ill.;
then east to Kimball Union Academy in New Hampshire, and to Dartmouth
College, where Indians had found a special welcome since colonial days.
He was graduated from Dartmouth in 1887, and went immediately to
Boston University, where he took the medical course, and was graduated in
1890 as orator of his class. The entire time spent in primary, preparatory,
college, and professional education, including the mastery of the English
language, was seventeen years, or about two years less than is required by
the average white youth.
Doctor Eastman went directly to the large Pine Ridge reservation in South
Dakota as Government physician; and during the "Ghost dance" troubles of
1890-91 he was in charge of the wounded Indian prisoners in their
emergency hospital. In 1891 he married Miss Elaine Goodale of Berkshire
County, Mass.; and in 1893 went to St. Paul, Minn., with his wife and child.
While engaged there in the practice of medicine he was approached by a
representative of the International Committee of the Y. M. C. A., and served
for three years as their field secretary in the United States and Canada.
In 1897 Dr. Eastman went to Washington as attorney for his tribe, to push
their interests at the national capital, and from 1899 to 1902 he served again
as a Government physician to the Sioux. Beginning in 1903, he spent about
seven years giving permanent family names to the Sioux, and thus helping
to establish the legal descent of their property, under the direction of the
Indian Bureau.
His first book, "Indian Boyhood," was published in 1902. It is the story of
his own early life in the wilds of Canada, and was the outgrowth of several
sketches which appeared in St. Nicholas a few years earlier. Since that time
he has written "Red Hunters and the Animal People" (1904), "Old Indian
Days" (1906), "Wigwam Evenings" (1909), "The Soul of the Indian"
(1911), and "Indian Scout Talks" (1914). All have been successful, and
some have been brought out in school editions, and translated into French,
German, Danish, and Bohemian. He has also contributed numerous articles
to magazines, reviews, and encyclopedias.

In connection with his writings he has been in steady demand as a lecturer
and public speaker for the past twelve years, and has recently devoted his
entire time to literary work and lecturing, with the purpose of interpreting
his race to the present age.
When the first Universal Races Congress was held in the city of London in
1911, Dr. Eastman was chosen to represent the American Indian at that
historic gathering. He is generally recognized as the foremost man of his
race to-day, and as an authority on the history, customs, and traditions of the
native Americans.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. The Indian as He
3
Was
II. The How and the
19
Why of Indian Wars
III. The Agency
System: Its Uses and 34
Abuses
IV. The New Indian
49
Policy
V. The Indian in
64
School
VI. The Indian at
81
Home
VII. The Indian as a
95
Citizen
VIII. The Indian in
College and the 115
Professions
IX. The Indian's
135
Health Problem
X. Native Arts and
148
Industries
XI. The Indian's
164
Gifts to the Nation
Bibliography 179
Table of Indian
183
Reservations

THE INDIAN TO-DAY

CHAPTER I

THE INDIAN AS HE WAS

It is the aim of this book to set forth the present status and outlook of the
North American Indian. In one sense his is a "vanishing race." In another
and an equally true sense it is a thoroughly progressive one, increasing in
numbers and vitality, and awakening to the demands of a new life. It is time
to ask: What is his national asset? What position does he fill in the body
politic? What does he contribute, if anything, to the essential resources of
the American nation?
In order to answer these questions, we ought, first, to consider fairly his
native environment, temperament, training, and ability in his own lines,
before he resigned himself to the inevitable and made up his mind to enter
fully into membership in this great and composite nation. If we can see him
as he was, we shall be the better able to see him as he is, and by the worth
of his native excellence measure his contribution to the common stock.
In the first place, he is free born, hence a free thinker. His government is a
pure democracy, based solidly upon intrinsic right and justice, which
governs, in his conception, the play of life. I use the word "play" rather than
a more pretentious term, as better expressing the trend of his philosophy. He
stands naked and upright, both literally and symbolically, before his "Great
Mystery." When he fails in obedience either to natural law (which is
supreme law), or to the simple code of his brother man, he will not excuse
himself upon a technicality or lie to save his miserable body. He comes to
trial and punishment, even to death, if need be, unattended, and as
cheerfully as to a council or feast.
As a free man himself, he allows others the same freedom. With him the
spiritual life is paramount, and all material things are only means to the end
of its ultimate perfection. Daily he meets the "Great Mystery" at morning
and evening from the highest hilltop in the region of his home. His attitude
toward Deity is simple and childlike.

Social life is kept as simple as possible, freedom of action only curbed by
reverence for Those Above, and respect for the purity and perfection of his
own body and those of his fellow-creatures. Only such laws are made as
have been found necessary to guard personal and tribal purity and honor.
The women do not associate freely with men outside of the family, and
even within it strict decorum is observed between grown brothers and
sisters. Birth and marriage are guarded with a peculiar sacredness as
mysterious events. Strenuous out-of-door life and the discipline of war
subdue the physical appetites of the men, and self-control is regarded as a
religious duty. Among the Sioux it was originally held that children should
not be born into a family oftener than once in three years, and no woman
was expected to bear more than five children, for whom both masculine and
feminine names were provided to indicate the order of their birth.
The Indian, in his simple philosophy, was careful to avoid a centralized
population, wherein lies civilization's devil. He would not be forced to
accept materialism as the basic principle of his life, but preferred to reduce
existence to its simplest terms. His roving out-of-door life was more
precarious, no doubt, than life reduced to a system, a mechanical routine;
yet in his view it was and is infinitely happier. To be sure, this philosophy
of his had its disadvantages and obvious defects, yet it was reasonably
consistent with itself, which is more than can be said for our modern
civilization. He knew that virtue is essential to the maintenance of physical
excellence, and that strength, in the sense of endurance and vitality,
underlies all genuine beauty. He was as a rule prepared to volunteer his
services at any time in behalf of his fellows, at any cost of inconvenience
and real hardship, and thus to grow in personality and soul-culture.
Generous to the last mouthful of food, fearless of hunger, suffering, and
death, he was surely something of a hero. Not "to have," but "to be," was
his national motto.
As parents are responsible for the conduct of their children, so was the
Indian clan responsible for the behavior of its members, both among
themselves and in relation to other clans. This simple family government
extended throughout the bands, tribes, and nations. There was no "politics"
and no money in it for any one. The conscience was never at war with the
mind, and no undue advantage was sought by any individual. Justice must

be impartial; hence if the accused alone knew the facts, it was a common
thing for him to surrender himself.

INTERTRIBAL WARFARE

As regards the original Indian warfare, it was founded upon the principle of
manly rivalry in patriotism, bravery, and self-sacrifice. The willingness to
risk life for the welfare or honor of the people was the highest test of
character. In order that the reputations thus gained might be preserved as an
example to the young, a system of decorations was evolved, including the
symbolic wearing of certain feathers and skins, especially eagle feathers,
and the conferring of "honor names" for special exploits. These distinctions
could not be gained unjustly or by favoritism, as is often the case with rank
and honors among civilized men, since the deeds claimed must be proved
by witnesses before the grand council of war chiefs. If one strikes an enemy
in battle, whether he kills him or not, he must announce the fact in a loud
voice, so that it may be noted and remembered. The danger and difficulty is
regarded above the amount of damage inflicted upon the enemy, and a man
may wear the eagle plumes who has never taken a life.
It is easily seen that these intertribal contests were not based upon the same
motives nor waged for the same objects as the wars of civilization—
namely, for spoil and territorial aggrandizement. There was no mass play;
army was not pitted against army; individual valor was held in highest
regard. It was not usual to take captives, except occasionally of women and
children, who were adopted into the tribe and treated with kindness. There
was no traffic in the labor or flesh of prisoners. Such warfare, in fact, was
scarcely more than a series of duels or irregular skirmishes, engaged in by
individuals and small groups, and in many cases was but little rougher than
a game of university football. Some were killed because they were caught,
or proved weaker and less athletic than their opponents. It was one way of
disciplining a man and working off the superfluous energy that might
otherwise lead to domestic quarrels. If he met his equal or superior and was
slain, fighting bravely to the end, his friends might weep honorable tears.

The only atrocity of this early warfare was the taking of a small scalp lock
by the leader, as a semi-religious trophy of the event; and as long as it was
preserved, the Sioux warriors wore mourning for their dead enemy. Not all
the tribes took scalps. It was only after the bounties offered by the colonial
governments, notably in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania, for scalps of
women and children as well as men, that the practice became general, and
led to further mutilations, often stigmatized as "Indian," though in reality
they have been practised by so-called civilized nations down to a recent
period. That one should do murder for pay is not an Indian idea but one
imposed upon the race by white barbarians.
It was a custom of the Plains Indians to hold peaceful meetings in summer,
at which times they would vie with one another in friendliness and
generosity. Each family would single out a family of another tribe as special
guests of honor. Valuable horses and richly adorned garments were freely
given at the feasts and dances. During these intertribal reunions the contests
between the tribes were recalled and their events rehearsed, the dead heroes
on both sides receiving special tributes of honor. Parents would entertain
the participants in an engagement in which their son had fallen, perhaps, the
year before, giving lavish hospitality and handsome presents in token that
all was done in fair fight, and there remained no ill feeling.

FIRST EFFECTS OF CIVILIZATION

Whatever may be said for this scheme of life, its weaknesses are very
apparent, and resulted in its early fall when confronted with the complicated
system of our so-called civilization. With us the individual was supreme; all
combination was voluntary in its nature; there was no commerce worthy the
name, no national wealth, no taxation for the support of government, and
the chiefs were merely natural leaders with much influence but little
authority. The system worked well with men who were all of the same
mind, but in the face of a powerful government and an organized army it
quickly disintegrated and collapsed. Could the many small tribes and bands
have formed a stable combination or league, they might have successfully

resisted the invader; but instead they stood separately, though too weak to
maintain their dignity by force, and in many cases entered upon a
devastating warfare with one another, using the new and more deadly
weapons, thus destroying one another. Since there was no central
government, but a series of loose confederations of linguistic or allied
groups, each of which had its titular head, able to make treaties or to declare
war, these bands were met and subdued one at a time.
The original North American knew no fermented or spirituous drink. To be
sure, he used a mild narcotic—tobacco mixed with aromatic leaves or bark,
and smoked in strict moderation, generally as a semi-religious ceremony.
Though wild grapes were found here in abundance, none had ever made
wine from them. The introduction of liquor completed the ruin of our race.
During a long period the fur trade was an important factor in the world's
commerce, and accordingly the friendship and favor of the natives were
eagerly sought by the leading nations of Europe. Great use was made of
whiskey and gunpowder as articles of trade. Demoralization was rapid.
Many tribes were decimated and others wiped out entirely by the ravages of
strong drink and disease, especially smallpox and cholera. The former was
terribly fatal. The Indians knew nothing of its nature or treatment, and
during the nineteenth century the tribes along the Mississippi and Missouri
rivers suffered severely. Even in my own day I have seen and talked with
the few desolate survivors of a thriving village.
In the decade following 1840 cholera ravaged the tribes dwelling along the
great waterways. Venereal disease followed upon the frequent immoralities
of white soldiers and frontiersmen. As soon as the Indian came into the
reservation and adopted an indoor mode of life, bronchitis and pneumonia
worked havoc with him, and that scourge of the present-day red man,
tuberculosis, took its rise then in overcrowded log cabins and insanitary
living, together with insufficient and often unwholesome food. During this
period there was a rapid decline in the Indian population, leading to the now
discredited theory that the race was necessarily "dying out" from contact
with civilization.
It must always be borne in mind that the first effect of association with the
more advanced race was not improvement but degeneracy. I have no wish

to discredit the statements of the early explorers, including the Jesuit
priests; but it is evident that in the zeal of the latter to gain honor for their
society for saving the souls of the natives it was almost necessary to
represent them as godless and murderous savages—otherwise there would
be no one to convert! Of course they were not angels, but I think I have
made it clear that they were a God-fearing, clean, and honorable people
before the coming of the white man.

THE TRANSITION PERIOD

The transition from their natural life to the artificial life of civilization has
been very gradual in most cases, until the last fifty years, when the changes
have been more rapid. Those who were first affected were the so-called
"Five Civilized Nations" of the South, and the "Six Nations" of New York
State, together with some of the now extinct bands in New England, who
came in close touch with the early colonists. Both politically and
commercially, they played an important part in the settlement of America.
Their services as scouts, guides, and allies were of great value in the early
history of this country, and down to recent years. Many received no salary,
and some even furnished their own horses. It is a remarkable fact that there
is not one instance on record of a scout betraying the cause he served, even
though used against his own tribe and his own relatives. Once his honor is
pledged to a public trust, he must sustain it at any cost.
In many cases those tribes which declared allegiance to the French, the
English, or the Americans, were in their turn the means of bringing a
neighboring tribe into subjection. Thus began a new era in the history of the
Indian, inaugurating a kind of warfare that was cruel, relentless, and
demoralizing, since it was based upon the desire to conquer and to despoil
the conquered of his possessions—a motive unknown to the primitive
American.
To be sure the new weapons were more efficient, and therefore more
deadly; the new clothing was gayer, but less perfectly adapted to the

purposes of primitive life. Indeed, the buckskin clothing and moccasins of
the Indian were very generally adopted by the white frontiersman. On the
other hand, his spiritual and moral loss was great. He who listened to the
preaching of the missionaries came to believe that the white man alone has
a real God, and that the things he had hitherto held sacred are inventions of
the devil. This undermined the foundations of his philosophy, and very
often without substituting for it the Christian philosophy, which the
inconsistency of its advocates, rather than any innate quality, made it
difficult for him to accept or understand.
A few did, in good faith, accept the white man's God. The black-robed
preacher was like the Indian himself in seeking no soft things, and as he
followed the fortunes of the tribes in the wilderness, the tribesmen learned
to trust and to love him. Then came other missionaries who had houses to
sleep in, and gardens planted, and who hesitated to sleep in the Indian's
wigwam or eat of his wild meat, but for the most part held themselves aloof
and urged their own dress and ways upon their converts. These, too, had
their following in due time. But in the main it is true that while the Indian
eagerly sought guns and gunpowder, knives and whiskey, a few articles of
dress, and, later, horses, he did not of himself desire the white man's food,
his houses, his books, his government, or his religion.
The two great "civilizers," after all, were whiskey and gunpowder, and from
the hour the red man accepted these he had in reality sold his birthright, and
all unconsciously consented to his own ruin. Immediately his manhood
began to crumble. A few chiefs undertook to copy some of the European
ways, on the strength of treaty recognition. The medals and parchments
received at such times were handed down from father to son, and the sons
often disputed as to who should succeed the father, ignoring the rule of
seniority and refusing to submit to the election of the council. There were
instances during the nineteenth century in the vicinity of Chicago, Prairie
du Chien, Saint Paul, and Kansas City, where several brothers quarrelled
and were in turn murdered in drunken rows. There was also trouble when
the United States undertook to appoint a head chief without the consent of
the tribe. Chief Hole-in-the-Day of the Ojibways and Spotted Tail of the
Brule Sioux were both killed by tribesmen for breaking the rule of their
respective tribes and accepting favors from the Government.

Intermarriages were not common among the different tribes in the old days,
and still less so between Indians and Caucasians. The earlier intermarriages
were with the higher class of Europeans: officers, noblemen, etc., and many
of the offspring of these unions were highly esteemed, some becoming
chiefs. At this period the natives preferred their own marriage customs,
which was convenient for the white officers who were thus enabled to
desert their wives and children when they chose, and often did so, quite as
if there were no binding obligation. Later, when unions between the lower
class of both races became common, the Sioux refused to recognize their
half-breeds as members of the tribe, and a certain territory was set apart for
them. These half-breeds disposed of their land to the Government, and took
instead certificates entitling them to locate upon the public domain. Some
thirty years afterward they returned to their mother tribe and were allowed
full rights as members of their respective bands.
Except among the French Canadians, in no section has there been such a
general intermingling of the blood of the two races as in the Southern
States. The Virginia legislature early recognized intermarriages between
whites and Indians, and from the time of Pocahontas to this day some of the
best families have married among Cherokees, Chickasaws, and Choctaws,
and are proud of the infusion of aboriginal blood. Among the "Five
Civilized Tribes" of Oklahoma the Indian blood is distinguishable only in a
minority of those who call themselves "Indians."
This transition period has been a time of stress and suffering for my people.
Once they had departed from the broad democracy and pure idealism of
their prime, and undertaken to enter upon the world-game of competition,
their rudder was unshipped, their compass lost, and the whirlwind and
tempest of materialism and love of conquest tossed them to and fro like
leaves in the wind.
"You are a child," said the white man in effect to the simple and credulous
native. "You cannot make or invent anything. We have the only God, and he
has given us authority to teach and to govern all the peoples of the earth. In
proof of this we have His Book, a supernatural guide, every word of which
is true and binding. We are a superior race—a chosen people. We have a
heaven fenced in with golden gates from all pagans and unbelievers, and a
hell where the souls of such are tortured eternally. We are honorable,

truthful, refined, religious, peaceful; we hate cruelty and injustice; our
business is to educate, Christianize, and protect the rights and property of
the weak and the uncivilized."
This sort of talk had its effect. Let us see what followed.

CHAPTER II

THE HOW AND THE WHY OF INDIAN WARS

I have tried to set forth the character and motives of the primitive Indian as
they were affected by contact with civilization. In a word, demoralization
was gradual but certain, culminating in the final loss of his freedom and
confinement to the reservation under most depressing conditions. It must be
borne in mind that there has been scarcely any genuine wild life among us
for the past thirty-five years. Sitting Bull's band of Sioux were the last real
hostiles of their tribe to surrender, in 1880, and Geronimo's Apaches
followed in 1886.
It is important to understand the underlying causes of Indian wars. There
are people to-day who believe that the Indian likes nothing better than
going on the warpath, killing and scalping from sheer native cruelty and lust
for blood. His character as a man of peace has not been appreciated. Yet it is
matter of history that the newcomers were welcomed in almost every case
with unsuspecting kindness, and in his dealings with the white man the
original owner of the soil has been uniformly patient and reasonable,
offering resistance only under irresistible provocation.
There have been but few noteworthy Indian wars in the history of America.
In 1629 Powhatan's brother revolted against the colonists in Virginia, and
King Philip took up arms in Massachusetts in 1675. The Cherokee war of
1758 in North and South Carolina came next; then the conspiracy of
Pontiac in 1763, the Creek war from 1812 to 1830, and the Seminole war
from 1820 to 1833. These wars in the South were incited by the insolence
and aggressiveness of the Americans. The struggles of the Algonquins and
the Iroquois, however, were not conducted wholly on their own initiative.
These tribes were used as allies in the long-drawn-out conflicts between the
French and the English, and thus initiated into the motives and the methods
of the white man's warfare.
I doubt very much if Pontiac would have carried his policies so far had it
not been for the encouragement he received from French traders and

settlers, who assured him that King Louis would come to his assistance in
due time, with men and ammunition. Strong in this belief, as well as in his
innate sense of right and justice, he planned to unite the scattered tribes
against the invader and overthrow all the border forts in a day. His boldness
and aggressiveness were unique in the history of Indian warfare.
At this juncture a remarkable man was chosen to guide the Indian policy in
America. Sir William Johnson had long been engaged in trade among the
Six Nations, and more especially the Mohawks. His influence among them
was very great; and it was partly through his conciliatory methods, and
partly by reason of the betrayal of his plans and the failure of the French to
keep their promises of assistance, that Pontiac, perhaps our greatest military
genius, was forced to surrender.
A sad feature of the early wars was the sufferings of those Indians who had
listened to the preaching of Jesus Christ. In Massachusetts, during King
Philip's war, the Christian Indians were treated no better than the "heathen
savages." Some were hanged, some imprisoned, and some sold as slaves to
the West Indies. At best, they lost their homes and improvements, and
nearly perished of cold and hunger. In Pennsylvania, at Conestoga and
Wyoming Valley, they were horribly murdered, and the peaceful Moravian
Indians were butchered at prayer in their church, while no one dared say a
word of protest except the Quakers.
To return to the wars in the South, many of these were mere feuds between
one or two families. The Cherokees secured concessions and promises of
better treatment from the white men, after which they continued friendly,
and helped in overcoming the Creeks and Seminoles.
Practically all Indian wars have been caused by a few self-seeking men. For
instance, a man may secure through political influence a license to trade
among the Indians. By his unprincipled practices, often in defiance of treaty
agreements, such as gross overcharging and the use of liquor to debauch the
natives, he accumulates much tainted wealth. This he invests in lands on the
border or even within the Indian territory if ill-defined. Having established
himself, he buys much stock, or perhaps sets up a mill on Indian water-
power. He gathers his family and hirelings about him, and presently
becomes a man of influence in his home state. From the vantage point of a

rough border town, peopled largely with gamblers, saloonkeepers, and
horse-thieves, this man and his kind plot the removal of the Indian from his
fertile acres. They harass him in every way, and having at last forced
resistance upon him, they loudly cry: "Indian outbreak! Send us troops!
Annihilate the savages!"

