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Title: Poisonous Dwellers of the Desert

Author: Natt N. Dodge

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Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POISONOUS
DWELLERS OF THE DESERT ***

POISONOUS
DWELLERS
OF THE DESERT
Popular Series No. 3
Southwest Parks and Monuments Association

ii

Deserts of the Southwest are not desolate expanses of sand as
many persons believe. This photograph, showing vegetation in
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, is a typical
illustration of the variety and density of plant growth in the

Sonoran desert area of northwestern Mexico and southwestern
Arizona.

POISONOUS
DWELLERS
OF THE DESERT

by NATT N. DODGE
TWELFTH EDITION (revised), 1970

Published in co-operation with the National Park Service by the
Southwest Parks and Monuments Association in keeping with one of
its objectives, to provide accurate and authentic information about the
Southwest.

Southwest Parks and Monuments Association
Globe, Arizona
(formerly Southwestern Monuments Association)

Copyright, 1952, by the Southwestern Monuments Association
Box 1562, Gila Pueblo, Globe, Arizona 85501

Published October 21, 1947
Second printing, revised, October, 1948
Third printing, revised, December, 1948
Fourth printing, revised, January, 1952
Fifth printing, June, 1953
Sixth printing, March, 1955
Seventh printing, December, 1957
Eighth printing, revised, January, 1961
Ninth printing, revised, March, 1964
Tenth printing, June, 1966
Eleventh printing, August, 1968
Twelfth printing, revised, August, 1970

Printed in the United States of America
by PABSCO Printing and Business Supply Co.
Globe, Arizona

v

CONTENTS
ILLUSTRATIONS vi
EDITORIAL NOTE ABOUT INSECTICIDES vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii
GIANT DESERT CENTIPEDE 3
SCORPIONS 4
Treatment of scorpion stings 6
Where scorpions live 7
BLACK WIDOW SPIDER 7
Where black widows live 8
Black widow bites 9
Treatment of black widow bites 9
Control of black widows 10
BROWN RECLUSE SPIDER 10
Where found 11
The brown recluse bite 11
Treatment for bite of the brown recluse spider 12
TARANTULAS 13
CONENOSE BUG (cross bug, bellows bug, Walpai tiger, kissing bug) 14
Habitat of conenose bug 14
Treatment of conenose bites 16
Control of conenose bugs 16
ANTS, WASPS, HORNETS, BEES 17
Ants and velvet ants 18
Control of ants 19
Wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, bees 19
HONEYBEE 20
How a bee stings 21
Treatment of bee stings 22
PUSS CATERPILLAR 23
ARIZONA CORAL SNAKE 24
RATTLESNAKES 25
Where rattlesnakes are found 25

Protective clothing 26
Rattlesnake relatives 26
The sidewinder 26
Helpful precautions 27
First-aid for rattlesnake bite 27
BACK-FANGED SNAKES 30
GILA MONSTER 31
Food and habits 32
Poison of the Gila monster 33
HARMLESS CREATURES MISTAKENLY BELIEVED POISONOUS 34
BANDED GECKO 35
SOLPUGID 36
JERUSALEM CRICKET 36
VINEGAROON 37
REFERENCES CITED 39
INDEX 40

vi

ILLUSTRATIONS
Deserts of the Southwest Frontispiece
Map of western United States viii
Centipede 2
Enlarged view of under side of centipede’s head 2
Deadly and non-deadly scorpions 4
Giant desert hairy scorpion in alert position 5
Underside of black widow spider 8
Brown recluse spider 11
Tarantula 13
Conenose bugs 15
Common ant 16
Wasp 17
Velvet ant 18
Bumblebee 19
Honeybees on the honeycomb 20
Poison mechanism of worker bee 21
Puss caterpillar 23
Arizona coral snake 24
Western diamondback rattlesnake 25
Sidewinder or “horned” rattlesnake 27
Poison mechanism of the rattlesnake 28
Western black-headed snake 29
Sonora lyre snake 30
Gila monster 31
Underside of the Gila monster 32
Poison mechanism of the Gila monster 33
Two adult banded geckos 35
Solpugid or sun spider 36
Jerusalem cricket (sand cricket or chaco) 37
Vinegaroon 38

EDITORIAL NOTE ABOUT INSECTICIDES vii

Recommendations given in previous editions of this book
regarding use of DDT and other “hard” pesticides are withdrawn
in this 12th edition. We advise, until questions about merits and
dangers of these products are resolved, that you contact a local
agency before deciding what pesticides, if any, to use.

We believe that every citizen should make a real effort to
become informed about pesticides and potential changes in
them, for use or non-use will likely have great impact on
mankind’s future use of this earth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author has conducted no original research, but has simply assembled
information provided by others who have made painstaking scientific
investigations into the lives, habits, and poisons of desert creatures. To these
men all credit for the information contained herein is due.

The writer considers it a privilege to present partially herein the results of
work conducted by Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke, Poisonous Animals Laboratory,
Arizona State University, on scorpions and other poisonous creatures.

Valuable assistance has been obtained from Dr. Howard K. Gloyd, former
director of the Chicago Academy of Sciences. To Laurence M. Klauber and
the late C. B. Perkins, formerly of the San Diego Museum of Natural
History, are expressed our thanks for much valuable information relative to
poisonous snakes.

The help and cooperation of Dr. Sherwin F. Wood of Los Angeles City
College has made possible inclusion of the section on the conenose bug.

The late Dr. Forest Shreve, for many years director of the Desert Laboratory
in Tucson, and the late Dr. Charles Vorhies, zoologist at the University of
Arizona, proved to be founts of knowledge regarding plant and animal life of

the desert. The late Dr. C. P. Russell, of the National Park Service, checked
many statements to assure accuracy.

We are indebted to Dr. W. Ray Jones, physician and hobby beekeeper in
Seattle, Washington for his findings on, and treatment of, bee-sting
poisoning. Also to Dr. F. A. Shannon of Wickenburg, Arizona for his
especially helpful commentary. We take this opportunity to thank Dr. Paul
Wehrle, entomologist, University of Arizona, and Dr. W. J. Gertsch of the
American Museum of Natural History, for kindly checking the contents for
authenticity.

viii

Map of western United States and Mexico showing location of
deserts

1

Poisonous Dwellers of the Desert
The late Dr. Forrest Shreve of the Desert Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona,
stated that the principal characteristic of a desert is “deficient and uncertain
rainfall.” From our grammar school geographies we gained the impression
that a desert is a great expanse of sand piled into dunes by the wind, without
moisture or vegetation, a land of thirst, desolation, even death.

Although sand dunes devoid of vegetation are characteristic of the Sahara
and some other deserts of the world, those of the United States support a
variety of plant and animal life which, through generations of adaptation, are
able to meet the conditions imposed by this environment (see frontispiece).
Persons who misunderstand our deserts fear them, while others who have
visited them become fascinated and return periodically or settle down and
live in them.

Some of the creatures living in deserts are known to be poisonous to man.
Western thriller fiction of press, screen, and TV has emphasized and
exaggerated this fact, developing in many people a wholly mistaken fear of
the desert and its inhabitants. In contrast, other persons may under-estimate
the possibility of injury from these animals and become careless.

It is the purpose of this booklet to discuss accurately the various poisonous
dwellers of the desert, as well as to debunk some of the superstitions and
misunderstandings which have developed.

A majority of the poisonous creatures in the desert are by no means
restricted to that environment. Rattlesnakes, for example, so often associated
with the arid regions of the West, occur in nearly every section of the United
States.

“A poison,” states Encyclopedia Brittanica, “is a substance which, by its
direct action on the mucous membrane, tissues, or skin, or after absorption
into the circulatory system can, in the way which it is administered,

injuriously affect health or destroy life.” A poisonous creature may be
defined as one which produces a poison for the administering of which it has
developed a special mechanism.

Since, due to personal differences, the bite or sting of a poisonous creature
may injuriously affect the health of one person and not that of another, and
since the poison of one individual creature may be insufficient to cause an
unpleasant reaction, while that from several hundred might produce severe
illness or even death, it is difficult to determine which creature should be
included in a publication of this nature. The writer, therefore, has exercised
his judgment in discussing in the following pages such creatures as he feels
may offer a menace to the welfare of a visitor to the desert. In addition, a
few paragraphs are included for the defense of several harmless desert
dwellers which are mistakenly believed poisonous and which, as a result,
have been mercilessly persecuted.

2

Giant desert centipede

Enlarged view of underside of centipede’s head, showing the
double pair of jaws.
(Photographs by Marvin H. Frost Sr.)

It should be understood that the author has not himself conducted 3
scientific research among the desert animals regarding which he writes.
The material in this book is a digest of the findings of various competent
scientific and medical authorities, and has been carefully checked for
accuracy and authenticity.

Don’t be frightened as a result of reading this booklet. The desert is just as
safe—perhaps safer—for homemaking as many other parts of our country.

Giant desert centipede
(Scolopendra heros)

Many species of centipedes of various sizes and colors are found throughout
the world. The majority are small, harmless, and not sufficiently numerous
to be considered seriously, even as pests.

