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Title: The Modern Bicycle and Its Accessories

Author: Alex Schwalbach
Julius Wilcox

Release date: December 9, 2018 [eBook #58444]

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MODERN
BICYCLE AND ITS ACCESSORIES ***

COPYRIGHT BY
THE COMMERCIAL ADVERTISER ASS’N.

A. D. 1898.

THE MODERN BICYCLE
AND ITS
ACCESSORIES

A COMPLETE REFERENCE BOOK
FOR
RIDER, DEALER AND MAKER

Republished from the Series of Articles Written for The Commercial
Advertiser by Alex. Schwalbach and Julius Wilcox Under the
Caption of “Bicycles for 1898,” Setting Forth the Improvements
and Changes in Manufacture Since 1816.

THE COMMERCIAL ADVERTISER ASSOCIATION,
29 Park Row, New York,
Publishers.
1898.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
EVOLUTION OF THE BICYCLE,
1816 TO 1899
The Year 1898 a Memorable One in Its History;
Improvement in Quality, Reduction in Price, the
Reincarnation of the Chainless, and the Abolition of the
National Cycle Show—Tendencies Toward Fixity, and
Reversion to Type—The Earliest Creations in Bicycle
Construction and the Steady March Toward
Improvement—A Brief Sketch of Development—
Marked Characteristics and Changes Adopted with the
Season of 1898.
Pages 1-9
CHAPTER II.
THE CHAINLESS WHEEL.
Its Advent Upon the American Market, After Long and
Costly Experiments—The Various Methods Employed
to Transmit Power—A Single Successful Foreign
Wheel of This Type—The Bevel Gear, Spur Gear and
Pin-Roller Gear—A Study of the Chainless Type, with
Illustrations and Descriptions of Popular Models.
Pages 10-27
CHAPTER III.
CHAINLESS VS. CHAIN.
The Advantages Claimed for Each Compared—Summary
of Early Attempts in “Safety” Types—Modes of Power
Transmission—Demands Upon Chainless Construction
—The Problems of End-Thrust and Side-Thrust—The
Question of Strain Upon Bearings and Gear Teeth—
Charges Brought Against the Chain Wheel—Effect of
the Chainless Upon the Trade.

Pages 28-36
CHAPTER IV.
FRAME AND FORK CONSTRUCTION.
The Frame, Essentially a “Bridge Upon Wheels”—
Evolution of Shape in Frames—Drop Forgings and
Stampings—Flush Joints—Drop Frames—Juveniles—
Styles of Forks and Crowns—How Tubing Is Made—
The Adoption of Sheet-Steel Parts.
Pages 37-52
CHAPTER V.
CHAIN PROTECTION.
The Gear Case an English Device—Its Improved
Construction in America—Its Practical Advantages—
Various Styles Described.
Pages 53-57
CHAPTER VI.
THE CHAIN AND ITS FUNCTIONS.
A Greater Knowledge and Care of Chains Desirable—
Evolution and Operation—Attempts to Reduce Chain
Friction—Roller Sprockets and Roller Chains—Various
Points and Kinds of Friction—The Several Types of
Chain Now in Use—Improved Sprockets—Results of
Actual Tests—Chain Adjusters—Chain Bolts and
Repairs.
Pages 58-66
CHAPTER VII.
HUBS, SPOKES AND RIMS.
Improvements in Construction—The Suspension Wheel
Described—Construction of Hubs and Spokes—The
Strains to Which They Are Subjected—The Different
Styles in Use—The Wood Wheel—Steel Rims and
Wood Rims, with Some Popular Examples.
Pages 67-73

CHAPTER VIII.
EVOLUTION OF THE TIRE.
The Tire from 1888 to 1898—Solid, Cushion, Inner-Tube
and “Hose-Pipe”—The Various Makes of Tire and Rim
—Early Methods of Repair—Modern Repair Methods
and Kits—Plugs, Patching, Strips and Vulcanizing—
Some Valuable Hints to Riders.
Pages 74-81
CHAPTER IX.
THE BEARINGS.
The Great Improvement in Bicycle Bearings—Points of
Contact—The Evil Results of Careless Construction
and Assembling—Ballmaking—The Cup Adjustment
and Its Advantages—Lubrication and Dust Exclusion—
Methods in Bearings as Made in 1898.
Pages 82-87
CHAPTER X.
CRANKS, PEDALS AND AXLES.
The Early and Modern Hub—The Divided-Axle Mania
—“One-Piece” Construction—Crank Throw and
Variable Gear—Gear Ratio—Crank Drop—Shapes of
Crank and Sprocket—Evolution of the Pedal and Axle
—Ankle Motion and Its Advantages—The Ramsey
Swinging Pedal.
Pages 88-94
CHAPTER XI.
THE SADDLE.
Until Late Years a Knotty Problem for Makers and Riders
—Some Recent Improvements—Saddles and “Seats”—
Use and Misuse of Springs—A Strictly Universal
Saddle Impossible—Various Types and Makes—Wide
Range of Choice—The Seat Post.
Pages 95-102

CHAPTER XII.
HANDLEBARS, GRIPS AND BRAKES.
Successive Modifications—Long vs. Short Bars—Wood
Bars—Grips of Various Sorts—The Question of Brakes
—Rear and Front Brakes—Back-Pedalling and Rear
Brakes—The Spencer Brake.
Pages 103-108
CHAPTER XIII.
LAMPS AND LAMP BRACKETS.
Evolution of the Lamp—Excellence of the American
Kerosene Lamp—Description of Various Makes—
Electric Lamps—The New Carbide Illuminant—
Descriptions of Carbide Lamps—Lamp Brackets.
Pages 109-117
CHAPTER XIV.
CYCLOMETERS AND OTHER SUNDRIES.
Early Cyclometers—Dial and Barrel Types—Various
Styles of the Latter—Bells, Ringing by Tire Contact
and Otherwise—Bell-Brakes—Toe-Clips—Luggage-
Carriers—Children’s Seats—Pumps—Accessories and
Novelties.
Pages 118-125
CHAPTER XV.
FREAKS AND USELESS DEVICES.
Constantly Recurring Fallacies—Weight for Obtaining
Perpetual Motion—Some Examples of Vain Contriving
—Examples of Patents Applied For—Building “To
Order”—Cutting Down Frames—The “Drop” Craze.
Pages 126-131
CHAPTER XVI.
TANDEMS AND MULTICYCLES.
Increased Use of the Tandem—Tandem Evolution—
Various Makes Described—Tricycles, Multicycles and
Juvenile Tandems.

Pages 132-138
CHAPTER XVII.
MOTOR VEHICLES.
Bicycles and Tricycles—Evolution of the Motor Carriage
—Air as Motive Power—Electricity in Actual Use—
Various Electrical Vehicles Described—Gas Motors.
Pages 139-143

ILLUSTRATIONS.

THE BICYCLE—EARLY AND MODERN TYPES.
Page.
Draisine in action—1818 2
“Boneshaker”—1868 3
The “Ordinary”—1878 3
Rear Driver—1893 5
The “Rover”—1878 6
Chainless type, 1898 (bevel-gear) 7
Extreme type of 1898 Chain model, combining all late features 9

CHAINLESS TYPES AND DRIVING GEAR.
Columbia Chainless 10
Columbia Chainless—Mechanism and Frame 11
Spalding Chainless 12
Spalding Chainless—Driving Gear 13
Stearns Chainless 13
Monarch Chainless 14
Humber Chainless 15
Sterling Chainless—Crank Bracket 16
Sterling Chainless—Connecting Shaft 16
Bayvelgere Jointed Shaft 17
Hildick Chainless Driving Gear 18
Crescent Chainless—Driving Gear 19
Featherstone “Change Gear” Chainless 20
Featherstone Chainless Crank Hanger 21
Dayton Chainless—Driving Gear 22
Pine “Square-Tooth” Chainless 23
“English” Chainless 24
“English” Chainless—Driving Gear 25

Bantam Chainless—1898 25
Bantam Chainless—Driving Gear 26
Acatene Chainless—Driving Gear 26
Lloyd’s Cross Roller Driving Gear 27
Geared Ordinary 27

TYPES OF THE CHAIN WHEEL—MECHANISM AND OPERATION.
First Humber model 29
Golden Era—Model 29
Victor—First American Safety—1887 30
Diagram—One-sided Chain Pull 31
First Columbia Rear Driver—1888 32
Defender Midget—1898 34
Keating—Model 37
Union—Model 37
Victor—Model 38
Liberty—Model 38
Cygnet—Model 38
Victor—Single Loop—Model 39
Victor—Racquet Frame—1892 46
Stearns—Model 46
Cleveland—Model 47
Kangaroo—Model 51

FRAMES, FORK CROWNS AND JOINTS.
Three-Crown Frame 39
Chilion Wood Frame 39
Crescent Flush Joint 40
Wolff-American Flush Joint 40
Columbia Fork Crown 40
Crescent Fork Crown 41
Lyndhurst Fork Crown 41

Arch Fork Crown 41
Crawford Fork Crown 42
Humber Fork Crown 42
Monarch Fork Crown 43
Orient Fork Crown 43
Union Fork Crown 43
Liberty Fork Crown 44
World and Adlake Fork Crown 44
Cleveland Fork Crown 45
Eagle Drop-Forged Flush Joint 51
Wolff-American Lapped Joint 47
Remington Flush Joint 47
Working Drawing—Diamond Frame model 49
Working Drawing—Drop Frame model 50

GEAR CASES.
Frost Gear Case 54
Racycle Gear Case 54
Safety Gear Case 55
Rambler Gear Case 55
Cleveland Gear Case 56

SPROCKETS, CHAINS AND CHAIN ADJUSTERS.
Brown Roller Sprocket 58
Chantrell Chain 58
Keating Twin Roller Chain 59
Types of English Chains 59
Diamond “B” Chain 60
Thames Twin Roller Chain 60
Morse Roller Joint Chain 60
Baldwin Detachable Chain 61
Ewart Chain—1888 61

Bridgeport Detachable Chain 61
Liberty Sprocket 62
Crescent Chain Adjuster 62
Victor Chain Test—Diagram 63
Wolff-American Chain Adjuster 64
Crescent Chain and Bolt 64
Lefevre Chain 64
Circular Chain 65
Remington Chain 65
Missing Link 65
Victor Straight-Line Sprocket 66
Humber Chain Adjuster 66

HUBS.
Crescent Hub 68
Columbia Hub 68
Keating Hub 69
Sterling Hub 69
Wolff-American Hub 69
Cleveland Hub 70
Liberty Hub 70

RIMS, TIRES AND REPAIR TOOLS.
Plymouth Rim Joint 70
Plymouth Rim 72
Kundtz Rim 72
Buckeye Rim 75
“M. & W.” Tire 75
Indian Arrow-Head Tire 76
Dreadnaught Tire 77
Straus Protected Tire 77
Kangaroo Tire 78

Goodrich “Jiffy” Repair Tool 79
“Sure Thing” Repair Tool 80

BEARINGS.
Old Double-Row Ball Bearing 83
Lower Half of Double-Row Ball Bearing 83
Four-Point Bearing 84
Four-Point Bearing—“E. & D.” pattern 84
Common Three-Point Bearing 86
Three-Point Bearing—Improved 86
Two-Point Bearing 87

PEDALS.
Extension Pedals—American-Waltham 89
Rat-Trap Pedal—American-Waltham 89
Straus Removable Pedal Rubbers 89
Ramsey Pedal 90
Ordinary Pedal—“Clock” diagram 90
Ramsey Pedal—“Clock” diagram 91

CRANK AXLES AND CRANK HANGERS.
Crescent Crank Hanger, Stages 1 to 5 48
Stearns Crank Hanger Mechanism 71
Wolff-American Crank Axle 92
Gard Crank and Divided Axle 93

SADDLES.
Christy—Men’s model 96
Christy—Women’s model 96
Christy—Racing model 97

Christy—View of under side 97
Safety Poise 97
“Rubber-Neck” 98
Bernasco 98
Garford—Model “128” 98
Tillinghast—and Frame 99
Dr. Richmond “Universal” 100
Brown 100
Gilliam—and Frame 101
La Tulip 102

HANDLEBARS AND BRAKES.
Kelly Adjustable Bar 103
Plymouth Wood Bar 103
Lyndhurst Adjustable Bar 104
Barret’s Detachable Brake 104
Detachable Rear Brake 105
Stewart Roller Brake 105
Back-Pedalling Brake (Hay & Willits) 106
Back-Pedalling Brake (“New Departure”) 107
Duck’s Roller Brake 107

LAMPS AND LAMP BRACKETS.
Bridgeport Searchlight (oil) 110
Twentieth Century (oil) 110
“M. & W.” (Mathews & Willard) (oil) 110
Bragger (oil) 111
Columbia (oil) 111
“X Rays” (oil) 111
Manhattan Brass Co. product (oil) 112
Acme (electric) 114
Klondike (oil) 114

Solar (carbide)—Interior view 115
Electro (carbide) 115
Electro—Interior view 116
Helios (carbide) 116
Calcium King (carbide) 117
Combination Bracket 113
U. S. Detachable Bracket 113

CYCLOMETERS.
Twentieth Century Cyclometer 118
Veeder Cyclometer 118
Shepherd Cyclometer 119
Standard Cyclometer 119
New Departure Cyclometer 119
Trump Cyclometer 120

BELLS.
Lord Bell 120
Bevin Bell 120
L. A. W. Bell 121
Combination Bell and Brake 121

TOE CLIPS. CARRIERS AND SUNDRIES.
Howard Toe Clip 122
Combination Toe Clip 122
Kalamazoo Carrier 123
Lamson Carrier 123
Fairy Child’s Seat 123
“Ideal” Foot Pump 124
Lubricants—“Pacemaker” and “Three in One” 124

FREAKS AND ODD INVENTIONS.
Weight Driven Model 126
The “Sweeper” Idea 127
A Notion of 1881 128
Mahoney’s Model, 1893 129
A “Dream” Motor 130
Wind Driven Model 130

MULTICYCLES.
Stearns Septuplet 132
Stearns Convertible Tandem 133
Tinkham Tricycle 133
Wolff-American Triplet 134
Cleveland Tandem 135
Wolff-American Tandem 135
Tinkham Cab 136
Andrae Tandem 136
“Oriten” 136
Wolff-American Duplex 137
Tinkham Carrier 138

MOTOR VEHICLES.
Motor Tricycle 140
Pope Electric Phaeton 141
Pope Electric Phaeton, under test 143
Bicycle with Motor Attachment 142

PREFACE.
To the Cyclist who appreciates the advantage of understanding his
wheel, its mechanism and its construction, for the same reason and because
of the same interest felt by a horseman in his roadster, an engineer in his
locomotive, or a yachtsman in his boat, the following pages can scarcely
fail to be of interest and value.
Bicycles without number have been consigned to the scrap heap or
discarded for new mounts, as the result of abuse and the lack of proper care,
due solely to the ignorance of riders as to a wheel’s construction and
requirements, while disappointments have resulted, in many instances,
because the same lack of knowledge has prevented the wise selection of a
well constructed and properly adjusted mount at the outset.
A bicycle can no more be expected to run smoothly without a proper
adjustment of its parts and their maintenance in perfect running condition
than can any other piece of machinery, and while the chain and chainless
productions of 1898 are admirable for their simple mechanism, such points
as the bearings and running gear require periodical inspection and attention
to insure satisfactory service. This cannot be adequately given by a rider
who has no conception as to the details of construction of his machine, and
so it frequently happens that a bicycle sinks into an early grave because its
rider persists in calling upon it for continued service, while utterly
indifferent to its construction and requirements.
“Know thy wheel” is an excellent maxim for every rider to follow; for
those who heed it the matter of emergency repair will be a simple thing, a
smooth running wheel will be assured, the chance of accident reduced to the
minimum, and the life of the machine extended throughout its fullest
period. It is partly with a view to bringing about a better acquaintance
between the average rider and his wheel that the following pages are
presented.
To the bicycle manufacturer and to the repair man and dealer—who are
frequently called upon for advice and service concerning any and all makes
of wheels—to the student of cycle construction, and to the mechanical

expert, the volume will scarcely fail to be regarded as a valuable reference
book for many years to come.
The idea of presenting to riders—through the columns of “The
Commercial Advertiser”—an illustrated description of the lines, parts and
improvements of the bicycle for 1898 was conceived chiefly because of the
absence during the winter of 1897-98 of a National Cycle Show. Just prior
to the opening of preceding seasons tens of thousands of riders throughout
the country were able to see at the annual shows, and at those held under
the auspices of the various local cycle trade organizations, all that the maker
had to offer in changes and improvements for the new year. This
opportunity was also furthered by the columns of descriptive matter
published by the daily press and cycle trade journals in their reports of these
shows and their exhibits. Riders were to have none of these advantages for
the season of 1898, however, and “The Commercial Advertiser”
accordingly began the work of collecting and presenting the information
which appeared in its columns in serial form during February, March and
April of 1898, and which is now presented in this volume.
It is not claimed that all of the new features and changes evolved by the
master mechanics of the cycle building industry have been embodied. It is
believed, however, that none having an important bearing upon, or any way
likely to cause material changes in, the methods of bicycle construction
have been overlooked. Further than this, the gradual processes through
which these changes and improvements have been evolved are shown
throughout the periods of distinct advancement, also those of reversion, as
they have followed, one upon the other, until the present state of the
industry is reached, and its product set forth as the most advanced, from
every standpoint, in the history of bicycle building.
Likewise the progress and improvement made in the manufacture of
tires, saddles, lamps, bells, brakes, and the many other articles common to
the well-equipped modern bicycle, have received careful attention, with the
result that the work of presenting this amount of information to the readers
of “The Commercial Advertiser” has, we believe, been as complete and
thorough as it has been practicable to make it.