OSCEOLA AND THE SEMINOLES

The principal causes of Indian troubles in the South were, first, the
encroachments of this class of settlers; second, the hospitable willingness of
the Indians to shelter fugitive slaves. Many of these people had found an
Elysium among the Creeks and Seminoles, and had even intermarried
among them, their offspring becoming members of the tribe. Osceola's wife
was of this class—a beautiful Indian woman with some negro and some
white blood. She was dragged away from him by unholy traffickers in
human flesh, and he was arrested for remonstrating. Who could tolerate
such an outrage? The great chief was then a young man and comparatively
unknown; but within one year he became the recognized leader of his tribe
and the champion of their cause. The country was perfectly suited to the
guerilla warfare which is characteristic of Indians—a country in which even
an Indian of another tribe would be lost! White frontiersmen were imported
to guide the army, but according to the testimony of Beckworth, the Rocky
Mountain hunter and trapper, all gave up in disgust. The Government was
forced to resort to pacific measures in order to get the Seminoles in its
power, and eventually most of them were removed to the Indian Territory.
There was one small band which persistently refused the offered terms, and
still remains in the fastnesses of the Florida Everglades, perhaps the only
unconquered band in the United States to-day.
While the Southern tribes were deported almost in a body to what was then
the far West, the wars of the Algonquins, along the Great Lakes and the
Ohio River, scattered them far and wide in fragments. Such of the Iroquois
as had strong treaties with the Dutch colony secured permanent reservations

in the State of New York which they still occupy, having been continuously
under state control instead of that of the general government.

CHIEF JOSEPH'S REASONING

The Black Hawk war in 1836 was the end of the Algonquin resistance.
Surely if there was ever just cause for resistance, Black Hawk had such a
cause. His case was exactly similar to that of the famous Nez Perce, Chief
Joseph, who illustrates his grievance very lucidly in the North American
Review for April, 1879, in an interview with Bishop Hare of South Dakota.
"If I ever sold any land to the Government," says he, "it was done in this
way: Suppose a man comes to me and says: 'Joseph, I want to buy your
horse.' I say to him: 'I am satisfied with my horse. I do not wish to sell him
at any price.' Then the man goes to my neighbor and says to him: 'I want to
buy Joseph's horse, but he would not sell it to me.' My neighbor says: 'If
you will buy my horse, I will throw in his horse!' The man buys my
neighbor's horse, and then he comes and claims my horse and takes it away.
I am under no obligation to my neighbor. He had nothing to do with my
horse."
It was just such dealing as this which forced Black Hawk to fight with a
handful of warriors for his inheritance. The Government simply made a
treaty with the Sacs under Keokuk, and took the land of the Foxes at the
same time. There were some chiefs who, after they had feasted well and
drunk deep and signed away their country for nothing, talked of war, and
urged Black Hawk to lead them. Then they sneaked away to play "good
Indian," and left him to bear the brunt alone.
There were no more Indian wars for thirty years. The Southwest frontiers
were now occupied by eastern tribes or their remnants, which had been
transported beyond the Mississippi during the early thirties. Only fragments
were left here and there, in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and the
South. The great Siouan race occupied nearly all the upper valley of the
Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries. North of them dwelt

the Ojibways, an Algonquin tribe with an entirely different language. The
Sioux nation proper originally occupied a vast territory, and in the middle of
the nineteenth century they still held the southern half of Minnesota, a
portion of Wisconsin and Iowa, all of the Dakotas, part of Montana, nearly
half of Nebraska, and small portions of Colorado and Wyoming. Some of
the bands were forest Indians, hunters and trappers and fishermen, while
others roamed over the Great Plains and hunted the buffalo, elk, and
antelope. Some divided the year between the forest and prairie life. These
people had been at peace with the whites ever since the early French
explorers and the Jesuit priests had entered their country. They had traded
for many years with the Hudson Bay and American Fur companies, and no
serious difficulty had arisen, nor was any obstruction offered to the progress
of civilization.
In 1824 the United States required of the tribes in this region to define their
territory, a demand which intensified and gave a new turn to their intertribal
warfare. The use of gun, horse, and whiskey completed the demoralization,
and thus the truly "savage" warfare had its origin, ever increasing in
bitterness until it culminated in resistance to the Government, in 1862, one
hundred years after the struggle and defeat of the great Pontiac.

THE SIOUX AND THEIR GRIEVANCES

A treaty was made in 1851 with the Minnesota Sioux to which one band
was not a party. This was the one commonly known as Inkpaduta's band,
whose usual winter resort was in northwestern Iowa. White settlers went
upon the ceded lands, and when this band returned to Spirit Lake after their
summer's roving they found it occupied. Owing to a very severe winter and
the presence of the settlements, the surrounding country became depleted of
game, and the Sioux, who were starving, sought aid among the settlers. No
doubt they became a nuisance, and were so treated, which treatment they
very naturally resented, and thus arose the "Spirit Lake massacre." The rest
of the tribe condemned the act, and Sioux from the Redwood reservation
pursued the guilty band until they overtook and killed two of Inkpaduta's

sons. The others were driven back among the wild Sioux. This was their
first offence, after more than a century of contact with the whites.
Little Crow's band formed the east wing of the Sioux nation, and were the
first to enter reservation life. The causes of their outbreak, a few years later,
were practically the same as in many other instances, for in its broad
features the history of one Indian tribe is the history of all. Their hunting-
grounds were taken from them, and the promised support was not
forthcoming. Some of the chiefs began to "play politics" like white men,
and through their signatures, secretly given, a payment of $98,000 due the
tribe was made to the Indian traders. Little Crow himself was involved in
this steal, and was made head chief by the whites, who wished to have some
one in this position whom they could deal with. But soon the non-payment
of annuities brought the Indians to the verge of starvation, and in despair
they forced Little Crow to lead them in revolt. In August, 1862, they
massacred the agency employees and extended their attack to the white
settlers, killing many and destroying a large amount of property, before a
part of the tribe fled into Canada and the rest surrendered to General Sibley.
Next came the struggle of the Western Sioux and Northern Cheyennes in
defence of their homes. The building of the Northern Pacific and the Union
Pacific transcontinental railroads had necessitated the making of new
treaties with these people. Scarcely was the agreement completed by which
they ceded a right of way in return for assurances of permanent and
absolute possession of other territory, including the Black Hills and Bighorn
Mountains, when gold was discovered in these regions. This fact created
great excitement and a general determination to dispossess the Sioux of the
country just guaranteed to them, which no white man was to enter without
the consent of three fourths of the adult men of the tribe.
Public excitement was intense, and the Government found itself unable to
clear the country of intruders and to protect the rights of the Sioux. It was
reported that there were no less than fifteen thousand men in the Black Hills
district placer-mining and prospecting for the yellow metal. The authority
of the United States was defied almost openly by the frontier press and
people. Then the Indians took matters into their own hands, carried on a
guerilla warfare against immigrants, and harassed the forts until the army
was forced to enter upon a campaign against them. In 1868 another treaty

was made, but the great chief, Red Cloud, would not sign it until he saw
forts C. F. Smith and Phil Kearney abandoned. Here is probably the only
instance in American history in which a single Indian chief was able to
enforce his demands and make a great government back down. At that time
it would have cost immense sums of money and many lives to conquer him,
and would have retarded the development of the West by many years.
It is a fact that Sitting Bull was thoroughly opposed to yielding any more
territory. No doubt he foresaw the inevitable result. He had taken up the
cause of the Eastern Sioux in Minnesota and fought Sibley and Sully in
1862. He had supported Red Cloud in his protests against the establishment
of the Bozeman trail, and against the new forts, although thus far these
aggressions had not affected him directly. But when surveyors began work
on the Northern Pacific, they entered his particular domain, and it was time
for him to fight in its defence. Unfortunately for him, the other bands of
Sioux whom he had helped in their time of need were now all settled upon
reservations, so that he had not much support except from Crazy Horse's
band, and the so-called hostiles or renegades of the Western bands.
Hostilities began in 1872, culminating in 1876 with the famous "Custer
fight," which practically ended the struggle, for after annihilating Custer's
command the Indians fled into British America. Four years later Sitting Bull
was induced to come in and settle down upon the Sioux reservation.
The Modoc war in Oregon and Idaho, in which the Shoshones and
Bannocks were involved, was really a part of this same movement—
namely, the last defence of their hunting-grounds by the Plains Indians, as
was also the resistance of the Cheyennes and Comanches farther south, and
of the Utes in 1877, simultaneously with the last stand of the Sioux. It had
been found impossible to conquer the Plains Indians without destroying the
buffalo, their main subsistence. Therefore vast herds were ruthlessly
destroyed by the United States army, and by 1880 they were practically
extinct. Since it was found cheaper to feed than to fight them, the one-time
warriors were corralled upon their reservations and kept alive upon
Government rations.

THE "GHOST-DANCE WAR"

All Indian warfare worthy the name had now come to an end. There were
left Geronimo's small bands of Apaches, who were hunted down in an all
but inaccessible country and finally captured and confined in Southern
forts. More recent "Indian outbreaks," so-called, are usually a mere ruse of
the politicians, or are riots caused by the disaffection of a few Indians
unjustly treated by their Government agents. The only really serious
disturbance within a generation was the "Ghost-dance war" of 1890-91.
And yet this cannot fairly be called an Indian war. It arose in a religious
craze which need not have been a serious matter if wisely handled. The
people were hungry and disheartened, their future looked hopeless, and all
their appeals were disregarded. At this juncture the suggestion of a Messiah,
offering hope of miraculous intervention in behalf of the red man, appealed
to many, and the "new religion" spread far and fast. In some tribes it soon
died a natural death, but in the Sioux country it was unwisely forbidden by
the authorities, and led to grave results.
At Pine Ridge, in December of 1890, the ghost-dancers had come in to the
agency and the situation was apparently under control when the attempted
arrest of Sitting Bull in his cabin by Indian police led to his death and the
stampeding of his people. Several of the stampeded bands came down to
Pine Ridge, where they were met by United States troops, disarmed, and
shot down after one man had resisted disarmament by firing off his weapon.
This was the massacre of Wounded Knee, where about 300 Indians, two
thirds of them women and children, were mown down with machine-guns
within a few minutes. For some days there was danger of a reprisal, but the
crisis passed, and those Indians who had fled to the "Bad Lands" were
induced to come in and surrender. From that time on the Indian tribes of the
United States have been on a peace footing.

CHAPTER III

THE AGENCY SYSTEM: ITS USES AND
ABUSES

The early colonists, accustomed to European usages, undertook to deal with
a native chief as if he were a king, with the power to enforce his rule over
his people. As a matter of fact, he was merely their spokesman, without
authority except as it was given him by the council of his clan, which was
called together in any important event. Each clan or band was responsible
only for its own members, and had nothing to do with the conduct of any
other band. This difference of viewpoint has led to serious trouble.

TREATIES AND TRUST FUNDS

Most of the early agreements were merely declarations of peace and
friendship, allowing freedom of trade, but having nothing to do with any
cession of land. In New England small tracts of land were purchased by the
settlers of individual Indians who happened to sojourn there for the time
being, and purchased for a nominal price, according to their own history
and records. The natives had no conception of ownership in the soil, and
would barter away a princely estate for a few strings of beads or a gallon of
rum, not realizing that they conveyed the absolute and exclusive title that
they themselves, as individuals, had not pretended to possess.
The status of the Indians within the United States has been repeatedly
changed since colonial times. When this Government was founded, while
claiming the right of eminent domain over the whole country, it never
denied the "right of occupancy" of the aborigines. In the articles of
confederation Congress was given sole power to deal with them, but by the
constitution this power was transferred in part to the executive branch.
Formal treaties were made which had to be ratified by the Senate, until in

1871 Congress declared that the Indian tribes might no longer be
recognized as independent nations, and reduced the treaties to simple
"agreements," which, however, must in ethics be considered fully as
binding. Their natural resources had now in many cases been taken from
them, rendering them helpless and dependent, and for this reason some of
the later treaties provided that they should be supported until they became
self-supporting.
In less than a century 370 distinct treaties were made with the various
tribes, some of them merely friendship agreements, but in the main
providing for right of way and the cession of lands, as fast as such lands
were demanded by the westward growth of the country and the pressure of
population. In the first instance, the consideration was generally not over
five or ten cents an acre. While the Indians were still nomadic in their
habits, goods in payment were usually taken by steamboat to the nearest
point and there turned over to the head chiefs, who distributed them among
the people. Later the price increased and payments were made either in
goods or cash; fifty cents to a dollar and a quarter, and more recently as
much as $2.50 per acre for cessions of surplus lands on reservations after
the owners have all been allotted. Gradually large trust funds have been
created for some of the tribes, the capital being held in the United States
Treasury and the interest paid to the Indians in annual per capita
instalments, or expended "for their benefit." Farmers, blacksmiths,
carpenters, and other industrial teachers; cattle, farming tools, houses, and
schools are variously promised in the later treaties for the "support and
civilization" of a people whose own method of making a living has been
rendered forever impossible. The theory was humane and just, but the
working of the system has proved in a large degree a failure.

WHAT ARE RESERVATIONS?

A natural result of frequent land cessions was the reserving or setting aside
of tracts of land for Indian occupancy, known as "reservations." Such lands
have been set aside not only by treaty but in many cases by act of Congress,

and in others by executive order. The Indians living upon them may not sell
standing timber, or mining rights, or right of way to railroads, without the
consent of the Government.
The policy of removal and concentration of Indians originated early in the
nineteenth century, and was carried partially into effect. Indian Territory
was set apart as a permanent home for the tribes, and the Creeks,
Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles were removed thither
from the Southeastern States. After a terrible journey, in which many died
of disease and exhaustion, and one boatload sank in the Mississippi River,
those who were left established themselves in the "Promised Land," a
country rich in natural resources. They soon saw the necessity of a stable
government and of domestic and agricultural pursuits. They copied the form
of their government after that of the States, and the trust funds arising from
the sale of their eastern lands formed the basis of their finances. They
founded churches, schools, and orphan asylums, and upon the whole
succeeded remarkably well in their undertaking, although their policy of
admitting intermarried whites and negroes to citizenship in the tribe led to
much political corruption. Gradually some forty tribes, or tribal remnants,
were colonized in the Territory; but this scheme failed in many instances, as
some tribes (such as the Sioux) refused absolutely to go there, and others
who went suffered severely from the change of climate. In 1890 the western
part was made into a separate territory under the name of Oklahoma and
colonized by whites; and in 1907 the entire territory was admitted to
statehood under that name, the "Five Civilized Nations," so-called, having
been induced to give up their tribal governments.
The Indians of the Southwest came in, in 1848, under the treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, although with some of them other treaties have been
made and their lands added to by executive order. The Navajoes, about
twenty-two thousand in number, now own more than twelve million acres
in Arizona and New Mexico. They are sheep-herders and blanket-weavers,
and are entirely self-supporting. Owing to the character of the land they
occupy, and the absence of sufficient water for irrigation, there is not
enough grass on the reservation to support all the Indian stock. Therefore
5,000 or more Navajoes are living outside the reservation, on the public
domain; and of these, according to Indian Office statements, about 1,000

are unallotted, and under the present law can only be allotted as are white
homesteaders, by paying the costs of survey and fees to the land office.
The Pueblos hold their lands (about 1,000,000 acres) under Spanish grants,
and are in absolute control of them, so that the Government cannot build
schoolhouses among them unless sites are deeded for that purpose, which
they are sometimes unwilling to do. These people are still self-governing,
but their titles are now in danger, owing to a recent ruling of the local courts
that declares them citizens, and as such liable to taxation. Being for the
most part very poor and fearing to have their land sold for taxes, they have
petitioned the United States to act as trustee to manage their estates.
The natives of California were a peaceable people and made scarcely any
resistance to the invaders, a fact which has resulted in their rapid decline
and extreme poverty. Under the Spanish friars they were gathered into
missions and given a general industrial training, but after the secularization
of the missions the Americans took possession of their cultivated lands, and
many of the Indians were landless and homeless. The remnants are now
living as squatters upon the property of white settlers, or on small pieces of
land allotted them by the Government.
In striking contrast to the poverty-stricken condition of these Pacific Coast
Indians is the wealth of the Osages, a small Siouan tribe occupying a fertile
country in Oklahoma, who are said to be the richest people, per capita, in
the world. Besides an abundance of land, rich in oil and timber, they have a
trust fund of eight million dollars in the United States Treasury, bringing in
a large annual income. They own comfortable houses, dwell in substantial
towns, and are moderately progressive.

THE TRUTH ABOUT INDIAN AGENCIES

The Indian of the Northwest came into reservation life reluctantly, very
much like a man who has dissipated his large inheritance and is driven out
by foreclosure. One morning he awoke to the fact that he must give up his
freedom and resign his vast possessions to live in a squalid cabin in the

backyard of civilization. For the first time his rovings were checked by
well-defined boundaries, and he could not hunt or visit neighboring tribes
without a passport. He was practically a prisoner, to be fed and treated as
such; and what resources were left him must be controlled by the Indian
Bureau through its resident agent.
Who is this Indian agent, or superintendent, as he is now called? He is the
supreme ruler on the reservation, responsible directly to the Commissioner
of Indian Affairs; and all requests or complaints must pass through his
office. The agency doctor, clerks, farmers, superintendents of agency
schools, and all other local employees report to him and are subject to his
orders. Too often he has been nothing more than a ward politician of the
commonest stamp, whose main purpose is to get all that is coming to him.
His salary is small, but there are endless opportunities for graft.
If any appeal from the agent's decisions, they are "kickers" and
"insubordinate." If they are Indians, he can easily deprive them of
privileges, or even imprison them on trumped-up charges; if employees, he
will force them to resign or apply for transfers; and even the missionaries
may be compelled, directly or indirectly, to leave the reservation for
protesting too openly against official wrongdoing. The inspector sent from
Washington to investigate finds it easy to "get in with" the agent and very
difficult to see or hear anything that the agent does not wish him to hear or
see. Many Indians now believe sincerely in Christ's teachings as explained
to them by their missionaries, but they find it impossible to believe that this
Government is Christian, or the average official an honest man.
Any untutored people, however, are apt imitators, and so these much-
exploited natives become politicians in spite of themselves. The most
worthless of the tribe are used as the agent's spies and henchmen; a state of
affairs demoralizing on the face of it. As long as the Indian Bureau is run in
the interests of the politicians, and Indian civilization is merely an incident,
the excellent and humanitarian policies approved by the American people
will not be fully carried into effect.
It is true that good men and especially good women have gone into the
Indian service with a genuine desire to deal justly and kindly by the Indian
and to serve the Government honorably and efficiently. Such people often

become disgusted with the system and find it impossible to stay, or else are
forced out by methods familiar to the experienced. When you clear your
American cities of grafters, and purify your politics, then perhaps you will
be in a position to redeem the Indian service, and only then. Alas! the skirts
of the Goddess of Liberty have never yet been quite clean!
The Indian is no fool; on the other hand, he is a keen observer and an apt
student. Although an idealist by nature, many of the race have proved
themselves good business men. But under the reservation system they have
developed traits that are absolutely opposed to the racial type. They become
time-serving, beggarly, and apathetic. Some of their finest characters, such
as Chief Joseph, have really died of a broken heart. These are men who
could not submit to be degraded; the politicians call them "incorrigible
savages."
The distribution of rations to the Plains Indians was, as I have explained,
originally a peace measure, and apparently a necessity in place of their
buffalo which the white man had exterminated. For many years Texas beef
was issued monthly "on the hoof"; that is, the cattle were driven out one by
one upon the plain, and there surrounded and shot down by representatives
of the groups to which they belonged. Bacon, flour, sugar, and coffee were
doled out to the women, usually as often as once in two weeks, thus
requiring those who lived at a considerable distance from the agency to
spend several days of each month on the road, neglecting their homes and
gardens, if they had any. Once a year there was a distribution of cheap
blankets and shoddy clothing. The self-respect of the people was almost
fatally injured by these methods. This demoralizing ration-giving has been
gradually done away with as the Indians progressed toward self-support, but
is still found necessary in many cases.
Not all features of reservation life are bad; for while many good things are
shut out and some evils flourish, others are excluded. Liquor traffic among
Indians has been forbidden by law since the colonial period; and the law is
fairly well enforced by a number of special officers; yet in a few tribes there
has been in recent years much demoralization through liquor. It is generally
admitted that there is less crime and rowdyism on the reservations than in
civilized communities of equal size. In 1878 a force of native police was
authorized to keep order, eject intruders, act as truant officers, and perform

other duties under the direction of the agent. Though paid only ten or twelve
dollars a month, these men have been faithful and efficient in the
performance of duties involving considerable hardship and sometimes
danger. Their loyalty and patriotism are deserving of special praise. In
making arrests and bringing in desperate prisoners, as in the case of Pretty
Elk the Brule Sioux murderer, and of the chief, Sitting Bull, the faithful
police have sometimes lost their lives.