Usually they are found under boards, in cracks and crevices, in basements
and closets, and in other moist locations where they hide during the day and
venture forth at night in search of small insects for food.

The large, poisonous desert centipede attains a length of 6 or even 8 inches
and has jaws of sufficient strength to inflict a painful bite. Glands at the base
of the jaw produce poison which causes the area about the bite to swell and
become feverish and painful. Persons who have been bitten report that the
swelling and tenderness may persist for several weeks, that the bite
sometimes suppurates and is difficult and slow to heal.

Because the bite of even a large centipede is usually a painful inconvenience
rather than a serious injury, no specific treatment has been developed.
Application of an antiseptic such as iodine immediately following receipt of
the bite, working it well into the fang punctures, is advised. Bathing the site
of the bite with strong ammonia will bring relief if done immediately, while
soaking the area in a solution of hot Epsom salts may shorten the period of
discomfort. Prompt treatment by a physician will reduce duration and
intensity of pain.

Although the bite of a large centipede is no joke, it is not cause for fear or
worry. Exaggerated stories of the deadly effects of the bite, and reports that
the tip of each leg carries a poisonous spur, have caused many persons to be
overly afraid of centipedes. Hysteria and shock resulting from this
unfounded fear probably have been the cause of more suffering than the
bites themselves.

The tip of each of the 42 legs of the giant desert centipede is equipped with a
sharp claw. It is possible when the centipede scurries across a person’s arm
or leg for these claws to make pin-point punctures. Infection introduced
through these tiny openings readily leads to the belief that poison has been
injected. Prompt application of an antiseptic will greatly reduce the
possibility of infection.

4

Left: Yellow, slender-tailed. Deadly species.
Centruroides sculpturatus
Center: Striped-tail. Not deadly.
Vejovis spinigeris
Right: Desert hairy. Large, not deadly.
Hadrurus hirsutus

Scorpions
More deaths have occurred in Arizona from scorpion sting than from the
bites and stings of all other creatures combined. It is apparent that scorpions
are dangerous, that all persons should be informed regarding them, and that
details of first-aid treatment should be common knowledge.

In some parts of the South, scorpions are called “stinging lizards.” This is
unfortunate because it has caused many people to think of lizards as
poisonous and capable of stinging.

Not all scorpions are deadly. Danger from the two deadly species (one
shown above) which look so much alike that only an expert can tell them
apart, is greatest to children under 4 years of age. Unless prompt action is
taken small children might succumb to the poison from a single sting from
an individual of either of the deadly species. Older children may die from the
effect of several stings, and adults, especially those in poor health, may
suffer serious injuries.

Of the more than 20 species of scorpions recorded in Arizona where detailed
studies have been made, the two deadly forms have been found only across
the southern portion of the State and in the bottom of Grand Canyon. As 5
far as is now known, no other deadly species occur in the Southwest,
except in Mexico where there are several.

It is important, then, that all persons should recognize the deadly species.
Study the photograph. Note that the deadly species (left) is about 2 inches in
length, is straw colored, and that its entire body, especially the joints of the
legs, pincers, and “tail,” are long and slender. It has a streamlined
appearance. This is in contrast with the stubby or chunky appearance of the
many non-deadly species.

Scorpions sting, they do not bite. The pincers at the head end of the body are
for the purpose of holding the prey, which consists primarily of soft-bodied

insects, while the scorpion tears it to pieces with its jaws.

The sting is located at the extremity of the “tail” and consists of a very sharp,
curved tip attached to a bulbous organ containing the poison-secreting
glands and poison reservoir. The sting is driven into the flesh of the victim
by means of a quick, spring-like flick of the “tail.” Muscular pressure forces
the poison into the wound through two tiny openings very near the sting tip.
Thus the poison is injected beneath the skin, making treatment difficult, as
the impervious skin renders surface application ineffective.

Whereas the poison of non-deadly species of scorpions is local in effect,
causing swelling and discoloration of the tissues in immediate proximity to
the point of puncture, that of the deadly species is general over the entire
body of the victim. There is intense pain at the site of the sting but very little
inflammation or swelling.

Giant desert hairy scorpion in alert position.

[1]
According to Kent and Stahnke , “the victim soon becomes restless. This
increases to a degree that, in cases of small children, the patient is entirely
unable to cooperate with attendants. It turns, frets, and does not remain 6
quiet for an instant. The abdominal muscles may become rigid, and
there may be contractions of the arms and legs. Drooling of saliva begins,
and the heart rate increases. The temperature may reach 103 or 104 degrees.
Cyanosis (skin turning blue) gradually appears, and respiration becomes
increasingly difficult, causing a reaction not unlike that observed in a severe
case of bronchial asthma. Involuntary urination and defecation may occur. In
fatal cases the above symptoms may become so marked that apparently the
child dies from exhaustion.

“In cases that recover, the acute symptoms subside in 12 hours or less. In the
adult, symptoms as enumerated may be encountered, but as a rule they are
less severe. Numbness is usually experienced at the site of the sting. If one
of the appendages is stung, the member may become temporarily useless.
Two cases of temporary blindness have been experienced. Some patients
complain of malaise (discomfort) for many days following the sting. One
patient developed a tachycardia (rapid heart) lasting two weeks.”

Treatment of scorpion stings

Dr. Stahnke recommends the following treatment for a person stung by one
of the deadly scorpions:

“First, apply a tight tourniquet near the point of puncture and between it
and the heart.... As soon as possible, place an ice pack on the site of the
sting. Have a pack of finely crushed ice wrapped in as thin a cloth as
possible. Cover and surround the area for about 10 to 12 inches. After the
ice pack has been in place for approximately 5 minutes, remove the
tourniquet.

“If a person is stung on the hand, foot, or other region that can be
submerged completely, place the portion, as soon as possible, in an ice-and-
water mixture made of small lumps of ice (about half the size of ice cubes) in

a proportion of half ice and half water. Treatment should not be continued
longer than 2 hours.

“NEVER put salt in the water. After the first 15 minutes, the hand or foot
must be removed for relief for 1 minute every 10 minutes in the iced water.”

Dr. Stahnke continues: “If the patient is less than 3 years old, if the patient
has been stung several times, or if the patient has been stung on the back of
the neck, anywhere along the backbone, or on an area of deep flesh like the
buttock, thigh, or trunk of the body, or especially on the genital organs,
medical assistance should be obtained at once.”

Dr. F. A. Shannon advises that no person with disease involving the
circulation of the extremities should use iced water. Morphine is a necessary
tool in controlling pain, and barbiturates are useful for control of
convulsions.

Several hospitals in southern Arizona keep a supply of scorpion antivenin
and, in any case, the patient should be taken to a hospital as quickly as
possible. In all cases the first-aid treatment should be applied and maintained
until the patient is under the care of a physician.

With adults, in case a physician is not available, the iced-water 7
treatment usually proves sufficient. Generally, after 2 hours of iced-
water use, there is no longer any danger, but should symptoms reappear,
treatment should be resumed.

Scorpion antivenin for stings of Centruroides sculpturatus and C. gertschi is
available at the Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory, Arizona State
University, Tempe, Arizona. The recommended method of treatment is the
“L-C” method. The L stands for ligature and C for cryotherapy (tourniquet
and ice pack treatment).

Treatment is as follows: “As soon as possible (after the sting has been
received) inject intramuscularly or subcutaneously, 5 to 10 cc. of natural
serum or 3 cc. of the concentrated. In serious cases, inject intravenously.”
No immediate untoward results have been noted, but some cases of skin
irritation develop later.

In cases of scorpion poisoning when antivenin is not available, the following
[12]
treatment is recommended :

“Use morphine with extreme caution. It has not been found effective in the
usual doses. Barbiturates are more effective and less dangerous. Bromides in
large doses are apparently of value. In those cases characterized by severe
pulmonary edema (accumulation of fluid in the lungs) atropine is indicated
along with general supportive measures. Compresses, using a fairly
concentrated ammonium hydroxide solution, have been found helpful if
applied within a few moments. If applied for the first time about 10 minutes
after the sting, no apparent benefit is attained.”

Where scorpions live

Scorpions normally remain in hiding during the day, coming out in search of
insects at night. The deadly species are commonly found under bark on old
stumps, in lumber piles, or in firewood piled in dark corners. It is not
unusual to find them in basements or in linen closets. Adults may find an
unpleasant surprise in a shoe or a piece of clothing taken from a closet or
dresser drawer. Legs of cribs or children’s beds may be placed in cans
containing kerosene or in wide-mouthed jars.

Moral: Keep your garage, basement, and premises in general, clean, tidy,
and free from insects on which scorpions feed. Screen children’s cribs, and
pull the sheets clear back before putting the youngsters to bed. Shake out
your shoes before putting them on, and inspect sheets, blankets, or clothing
which have been in closets or drawers.

Black widow spider
(Lactrodectus mactans)

Although spiders in general produce venom with which to paralyze their
prey, only a very few have fangs of sufficient length or power to 8
penetrate human skin, or venom of sufficient quantity or potency to
affect human health.