THE PUBLISHERS.

NAMES OF THE PARTS OF A BICYCLE.
1. Handles or grips. 38. Rear mud guard.
Mud guard stays, arms or
2. Handle bar. 39.
braces.
3. Handle bar stem. 40. Front hub.
4. Fork crown. 41. Rear, or back hub.
5. Fork side. 42. Top head cup.
6. Lamp bracket. 43. Bottom head cup.
Handle bar clamp, binder, or
7. 44. Step.
“pinch bind.”
8. Brake lever. 45. Head lock-nut.
9. Brake joint and screw. 46. Chain adjuster.
10. Brake rod or plunger. 47. Pedals.
11. Brake collars and screws. 48. Pedal end plate.
12. Brake tube. 49. Pedal side plate.
Pedal axle, or spindle, and
13. Brake spoon. 50.
centre tube.
14. Head. 51. Head adjusting cone.

15. Upper, horizontal or top tube. 52. Outside, or small, pedal nut.
16. Lower, head to bracket, tube. 53. Inside, or large, pedal nut.
Seat mast, diagonal, or saddle-post
17. 54. Saddle, seat or L post or pillar.
tube.
18. Rear or back stays. 55. Arm or top piece of pillar.
19. Rear or back forks. 56. Saddle.
20. Head lugs or connections. 57. Saddle adjusting screw.
Saddle post frame—connection or
21. 58. Saddle spring.
cluster.
Saddle post clamp or binder, bolt
22. 59. Saddle clamp or clip.
and nut.
23. Rear or back fork-end. 60. Brake spring.
24. Crank hanger or bottom bracket. 61. Rear axle nut.
25. Chain—Humber or block pattern. 62. Valves.
Rear or small sprocket or chain
26. 63. Hub oil cup.
wheel.
Front, or large sprocket or chain Crank hanger, or bottom
27. 64.
wheel. bracket, oil cup.
28. Crank axle, shaft or spindle. 65. Sprocket wheel tooth.
Braces, stays or bridges of rear
29. Cranks. 66.
frame.
30. Crank key, or cotter pin. 67. Brake guide.
31. Front, or steering, wheel. 68. Mud guard clip.
32. Rear, or driving, wheel. 69. Coaster or foot rest.
33. Tires. 70. Fork stem or neck tube.
34. Rims. 71. Centre block of chain.
35. Spokes. 72. Side plate.
36. Spoke nipples. 73. Chain rivet.
37. Front mud guard. 74. Front fork.

CHAPTER I.
EVOLUTION OF THE BICYCLE—1816 TO 1899.
“The nothing of the day is a machine called the
Velocipede. It is a wheel carriage to ride cock-horse
upon, sitting astride and pushing it along with the toes, a
rudder wheel in the hand. They will go seven miles in an
hour. A handsome ‘gelding’ will come to 8 guineas;
however, they will soon be cheaper unless the army
takes to them.”—Letter of John Keats to a friend, about
1818.
The future historian of cycledom will clearly note that 1898 was
memorable for the reincarnation of the chainless; that the chain models
were improved in quality and reduced in price, and that the trade did not
hold a show, this being the first lapse since those events began in this
country in 1890. Conservative old England, where shows were first held
and the bicycle really began to succeed, has just closed her twenty-first or
“coming-of-age” show in London, and the other large cities of the kingdom
are, in their turn, pushing the show around the circuit as usual. America—
progressive and enthusiastic—after less than one decade of it, exhausted
itself for the time, and the National Board of Trade of Cycle Manufacturers
decided to pass 1898, refusing to give sanction to either national or local
exhibitions.
From the stand of the riding public much might be said on the
affirmative side of the show question. The show brings under one roof all
the new models and accessories for the coming year, affording ready means
of comparisons, instructive, even if sometimes odious; maker and rider
come together, and the latter especially, has opportunity to renew old
friendships; the copious reports and illustrations in the daily and trade press
arouse expectation in the cycling public, and undoubtedly make many new
converts; the gap between riding seasons is bridged across “the winter of
our discontent,” and things are kept on the move. Not denying aught of this,
the makers reply that they are not in the amusement business; that this is a

costly form of advertising directly, also delaying trade both by inducing
buyers to wait to see it all and by tying up their representatives when they
ought to be on the road visiting agents; that no other business has or needs
such gatherings; and that shows were originally intended to bring together
maker and dealer, not maker and rider.
Intelligent and impartial observers who have studied the question from
both sides, say that all the trouble has come from the American habit of
overdoing, and that the makers are to blame for deviation from the original
idea, and for going into gorgeous competitions in electric lighting, costly
furnishings and decorations and a prodigal waste of printed matter; that
when aisles are packed and the week is a society event, the greatest thing in
a show, the one chiefly cared for, and really about the only one that can be
seen, is the show itself, the crowd itself being what the crowd attends; that
the thing becomes a grab for “souvenirs” and a spectacular waste, instead of
an exhibit of cycles and accessories to those who really want to see them.

TRANSFORMATION OF “THE SHOW.”

There has been a divergence from the original idea, certainly, even in
England. The Stanley Show was at first the happy thought of some member
of the Stanley Club, one of the oldest if not quite the oldest of cycle clubs,
in a time of cycle feebleness, when the young sport needed all the aid it
could command. To help things along through the winter, and doubtless
largely on the strictly social side, it was proposed to get together in one
place as many patterns of cycle and as many kindred articles as could be
got. From that feeble start the thing has grown, as cycling grew. In a like
feeble way, though with a model to follow, cycle showing began in this
country, at Philadelphia. During the years that have followed it has brought
the public into line, until in New York there is now only one building large
enough to hold it—and that none too large for such an event. In Chicago
there was one vast enough, but so vast that it had to be placed so far away
from business and residence that it was as if a show were to be held out at
Jamaica, on Long Island. Reaching the spot was certainly none too easy,
and the cold was apt to be very bitter. Here in New York, it is urged, had the
makers, through the National Board, chosen and decided to revert to the
plan of a simple trade exhibition, and had the date been in November or

December, instead of January or February, the cost would have been small,
and all interests really concerned would have been benefited, even while
allowing, although not pressing, the public to attend.

A CYCLE OPENING DAY.

It is to be expected that shows will come again, with some lessons
learned and surer warrant of having the net balances more on the right side
all around. Meanwhile, and as an immediately timely matter, observe that
cyclists have from the first gradually taken as theirs all seasonable outdoor
holidays, and a sensible custom has grown up in Boston and other New
England towns of making Washington’s Birthday, Feb. 22, an “opening
day” among the retail cycle dealers, who hold open house, utilize flowers,
decorations and other pleasant things; array their new models for view and
invite the public to call. Needless to say, the invitation on this cycle “New
Year calls” day is largely accepted and cyclists, real and expectant, with
their sisters and their cousins and their aunts, go the rounds at pleasure,
comparing models, anticipating the full riding season and enjoying good
cheer.

THE DRAISINE “IN ACTION”—1818.
The retail cycle dealers in New York, lesser and greater, propose to
adopt this good Yankee custom hereafter and will keep latchstrings out on
Feb. 22, so that instead of one great central show there will be a thousand
miniature ones scattered throughout the metropolis; it is estimated—of
course there can never be an accurate census—that there are 250,000
cyclists in New York City alone. The 17th of March, St. Patrick’s Day, has
generally been considered the opening of the riding season, the round of
day and night being then equally divided: the “opening day” adopted for
Feb. 22 will naturally and easily fall in with this customary notion as to
March 17.

THE SWIFT MARCH OF IMPROVEMENT.

So rapid has been the march of improvement in cycle-making during the
last seven years that the approach to fixity and uniformity of pattern—all
bicycles now looking alike to the casual glance—has almost lost to us one
of our most charming senses, the sense of delighted surprise. The most

ingenious efforts of our master
mechanics, accomplishing what would
have been impossible only a short time
ago, are now received as matters of
course. The crude conditions and
mechanical product of no more than ten
years ago are rarely recalled; the vast
majority of riders do not even know
about them. The strength, lightness and
beauty of the later bicycle have come out
of long and toilsome and costly
evolution, in which many have fallen by
the way, and reward has not always been
“BONESHAKER”—1868. according to real merit. The careful
(The Rider is John Mayall, who student of the principles of cycle
made the first road record, by construction—the making of “a poem of
riding (as shown in cut) from steel”—cannot appreciatively examine
London to Brighton, 53 miles, the details in the advance shown in this
in one day, February, 1869.) year’s models without being glad that he
is permitted to see such achievements. It
is one thing to push and misuse the
bicycle, another to ride it with intelligent care, another to understand it,
another to love it and to honor the long cumulative skill which has made it
possible and practical. The rabid seeker for extreme and radical novelties in
type, form and modes of propulsion may care little for the niceties of
mechanical accomplishment and may declare that the standstill has been
reached. But this pessimistic and blasé view is unwarranted, for
undoubtedly many of the most perfected and nearest perfect details now in
vogue will be used on the cycle of the future, regardless of its general type.

THE TENDENCY TO FIXITY.

As in a number of past years, the art of cycle-making in 1898 exhibits
distinct signs of two irresistible tendencies. One is toward fixity of type; the
other is toward reversion to type. Fixity of type means the condition when
—although there may be several widely different patterns of bicycle in use,
as there always are of other wheeled vehicles—all of one pattern are

substantially alike, varying only in trivial details, the product of all makers
bearing the same appearance to the casual eye, however varying in real
quality. When that time comes bicycles will resemble cut nails in being
staple, standard, uniform and all alike. Such a time has not yet arrived, and
it is not necessary to try to name the date in the new century when it will
arrive; nevertheless the signs of its approach are unmistakable.

THE TENDENCY TO REVERSION.

Reversion to type—a well-known phrase of the scientific evolutionist—
means here a return to earlier and once-discarded forms of construction.
Very few notice the process, yet it constantly goes on. The inquirer for
novelties often has the old presented to him and is satisfied, supposing he is
looking on a new up-to-date production; it is a common experience to find
alleged new devices brought out and rapturously received by the quidnuncs
which the veteran instantly recognizes as among the things he saw tossed,
years ago, into the refuse of the scrapheap.
That unhappy and irrepressible person, the “born inventor”—one of
whom, like the “sucker,” is born every minute—is perpetually doing this in
cycle matters, because the cycle is so much in the public eye that it draws
him as the lamp flame draws the moth; he cannot keep away from it.
Twenty years ago, at the very beginning of the bicycle in this country, he
was eagerly on hand with his multiple-speed, mile-a-minute contraption; he
has been doing the same ever since, and is just as industriously as ever
reinventing the old folly; the Patent Office is flooded with his lumber. This,
however, is repetition rather than reversion.
Reversion to old forms comes about for several reasons. We must
always remember that the bicycle, like the piano, the violin and some other
things which could be cited, belongs to nobody. Nobody invented it; it is the
product of many minds, and has been wrought out by a long and gradual
evolution, in which every step, freaky ones excepted, has been suggested
and tested by practical use. Hence a device may be abandoned in the hope
of escaping the inevitable drawback which besets all earthly things; or a
device may be dropped because it cannot be made well enough or easily
enough in the existing state of the art; or the conditions of public demand,
or the state of the roads, or the caprice of fashion may change. Changes also

come about to gratify the craving for novelty, and when the list of possibles
comes to its end the maker goes back to or toward the beginning again, like
the preacher who tips over his barrel of sermons and starts in afresh on the
other end.
For illustration, suppose the following:
The chain has some drawbacks, and
therefore it is gradually displaced by the
bevel-gear and entirely goes out. That gear
develops drawbacks in turn, provoking
fresh complaint, and after some years of
suffering under it, some maker brings out a
chain wheel, which is hailed with delight,
and widely written up as the novelty of the
year. One by one makers follow suit, until
the gear is again quite displaced;
THE “ORDINARY”—1878.
improvement has then gone around and has
come back upon its own path, the
disadvantages of the old form having been found by trial to be less than
those of the newer. This supposed case, which is partly real, would illustrate
progress by reversion.

A BRIEF SKETCH OF DEVELOPMENT.

The early history of bicycle development has been told even to
weariness, perhaps because not always well told. We shall not go over the
course again, and yet it may not be amiss to show briefly and connectedly
how the wheel of today grew out of the three preceding ones, especially
since this strikingly illustrates the reversion process just explained.
The earliest vehicle for making oneself horse as well as rider was a
three-wheeler, and was known at least, as early as 1779; the two-wheeler
began in 1816, as far as records show, with the Draisine, a front-steerer,
which was all ready to develop into either a front-driver or a rear-driver,
according to the method of attaching the cranks, which so long remained
the missing link. Of course it quickly went out, and after nearly a half
century of oblivion it was dragged down from the garret and the cranks
were added—to the front wheel, as that was then the easier way. The revival

is generally credited to France and to Pierre Lallement, although Michaux,
for whom he had been working in Paris, is probably more entitled to the
credit than he; the name of the man really the first to take the new step,
however, is hopelessly lost in obscurity. Lallement did ride the thing in
Paris, and did afterward make one in Connecticut. The patent on
“oppositely projecting cranks” issued to him in 1866 became the most
valuable one on which suits were afterward fought and royalties were
collected, yet Lallement invented nothing, and it is worth putting on record
here that Mr. Wilcox saw the velocipede of that day publicly ridden in
Brooklyn nearly two years before the issue of that patent, and more than a
year before Lallement came to this country.
A few years of decline as a curiosity and the “boneshaker” had gone
into forgetfulness after the Draisine. Aside from its intolerable weight and
its crude and clumsy construction, what killed it was its lack of speed, for it
was “geared level,” that is, not geared at all. England, however, did not give
up the subject, but kept pegging away at it. To get a longer run for each
foot-stroke, a larger wheel was necessary; so the rider was gradually
brought “over his work,” and the front wheel became as large as he could
reach, on a “close built” construction; necessarily the back wheel shrunk to
a smaller size, ranging from 16 to 18 inches, or else the thing could have
been neither mounted nor managed. Wood had given place to metal; the
tubular steel frame, the suspension wheel with wire spokes, the steel rim
and the solid rubber tire came in nearly together, and so, as the third great
step, was evolved the high wheel, or the “good old ordinary,” still held
more or less affectionately in the memory of all who ever rode it. A
specimen or two appeared in the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in
1876. In the following year the new type commenced to go in this country,
beginning thus the bicycle era, and it made its pioneer way without any
rival until 1881. In 1880, however, McKee & Harrington of this city, one of
the pioneer makers, received a diploma and a bronze medal for “a steel
bicycle” exhibited at the fair of the American Institute. But the faults of the
new construction were as positive as its virtues. It was heavy, averaging
twice the weight of the bicycle of today; the size which fitted depended on
the rider’s length of leg, not at all on his strength or his preference; worst of
all, it was an acrobatic and unsafe thing, and was not a practical vehicle,
although those who then sold and used it tried to make it out so.

Under the demand for safety, invention went back to the “boneshaker,”
and put on the cranks and sprockets which could have been put on earlier,
producing in a clumsy form the now universal geared rear driver. An earlier
specimen under the name of “Bicyclette” appeared as far back as 1879, but
the “Rover” (nearly identical with that) succeeded in giving its name to the
type. Yet this name failed to survive, because the type drove out every other,
and no specific name was required to distinguish it. To the great majority of
present riders, this is “the bicycle,” the only one they ever knew; before it
had driven out all others it was spoken of as “the safety,” and yet there were
many other forms of safety bicycles, of which one antedated the rear driver
in this country by some six years, and two originated here.
All this was reversion to type. The Draisine went out of existence, then
received cranks on its front wheel and revived as the “boneshaker,” or
velocipede. That went out as quickly in its turn, and gradually grew into the
ordinary. Then reappeared the Draisine, with cranks in the other places, and
drove out the high wheel after a hard contest. Will any such complete
reversion occur again? It does not seem likely; yet when we remember the
long and persistent battle of the types, and the number of forms which have
been tried, it would be unwarranted to pronounce this impossible; the front
driver still survives, although little is heard of it, and if it should possess the
field once more that would be no more remarkable than the changes which
have already occurred.

TENDENCIES IN GENERAL.

The mechanical tendencies of the American cycle makers and their
product for 1898 are sharp and clearly defined. Indeed, the past year marks
the close of a decade of construction of the rear-driving bicycle. Before
proceeding to analyze in detail the constructional features for 1898, a bird’s
eye view of the tendencies over the whole field will not be amiss.

REAR-DRIVER—1893.
The most striking characteristic tendency is the effort to introduce
chainless rear driving, not altogether, however, by the bevel-gear. A careful
census of the makers shows that some thirty prominent makers had
perfected plans to place a chainless cycle of some sort on the market in
1898. Thus the season offers debatable ground between the advocates of the
chainless and the chain-driven cycle. During 1898 is being fought the battle
for supremacy between them, the chain-driven cycle being ably reinforced
by its great and coming ally the gear-case, and the bevel-gear and other
forms of chainless construction coming away from the realm of theory and
the special pleas of the makers’ catalogues, and in the hands of the riding
public will be put through that great crucible of public test, use on the road,
under load, and under all sorts of conditions. The introduction of the
chainless method of propulsion has, however, not radically changed the
prevailing popular type of frame construction, and therefore the general
tendency of construction, except the methods of propulsion, may be here
surveyed as a whole.