INDIAN CLAIMS

It is commonly admitted that the Indian treaties have been frequently
broken by the United States, both in the letter and the spirit, while, on the
other hand, the Indians have acted in good faith and with a high regard for
their national honor. It is also a fact not very creditable to the Government
that treaties have been materially amended in the Senate and not again
submitted to the tribe, who were not even made aware at once of their
altered provisions. I believe this would be considered a piece of sharp
practice in the case of any people able to defend itself.
The breach of treaty obligations on the part of this Government has led to a
large number of Indian claims, involving millions of dollars, which
represent the efforts of tribes or bands which feel themselves wronged or
defrauded to obtain justice under the white man's law. The history of one or
two such may be of interest.
Most of the Oneida and Stockbridge tribes exchanged their New York
reservations for a large tract of land in Kansas, and started for their new
home in 1830, but never got any farther than Green Bay, Wisconsin. There
the Menominees invited them to remain and share their reservation, as they
had plenty of good land. The Stockbridges had originally occupied the
beautiful Housatonic valley, where Jonathan Edwards preached to them and
made them good Presbyterians; nevertheless, the "Christian" colonists
robbed them of their homes and drove them westward. They did not resist
the aggression. If anything is proved in history, it is that those who follow

in the footsteps of the meek and gentle Jesus will be treated unmercifully, as
he was, by a hard and material world.
These Stockbridges went still further with their kind hosts, and ultimately
both tribes accepted the hospitality of the Ojibways. They made their
unfortunate brothers welcome, and made them a free gift of land. But now
observe the white man's sense of honor and justice in glaring contrast! For
seventy-five years the United States Government failed to recompense these
people for their Kansas land, which they never reached, and which in the
meantime was taken up by settlers, and gradually covered with thriving
homes and fertile farms.
The whole case was scrutinized again and again by the Congress of the
United States from 1830 to about 1905, when at last a payment was made!
The fact that the two tribes remained in Wisconsin and settled there does
not invalidate their claim, as those wild Ojibways had no treaty with the
Government at that time and had a perfect right to give away some of their
land. It was a barefaced, open steal from the Indians. Yet the tribes were
obliged to employ white attorneys at a liberal per cent. of the amount they
hoped to recover. They had to pay high for simple justice. Meanwhile they
lived on their own labor for two or three generations, and contributed to the
upbuilding of Wisconsin. To-day some of them are doing better than their
white neighbors.
This is only one illustration of a not uncommon happening; for, while some
of these claims are doubtless unreasonable, I personally know of many in
which the ethics of the case are as clear as in this which I have cited. It is
often the fact that differences among attorneys and party politics in
Congress delay justice for many years or deprive the Indians of their rights
altogether. A bill has recently been introduced, at the instance of the Society
of American Indians, which is framed to permit Indian tribes to sue in the
Court of Claims, without first obtaining the consent of Congress in each
case. This bill ought to be at once made law, as it would do away within a
few years with many long-drawn-out disputes and much waste and worse
than waste of time and money.

CHAPTER IV

THE NEW INDIAN POLICY

I have tried to state plainly some of the difficulties found so harassing in
adjusting the relations of the native and white races in America. While there
have been terrible and most un-Christian mistakes in dealing with the
Indian (who has always been fully able to appreciate fair play and to resent
the lack of it), it is equally true that there has been of late years a serious
effort to bring him within the bounds of modern progress, so that he may
eventually adapt himself to the general life of the nation. Until recently he
himself preferred to remain just outside the borders of civilization, and was
commonly assumed to be incapable of advance or change.
The birth of the new era really dates from Abraham Lincoln's refusal to
order the execution of three hundred Sioux braves, whom a military court
had, in less than two days, convicted of murder and condemned to be hung,
in order to satisfy the clamor of the citizens of Minnesota. They demanded
to be avenged for the loss of friends, relatives, and property in the outbreak
of 1862, and they forgot that these Sioux had been defrauded of the finest
country in the world, their home, their living, and even cheated out of the
ten cents per acre agreed to be paid for millions of acres of the choicest
land. They had shown their teeth at last, after more than a century of
patience and self-control.
The great President personally reviewed the records of the court, and wrote
with his own hand the names of the forty Indians who were executed,
instead of three hundred originally condemned to die. He was abused and
insulted for his humanity. Governor Ramsey of Minnesota appealed to him
in vain in the name of the frontier people: that gentle, brave, just President
had his way, and many of those whom he pardoned afterward became
leaders of the Sioux in walking the white man's road.

INDIAN REFORMS UNDER GRANT

During General Grant's administration the famous "Peace Policy" made a
remarkable start in the face of the determined resistance of the Plains
Indians. The Indian, when making his last stand against injustice, is a
desperate and a dangerous enemy. It was estimated at this time that every
warrior killed in battle had cost the Government twenty-three lives and a
round million of dollars. At this rate, the race would not be "wiped out" for
generations. Kindness would be infinitely cheaper, as well as more pleasing,
doubtless, to the white man's God!
In a word, Christian men and women came tardily to the conclusion that
something more consistent with the claims of their religion must be shown
these brave people who had lost everything in the face of the herculean
advance of the dominant race. Reflection upon the sordid history of their
country's dealings with the red man had taught them to think clearly, above
the clamor of the self-seeking mob. Some of them had lived side by side
with their dusky neighbors, and studied them at close range, in the light of
broad human feeling. Such men were General Grant, Bishops Whipple and
Hare, William Welsh and his nephew, Herbert Welsh of Philadelphia,
Commissioner of Indian Affairs Smith, General Armstrong, and General
Pratt. No class or sect has more fully endorsed this policy than have the
Quakers, of whom the late Albert K. Smiley of Mohonk Conference fame
was a distinguished representative.
In 1870 President Grant placed all Indian agencies under the control of the
various churches and missionary organizations, which had hitherto been
practically the sole channels of educational or uplift work among the tribes.
Undoubtedly Grant sincerely wished to put an end to official corruption in
this branch of the service, and to make the best possible use of all moneys
that might be appropriated for Indian civilization, when he took the radical
step of inviting each of the denominations interested to name the agent at
one or more agencies, their candidate to hold office as long as he enjoyed
their confidence, and to choose his own subordinates. It was confidently
hoped that by this means the civil and religious work might be in full

harmony, and that the Indians, instead of being hopelessly confused by
conflicting views and practices among their would-be teachers, might learn
equally by precept and example.
Grant's policy remained in force for about ten years, and there is no
question that in this short space of time the churches accomplished wonders
among the raw Sioux but lately confined to their reservations. The
following agencies of which I had personal knowledge were then
industrious Christian communities: namely, Sisseton under the
Presbyterians, Devil's Lake under the Catholics, Yankton under the
Episcopalians, Santee under the Quakers. Winnebagoes, Pawnees, Omahas,
all the wild Plains Indians did well under consistent and conscientious
management. Large fields of wheat were cultivated by them, with but little
assistance, which have since gone back to wild land under the "spoils
system," and over which, ten years ago, I hunted prairie chickens.
There were developed during this period many strong Christians of a
genuinely apostolic stamp, who became teachers and preachers to their
wilder brethren. Both children and adults were taught to read in their own
language, and at least two papers were published monthly in the Sioux
tongue, which had been reduced to writing by the Riggses and Williamsons,
the earliest Protestant missionaries. It was then and there that I myself
received my impetus toward an education. My father, who was one of the
two hundred and sixty Sioux pardoned by Lincoln, had voluntarily
abandoned the reservation with its pauperizing influences, and was a self-
supporting citizen in 1870.
Another interesting feature of Grant's administration was the number of
Indians holding responsible positions in the service. At a time when there
were no great Indian schools, there were found and trained men competent
to act as agency blacksmiths, carpenters, millers, etc. There was even a full-
blood Iroquois at the head of the Indian Bureau—Grant's chief of staff,
General Ely Parker.

THE WARS OF THE SECTS

It was a genuine calamity for our people when this system was overthrown,
as it was in a few years, by the clamor of the politicians for patronage,
together with the sectarian disputes that have been a scandal to the heathen
throughout the history of Christian missions. On many reservations
proselyting work had been begun by two or more denominations, and these
bodies now became rivals, even bitter and hostile rivals, for the souls and
bodies of their reputed converts. To the Catholics, in particular, who
claimed thirty-eight of the seventy-two agencies, on the ground of prior
religious influence, there had been assigned but eight. Strong pressure was
brought to bear through their Bureau of Missions to reverse this ruling; and
equally strong, or stronger, was the political pressure for the rich spoils of
the Indian agencies. By 1883 Grant's too idealistic system broke down
entirely, the fat offices were returned to the politicians, and all
denominations were permitted to engage at will in missionary propaganda,
but without secular authority.
A certain chief in the Red River region well expressed a view common
among our people when he said to the priest: "You tell us that we can be
saved only if we accept your faith and are baptized by you. The Protestant
minister tells us the same. Yet both claim to worship the same God! Who
shall judge between you? We have considered the matter, and decided that
when your two roads join we will follow you; but until then we prefer our
own religion!"
Nevertheless it was largely through the influence of the missionaries and
their converts that in most of the treaties made during this period there were
inserted clauses providing for the practical education of the Indian children.
There has been much fraud connected with the purchase of materials and
supplies, and in every way that shrewd and unprincipled men can devise,
but even the politicians could not entirely prevent the building of those
schools. One fact stands out boldly: it was the Christian missionary, in spite
of serious mistakes, who played the most important part in the
transformation of the Indian and the development of the West.

MODERN "FRIENDS OF THE INDIAN"

From this time on the old view of the Indian as a hopeless savage has been
gradually abandoned, and replaced by the juster modern view which regards
him as essentially a man, and as good material for the future citizen. The
volunteer organizations arising under Grant and continuing active to the
present day have been effective molders of public opinion along these lines.
The Boston Indian Citizenship Committee was organized in 1879, on the
occasion of the forcible removal of the Poncas to Indian Territory. Chief
Standing Bear and the Indian maiden Bright Eyes (Susette La Flesche)
visited many leading cities and told eloquently the story of their wrongs.
They were ultimately restored to their old home, largely through the efforts
of this group of influential men. The committee then undertook to secure
citizenship for Indians on the basis of taxation, a principle that was denied
by the Supreme Court; but a few years later the same end was attained by
the passage of the "Dawes bill." Since then they have endeavored to secure
honest allotments to Indians, to prevent the sale of the best lands to whites
at nominal prices, and to obtain the dismissal of corrupt Indian agents and
inspectors.
The National Indian Association, composed chiefly of women, began work
with a memorial to Congress in 1879, and has continued it until now, under
the efficient leadership of Mrs. A. S. Quinton, Mrs. Sara T. Kinney, and
others. The missionary department has established fifty pioneer missions in
as many neglected tribes or tribal remnants, turning them over ultimately,
with their buildings and plant, to the mission boards of the various
Protestant denominations. The society has also fostered native industries,
being the mother of the Indian Industries League; has loaned money to
Indians for home-building; assisted in the education of especially promising
individuals; built and supported hospitals, and done other valuable work. Its
headquarters are in New York City.
The Indian Rights Association was organized in Philadelphia, in 1882, at
the home of Mr. John Welsh. Mr. Herbert Welsh has been for many years its
leading spirit, and others who have done yeoman's service in the cause are
the late Professor Painter, Mr. Brosius, and Mr. Matthew K. Sniffen. Its
slogan was the same as that of the others: Education; Land in Severalty;
Citizenship! To all three of these bodies, as well as to the Board of Indian

Commissioners, belongs much credit for urging the reforms which
triumphed, in 1887, in the "Dawes bill," the Emancipation Act of the Indian.
The Indian Rights Association maintains a representative in Washington to
coöperate with the Indian Bureau and to keep an eye upon legislation
affecting the tribes, as well as a permanent office in Philadelphia. Its
officers and agents have kept in close touch with developments in the field,
and have conducted many investigations on Indian agencies, resulting often
in the exposure of grave abuses. They have been courageous and aggressive
in their work, and have not hesitated to appeal to the courts when necessary
to protect the rights of Indians. They have also done much to mold public
sentiment through meetings, letters to the press, and the circulation of their
own literature to the number of more than half a million copies.
One of President Grant's first acts was the creation, in 1869, of the United
States Board of Indian Commissioners, a body of ten men supposed to be
"eminent for their intelligence and philanthropy," to serve without pay in an
advisory capacity, and to coöperate with the Interior Department in securing
a sound and progressive administration of Indian affairs. The only
appropriation is for travelling expenses and for a salaried secretary with an
office in Washington. It has been one of the important duties of this Board
to inspect the Indian supplies when purchased, if possible securing goods
up to the standard of the samples submitted and preventing open fraud. Its
members have travelled extensively in the Indian country in order to
observe conditions, and their patriotic services have been appreciated by
both races.
In the autumn of 1883 Mr. Albert K. Smiley, the large-hearted owner of a
hostelry overlooking beautiful Lake Mohonk, in the Shawangum range,
invited a number of prominent Indian workers to meet as his guests for
discussion of actual conditions and necessary reforms. With this historic
meeting began an uninterrupted series of "Mohonk Indian Conferences," at
which missionaries of all denominations, Government officials, members of
Congress, representatives of philanthropic societies, teachers in Indian
schools, editors, ministers, and other influential men and women, with a
sprinkling of educated Indians, meet annually at the call of Mr. Smiley, and
since his death in 1912 at that of his brother, Mr. Daniel Smiley, to discuss
all matters bearing upon the welfare of the race in a sympathetic

atmosphere and amid the pleasantest surroundings. Mr. Smiley was a
member of the Board of Indian Commissioners, and for many years these
conferences were closely connected with the affairs of the Board, and the
proceedings were published as a part of its annual report.
The platform adopted each year at Lake Mohonk is widely circulated, and
has had much influence; although, as it represents only the unanimous vote
of a body among whom there actually exist wide differences of opinion, it is
not always as satisfactory as it might be. It has seemed to some who
attended the early conferences that those of late years have been less
fruitful, owing partly to less novelty in the subject-matter and to the sharing
of the time with problems of Hawaii and the Philippines, and partly to a
desire for unanimity and good feeling that has kept unpleasant facts from
the light. It is certain that the debates are more carefully pre-arranged and
therefore less spontaneous.
The Mohonk Conferences have consistently recommended larger
appropriations for Indian education; the extension of the laws of the land
over Indian reservations; the gradual withdrawal of rations; the allotment of
communal land to individuals, and more recently the breaking up of the
tribal trust funds into individual holdings. Emphasis has been laid upon the
need of greater care in selecting men of character as Indian agents and
superintendents. The thirty-first conference urges a vigorous campaign
against tuberculosis, trachoma, and other diseases among Indians, also
against the liquor traffic, and mescal habit, and declares that the proposition
to control Indian affairs through a non-partisan commission to serve during
long terms is "worthy of serious consideration." It also makes special
recommendations in behalf of the Pueblo, the Navajo, the Five Civilized
Tribes of Oklahoma, and the New York Indians, looking toward their
present protection and future citizenship.
These "Eastern sentimentalists," as they have often been called by persons
interested in depriving the red man of his heritage, have pursued their ends
steadily, though not without severe setbacks. The opposition to Indian
schools in Congress was for many years very strong, but it has now almost
ceased, except in sporadic instances. One seldom hears it said nowadays
that "the only good Indian is the dead Indian," and the Western Senator who
declared that "you could no more civilize an Apache than you could civilize

a rattlesnake" would rather shock than convince his hearers in the light of
present-day progress. The greatest enemy to Indian civilization has been the
return of the "spoils system" in the eighties, and the formation of a corrupt
"Indian ring" whose ramifications extended so deep and so high that even
the most sincere and disinterested despaired of obtaining justice. Yet the
average American citizen honestly wants to give the Indian a fair chance!
To sum up, he had been an indomitable foe, and occupied a vast region
which by 1870 was already beat upon by the tides of settlement. Two things
were determined upon: First, he must be induced, bribed, or forced to enter
the reservation. Second, he must be trained and persuaded to adopt civilized
life, and so saved to the future if he proved to be worth saving, which many
doubted. In order to carry out these projects his wild food supply had to be
ruthlessly cut off, and the buffalo were of necessity sacrificed.
Here is a system which has gradually taken its present complicated form
during two thousand years. A primitive race has put it on ready made, to a
large extent, within two generations. In order to accomplish such a feat,
they had to fight physical demoralization, psychological confusion, and
spiritual apathy. In other words, the old building had to be pulled down,
foundations and all, and replaced by the new. But you have had to use the
same timber!

CHAPTER V

THE INDIAN IN SCHOOL

The thought of educating the natives of America was first conceived by the
earliest explorer-priests, prompted by ecclesiastical ambition and religious
zeal. Churches and missionary societies among the early colonists
undertook both to preach and teach among the children of the forest, who,
said they, "must either be moralized or exterminated." Schools and missions
were established and maintained among them by the mother churches in
England and Scotland, and in a few cases by the colonists themselves. It
was provided in the charters of our oldest colleges that a certain number of
Indian pupils should be educated therein, and others, as Dartmouth and
Hamilton, were founded primarily for Indian youth. The results, though
meagre, were on the whole deserving of consideration. In the middle of the
eighteenth century there were said to be some Indian boys in Stockbridge,
Mass., who "read English well," and at Harvard several excelled in the
classics. Joseph Brant, though a terror to the colonists during the
Revolution, was a man of rare abilities and considerable education; and
Samson Occum, the most famous educated Indian of his day, was not only
an eloquent preacher and successful teacher but an accomplished hymn-
writer. The visit of "the great Mohegan" to England in 1765, when he
preached more than three hundred times and raised some ten thousand
pounds for Dartmouth College, was perhaps the most striking incident of
his career.
From this early chapter of Indian education we find it clearly proven that
individual red men were able to assimilate the classical culture of the
period, and capable, moreover, of loyalty toward the new ideals no less than
the old. The utter disregard of hygiene then prevalent, and the further facts
that industrial training was neglected and little or no attention paid to the
girls, would account to the modern mind for many disappointments.
However, most of the so-called "failure" of this work is directly traceable to
unjust laws, social segregation, frequent wars, strong drink, and the greed of
the whites for Indian lands, one or all of which causes destroyed many

promising beginnings and exterminated whole tribes or drove them from
well-established homes into poverty and exile.

EARLY MISSION AND CONTRACT SCHOOLS

Beginning with the first years of the nineteenth century, practically every
religious denomination in America carried on more or less educational work
among the natives. In some cases the Indians themselves contributed toward
the expense of these schools, and in others the United States Government
gave meagre aid. As early as 1775 the Continental Congress had
appropriated five hundred dollars for the support and education of youths at
Dartmouth College. This was, however, less an act of benevolence than of
self-interest, since its avowed object was to conciliate the friendship of
those Indians who might be inclined to ally themselves with the British
during the struggle for independence.
From the year 1819 to 1848 ten thousand dollars annually was distributed
by the Government among mission schools of various denominations, and
in the latter year there were one hundred and three such schools, with over
three thousand pupils. In 1870 the appropriation was increased to one
hundred thousand; and about 1873, during Grant's administration, already
described as marking a new era for the red man, the Government began to
develop a school system of its own, but did not therefore discontinue its aid
to the mission boards. On the contrary, such aid was largely increased in the
form of "contracts."
The usual rule was to pay a fixed sum (commonly $167 per capita per
annum) for each pupil actually in attendance, the religious society or
individual to whom the contract was given providing buildings, teachers,
and equipment. It does not appear that there was any unjust discrimination
between religious bodies in the application of these funds, and the fact that
in the course of a few years a large and increasing proportion passed under
the control of the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions must be attributed
entirely to their superior enterprise and activity. This was a period of

awakening and rapid growth. By 1886 the total appropriations for Indian
education had risen to more than $1,000,000, and the contracts aggregated
$31,000. In ten years more the Catholics alone drew $314,000. But, during
this decade, the policy of assisting sectarian schools with the public money,
claimed to be a violation of the American principle of separation of Church
and State, had been continuously under fire; and in 1895 it was finally
decided by Congress to reduce the contracts 20 per cent. each year until
abolished.
Meantime, the Methodists first in 1892, followed by all the other Protestant
bodies, voluntarily relinquished their contracts, but the Catholics kept up
the fight to the end; nevertheless, in 1900, all Congressional appropriations
for sectarian schools were finally withdrawn.
Naturally this reversal of a policy of such long standing, even though due
notice had been given, worked serious hardship to schools established in the
expectation of its continuance. Bishop Hare's valuable work in South
Dakota was crippled, particularly as the principle at issue was so interpreted
by the Indian office as to forbid the issue of treaty rations to children
enrolled in mission schools, although they would have received such rations
had they not been in school at all.
It was held by the Bureau of Catholic Indian missions that Indian treaty and
trust funds are in a different class from moneys derived from the taxpayers,
and that it is perfectly legitimate for a tribe to assign a portion of its own
revenues to the support of a mission school. The Supreme Court has since
declared this view to be correct, and accordingly this church still utilizes
tribal funds to a considerable amount each year. Rations were also restored
to certain schools by act of Congress in 1906.
As in the case of the sectarian protests against President Grant's policy in
regard to manning the Indian agencies, I believe that religious prejudice has
been a real misfortune to our people. General Armstrong, in an address
given at Lake Mohonk in 1890, expressed the well-founded opinion that the
industrial work of the Catholic schools is as good as any, often superior; the
academic work generally inferior, while on the moral and religious side he
found them at their best.