There are two poisons present in spider venom: a toxin which cause local
symptoms, and a toxalbumin producing general symptoms. In those spiders
whose bites produce systematic disturbances it is believed that the latter
poison predominates.

Where black widows live

Black widows spin their webs in crevices between rocks, under logs or
overhanging banks, in abandoned rodent holes, and in rock and wood piles.
Indoors they are most frequently encountered in dark corners of garages,
basements, and stables.

Underside of black widow spider showing characteristic red
“hourglass” mark on the abdomen by which this species may be
recognized.

A favorite and especially dangerous location in which a black widow
establishes her home is beneath the seat of a pit toilet. Such a location is
ideal for the spider because it is dark, is not usually disturbed, and insects,
especially flies, upon which the spiders feed, are abundant. Humans using
the toilet, unaware of the presence of the spider, arouse her by breaking or
agitating her web, and offer especially tender and susceptible portions of
their anatomies for her bite.

Pit toilets in warm climates should always be built with hinged seats 9
which should be raised and inspected frequently. As a further
precaution, the underside of the seats should be treated with creosote, an
effective repellent.

Although the majority of people now recognize the black widow, some do
not, hence they kill all dark-colored spiders on general principles. This is
neither necessary nor desirable.

The female black widow is a medium-sized, glossy black, solitary spider
with a globular abdomen spectacularly marked on the underside with a
bright red spot roughly the shape of an hourglass. The normal position of the
spider is hanging upside down in her web so that the “hourglass” is plainly
visible if she is below the level of the eye. Her overall length is 1 to 1¼
inches.

The males are much smaller and, like the immature females, are grey in
color and variously striped and spotted.

Adult females spin egg cocoons during the warm season; each cocoon
contains approximately 300 to 500 eggs which hatch in about 30 days. As
many as nine broods per year have been recorded. The young grow fast but
do not mature until the following spring or summer.

Black widow bites

Although black widows ferociously pounce upon insects or other spiders
much larger than themselves which become entangled in their webs, they are
by nature retiring and bite humans only when restrained from escape by
contact with the body of man.

The fangs, which are about one-fiftieth of an inch in length, serve to inject
from two large glands the venom which is reported to be much more virulent
per unit than that of the rattlesnake.

There is some pain and swelling at the site of the bite. The pain spreads
throughout the body, centering at the extremities, which become cramped,
and over the abdomen, where the muscles become rigid. There is nausea and
vomiting, difficulty in breathing, dizziness, ringing in the ears, and
headache. Blood pressure is raised, eye pupils are dilated and the reflexes are
[2]
overactive. Medical records, according to Bogen , show that “despite its
severe symptoms, arachnidism (poisoning by spider, tick, or scorpion) is, in
the majority of cases, a self-limiting condition, and generally clears up

spontaneously within a few days,” although cases of death resulting from
[3]
black widow bites are on record .

Treatment of black widow bites

Since the venom of the black widow, among other properties, appears to
affect the nervous system, its effect is almost instantaneous, and most first-
aid measures are of little value.

Stahnke has found that the iced-water treatment (as described in detail in the
scorpion section of this booklet) is beneficial. The points of puncture should
be treated with iodine, the patient kept as quiet as possible, and an ice pack
applied or the part submerged in iced-water, and a physician summoned
immediately.
[4]
10
Baerg recommends hot baths—as hot as the patient can endure.
These should be used only in cases of advanced poisoning, never
immediately after the bite is received.

Internal use of alcohol is dangerous, and a person bitten when intoxicated
would have much less chance of recovery.

Professional treatment consists mostly in the use of opiates, hydrotherapy,
and similar measures to alleviate the acute pain. Of more than 75 different
remedies used, three seem to be outstanding as palliatives: spinal puncture,
intravenous injections of Epsom salts, and intramuscular administration of
convalescent serum when given within 8 hours. Dr. Charles Barton, of Los
Angeles, recommends intramuscular or intravenous injection of calcium
gluconate, 10 cc. in a 10 per cent solution. The patient should be encouraged
to drink as much water as he will. He usually leaves the hospital on the
fourth day. Recent experiments with an injection of neostigmine followed by
one of atropine have had encouraging results, and the use of ACTH in
several cases has had spectacular results, according to Readers’ Digest (Nov.
1951, p. 45).

Control of black widows

Because of their wide distribution and secretive habits, black widows are
difficult to control. Basements, outbuildings, and garages should be cleaned
frequently, and black widow webs and eggs destroyed. If accessible, the
spider may be dislodged from her web with a broom, and smashed. The use
of a blowtorch, where there is no fire hazard, is effective for both spiders and
egg cocoons. Insect sprays, in general, are ineffectual.

Brown recluse spider
and its venomous relatives

Until recently the black widow was considered the only spider in the United
States dangerous to man. In 1955, physicians in Missouri and Arkansas
began treating persons suffering from the bite of the brown recluse spider,
whose poison caused serious damage to the skin at the site of the puncture
and often produced a severe systemic reaction sometimes fatal to young
children.

The spider is approximately ⁵/₁₆ inch in length, dark brown to fawn, with
long legs. A violin-shaped spot on the upper side of the cephalothorax (head
portion) is the only noticeable identification giving rise to another common
name—fiddleback spider. It is also known as brown spider, or brown house
spider.

Little has been published on its life history, but it has been reported from
Kansas, Illinois, the Gulf Coast, and from Tennessee to Oklahoma. It is
extending its territory westward and has recently been reported from 11
southeastern New Mexico and southern California. People are
contributing to the rapid geographical spread of this species by unknowingly
carrying it across state lines in their luggage. The brown recluse spider,
according to Paul N. Morgan, research microbiologist at the Little Rock,
Arkansas, Veterans Administration Hospital, “constitutes a hazard to the
health of man, perhaps greater than the Black Widow.”

Brown recluse spider
(Photo—Division of Dermatology Dept. of Medicine U. of Arkansas Medical
Center)

Where found

It is found in open fields and rocky bluffs but thrives particularly well in
outhouses, garages, dark closets, storerooms, and in piles of sacking or old
clothing. Its web is large and irregular.

The brown recluse bite

Because of the spider’s nocturnal and retiring habits few people are bitten, in
spite of a large spider population. According to an article in the August, 1963
Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society, “there may be mild transitory

stinging at the time of the bite, but there is little associated early pain. The
patient may be completely unaware he has been bitten, and the spider is
seldom seen. Only after 2 to 8 hours does pain, varying from mild to severe,
begin. After several days an ulcer may form at the site of the bite. The
venom appears to contain a spreading factor resulting in a spread of the 12
necrosis or tissue destruction. In some instances, the ulcer may be so
large that skin grafting is required, but the graft may take poorly or not at all.
“The bite may also produce serious systemic symptoms including fever,
chills, weakness, vomiting, joint pain, and a spotty skin eruption, all
occurring within 24-48 hours after the venom injection.”

Treatment for bite of the brown recluse spider

Physicians at the University of Arkansas Medical Center, Little Rock, prefer
the prompt administration of corticosteroids, stating, “Large doses given
early may completely prevent the gangrenous response as well as the
systemic reaction. The dosage schedule which we have found most effective
is: 80 mg. of methylprednisolone (Deep-Medrol) intramuscularly
immediately followed by one or two additional doses of same amount at 24-
48 hour intervals. Subsequently, step wise decrease to 40, 20, 10 mg., every
24-48 hours, depending on the patient’s response, is carried out.”

Dr. Herbert L Stahnke, Director of the Arizona Poisonous Animals Research
Laboratory, reports that an antivenin has been prepared in South America to
control both the local and general symptoms from the bite of a closely
related species of Loxosceles. He states, “locally there seems to be a
favorable response to hydroxyzine, 100 mg. four times a day. I would say
that cryotherapy, as we recommend it, would prevent all symptoms. I would
recommend that the site of the bite be packed in crushed ice for 6 to 8 hours,
after which the patient should be kept warm to the point of perspiration with
the ice pack continuing for a total of 24 hours. In other words, treated like a
pit viper bite, but over a much shorter period of time.” Avoid narcotics
(morphine, demerol, dilaudid, codeine, etc.) since they enhance the systemic
effects.

Although the brown recluse has not yet been reported in Arizona, it may be
expected at any time, according to Dr. Mont A. Cazier, professor of zoology
at Arizona State University at Tempe. In the meantime, studies are being
made of the several close relatives of Loxosceles reclusa known to be
present in the state. Among these is L. unicolor, first collected near
Littlefield and Virgin Narrows in 1932. Equally poisonous with reclusa is
the similar L. laeta, also found in Arizona. Other members of the genus, L.
deserta and L. arizonica, have been known to live in Arizona and elsewhere
in the Southwest for more than three decades, but no studies have been made
of their venom. Dr. Willis J. Gertsch, world famous authority on spiders,
believes that there may be as many as 20 species of Loxosceles in the
Southwest. Several reports by persons who have been bitten by spiders
describe reactions similar to those caused by the bite of the brown recluse.