DROP OF THE CRANK BRACKET.

One of the most prominent tendencies of the season is the dropping of
the crank-hanger bracket to a point from 2 inches to 4 inches below a line
drawn through the centre of the wheel axles, the average drop on road
wheels being 2½ inches, on light road wheels 2¾ inches, and on road-
racing and track wheels, from these to the extreme limit. This lowering of
the crank-hanger bracket has also necessarily brought with it a shortening of
the steering head, in order to maintain the top tube horizontal or parallel
with the ground. Lengths of head run from 4 to 8 inches, a fair average in
length being about 6 inches, a change indeed from the long-head fad of a
few years ago, under which heads have reached a length of over 13½
inches. Just what effect the shortening of the head will have on the steering
remains to be found out by actual use, the makers who have used long
heads having always claimed ease of steering for them.
Another point to be borne in mind in noting this tendency toward short
heads, is that their use will necessitate the use of longer and therefore
weaker handlebar stems, for those who use a medium or upturned bar, as
well as long seat posts, more withdrawn from the frame. Of course, the
scorcher with his drop bar will like the short head, and therefore its
popularity may be wholly confined to this class of riders.
The most peculiar feature in connection with this drop of the frame is
the very marked tendency toward the use of longer cranks and higher gears.
In former years the average length of crank was 6½ inches for a man’s
roadster, and 5½ to 6 inches for a lady’s wheel. A notable departure in this
crank length this season is that three or four of the largest makers are
equipping their ladies’ wheels with 6½ inch cranks, and men’s wheels with
7 and 7½ inch cranks. While this may be commendable in a cycle for men’s
use, having a high gear, such crank length is positively objectionable on a
ladies’ cycle, for several reasons, one of the chief ones being the increased
knee action.

HEIGHT AND SHAPE OF FRAME.

The length of wheel base—that is, the extreme measurement between
the points where the two wheels rest on the ground—is not noticeably
changed, the average being still about 43½ inches; this measurement has a
close but not a quite fixed relation to the shape and angles of the frame. The

rake or backward inclination of the diagonal stay is in most cases somewhat
lessened, not now being in complete harmony with the rake of the front
forks and head. This may be considered a change in the preferred direction,
the forward position of the rider, nearly over the crank axle, being an
extremely popular one; to indulge this preference on position, in cases
where this diagonal tube, which also carries the saddle, was well raked
backward, the use of a long saddle-post in the form of an inverted L was
necessary. This changed construction also shortens the upper horizontal
tube, and thus, it is claimed, tends to stiffen the frame. The craze for riding
exceedingly high frames has shifted to the other extreme, the average
scorcher now calling for a very low frame with a short head, and a crank-
hanger dropped well down below a line drawn between the wheel axles,
obtaining leg-reach by raising the saddle above the frame. A peculiar and
typical combination consists of the use of an extremely low crank-hanger
together with long cranks; this obviously brings the pedal very near the
ground at the bottom of its travel, especially when toe-clips are put on, and
there must be danger of coming to sudden and sharp grief when going on
stony or rutty roads or in swinging rapidly around sharp corners, which
requires leaning to one side to preserve balance. If not carried to extremes,
however, the drop of the crank-hanger may be considered a good point
mechanically. It brings the centre of gravity lower, and makes mounting and
dismounting easier, this last consideration being of especial consequence
for ladies. Here it may be remarked that, a year ago, ladies who desired to
use the double-loop frame, either with or without the low drop, were
obliged to purchase the highest-priced makes in order to obtain it; this year,
all the great makers of medium-priced grades, as well as makers of the
highest-priced, furnish the double-looped drop-frame, thus showing not
only the popularity of the double-loop but a keener desire and a better
understanding to cater to public wants.

THE ROVER—1878.

SIZES AND SECTIONS OF TUBING.

The use of large tubing seems to have reached its limit during 1897, a
majority of the makers now using 1⅛ inch tubing in the front part of the
frame. Other makers vary this, of course, by using 1¼ inch tubing in the
lower main frame, and in the diagonal stay which runs from the crank-
hanger bracket to the seat-pillar cluster; D-shaped tubing, however, is much

more largely used than before for rear forks and back stays. Front forks are
also largely made of D-shaped tubing, many of the makers using a front
fork made of an internally tapered continuous piece of D-shaped tubing.
Rear forks are also made in this same manner, and are connected to the
crank-hanger by a single large round stem, which avoids the necessity of
offsetting the fork on the chain side. Back stays are also connected to the
main part of the frame in this same manner. This idea, when used in
connection with the arch-front fork crown, which is the most popular one of
the day, and which seems destined to supersede entirely in popular favor the
old two-piece crown, makes a very taking looking construction. There is,
however, a question as to whether this method of joining the continuous
rear forks to a single stem is as rigid as would be two separate forks, run
either straight or with an offset to the crank-hanger.
Internally tapered tubing is very largely used in frame construction
generally, thus avoiding all need of employing internal reinforcements or
liners, as formerly, which are liable to cause the tube to give way under
strain at the exact place where they come to an end. This is considered a
step in the right direction.

REINFORCEMENTS AND JOINTS.

The use of external reinforcements is not growing, and as the use of
large tubing necessitates the employment of flush or invisible joints, in
order to make a neat finish, such joints appear to be more largely in vogue
than ever. Even the popular priced models use them largely. Some fear was
expressed as to their durability and strength, at the opening of last season,
but the makers have now had last year’s experience to guide them, and may
be assumed to know how to make them strong, so that no trouble need be
apprehended on that score.
External joints are, however, largely used still, as are also lap-brazed
joints. These variations may, however, be considered as mere “talking-
points,” and as evidences of finish and detail rather than as the distinctive
features of the frame. For instance, a maker who used flush joints last year
on his chain wheels now produces his chainless wheel with outside joints.
Another maker who used lap joints on all his models last year, now makes
his latest model with flush joints, and so the variation goes on. These

changes back and forth, may be in some measure reckoned among those
made for the sake of change.
Sheet metal stampings are used for connections more largely than ever;
many of the detailed parts of these are wonderful evidences of the
excellence of the art and show the advanced stages of what might be more
properly termed drawing, forming, and stamping processes.

CHAINLESS TYPE, 1898 (BEVEL GEAR).

HUBS AND SPOKES.

In the construction of the wheel hubs, the use of the “barrel” pattern,
which has been for several years making its way, is more notable than ever,
the old pattern with definite flanges thereon for the spokes, having nearly
disappeared. This is in good part because the cup-adjustment bearing, which
requires the barrel hub to go with it, has greatly gained ground, a large
number of the leading makers having now adopted it for all, or nearly all
bearings. Self-oiling devices and hollow axles containing oil and wick are
also popular, the old projecting “lubricator” or cup for receiving oil, being
wholly extinct. It is safe to say that this is an old device which reversion
will never bring back.

The use of hubs having flanges, of a peculiar shape, made and drilled to
receive the usual tangent spoke made straight from end to end without a
hooked end to attach to the hub, is very largely on the increase, more than
twenty of the leading makers now following that method. Spokes are still
enlarged at both ends by the process of swaging or drawing down, instead
of upsetting. Not a few makers are increasing their number, of course using
a thinner wire.

CRANKS AND CRANK AXLES.

There is a distinct reversion toward square-section cranks. In crank-
axles, the one-piece type has evidently come to stay, and it is followed
closely in popularity by the two-piece crank and axle. Very few of the
makers use the three-piece construction, and even in these there are peculiar
and odd forms of fastening the crank to the axle, the use of the good old
cotter pin being nearly abandoned. This may be accounted for mostly
because the makers desired “something different,” and also on the ground
of neatness. The main objection, however, to the use of these various types
of crank fastenings is their entire lack of interchangeability, so that the rider
who has one of them and breaks or loses a part of his crank fastening,
cannot obtain this part or any repair thereto, except through the maker or
dealer who handles this particular pattern of wheel. Under the old system of
using the cotter pin the cranks and cotter pins were readily interchangeable,
and therefore this tendency to variations in these parts is to be regretted.

SEAT-POSTS AND HANDLEBAR FASTENINGS.

Internal or semi-concealed seat-post and handlebar fastenings of all
descriptions are very much in vogue, the reason for their popularity being
their great neatness, as compared with the old method of clamping, and
their lack of projecting parts; still there is not uniformity in this particular,
many of the great makers adhering yet to the familiar method of fastening
by “pinch-bind” bolts.
Handlebars show a decided tendency to go back to the length between
grips which prevailed when the bar was straight. The steel bar, of tubing,
still reigns supreme, some times covered with rubber or celluloid coatings,

or imitations thereof, for the sake of protection from rust and for showy
appearance, as well as to be more agreeable to the touch. The wood bar is
by no means extinct, but does not make progress, not having caught the
public fancy, as its friends expected it would.

GEARCASES, PEDALS AND BRAKES.

Nearly all the makers are providing sufficient clearance at the crank
axle and rear fork-end, so that a gear-case can be used. Many of the makers
have gearcases of their own production, and there are two or three
detachable ones on the market which are composed of hard and soft rubber,
metal and leather combined. More gearcases will probably be sold this year
than ever before in the history of the trade, public attention having been
largely called to them by the neatness and desirability of the case as used on
the bevel-gear cycles.
The average width of tread on this year’s cycles is about 4½ inches.
Pedals are made stronger and larger, and are screwed directly into the
end of the crank, the use of the lock-nut on the end of the pedal shaft being
almost entirely abandoned.
Brakes of some kind will be more largely used than ever before.
External brakes with levers on the handlebars are not as popular as in
former years, many of the makers extending the brake stem down through
the steering head, thus making a neater and more stylish appearing brake.
Brake spoons are mostly fitted with a rubber shoe; and there is a decided
tendency toward back-pedaling brakes, many of which are supplied by the
cycle makers without extra charge.
Weights run from 23 to 26 pounds, the average weight of roadsters
being 24 pounds, and ladies’ wheels averaging in weight about 25 pounds.

CHAINS AND CHAIN ADJUSTERS.

Large sprockets have evidently come to stay, front sprockets having
from 18 to 32 teeth and rear sprockets having from 7 to 12; a combination
made up of these will produce almost any gear ratio desired.

Chains seem to have settled down to a standard width of 3⁄16 of an inch,
and there are many varieties, all having, however, one inch pitch and solid
blocks; there are also roller chains, having longer or shorter pitch, but
rollers instead of blocks do not yet seem to have taken hold here, as in
England.
Chain adjustments—i.e., means for moving the back wheel slightly to or
from the crank axle—have been much simplified and improved. A number
of variations of the well-known eccentric adjustment are on the market; a
few makers are even using the eccentric adjustment at the crank bracket, on
singles as well as on tandems. Here is an instance of reversion, the early
“safeties” with chain-driving having been constructed in exactly this
manner.

WOOD GUARDS AND RIMS.

The use of wood or bamboo in frames seems to have almost dropped
out of sight, only two or three makers producing bicycles thus made.
The dress-guards on the back wheel on ladies’ bicycles are made of
wood and are so furnished by all the makers, the metal styles having gone
out of use altogether. The same cannot be said, however, of chain guards.
Wooden chain guards are not so largely used as last year, the tendency
being to use aluminum guards, either plain, nickeled or enameled, to match
the frame in color; guards of stamped metal are also used. This return to
metal may be ascribed in part to the notion that wood is heavy because it
looks so, and to the temptation aluminum presents because of its
extraordinary lightness. This, however, looks like a step backward.
Aluminum, considered as material, has very poor claims, and it will be very
difficult, by any practical lining and buffing, to break the persistent habit of
metal chain guards to rattle when going over rough places; wood guards, on
the contrary, if properly made, are strong, noiseless, and not heavy.
The wood rim is the only one used, and is now made thicker through its
section and broader across its face, and while it is true that these rims do not
now possess the life and resiliency they had when they were made of the
thinner section, and narrower, they are now stiffer, truer, and not so liable as
formerly to warp and twist or to break in a collision. Originally, wood rims
were largely used, in good part, on account of their extreme lightness.

Making them heavier now and painting them in dark colors might suggest a
tendency to return to the use of steel rims, it being impossible now, owing
to the large use of colored rims, to tell by their appearance of what material
they are made. Rims of three-piece or laminated construction are fitted to
nearly all of the high-grade wheels, but great improvements have also been
made in the one-piece variety.
As in coach and carriage building, black still seems to be the standard
color, but where colors are used many of the makers are enamelling rims to
match. Striping seems to have fallen into disfavor, but scroll transfers, with
illuminated corners with flowers and colors, appear to have gained a strong
foothold.

TIRES.

The field is still contested between the double or inner-tube and the
single-tube or hosepipe tire, and at times, leading makers of each have
claimed that their class were used on two-thirds, or thereabouts, of all the
cycles made in America. The regulation size for full roadsters is 1⅝ inch, in
either class; the most popular at present are tires having a serrated or
corrugated tread. There are, of course, a great many variations in surface in
tires with rough treads, and also of smooth-tread tires. Very few marked
novelties in tires are now seen in the market; this is quite in contrast with
one and two years ago. Average weights are about 4 lbs. to the pair.

SADDLES.

Saddles may be divided pretty accurately into three classes. First are
those having a fixed and unyielding metal base and a short pommel, which
is not intended to be touched by the rider’s body, the seat portion being
fitted with raised pads; second, saddles with a fixed base of either wood or
metal, the edges being inflexible but the ease of use depending upon a more
exact shaping of the whole, this form of saddle being sometimes varied by
being slightly padded near the cantle or back edge, or either padded or
inflated at the pommel; third, the saddles which are made by lacing firmly
from cantle to pommel, the lacing being then provided with a flexible
leather cover. The last named, which is a popular type, is also varied by

having pads built on it, and the varieties of saddle under these three types
are so great and so different that almost every peculiarity and whim of the
rider ought to be met and satisfied this year.

TRICYCLES AND MULTICYCLES.

Tricycles are largely made by only one maker, and there is no apparent
reason why they should not be more largely used by those who will not or
can not venture to use the two-wheeler.
All the makers are producing tandems, and the peculiarities noted in
constructing single models are carried into these also. Variations in
tandems, however, consist of a diamond frame in front and a loop frame in
the rear, or loop frame in front and diamond frame in the rear, but some
have two loop frames so that two ladies can ride them.
Multicycles, such as triplets, quads quintuplets and sextuplets, cannot
strictly be said to be for popular use, the makers only building a few of
these yearly for advertising and racing purposes.

PRICES AND VALUES.

In concluding this review of the mechanical tendencies of the trade for
1898 the irresistible conviction is forced upon the mind of the critical
observer that noblesse oblige evidently seems to have been the motto of
every cycle maker for 1898, for never before have cycles been produced so
good in design, style, finish, workmanship, material, stanchness and
running qualities. Even the lowest-priced models quoted are superior in
these respects to those offered in some previous years, and listing from
$100 to $125 and $150, and the riding public is to be congratulated on this
fact, because it places the bicycle, the vehicle of modern democracy and
personal rapid transit, in the hands of the masses, at a popular price, and
thus relegates the gaspipe cycle and its maker to well-deserved oblivion.
Undoubtedly the great reduction in price and the great increase in
quality, a seeming paradox indeed, are due to what is known as fixity of
pattern. Close observers of the trend of the trade and sport say, in addition,
that the present conditions and popular prices are caused by the bicycle

being no longer a fad of the classes, but a necessity of the masses; that their
demand for a well-made and well-known product to meet their wants and
purses, has caused this reduction to popular price, and that the needs of the
makers in order to meet this want have been fulfilled by improved
processes of manufacture, increased efficiency of the labor employed,
lessened cost of component parts, and other economies of making and
marketing, as well as by the increased quantity of the output. This is true of
not only the cycle-making industry, but is also the history of every great
American product of manufacture for which there is a great popular demand
that leads to competition for popular favor.
On the other hand, the makers have also well provided for that class of
the riding public who will be satisfied with nothing less than what might be
termed a model de luxe, and who are willing to pay an increased price for
this extra finish in construction and detail, so that the mechanical tendencies
of the trade may well be summed up by quoting that epigram of Macaulay’s
—“in every experimental science there is a tendency toward perfection.”

EXTREME TYPE OF 1898 MODEL COMBINING ALL LATE
FEATURES.

CHAPTER II.
THE CHAINLESS WHEEL.
“Sans Chaine sans Gêne,” literally “without Chains without Care,” or
even “Chainless and Careless,” is the happy motto chosen by an English
maker of chainless bicycles; some thirty American makers are offering or
promising to offer a chainless bicycle of some kind this year, although
whether they will all realize the declaration of the motto time alone will
show.
There are a number of methods for transmitting power from the crank
axle of a bicycle to the driven wheel—possible theoretically, but the
number practically available is very small. The possession of the field by
the chain is now contested, mainly by the bevel-gear or its equivalent; the
chain has the field, but changes are sometimes so rapid that this fact alone
will not effectually bar out a really better driving method. The elements of
bevel-gear construction will readily be seen from the cuts following. The
usual front sprocket has teeth, which mesh into a pinion on a shaft that
carries power to the wheel through a pair of pinions at the rear.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEVEL-GEAR CHAINLESS.