CARLISLE AND HAMPTON

The Carlisle School in Pennsylvania was the first non-reservation boarding
school to be established, a pioneer and a leader in this important class of
schools, of which there are now thirty-five, scattered throughout the Middle
and Western States. General R. H. Pratt (then Lieutenant Pratt), while in
charge of Indian prisoners of war at Saint Augustine, Florida, made
important reforms in their treatment, which led in 1878, when their release
was ordered by the War Department, to a request on the part of twenty-two
of the younger men for further education. Seventeen of these were received
at Hampton Institute, Virginia, General Armstrong's celebrated school for
freedmen, and the next year an Indian department was organized at
Hampton, while General Pratt was authorized, at his own suggestion, to
establish an Indian school in the abandoned army barracks at Carlisle.
The school opened with 147 pupils. There were many difficulties and much
unintelligent opposition in the beginning, but wonderful success attended
General Pratt's administration. For many years Carlisle has enrolled about
1,200 pupils each year, keeping almost half of them on farms and in good
homes in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, where they work for board and
wages in summer, while a smaller number attend the public school during
the colder months. They earn and save about thirty thousand dollars
annually. This "outing system" was devised by General Pratt, and has been
adopted elsewhere, though not always with equal success.
Periodical attacks have been made upon the Carlisle school, usually from
political or purely selfish motives; but it has survived them all. General
Pratt's policy was to take the young Indian wholly out of his environment
and the motives as well as the habits of his former life, and in support of it
he has opposed some of the methods of the missionaries. His advice to his
graduates is to remain east and compete in civilization. He has worked with
tremendous energy and great single-mindedness, and has often been
undiplomatic in his criticisms, thus incurring some enmity. But, upon the
whole, his theory is the very backbone of Indian education, and in fact we
are following it to-day.

It is the impression of the most advanced members of the race that he has
rendered to them and to the country a particular service, and that the
wonderful progress demonstrated by the Indian in recent years is due in
large measure to his work, and to its results as seen at Hampton and
Carlisle. These schools are visited by hundreds of people every year, and
have furnished a convincing object-lesson to the many who opposed Indian
education on theory alone. The other thirty-four non-reservation schools
were secured with comparative ease after he had proved his case.
The Indian department at Hampton Institute, which opened in 1878 with
General Pratt's seventeen prisoners of war, flourished for more than thirty
years, and provided for the education of more than one hundred Indian
pupils each year in "the hand, the heart, and the head." General Armstrong,
one of America's heroes of peace, was an enthusiastic champion of the red
man's cause, and as an object-lesson to the public, as well as in training
native teachers and leaders, his great school has contributed much to the
new era. It was decided by Congress a year or two ago to withdraw the
Government appropriation of $20,000 annually from the Hampton school,
but notwithstanding this, more than thirty Indian pupils remain to work
their way through, with some assistance from free scholarships.
Hampton claims to have been the first school to begin keeping systematic
records of its returned Indian students, and by means of these records the
school is able to show satisfactory and encouraging results of its work for
Indians.
In reply to the oft-asked question: "Do educated Indians go back to the
blanket?" it should be said, first, that return to Indian dress in isolated
communities where this is still the common dress of the people is not
necessarily retrogression. It may be only a wise conformity to custom.
Investigation has shown, however, that very few graduates of any school
ever do reassume Indian dress or ways. Of those who have attended school
but two or three years in all, a larger proportion may do so. A northwestern
school reports that out of a total of 234 graduates only three are known to
be failures. The most recent Carlisle report shows that of 565 living
graduates, all but 69 are known to be profitably employed in a wide variety
of occupations; 110 are in the Government service. There are also 3,800 ex-
students, not graduates, of whom a large majority are successful. Hampton

has 878 living returned Indian students, of whom 87 per cent. are recorded
as doing well.
In 1897 the Indian Bureau required all Indian agents and superintendents to
report upon the conduct and usefulness of every student returned from a
non-reservation school. Such an investigation was sure not to be unduly
favorable, and the report showed 76 per cent. of successes. In 1901 a more
careful inquiry raised it to 86 per cent.

MISSION SCHOOLS OF TO-DAY

It must not be supposed that the downfall of the contract system and the
development of Government work has meant the end of distinctively
mission schools for Indians. Although a few have been closed, there are still
many in successful operation under the various church boards, the Indians
themselves willingly contributing to their support. Indeed, this feature of
partial self-support is much in their favor, as it is certain that an education
that costs the recipient something is of more worth.
Except for a few plants taken over by the Government, the Catholics
continue to conduct their fine agricultural boarding-schools, notably those
among the Sioux. Bishop Hare of the Episcopal Church began his labors
among the same people in 1873; and in nothing was his statesmanlike
breadth of mind more clearly shown than in the foundation of a system of
excellent boarding-schools, of which at one time there were five under his
watchful care, where from thirty to seventy children each were sheltered
and taught in the atmosphere of a sunny Christian home. It was impossible
to carry them all after the discontinuance of all Government aid, either in
money or rations, but, although the Bishop died in 1909, Saint Mary's at
Rosebud and Saint Elizabeth's at Standing Rock remain a monument to his
memory.
The Presbyterian Church conducts two successful boarding and a number of
day schools; and the Congregationalists have concentrated their efforts
upon a large training-school at Santee, Nebraska, under the veteran

missionary teacher, Rev. Alfred L. Riggs. At Santee the Indian boys and
girls are given a practical education developed to fit their peculiar needs—
its goal the training of teachers, preachers, and leaders in every walk of life.
Here I received my first impulse toward a career in 1875-6. In all these
schools, even those where the material equipment is insufficient, there is
more emphasis upon character-building, more of permanence and in general
higher qualifications in the teaching force than under Government.

VIRTUES AND DEFECTS OF THE PRESENT
SYSTEM

There has been nearly $90,000,000 appropriated by Congress since 1876
for Indian education. The appropriation for 1915 was over $4,500,000. Yet
even more is needed. The Indian Bureau estimates 77,000 Indian children
of school age; of these about 27,000 are provided for in Government
schools, 4,000 in mission and 25,000 in public schools, leaving about
20,000 entirely neglected, besides an estimated 7,000 sick and defective
children, who need hospital schools or some form of special care.
The present system includes day and boarding schools on the reservations,
as well as the large industrial schools off the reservations. In 1913 there
were reported two hundred and twenty-three day schools and seventy-six
reservation boarding-schools. The training in the former is elementary; and
the most advanced goes little beyond the eighth grammar grade in the
public school, though at Carlisle and a few others there are short normal
and business courses. In 1882 a superintendent was appointed to inspect
and correlate these widely scattered institutions, and a few years later a
corps of supervisors was put in the field. Since 1891 there have been
institutes and summer schools conducted for the benefit of the teachers.
It is the rule in all boarding-schools that one half the time of each pupil be
given to industrial work, which includes most of the labor involved in
running the kitchen, dining-room, laundry, sewing-room, and school farm
or garden, as well as systematic training in housekeeping, agriculture, and

the mechanical trades. The age of graduation is usually from seventeen to
twenty-five or even more. This retardation is to be attributed partly to the
half-day system; partly to frequent transfers from one school to another, and
consequent loss of grade; and in the poorer schools to inefficiency of
teachers and lack of ambition on the part of pupils. It must be remembered,
moreover, that the subjects and methods of study, in language, mathematics,
and abstract ideas of all kinds, were entirely foreign to the untutored Indian
mind. It is difficult to study in a foreign language even when the subject of
study is familiar; the Indian student is expected to master subjects
absolutely unknown to him in his own life. Yet I have heard teachers
experienced in public school work declare that these children of nature are
as responsive as white children; in writing and drawing they excel; and
discipline is easier, at least among the wilder tribes. The result in thirty or
forty years has opened the eyes of many who heretofore held the theory that
the Indian will always remain Indian.
Admitting that these schools compare well with state institutions which are
on a similar basis, and are controlled by political appointments, there are
some abuses, as might be expected. While there are fine men in charge of
certain schools, there are others who are neither efficient nor sympathetic
with the cause of Indian uplift. Most regrettable is the fact that the moral
influence of such schools has been at different times very low. The pupils
themselves have come to look upon them as political institutions and to
discard all genuine effort. It is a case of serve the master and he will not
bother you; all else is merely show. I believe that there has been some
improvement in recent years, chiefly on account of the protection given by
the rules of the civil service. Let the teacher set an example of honest living
and the scholar will be sure to follow; but if the one is a hypocrite, the other
will become one. Remember, you have induced or forced the Indian mother
to give up her five and six year old children on your promise to civilize,
educate, Christianize—but not subsidize or commercialize them!
Some of the reservations are oversupplied with schools, while others,
notably the Navajo, have almost none. In the former case, the Indian parents
are kept in an anxious state and often very unhappy. Since the Indian
Bureau has required the superintendent to keep up his quota of pupils, or
the number of teachers and the total appropriation will be reduced in
proportion, he may be compelled, as some one has said, to "rob the cradle

and the grave"—in other words, he is not careful to omit those under age
and the sickly ones. Much harm has been done by placing children in an
advanced stage of tuberculosis in the same dormitory with healthy
youngsters. Irregular attendance is too often tolerated; and a serious evil is
the admission of children of well-to-do parents, who dress their young folks
extravagantly, supply them with unlimited spending money, and who, in all
reason, should be required to pay for their support and education.
Another drawback lies in the fact that each new Commissioner of Indian
Affairs, usually a man without special knowledge or experience in the
complex work over which he is called to preside, comes out with a scheme
for reforming the whole system. Perhaps he advocates doing away with
Carlisle and the schools of its class, and places all the emphasis upon the
little day schools in the Indian camps; or it may be vice versa. All the
advance we have made is through all of these schools; we cannot spare any
of them. We should be a thousand times better off if the reformers could rid
us of the professional politicians, but I fear this is impossible. I have
abandoned all hope of it, after long experience both in the field and in
Washington. I would give up anything rather than the schools, unmoral as
many of them are. The pupils become every year better fitted to choose and
to combat the evil in their environment. They will soon be able to prepare
themselves for the new life without taking notice of what does not concern
them. I rejoice in every real gain; and I predict that the Indian will soon
adjust himself fully to the requirements of the age, be able to appreciate its
magnificent achievements, and contribute his mite to the modern
development of the land of his ancestors.

CHAPTER VI

THE INDIAN AT HOME

Although among the graduates and ex-students of the Indian schools there
are now some in almost every modern occupation, including commerce, the
trades and professions, the great majority of these young people, as of their
fellow tribesmen who lack an English education, are farmers, ranchers, and
stockmen. Nearly all Indians own some land, either individually or in
common; and while it may generally be leased by those who are either
unable or for good reasons do not desire to work it themselves, this is done
under such troublesome restrictions and conditions that it is, as a general
rule, better for the owner to live on and utilize his allotment. Of course this
is a rule that admits of many exceptions.

THE PROBLEM OF SELF-SUPPORT

Since most Indian reservations are in the arid belt and the greater portion of
the land is therefore unsuited to agriculture, at least without extensive
irrigation, perhaps the larger number of the men are stock-raisers, an
occupation well suited to the Plains Indians, who are great riders and very
fond of their horses. They raise both horses and cattle, and many have
become well-to-do from this source. From time to time their herds are
improved by well-bred stallions and mares and blooded cattle, furnished by
the Government under treaty stipulations. The total valuation of stock
belonging to Indians, both individual and tribal, is now twenty-two million
dollars in round numbers, according to the tables furnished by the Indian
Bureau. This estimate includes sheep, goats, and poultry. The Navajoes,
who number about 22,000 and are in a fairly primitive state, having few
schools or missionaries among them, are thrifty and successful sheep-
herders and entirely self-supporting. The value of crops raised by Indians
during the last fiscal year is estimated at more than four millions.

In a word, the typical red man of to-day is a rancher on a large or small
scale. He has displayed quite as much intelligence and aptitude for the work
as could be expected. There have been serious handicaps, other than the
tradition among us that the cultivation of the soil is a feminine rather than a
manly occupation. I may mention the occupation of the best lands by white
settlers, with or without our consent; the ration system; and the "spoils
system" as applied to the appointment of our superintendents and
instructors in farming.
Take the Sioux, for example—a strong and self-respecting people who had
shown a willingness to fight for their rights when it became necessary. They
were presently corralled upon reservations in a land of little rain, and given
enough food to sustain life, under a solemn engagement to continue feeding
"until they became self-supporting." There was scant opportunity and still
less inducement to become so; accordingly only a few of the more
ambitious or energetic worked at teaming or whatever they could get to do,
improved their homes, acquired stock, and gradually fought their way
upward. For many years this clause in the treaty was not applied to
individuals; that is, it was interpreted to mean that all should receive rations
until all became self-supporting. Twenty years ago, when I lived among
them as agency doctor, Government and mission workers of Indian blood,
well-to-do mixed bloods, and intermarried white men all drew their rations
regularly, with very few exceptions.
About a dozen years ago tardy steps were taken to carry out the evident
intention of the treaty, which had hitherto been defeated by keeping it to the
letter. Rations were withdrawn from all who had other sufficient means of
support. This seemed like imposing a penalty upon industry; but it was soon
followed by requiring all able-bodied men to perform a certain amount of
labor for the common benefit, such as road-making, bridge building, etc., in
return for money or rations. This was a great advance even though
accompanied by some evils, notably the neglect of allotments while their
families camped with the gangs of laborers on different parts of the
reservation. Later, the same credit was allowed for days' labor performed in
improving their own homesteads and putting up hay for their cattle. More
cows and better farming implements have been issued in recent years, and
there is a wholesome effort to make the work of the so-called agency or
"district farmers" less of a farce than it has often been in the past.

These farmers number about 250 and are employees of the Indian service.
They are supposed to instruct and assist the Indians of their respective
districts in modern methods of agriculture; but there has been a time,
probably not altogether past, when they were occupied chiefly in drawing
water, filling ice-houses, and a variety of similar "chores" for the agent and
his subordinates. In many cases they themselves knew little of practical
farming, or their experience lay in a soil and climate utterly unlike that of
the Indian country to which they came.
Hon. Cato Sells, the present Commissioner of Indian Affairs, states in his
first annual report that he is placing more emphasis upon agriculture than
upon any other activity of the Indian Bureau. He requires the farmers to
make their homes in the districts to which they are assigned, and to keep in
close touch with the people. They are furnished with modern agricultural
text-books, and demonstration farms or experiment stations are maintained
at convenient points. Thirty-seven practical stockmen have also been
employed to give special attention to this part of the work, and the Indians
are said to be coöperating intelligently in the effort to improve their
breeding stock.
At certain agencies farming implements and seed are loaned to Indians who
have no other means of securing them, and hundreds who have been so
helped are meeting their payments when due with commendable
promptness. Agricultural fairs have been held in recent years at twenty or
more Indian agencies, arousing much local interest, and an increasing
number of Indian farmers are taking part in county and state fairs.
In several of the Northwestern States the value of the timber on Indian lands
is enormous; the latest official estimate is eighty-four million dollars. If the
Indian had been allowed to cut his own pine and run his own sawmills, we
should now have native lumber kings as well as white. This is not
permitted, however; and a paternal Government sells the stumpage for the
benefit of its wards, who are fortunate if the money received for it has not
seeped out of the official envelope or withered away of the prevailing
disease called "political consumption."
The irrigation force of the Bureau consists of an inspector and seven
subordinates, who supervise irrigation projects on the various reservations,

upon which more than half a million dollars was expended during the last
fiscal year. The protection of water rights, notably those of the Pimas in
Arizona, a peaceful and industrious tribe who have suffered severely from
the loss of their water at the hands of unprincipled white men, is of primary
importance.
Oil and gas, especially in Oklahoma, are proving enormously valuable, and
are being mined under leases executed by the Bureau. Many Indians are
becoming well-to-do from the payment of royalties, but it cannot be
doubted that the biggest prizes go, as usual, to our white brothers.
The Indian office maintains an employment bureau to assist in finding
profitable work for Indians, particularly returned students, and I am
informed from trustworthy sources that it has met with fair success. It is
headed by a Carlisle graduate, Charles E. Dagenett, who was trained for a
business career. Considerable numbers of Indians, particularly in the
Southwest, are provided with employment in the sugar-beet fields, in
harvesting canteloupes and other fruits, in railroad construction, irrigation
projects, and other fields of activity, and it appears that their work gives
general satisfaction.

INDIAN WOMEN AS HOME-MAKERS

Probably the average white man still believes that the Indian woman of the
old days was little more than a beast of burden to her husband. But the
missionary who has lived among his people, the sympathetic observer of
their every-day life, holds a very different opinion. You may generally see
the mother and her babe folded close in one shawl, indicating the real and
most important business of her existence. Without the child, life is but a
hollow play, and all Indians pity the couple who are unable to obey the
primary command, the first law of real happiness.
She has always been the silent but telling power behind life's activities, and
at the same time shared equally with her mate the arduous duties of
primitive society. Possessed of true feminine dignity and modesty, she was

expected to be his equal in physical endurance and skill, but his superior in
spiritual insight. She was looked to for the endowment of her child with
nature's gifts and powers, and no woman of any race has ever come closer
to universal mother-hood.
She was the spiritual teacher of the child, as well as its tender nurse, and she
brought its developing soul before the "Great Mystery" as soon as she was
aware of its coming. When she had finished her work, at the age of five to
eight years, she turned her boy over to his father for manly training, and to
the grandparents for traditional instruction, but the girl child remained
under her close and thoughtful supervision. She preserved man from soul-
killing materialism by herself owning what few possessions they had, and
thus branding possession as feminine. The movable home was hers, with all
its belongings, and she ruled there unquestioned. She was, in fact, the moral
salvation of the race; all virtue was entrusted to her, and her position was
recognized by all. It was held in all gentleness and discretion, under the rule
that no woman could talk much or loudly until she became a grandmother.
The Indian woman suffered greatly during the transition period of
civilization, when men were demoralized by whiskey, and possession
became masculine. The division of labor did not readily adjust itself to the
change, so that her burdens were multiplied while her influence decreased.
Tribe after tribe underwent the catastrophe of a disorganized and disunited
family life.
To-day, I am glad to say, we have still reason to thank our Indian mothers
for the best part of our manhood. A great many of them are earnest
Christian women, who have carried their native uprightness and devoted
industry over into the new life. The annual reports of the missionaries show
large sums, running into the thousands of dollars, raised by the self-denying
labor of the native women for the support of their churches and other
Christian work.
As the men have gradually assumed the responsibility of the outdoor toil,
cultivating the fields and building the houses, the women have undertaken
the complicated housekeeping tasks of their white sisters. It is true that until
they understood the civilized way of cooking and the sanitation of
stationary homes, the race declined in health and vigor. For the great

improvement noticeable in these directions, much credit is due to the field
matrons of the Indian Service.
The field matron is sometimes called the "Going-around woman," or the
"Clean-up woman," and her house-to-house teaching and inspection is
undoubtedly of much practical value. She is often the physician's right hand
in follow-up work among his patients, especially the women and children.
Some of the most efficient women in the service are themselves of Indian
blood, such as Mrs. Annie Dawson Wilde of Fort Berthold, a graduate of
Hampton and of a state normal school, who has given many years to this
work. Similar instruction is sometimes given by day-school teachers and
woman missionaries.

MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY

The social morality of the various tribes differs very much at the present
time. Under our original customs, the purity of woman and the home was
safeguarded by strict rules, with severe penalties for their transgression.
When, however, native customs were broken down without the efficient
substitution of civilized laws, there was much social irregularity.
Plural marriages were permissible under our system, but were not very
general, and plural wives were usually sisters. The missionaries, and in
some instances the Federal authorities, have required elderly men to
abandon all but one wife, leading to difficult problems. Many of the
younger generation are now legally married, and an effort is made to oblige
them to secure legal divorces when a separation is sought, but as some state
courts hold that they have no jurisdiction to hear applications of non-citizen
Indians living on reservations, this is often impracticable, and naturally the
dissatisfied simply abandon wife or husband, and perhaps take another by
Indian custom only. It is advisable that family records be more strictly kept
than is now the case.