According to Dr. Findley E. Russell, toxicology researcher of the University
of Southern California Medical School, the “venom” injected by the brown
spider is not really a toxin but a complete chemical that inhibits the normal
action of infection-fighting antibodies in the human anatomy.

13

Tarantulas
(Avicularia sp.)

Known to naturalists as bird spiders, the large hairy members of the genera
Avicularia, Dugesiella, and Aphonopelma of the arid Southwest are
commonly called tarantulas.

Tarantula
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost Sr.)

This name originated in southern Italy where, centuries ago, according to a
story, in the little town of Tarantum (now Taranto) there developed an
epidemic of “tarentism” supposedly resulting from the bite of a large wolf

spider (Lycosa tarantula). Victims were affected with melancholy, stupor,
and an irresistible desire to dance. Presumably, the Neapolitan folk dance,
Tarentella, came about as a result of an effort to develop a cure for tarentism.

Early day immigrants brought to the western hemisphere both the
unreasoning fear of spider bites and the name “tarantula,” which they
applied to the large and fearsome-looking bird spider of the Southwest.
Since that time this superstitious fear has become established among the
uneducated and uninformed people of the southwestern United States, where
the bird spiders are numerous.

It has been spread and aggravated by prolific writers of western thrillers,
published in the pulp-paper magazines. Fantastic tales in which the big
spiders followed their victims, sprang upon them from distances of from 6 to
10 feet, and inflicted painful bites resulting in lingering, agonizing 14
death have had wide circulation and have found a credulous audience.

Tarantulas are nearsighted, and their habit of pouncing upon grasshoppers
and other large insects on which they prey is probably the basis for
exaggerated stories of their jumping abilities. Their strong, sharp fangs can
inflict a painful bite, but they use them only rarely in defense against human
molestation. Stahnke states that any effects produced appear to be the result
of bacterial infection rather than that of poison, although a mild poison is
present. Treatment of tarantula bite with iodine or similar antiseptic is
recommended.

One species of Avicularia and several of Aphonopelma range throughout the
Southwest where they are active during spring, summer, and autumn months.
They live in web-lined holes in the ground, usually located on south-facing
slopes. The males are commonly encountered traveling across country, and
are particularly noticeable as they cross a highway.

Preying upon insects, these large and interesting desert dwellers are
beneficial rather than harmful to mankind, and deserve protection.

Unfortunately, many become the innocent victims of the wholly unwarranted
fear in which they are held because of the fantastic stories regarding their
purported poisonous characteristics.

Conenose bug
(Kissing bug, Bellows bug, Walpai tiger, Cross bug, others)
(Triatoma sp.)

Although not limited to the deserts of the Southwest, conenose bugs, of
which there are several species, are commonly associated with subtropical
climates.

Certain South American species of the family Reduviidae are disease
carrying and there is evidence the conenoses in San Diego County,
California, are infected with a disease-producing flagellate. Lack of large
bug populations in close contact with man and ineffective transmission
habits protect man in the Southwest from disease contacts. However, the site
of the bug’s bite becomes inflamed, and swelling may spread over an area up
to a foot in diameter.

In general appearance, conenose bugs resemble assassin and squash bugs,
with protruding eyes at the base of a cone-shaped snout and are about the
same size. Some species are considerably smaller, while others attain a
length of an inch or more.

Habitat of conenose bugs

Since conenose bugs subsist upon animal blood which they suck from the
capillaries by inserting the stylets of the proboscis, they seek locations where
there is a source of blood. These include livestock barns, poultry houses, and
human habitations.

15

Conenose bugs—Triatoma protracta
Adult male (rounded abdomen); Adult female (pointed abdomen)
(Photo courtesy of Dr. Sherwin F. Wood)

[5]
Studies conducted by Wehrle show that conenoses are parasitic on
woodrats and breed in the dens of these rodents. They are also found in
meadow vole (mouse) nests. Early in May the winged conenose adults begin
dispersal flights, invading human habitations in the vicinity of woodrat dens.
Although reported as most active in May and June, they may be expected
throughout the summer until October, and are much more numerous in the
country than in cities.

During the daytime, the insects remain hidden under rugs, between quilts, or
even in bedding or behind drapes. They may be seen during the evening on
ceiling beams, walls, curtains, and around windows. They are alert and
difficult to catch.

Conenose bugs do not attack people until the victim is quiet or asleep, and
may take blood without awakening the host. Immediately after being bitten,
however, the victim is awakened by severe itching. The area about the
puncture swells and becomes red and feverish. Welts at the point of puncture
are hard, and may be 1 to 3 inches in diameter.

About 5% of the people repeatedly bitten develop severe allergic reactions
with burning pain and itching at the site of the bite, itching on the palms of
the hands, soles of the feet, neck, and groin; general body swelling, and a
nettle-like rash over the body. Some persons feel ill, with light depression
followed by quickening of the pulse. Others are faint, weak, and 16
nauseated. In very severe allergy these symptoms may lead to
anaphylactic shock and unconsciousness.

Treatment of conenose bites

Although a specific treatment for conenose bites has not been developed,
some physicians use epinephrine. More promising results appear possible
with antihistamine preparations (under doctor’s prescription) such as
benadryl and pyribenzamine, which have been effective by mouth, and in
severe reactions, by intravenous injections.
[6]
Matheson writes: “When a blood-sucking insect bites, it is always possible
that the proboscis may be contaminated with pathogenic organisms. If such
organisms become localized near the point of puncture or gain access to the
blood stream, results may be serious. It is always wise to use some
disinfectant such as alcohol, tincture of iodine, etc., and to press out the
blood, if possible, from bites made by insects.” Antibiotics are frequently
necessary to control the extremely high percentage of secondary infections.

Physicians recommend the application of a hot Epsom salt pack over the
point of puncture as soon as possible after the bite has been received.
Application of antiphlogistine alleviates the severe itching. ACTH is
recommended by some physicians. Hydrocortizone ointments reduce the
skin eruptions and local pain.

Control of conenose bugs

Prevention is more satisfactory than treatment, and since conenoses live in
woodrat dens, these rodents should be eliminated from the vicinity.
Weatherstripping around all permanent doors and screen doors, tight-fitting,
holeless screens in all windows, and fine screens in fireplace chimneys will
help to keep the bugs out of houses. Occasionally they may be seen on walls
and ceilings in the evening, and may be killed with a flyswatter.

If impossible to keep the insects out of the house, sleeping persons may be
protected by the use of mosquito netting. It is especially important that the
beds of babies and young children should be safe-guarded because of the
danger from scorpions.

Common ant

Bedding should be shaken thoroughly just before children retire, 17
because both scorpions and conenose bugs have a habit of concealing
themselves in bedding during the daytime.

Ants, wasps, hornets, bees
Stinging insects all belong to the group Hymenoptera and consist of the
families Apidae (honeybee, etc.), Bombidae (bumblebee), Vespidae (wasps
and hornets), Sphecidae (thread-waisted wasps), Mutillidae (velvet ants),
and Formicidae (the ants).

Wasp

In general, the only treatment recommended for insect stings is to bathe the
parts with ordinary liquid household bluing just as soon as possible after the
sting has been received, and apply hot compresses. However, certain specific
treatments are advised, depending upon the particular species or condition.

Some persons are extremely susceptible to insect bites and stings, and
preliminary work has been done in trying to immunize those sensitive
individuals, but, in general, with very little success. The problem of
immunizing or desensitizing persons who are allergic to insect bites and

stings is one of considerable importance, as such unfortunate persons will
testify.

Because of the fact that honeybees are of such great economic importance,
not only as producers of an important food but also as pollenizers of fruit,
vegetable, seed, and other crops, they will be discussed separately from the
other stinging insects.

Everyone is familiar with ants, wasps, hornets, and bumblebees, and there
are very few persons who have not had unpleasant experiences with one or
more of these groups of insects.

18

Ants and velvet ants

Velvet ants, which are in reality wingless wasps and not true ants, are not as
well known as the others, although the little creatures that scurry about like
brightly dyed bits of cotton are quite numerous in the desert.

The primary purpose of the sting is to paralyze or kill their prey, although it
becomes more important as a weapon of defense with insects which do not
prey upon or parasitize other creatures. Although the solitary insects use
their poison as a means of personal defense if attacked or imposed upon, the
social insects such as ants, social wasps and hornets, honeybees, and others,
rally to the defense of their nests and in mass attacks against an intruder may
cause painful and sometimes serious injury.

Although the small amount of poison introduced beneath the skin by the
sting of one of these creatures usually causes only temporary discomfort,
there are sometimes after effects which may be more intense and of longer
duration with some persons than with others. In general, stinging insects
may be considered more as a nuisance than a menace, although a person
attacked by a large number, or subjected to their stings for some length of
time, might receive serious and perhaps fatal injuries. Known deaths have
been caused by the sting of imported fire ants in southeastern States. The
species is believed to be spreading. Treatment by a physician may include
the use of ACTH and calmitol.