In April, 1885, a patent for the application of bevel-gears to the bicycle
was taken out. Before 1897 more than one hundred such patents had been
issued in the United States and England, in addition to those granted in
France and Germany, and there had been much experimental construction,
in which the difficulty and expense of gear cutting was great, and the
springy frames and inaccurate workmanship almost invariably encountered
were additional sources of trouble.
Of the foreign-made chainless bicycles the Acatene, built in France, is
the only one that has been brought to anything like perfection. The Acatene
is a bevel-gear, and in many features is quite equal to the best American
workmanship. In this country a number of bevel-gear cycles have been put
forward, and some of them are still in use. The difficulties they have

encountered have been mostly due to lack of capital and the practical
impossibility of getting accurate gears cut except very slowly and at a very
great cost.
In 1892 the League Cycle Company of Hartford, Conn., began making a
bevel-gear bicycle, and at the New York Show of 1897 a number of their
models were shown as curios. They were chiefly interesting from a
historical point of view. An 1892 model shown was a lady’s single-loop
drop frame, fitted with one-inch cushion tires. It weighed about 75 pounds
and had an eight-inch tread. An 1893 model was a diamond frame, having
double tubes from the lower part of the head to the crank-hanger, and
having also double diagonal stays. It was fitted with pneumatic tires, had a
7¾ inch tread and weighed 45 pounds. An 1894 model shown was of the
same construction, but having a high frame. The tread was reduced to 7
inches and the weight to about 32 pounds.
An 1895 model was of the regulation
high frame diamond pattern, single-tube
style, excepting double diagonal stays from
seat pillar to crank-hanger. It had a 5-inch
tread and weighed about thirty pounds. The
1896 models were a lady’s frame, double-
loop, full nickeled, and a man’s diamond
frame, each having 5⅛ inch tread and COLUMBIA CHAINLESS.
weighing about twenty-four pounds. All
these models carried the large front driving gear on the centre of the crank
axle between the bearings, the teeth facing outwardly instead of inwardly,
as on the earlier samples. This company failed early in 1896, and there were
some spasmodic attempts by Howard & Nichols of Newark, N. J., and the
Bayvelgere Cycle Company to introduce bevel-gear bicycles. The Pope
Manufacturing Company saw this object lesson, and all the old patents went
into the hands of the makers of the Columbia. They began experimenting
forthwith, and for two years they have built and tried, and made model after
model, more than a dozen distinct variations having been tested, besides
gathering the costly equipment to cut bevel-gears and produce them in
quantities.
(It will be observed that the following descriptions of
chainless cycles are from the respective makers, not

necessarily in their own language, in every instance, but
substantially so. For these descriptions, and still more for
any statements regarding the merits of any and the
comparative value of chainless driving. The Commercial
Advertiser is not responsible, nor does anything in this
article preclude the writers from any criticism or any
expression of opinion hereafter. It has seemed fairest and
best to allow the several makers to present their own side
freely, and this paragraph is a disclaimer upon the part of
the compilers, rather than a notice of dissent. The
Bayvelgere, the English, the Quadrant, the Hildick, the
Monarch and the Bantam, however, are described by our
own representatives.)

THE COLUMBIA CHAINLESS.

This is a Columbia of the very highest grade in every respect; the same
wheel, including the well-known Hartford single-tube tires, the same forks
and handlebar, the same seat-post and choice of saddle, the same
unsurpassed frame of nickel steel, the same pedals and cranks. The
difference is entirely confined to the driving mechanism, to three sides of a
parallelogram having the rear axle and the crank axle as its ends, and the
shaft as one side. On this driving mechanism the very best thought, the very
best work, and every resource of the manufacturers have been centred.
There was long, costly and careful experimenting before the exact relative
proportions of the two members of the front gear could be determined.
These proportions, however, are now invariable—one turn of the axle
giving 2 4⁄5 turns to the shaft. The relative size of the rear members is varied
to produce the required “gear.” Friction in bevel-gears is dependent upon
the harmonic mean of the teeth in both wheels, and in this model theory and
experiment have joined hands to make the adopted proportion exactly right.
Wherever ball bearings could be introduced to advantage they have been
placed. The side shaft is supplied with such bearings near each end, the
strength and firmness of the nickel steel tubing permitting the utmost
precision in placing them and insuring perfect work under any strain. The
wonder is that all this excellence has been attained with such complete
absence of complicated devices.

MECHANISM AND FRAME OF COLUMBIA CHAINLESS.

The regulation equipment of the Columbia Chainless is: 24 inch frame,
of 5 per cent. nickeled steel tube; nine inch steering head; outside joints, 2½
inch crank-hanger drop; 5¼ inch tread; 66 and 72 inch gear; weight 26½
pounds; Hartford tires.
The model made for ladies’ use is the well-known double loop drop
frame pattern; 5¼ tread, 6½ round cranks, 66 or 72 gear, and weighs,
without brake and rear guard, 26½ pounds.
An illustration of the great simplicity of the Columbia bevel-gear
construction is the fact that when a League wheel was entirely dismembered

as to its driving portion only a skilled mechanic was able to reassemble the
parts satisfactorily, and that after hours of the most careful work, while a
Columbia Chainless can be taken apart and put together by any person of
ordinary intelligence in less than twenty minutes. The entire absence of
back lash in the Columbia Chainless is very marked. In response to the
slightest motion of the pedals the bicycle begins to move; whether forward
or backward this is equally true. The marvel of this construction becomes
more and more apparent as tests are varied. Lift a bevel-gear bicycle free
from the ground, give one of the pedals a sharp push, and the wheel spins
with such ease, rapidity and smoothness that the novice is always surprised.
There is no swaying and jump; there is no noise. Even neglect can have no
influence on the effectiveness of the bevel-gear wheel, but will simply
concern its appearance.
It should be said here that the Columbia pattern is distinctive—as the
cuts show—in a very novel method of attaching the rear wheel to the frame
and providing for its easy removal and replacement.

THE SPALDING CHAINLESS.

In the Spalding Chainless the mechanism consists of a series of four
bevel-gears used in conjunction with a tubular gear shaft. It is simple in
construction and can be readily taken apart and reassembled whenever
necessity requires.

SPALDING CHAINLESS.
The main driving gear, the largest of the series, is fastened to the centre
of the crank axle, the power being transmitted from this by a smaller
intermediate gear to the tubular shaft running through the right fork-tube,
and this in turn transmits the power to the rear intermediate gear, which
directly engages the gear secured to the rear wheel in place of the usual
sprocket. The location of the main driving gear being in the centre of the
crank axle, brings its position also in the centre of the crank-hanger barrel,
and adds greatly to the appearance and symmetry of the machine; it also
insures greater strength and divides the strain more equally on the bearings.
The intermediate gears are securely locked to each end of the tubular gear
shaft by a simple locking device, which makes it possible to remove and
replace the gears conveniently and without the necessity of any special tools
and appliances. The tubular gear shaft rotates on ball bearings specially
constructed and designed to receive the thrust of the driving gear, and
transmits the power to the rear hub. The lines of the rear portion of the
frame present the same appearance as in bicycles of the ordinary chain type,
the only perceptible difference being in the small aluminum cases which
cover the gears. In this particular the Spalding Chainless differs from some
others, presenting nothing unsightly to detract from the appearance of the
machine.

The method of fastening the main
driving gear to the crank shaft, and the front
and rear intermediate gears to the tubular
driving shaft, is original. The customary
method of attaching these gears is to screw
them on; but this method is impracticable,
for the reason that the constant strain in hill
climbing or in heavy work kept screwing the
gears tighter and tighter on the shafts, thus
making removal difficult. In the Spalding
Chainless these gears are constructed with a
tongue projecting from the back side of the
gear. The gears fit snugly to their respective
shafts, and this tongue is received in a
recessed collar which is solid with the shaft,
and which prevents any rotation of the gear
on its axis. The gears are then securely
locked in place by an ordinary lock-nut,
which, when set up, makes a positive
fastening that cannot work loose under any
conditions, and one that can always be
readily removed and adjusted.
The gears are cut by special machinery;
they are theoretically correct, and are as
absolutely perfect as it is possible to make
DRIVING GEAR OF bevel-gears. It is now nearly two years since
SPALDING CHAINLESS. Spalding & Bros. first undertook the matter
of building chainless bicycles, and more than
a year since their first complete bicycle was
put into actual use upon the road. This same bicycle is in use today, and if
anything, is better, after having been ridden over 25,000 miles, than it was
originally. Its working parts show no perceptible wear, the frictional parts in
the gears being polished more smoothly through use, and running better
today than when the machine was first put on the road.
The Spalding Chainless has a 3-inch drop at the crank-hanger. The
upper and lower main tubes are 1⅛-inch, the rear forks ⅞-inch, the rear

stays are ¾-inch reinforced; wheel base is 44⅜-inch. The front fork has an
arched crown; the fork sides are reinforced. The makers continue to use
their well-known hub with straight tangent swaged spokes, 28 in the front
and 32 in the rear. The cranks are 6¾-inch round spring steel, with a 72-
gear.
The Spalding lady’s Chainless contains the same mechanical features
found in the man’s model. The frame is the double loop drop, and has
evidently been carefully studied. The cranks are 6½ inches of round spring
steel and geared to 66½ inches. Some variations in gears are furnished.

THE STEARNS CHAINLESS.

E. C. Stearns & Co. have been entirely successful in securing an ideal
construction in their bevel-gear cycles. The accompanying illustrations,
while giving but hints of the complete machine, indicate that the graceful
lines which have always been characteristic of the “Yellow Fellow” have
been retained, and that the bevel gears and the shaft in their dust-proof
cases are exceedingly neat and attractive.
The bearings are of an improved type. The
balls are so laid between the cones that they
roll without sliding or side motion, and are
practically frictionless. By turning a cap nut
and sliding back the nickeled caps at either
end of the shaft case, the bearings are brought
into full view, and, with the bevel-gears, may
be adjusted with perfect ease. The running STEARNS CHAINLESS.
gear is absolutely noiseless, and is so exactly
assembled that the rear wheel will balance for
several minutes under the weight of the rim alone. In as much as there is no
lost motion, the maximum of speed is assured for the minimum of power
applied.
The gears on the Stearns Chainless are cut by the most modern
machinery and by the most expert workmen. They are as correct in pitch
and face as the wheels of an expensive watch, and are made of the best
quality of steel obtainable. Unlike other well-known types, both a vertical
and lateral adjustment of the gears is possible. So far as wearing qualities

go, the bevel gears in the Stearns Chainless are almost as free from friction
as are the bearings. The cases that cover the gears are entirely dust proof;
the lower fork tube which incloses the shaft is enamelled either orange or
black to match the frame.
One of the strongest features of this model is the ease with which the
rear wheel can be removed and the driving mechanism taken apart. The
crank-hanger gears are of 10 pitch, with 42 teeth, and 10 pitch with 16
teeth; the rear hub gears are 10 pitch, with 21 teeth, the resulting gear ratio
being 73½. The connecting shaft is of ⅝ diameter, 16 inches long, and made
of 10-gauge special tubing; its bearings are self-oiling. Front and back gears
are detachable; the crank-hanger drop is 2½ inches; wheel base is 43½
inches; weight is twenty-six pounds. The tubing in the frame is 1⅜ in the
head, 1⅛ in upper and lower main tubes, ¾ in back stays, ⅞ in rear forks.
The fork crown is two-piece, flat; the cranks are flat, 7 inches long; options
are offered on length of cranks and gear ratio.
The Stearns chainless for ladies is similar in general construction to the
man’s model, the only variations being in the shape of the frame and a
lower gear of 66½ inches. The crank-hanger is dropped 2½ inches below
the wheel centres, which makes it a very convenient wheel to mount and
dismount from. The absence of the usual chain guard gives it a very neat
appearance. It has a straight lower main tube and slightly curved upper
tube.

THE MONARCH CHAINLESS.

The Monarch Chainless has regulation diamond frame, with flush joints
and drop-forged connections. The upper main tube is 1⅛ inches, lower main
tube 1¼. The diagonal tube is 1¼ inches, tapered to 1⅛ at seat-post. The
rear stays are ¾ inch, tapered to ⅝ at the seat-post. The rear fork on the
lefthand side is of round section tubing, 20 gauge, ⅞ diameter. The rear fork
on the right side is of 16 gauge, ⅝8 inch in diameter, over which is fitted a
⅞8 tube of 20 gauge, and which carries the gears at each end, and it will be
noted that this is a radical change in construction from the other types of
chainless cycles on the market. All makes of bevel-gear construction or
others, using a shaft to convey the power from its centre of production to
the rear driving hub, insert the shaft inside of the rear fork on the right-hand

side. In this construction, however, the rear fork is inside of the hollow shaft
or tubing which envelops wholly the rear fork, and is carried at both ends
by a set of ball bearings. The tread is 5⅜ inches in width. The frame has a
2-inch drop at the crank-hanger. Cranks have 6½-inch throw. Seatpost and
handlebar connections are of the internal fastening style, and the wheels
have laminated wood rims, rosewood finish, nickeled eyelets in spokeholes.
The weight is about twenty-six pounds. The gear is the pin-roller type, as
shown in the accompanying illustration.

MONARCH CHAINLESS.
The ladies’ model is of the same general construction, excepting that the
frame is of the double loop variety with a straight lower tube and a partially
curved upper tube. It is exceedingly graceful in lines, and in general
appearance as comely a model of the drop frame chainless wheel as any yet
offered by American makers.
The gears on the crank axle and hub resemble in a degree the well-
known sprocket wheels, the main difference, however, being the teeth,
which are closer together and V-shaped in cross section, instead of four-
sided. The driving shaft, which fits over the rear fork of the frame, as before
described, is furnished at each end with a pinion having roller-pin teeth,

which run in and out of the wide angle pinions between the gear teeth. It is
claimed for this construction that, even should the frame become twisted
out of line, there would be no binding of the gears. The makers also claim
for it high efficiency on account of its direct lifting action as against the end
thrust of the bevel-gear. Another argument made in its favor is that it is not
of a delicate construction, though light in weight. There is, indeed, good
authority for believing that this type of gear, which is a modification of
Lloyd’s pin-roller gear as used on the quadrant in England, may become a
popular one. Grant, the well-known authority on gears, says: “The pin gear
is particularly valuable when the pins are made in the form of rollers, for
then the minimum of friction is reached, the friction between the tooth and
pin, otherwise a sliding friction at a line bearing is, with a roller-pin, a
rolling friction. When properly made there is no form of tooth that is
superior to the pin tooth.” The price of this chainless bicycle will be $100. It
is furnished complete, with a neat case over the gears.
In the sample shown the transmitting shaft has eight rollers at each end.
The wheel hub has thirteen of the V-shaped teeth; the large wheel on the
crank shaft has thirty-seven, this wheel being ⅜-inch wide at the base of the
teeth and overhanging somewhat on its inner side. The surfaces of the V-
teeth are not quite flat, but have a slight twist in order to obtain a more
smooth and rolling action. The frame is also peculiar at the driving-wheel.
The usual slot is present, through which to remove and replace the wheel,
but there is nothing resembling a chain-adjuster. The back stays are lapped
and jointed just above the hub; the rear forks are also separable near the
axle. The wheel being thus readily removed, the hollow revolving shaft can
be slipped off the fork which it encloses. It is obvious that the teeth of these
gears have great strength, and the contrivance is certainly ingenious.

THE HUMBER CHAINLESS.

The riders of Humber bicycles now have an opportunity of
experimenting at comparatively small cost, because the makers of the
Humber will convert an 1898 chain Humber into a Humber Chainless for
$40, an 1897 for $50 and an 1896 for $65, or they will convert an 1898
Humber Chainless into a Humber chain cycle for $18 at any time during the
season of 1898, should the buyer not be satisfied with the chainless, which

is thought highly improbable, because the cycles they have made for testing
purposes run easily and smoothly and have proven strong and durable under
severe usage.

HUMBER CHAINLESS.
The makers of the Humber Chainless do not claim that it runs more
easily than the chain Humber, the chain of which is accurately made and the
sprockets accurately cut. Nor do they claim that the gears will not wear in
time. It is customary in all well regulated factories to write off 10 per cent.
each year for wear and tear on machinery, but they are sure that the spur
gear chainless runs easily, is simple of construction and adjustment, and is
not likely to get out of order. The details of the construction of this model
do not differ from the regulation chain model.
The front gear is 10¾ inches in diameter and has 126 teeth. The rear
gear is 4½ inches in diameter and has 50 teeth. Between them is an
intermediate and connecting gear of 11 inches in diameter, with 127 teeth.
The resulting gear ratio is 70. As two large gears of 125 teeth each will
produce an exact ratio of 70, this uneven combination is intended to lessen
the frequency of contact between the same teeth, on the “odd-tooth” rule of
mechanics. The intermediate gear is borne in a small fork built from the rear
stay to the back fork, the back fork on that side being of D section, though

round on the other side. The workmanship is of the highest quality, and the
easy movement of this model is very interesting. It is very hard to find a
bicycle of any sort to beat this in ease, quiet and smoothness, spinning clean
and without load. A gear case is offered at $9 extra; a skeleton case is also
offered at $2.
The device is the well-known Carroll spur gear, the same as used by
Starbuck, the middle-distance racer, on the track not very long ago. At first
sight, it might appear that sand and mud might create a disturbance by
edging themselves into these small gears, but the makers maintain that a
gear case is unnecessary, because the gears practically clean themselves, in
consequence of each gear wheel running in direction opposite to that of its
neighbor. In actual use upon muddy roads, through all sorts of weather, and
under all conditions, it is claimed that the spur gears not only did not collect
mud and dirt, but that they actually cleaned themselves, and while it is
possible that a pebble or a piece of metal thrown in among the teeth might
cause a breakage, it can only be said that in many hundred miles riding, the
tests having been made under extremely unfavorable conditions, during
rain, mud, storm and snow, no such difficulty was apparent. The tests
developed unusual and unexpected qualities, and all the riders were fully
convinced of its thorough practicability.