UNEDUCATED LEADERS AMONG INDIANS

I wish to refute the common misconception that it is only the educated and
Christian Indian who has contributed to the progress of his people and to
the common good of both races. There are many men wholly unlettered,
and some of whom have not proclaimed themselves followers of Christ,
who have yet exerted great influence on the side of civilization. Almost
every tribe has a hero of this type who arose at a critical juncture to lead his
fellows.
In the early part of the nineteenth century there was Little Turtle, a
celebrated Miami chief, who, to be sure, defended his country bravely, but
when he made a treaty he stood by it faithfully, and advocated peace and
civilization for his people. The Pottawatomie chief Pokagon was another,
whose son Simon Pokagon was prominent at the World's Fair in Chicago. A
leading contemporary of these men was Keokuk of the Sacs and Foxes.
Wabashaw the third, of the Mississippi Sioux, was known as a strong friend
to civilization; and so was my own great-grandfather, Chief Cloud Man,
whose village occupied the present site of the city of Minneapolis. His son,
Appearing Sacred Stone, whose English name was David Weston, was a
fine character—a hereditary chief who took a homestead at Flandreau and
became a native preacher under Bishop Hare.
Chief Strike-the-Ree, by whose influence and diplomacy the Yankton Sioux
were kept neutral throughout the Sioux wars; Lone Wolf of the Kiowas,
Quanah Parker of the Comanches, whose mother was a white captive, and
Governor James Big Heart of the Osages were all men of this type, natural
leaders and statesmen. Iron Eyes, or Joseph La Flesche, a head chief of the
Omahas, was a notable leader in progressive ways; and so is John Grass of
the Blackfoot Sioux, also a distinguished orator.
Men like this, of native force and fire, but without advantages other than
those shared by the mass of their people, are possibly more deserving of
honor than are the few who have made the most of exceptional

opportunities. If anything, they illustrate more clearly the innate capacity
and moral strength of the race.
When it is considered that of the three hundred and odd thousand Indians in
the United States, only about two thirds are still living on reservations under
the control of the Indian Bureau, the official figures concerning that two
thirds are surprising to most of us. We are told that 50,000 able-bodied
adults are entirely self-supporting, and that only 17,000 Indians of all
classes are receiving rations. Twenty-two thousand are employed on wages
and salaries, earning more than two million dollars yearly. Three fourths of
the families live in permanent houses; 100,000 persons speak English, and
161,000 wear citizen's clothing. Such is the average present-day Indian at
home—a man who earns his own living, speaks the language of the country,
wears its dress, and obeys its laws. Surely it is but one step further to
American citizenship!

CHAPTER VII

THE INDIAN AS A CITIZEN

We have taken note of the reluctance of the American Indian to develop an
organized community life, though few appreciate his reasons for preferring
a simpler social ideal. As a matter of fact as well as sentiment, he was well
content with his own customs and philosophy. Nevertheless, after due
protest and resistance, he has accepted the situation; and, having accepted
it, he is found to be easily governed by civilized law and usages. It has been
demonstrated more than once that he is capable of sustaining a high moral
and social standard when placed under wise guidance and at the same time
protected from the barbarians of civilization.

MODEL INDIAN COMMUNITIES

William Duncan, an Englishman, came among a band of Alaskan natives
about the middle of the last century, and they formed a strong mutual
attachment. The friendship of these simple people was not misplaced, and
Mr. Duncan did not misuse it for his own advantage, as is too apt to be the
case with a white man. He adapted himself to their temperament and sense
of natural justice, but gradually led them to prefer civilized habits and
industries, and finally to accept the character of Christ as their standard. He
used the forms of the Church of England, but modified them as good sense
dictated.
They worked together in good faith for a generation; and as a result there
was founded the Christian community of Metlakatla, Alaska, almost an
ideal little republic, so long as no self-seeking Anglo-Saxon interfered with
its workings. The Indians became carpenters, blacksmiths, farmers,
gardeners, as well as better fishermen. They established a sawmill and a
salmon cannery. They built houses and boats, and finally a steamboat,

which was run by one of their number. Mr. Duncan never allowed strong
drink to enter the colony; he was the only white man among a thousand
Indians, and so strong was their faith in him that he was accepted as their
leader both practically and spiritually. He devoted his whole life to them,
and never married. Some of the young people he sent away to the States to
school: among them Edward Marsden, a many-sided man, who is not only a
graduate of a small college in Ohio and of a theological seminary, but has
some knowledge of law and medicine, is an able seaman, and an efficient
machinist.
The Metlakatlans are not technically citizens, though discharging many
civic duties. In 1887 they were compelled to leave their island on account
of difficulties with the local church authorities, who were not broad enough
to admit the simple sufficiency of Mr. Duncan's lay ministrations. He
removed with his people to another island, where they are now living under
the protection of the United States flag. In view of the lessons of history,
they are likely to undergo a severe trial and considerable demoralization as
soon as they mingle freely with the surrounding whites. They have so far
developed and enjoyed much of what is best in civilization without its evils
and temptations; and whenever one of them does infringe upon their simple
but exacting code he is summarily dealt with.
Here is another illustration: In 1869 those Sioux who had been for three
years confined in a military prison, on account of the outbreak of 1862,
were placed upon a small reservation at Santee, Nebraska. My father was
among them. He had thought much, and concluded that reservation life
meant practically life imprisonment and death to manhood. He also saw that
our wild life was almost at an end; therefore he resolved to grasp the only
chance remaining to the red man—namely, to plunge boldly into the white
man's life, and swim or die.
With twenty-five or thirty fellow-tribesmen who were of like mind with
himself, he set out for the Big Sioux River to take up a homestead like a
white man. Far from urging it, Government officials disapproved and
discouraged this brave undertaking. The Indians selected a choice location,
forty miles above what is now the beautiful little city of Sioux Falls, South
Dakota, and here they established the first Sioux citizen community. The
post-office was named Flandreau, and formed the nucleus of a large and

flourishing town. Remember, this was six years before Sitting Bull and
Crazy Horse made their last stand on the Little Big Horn, where they wiped
out General Custer's command, the Seventh Cavalry.
This remarkable Indian colony became known far and wide. The Sioux
were bona fide homesteaders and met all the requirements of the law. They
occupied thirty miles of the finest bottom lands with their timber; except for
these wooded river bottoms, the country is all treeless prairie. They were all
Presbyterians and devout church-goers. Rev. John P. Williamson was their
much-loved missionary; and their church was served for many years by a
native pastor—my brother, Rev. John Eastman. Nearly all built good
homes. Mr. Williamson says, and Moody County records corroborate the
statement, that for twenty years there was not a single crime or
misdemeanor recorded against one of these Indians.
As the Big Sioux valley is noted for its fertility, it was not long before the
rest of the land was taken up by white farmers. These Indians proved good
neighbors. It is told of them that, during the hard years 1873 to 1875, when
drought and grasshoppers afflicted the land, they organized a relief society
for the benefit of their poorer white neighbors, and in many instances
furnished them with cordwood as well as seed-corn and potatoes.
For years the Flandreau Sioux controlled the politics of Moody County, and
although after the district had become more thickly settled they lost their
numerical preponderance, they still wielded much influence in years when
the parties were pretty equally divided. As late as 1898 they held the
balance of power, and were accordingly treated with respectful
consideration.
From this little Indian community more than one earnest youth has gone
forth to work for race and country in a wider field. My father brought me
there from wild life in Canada in 1872, and after two years in the little day
school he sent me away to master the secret of the white man's power. Only
a few years earlier he himself was a wild Sioux warrior, whose ambitions
ran wholly along the traditional lines of his people. Who can say that
civilization is beyond the reach of the untutored primitive man in a single
generation? It did not take my father two thousand years, or ten years, to
grasp its essential features; and although he never went to school a day in

his life, he lived a broad-minded and self-respecting citizen. It took me
about fifteen years to prepare to enter it on the plane of a professional man,
and I have stayed with it ever since.
It is noticeable that when the Flandreaus consented to reënter their names
on the tribal rolls in order to regain their inheritance, they fell into the claws
of the professional politicians, and a degree of demoralization set in. Yet
during the early period of free initiative and self-development, some of their
best youth had gone out and are now lost in the world at large, in the sense
that they are wholly separated from their former life, and are contributing
their mite to the common good. Those who remain, as well as other bands
of citizen Sioux with whom I am acquainted, are becoming more and more
completely identified with the general farming population of Nebraska and
the Dakotas.

LEGAL STATUS OF INDIANS

The door to American citizenship has been open to the Indian in general
only since the passage of the Dawes severalty act, in 1887. Before that date
his status was variously defined as that of a member of an independent
foreign nation, of a "domestic dependent nation," as a ward of the
Government, or, as some one has wittily said, a "perpetual inhabitant with
diminutive rights." The Dawes act conferred upon those who accepted
allotments of land in severalty the protection of the courts and all the rights
of citizenship, including the suffrage. It also provided that the land thus
patented to the individual Indian could not be alienated nor was it taxable
for a period of twenty-five years from the date of allotment.
Of the 330,000 Indians in the United States, considerably more than half are
now allotted, and 70,000 hold patents in fee. The latest report of the Indian
Bureau gives the total number of Indian citizens at about 75,000. Those still
living on communal land are being allotted at the rate of about 5,000 a year.
The question of taxation of allotments has been a vexed one. Some Indians
have hesitated to accept full citizenship because of fear of taxation; while

white men living in the vicinity of large Indian holdings have naturally
objected to shouldering the entire burden. Yet as the last census shows 73
per cent. of all Indians as taxed and counted toward the population of their
Congressional districts, it appears that taxed or taxable Indians are not
necessarily citizens; though they must be considered, in the words of Prof.
F. A. McKenzie, who compiled the Indian census, as at least "potential
citizens."
The so-called "Burke bill" (1906) provides that Indians allotted after that
date shall not be declared citizens until after the expiration of the twenty-
five-year trust period. This act has served no particular purpose except to
further confuse the status of the Indian. The "Carter code bill," now pending
in Congress, provides for a commission of experts to codify existing
statutes and define this status clearly, and has been strongly endorsed by the
Society of American Indians and the Indian Rights Association. It ought to
be made law.
There is a special law under which an Indian may apply to be freed from
guardianship by proving his ability to manage his own affairs. If his
application is approved by the Interior Department, he may then rent or sell
his property at will. About five hundred such applications were approved
during the fiscal year 1912-13.
The Pueblos and a few other Indians are or may become citizens under
special treaty stipulations. The 5,000 New York Indians, although among
those longest in contact with civilization, yet because of state treaties and
the claims of the Ogden Land Company, still hold their lands in common,
and are backward morally and socially. It is likely that the United States
will eventually pay the company's claim of $200,000 to free these people. A
few of them are well educated and have attained citizenship as individuals
by separating themselves from their tribe. Professor McKenzie, who has
deeply studied the situation for years, proposes a scheme of progressive
advance toward full citizenship, each step to be accompanied by decreasing
paternal control: as, for instance: (1) Tribal ward; (2) Allotted ward; (3)
Citizen ward; (4) Full citizen.

INDIANS AS POLITICIANS

In almost every state there are some Indian voters, and in South Dakota and
Oklahoma there are counties officered and controlled by Indian citizens. It
is interesting to note that the citizen Indian is no ignorant or indifferent
voter. If he learns and masters anything at all, it is the politics of his county
and state. It is a matter of long experience with him, as he has been handled
by politicians ever since he entered the reservation, and there is not a
political trick that he cannot understand. He is a ready student of human
nature, and usually a correct observer. I am sorry to say that the tendency of
the new generation is to be diplomats of a lower type, quick and smart, but
not always sound. At present, like any crude or partially developed people,
politics is their hobby.
Yet there remains a sprinkling of the old Indian type, which is strongly
averse to all unfair or underhanded methods; and there are a few of the
younger men who combine the best in both standards, and refuse to look
upon the new civilization as a great, big grab-bag. It is not strange that a
majority are influenced by the prevailing currents of American life. Before
they understood the deeper underlying principles of organized society, they
had seen what they naturally held to be high official duties and
responsibilities ruthlessly bartered and trafficked with before their eyes.
They did not realize that this was a period of individual graft and misuse of
office for which true civilization was not responsible.
Among the thinking and advanced class of Indians there is, after all, no real
bitterness or pessimistic feeling. It has long been apparent to us that
absolute distinctions cannot be maintained under the American flag. Yet we
think each race should be allowed to retain its own religion and racial codes
as far as is compatible with the public good, and should enter the body
politic of its own free will, and not under compulsion. This has not been the
case with the native American. Everything he stood for was labelled
"heathen," "savage," and the devil's own; and he was forced to accept
modern civilization in toto against his original views and wishes. The
material in him and the method of his reconstruction have made him what

he is. He has defied all the theories of the ethnologists. If any one can show
me a fair percentage of useful men and women coming out of the jail or
poor-house, I will undertake to show him a larger percentage of useful
citizens graduating from the pauperizing and demoralizing agency system.
There was no real chance for the average man of my race until the last
thirty-five years; and even during that time he has been under the unholy
rule of the political boss and "little czar" of the Indian agency, from whose
control he is not even yet entirely free. You are suffering from a civic
disease, and we are affected by it. When you are cured, and not until then,
we may hope to be thoroughly well men.

INHERITANCE AND OTHER FRAUDS

Here is another point of attack for the men who continually hover about the
Indian like vultures above a sick or helpless man—the law providing that
the allotments of deceased Indians may be sold for the benefit of their legal
heirs, even though the time limit of twenty-five years protected title may
not have expired. I consider the law a just one, but the work of determining
the heirs is complicated and difficult. It is only last year that Congress has
appropriated $50,000 for this purpose, although forty thousand inheritance
cases are now pending, and much fraud has already been accomplished.
Representative Burke has shown that the bulk of the minors and
incompetent Indians in Oklahoma have been swindled out of their property
by dishonest administrators and guardians. Hon. Warren K. Moorehead, of
the United States Board of Indian Commissioners, who investigated the
situation in that state, intimates that as many as 21,000 such cases exist
there. He says the handling of estates in Oklahoma costs often from 30 to
90 per cent., whereas the average rate in thirty states is 3 per cent. "Why do
not our laws prevent the robbing of Indians? Because they are not
enforced," declares Mr. Moorehead, who also investigated White Earth,
Minnesota, a few years ago, and uncovered a scandal of large proportions,
relating to the theft of over two hundred thousand acres of valuable land, as

a result of suddenly removing all restrictions on the mixed bloods at that
agency, many of whom were incompetent to manage their own affairs.
Much of this graft might readily be stopped, and the ignorant Indian
protected, were it not for the fact that the relationship between the shysters
and certain officials is very much like that between the police of New York
City and the keepers of illegal resorts. When complaint is made, big
envelopes with "U. S." printed in the corner pass back and forth—and that
is too often the end of it! The Sioux call the U. S. Indian inspectors, who are
supposed to discover and report abuses, "Big Cats"; but an old chief once
said to me: "They ought rather to be called prairie owls, who are blind in
the daytime and have rattlesnakes for their bedfellows!"
At the suggestion, I believe, of Dr. George Bird Grinnell and Hamlin
Garland, an attempt was made under President Roosevelt to systematize the
Indian nomenclature. The Indian in his native state bears no surname; and
wife and children figuring under entirely different names from that of the
head of the family, the law has been unnecessarily embarrassed. I received a
special appointment to revise the allotment rolls of the Sioux nation. It was
my duty to group the various members of one family under a permanent
name, selected for its euphony and appropriateness from among the various
cognomens in use among them, of course suppressing mistranslations and
grotesque or coarse nicknames calculated to embarrass the educated Indian.
My instructions were that the original native name was to be given the
preference, if it were short enough and easily pronounced by Americans. If
not, a translation or abbreviation might be used, while retaining as much as
possible of the distinctive racial flavor. No English surname might be
arbitrarily given, but such as were already well established might be
retained if the owner so desired. Many such had been unwisely given to
children by teachers and missionaries, and in one family I found a George
Washington, a Daniel Webster, and a Patrick Henry! The task was quite
complicated and there were many doubts and suspicions to overcome, as
some feared lest it should be another trick to change the Indian's name after
he had been allotted, and so defraud him safely. During the seven years
spent in this work, I came upon many cases of inheritance frauds. In the
face of what appear to be iron-clad rules and endless red tape, it is a
problem how these things can happen without the knowledge of responsible
officials!

THE INDIAN AS HIS OWN ATTORNEY

Some years since an interesting case came up at Standing Rock Agency,
N.D., which illustrates the ability of the modern Indian to manage his own
affairs when he is permitted to do so. It was proposed to lease nearly the
whole reservation, the occupied as well as the unoccupied portion, to two
cattle companies, but in order to be legal, the consent of the Indians was
necessary. An effort was made to secure their signatures, and interested
parties had nearly the requisite two thirds of them fooled, when a mixed
blood by the name of Louis Primeau learned of the game, and brought it to
the attention of the people.
They made a strong and intelligent resistance, asked for a hearing in
Washington and sent on a delegation to present their case. Immediately the
agent got up a rival delegation of "good Indians," fed and clothed for the
occasion, to contradict the first and declare that the people were willing to
sign, all save the "kickers and trouble-makers."
My brother, the Rev. John Eastman, and I were in Washington at the time.
The Indian delegation who protested against the leases was given no show
at all before the Department, because it appeared that influential Western
Senators were upholding the interests of the cattle companies. Primeau
came to my brother for help; and we finally secured a hearing before the
Senate Committee on Indian Affairs.
It happened to be a Democratic Senate, although a Republican President
was in office; and the head of that committee was Senator Stewart of
Nevada. Before him the braves fought their unequal battle to a finish. They
had their credentials and the minutes of the meeting at which they had been
elected, and they stated clearly their people's reasons for opposing the
leases—reasons which were sound on the face of them. They also declared
that the Indian Commissioner had sent a telegram to their agent saying that
if they would not sign they would be ignored by the Department, and the
leases approved without their consent, although such consent was required
both by treaty and statute.

It was immediately denied by the other side that any such telegram had
been sent, upon which the wily Sioux played their trump card: they
produced a certified copy of the dispatch which they had obtained from the
operator, and publicly handed this piece of evidence to Senator Stewart.
The Indians also consulted Judge Springer of Illinois, who, after reviewing
their case, said that they could serve an injunction on both the Secretary of
the Interior and Commissioner, in the District of Columbia. This they did.
The officials asked for thirty days; and the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
personally hastened to Standing Rock, where he gave the red men a good
scolding for their audacity, at the same time telling them that no lease had
been made, or would be made.
President Roosevelt then sent Dr. Grinnell, a well-known friend of the
Indian, to make an independent investigation. Dr. Grinnell reported that the
Walker lease was entirely opposed to the Indians' interests, and that it would
not only be unwise, but wrong, to approve it. The Lemmon lease of the
unoccupied portion of the reservation was afterward executed with the
Indians' consent.
There are innumerable such instances, but this one is worthy of mention
because of the spirit and success with which the Indians conducted their
own case. Very often their property is dissipated in spite of the fact that
there are men among them who fully grasp the situation. These men protest,
but it is of no use. They are denounced as "insubordinate," "disturbers of the
peace," and worthless prevaricators. Here is where national honor and the
rights of a dependent people are sacrificed to the politicians. When we
consider that the Indian still owns more than 70,000,000 acres of land, and
trust funds stated at $48,000,000, the proceeds of ceded territory, it may be
seen that this immense estate largely in the hands of "wards" and illiterate
persons presents a very serious problem.
It has come to be more and more the case that the Indian, so long and so
oppressively paternalized, is allowed to take a hand in his own
development. This is as it should be. Many theories have been advanced
concerning him; but I think we all agree that he has outgrown the present
method, which now seems to retard his progress. Yet the old machinery
continues to exist in cumbersome and more or less inefficient form. It is a

question whether it really does much more good than harm; but it seems
clear that some of the tribes still need intelligent and honest guardianship.
To my mind, this machinery might be adjusted more nearly to the
requirements of the present-day Indian.
Professor Moorehead has suggested the plan of putting the Indian Bureau
under a commission of several men, to be appointed for long terms or for
life, free of political considerations. I can scarcely conceive of wholly non-
partisan appointments in this age, but length of service would be a great
advantage, and it does seem to me this experiment would be worth trying.
Such a commission should have full authority to deal with all Indian
matters without reference to any other department. I would add that one half
of its members might well be of Indian blood.

CHAPTER VIII

THE INDIAN IN COLLEGE AND THE
PROFESSIONS

It is the impression of many people who are not well informed on the Indian
situation that book education is of little value to the race, particularly what
is known as the higher education. The contrary is true. What we need is not
less education, but more; more trained leaders to uphold the standards of
civilization before both races. Among Indian college and university
graduates a failure is very rare; I am sure I have not met one, and really do
not know of one.
The press is responsible for many popular errors. Whenever an Indian
indulges in any notorious misbehavior, he is widely heralded as a "Carlisle
graduate," although as a matter of fact he may never have attended that
famous school, or have been there for a short time only. Obviously the
statement is intended to discredit the educated Indian. But Carlisle is not a
college or university, although, because of the wonderful athletic prowess
of its students, they have met and defeated the athletes of many a white
university on the football field. Its curriculum is considerably below that of
the ordinary high school; it is a practical or vocational school, giving a fair
knowledge of some trade together with the essentials of an English
education, but no Latin or other foreign language. Consequently its
graduates must attend a higher preparatory school for several years before
they can enter college.
It will be seen, then, that the college-educated men and women of my race
have accomplished quite a feat, considering their antecedents and wholly
foreign point of view. They have had to adjust themselves to a new way of
thinking, as well as a new language, before they could master such abstract
ideas and problems as are presented by mathematics and the sciences. Their
own schools graduate them at a mature age and do not prepare them for
college. Furthermore, they are almost always hampered by lack of means.
Nevertheless, an increasing number have succeeded in the undertaking.