Although ants and velvet ants are commonly considered as wingless, they
are, actually, winged. Male velvet ants have wings whereas the females are
normally without wings. The females have a very effective sting, and if
picked up or pinched they make every effort to use it, at the same time
emitting a peculiar faint squeaking sound.

True ants, of which there are hundreds of species, are social insects living in
colonies containing the mother, or queen, which becomes wingless after
fertilization; numerous workers, or non-fertile females; and young winged
males and females.

Velvet ant

19
Control of ants

Ants of various species are numerous on the desert, some of them becoming
serious household pests, difficult to control.

There are effective ant poisons on the market, but the surest method of
control is to find the nest and destroy it. Ants that are household pests
usually are either grease eaters or sweet eaters, and the proper poison for the

specific type should be obtained in attempting to rid the house of these
insects.

Wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, bees

Wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, and bees of many species are common in the
desert, some species being solitary in habit while others live in colonies or
nests which they defend with great pugnacity.

Bumblebee

Although humans have little to fear from these insects if they leave them
strictly alone, some species select nest sites beneath overhanging eaves or in

attics or lofts, thus becoming persistent pests. They are usually tolerated
until one or more members of the family are stung.

Other species are attracted to human habitations by the presence of sweets or
other edibles, and make persistent nuisances of themselves. They are capable
of inflicting painful injuries, and are greatly feared by many persons.

Not usually serious, these injuries do not respond to any treatment that has
yet been developed. Immediate application of strong ammonium hydroxide
(household ammonia) is a home treatment which has been found 20
helpful for ant stings, and, in most cases, for the stings of other insects.

A piece of ice held at the point of puncture will relieve the pain and burning
sensation in the majority of cases of insect sting.

In serious cases, of course, the services of a physician should be obtained
immediately.

Honeybee
(Apis mellifera)

At first thought it may seem unjustified to include the common honeybee in
a discussion of poisonous creatures of the desert. Although the honeybee is
not a desert native, having been imported from Europe, it has established
itself in the wild state throughout the Southwest in locations providing
adequate moisture and sufficient nectar-producing flowers.

Honeybees on the honeycomb

Throughout much of the United States honeybees are encountered in
numbers only in apiaries operated by beekeepers, or in bee trees where the

insects have established themselves. In the desert climatic conditions are
ideal for honeybees, and they have become widespread and well established.

They obtain water at springs, seeps, waterholes, cattle tanks, dripping
faucets, and leaking water containers, often congregating in such numbers
around sources of water that they become a distinct nuisance to men and to
animals. Individual honeybees are frequently found in flowers, or may fly in
through an open automobile window, and sting one of the car’s occupants.
Small children sometimes receive stings while playing on white clover lawns
or going barefoot. Farm boys may be severely stung as a result of 21
molesting beehives or throwing stones at bees’ nests in trees or caves.

Normally, poison introduced by the sting of a honeybee is local in effect and
little more than a painful inconvenience to the person stung. There are many
cases on record, however, of persons and domestic animals receiving stings
from so many of the enraged insects that serious and even fatal results have
followed.

During the past half century, medical records show a number of deaths each
[7]
resulting from a single sting. Jones made an intensive study of this
problem and was able to show conclusively that occasional individuals
become supersensitive to honeybee venom. If persons in such condition
receive even the small amount of poison injected by a single sting, the
resulting excessive susceptibility may be fatal unless proper treatment is
administered immediately. To such persons the honeybee is definitely a
poisonous and dangerous creature.

Poison mechanism of worker bee, greatly enlarged.

1. Poison sack or reservoir.
2. Muscles which force sting into flesh and pump poison from sack.
These muscles continue operating for as long as 20 minutes
after the sting has been torn from the bee’s body.
3. Sheath within which shafts of sting slide.
4. Barbed tip of sting. These barbs hold the sting in the flesh of the
victim so securely as to tear the sting from the body of the bee.

How a bee stings

The poison-injecting mechanism of the worker bee is located within the
extremity of the abdomen and consists of a barbed sting at the base of which

is attached a sack, or reservoir, containing the poison. Male bees (drones)
have no sting, and the queen reserves hers for possible use in battle with a
rival queen.

In the act of stinging, the bee forces the tip of the sting through the skin of
the victim, where it becomes imbedded, being held by the barbs. In escaping
the bee tears away, leaving the sting, poison sack, and attached muscles and
viscera. Incidentally, this rupture results in the death of the bee.

Capillarity and the spasmodic movement of the attached muscles force 22
the poison from the sack through the hollow shaft of the sting into the
wound.

Treatment of bee sting

To counteract this, the first thing that anyone should do when stung by a
honeybee is to SCRAPE out the sting. This may be done with a knife blade or
even with the fingernail, although the latter is far from sanitary. NEVER
PULL OUT THE STING, because in grasping the protruding poison sack
between the thumb and forefinger, the sack is certain to be pinched and the
poison squeezed into the wound.

Since, under normal conditions, it takes several seconds for the contents of
the sack to work into the puncture, prompt removal of the sting with the
attached sack prevents much of the poison from being injected.

Application of strong household ammonia just as soon as the sting is
scraped out is helpful in allaying the pain.

If a person receives a great number of stings, a physician should be
summoned at once. The victim should be undressed, put in bed, and all of the
sting scraped out. All parts of the body that have received stings should be
covered with cloths soaked in hot water and wrung out. These applications
should be as hot as the victim can endure.

Persons who are supersensitive to bee-sting venom show the following
symptoms when stung: the skin over the entire body breaks out in lumpy

welts, palms of the hands and soles of the feet itch. This is followed by
headache, nausea, and vomiting. Breathing becomes labored and heart action
is rapid and weak.

As soon as such symptoms are noted, a physician should be summoned or
the victim taken to a hospital. Treatment consists of frequent, small,
hypodermic injections of epinephrine in the ratio of one part of epinephrine
[7]
to 1,000 parts of water. Dr. W. Ray Jones , who developed and perfected
this treatment, reports that it is immediately effective and recommends that
all commercial beekeepers provide themselves with hypodermic kits and a
small supply of epinephrine.

Even persons who are apparently immune to bee-sting venom through
having received bee stings during the course of many years of work in the
apiary, may suddenly develop supersensitivity. The treatment is relatively
simple, may be self-administered, and has already proved effective in
treating serious cases of excessive susceptibility resulting from
supersensitive persons receiving bee stings.

Experimental use of calcium lactate to counteract “sting shock” indicates a
high degree of success. Physicians should investigate “Death by Sting
Shock,” p 234, Science News Letter, April 9, 1955. Use of antihistamines or
a hormone of the cortizone family has had some success.

23

Puss Caterpillar
(Megalopyge opercularis)

Superficially resembling a tiny, light, golden-yellow kitten, the puss
caterpillar is a short, bushy larva of a small gray-brown moth with whitish
underwings. When disturbed, the caterpillar rears back on its hind legs and
“makes a face.” The species has long been widespread throughout the
southern states feeding on the foliage of oak, elm, plum, and sycamore trees.
They have been found also in truck gardens and orchards. Recently they
have invaded the desert mountains of the Southwest, having been reported
by Stahnke as especially numerous in the Globe-Miami area of Arizona,
feeding on the foliage of oaks.

Puss caterpillar
(Courtesy Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke)

Because of their long, silky hairs, children are tempted to touch them. Under
the hairs are small protrusions, each bearing a circlet of very small spines
resembling tiny porcupine quills. The venom is injected when these spines
pierce the child’s skin and the tips break off, producing a burning, itching,
irritated, inflamed area. The welts, ranging in size from a dime to a dollar,
are sometimes followed by severe muscle cramps and headache. Not lethal,
the toxin may cause enough sleeplessness in a child to reduce his resistance
to other infections.

Treatment suggested by Dr. Bernard J. Collopy, Assistant Medical Director
of the Miami-Inspiration Hospital of Miami, Arizona, consists of immersing
the inflamed area in iced water for thirty minutes. Remove for one minute at
ten minute intervals for relief from the cold. The skin may blister and peel at
the site much as in the case of a first degree burn, but should heal completely
in ten days. Some physicians suggest an opiate for relief of pain in severe
cases. Cooling lotions may be applied to relieve the itching.

24

Arizona coral snake
(Micruroides euryxanthus)

The coral snake, of which there are two species in the United States, belongs
to the Elapine group, which is represented in the Old World by the cobras
and other poisonous snakes. These two species, the coral snake of the Gulf
States, and the smaller Arizona coral snake whose range extends into the
desert lands of southern New Mexico and Arizona, are the only
representatives of the Elapine group found in this country.

Arizona coral snake
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)

The Arizona coral is shy and secretive in its habits, timid rather than
pugnacious, and it is so rarely seen that little is known of its habits.

The poison mechanism of the coral snake is somewhat different from that of
the pit viper group, to which the copperheads, cottonmouths, and
rattlesnakes belong. The teeth of the coral are short, and to be effective the
coral snake must chew rather than strike its victim.

The Arizona coral snake is so small—rarely reaching 2 feet in length—and
its mouth is so tiny, that it would be very difficult for it to bite an adult
human. It is conceivable that a small child playing with one might be bitten.