THE STERLING CHAINLESS.

In keeping apace with the times, the Sterling Cycle Works of Chicago
has produced a novel chainless bicycle of the bevel gear type. In its
construction are incorporated ideas which are departures from the chainless
models that have already appeared. In the Sterling model the main driving-
gear wheel is located at the centre of the crank axle. The small pinion on the
forward end of the driving shaft meshes on the right side of the driving
wheel. That necessitates the near pinion to engage the teeth on rear hub,
back of the axle instead of in front of it, as in some other forms of chainless
wheels. This permits the use of the entire lower right rear tube as a
container for the connecting shaft, instead of building a frame work for the
support of the gears.
The rear wheel may be taken out by removing the step nut and
unscrewing the rear axle. The two rear gears are made interchangeable,

giving the rider the advantage of seventy-two
or seventy-eight geared wheel, as may be
desired, with one set of gears. This will be
the standard equipment, but another option
will be offered by which the rider can have a
combination of sixty-four and eighty-eight, if
he prefers.
These
special
features of the
Sterling
STERLING CHAINLESS chainless
CRANK BRACKET. construction
are shown in
the
accompanying illustrations. The rear fork on
the gear side has a boss in which the axle is
screwed. The opposite fork end has a circular
opening larger than the cross section of the
axle and a short slot for inserting the axle. A STERLING CHAINLESS
threaded sleeve fills the circular opening, CONNECTING SHAFT.
which is also threaded, abutting against the
outside face of the fork end with a shoulder.
A lock-nut fits upon the inner projecting portion of the sleeve. In
assembling, the wheel is first mounted on the axle; the latter is then screwed
into the fork end on the gear side by applying a wrench on the hexagonal
portion of the axle projecting beyond the hub on the opposite side. When
the gears mesh properly and the lock-nut has been placed on the left side
end of the axle, the threaded sleeve is placed in position and the lock-nut is
tightened.
The lines of mesh along the teeth of bevel-gears or radial gears, as they
are more properly called, always point to a common centre when the gears
are in proper engagement. The common centre in the front row gears of a
chainless bicycle is at a point in the axis of the crank shaft; but if the two
front pinions were interchanged they would cease to have a common apex,
and could not be made to co-operate. With the driving shaft at right angles

with the crank shaft and the rear axle, the pinions in front as well as in the
rear could be made interchangeable only at a pitch of forty-five degrees,
which would make the interchangeability of no value. With the driving
shaft at another angle with the rear axle, as in all chainless bicycles, it is
possible to so proportion the two rear pinions that the mesh lines point to
the same centre whether the smaller pinion is on the hub or on the driving
shaft. The possibility is limited to two sets of interchangeable gears for any
given angle of the driving shaft, which has been taken advantage of by the
Sterling Company.
The Sterling Chainless will be made in two models; one for men and a
drop frame design for women. Each lists at $125.

THE DAYTON CHAINLESS.

This chainless wheel is constructed on an entirely new and distinct
principle by which all bearing points of the transmitting mechanism are
incased and made absolutely proof against dust, dirt and weather
conditions. The most noticeable part of this construction is the transmission
of motive power to the rear hub, equally on both sides of the frame, this
action being continuous at all times. It therefore gains over a bevel-gear
construction not only the advantage of eliminating the friction always
present in a cog gear, but also removes the danger of springing the rear
forks out of line by a sudden strain, which has been so difficult in all
chainless wheels heretofore produced.
The crank-hanger of this wheel consists of a steel box in which is
located the gearing mechanism. Within this box are two double-flanged,
notched pulleys, over which runs a link belt especially made and designed
for this construction. These pulleys are placed on the central line of the
bicycle, the larger or front pulley which corresponds to the driving sprocket
on the chain wheel, being secured to the driving crank axle by means of a
thread and held in place by a reversed threaded lock-nut. The smaller or rear
pulley is made in one piece with a crank axle, having on each end short
cranks set quartering.
On each side of the frame, a Pitman or connecting rod extends from the
short crank on the auxiliary axle in the crank box to a similar crank attached
to each side of the rear hub, a dust-proof ball bearing being provided at each

end of the Pitman rod. The rear hub being journaled in ball bearing in the
rear fork and fittings, is forced to revolve in unison with the auxiliary axle
by the connection formed through the corresponding cranks and connecting
rod on each side. A dead centre is prevented by the Pitman crank being set
quartering, as explained. An eccentric adjustment is provided at the front
bearing of each Pitman rod, making it possible to slightly vary the length of
the rod when necessary. This adjustment can be effected as easily as the
adjustment of a chain on the ordinary type of wheel. The adjustment of the
driving belt is also readily effected by mounting the front or driving crank
shaft in an eccentric on the hanger boxing. The tread of the machine is
made as narrow as possible by the use of flattened tubing in the rear forks,
and by cranking the driving rods, the crank portion being reinforced by a
forged connection. The outward appearance of the wheel is attractive, and
in quality of material and workmanship, and elegance of finish, it upholds
the standard heretofore maintained on all products of the Dayton factory. It
is claimed that this construction produced less friction than any bevel-gear
chainless wheel, in addition to the other important features noticed.

THE BAYVELGERE CHAINLESS.

The Bayvelgere, which was at last year’s show and impressed us as the
most decided step in chainless driving up to that time, appears now in a
rebuilt and materially improved form. In a general way, it looks externally
much like other chainless bicycles of the bevel-gear class, and therefore
does not need to be shown by a cut as a whole.
The connecting shaft, as before, is made separate from the two ends
which carry the bevel pinions. The shaft proper terminates at each end in
four short pins with rounded and slightly enlarged ends; these pins enter
corresponding receptacles in the two pieces which carry the pinions, and
when in position thus the entire shaft is complete.
The effect is a sort of ball-and-
socket joint; the pins and
receptacles together form a semi-
universal or toggle joint,
technically called a “four-pinion BAYVELGERE JOINTED SHAFT.
toggle.” So long as the frame is in

line, this device remains inert and the working is the same as that of a rigid
shaft; but if the frame should become sprung by straining or accident the
flexibility comes into action and the power is carried from crank axle to
wheel axle without the slightest twisting or binding, whereas any such
condition of disturbed alignment will necessarily cause serious binding on
any construction with a rigid shaft. In both design and carrying out, this
device is thoroughly mechanical and practical. It is shown in the
accompanying cut.
When power is applied to the crank axle, it is claimed, there is a
tendency to push the small pinion rearward, because the faces of the two
bevels at that place are inclined toward each other, and so one presses on
the other like two wedges. Other bevel-geared patterns have only a single
row of balls at each end of the shaft, and it is claimed by the Bayvelgere
people that when the shaft is thus pressed rearward there is nothing to hold
it, and the pinion on its end is crowded hard against the pinion on the wheel
hub, thus producing extra friction and perhaps a deadlock; such a deadlock
of the gears is also liable to occur if the bicycle falls over and the blow
drives the gear on the crank axle sharply against the pinion which meshes
with it. Conceding this to be so, the precaution against it taken on the
Bayvelgere, and forming an important point in its patent claim, is certainly
practical. This precaution consists in placing a double row of balls at each
end of the shaft (i.e., on each of the pinions) and as these rows face in
opposite directions any rearward thrust on the shaft is met by one of the
rows of balls on the back pinion; moreover, there is a little space at each of
the toggle joints above described, and this space must be taken up before
any end thrust on the shaft can affect the meshing of the gears.
This construction, together with the manner of fixing the gears in the
frame—a method which cannot be shown without too much detail and
several cuts—is claimed to greatly facilitate placing the parts together and
to make their action easier and their endurance better. To put it in another
way, each pair of bevels is claimed to be independent and to be capable of
taking care of itself in adjustment and running, while the flexible shaft
merely carries power from one to the other without any effect to disturb
either.
Mr. L. D. Munger is in charge of the works as designer. The price of the
Bayvelgere is $100.

THE HILDICK CHAINLESS.

The Hildick is a spur gear, an evolution from the Gentry of last year’s
show. It has only one intermediate gear, which is very novel in being a
wheel without spokes or hub, so to speak, since it is rim only. The front
sprocket becomes a spur gear of 8 inches diameter and 95 teeth; the rear
sprocket becomes one of 3 inches diameter and 35 teeth; the two are
connected by an intermediate of 13 inches diameter and 156 teeth. This
large gear consists of a rather light ring which is held on the right fork by a
small clip with screw-bolt and nut at either side; this ring, which of course
is stationary, is grooved around its outer edge. The toothed ring, similarly
grooved on its inner edge, runs around upon the fixed ring, 108 3⁄16 balls
being placed within to make a ball bearing. As the toothed ring is
continuous, no way of getting the balls in appears at first; but a closer
inspection shows that on the back side there is a small opening in the fixed
ring, covered by a removable plate, through which the balls are introduced.
There is no adjustability provided for this ball bearing, but the three gears
can be set into exact distances at the pitch line by the usual chain-adjuster at
the rear. The gear ratio upon the sample is 76, but variations in ratio can be
obtained with this arrangement with less difficulty than with other forms of
chainless. Another feature is that the device is easily removable. The front
gear can be interchanged with the usual sprocket, since it goes on the
regular “spider;” the back gear is almost as readily substituted for the back
sprocket; the fixed ring, with its running toothed ring on it, can be put on
the fork or removed by handling the simple fastenings. A claim is therefore
made that the device is applicable to any bicycle (with the usual distance
between axles, of course) so that whoever wants to try chainless driving can
do it without being committed thereto.

DRIVING GEAR OF HILDICK CHAINLESS.
The price of the Hildick chainless bicycle complete is $60, and the
intention is also to sell the special parts necessary to convert a chain-driver
for $25. The intermediate gear has the advantage of a bearing of
extraordinary diameter, which will be a help when wrenching strains come.
The construction is certainly clever and ingenious and a vast advance on the
former effort of its inventor. How well this device for chainless driving will
stand the rack and test of actual use in the bands of all sorts of people time
will show, as it will (and as nothing else can) in the case of all devices
which are not hopeless from the start. We think the Hildick worth entering
for trial with the rest.

THE CRESCENT CHAINLESS.

The Crescent chainless is of the bevel-gear class, having its rear pinion
on the forward side of the wheel hub, the shaft passing through the right
fork. Its most distinctive visible feature is the broad U which holds the
wheel. This broad U or latch-piece has the wheel spindle carried in an open

hole or slot in the bridge over it, so that the
wheel can be withdrawn and replaced as
readily and in the same manner as on the
usual chain models; the appearance at this
point will at once distinguish the Crescent
from all others, at a glance. Another
peculiarity is that the rear wheel is readily
adjusted laterally on its spindle, so that the
fit of the two gears is in easy control. By
loosening the two nuts outside the wheel,
the rear wheel slips out, and by loosening
the nuts on the spindle itself its position is
adjustable so as to make a proper fit of the
two gears. The wheel can be removed and
replaced without disturbing the bearing
adjustment, and the hub gear goes on
interchangeably with the usual sprocket, so
that if the wheel itself should break down a
chain wheel could be taken off another
DRIVING GEAR OF THE
bicycle and substituted; the crank axle,
CRESCENT CHAINLESS.
bearing nuts, etc., are similarly
interchangeable between the chainless and
the chain models. The rear hub has twenty-four teeth; the shaft has twenty-
three at the rear and fifteen at the front, where it meshes with forty on the
crank axle gear. Ball retainers are used throughout, and the gears
themselves form cones for the bearings. Felt washers are fitted, except that
the bearings in front are protected by the washer directly behind the circular
cover plate which is set into the enlarged end of the crank hanger. Several
of the wheels have been subjected to severe tests under both ordinary and
extraordinary road and weather conditions, and we learn have responded
admirably in every instance. The price is $75.

THE CRAWFORD CHAINLESS.

The Crawford chainless is of the bevel type, and has its driving
members in the same positions relative to each other as most of the other
models, but it is distinctive in having, apparently, the fork drive instead of

the central shaft. That is, as is sometimes on the French Acatene and in the
models with the Sager pin-roller gear as thus far made, the driving shaft is
tubular and takes the place of the usual fork, carrying the pinions on its
ends, while the stay is a stout rod paralleling this shaft and within it,
running from crank axle to wheel hub and fastening at each end with a nut.
The lefthand side has a similar stay rod within the fixed tube, so that the
frame is especially stiff. The wheel hub has twenty-four teeth and the shaft
has twenty-three at the rear, as usual; but at the front are eighteen, driven by
forty-eight. As the Crawford chainless is under license from the Pope
Company, some comment has been caused by its announced price of $75,
but the explanation is offered that an exception was made in case of this
model because it uses only some of the patents held by the Pope Company.

THE DAYTON CHAINLESS.

The Dayton chainless has been already described, but we are now able
to furnish cuts. It is of the locomotive or double-crank construction,
substantially as shown two years ago under the name of the Loco or
Twentieth Century. A double-flanged notched pulley, with a link belt,
equivalent to a centrally notched sprocket and chain, runs within the crank
bracket, working centrally and tightly enclosed. This is necessary to obtain
speeding up and to preserve motion in the forward direction. Adjustment of
tension is by an eccentric on the crank axle. The small pulley is one piece
with a pair of short cranks set at right angles or quartering, and these work
connecting rods, whose length is slightly variable when necessary by means
of an eccentric adjustment at the forward end. Every bearing is a ball
bearing, of course. The rear forks are of D tubing, and narrowness of tread
is further attained by “cranking” the connecting rods, the portion thus bent
being reinforced to avoid weakening. For this type of chainless the
following is claimed:
“Its most important advantage is
derived from the equal transmission of
motive power on both sides of the frame
from the crank-hanger to the rear hub.
This equal division of power
transmission is both constant and

continuous. Not only is much of the THE DAYTON CHAINLESS.
friction of a bevel-gear eliminated, but
the danger of springing the rear fork out
of line by a sudden strain is completely removed. All bearing points of the
transmitting mechanism are encased and made absolutely weather proof.”
Whatever view is held regarding the mechanical advantage or
disadvantage of this method of transmitting power for bicycle purposes,
there can be no doubt that there is some benefit from the alternation of
driving strains from one side to the other, instead of having them only on
one side, and also that the complete inclosure of the driving parts is a
benefit. But users of this type of bicycle must learn to mount without a step,
since none can be fitted, on account of the crank action on the rear wheel.

THE FEATHERSTONE CHAINLESS.

The Featherstone chainless, called the “King,” in order to match with
the name borne by the line of bicycles made by this concern, is of the same
type as the foregoing in respect of driving, but embodies new and peculiar
features, which are in the patent recently issued to Michael McAmeny of
Denver. Double driving rods are used with two pairs of short cranks, and
the rods are made slightly adjustable in length at their rear ends as indicated
in the cut. It is claimed, however, that when these rods are once properly
adjusted, they will need no further attention, “as the driving connection
itself adds to the rigidity of the lower frame members of the machine and
prevents any variation in the distance from rear wheel hub to the crank shaft
and the other shafts in the crank-hanger case.” As the cut shows, this hanger
contains three shafts instead of two. The third one is necessary because—
since a spur gear is used instead of a “link belt” or chain—a second
reversing of the direction of movement is completed in order to avoid the
dilemma which one of the witless inventors whose contrivances were
described in our article of a week ago accepted without hesitation, namely,
that either the bicycle wheel must travel backward or the rider must pedal
backward. The pedals being run in the forward direction, the crank shaft is
driven forward and the shaft gearing with it runs backward; the third shaft
gearing with that, of course, runs forward again, and this carries the pairs of
cranks which work the wheel. This introduction of a third shaft within the

hanger (which is avoidable only by using a belt or an internal gear) is
cleverly utilized to produce the novelty of chainless driving, combined with
a changeable gear having two speeds and the old notion of making the
pedals footrests at will.

FEATHERSTONE “CHANGE GEAR” CHAINLESS.
The manner in which these results are accomplished can be made out by
a careful examination of the sectional cut of the interior of the crank hanger,
for which cut (exclusive of the lettering and description) we are indebted to
the Cycle Age. Gear marked 1 is firmly attached to the crank shaft and
stands at the top, as shown in the cut of the bicycle. This gear 1 meshes into
the one marked x-1-x, and this latter one, it must be understood, is placed
between gears 2 and 2x, which are on the same shaft; the three are on one
shaft (the one indicated just forward of the crank), but are not in any way
fast to one another except by a device to be presently mentioned. Gear 2
(the larger of the two whose teeth are shown, the gear x-1-x being
concealed between them) meshes with gear 3x on the third and rearward
shaft, this gear being shown in dotted lines because it is hidden behind its
larger fellow, gear 3; gear 2x in its turn meshes with gear 3. There are in all
six spur pinions or gears within the crank-hanger. The pair on the rearward
shaft, gears 3 and 3x, are fast on the same shaft, and hence must revolve at
the same speed. The shaft marked C is hollow or slotted and contains what

is known as a sliding clutch, operated by the small rod or cord and little
crank shown reaching up to the top bar of the bicycle.
Gear 1, being fast on the pedal shaft, runs with the pedals, and of course
carries with it gear x-1-x. Now if the clutch just mentioned makes gear 2
fast to x-1-x, the motion of gear 2 is carried to gear 3x and to the shaft of
this latter gear are attached the pair of outside cranks which drive the other
pair on the rear wheel by means of the connecting rods, so the bicycle is
driven at a certain speed. If the clutch makes gear 2x fast to x-1-x, then the
motion of 2x is carried to gear 3, and the drive cranks and drive rods are run
at another rate of speed, slower than before. When the clutch makes x-1-x
fast to either gear 2 or gear 2x, it causes it to let go of the other one, and that
other one, thus released, runs around on the shaft independently, at the rate
it is carried by its connection with the gear back of it. When the clutch is
moved into the “midway” position gear x-1-x does not grip either of its
neighbors on the shaft; then the feet can be held still on the pedals, gears 1
and x-1-x being stationary while the other four run along with the bicycle
until another movement of the shifting clutch locks either 2 or 2x with gear
1 and the pedal shaft as already described. Of course, this arrangement does
not interfere with back pedalling, as usual, unless the clutch is moved so as
to throw the gears out of mesh.
The gear ratios provided are regularly to be
seventy-four and fifty-three. It will perhaps be
fair, having described the working of this
device, to allow the makers to state their own
general description and their claims for it:
“The whole machine in general construction
—frame, front forks, handlebars, wheel, front
hub, cranks and pedals—is our own regular
highest grade work, as used on the Road King.
The rear hub is so constructed that the wheel can FEATHERSTONE
be removed or returned to frame for repairing CHAINLESS
tire without disturbing the adjustment of the CRANK HANGER
bearings. The front wheel is removable, same as —SECTIONAL VIEW.
in other bicycles. All bearings, including
connections on side rods, are ball bearings.