TRIALS OF THE EDUCATED INDIAN

I wish to contradict the popular misconception that an educated Indian will
necessarily meet with strong prejudice among his own people, or will be
educated out of sympathy with them. From their point of view, a
particularly able or well-equipped man of their race is a public blessing, and
all but public property. That was the old rule among us. Up to a very recent
period an educated Indian could not succeed materially; he could not better
himself, because the people required him to give unlimited free service,
according to the old régime. I have even known one to be killed by the
continual demands upon him.
There was a time (not so long ago, either) when the educated Indian stood
in a very uncomfortable position between his people and the Government
officials and shady politicians. Every complaint was brought to him, as a
matter of course; and he was expected to expose and redress every wrong.
As I have said elsewhere, such efforts are generally useless, and resulted
only in damage to his financial position and his reputation. No doubt he
often invited attacks upon himself by a rashness born of his ardent
sympathy for his fellow-tribesmen. In this matter I speak from personal
experience as well as long observation.
Even in the old, wild days, an education was appreciated by the Indians; but
it was a hard life for the educated man. They made him carry too heavy a
burden, without much recompense save honor and respect. But we have
pretty well passed through that period, and the native graduates of our
higher institutions have begun to show their strength and enlarge their
views. They have not only done well for themselves and their race, but they
stand before the world as living illustrations of its capacity, disproving
many theories concerning untutored races.

NO "INFERIOR RACE"

It was declared without qualification by the Universal Races Congress at
London in 1911 that there is no inherently superior race, therefore no
inferior race. From every race some individuals have mastered the same
curriculum and passed the same tests, and in some instances members of so-
called "uncivilized" races have stood higher than the average "civilized"
student; therefore they have the same inherent ability. Certain peoples have
remained undeveloped because of their religion, philosophy, and form of
government; in other words, because of the racial environment. Change the
environment, and the race is transformed. Certainly the American Indian
has clearly demonstrated the truth of this assertion.
The very mention of the name "Indian" in earlier days would make the
average white man's blood creep with thoughts of the war-whoop and the
scalping-knife. A little later it suggested chiefly feathers and paint and
"Buffalo Bill's Wild West." To-day the association is rather with the Carlisle
school and its famous athletes; but to the thinking mind the name suggests
deeper thoughts and higher possibilities.
It was no less a man than Theodore Roosevelt who said to me once in the
White House that he would give anything to have a drop of Sioux or
Cheyenne blood in his veins. It is a fact that the intelligent and educated
Indian has no social prejudice to contend with. His color is not counted
against him. He is received cordially and upon equal terms in school,
college, and society.
Dr. Booker Washington is in the habit of saying jocosely that the negro
blood is the strongest in the world, for one drop of it makes a "nigger" of a
white man. I would argue that the Indian blood is even stronger, for a half-
blood negro and Indian may pass for an Indian, and so be admitted to first-
class hotels and even to high society. All that an Indian needs in order to be
popular, and indeed to be lionized if he so desires, is to get an education and
hold up his head as a member of the oldest American aristocracy. Many of
our leading men have married into excellent families and are prominent in

cultivated white communities. We want the best in two races and
civilizations in exchange for what we have lost.
Some of us have entered upon every known professional career, such as
medicine, law, the ministry, education and the sciences, politics and higher
business management, art and literature. It may be well to mention some of
our best-known professional men and women. The doctors seem to have
been the first to enter the general field in competition with their white
colleagues: at first, to be sure, as "Indian herb doctors," or quacks of one
sort or another, but later as competent graduated physicians. The
Government has utilized several in the Indian service, and others have
established themselves in private practice.

SOME NOTED INDIANS OF TO-DAY

Perhaps the foremost of these is Dr. Carlos Montezuma of Chicago, a full-
blooded Apache, who was purchased for a few steers while in captivity to
the Pimas, who were enemies of his people. He was brought to Chicago by
the man who ransomed him, a reporter and photographer, and when his
benefactor died, the boy became the protégé of the Chicago Press Club. A
large portrait of him adorns the parlor of the club, showing him as the naked
Indian captive of about four years old.
He went to the public school, then to Champaign University, Illinois, and
from there to the Northwestern University, where he was graduated from
the medical department. All this time, although receiving some aid from
various sources, he largely supported himself. After graduation Dr.
Montezuma was sent by the Government as physician to an Indian agency
in Montana, and later transferred to the Carlisle school. In a few years he
returned to Chicago and opened an office. He has been a prominent
physician there for a number of years, and was recently married to a lady of
German descent. He stands uncompromisingly for the total abolition of the
reservation system and of the Indian Bureau, holding that the red man must
be allowed to work out his own salvation.

One of the earliest practitioners of our race was Dr. Susan La Flesche
Picotte of the Omaha tribe. Having prepared at Hampton Institute and
elsewhere, she entered the Philadelphia Medical College for Women. When
she had finished, she returned to her tribe, and was for some time in the
Government service. She has since taken up private practice and also had
charge of a mission hospital. Dr. Picotte is a sister of Bright Eyes (Susette
La Flesche) and also of Francis La Flesche of Washington, D. C. There is
another Indian doctor, not of full blood, who is president of the City Club of
Chicago and active in civic reform. In several Middle Western cities there
are successful doctors and dentists of my race.
In the profession of law we have none of full blood whose fame is national.
Judge Hiram Chase of the Omahas and others have won local distinction.
The Hon. Charles Curtis, Senator from Kansas, was a successful lawyer in
Topeka when he was elected to the House of Representatives, and later to
the United States Senate. His mother is a Kaw Indian. Mr. Curtis was and is
a leader of the Republican party in his state. Senator Owen of Oklahoma is
part Cherokee. The whole country has come to realize his ability and
influence. Representative Carter of Oklahoma is also an Indian.
During my student days in New Hampshire I was often told that Daniel
Webster was part Indian on his mother's side. Certainly his physiognomy as
well as his unequalled logic corroborated the story. We all know that
governors and other men of mark have proclaimed themselves descendants
of Pocahontas; I have met several in the West and South. I know that the
late Senators Quay of Pennsylvania and Morgan of Alabama had some
Indian blood, for they themselves told me so; and I have been told the same
of Senators Clapp and La Follette, but have never verified it. Their
wonderful aggressiveness and dauntless public service in my mind point to
native descent, and if they can truthfully claim it I feel sure that they will be
proud to do so. They must know that many distinguished army officers as
well as traders and explorers left sons and daughters among the American
tribes, especially during the first half of the nineteenth century. As late as
1876 Dr. Washington Mathews, a surgeon in the United States Army,
brought down on a Missouri River steamboat a Gros Ventre son, and left
him with the missionary teacher, Dr. Alfred L. Riggs, to rear and educate.
This military surgeon and scientist not only attained the rank of major-
general, but he became one of our foremost archæologists. The boy was

called Berthold, from the place of his birth. He was afterward sent to
Yankton College, but I do not know what became of him. As for those
brilliant men, so many in number, who have the blood of both races in their
veins, I will not pretend to claim for the Indian all the credit of their talents
and energy.
In the ministry we have many able and devoted men—more than in any
other profession. The Presbyterian Church alone has thirty-eight and the
Episcopal Church about twenty, with a less number in several other
denominations, and two Roman Catholic priests. Most of these labor among
their own people, though the Rev. Frank Wright, a Choctaw, is well known
as an evangelistic preacher and singer.
One of our best-known clergymen is Rev. Sherman Coolidge, a full-blood
Arapahoe. He has had an unusual career, having been taken prisoner as a
boy by an officer of the army. He was sent to school and eventually
graduated from Bishop Whipple's Seabury Divinity School at Faribault,
Minn. Since that time Doctor Coolidge has devoted himself to the
Christianization of his race. He is the president of our recently organized
Society of American Indians.
Bishop Whipple developed many able preachers, of whom perhaps the most
accomplished was the Rev. Charles Smith Cook, of the Yankton Sioux. He
was the son of a Sioux woman and a military officer. Mr. Cook was
graduated from Trinity College, Hartford, and later from Seabury Divinity
School. He had unusual eloquence and personal charm, and became at once
one of Bishop Hare's ablest helpers in his great work among the Sioux.
Stationed at Pine Ridge at the time of the Wounded Knee massacre, he
opened his church to the wounded Indian prisoners as an emergency
hospital. His much regretted death occurred a few months later. He was a
tireless worker and much loved by his people.
One of our promising young ministers is the Rev. Henry Roe Cloud, a
Winnebago, graduated from Yale and Oberlin. Stephen Jones, a Sioux, who
was graduated from the Y. M. C. A. training-school at Springfield, Mass.,
has done good work as field secretary among the Indians for a number of
years. I should add that there are many ministers of my race who have no
college degree nor much education in the English language, yet who are

among our most able and influential leaders. My own brother, Rev. John
Eastman, who passed but a short time in school, has not only been a
successful preacher among the Sioux but for many years their trusted
adviser and representative to look after their interests at the national capital.
A few men and many women have succeeded in the teaching profession,
most of them in the United States Indian Service. It is the express policy of
the Government to use the educated Indians, whenever possible, in
promoting the advancement of their race; indeed some of the treaties
include this stipulation. Therefore preference is given them by the Indian
Bureau, and although they must pass a civil-service examination to prove
their fitness, such examination, in their case, is non-competitive. They have
been prepared in the larger Government schools, in many instances with the
addition of normal and college courses. At least two are superintendents of
schools. A number of young women, Carlisle graduates, have taken up
trained nursing as a profession, and are practising successfully both among
whites and Indians.
In the sciences, especially in ethnology and archæology, we have several
who have rendered material service. William Jones, a Sac and Fox quarter
blood, was a graduate of Hampton and of Harvard University. He took post-
graduate work at Columbia, and was a pupil of those distinguished
scientists, Dr. Putnam and Dr. Boas. The latter has called him one of our
ablest archæologists. Dr. Jones travelled among the various tribes, even to
the coast of Labrador, and labored assiduously in the cause of science for
Harvard and the Marshall Field Museum of Chicago, as well as other
institutions. It was the Chicago Museum which sent him to the Philippine
Islands, where he was murdered by the natives a few years ago.
We have also such men as Professor Hewitt of the Smithsonian Institution,
Francis La Flesche of the same, and Arthur C. Parker of Albany, N. Y., who
is state archæologist.
In literature several writers of Indian blood have appeared during the past
few years, and have won a measure of recognition. Francis La Flesche, an
Omaha, has collaborated with Miss Alice C. Fetcher in ethnological work,
and is also the author of a pleasing story of life in an Indian school called
"The Middle Five." Zitkalasa, a Sioux (now Mrs. Bonney), attended a

Western college, where she distinguished herself in an intercollegiate
oratorical contest. Soon afterward she appeared in the Atlantic Monthly as
the writer of several papers of an autobiographical nature, which attracted
favorable attention, and were followed by a little volume of Indian legends
and several short stories. Mrs. Bonney has more recently written the book
of an Indian opera called "The Sun Dance," which has been produced in
Salt Lake City by university students. John Oskinson, a Cherokee, was first
heard of as the winner in an intercollegiate literary contest, and he is now
on the staff of Collier's Weekly. The Five Civilized Nations of Oklahoma
can show many other writers and journalists.
In higher business lines a number have shown special ability. General
Pleasant Porter, who died recently, was president of a short railroad line in
Oklahoma; Mr. Hill, of Texas, is reputed to be a millionaire; Howard
Gansworth, a graduate of Carlisle and Princeton, is a successful business
man in Syracuse, N. Y.; and many of more or less Indian blood have gone
forth into the world to do business on a large scale.
In the athletic world this little race has no peer, as is sufficiently proven by
their remarkable record in football, baseball, and track athletics. A few
years ago I asked that good friend of the Indian, Gen. R. H. Pratt, why he
did not introduce football in his school. "Why," said he, "if I did that, half
the press of the country would attack me for developing the original war
instincts and savagery of the Indian! The public would be afraid to come to
our games!"
"Major," I said, "that is exactly why I want you to do it. We will prove that
the Indian is a gentleman and a sportsman; he will not complain; he will do
nothing unfair or underhand; he will play the game according to the rules,
and will not swear—at least not in public!"
Not long afterward the game was introduced at Carlisle, and I was asked by
the General to visit Montana and the Dakotas to secure pupils for the
school, and, incidentally, recruits for his football warriors. The Indians'
victory was complete. These boys always fight the battle on its own merits;
they play a clean game, and lose very few games during the season,
although they meet all our leading universities, each on its own home
grounds.

From the fleet Deerfoot to this day we boast the noted names of Longboat,
Sockalexis, Bemus Pierce, Frank Hudson, Tewanima, Metoxen, Myers,
Bender, and Jim Thorpe. Thorpe is a graduate of the Carlisle school, and at
the Olympic Games in Sweden in 1912 he won the title of the greatest all-
round athlete in the world.

PROBLEMS OF RACE LEADERSHIP

I have been asked why my race has not produced a Booker Washington.
There are many difficulties in the way of efficient race leadership; one of
them is the large number of different Indian tribes with their distinct
languages, habits, and traditions, and with old tribal jealousies and
antagonisms yet to be overcome. Another, and a more serious obstacle, is
the dependent position of the Indian, and the almost arbitrary power in the
hands of the Indian Bureau.
About fifteen years ago the idea of a national organization of progressive
Indians was discussed at some length by Rev. Sherman Coolidge, my
brother, John Eastman, and myself. At that time we concluded that the
movement would not be understood either by our own race or the American
people in general, and that there was grave danger of arousing the
antagonism of the Bureau. If such a society were formed, it would
necessarily take many problems of the race under consideration, and the
officials at Washington and in the field are sensitive to criticism, nor are
they accustomed to allowing the Indian a voice in his own affairs.
Furthermore, many of the most progressive red men are enlisted in the
Government service, which would make their position a very difficult one
in case of any friction with the authorities. Very few Indians are sufficiently
independent of the Bureau to speak and act with absolute freedom.
Some ten years later I was called to Columbus, Ohio, to lecture for the Ohio
State University on the same course with Dr. Coolidge and Dr. Montezuma.
Prof. F. A. McKenzie of the university arranged the course, and soon
afterward he wrote me that he believed the time was now ripe to organize

our society. We corresponded with leading Indians and arranged a meeting
at Columbus for the following April. At this meeting five were present
besides myself: Dr. Montezuma, Thomas Sloan, Charles E. Dagenett, Henry
Standingbear, and Miss Laura Cornelius. We organized as a committee, and
issued a general call for a conference in October at the university, upon the
cordial invitation of Dr. McKenzie and President Thompson.
Four annual conferences have now been held, and the fifth is announced for
next October at Oklahoma City. The society has 500 active and about the
same number of associate members; the latter are white friends of the race
who are in sympathy with our objects. Our first president is Rev. Sherman
Coolidge, and Arthur C. Parker is secretary and treasurer. The Society of
American Indians issues a quarterly journal devoted to the proceedings of
the conferences and the interests of the Indian race. At these meetings and
in this journal various phases of our situation have been intelligently and
courageously discussed, and certain remedies have been suggested for the
evils brought to light. These debates should at least open the public ear.
Of course the obstacles to complete success that I have referred to still
exist, and there are others as well. Our people have not been trained to work
together harmoniously. It is a serious question what principles we should
stand for and what line of work we ought to undertake. Should we devote
ourselves largely to exposing the numerous frauds committed upon Indians?
Or should we keep clear of these matters, avoid discussion of official
methods and action, and simply aim at arousing racial pride and ambition
along new lines, holding up a modern ideal for the support and
encouragement of our youth? Should we petition Congress and in general
continue along the lines of the older Indian associations? Or should we
rather do intensive work among our people, looking especially toward their
moral and social welfare?
I stand for the latter plan. Others think differently; and, as a matter of fact, a
Washington office has been opened and much attention paid to
governmental affairs. It is a large task. The declared objects of the society,
in almost the words originally chosen by its six founders, are as follows:

OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN
INDIANS

First. To promote and coöperate with all efforts looking to the
advancement of the Indian in enlightenment which leave him free, as a
man, to develop according to the natural laws of social evolution.

Second. To provide through our open conferences the means for a free
discussion on all subjects bearing on the welfare of the race.

Third. To present in a just light the true history of the race, to preserve its
records and emulate its distinguishing virtues.

Fourth. To promote citizenship and to obtain the rights thereof.

Fifth. To establish a legal department to investigate Indian problems and
to suggest and to obtain remedies.

Sixth. To exercise the right to oppose any movement that may be
detrimental to the race.

Seventh. To direct its energies exclusively to general principles and
universal interests, and not allow itself to be used for any personal or
private interest. The honor of the race and the good of the country shall be
paramount.

CHAPTER IX

THE INDIAN'S HEALTH PROBLEM

The physical decline and alarming death-rate of the American Indian of to-
day is perhaps the most serious and urgent of the many problems that
confront him at the present time. The death-rate is stated by Government
officials at about thirty per thousand of the population—double the average
rate among white Americans. From the same source we learn that about
70,000 Indians in the United States are suffering from trachoma, a serious
and contagious eye disease, and probably 30,000 have tuberculosis in some
form. The death-rate from tuberculosis is almost three times that among the
whites.
These are grave facts, and cause deep anxiety to the intelligent Indian and
to the friends of the race. Some hold pessimistic views looking to its early
extinction; but these are not warranted by the outlook, for in spite of the
conditions named, the last three census show a slight but continuous
increase in the total number of Indians. Nor is this increase among mixed-
bloods alone; the full-blooded Indians are also increasing in numbers. This
indicates that the race has reached and passed the lowest point of its
decline, and is beginning slowly but surely to recuperate.

THE CHANGE TO RESERVATION LIFE

The health situation on the reservations was undoubtedly even worse
twenty years ago than it is to-day, but at that period little was heard and still
less done about it. It is well known that the wild Indian had to undergo
tremendous and abrupt changes in his mode of living. He suffered severely
from an indoor and sedentary life, too much artificial heat, too much
clothing, impure air, limited space, indigestible food—indigestible because
he did not know how to prepare it, and in itself poor food for him. He was

compelled often to eat diseased cattle, mouldy flour, rancid bacon, with
which he drank large quantities of strong coffee. In a word, he lived a
squalid life, unclean and apathetic physically, mentally, and spiritually.
This does not mean all Indians—a few, like the Navajoes, have retained
their native vigor and independence—I refer to the typical "agency Indian"
of the Northwest. He drove ten to sixty miles to the agency for food; every
week-end at some agencies, at others every two weeks, and at still others
once a month. This was all the real business he had to occupy him—
travelling between cabin and agency warehouses for twenty-five years! All
this time he was brooding over the loss of his freedom, his country rich in
game, and all the pleasures and satisfactions of wild life. Even the arid
plains and wretched living left him he was not sure of, judging from past
experience with a government that makes a solemn treaty guaranteeing him
a certain territory "forever," and taking it away from him the next year if it
appears that some of their own people want it, after all.
Like the Israelites in bondage, our own aborigines have felt the sweet life-
giving air of freedom change to the burning heat of a desert as dreary as that
of Egypt under Pharaoh. It was during this period of hopeless resignation,
gloomily awaiting—what, no Indian could even guess—that his hardy, yet
sensitive, organization gave way. Who can wonder at it? His home was a
little, one-roomed log cabin, about twelve by twenty feet, mud-chinked,
containing a box stove and a few sticks of furniture. The average cabin has
a dirt floor and a dirt roof. They are apt to be overheated in winter, and the
air is vitiated at all times, but especially at night, when there is no
ventilation whatever. Families of four to ten persons lived, and many still
live, in these huts. Fortunately the air of the plains is dry, or we should have
lost them all!
Remember, these people were accustomed to the purest of air and water.
The teepee was little more than a canopy to shelter them from the elements;
it was pitched every few days upon new, clean ground. Clothing was loose
and simple, and frequent air and sun baths, as well as baths in water and
steam, together with the use of emollient oils, kept the skin in perfect
condition. Their food was fresh and wholesome, largely wild meat and fish,
with a variety of wild fruits, roots, and grain, and some cultivated ones. At
first they could not eat the issue bacon, and on ration days one might see

these strips of unwholesome-looking fat lying about on the ground where
they had been thrown on the return trip. Flour, too, was often thrown away
before the women had learned to make bread raised with cheap baking-
powder and fried in grease. But the fresh meat they received was not
enough to last until the next ration day. There was no end of bowel trouble
when they were forced by starvation to swallow the bacon and ill-prepared
bread. Water, too, was generally hauled from a distance with much labor,
and stood about in open buckets or barrels for several days.
As their strength waned, they made more fire in the stove and sat over it,
drinking rank coffee and tea that had boiled all day on the same stove. After
perspiring thus for hours, many would go out into the bitter cold of a
Dakota winter with little or no additional clothing, and bronchitis and
pneumonia were the inevitable result. The uncured cases became chronic
and led straight to tuberculosis in its various forms.
Furthermore, the Indian had not become in any sense immune to disease,
and his ignorance placed no check upon contagion and infection. Even the
simpler children's diseases, such as measles, were generally fatal. The
death-rate of children under five was terrific. I have known women to bear
families of six or eight or ten children, and outlive them all, most dying in
infancy. In their state of deep depression disease had its golden opportunity,
and there seemed to be no escape. What was there to save the race from
annihilation within a few years? Nothing, save its heritage of a superb
physique and a wonderful patience.