Because of its close resemblance to several ringed or banded snakes of the
desert and also to the Arizona mountain kingsnake, or “coral” 25
kingsnake, of the ponderosa pine highlands of the Southwest, a brief
description of the Arizona coral snake is indicated. One of the beautifully
spectacular snakes of the desert, it is marked by bands of dark red, cream,
and black, which encircle the body. Superficially the markings of the
Arizona mountain kingsnake and other tricolored ringed snakes appear
similar. However, the red of the kingsnake and of others is usually brighter,
and the black bands narrower than those of the coral.

Definite identification is provided by the relationship of the colors to each
other, the arrangement on the Arizona coral snake being red, cream, black,
cream, red, cream, black, cream. The bands of the Arizona coral snake
entirely circle the body and its snout is black.

Rattlesnakes
(Genus Crotalus, spp.)

Thirty species and subspecies of rattlesnakes occur in the United States,
more than half of this number being found in the Southwest. Because they
have been killed on sight for years, their numbers have been considerably
reduced in densely populated areas. For this reason, together with emphasis
placed upon their poisonous characteristics by some writers of western
thriller fiction, rattlesnakes are considered by many people to be a serious
[8]
menace in the thinly populated portions of the arid West .

Western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox.)
(Photo by Earl Jackson)

Where rattlesnakes are found

In the hot desert regions of the Southwest rattlesnakes are usually abroad at
night during the summer months, as they have no controlling system 26
for body temperature and cannot endure the heat at ground surface
during the hours of sunlight. In spring and autumn they may be encountered
in the daytime but during December, January, and February they are in
hibernation and are rarely or never seen.

Their food consists principally of lizards and small rodents such as ground
squirrels, rats, mice, pocket gophers and young rabbits. They are sometimes
found along irrigation canal banks where they go for water, and because they
find rodents congregating there for the same reason. Unless surprised,
cornered, teased, handled, or injured, a rattlesnake usually will try to remain
hidden or will endeavor to crawl away rather than strike. Because they are
attracted to places where small rodents abound, they are sometimes
encountered around barns and outbuildings. They occasionally enter
abandoned structures in search of food or to escape from the heat of the sun.

Protective clothing

Because a rattlesnake may be met at almost any time, except during the
winter months, by a person who lives, works, or visits in the desert, he
should be ever alert. If hiking or climbing through country where
rattlesnakes are known to be abundant, he should wear clothing that will
protect him from a possible bite.
[9]
Pope states that records kept during 1928 and 1929 show that 98 per cent
of snake bites occurred below the knee or on the hand or forearm. When in
snake country, the hiker should wear knee-high boots or leggings, and
should never place his hand on a rock or ledge above the level of his eyes. In
other words, watch your step, and look before you reach! Apparently
rattlesnakes may strike at a quick movement and are very sensitive to the
body warmth of a nearby warm-blooded creature.

Rattlesnake relatives

Rattlesnakes belong to the group known as the pit vipers, which includes the
cottonmouths and the copperheads. The latter do not occur in the desert, so
they do not come within the province of this publication. Snakes of the pit
viper group are characterized by a noticeable depression, or pit, found
almost halfway between the eye and the nostril, but slightly lower, on each
side of the head.

Of the several species found in the desert, some, such as the western
diamondback rattlesnake have a wide range, while others are restricted to
limited areas. Some species attain large size, while others are quite small;
some are inclined to be pugnacious, while others are more or less docile. All
are dangerous!

It is not within the scope of this publication to enter into a discussion of the
many species, so the reader who wishes to pursue that subject further is
[10]
referred to Klauber’s publication on the rattlesnakes .

The Sidewinder

There is one rattlesnake of the desert that should be especially mentioned:
the sidewinder, or the little horned rattlesnake. It is called sidewinder 27
because of the peculiar method of locomotion that enables it to
progress in the sandy habitat which it frequents. Unable to get sufficient
traction in loose sand by moving as other snakes do, it throws a portion of its
body ahead as a loop, thus serving to anchor or pull the rest of the body
ahead. Thus it progresses sideways in a looping, or winding, motion most
interesting to observe.

Sidewinder or “horned” rattlesnake

Although the term sidewinder is often used loosely in referring to other
species of rattlesnakes, it actually applies only to this particular species—
Crotalus cerastes.

Helpful precautions

In snake country, it is important to take a flashlight along whenever there is
occasion to go outside at night in summer to be sure that there are no
rattlesnakes lying across your path. If you sleep out of doors. keep your bed
off the ground if possible. The widely believed statement that, “a rattlesnake
will not crawl across a hair rope” is not true, although such a statement will
often precipitate an argument.

Persons much in the field should provide themselves with a suction-type
snakebite kit, and should know how to use it. Although you stand 200

chances of being killed by an automobile to one of dying from snakebite, the
price of a suction-type kit is cheap insurance against that possibility.

First aid for rattlesnake bite

If, in spite of all precautions, you or some companion should be bitten by a
rattlesnake, first-aid should be rendered at once. This is not difficult if 28
you have a snakebite kit, and it is possible even if you do not.

The following steps are quite universally accepted:

1. Apply a tourniquet a short distance above the bite (that is between it and
the heart) but do not make it too tight. This prevents the blood and lymph
carrying the poison from being spread rapidly through the body. The
tourniquet should be loosened for a few seconds every 20 minutes.

2. Make a short cut about one-fourth inch deep and one-fourth inch long
near each fang puncture with a sharp, sterile instrument. A knife or razor
blade sterilized in the flame of a match will do.

3. Apply suction to the cuts. If no suction cup is available, the mouth will do
if it contains no open sores.

4. If antivenin is available, administer it according to instructions, but, if
possible, this should be left to a physician. (Recent experiments with
antivenin indicate that, in some cases, its reaction may be harmful and that it
should be administered only under the care of a physician.)

5. Get the patient to medical help as soon as possible, continuing the first-
aid treatment enroute. Keep the patient quiet and do not let him get
frightened or excited. Rather than require the patient to walk or otherwise
exercise, medical aid should be brought to him.

6. If medical help is not available, and if Epsom salts can be obtained, apply
cloths soaked in a strong, hot solution of Epsom salts over the cuts. The
sucking, however, should be continued for at least half an hour, preferably

for an hour or more. Never give alcoholic stimulants or use permanganate of
potash. Snakebite kits give complete instructions; follow them carefully.

Poison mechanism of the rattlesnake
Redrawn from Dr. Fox

1. Poison gland.
2. Hollow fang.
3. Poison duct.
4. Constrictor muscle.
5. Eye.
6. Nasal opening.
7. Pouch enclosing fangs (not shown in drawing).
8. Tongue.

Rattlesnake venom contains digestive enzymes which attack and 29
destroy tissue, and because of this and the possibility of bacterial
infection introduced by cutting the skin, another method of treatment—
cryotherapy (treatment with cold)—advocated by Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke,

Poisonous Animals Laboratory, Arizona State University, seems to be
gaining more and more support. This technique is designed to prevent and
control the chemical action of the venom and of bacteria, as well as
minimizing stress. This latter action is extremely important, since recent
research work has indicated that the physiological products produced by the
body under stress may more than double the toxic effects of the venom. Cut-
and-suction, or any similar treatment, tends to greatly increase stress.

The following description of treatment is excerpted from “American Journal
of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,” Volume 6, Number 2, March, 1957, The
Treatment of Snake Bite, by Herbert L. Stahnke, Fredrick M. Allen, Robert
V. Horan, and John H. Tenery:

1. Place a ligature (tight tourniquet) at once between the site of the bite and
the body, but as near the point of entrance of the venom as possible.

2. Place a piece of ice on the site while preparing a suitable vessel of
crushed ice and water.

3. Place the bitten hand or other member in the iced water well above the
point of ligation.

4. After the envenomed member has been in the iced water for not less than 5
minutes (N.B. research has shown that the danger generally attributed to a
ligature is not present when the member is refrigerated), remove the ligature,
but keep the member in the iced water for at least 2 hours.

5. Pack the envenomed member in finely crushed ice. This hypothermia must
continue for approximately 24 hours, and the patient must not be permitted
to chill, since this increases body stress.

6. Change from hypothermia to cryotherapy. This is accomplished as
follows: after the first 24 hours following the bite, the patient should be kept
somewhat uncomfortably warm—that is, to the point of perspiration—and
encouraged to drink much water. This step is exceedingly important. Unless
the patient is kept uncomfortably warm the proteolytic portion of the venom
will not leave the site of the bite. Consequently, when hypothermia is
stopped, the concentration of this part of the venom is greater and the tissue

destruction will be proportionately increased. Hypothermia should be
avoided entirely if this step is not meticulously observed.

Western black-headed snake (Tantilla eiseni).
(Courtesy San Diego Natural History Museum)

30

Sonora lyre snake (Trimorphodon lambda).
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)

7. The warm-up period after Cryotherapy is important. This must be done
gradually. Remove the member from the crushed ice and place it in ice water
(without ice). Allow the water to warm to room temperature.