“As the power is applied evenly from both
sides, and the gears used for driving are at
centre of crank-hanger box in frame, the centre
of gravity is forward of the rider, where it
should be, same as in regular chain wheels.
This is a very important feature, and insures for
this system a very material point of superiority
over other chainless bicycles—that of
lightness, perfection of balance and great
strength. Another very important feature is the
durability and lack of attention required. The
chain on chain wheels requires a great deal of
attention, while the driving mechanism of this
wheel requires only proper adjustment at first,
and then very limited attention at long
intervals.

DRIVING GEAR OF “The driving rods in connection with the
DAYTON CHAINLESS. divided crank axle being easily and entirely
detachable from either side, in case of accident,
should one pedal, crank or driving rod on same
side be broken, the broken parts can be immediately detached and the rider
can continue his journey without trouble or delay, using the remaining
drives on opposite side. The machine is a marvel of fine mechanical skill,
carried to a point described best by the word ‘frictionless.’”

SOME DEDUCTIONS.

Whatever peculiarities are involved in driving a bicycle by this method
will be shared equally by the Dayton and the Featherstone, the change gear
of the latter, of course, excepted; and what inconvenience may be found
from lack of a step will pertain to both. The statement in the Featherstone
catalogue, above quoted, that in case of breakage of the driving gear on one
side the rider can continue his journey without trouble or delay by using the
drivers on the remaining side was evidently made without having tried the
experiment or having talked with a locomotive engineer about it. In any
change of gear which shifts a pinion into or out of engagement with

another, there is always liability to a shock or jar as the teeth of one slip into
the spaces in the other, and this will occur whether the engaging pinion is
moved directly forward in the same plane with the other or from one side.
The shifting clutch on the Featherstone chainless probably resembles a
pinion with only a single tooth, which tooth is to enter and catch in a single
space. How far this clutch will be able to avoid the usual drawbacks of
shifts in practice time must determine; we cannot speak from observation,
for no specimen of the bicycle has come eastward as yet.
As illustrating the somewhat uncertain operation of change gears, an
incident which occurred to a certain rider comes to mind. Some years ago
he was convoying a small party over a country road, being himself mounted
on a bicycle fitted with a “Hy-Lo” gear which he was testing. While
climbing a hill and nearly at its top, the jolt by unexpectedly striking a brick
caused his knee to hit the tripping device which governed the shift, and this
moved the gear into midway position; the pedals then “became footrests,”
and the bicycle began to back with its rider down the hill, pawing the air
ineffectually with his feet, until he was landed in a blackberry bush at the
bottom, greatly to the amusement of his companions and to his own
discomfiture, as he had just been kindly “coaching” one of them as to the
best way to overcome a grade. There may be some question, in general, as
to whether changing gear at will might not, in practice, prove less desirable
than we are all disposed to imagine, and for this reason: the learner finds the
bicycle very fatiguing, partly from the nervous strain and partly because the
muscles are put to a strange service; they become wonted to that service in
time and cease to trouble, but if the gear ratio could be readily changed
while riding (as theoretically seems desirable) the rhythm of pedalling
might be so disturbed as to measurably bring back the original fatigue.

THE PINE CHAINLESS.

The Pine chainless, located at 23 Duane street, is a model still behind,
so that we have not been able to see a finished sample or even any working
part. The general appearance is that of the Sager gear, the shaft being
tubular and revolving outside the stay as in that type. The gears are claimed
to be really spur gears with teeth cut square; that is, essentially so, for there
must be some slight modification, as it is not as if two ordinary spur gears

were placed at right angles and made to mesh in that position. The teeth,
however, are said to be square-cut, not radial; their sides are parallel, hence
not pointing to the centre; the teeth are cut in a sort of trough, leaving a
margin or hollow at their ends. The inventor terms his gear a “face” gear,
and makes for it a number of claims, one of which is that he can and will
convert any chain wheel into a Pine chainless at a cost of about $20. He
likens his gear, in working, to the familiar breast drill, except that the drill
has its teeth somewhat bevelled. If simplicity coupled with great strength
and rigidity of frame, together with cheap construction and smooth and
quiet action, are attained by this gear, as expected, it will evidently score a
point among chainless models; but that straight-cut teeth can interact
successfully at all with gears set at right angles or nearly so is contrary to all
ideas heretofore, and in the lack of a model for examination we must
forbear any opinion. The inventor’s own description is appended in justice
to him:

PINE “SQUARE-TOOTH” CHAINLESS.
“This invention relates to driving or propelling mechanism applicable to
various machines or vehicles, but intended particularly for bicycles. It
comprises mainly a sprocket wheel carried by the crank shaft with straight

teeth on the inner face on a raised edge, so cut upon a new principle and
arranged to mesh with a spur or pinion fixed at one end of a tube, which
revolves on ball bearings arranged on rear-fork sides or rod with another
gear or sprocket, the opposite end of said tube having also a spur or pinion
meshing with another sprocket secured to rear hub cut in a similar manner
as front sprocket. The driving power being transmitted from front sprocket
or gear by shaft tube to rear gear or sprocket, all being suitably secured as
above stated to frame upon rear fork rotatably supported by ball bearings
connected to the frame and forks.
“This does precisely what has always been accounted to be out of the
question and confutes both theoretical and practical mechanics. It is a gear
that turns the corner by means of square cut teeth that mesh directly instead
of by means of bevel teeth, and we call it a face gear. It has generally been
the accepted rule that in order to transmit power from one shaft to another
running at right angles by means of cogs the cogs must be V-shaped and cut
on a bevel plane. Spur gears have hitherto been used only for engagements
between wheels turning in a direct line with each other; our new chainless
looks much like a bevel-gear wheel at first glance, but a closer inspection
shows that the teeth on the inside of front sprocket or pinion wheel as well
as those on the driving shaft are perfectly square and mesh together as spur
gears.”

THE “ENGLISH” CHAINLESS.

Mr. J. C. English of No. 141 Centre street, this city, formerly of
Edison’s staff, has produced a sample of a chainless for which he has
neither name nor facilities for production as yet. It uses the Crypto internal
gear in principle of operation, the same as on the Bantam. The principle of
this gear is that when a pinion on a crank or arm is carried around while in
mesh with an internally-toothed rack or ring, which is itself held fast against
revolving, the pinion rotates on its own axis with an accelerated velocity,
and of course it must impart such increased velocity to any wheel with
which it is “in touch.”
This may sound complicated, but if the reader will carefully examine
the cut he will not find it hard to understand. Here the gearing is within
what appears to be a box-like hub. The disk in which the spokes are headed

is independent of the toothed rack, but is fast to the central pinion; the
toothed rack is a part of the framework and cannot turn. Now, when the
pinion which meshes in the rack is carried around the circle by the short
arm or crank which holds it (within the “box”) it is plain that this pinion
rolls around upon the teeth of the rack. Rolling thus, as the rack is larger
than the pinion, having 3½ times as many teeth, the pinion must make 3½
turns on its own axis while it is carried once around upon the rack. But this
pinion cannot turn without turning the central pinion with which it is in
mesh (just as on the Bantam), and the central pinion is fast to the driving
wheel; so the wheel itself is driven, too. The sample gear ratio is 93⅓.

THE “ENGLISH” CHAINLESS.
The lever measures 4⅝ inches between its fulcrum and the point of
attachment to the crank, and 14 inches between the crank pin and the pedal.
The crank itself is only 1⅞ inches long, being singularly short as compared
with usual crank lengths in direct driving. The pinion on the crank is 1 inch
in diameter, with 14 teeth; the central pinion is 1½ inches in diameter, with
21 teeth; the fixed rack is 3½ inches in diameter, with 49 teeth, all the teeth
used thus being of “14 pitch.” The stroke of the pedal is 7¼ inches in each
direction. Having a rocking movement necessarily, the path of the pedal is
not an arc of a circle, but is peculiar, being somewhat like a bow and its
string in shape, the down stroke being in the “bow” and the return stroke in

the “string,” as shown in the accompanying cut. The pedal
also has the somewhat irregular motion and the “quick
return” characteristic of the old Facile, and of all levers
which are attached to cranks. The fulcrum of this lever, as
appears in the cut, and as evidently must be the case, is not
fixed in all directions, but slides back and forth, giving the
pedal a part of the peculiar motion of the latter.
Summing up this device, we must say that its
disadvantages are in the direction of some complexity of
structure, weight, and what seems at present view
insufficient crank throw, with the inseparable drawbacks of
lever-driving. On the other hand, the lever has some good
points, among them all that is in the vertical position of the
rider, the gear construction supplies its own enclosure
against dirt, and the gears are of the simple spur variety, thus escaping any
distinctive troubles of the bevel-gear. Arguing from the full trial on the
Bantam, this gear may be expected to run well and have good endurance if
properly made.

CHAINLESS EVOLUTION IN ENGLAND.

As already remarked, England has thus far taken little interest in the
present movement to revive chainless driving. One of the leading trade
journals (the first one founded after the cycle era really began, some twenty
years ago) hardly conceals its contempt of the movement, especially of
bevel-gears; another, in a paragraph quoted further on, admits that such
gears have not yet had a conclusive practical test, and that there may be a
future for them in cycling, now that their construction is so much improved.
The reason why so little interest has been taken in the subject is that
England, in common with other cycling countries of Europe, has been, on
the whole, satisfied with chain-driving. As an illustration, one maker now
takes occasion to advertise “The English Sunbeam—eight years ahead of
American cycles,” and then he proceeds to explain thus:
“A leading American firm have just issued their 1898 Catalogue, giving
reasons why their new Chainless Cycle is an improvement on all existing
American machines. They say the new mechanism is easier to keep clean—

has no backlash—no teeth to catch—is thoroughly lubricated—is weather-
proof—does not wear—does not lose pitch. Now the Sunbeam, thanks to its
little oil-bath dust-proof gear case, has had all these advantages since 1890.
Now you know why Sunbeams go!”
Yet, as one of these journals puts it, “the vogue which has been given to
the chainless bicycle by the booming of the Columbia bevel-gear has
brought out all sorts of expedients for suppressing the chain.” A few of
these appeared at the recent exhibition in Paris, which, however, was almost
exclusively American; at the English shows this winter the Columbia and
the Quadrant were the sole specimens of any consequence.
When the rear-driving chain wheel
began to press the “good old ordinary” out
of the field the latter endeavored to
compromise upon a modified pattern called
the “Rational.” The changes were few and
simple. The back wheel was enlarged to 22
inches diameter and finally to 24; the
backward “rake” of the front fork was made
2 and next 4 inches; the saddle was placed
further back, and thus, with a crank
“ENGLISH” CHAINLESS
lengthened to 7 inches, the rider was able to
DRIVING GEAR
use a wheel two sizes smaller than formerly.
This construction was much nearer to safety
from “headers,” but after three or four years the rationalized “ordinary” had
to give up the struggle. It was succeeded by the geared ordinary, which
favored safety by further reducing the size of wheel, obtained leg-room by
placing the saddle further back and raising it above the backbone, and
retained speed by gearing up. A number of spur gears for this purpose were
in the market five years ago. The best pattern of this type of bicycle is
shown in the cut. This had a 24-inch back wheel; a 4-inch rake, with the
saddle from 12 to even 16 inches behind the head; 7-inch cranks; a 46-inch
wheel, geared to 62, although 44 and 48 were made; weight about thirty-six
pounds, which was moderate in those times. The gear was the Crypto,
brought out in 1883; being hidden out of sight and closed against dirt in one
of the hubs, it formed its own gear case.

In conformity to the growing use of small wheels, the geared ordinary
went on shrinking in size to 42, 38, 36, 34, 32, 30, the gear being modified
to retain a proper ratio. The name was changed to the Bantam, and with the
1898 model shown in the cut, with its peculiar “Alpha” frame, the long
evolution process comes down to this present date.

THE BANTAM CHAINLESS.

The Bantam, an English front-
driving chainless, with a Crypto gear
inclosed in one of the front hubs, has
been modified for 1898. All the frame
lines have become straight, and the
frame is made up of one vertical and
two horizontal tubes, with a diagonal
one that holds the saddle stem. The rear
wheel is now brought to the size of the BANTAM CHAINLESS—1898.
front, increasing the resemblance to the
prevailing type; the wheel base,
however, still remains singularly short. This gives great handiness, the
Bantam needing little space for stowing, and being so light and handy that it
can be taken almost anywhere. Its wheel is from 22 to 24 or even 26 inches
in diameter, geared from 60 to 72; it is easily mounted without a step. As to
safety, two-fifths of the rider’s weight rests on the rear wheel. The gear,
which was used some years ago by Frank Shorland in making what were
then astonishing road records, is in principle the same as that on a rear-
driver described further on, and one of its good points is that its operation
and endurance are independent of what happens to the frame. It is not
adjustable for wear, but this is true of all gears and of the chain and
sprocket, except that the chain may be tightened in the familiar manner. The
large internally toothed ring is part of the frame and does not move. The
central gear is fast to the wheel and carries that with it. The small pinions
are carried around by the crank (there are four in order to lessen wear, but
one would work alone), and as they roll upon the fixed ring they are
speeded up, giving a faster motion to the large pinion and the wheel. Their
endurance under use has been well established, this form of gearing having

had years of trial, and they run easily and smoothly. The maker figures that
they ought to last, with fair care, from 20,000 to 50,000 miles of travel.
The Bantam is also made with a drop
frame, for ladies’ use. The chief drawback to
its popularity in this country, in either form, is
that the position of the rider with reference to
the pedals does not and cannot conform to the
American custom.
The Bantam is the only front-driver now
surviving, so far as can be ascertained.

DRIVING GEAR OF
BANTAM CHAINLESS.

THE ACATENE CHAINLESS.

The French Acatene is the only European
bevel-gear chainless which has made any stir
abroad as yet, and it was on a bicycle of this
make that Rivierre, the long-distance French
crack, rode 533 miles within twenty-four
hours, in Paris, in June of 1896, making the
world’s record which is now cited as
DRIVING GEAR OF evidence of the suitability of such gears for
ACATENE CHAINLESS. driving bicycles. Soon after that date an
English trade journal said of it that “for
military purposes we think the Acatene is
especially suited, and while we do not think it is destined to revolutionize
the cycling world, as some Americans seem to think, we feel fully confident
that there is a future for it if well handled.”
It is said that at least one reason for putting the transmitting shaft
outside instead of within the back fork in the Sager gear—now on
exhibition on the Monarch chainless—was in order to avoid an existing
patent which claims a shaft carried through that fork. This outside position
of the hollow shaft was used on the Acatene, and we give a cut of it, mainly

for that reason, since in other respects it is not unlike other bevel-gear
models. In this cut, taken from an English journal published in November
of 1896, the relative positions of the shaft and the fork are seen; the
accompanying description also says that “undoubtedly the chief point of
success in the Acatene gear is the utilization of the ball bearing principle to
take up the end-thrust on the cog shaft connecting the crank axle and the
driving-hub cogs, as well as fitting that shaft outside the usual bottom fork
in such a way as affords a very considerable support against the disaligning
action of the cogs themselves.”
We also recall having seen a specimen of the Acatene in New York,
about a year ago, and having noted the peculiar appearance of the shaft. If
the Sager claim covers putting the shaft outside the fork this apparent
anticipation may have a bearing on the value of such claim.

THE QUADRANT CHAINLESS.