THE INDIAN SERVICE PHYSICIAN

The doctors who were in the service in those days had an easy time of it.
They scarcely ever went outside of the agency enclosure, and issued their
pills and compounds after the most casual inquiry. As late as 1890, when
the Government sent me out as physician to ten thousand Ogallalla Sioux
and Northern Cheyennes at Pine Ridge Agency, I found my predecessor still
practising his profession through a small hole in the wall between his office

and the general assembly room of the Indians. One of the first things I did
was to close that hole; and I allowed no man to diagnose his own trouble or
choose his pills. I told him I preferred to do that myself; and I insisted upon
thoroughly examining my patients. It was a revelation to them, but they
soon appreciated the point, and the demand for my services doubled and
trebled.
As no team was provided for my use to visit my patients on a reservation
nearly a hundred miles square (or for any other agency doctor at the time), I
bought a riding horse, saddle and saddle-bags, and was soon on the road
almost day and night. A night ride of fifty to seventy-five miles was an
ordinary occurrence; and even a Dakota blizzard made no difference, for I
never refused to answer a call. Before many months I was supplied by the
Government with a covered buggy and two good horses.
I found it necessary to buy, partly with my own funds and partly with
money contributed by generous friends, a supply of suitable remedies as
well as a full set of surgical instruments. The drugs supplied by contractors
to the Indian service were at that period often obsolete in kind, and either
stale or of the poorest quality. Much of my labor was wasted, moreover,
because of the impossibility of seeing that my directions were followed, and
of securing proper nursing and attention. Major operations were generally
out of the question on account of the lack of hospital facilities, as well as
the prejudice of the people, though I did operate on several of the severely
injured after the massacre at Wounded Knee. In many cases it was my task
to supply my patients with suitable food and other necessaries, and my wife
was always prepared for a raid on her kitchen and storeroom for bread,
soup, sheets, and bandages.
The old-time "medicine-man" was really better than the average white
doctor in those days, for although his treatment was largely suggestive, his
herbs were harmless and he did allay some distress which the other
aggravated, because he used powerful drugs almost at random and did not
attend to his cases intelligently. The native practitioners were at first
suspicious of me as a dangerous rival, but we soon became good friends,
and they sometimes came frankly to me for advice and even proposed to
borrow some of my remedies.

Of course, even in that early period when the average Government doctor
feared to risk his life by going freely among the people (though there was
no real danger unless he invited it), there were a few who were sincere and
partially successful, especially some military surgeons.
Now that stage of the medical work among the Indians is past, and the
agency doctor has no valid excuse for failing to perform his professional
duty. It is true that he is poorly paid and too often overworked; but the
equipment is better and there is intelligent supervision. At Pine Ridge,
where I labored single-handed, there are now three physicians, with a
hospital to aid them in their work. To-day there are two hundred physicians,
with a head supervisor and a number of specialists, seventy nurses, and
eighty field matrons in the Indian service.

SOME MISTAKES AND THE REMEDIES

Another serious mistake has been made in the poor sanitary equipment of
Indian schools. Close confinement and long hours of work were for these
children of the forest and plains unnatural and trying at best. Dormitories
especially have been shamefully overcrowded, and undesirable pupils, both
by reason of disease and bad morals, allowed to mingle freely with the
healthy and innocent. Serious mishaps have occurred which have given
some of these schools a bad name; but I really believe that greater care is
being taken at the present time. It was chiefly at an early period of the
Indian's advance toward civilization that both mismanagement and adverse
circumstance, combined with his own inexperience and ignorance of the
new ways, weakened his naturally splendid powers and paved the way for
his present physical decline. His mental lethargy and want of ambition
under the deadening reservation system have had much to do with the
outcome.
He was in a sense muzzled. He was told: "You are yet a child. You cannot
teach your own children, nor judge of their education. They must not even

use their mother tongue. I will do it all myself. I have got to make you over;
meanwhile, I will feed and clothe you. I will be your nurse and guardian."
This is what happened to this proud and self-respecting race! But since then
they have silently studied the world's history and manners; they have
wandered far and wide and observed life for themselves. They have thought
much. The great change has come about; the work has been done, whether
poorly or otherwise, and, upon the whole, the good will prevail. The
pessimist may complain that nothing has come of all the effort made in
behalf of the Indian. I say that it is not too late for the original American to
regain and reëstablish his former physical excellency. Why should he not?
Much depends upon his own mental attitude, and this is becoming more
normal as the race approaches and some part of it attains to self-support and
full citizenship. As I have said, conditions are improving; yet much remains
to be done; and it should be done quickly. An exhaustive inquiry into health
conditions among the tribes was made in accordance with an act of
Congress in 1912, and the report presented in January, 1913, was in brief as
follows:

1. Trachoma is exceedingly prevalent among Indians.

2. Tuberculosis among Indians is greatly in excess of that estimated
for the white population.

3. The sanitary conditions upon reservations are, on the whole, bad.

4. The primitive Indian requires instruction in personal hygiene and
habits of living in stationary dwellings.

5. The sanitary conditions in most Indian schools are unsatisfactory.

6. There is danger of the spread of tuberculosis and trachoma from
the Indian to other races.

7. Due care is not taken in the collection and preservation of vital
statistics.

8. The medical department of the Indian Bureau is hampered by
insufficient authority and inadequate compensation.

As a result of this and other investigations, increased appropriations have
been asked for, and to a limited extent provided, for the purpose of
preventing and treating disease, and especially of checking the spread of
serious contagious ailments. More stress is being laid upon sanitary
precautions and hygienic instruction in Indian schools, and an effort is made
to carry this instruction into the Indian home through field matrons and
others. Four sanatoria or sanitarium schools have been successfully
established in suitable climates, and it is recommended by an Indian Service
specialist that certain boarding-school plants be set apart for trachoma
pupils, where they can have thorough and consistent treatment and remain
until the cure is complete. Much larger appropriations are needed in order to
carry out in full these beneficent measures, and I earnestly hope that they
may be forthcoming.
It is interesting to note that whereas a few years ago the Indians were
reproved for placing their sick in canvas tents and arbors, and in every way
discouraged from any attempt to get out of their stifling houses into the life-
giving air, sleeping-porches are now being added to their hospitals, and
open-air schools and sanatoria established for their children. The world
really does move, and to some extent it seems to be moving round to his
original point of view. It is not too late to save his physique as well as his
unique philosophy, especially at this moment when the spirit of the age has
recognized the better part of his scheme of life.
It is too late, however, to save his color; for the Indian young men
themselves have entirely abandoned their old purpose to keep aloof from
the racial melting-pot. They now intermarry extensively with Americans
and are rearing a healthy and promising class of children. The tendency of
the mixed-bloods is toward increased fertility and beauty as well as good
mentality. This cultivation and infusion of new blood has relieved and
revived the depressed spirit of the first American to a noticeable degree, and
his health problem will be successfully met if those who are entrusted with
it will do their duty.

My people have a heritage that can be depended upon, and the two races at
last in some degree understand one another. I have no serious concern about
the new Indian, for he has now reached a point where he is bound to be
recognized. This is his native country, and its affairs are vitally his affairs,
while his well-being is equally vital to his white neighbors and fellow-
Americans.

CHAPTER X

NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

In his sense of the æsthetic, which is closely akin to religious feeling, the
American Indian stands alone. In accord with his nature and beliefs, he does
not pretend to imitate the inimitable, or to reproduce exactly the work of the
Great Artist. That which is beautiful must not be trafficked with, but must
only be reverenced and adored. It must appear in speech and action. The
symmetrical and graceful body must express something of it. Beauty, in our
eyes, is always fresh and living, even as God Himself dresses the world
anew at each season of the year.
It may be artistic to imitate nature and even try to improve upon her, but we
Indians think it very tiresome, especially as one considers the material side
of the work—the pigment, the brush, the canvas! There is no mystery there;
you know all about them! Worst of all is the commercialization of art. The
rudely carved totem pole may appear grotesque to the white man, but it is
the sincere expression of the faith and personality of the Indian craftsman,
and has never been sold or bartered until it reached civilization.

THE INDIAN'S VIEWPOINT

Now we see at once the root of the red man's failure to approach even
distantly the artistic standard of the civilized world. It lies not in the lack of
creative imagination—for in this quality he is a born artist—it lies rather in
his point of view. I once showed a party of Sioux chiefs the sights of
Washington, and endeavored to impress them with the wonderful
achievements of civilization. After visiting the Capitol and other famous
buildings, we passed through the Corcoran Art Gallery, where I tried to
explain how the white man valued this or that painting as a work of genius
and a masterpiece of art.

"Ah!" exclaimed an old man, "such is the strange philosophy of the white
man! He hews down the forest that has stood for centuries in its pride and
grandeur, tears up the bosom of mother earth, and causes the silvery
watercourses to waste and vanish away. He ruthlessly disfigures God's own
pictures and monuments, and then daubs a flat surface with many colors,
and praises his work as a masterpiece!"
This is the spirit of the original American. He holds nature to be the
measure of consummate beauty, and its destruction as sacrilege. I have seen
in our midsummer celebrations cool arbors built of fresh-cut branches for
council and dance halls, while those who attended decked themselves with
leafy boughs, carrying shields and fans of the same, and even making
wreaths for their horses' necks. But, strange to say, they seldom made a free
use of flowers. I once asked the reason of this.
"Why," said one, "the flowers are for our souls to enjoy; not for our bodies
to wear. Leave them alone and they will live out their lives and reproduce
themselves as the Great Gardener intended. He planted them: we must not
pluck them, for it would be selfish to do so."
Indian beadwork in leaf and flower designs is generally modern. The old-
time patterns are for the most part simple geometrical figures, which are
decorative and emblematic rather than imitative. Shafts of light and shadow
alternating or dovetailed represent life, its joys and sorrows. The world is
conceived of as rectangular and flat, and is represented by a square. The sky
is concave—a hollow sphere. A drawing of the horizon line colored pale
yellow stands for dawn; colored red, for sunset. Day is blue, and night black
spangled with stars. Lightning, rain, wind, water, mountains, and many
other natural features or elements are symbolized rather than copied
literally upon many sorts of Indian handiwork. Animal figures are drawn in
such a manner as to give expression to the type or spirit of the animal rather
than its body, emphasizing the head with the horns, or any distinguishing
feature. These designs have a religious significance and furnish the
individual with his personal and clan emblem, or coat of arms.
Symbolic decorations are used on blankets, baskets, pottery, and garments
of ceremony to be worn at rituals and public functions. Sometimes a man's
teepee is decorated in accordance with the standing of the owner. Weapons

of war are adorned with emblems, and also pipes, or calumets, but not the
every-day weapons used in hunting. The war steed is decorated equally with
his rider, and sometimes wears the feathers that signify degrees of honor.

THE WOMAN AND HER CRAFTSMANSHIP

In his weaving, painting, and embroidery of beads and quills the red man
has shown a marked color sense, and his blending of brilliant hues is subtle
and Oriental in effect. The women did most of this work and displayed vast
ingenuity in the selection of native materials and dyes. A variety of
beautiful grasses, roots, and barks are used for baskets by the different
tribes, and some even used gorgeous feathers for extra ornamentation. Each
was perfectly adapted in style, size, and form to its intended use.
Pottery was made by the women of the Southwest for household furniture
and utensils, and their vessels, burned in crude furnaces, were often
gracefully shaped and exquisitely decorated. The designs were both
imprinted on the soft clay and modeled in relief. The nomadic tribes of the
plains could not well carry these fragile wares with them on their
wanderings, and accordingly their dishes were mainly of bark and wood,
the latter sometimes carved. Spoons were prettily made of translucent horn.
They were fond of painting their rawhide cases in brilliant colors. The most
famous blankets are made by the Navajoes upon rude hand looms and are
wonderfully fine in weave, color, and design.
This native skill combined with love of the work and perfect sincerity—the
qualities which still make the Indian woman's blanket or basket or bowl or
moccasins of the old type so highly prized—are among the precious things
lost or sacrificed to the advance of an alien civilization. Cheap machine-
made garments and utensils, without beauty or durability, have crowded out
the old; and where the women still ply their ancient trade, they do it now for
money, not for love, and in most cases use modern materials and patterns,
even imported yarns and "Diamond dyes!" Genuine curios or antiques are
already becoming very rare, except in museums, and sometimes command

fabulous prices. As the older generation passes, there is danger of losing
altogether the secret of Indian art and craftsmanship.

MODERN INDIAN ART

Struck by this danger, and realizing the innate charm of the work and its
adaptability to modern demands, a few enthusiasts have made of late years
an effort to preserve and extend it, both in order that a distinctive and vitally
American art-form may not disappear, and as a means of self-support for
Indian women. Depots or stores have been established at various points for
the purpose of encouraging such manufactures and of finding a market for
them, not so much from commercial as from artistic and philanthropic
motives. The best known, perhaps, is the Mohonk Lodge, Colony,
Oklahoma, founded under the auspices of the Mohonk Indian Conference,
where all work is guaranteed of genuine Indian make, and, as far as
possible, of native material and design. Such articles as bags, belts, and
moccasins are, however, made in modern form so as to be appropriate for
wear by the modern woman. Miss Josephine Foard assisted the women of
the Laguna pueblo to glaze their wares, thereby rendering them more
salable; and the Indian Industries League, with headquarters in Boston,
works along similar lines.
The Indian Bureau reports that over $600,000 worth of Navajo blankets
were made during the last year, and that prizes will be awarded this fall for
the best blankets made of native wool. At Pima $15,000 worth of baskets
and $5,000 worth of pottery was made and sold, and a less amount was
produced at several other agencies.
Another modern development, significant of the growing appreciation of
what is real and valuable in primitive culture, is the instruction of the
younger generation in the Government schools in the traditional arts and
crafts of their people. As schooling is compulsory between the ages of six
and sixteen years, and from the more distant boarding-schools the pupils are
not even allowed to go home for the summer vacation, most of them would

otherwise grow up in ignorance of their natural heritage, in legend, music,
and art forms as well as practical handicrafts. The greatest difficulty in the
way is the finding of competent and sympathetic teachers.
At Carlisle there are and have been for some years two striking exemplars
of the native talent and modern culture of their race, in joint charge of the
department of Indian art. Angel DeCora was a Winnebago girl, who was
graduated from the Hampton school and from the art department of Smith
College. She was afterward a pupil of the famous American illustrator,
Howard Pyle, and herself made a distinctive success in this field, having
illustrated several books and articles on Indian subjects. Some of her work
has appeared in Harper's Magazine and other high-class periodicals. She
had a studio in New York City for several years, until invited to teach art at
the Carlisle school, where she has been ever since.
A few years ago she married William Dietz (Lone Star), who is half Sioux.
He is a fine, manly fellow, who was for years a great football player, as well
as an accomplished artist. The couple have not only the artistic and poetic
temperament in full measure, but they have the pioneer spirit and aspire to
do much for their race. The effective cover designs and other art work of the
Carlisle school magazine, The Red Man, are the work of Mr. and Mrs.
Dietz, who are successfully developing native talent in the production of
attractive and salable rugs, blankets, and silver jewelry. Besides this, they
are seeking to discover latent artistic gifts among the students in order that
they may be fully trained and utilized in the direction of pure or applied art.
It is admitted that the average Indian child far surpasses the average white
child in this direction. The Indian did not paint nature, not because he did
not feel it, but because it was sacred to him. He so loved the reality that he
could not venture upon the imitation. It is now time to unfold the resources
of his genius, locked up for untold ages by the usages and philosophy of his
people. They held it sacrilege to reproduce the exact likeness of the human
form or face. This is the reason that early attempts to paint the natives were
attended with difficulty, and there are still Indians who refuse to be
photographed.

MUSIC, DANCING, DRAMATIC ART

A form of self-expression which has always been characteristic of my race
is found in their music. In music is the very soul of the Indian; yet the
civilized nations have but recently discovered that such a thing exists! His
chants are simple, expressive, and haunting in quality, and voice his inmost
feelings, grave or gay, in every emotion and situation in life. They vary
much with tribes and even with individuals. A man often composes his own
song, which belongs to him and is deeply imbued with his personality.
These songs are frequently without words, the meaning being too profound
for words; they are direct emanations of the human spirit. If words are used,
they are few and symbolic in character. There is no definite harmony in the
songs—only rhythm and melody, and there are striking variations of time
and intonation which render them difficult to the "civilized" ear.
Nevertheless, within the last few years there has been a serious effort to
collect these wild folksongs of the woods and plains by means of notation
and the phonograph, and in some cases this has been connected with the
attempt to harmonize and popularize them. Miss Alice C. Fletcher, the
distinguished ethnologist and student of early American culture, was a
pioneer in this field, in which she was assisted by Prof. J. C. Filmore, who
is no longer living. Frederick Burton died several years ago, immediately
after the publication of his interesting work on the music of the Ojibways,
which is fully illustrated with songs collected and in some instances
harmonized by himself. Miss Natalie Curtis devoted much patient study to
the songs of the tribes, especially of the Pueblos, and later comers in this
field are Farwell, Troyer, Lieurance, and Cadman, the last of whom uses the
native airs as a motive for more elaborated songs. His "Land of the Sky
Blue Water" is charming, and already very popular. Harold A. Loring of
North Dakota has recently harmonized some of the songs of the Sioux.
Several singers of Indian blood are giving public recitals of this appealing
and mysterious music of their race. There has even been an attempt to teach
it to our schoolchildren, and Geoffrey O'Hara, a young composer of New
York City, made a beginning in this direction under the auspices of the

Indian Bureau. Native melodies have also been adapted and popularized for
band and orchestra by native musicians, of whom the best known are
Dennison Wheelock and his brother James Wheelock, Oneidas and
graduates of Carlisle. When we recall that as recent as twenty years ago all
native art was severely discountenanced and discouraged, if not actually
forbidden, in Government schools, and often by missionaries as well, the
present awakening is matter for mutual congratulations.
Many Americans have derived their only personal knowledge of Indians
from the circus tent and the sawdust arena. The red man is a born actor, a
dancer and rider of surpassing agility, but he needs the great out of doors for
his stage. In pageantry, and especially equestrian pageantry, he is most
effective. His extraordinarily picturesque costume, and the realistic manner
in which he illustrates and reproduces the life of the early frontier, has made
of him a great, romantic, and popular attraction not only here but in Europe.
Several white men have taken advantage of this fact to make their fortunes,
of whom the most enterprising and successful was Col. William Cody,
better known as "Buffalo Bill."
The Indians engaged to appear in his and other shows have been paid
moderate salaries and usually well treated, though cases have arisen in
which they have been stranded at long distances from home. As they cannot
be taken from the reservation without the consent of the authorities,
repeated efforts have been made by missionaries and others to have such
permission refused on the ground of moral harm to the participants in these
sham battles and dances. Undoubtedly they see a good deal of the seamy
side of civilization; but, on the other hand, their travels have proved of
educational value, and in some instances opened their eyes to good effect to
the superior power of the white man. Sitting Bull and other noted chiefs
have, at one time or another, been connected with Indian shows.
A pageant-play based on Longfellow's poem of "Hiawatha" has been given
successfully for several years by native Ojibway actors; and individuals of
Indian blood have appeared on the stage in minor parts, and more
prominently in motion pictures, where they are often engaged to represent
tribal customs and historical events.