Dr. Walter C. Alvarez in the Santa Fe New Mexican, 8-18-57: “Recently, Dr.
Wm. Deichmann, John E. Dees, M. L. Keplinger, John J. Farrell, and W. E.
MacDonald Jr. reported that hydrocortizone is a life-saving drug when given
to animals that have suffered poisoning from rattlesnake venom. Instead of
only the 17% of the untreated animals that survived, 75% of treated animals
were saved.”

Back-fanged snakes
The southwestern desert regions are credited with harboring several genera
of snakes whose grooved back teeth indicate that they may have poisonous
[11]
properties. Of these, the Sonora lyre snake (Trimorphodon lambda) and
the Mexican vine snake (Oxybelis aeneus auratus) are the only species of
sufficient size to be considered as even remotely dangerous to mankind.
Species of the genera Tantilla (black-headed snake), Hypsiglena, and Sonora
are too small and too difficult for the amateur to identify to be considered in
this publication.

31

Gila monster
(Heloderma suspectum)

More conflicting statements are made about the Gila (HEE-lah) monster than
about any other desert reptile. Some persons insist that it is not poisonous,
others are sure that even its breath is poisonous: that it spits or blows its
poison: that the animal has no anal opening, hence undigested fecal matter
remains in the body, decays, and is the basis of its poison; and so on.

Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum).

Here are the facts. The lizard is poisonous and its bite may be serious,
[13]
possibly fatal . Its breath is not poisonous, and although the animal seems
to have a chronic case of halitosis, this has nothing to do with its dangerous

properties. It does not spit poison, but when angered it frequently hisses, the
outcoming blast of air sometimes carrying droplets of saliva. It has a normal
anal opening and voids fecal matter in a perfectly normal manner. It is not a
walking septic tank as many persons believe.

Largest of the lizards native to the United States, and the only species found
in this country which is poisonous, the Gila monster rarely attains a length of
2 feet. Average specimens are smaller. Its beady skin, heavy body, short legs,
and waddling gait set it apart from all other lizards except its close relative,
the also poisonous Heloderma horridum of Mexico. The Gila Monster is a
spectacular black and corral color, while the other is black and yellow.

Gila monsters are found in southern Arizona, their range extending
northwestward into the southern tip of Nevada and southwestern Utah.

32

Underside of Gila monster showing anal opening. This
photograph is advanced as proof that the Gila monster is a
perfectly normal creature in this respect.
(Photo courtesy of Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory, Tempe,
Arizona)

Food and habits

Food consists chiefly of bird and reptile eggs, young rodents, and such small
or juvenile creatures as it is able to capture. It is especially fond of hen eggs
and may be kept in captivity for a long time without other food. It is also
fond of clear water, which seems strange because of the scarcity of this
liquid in the natural habitat of the lizard. If provided with a basin of water it
may lie partly submerged for hours.

Occasionally encountered ambling across stretches of open desert, especially
in the spring, the Gila monster is normally docile and bends every effort
toward escape among the stiff stems of some bush or beneath the protecting
spine-clad stems of a cactus plant. Sometimes an individual with a “chip on
its shoulder” may be met, or one in a normal state of mind may be teased or
prodded into anger, when it advances with open mouth, sputtering and
hissing.

When aroused, the Gila monster is remarkably agile, making quick turns of
its head to snap at nearby objects. If it secures a grip, it hangs on with
bulldog-like tenacity, grinding the object between its teeth.

Gila monsters reproduce by means of eggs which are about 2½ inches long
with a tough, parchment-like skin. From 5 to 13 eggs are deposited by the
female in a hole which she scoops in moist sand in a sunny location. 33
After laying the eggs, she covers them with sand, and leaves them for
the heat of the sun to hatch.

Poison mechanism of the Gila monster
Redrawn from Dr. Fox

1. Poison gland.
2. Grooved tooth.
3. Poison duct.
4. Opening, poison duct.
5. Eye.
6. Dissected lower jaw.

The Gila monster’s tail serves as a storehouse of nourishment, being thick
and heavy in times of plenty, and thin and rope-like in the early spring when
the reptile first appears after months of hibernation, during which time it has
lived on the reservoir of fat stored in its tail.

Poison of the Gila monster

The poison of the Gila monster is produced by glands in the lower jaw. To be
most effective, the poison must be ground into the wound through action of

the grooved teeth, the process taking a little time. Bitten persons who
immediately have broken away sometimes show no effects of the venom,
therein lying the basis for the widespread statement that Gila monsters are
not poisonous.

Bitten persons who have been unable to release themselves show symptoms
of poisoning similar to persons suffering from rattlesnake bite, although the
poison is more neurotoxic in action. Breathing and heart action are speeded
up, followed by a gradual paralysis of the heart and breathing muscles.

Treatment is essentially the same as that for rattlesnake bite, which is
described earlier in this booklet. A physician should be summoned at once.
Stimulants are dangerous, and no one should be permitted to give the patient
any alcohol whatever.

Prevention is much simpler than cure, so Gila monsters should be allowed to
mind their own affairs unmolested. Normally they are not pugnacious, and it
would be very difficult for one to bite a human unless it were being teased or
handled or were stepped upon by a bare-footed child. Please do not kill or
capture Gila monsters. These interesting lizards are a unique feature of
native desert wildlife threatened with extinction. Please leave them for other
people to see and enjoy. Furthermore, the Gila monster is protected by State
law.

34

Harmless Creatures Mistakenly Believed
Poisonous
Practically everyone is aware of the widespread fear of snakes exhibited by
people of all races and in all walks of life. This fear although largely
emotional, is rationalized by many persons with the statement “Well, it
MIGHT be poisonous.” Other persons believe that there is some rule of
thumb, such as a flat or triangular-shaped head, by which all poisonous
snakes may be recognized. A great many persons kill all snakes, just on
general principles. Thus the innocent suffer with the guilty, the harmless
with the dangerous.

As scientists explore deeper and deeper into the intricacies of animal
behavior and obtain more and more knowledge of the ecological
relationships among animals and between animals and plants, it becomes
increasingly clear that these relationships present a delicate balance or
adjustment of nature. Epidemic diseases, disasters such as fires and floods,
and radical climatic changes may upset or alter these relationships,
sometimes with far-reaching effects.

But the greatest and most persistent disturber of the biological peace is
MAN. Almost every time man reduces or destroys one phase of nature, he
releases, in so doing, previously unrecognized forces which turn on him in a
manner that he least expects. Snakes, in general, live on small rodents,
thereby helping to maintain a balance whereby rodents are unable to increase
to such a point that they get out of nature’s control. Kill all of the snakes in a
given area, and some of the control on rodent population is removed with a
resulting increase in the destruction of vegetation and consequent damage to
farmers’ crops. So if you must kill snakes, by all means limit your activities
to those which are known definitely to be poisonous.

One of the purposes of this booklet is to familiarize the desert dweller or
visitor with the snakes that ARE poisonous. All the rest are harmless, in fact
they are generally beneficial to mankind, even though their heads may be

triangular in shape. A given territory is capable of supporting a rather
definite number of snakes. Kill the harmless ones and those that come in to
take their place may be poisonous species.

In all parts of the country certain creatures, particularly reptiles, are credited
with supernatural powers for causing injury or aid to human beings. Among
aboriginal peoples, these superstitions are a part of their religion and have a
powerful effect upon their thinking. For example, among the Hopi Indians of
northern Arizona, snakes may be messengers who, if properly indoctrinated,
will convey to the rain gods expressions of the people’s need for moisture in
order that their crops may mature.

Even among a people who for years have had the benefit of scientific
knowledge, superstitions persist. The hoopsnake and the milksnake offer
cases in point, and there will be readers of this booklet who will toss it aside
in anger because it states that both of these myths are without 35
substantiation in fact.

Two adult banded gecko lizards

These imaginary tales are passed from generation to generation and are the
strongest in regions where the percentage of uneducated people is high. This
situation exists in the South and Southwest. Many persons who have been
denied educational opportunities are extremely credulous and have a long
list of creatures to each of which they credit injurious or helpful powers. A
majority of these creatures are perfectly harmless, but they are too numerous
to be given space in this publication. However, it seems only fair to mention
a few of the commonest of these persecuted species in the hope that they
may be recognized as not only harmless, but in many cases actually
beneficial to man. Thus may their unwarranted persecution be somewhat
reduced.

Banded gecko
(Coleonyx variegatus)

Quite small, with velvety skin and delicate markings making it appear fragile
and semitransparent, this lizard has little to inspire fear. Hiding away during
daylight hours in dark and preferably moist retreats, it comes forth at night in
search of insects for food.

It is rarely seen unless disturbed in its hiding place, which may be in the
corner of a closet or cupboard beneath the sink. If captured, it struggles to
escape, emitting a faint, high-pitched squeak.

Although the banded gecko is sometimes mistaken for the young of a Gila
monster, in general the desert people accuse it of no definite crime, stating
merely “we have heard that it is very poisonous,” and in consequence, kill it
whenever they find it.