At the Stanley and the National shows in London, chainless driving—
with the exception of a few which are close upon or within the freak line
and do not need mention here—was represented by the Columbia bevel-
gear and by the Lloyd cross-roller as exhibited by the “Quadrant” makers.
This latter is like the bevel in using a shaft to reach from crank axle to rear-
wheel axle, and so might in a general way be classed in the bevel-gear type;
yet in important details it is materially different, the gears themselves being
replaced by roller-and-pin wheels. This is an adaptation, with some changes
in the shape of the rubbing parts, of the old crown wheel and of its pinion
constructed of wire pins instead of cut teeth, this form of pinion being now
in use in clock trains by the million. The large wheel on the crank axle has
horizontal pins or studs projecting from its rim, the bottom ends of the pins
being seen in the cut but the pins themselves being behind the wheel; these
pins mesh into a roller pinion on the shaft, the common fixed pins being
replaced by rollers turning on pins in order to substitute rolling for rubbing
friction. The same construction is at the rear end, only reversed in position.
In front, the pins drive the roller pinion; at the back end of the shaft, the
roller-pinion drives the wheel by meshing with the pins on its hub.
It is impossible, from only the cuts and descriptions in the English trade
journals, to be entirely sure of the precise shape of the engaging portions of

this device, but the foregoing is substantially correct. The best authority in
those journals, which expresses a high opinion of it, says: “The cross rollers
act in practice more smoothly than the idea would seem to suggest. The
gear is in effect almost the same thing as a bevel-gear, since the ends of the
rollers which impinge nearest upon each other are slightly tapered and
rounded. There seems, however, to be less tendency for the gear to force
itself apart than when bevels are used, and the rollers of course remove a lot
of the rubbing friction inseparable from plain bevel-gears.”
On the other hand, the same writer says of the bevel: “Bevel gearing has
been almost universally condemned by experts generally, but we do not
think that the latest patterns of bevel-geared machines have been put to a
really practical test. Taking the Columbia as one of the most perfect
examples of this class of machine, the cutting of the teeth and the general
construction of the gear is so vastly superior to anything before turned out
that previous tests are really very little guide. No other firm has given so
much attention to the matter as the Columbia people, and we hope at an
early date to have an opportunity of testing one of their machines. If the loss
from increased friction is only slight, bevel-gears will have a considerable
run—it all hinges on that.”

THE LLOYD’S ROLLER-PIN GEAR.

The Quadrant Cycle Company make for the Lloyd’s roller-pin gear
construction the following claims:
1. Obviates all the troubles of the chain.
2. Minimum of working friction. Spins free of the
ground from three to six times as long as a chain gear.
3. Does not distort the frame or crossbind the
bearings, consequently
4. It climbs with about two-thirds the usual exertion.
5. Responds instantly to the pressure of the foot.
6. Is not a bevel-gear, consequently

7. No spreading, no friction of cogs, no noise, no jar
to the feet.
8. Extremely durable, no backlash, no adjustment,
ever required.
The appearance of the crank-axle
wheel in the cut suggests that the wheel is
provided with pins of a generally round
shape rather than with any such V-tooth as
in the Sager device now shown on the
LLOYD’S CROSS ROLLER Monarch. Application was filed by
DRIVING GEAR ON Fitzgerald and Clement in December last
QUADRANT CHAINLESS. for an English patent on a device
somewhat resembling the Quadrant. The
crank axle clearly shows a central gear
wheel, with regular crown-wheel teeth; and although the cuts in the
specification are difficult to make out, the text describes a roller-toothed
pinion on the forward end of the shaft, a crown-wheel toothed pinion on the
rear end, and a wheel hub provided with roller teeth. The teeth thus
described would not act precisely like those which appear to be on the
Quadrant.
Mr. J. H. Harell of this city has produced a specimen which is
apparently identical with the Quadrant, except that in the former the driving
is applied to the back side of the wheel hub, as on the Spalding Chainless,
while on the Quadrant the position of the driving parts is as on the
Columbia. The pins which engage the rollers are rounded off and slightly
tapered, resembling the shape of the bullet in ordinary fixed ammunition;
but in the lack of more precise information as to the form of the pins on the
Quadrant it is not certain that Mr. Harell has made any improvement.

GEARED ORDINARY—1892.

CHAPTER III.
CHAINLESS vs. CHAIN.
The possible changes in the future of cycling involve the shape of the
cycle as well as the mode of driving it. Indeed, the mode of applying the
power has influenced the shape of the structure more than the shape of the
structure has influenced the mode of driving. At present, rear-driving has
the field; will front-driving ever return? Possibly. As bearing on this
possibility, it may not be amiss to briefly describe some of the most
important attempts to make a safe and practical bicycle (in nearly every
instance out of the front-driver), without trying to follow exact
chronological order.

A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE PRINCIPAL “SAFETY” TYPES.

One of the most peculiar was the “Xtra-ordinary,” or “Xtra,” familiarly
dubbed the “Camel.” Taking the high Ordinary, it enlarged the back wheel
to 22 inches; then, as its main feature, sloped the front forks back very
much in a great “rake,” so that the rider’s weight rested more on the rear,
and he was thus much less liable to be pitched forward over the front in a
“header,” or a “cropper,” as it was called in England. The cranks being thus
out of direct reach, they were driven by a pair of long bent levers, which
were hinged by a short arm to the front forks, and came back behind and
below the wheel axle, bearing pedals on their ends; this contrivance was
effective as to safety, but was heavy and clumsy. Other patterns used the
usual “rake,” but had swinging levers attached to the cranks, the idea being
that the pedals (and consequently the driving pressure) should always be
behind the axle. One of these was American—the “Springfield”—and this
drove by levers, bearing pedals behind the axle, but used ratchets, and had
no cranks. The “Star,” also American, drove by levers and ratchets, but
turned about and had the small wheel forward, being very distinctive.
Others had the small wheel first, driving the other by cranks thereon, and
worked by long swinging levers hinged to the extreme front of the frame,
thus going back to an early contrivance nearly half a century before, and

much like some children’s velocipedes of today. One of the queerest of all
was the “Otto,” a true bicycle in having only two wheels, yet resembling the
tricycle in having those side by side on a long axle; the rider sat between,
above and a little behind the axle, swinging freely from it, driving by pedals
and chains, and steering somehow with great ease.
In smaller bicycles, then called “safeties” for distinguishing them, the
“Pony” was simply small sized, with secondary cranks jointed on the first,
so that leg-reach could be obtained, the two cranks being out at full length
at the bottom of the stroke and shut over like the blade of a knife in its
handle at the top of the stroke. The “Kangaroo” type, which had for a time a
great run, had their front forks prolonged down, so as to carry pedals and
cranks, working on the axle by sprockets, and “gearing up.” The “Facile”—
which was the pioneer of small-sized bicycles in America, also had its front
forks prolonged, but curved well forward; to the ends of these were hinged
levers which came well behind and below the axle, having pedals on the
ends, and being attached by connecting-rods to very short cranks, thus
working much like the tread of the common foot lathe; it was extremely
safe, but was geared “level,” and therefore was not speedy, requiring rapid
though short movements of the foot. It was afterward “geared up” so as to
be faster, but was gradually displaced by various patterns of “Geared
Ordinary.” These used the familiar rotary action with direct cranks, but
employed spur gears—not bevel-gears as stated in a recent article in a trade
journal. Of this class, one distinctive pattern is the sole present survivor of
the front driving type. If reversion ever does bring front driving wheels
back on a general or even a comparatively large scale, this seems likely to
be the one. Yet prophecy is too unsafe to be hazarded, sweeping though past
changes have been.
As the illustrations in this chapter are of such a nature as to require a
more detailed description than can be given in a mere line of title, the
descriptive matter concerning them is placed together, as follows:
The original Humber—meaning by “original” merely the first bicycle of
the rear-driving type produced by the Humber factory—is interesting as
showing the beginnings of the “diamond” frame. The steering head was as
remarkably long as it afterward became short, but if the fork had been
carried forward in a curve instead of dropping straight down, the wheel base

would have been longer and the general outline more like the construction
of today.
The Golden Era is reproduced as a curiosity in frames and as suggesting
—since to illustrate them all would require too much space and would not
have sufficient interest—the number and variety of frame shapes which
have resulted in the familiar one of the present, although it would be rash to
affirm that finality in frames is reached even now.
The Victor of 1887 was the first of the
type made in America. There may be some
question whether a bicycle with a drop
frame was not produced in Washington
somewhat earlier, but it was not done
commercially. The wheels of the Victor
were 30-inch, with a ⅞ solid tire on the rear
and a ¾ tire on the front. It was made in
only one size. The gear was 54; the weight
FIRST HUMBER MODEL. was not stated; the price was $140. It had
ball bearings all over, including the
steering, which was a “socket,” and was in both these particulars rather
advanced at that time. Its chief peculiarity was that the entire front forks
consisted of two pairs of curved springs, attached to the frame by ingenious
rocking joints, which at first had cone bearings, but were changed to balls in
the next year. As more elastic tires came in, this peculiar fork went out, the
pattern being made in both ways for several years; but the Overman
Company is entitled to the credit of having been the first American concern
to make the now prevailing type of bicycle, and of having also improved
upon it as they found it. The frame shown in the cut, which was a common
one up to that date, was changed in the following year to a stronger one of
the early “diamond” type.
The Veloce of 1888 was the first rear-driver produced at the Columbia
factory, although a pattern of the Kangaroo had been for two years in the
company’s line. The Veloce had a 30-inch front wheel and a 31-inch driver,
both having ⅞ solid tires. The cranks were of the usual slotted style, giving
a throw of 5 to 6½ inches. The steering was cone, 4½ inches between
centres. The handlebar was hollow, 28 inches long. One size only was built,
geared to 52, weighing 51 pounds, and selling at $135. A peculiarity of the

construction was that a single curved cross-tube intersecting the straight
“backbone” or “perch” formed the support for the crank-axle and sprockets,
and then was carried up over the wheel, where it did duty as a mud-guard.
The wheels had 40 and 36 spokes, which were “direct,” as against the
tangent which the Victor people had been using and insisting upon for
several years. Referring to the direct spoke, the Columbia catalogue of this
year (1888) says:
“We have shown the desirability of this construction too often to make a
repetition necessary, particularly in the case of a small-wheel machine for
use at all times and places. It is a matter of satisfaction to us to observe a
growing recognition of our arguments on this point, even in England,
where, if in any part of the world, the roads are suited to full tangent
spokes.”
This shows how easily the best judges and prophets may sometimes be
mistaken.
The Defender Midget is an (page 34)
illustration of all that is extremely advanced and
radical in bicycle construction for 1898. The
steering head is of the shortest, only 4 inches in
length. The frame is 22-inch, with flush joints
and stamped internal connections. The top tube
is horizontal. The crank-hanger has a 4-inch
drop; the cranks are 7 inches, with a 4½-inch THE GOLDEN ERA.
tread, these three particulars being extreme. The
cranks are the Fauber patent, a single piece
forming both cranks and axle, which are passed into place through the large
opening in bracket before putting in the bearings. The chain is adjusted at
the bracket by an eccentric, instead of at the wheel as usual. The rear forks
are a continuous piece of D-tubing, of ⅞ section tapered to ¾. They are
joined to the crank bracket by a single large oval stem, thus allowing
clearance, without cranking or offsetting the fork, for the very large front
Fauber “star” sprocket of 32 teeth. The rear sprocket has 12 teeth, thus
making a gear of only 74 2⁄3, notwithstanding the large size of the front one.
Front forks are of tapered D-tubing in one piece, with an arched crown, and
forks and crown are both nickeled. The wheels have Thor patent hubs, and
the saddle post is fastened with the Thor expander, the saddle, of course,

being a Brown. The handlebar is extremely wide and light, made of octagon
tubing on the Schinneer patent, and the fastening is internal. The chain is 6
per cent. nickel steel in the block, and tool steel in the side-plates. Rims are
laminated, and tires are light road Palmer.
This model is very striking in appearance, and includes the patented
specialties of half a dozen makers of component parts, thus indicating
clearly that it is the product of a small maker. This remark, however, is not
made in any derogatory sense.

THE VICTOR—FIRST AMERICAN SAFETY—1887.
From the forward thrust on the old “boneshaker” velocipede of 1868,
which was compelled by its structure, the cyclist next went to the nearly
downward action on the “high ordinary” of 1878; this change was made to
get speed by a larger wheel, and he had to sit near its centre in order to
reach the pedal. The Facile, a lever-driving “safety,” which soon followed,
had as its distinctive feature the most vertical position of driving ever
obtained, and its maker was naturally very strenuous for that position,
contending that on the Facile the rider was always and all the time “over his
work,” with his pedal directly under him, where the Ordinary rider always

tried to get but could not. This was strictly true, and although the same
maker, under changed trade conditions, has since argued for a position
considerably “behind the work,” this is not against his sincerity, for really
there is considerable to be said on both sides.
It will readily be seen that the lever favors the “over-the-work” position,
because the pedal can thus be placed at a distance from the driven axle; but
rotary pedaling, as against the peculiar stroke of a lever, seems now fixed, if
anything can be affirmed to be. With any type using two equal-sized wheels
and rotary action, the rider must sit over the back wheel (as on the
abandoned “Broncho” of a few years ago) or else substantially as on the
present type. Then he must have some means of carrying his power back to
the axle; what shall that means be? The foregoing analysis is partly to lead
up to the issue between chain and no-chain, and partly to suggest how many
and how important considerations are involved in the relative position of
the saddle in the whole structure.

MODES OF POWER TRANSMISSION.

The crank-axle, and crank-bracket, the “heart” of the bicycle, is now the
place where the power is first exerted, and from this it must be transmitted
to the wheel. There are a number of possible methods of transmission, thus:
1. A leather belt.
2. A metallic band with holes to engage projections
on the sprockets, or provided with projections to enter
holes therein.
3. A chain.
4. A wire rope, with or without projections.
5. Clutch or ratchet action, at one or both ends,
operated by a lever.
6. Lever and crank, with or without an oscillating
fulcrum.
7. A connecting-shaft, carrying bevel gears at each
end.

8. A connecting-shaft, working pin-and-roller gears.
9. A connecting-shaft, with universal joints.
10. A row of spur gears to close the gap between the
two axles.
11. Cranks and connecting-rods, working double,
locomotive-fashion.
12. Friction wheels, with or without spur gears.
13. Pneumatic or hydraulic transmission, with some
choice of fluids.
14. A combination of cams and rollers.
15. Balls working in spiral grooves on axles.
This does not exhaust the list of theoretical possibilities, nor mention all
the combinations which could be formed. A sufficiently wild inventor could
fix up a contrivance, beginning at one axle and ultimately reaching the
other, which involved the whole list, and he might then be confident that he
had met the long-felt want.
Nos. 2 to 4 are modifications of No. 1; No. 5 involves giving up back-
pedalling; No. 9 cannot “gear up;” Nos. 12 to 15 are not practical. And the
whole list—just as the large number of “mechanical powers” named in old
text-books are really only two—“boils down” to five: the endless belt, the
spur gear, the shaft with bevel or pin-roller gears, cranks and connecting-
rods, and the lever. The fourth of these appears on only one make thus far; it
involves practical difficulties, is not strictly chainless, and hardly need be
considered as a rival to the chain. The lever is not seriously contesting now.
The spur gear is in market; yet it is offered in only two or three patterns
now, one of them the Hildick, which has distinctive claims of its own—and
so it can be passed. The third of these just named is the contestant of the old
chain, against which it has brought an action for ejectment, to be tried, and
probably sustained or dismissed, in this year 1898.

THE STRESS OF THE CHAIN-PULL.

It is true, as alleged by the plaintiff in this action, that a severe strain is
put by the driving on the frame of a chain-driver, increasing enormously as
the load or resistance increases. It is true that by the laws of materials the
yield is always in the direction of least resistance; this was understood by
Autocrat Holmes’s old deacon, who reasoned, when about to construct his
“one-hoss shay,” that “it’s mighty plain thet the weakes’ place must stan’ the
strain” and if that does not stand the whole construction goes. The trouble
with the bicycle frame is that it is a triangle, and (as shown in the small
sketch) the line of draught is not parallel to the line of resistance. Suppose
the resistance under trying conditions of grade and road is represented by a
weight of 100; then it’s pedal, or crank, or axle or sprocket, or any piece in
chain, or the spokes in the back wheel, or the frame itself, had a strength
below 100, instead of the bicycle’s advancing along the road the rider’s
power would expend itself in breaking or bending such weak part. The pull
is a one-sided pull, necessarily tending to drag the frame around toward the
side where the chain is, and frames have not always been made strong
enough to resist entirely. Ten years ago, when the present type of bicycle
was beginning to come in, a dealer whose interests were opposed made the
most of this objection of side-drag, quoting the recent admissions of several
English makers, thus:

DIAGRAM SHOWING ONE-SIDED CHAIN PULL.
“There is a great deal more strain between the two chain wheels than is
generally understood, and experience has proved the necessity of a direct
and rigid connection between these points.” (Starley & Sutton of Coventry,
1888 catalogue.)
“We would draw the reader’s special attention to our pattern for this
year, as every one who has had experience in this type of machine knows
that the bearings are of the utmost importance, the wear and tear being so
much greater than on an ordinary bicycle. This has caused us to discard the
old pattern pin-and-cone ball bearing, in which the cones and cups are

continually going wrong, owing to the smallness of the bearing surfaces and
the enormous strain upon them. As in all pin-and-cone ball bearings, the
cone wears flat on the chain side, but in the bearings we have introduced it
is impossible to do so. They are the same as fitted to the front wheel of our
bicycles.” (Rudge Cycle Company of Coventry, 1888 catalogue.)
This was quite true. Bearings have since been modified to meet the
case, and frames have been strengthened; yet a light frame may waste
power, under trying conditions, by springing out of line without getting a
permanent bend, and something more can probably be done in frame
strengthening.
The reader will observe, on referring again to the cuts of the first
Columbia, where it happens to show more distinctly, that the frame is
substantially two tubes crossing at right angles. Construction began in this
manner in England, and the reason was that makers followed the
“ordinary,” to which they were accustomed. They took the familiar curved
backbone, and made it straight, attaching it to the wheel in the old way by
mortise and tenon, with a bolt passed through, as the cut clearly shows.
They did not foresee the chain-pull, and (strange as it seems) actually did
not at first always put on even the single tie-rod used in the Victor; later, a
second tie-rod was carried to the rear wheel, thus making a truss, and then a
second pair were placed above the backbone, thus further approaching the
diamond. Now it was this identical construction of frame, as shown in the
Columbia most distinctly, which caused Starley & Sutton (as just quoted
above) to say that “there is a great deal more strain between the two chain
wheels than is generally understood, and experience has proved the
necessity of a direct and rigid connection between these points.” This strain
had not only not been “generally understood,” but had apparently hardly
been thought of at all. Yet the direct fork which those old Coventry makers
called for was soon supplied, and the moral for which we relate this bit of
history is the fact that the present frame of the chain-driver and the chain
itself are the result of a long evolution process, in which every step has been
suggested and proved by practical experience.