USEFUL ARTS AND INVENTIONS

Among native inventions which have been of conspicuous use and value to
the dispossessors of the Indian we recollect at once the bark canoe, the
snowshoe, the moccasin (called the most perfect footwear ever invented),
the game of lacrosse and probably other games, also the conical teepee
which served as a model for the Sibley army tent. Pemmican, a condensed
food made of pounded dried meat combined with melted fat and dried
fruits, has been largely utilized by recent polar explorers.
The art of sugar making from the sap of the hard or sugar maple was first
taught by the aborigines to the white settlers. In my day the Sioux used also
the box elder for sugar making, and from the birch and ash is made a dark-
colored sugar that was used by them as a carrier in medicine. However,
none of these yield as freely as the maple. The Ojibways of Minnesota still
make and sell delicious maple sugar, put up in "mococks," or birch-bark
packages. Their wild rice, a native grain of remarkably fine flavor and
nutritious qualities, is also in a small way an article of commerce. It really
ought to be grown on a large scale and popularized as a package cereal. A
large fortune doubtless awaits the lucky exploiter of this distinctive
"breakfast food."
In agriculture the achievements of the Indian have probably been
underestimated, although it is well known that the Indian corn was the
mother of all the choice varieties which to-day form an important source of
food supply for the civilized world. The women cultivated the maize with
primitive implements, and prepared it for food in many attractive forms,
including hominy and succotash, of which the names, as well as the dishes
themselves, are borrowed from the red man. He has not always been
rewarded in kind for his goodly gifts. In 1830 the American Fur Company
established a distillery at the mouth of the Yellowstone River, and made
alcohol from the corn raised by the Gros Ventre women, with which they
demoralized the men of the Dakotas, Montana, and British Columbia.
Besides maize and tobacco, some tribes, especially in the South, grew
native cotton and a variety of fruits and vegetables.

The buckskin clothing of my race was exceedingly practical as well as
handsome, and has been adapted to the use of hunters, explorers, and
frontiersmen, down to the present day. His feathers and other decorations
are imitated by women of fashion, and his moccasin was never so much in
vogue as now. The old wooden Indian in front of the tobacco store looks
less lonely as he gazes upon a procession of bright-eyed young people, with
now and then one older, Indian-clad, joyous, and full of health, returning, if
only for a few short weeks, to the life he knew of old.

CHAPTER XI

THE INDIAN'S GIFTS TO THE NATION

What does the original American contribute, in the final summing up, to the
country of his birth and his adoption? Not much, perhaps, in comparison
with the brilliant achievements of civilization; yet, after all, is there not
something worthy of perpetuation in the spirit of his democracy—the very
essence of patriotism and justice between man and man? Silently, by
example only, in wordless patience, he holds stoutly to his native vision. We
must admit that the tacit influence of his philosophy has been felt at last,
and a self-seeking world has paused in its mad rush to pay him a tribute.
Yes, the world has recognized his type, seized his point of view. We have
lived to see monuments erected to his memory. The painter, sculptor,
author, scientist, preacher, all have found in him a model worthy of study
and serious presentation. Lorado Taft's colossal "Black Hawk" stands
wrapped in his stony blanket upon the banks of the Rock River; while the
Indian is to keep company with the Goddess of Liberty in New York
Harbor, besides many other statues of him which pre-eminently adorn the
public parks and halls of our cities.
No longer does the red man live alone in the blood-curdling pages of the
sensational story-writer. He is the subject of profound study as a man, a
philosopher, a noble type both physically and spiritually. Symmetrical and
finely poised in body, the same is true of his character. He stands naked
before you, scorning the garb of deception and pretence, for he is a true
child of nature.
How has he contributed to the world's progress? By his personal
faithfulness to duty and devotion to a trust. He has not advertised his
faithfulness nor made capital of his honor. Again and again he has proved
his worth as a citizen of his country and of the world by his constancy in the
face of hardship and death. Racial antagonism was to him no excuse for
breaking his word. This simplicity and fairness has cost him dear; it cost his

country and his freedom, even the extinction of his race as a separate and
peculiar people; but as a type, an ideal, he lives and will live!
The red man's genius for military tactics and strategy has been admitted
again and again by those who have fought against him, often unwillingly,
because they saw that he was in the right. His long, unequal struggle against
the dominant race has produced a brilliant array of notable men without
education in letters. Such were King Philip of the Wampanoags; Pontiac,
the great Ottawa; Cornplanter of the Senecas, in the eighteenth century;
while in the first half of the nineteenth we have Weatherford of the Creeks,
Tecumseh of the Shawnees, Little Turtle of the Miamis, Wabashaw and
Wanatan of the Sioux, Black Hawk of the Foxes, Osceola of the Seminoles.
During the last half of the century there arose another set of Indian leaders,
the last of their type—such men as Ouray of the Utes, Geronimo of the
Apaches, Red Cloud, Spotted Tail, and Sitting Bull of the Sioux, Chief
Joseph of the Nez Perces, and Dull Knife of the Northern Cheyennes. Men
like these are an ornament to any country.
It has been said that their generalship was equal to that of Cæsar or
Napoleon; even greater considering that here was no organization, no
treasury, or hope of spoils, or even a stable government behind them. They
displayed their leadership under conditions in which Napoleon would have
failed. As regards personal bravery, no man could outdo them. After
Jackson had defeated the Creeks, he demanded of them the war chief
Weatherford, dead or alive. The following night Weatherford presented
himself alone at the general's tent, saying: "I am Weatherford; do as you
please with me. I would be still fighting you had I the warriors to fight with;
but they no longer answer my call, for they are dead."
Chief Joseph, who conducted that masterly retreat of eleven hundred miles,
burdened with his women and children, the old men and the wounded,
surrendered at last, as he told me in Washington, because he could "bear no
longer the sufferings of the innocent." These men were not bloodthirsty or
wanton murderers; they were as gentle at home as they were terrific in
battle. Chief Joseph would never harm a white woman or child, and more
than once helped non-combatants to a place of safety.

In oratory and unstudied eloquence the American Indian has at times
equalled even the lofty flights of the Greeks and Romans. The noted Red
jacket, perhaps the greatest orator and philosopher of primitive America,
was declared by the late Governor Clinton of New York to be the equal of
Demosthenes. President Jefferson called the best-known speech of Logan,
the Mingo chief, the "height of human utterance."
Now let us consider some of his definite contributions to the birth and
nurture of the United States. We have borrowed his emblem, the American
eagle, which matches well his bold and aspiring spirit. It is impossible to
forget that his country and its freely offered hospitality are the very
foundation of our national existence, but his services as a scout and soldier
have scarcely been valued at their true worth.

THE INDIAN SOLDIER AND SCOUT

The name of Washington is immortal; but who remembers that he was
safely guided by a nameless red man through the pathless wilderness to Fort
Duquesne? Washington made a successful advance upon the British army at
Trenton, on Christmas Eve; but Delaware Indians had reported to him their
situation, and made it possible for the great general to hit his enemy hard at
an opportune moment. It is a fact that Washington's ability was shown by
his confidence in the word of the Indians and in their safe guidance.
In the French and Indian wars there is abundant evidence that both armies
depended largely upon the natives, and that when they failed to take the
advice of their savage allies they generally met with disaster. This advice
was valuable, not only because the Indians knew the country, but because
their strategy was of a high order. The reader may have seen at Fort George
the statue of Sir William Johnson and King Hendrix, the Mohawk chief.
The latter holds in his hand a bundle of sticks. Tradition says that the chief
was arguing against the division of their forces to meet the approaching
French army, saying: "If we are to fight, we are too few: if we are to die, we
are too many!"

As an Indian, and having often heard my people discuss strategic details, I
am almost sure that the chief anticipated the tactics of the enemy; and the
pathetic sequel is that he was selected to lead a portion of the English forces
to Fort Edward that morning, and when only a mile or so out was ambushed
by the enemy. He stood his ground, urging his men to face the foe; and
when he was shot dead, they were so enraged that with extraordinary valor
they routed the French, and thus Hendrix in dying was really the means of
saving Forts George and Edward for the colonists.
History says that Braddock was defeated and lost his life at Fort Duquesne
because he had neglected and disregarded his Indian scouts, who
accordingly left him, and he had no warning of the approach of the foe.
Again, the Seminole war in Florida was a failure so long as no Indians were
found who were willing to guide the army, and the Government was
compelled to make terms, while the swift and overwhelming defeat of the
Creeks, a much stronger nation, was due more to the Cherokee and
Chickasaw scouts than to the skill of General Jackson. Of course, once the
army is guided to an Indian village, and the warriors are surprised in the
midst of their women and children, the civilized folk, with superior
weapons and generally superior numbers, has every advantage.
The Indian system of scouting has long been recognized as one of the most
useful adjuncts of war. His peculiar and efficient methods of
communication in the field by means of blanket signals, smoke signals, the
arrangement of rock-piles, and by heliograph (small mirrors or reflectors),
the last, of course, in more modern days, have all been made use of at one
time or another by the United States Army. It is interesting evidence of the
world-wide respect for our strategy and methods, that when the Boer
commission came to Washington a few years ago, Mr. Vessel called upon
me to advise him how he might secure one thousand Sioux and Cheyenne
scouts in their war against Great Britain. Of course I told him that it could
not be done: that I would not involve my country in an international
difficulty. I was similarly approached during the Russo-Japanese war.
The aid of friendly Indians in the case of massacres and surprises of the
whites must not be overlooked. It may be recalled that some Cherokee
warriors, returning from Washington's later successful expedition against
Fort Duquesne, were murdered in their sleep by white frontiersmen after

giving them friendly lodging. Here again is brought out the genuine
greatness of the Indian character. The Cherokees felt keenly this treacherous
outrage by the very people to whom they had just sacrificed the best blood
of their young men in their war against the French. Some declared their
intention of killing every white man they could find in retaliation for such
unprovoked murder; but the chief Ottakullakulla calmly arose and
addressed the excited assembly:
"Let us have consideration," said he, "for our white neighbors who are not
guilty of this deed. We must not violate our faith or the laws of hospitality
by imbruing our hands in the blood of those who are now in our power.
They came to us in the confidence of a pledged friendship; let us conduct
them safely back within their own confines before we take up the hatchet!"
He carried his point to some extent, and himself saved Captain Stewart, his
friend, by giving up all of his property to ransom him. In difficulties
between the races since colonial times there has been an unbroken record of
heroic work in the rescue of missionaries and other white persons resident
among the Indians by their native converts and friends. In the Minnesota
Sioux outbreak of 1862 there were many notable instances. A man named
Arrow stood beside Mr. Spencer and dared the infuriated warriors to touch
him. There were over two hundred white captives saved by friendly Indians
and delivered to General Sibley at Camp Release. During the following
December some young Yanktonnais Sioux voluntarily ransomed and
delivered up two white women and four children. I knew some of these men
well; among them Fast Walking, who carried one of the children on his
back to safety, after giving his own horse to redeem him. Seldom have such
deeds been rewarded or even appreciated. When these men became old and
feeble an attempt was made to have them recompensed by Congressional
appropriation, but so far as I am informed it has been unsuccessful.
I do not wish to disparage any one, but I do say that the virtues claimed by
"Christian civilization" are not peculiar to any culture or religion. My
people were very simple and unpractical—the modern obstacle to the
fulfilment of the Christ ideal. Their strength lay in self-denial. Not only
men, but women of the race have served the nation at most opportune
moments in the history of this country.

HISTORIC INDIAN WOMEN

It is remembered that Pocahontas saved the first Virginia colony from utter
destruction because of her love for Captain John Smith, who was the heart
and brain of the colony. It was the women of the Oneida and Stockbridge
Indians who advised their men not to join King Philip against the New
England colonies, and, later, pointed out the wisdom of maintaining
neutrality during the war of the Revolution.
Perhaps no greater service has been rendered by any Indian girl to the white
race than by Catherine, the Ojibway maid, at the height of Pontiac's great
conspiracy. Had it not been for her timely warning of her lover, Captain
Gladwyn, Fort Detroit would have met the same fate as the other forts, and
the large number of Indians who held the siege for three months would have
scattered to wipe out the border settlements of Ohio and Pennsylvania. The
success of Pontiac would certainly have delayed the settlement of the Ohio
valley for many years. It is not to be supposed that Catherine was moved to
give her warning by anything save her true womanly instincts. She stood
between two races, and in her love and bravery cut short a struggle that
might have proved too full of caprice and cruelty on both sides. She was
civilization's angel, and should have a niche in history beside Pocahontas.
Sacajawea, the young Indian mother who guided Lewis and Clark in their
glorious expedition to the Pacific, was another brave woman. It is true that
she was living in captivity, but according to Indian usage that would not
affect her social position. It does not appear that she joined the expedition in
order to regain her tribe, but rather from a sense of duty and purpose of high
usefulness. Not only as guide, but as interpreter, and in rescuing the records
of the expedition when their canoe was overturned in the Missouri River,
the "Bird Woman" was of invaluable aid, and is a true heroine of the annals
of exploration.

THE CHILDREN'S HERO

Nearly all the early explorers owed much to the natives. Who told the white
men of the wonders of the Yellowstone Park and the canyon of the
Colorado? Who guided them and served them without expectation of credit
or honor? It is a principle among us to serve friend or guest to the utmost,
and in the old days it was considered ill-bred to ask for any remuneration.
To-day we have a new race, the motive of whose actions is the same as that
of a civilized man. Nothing is given unless an equivalent is returned, or
even a little more if he can secure it. Yet the inherent racial traits are there:
latent, no doubt, but still there. The red man still retains his love of service;
his love for his country. Once he has pledged his word to defend the
American flag, he stands by it manfully.
In the Civil War many Indians fought on both sides, some of them as
officers. General Grant had a full-blood Indian on his staff: Col. Ely Parker,
afterward Commissioner of Indian Affairs. At one time in recent years a
company of Indians was recruited in the regular army, and individual red
men are still rendering good service in both army and navy (thirty-five ex-
students of Carlisle alone), as well as in other branches of the Federal
service. We have lived to see men of our blood in the councils of the nation,
and an Indian Register of the Treasury, who must sign all our currency
before it is valid. An Indian head is on the five-dollar bill and the new
nickel.
George Guess, or Sequoyah, the inventor of the Cherokee alphabet, is the
only red man admitted to the nation's Hall of Fame in the Capitol at
Washington. The Indian languages, more than fifty in number, are better
appreciated and more studied to-day than ever before. Half our states have
Indian names, and more than that proportion of our principal lakes and
rivers. These names are as richly sonorous as they are packed with
significance, and our grandchildren will regret it if we suffer the tongues
that gave them birth to die out and be forgotten.

Best of all, perhaps, we are beginning to recognize the Indian's good sense
and sanity in the way of simple living and the mastery of the great out of
doors. Like him, the wisest Americans are living, playing, and sleeping in
the open for at least a part of the year, receiving the vital benefits of the
pure air and sunlight. His deeds are carved upon the very rocks; the names
he loved to speak are fastened upon the landscape; and he still lives in
spirit, silently leading the multitude, for the new generation have taken him
for their hero and model.
I call upon the parents of America to give their fullest support to those great
organizations, the Boy Scouts and the Camp Fire Girls. The young people
of to-day are learning through this movement much of the wisdom of the
first American. In the mad rush for wealth we have too long overlooked the
foundations of our national welfare. The contribution of the American
Indian, though considerable from any point of view, is not to be measured
by material acquirement. Its greatest worth is spiritual and philosophical.
He will live, not only in the splendor of his past, the poetry of his legends
and his art, not only in the interfusion of his blood with yours, and his
faithful adherence to the new ideals of American citizenship, but in, the
living thought of the nation.

THE END

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The documents chiefly used in the preparation of this book, aside from the
author's own observations and personal knowledge, were the annual reports
of the United States Commissioner of Indian Affairs, of the United States
Board of Indian Commissioners, and of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
the proceedings of the Mohonk Indian Conferences, and of religious and
philanthropic societies engaged in Indian work; also the reports and
magazines published by the larger Indian schools, especially Carlisle and
Hampton. The following list of books about the North American Indian is
not presented as complete in any sense, but merely as a suggestive guide to
the reader who wishes to pursue the subject further:

EARLY STUDENTS AND EXPLORERS

North
American Geo. Catlin
Indians
Biography
and History
of the
Indians of
Drake
N. A.
John G.
Works of
Heckewelder
Indians of
Henry R.
North
Schoolcraft
America

The Oregon
Parkman
Trail
The Jesuits in
North Parkman
America
Jesuit Edited by
Relations Shea

INDIAN MISSIONS

Mary and I; or John
Forty Years Williamson
Among the
Sioux
Life of Bishop De Wolf
Hare Howe
A Quaker
Among the T. C. Battey
Indians
Father Junipero
and the Mission

Indians of
H. H.
California

LEGENDS AND FOLKLORE

Blackfoot Lodge G. B.
Tales Grinnell

Pawnee Hero G. B.
Stories Grinnell
Algonquin
Chas. G.
Legends of New
Leland
England
The Lenape and Daniel
Their Legends Brinton
The Man Who
Married the
Moon and Other
Pueblo Folk Chas. F.
Tales Lummis

MUSIC AND ART

The Indians' Natalie
Book Curtis
Indian George W.
Basketry James
Indian Story Alice C.
and Song Fletcher
Primitive Frederick
Indian Music Burton

MODERN WRITERS

The Vanishing Joseph K.
Race Dixon

The Story of G. B.
the Indian Grinnell
The Indians of G. B.
To-day Grinnell
North
Americans of Dellenbaugh
Yesterday
My Friend the James
Indian McLaughlin
What the
White Man
May Learn
From the
G. W. James
Indian
Indian Chiefs I O. O.
Have Known Howard
Lives of
Famous Indian N. B. Wood
Chiefs
Helen Hunt
A Century of
Jackson (H.
Dishonor
H.)
The Indian Setti K.
Dispossessed Humphrey
Indian Cornelia S.
Sketches Hulst
Education of
the Indian Hailmann
(Pamphlet)
The American Warren K.
Indian Moorehead
The Indian in
Relation to
the White

Population
F. A.
of the U. S.
McKenzie
(Pamphlet)

FICTION

Helen Hunt
Ramona
Jackson
Two Wilderness F. W.
Voyagers Calkins
The Wooing of F. W.
Tokala Calkins
An Indian J. W.
Winter Schultz
Childhood of
Jishib the A. E. Jenks
Ojibway
Francis La
The Middle Five
Flesche
James
The Ojibway
Gilfillan

TABLE OF INDIAN RESERVATIONS
IN THE UNITED STATES

(Compiled by the Office of Indian Affairs.)

Arizona
Camp McDowell
Colorado River
Fort Apache
Gila Bend
Gila River
Havasupai
Hopi
Navajo
Papago
Salt River
San Carlos
Walapai

California
Digger
Hupa Valley
Mission (28 reserves)
Round Valley
Tule River
Yuma

Colorado
Ute

Idaho
Coeur d'Alene
Fort Hall
Lapwai
Lemhi

Iowa
Sauk and Fox

Kansas
Chippewa and Munsee
Iowa
Kickapoo
Potawatomie
Sauk and Fox

Michigan
Isabella
L'Anse
Ontonagon

Minnesota
Bois Fort
Deer Creek
Fond du Lac
Grand Portage
Leech Lake
Mdewakanton
Mille Lac
Red Lake
Vermillion Lake
White Earth
White Oak Point and Chippewa

Montana
Blackfeet
Crow
Fort Belknap
Fort Peck
Jocko
Northern Cheyenne

Nebraska
Niobrara
Omaha
Ponca
Sioux (additional)
Winnebago

Nevada
Duck Valley

Moapa River
Pyramid Lake
Walker River

New Mexico
Jicarilla Apache
Mescalero Apache
Pueblos (20 reserves)

New York
Allegany
Cattaraugus
Oil Spring
Oneida
Onondaga
St. Regis
Tonawanda
Tuscarora

North Carolina
Qualla Boundary (Cherokee)

North Dakota
Devil's Lake
Fort Berthold
Standing Rock
Turtle Mountain

Oklahoma
Cherokee
Cheyenne and Arapahoe
Chickasaw
Chocktaw
Creek
Iowa
Kansa or Kaw
Kickapoo
Kiowa and Comanche
Modoc
Oakland
Osage
Otoe
Ottawa
Pawnee
Peoria
Ponca
Potawatomie
Quapaw
Sauk and Fox
Seminole
Seneca
Shawnee
Wichita
Wyandot

Oregon
Grande Ronde
Klamath
Siletz
Umatilla
Warm Springs

South Dakota
Crow Creek and Old Winnebago
Lake Traverse
Cheyenne River
Lower Brule
Pine Ridge
Rosebud
Yankton

Utah
Uintah Valley
Uncompahgre

Washington
Chehalis
Columbia
Colville
Hoh River
Lummi
Makah
Muckleshoot
Nisqually
Ozette
Fort Madison
Puyallup
Quileute
Quinaiette
Shoalwater
Skokomish
Snohomish or Tulalip

Spokan
Squaxon Island
Swinomish
Yakima

Wisconsin
Lac Court Oreille
Lac du Flambeau
La Pointe
Red Cliff
Menominee
Oneida
Stockbridge

Wyoming
Wind River

THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS
GARDEN CITY, N. Y.

Transcriber's Note:

The following typographical errors have
been corrected:

Page 85: "cooperating" changed to
"coöperating." (coöperating intelligently
in the effort)

Page 130: A period was added to the
sentence ending in "the greatest all-round
athlete in the world."

Page 152: "southwest" changed to
"Southwest." (the women of the
Southwest)

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