36

Solpugid
(Eremobates sp.)

Probably because of its large and prominent jaws, the solpugid, Eremobates
sp., which is closely related to the spiders, is greatly feared.

Solpugid or sun Spider

“Anything so ugly MUST be poisonous,” seems to be the principal basis for
its unhappy reputation.

It is often found inside buildings where it has gone in search of insect prey,
and Mexican families living in adobe houses with dirt floors are reported to
be terrorized by it. In Mexico and in many parts of the Southwest it is known
as niña de la tierra or child-of-the-earth.

The range of the solpugid or sun spider is by no means limited to the desert,
but its reputation as a poisonous creature seems to be much worse in the
Southwest than elsewhere.

The solpugid not only is perfectly harmless to man but does not rely on
poison in capturing its prey, as it has no venom glands whatever.

Jerusalem cricket
(Stenopelmatus sp.)

Whereas the solpugid is called child-of-the-earth in the southern portions of
the Southwest, in the northern part of this territory another creature, the
Jerusalem cricket, sand cricket, or chacho is reported as imbued with 37
the same dangerous qualities evidently credited to any creature to
which this name has been applied.

Jerusalem cricket, sand cricket, or chacho
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)

Although quite common, the Jerusalem cricket, Stenopelmatus sp., is shy
and nocturnal in its habits. Its striking appearance is due to its head which is
round, bald, and with markings on top that form, with the use of a little
imagination, a simple, smiling face. It is this that suggests to the Spanish-
speaking people of the Southwest, who occasionally dig it from its burrow,
the name “niña de la tierra.” The Navajo Indians call it woh-seh-tsinni,
meaning Old Man Bald-head.

By the superstitious natives, this creature is believed to be highly venomous
and frequently the death of a horse or cow is blamed by the owner on a
“chacho” that has crawled into the hay.

Actually, the Jerusalem cricket is harmless and may be handled with perfect
impunity by anyone, although it may inflict a painful nip.

Vinegaroon
(Trithyreus sp.)

Since people coming from Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas bring the
majority of tales regarding the deadly characteristics of the little vinegaroon
or whip-tail scorpion, fear of it is apparently more widespread over the 38
cotton belt as a whole than within the desert regions of the Southwest.

Vinegaroon
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)

The name vinegaroon stems from the fact that when the little creature is
injured or smashed it gives off the odor of an acetate similar to that of acetic

acid, the principal ingredient of vinegar.

Equipped with a massive pair of pincers, the vinegaroon, like the solpugid,
gives an impression of fierceness which is probably the basis for much of its
reputation as a dangerous criminal. However, the pincers are used in
catching and holding prey and have no poison mechanism in connection.

The hairlike posterior appendage, or tail, is without any protective or
offensive mechanism whatever, so that the creature is perfectly harmless
insofar as human beings are concerned.

In fact, like the solpugid and the banded gecko, its food habits cause it to rid
the world of a great many insects during the course of its life and many of its
victims are certain to be noxious to the interests of mankind.

All of these creatures, then, are not only harmless, but are actually beneficial
to man, and they deserve to be freed from the persecution resulting from
ignorance and superstition, and to be permitted to live in their normal
relationship with other creatures.

39

REFERENCES CITED

[1]
Kent, Melvin, and Stahnke, H. L., “Effect and Treatment of Arizona
Scorpion Stings,” Southwestern Medicine, April, 1939, pp. 12-121, 124.

[2]
Bogen, Emil, “Poisonous Spider Bites,” Journal of the American Medical
Association, Vol. 99, No. 24, December 10, 1932.

[3]
Thorp, Raymond W., and Woodson, Weldon D., Black Widow, America’s
Most Poisonous Spider, University of North Carolina Press, 1945.

[4]
Baerg, W. J., “The Effects of the Bite of Latrodectus mactans,” Journal of
Parasitology, Vol. IX, No. 3, March, 1933, pp. 161-169.

[5]
Wehrle, L. P., “Observations on Three Species of Triatoma,” Bulletin of
the Brooklyn Entomological Society, Vol. XXIV, No. 3, June, 1939, pp.
145-154.

[6]
Matheson, Robert, Medical Entomology, Charles C. Thomas, Baltimore,
Md., 1932.

[7]
Jones, W. Ray, King County Medical Association, Seattle, Washington.

[8]
Githens, T. H., “Snake Bite in the United States,” Scientific Monthly,
August, 1935, pp. 163-167.

[9]
Pope, Clifford H., Snakes Alive and How They Live, Viking Press, New
York, 1942.

[10]
Klauber, L. M., Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence
on Mankind, 2 vol., University of California Press, Berkeley, 1956.

[11]
Cowles, R. B., and Bogert, C. M., “Observation on the California Lyre
Snake, Trimorphoden vandenburghi, Klauber. With notes on the
Effectiveness of Its Venom,” Copeia, July 16, 1935.

[12]
Stahnke, Herbert L., Scorpions, Arizona State University Bookstore,
Tempe, Arizona, 1949.

[13]
Loeb, Leo, and collaborators, The Venom of Heloderma, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, 1913.

PUBLICATIONS YOU MAY WISH TO READ

Comstock, John Henry: “The Spider Book,” Comstock Publishing Co. Inc.,
Ithaca, N. Y., 1948.

Klauber Laurence M.: “Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and
Influence on Mankind,” 2 volumes, University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1956.

Minton, Sherman A. Jr.: “Snakebite,” Scientific American, p. 114, January,
1957.

Shannon, Federick A.: “Comments on the Treatment of Reptile Poisoning in
the Southwest,” reprinted from Southwestern Medicine, Volume XXXIV,
No. 10, October, 1953.

Stahnke, Herbert L.: “Scorpions,” Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory,
Tempe, Arizona, 1956.

Stahnke, Herbert L.: “The Treatment of Venomous Bites and Stings,”
Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory, Tempe, Arizona, 1958.
40

INDEX

A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

A
About deserts and poisons 1
Acknowledgements vii
Ants 17-19
Aphonopelma 13
Apis mellifera 20
Arizona coral snake 24-25
Arizona mountain kingsnake 24-25
Assassin bug 14
Avicularia 13-14

B
Back-fanged snakes 30
Banded gecko 35
Bees 17, 19, 21-22
Bellows bug 14
Black-headed snake 30
Black widow spider 7-10
Bombidae 16
Brown house spider 10
Brown recluse spider 10-12
Brown spider 10
Bumblebee 17, 19

C
Centipede 2-3
Centruroides 4-7
Chacho 36-37

Child-of-the-Earth 36-37
Coleonyx variegatus 35
Conenose bug 14-17
Coral king snake 24-25
Coral snake 24-25
Crotalus 25

D
Desert, a definition 1
Desert hairy scorpion 5
Desert scientists vii
Deserts of the United States (map) viii
Dugesiella 13

E
Eremobates 36

F
Fiddleback spider 10
Formicidae 17

G
Gecko 35
Giant desert centipede 2-3
Gila monster 31-33

H
Hadrurus hirsutus 4
Harmless creatures 34
Heloderma 31
Honeybee 17, 20-22
Hornet 17, 19
Horned rattlesnake 26-27
Hymenoptera 17
Hypsiglena 30

I
Insecticides vii

J
Jerusalem cricket 36-37

K
Kissing bug 14

L
Latrodectus mactans 7
Lizard 31-32, 35
Lycosa 13
Lyre snake 30

M
Mexican vine snake 30
Mountain kingsnake 24-25
Micruroides euryxanthus 24
Mutillidae 17

N
Niña de la tierra 36-37

O
Oxybelis 30

P
Pesticides vii
Poison (definition) 1
Poisonous animals (definition) 1
Poison lizard 31-33
Publications you may wish to read 39

R
Rattlesnakes 25-30
Reduviidae 14
References cited 39

S
Sand cricket 36-37
Scolopendra heros 3

Scorpions 4-7
Sidewinder 26-27
Solpugid 36
Sonora 30
Sonoran Desert Frontispiece
Sphecidae 17
Spiders 7-14
Stenopelmatus 36-37
Striped-tail scorpion 4
Slender-tail scorpion 4
Squash bug 14

T
Tantilla 30
Tarantula 13-14
Triatoma 14
Trimorphodon 30
Trithyreus 37

V
Vejovis spinigeris 4
Velvet ant 17-18
Vespidae 17
Vinegaroon 37-38

W
Walpai tiger 14
Wasps 17, 19
Western diamondback rattlesnake 25
Whip-tail scorpion 37

Y
Yellowjackets 19

41

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42

ERRATUM
On page 29, we regretfully acknowledge a typographical error. Step 3 of the
cryotherapy treatment should read:

3. Place the bitten hand or other member in the iced water well above the
point of ligation.

Transcriber’s Notes
Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
is public-domain in the country of publication.
In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.
Silently corrected a few typos.
Tweaked the order of the Table of Contents to match the text.
Incorporated the “erratum” (from an inserted slip) into the text. The
erroneous Step 3 replicated Step 2.
Inserted references to unreferenced endnotes at apparently-appropriate
places.

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