DEMANDS UPON CHAINLESS CONSTRUCTION.

From this tendency to draw the two axles toward each other—which has
to be resisted by the frame before there can be any effect to revolve the
wheel—the chainless is wholly free. In so much as this, its case is proved at
once. Yet, if it would be frank, it must repeat the common remark: “I have
troubles of my own.” Making bevel-gears is a detail and may be waived;
but when they are finished, other problems arise. These problems cannot be
better stated than in the five sentences following, which come officially
from the chief advocate of these gears and should be carefully considered:
“The maker must place them in the machine with perfect exactness. The
front and the rear axle, with their gear attachments, should lie precisely in
the same plane and exactly parallel with each other. Any failure to do this
will result in binding, cramp, strain and unsatisfactory work. Not only must
these conditions exist in the wheel as it comes from the workman’s hands,
but they must be maintained under load and shock, under the severest uses.
The frame construction must be so rigid that there will be no spring or yield
under any strain.”
This is a statement of the contestant’s own advocate, who adds that the
extraordinary weight of the old “League” chainless (seventy-five pounds at
first, the reader will remember) was unavoidable because the makers had no
way of getting frame stiffness except by putting in metal; he then argues
that nickel steel now supplies the strength without sacrifice of lightness.
Another advocate—an over-zealous one whom it is difficult to take
seriously—declares that this make of chainless will never get out of line,
and that if it ever does the running will remain unaffected. The jointed shaft
of the Bayvelgere is designed to meet just this contingency. We do not
predict, save to say that if the frame of any chainless with a rigid connecting
shaft ever does get out of line there will be serious trouble necessarily.
Make the “if” as emphatic as anybody pleases, and consider the danger of
springing the frame however remote; the chance of this occurring, under
some sort of conditions and usage, is one which the chainless, especially
those of the bevel class, must encounter.

FIRST COLUMBIA REAR-DRIVER—1888.
As to any kind of construction, whether of frame or of driving parts,
there is no trouble when spinning on a stand without a load; the question
begins when power is put upon it against a heavy resistance in actual use. A
maker who has criticised the bevel chainless more severely than any one
else insists that bevel-gears are especially wasteful by friction. In his
factory, he says, a power drill working with such gears will make only an
inch hole through a certain piece of metal, while a similar drill without the
bevels and run from the same shaft will make a 1⅜-inch hole through the
same metal. But this is not entirely conclusive, and the appeal to general
practice in machine shops does not count very much. It could just as well be
taken against the chain, and against the spur gear, for the fact is that no gear
is used there except when necessary. Whenever the shafts are a considerable
distance apart the belt is used, which is simple, cheap and effective,
developing a surprising amount of “bite” even on quite smooth surfaces.
When the shafts are close together the spur gear is used, nothing else being
available. When there is a distance and no slippage can be permitted the
chain is the thing. When power must turn a corner it is a choice between
belt or bevel gears. But to say that a thing is not good on a bicycle because

it is not used to drive machinery in shops is poor reasoning. We might as
well say that ball bearings are not good because they are never used on
locomotives.

THE PROBLEM OF “END-THRUST.”

The objection of “end-thrust” is raised against the bevel-driver. If the
reader will look at a cut showing the shaft in position with the two axles, he
will understand that the large beveled wheel on the crank axle tries to push
the pinion and shaft backward, so that it may free itself and turn as the rider
is forcing it to do. This backward pressure is because the face of the tooth is
sloping, and before the load can be moved this pressure back must be
resisted solidly somewhere. So (it is said) the rear pinion of the shaft is
liable to be forced hard against the one on the hub, thus causing friction and
possibly “bind,” especially on hills and bad roads. But this peculiar action
between the interacting teeth at the crank shaft is necessarily duplicated at
the other end of the shaft, so that the backward thrust at the front is met by a
forward thrust at the rear, the two thrusts thus counteracting each other.
It should be said here that the pin-roller gear, already described, as used
on the Monarch and others, is free from any possible objection of “end-
thrust,” as there is no tendency to shove the shaft either backward or
forward.

THE PROBLEM OF EFFECT UPON BEARINGS.

A question arises as to the effect upon the bearings and the balls in them
when any sort of shaft is used for chainless driving. Looking again at the
cut of the shaft and adjacent parts, the reader will see that power applied on
the pedal tends to roll the pinion directly away from the large gear, because
if the pinion could roll clear away the axle would then be left free to turn;
similarly, pressure at the back end tends to push apart those two pinions
also. This pressure to separate comes upon the balls and the bearing
surfaces, there being nothing else to take it. It is true that the draw of the
chain, already explained, is thrown at once directly on the balls and the
bearing surfaces, and that no large amount of trouble has been caused
thereby, in all the last six years of use of chain driving. But it seems well

settled that the old “League” bevel chainless did develop an experience of
breaking balls and cups and cones, and it is claimed that bevel-gears
produce a peculiar twisting strain on bearings. How much there is in this
claim, and what precautions have been or can be taken by makers to meet
the difficulty, time will show. Yet it should be said that the pin-roller gear,
while free from any exposure to “end-thrust,” must take its chances with the
other chainless models which have connecting shafts in respect to “side-
thrust” on the bearings.

EFFECT OF “SIDE-THRUST” UPON THE FRAME.

A question arises as to the effect of “side-thrust” as distinguished from
“end-thrust” upon the frame (as well as the bearings) in chainless driving.
This “side-thrust” is under new conditions and in a somewhat different way;
but it is not a new thing—it exists in chain driving, because it always exists.
When power is applied to any structure consisting of several movable parts
put together, the part to which the impulse is directly applied pushes first on
the parts next to it; they pass the push to other parts, and so along the line
(as if the several parts were links in a chain) until at last, all the parts having
refused to either break or be shoved out of place, the load aimed at is
moved. In case of the bicycle this load is the moving of the structure and its
rider along the ground. If any of the parts involved could break more easily
than the movement along the ground is accomplished that breakage would
occur, instead of the movement intended. This is only one example of the
law, already stated, that the yield is always in the direction, or at the place,
of least resistance—the weakest thing gives up.
It was said just now that the pinion on the forward end of the shaft tries
to roll away from the gear wheel which pushes it; the pinions at the rear
also try to roll away from each other. Thus they put a side pressure on their
bearings, as stated, but the same pressure comes on the frame which holds
the bearings. At the crank axle this tends to crowd the fork sides toward or
from each other, according as the teeth on the large gear face in one
direction or the other; at the rear the tendency is to separate the forks. This
tendency is to simultaneously crowd upon the balls, to spread open the
forks and to press the teeth of the gears into closer contact.

Since the roller-geared and the bevel-toothed types must meet the same
pressure on the bearings, they are alike in this pressure on the frames. As
already remarked, each of them escapes entirely the heavy pressure which
the pull of the chain puts on the axles and their bearings; in place of this
they get other and different strains, as just described.
Observe that we do not say these strains will not be successfully resisted
—that would be prediction. Some further strengthening of the frame might
perhaps be had, and in fact the doubling of the fork on the chain side of
chain-drivers, to get additional stiffness, is not unknown in present English
practice. It might even be suggested as a fair question, whether a new or
somewhat modified form of frame ought not to have been devised for
chainless driving instead of applying it to a form never intended for it.

THE QUESTION OF THE GEAR TEETH.

The endurance of the gear teeth is also a question to be decided by use.
It has been said that “the teeth are so designed as to be relatively stronger
than the cranks and under excessive strain the cranks will break first;” also
that “the individual parts are stronger than the elementary parts of the
chain.” We have seen cranks tested, in regular shop routine, by samples
taken out of each small lot, under a measured load of 1,000 pounds, and
have seen them show their quality by returning to the straight line when the
load was removed. The cross-section of an average crank is three to five
times that of a bevel or radial tooth. In practice, cranks do not break; some
other part, less strong, breaks when something must, and so the statement
that the bevel tooth is stronger than the crank which is to be measured
against it under load seems rather too forcible. The comparatively slight
tooth must bear the same strain which comes on other parts and the very
small though real bit of elasticity or “give” which the chain possesses, by
virtue of being made up of many parts joined together, is lacking in gears of
any kind; the strain on those is “solid” and unrelieved. The fact that
breakage of a sprocket (unless by some collision or extraordinary fall) is a
mishap almost unheard of does not insure the gear tooth in the least—the
two are not the same case. The sprocket tooth is very thick in the direction
of the strain, and the pull of the chain comes on not less than five teeth at
once on the rear sprocket and twice as many on the front, thus dividing the

load; the gear teeth, on the contrary, are thin, and the strain is concentrated
on not more than two at a time, practically upon one. Yet we must
distinguish here the bevel and the spur-gear tooth from the peculiar teeth on
the pin-roller gear; the latter are so thick that no doubt of their strength need
be raised.

DEFENDER MIDGET—1898.
The last paragraph is not to affirm or to imply that the teeth will not
prove equal to their task. But such gearing has never been used on cycles;
the bevel wheels of the tricycle “balance-gear” were larger and were not
common enough to constitute an exception. Spur gears have been
successfully used for many years on the Crypto gear already described, but
four pinions are employed on that instead of one, for the express purpose of
dividing the strain. So it is fair and well to note that when we resort to
gearing as an escape from the chain we are going from the long-tried to the
untried.
Here it may be in point to quote from the current advertisement of one
of the oldest concerns in the English trade, the Centaur Company of
Coventry:
“The pioneers in the cycle trade can afford to view
with equanimity the appearance of the faddist who, from

time to time, tries to resuscitate some obsolete and
exploded notion which, in the early days, has already
been thoroughly tested and abandoned. The Chainless
Safety, with which we have been threatened during the
past two years, is an example of this. Bevel-gears, spur-
gears, roller-gears, rod-and-piston-gears, intermediate
wheels, and every conceivable form of gearing were
experimented with by ourselves and many of the older
makers in the early ’80’s, for the purpose of dispensing
with the chain. If, as a medium for transmitting power,
they were then found to be inferior to the crude and
imperfect chain available at that period, it must be
manifest to everyone who is familiar with cycle
construction that, with the perfect chain of today, the
comparison must be still less favorable to the chainless
methods.”
This is not quoted as endorsing it, nor do we regard the experimenting
mentioned as conclusive; the point lies in the last sentence. For while it is
true that the cutting of bevel or radial gears has been so much improved that
the results of trials long ago do not signify (as is frankly admitted by not
over-friendly English trade journals in commenting on the Columbia), it is
equally true that the chain also is greatly improved.

THE CHARGES AGAINST THE CHAIN.

In the action for ejectment, which we have supposed the chainless to be
bringing, the worst counts which can be brought against the chain are that it
is “lubricated” with grit, being left exposed; that it clogs with mud and is a
fair-weather device only; that it is very dirty and troublesome to keep clean,
and that chain and sprockets wear rapidly. All this is thus far quite true, and
yet quite answerable. The chain very rarely breaks, and whenever it does
the reason is that it has been so neglected that the joints could no longer
bend. A great deal is said about “backlash,” or the back-and-forth looseness
of moving parts between themselves. A little slack is necessary in a chain,
and if it is excessive that is by the rider’s fault, as it is a matter entirely
within his control. If the rider “jerks up” the slack of his chain when passing

over the centre that only shows that he does not pedal properly, or perhaps
that his chain needs a little tightening. If a chain does break, chain parts are
fast becoming staple goods, procurable anywhere almost as readily as nails;
a temporary repair on the road is not difficult, and there are also spare
pieces which can be carried in a vest-pocket and applied almost without
tools. On the other hand, repair on a chainless cannot be made on the road,
and will in any case be very much greater, in cost and trouble, than any
which are called for on a chain or a sprocket.
Every mechanic knows that a shaft “out of line” cannot operate
properly, if at all, on any construction, from an ocean liner down to delicate
machinery for watchmaking. A chainless bicycle—although this
requirement is not quite so severe on those with the roller gear, since that
has a semi-flexibility—must have its shaft and gears laid in exactly right at
first, and then they must stay so. The chain-driver is the opposite in this
respect. The frame may be considerably sprung out of line, and the front
sprocket may even have quite a twist, and yet the driving not be noticeably
affected. The reason is that the chain, instead of being rigid and unyielding,
is jointed and can bend, accommodating itself to any little irregularity. This
is the reason why bicycles have been able to run, even when not in very
good condition, all these years, while frames have been undergoing tests
and have been having their weak places strengthened. It is said that “the
weak part of a chain-and-sprocket bicycle is the chain,” and that the chain is
“the one serious source of danger that every bicycler realizes.” Yet it is the
last thing about which the average rider troubles himself, either to be
anxious for or to take care of, and dealers and repairmen will almost
unanimously testify that the chain and the sprockets have figured less
frequently and less importantly in their repair shop than any other part of
the bicycle.

GEAR CASES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN CHAINS.

English makers think Americans slow and dull in not using a gear case,
which is a regular part of the cycle with them; but the difference in climate
accounts for that—it has not been thought needful here. The strongest point
for the chainless (those with spur gear excepted) is the ease and neatness of
inclosing its driving parts; yet the case to inclose the chain is coming, and

when the chain is covered the objections to it above noted and admitted are
substantially removed. There is little experience of the case here as yet, but
we can testify to an instance in which the case was taken off for
examination, after some months’ use, and the oil and graphite were found
apparently as fresh and unimpaired as when applied.
As further defence against the ejectment action it should be noted that
comparatively little attention has been given to improvement in sprockets
and chains, but that now these parts are no longer neglected. The quality,
accuracy and finish of chains have been greatly improved of late years, and
this is especially noticeable on the 1898 product. New patterns of chain are
coming into market, and new shapes of sprocket tooth as well. These will
be considered later in their place; we can only say now that these changes
are not mere alterations for “talking-points,” but are veritable
improvements. Of course, the chainless movement stimulates and requires
these improvements, and will be met and opposed by them.

THE OUTLOOK FOR THE CHAINLESS.

When we come to consider the trade outlook for the chainless, and the
trade outlook as affected by the chainless (for these are different things and
in some degree opposed to each other) the first point observable is that
every maker of a chainless, with the exception of the Bayvelgere people,
proposes to market chain wheels as formerly; even the powerful concern
which has started the chainless movement and has carried enthusiastic
praise of its new product so far as to dispraise chain drivers, by natural
implication and almost by direct statement, is preparing to market the chain
wheel just as before. It is also a peculiar feature of the situation that only
one or two of the other makers who are bringing out the chainless have
much to say for it; on the contrary, most of them seem to regard it as a
doubtful experiment, and two have openly pronounced against it, one of
them announcing that “notwithstanding these stubborn facts, however, we
have decided to meet the demand on the part of some riders for chainless
bicycles, although we do not recommend them.”
The first price announced, $125, seemed to be prohibitory of any large
sale for the chainless in 1898 as against the chain drivers at current market
values. But the later announcement of models at $100, at $75, and even at

$60, puts a different face upon that, and the chainless will make its way as it
can, in the market, and will find its place according to its comparative
merits or demerits.

EFFECT OF THE CHAINLESS UPON THE CYCLE TRADE.

The probable effect of the newcomer upon the trade in general is a
puzzling factor in the outlook. “The chainless is an inspiration; it is a piece
of folly; it will induce people to buy; it will hold people back from buying;
it is and has been a trade disturber; it is just the tonic the trade needs”—one
can take his choice of these opinions, for it is a matter of the point of view.
Perhaps the real truth and the best course, as usual, lie somewhere between
the extremes. This seems the more likely to be so, because the bicycle has
been suffering from extremes in the form of a large overdose of “boom;” it
might be more euphemistically put by saying that the industry has been
fostered and stimulated too fast. The “pace” of competition has been too
hot, and the result is a part of the evolution through which this marvellous
product of skill must pass.

EVOLUTION IN THE TRADE.

Evolution works not only in the cycle itself, but in the methods of
production and sale, in the ranks of the producers themselves, and in all
included in the term “the trade.” The swift rise of the bicycle as an article of
merchandising importance, together with sensational attempts by
uninformed press writers to expose the alleged exorbitant profits, has
produced a natural effect within the last three years. To make a bicycle for
$20 and sell it for $100 was so sure and easy a method of amassing a
fortune within, say, five years’ time, that the imagination of our ever-quick
Americans was fired.
It is not necessary just now to point out the defects of this picture,
sketched and held up; the most serious defect was that it was untrue to fact.
There was, however, a rush to get into “the swim” while there was time.
People without capital, without experience, without mechanical training,
without even any knowledge of the materials of which bicycles are
constructed, hastened to advertise themselves as bicycle makers, and for a

full year the news columns went on announcing the building of new
factories. Thus the bargain counter got its supplies, and the natural reaction
followed, the news columns soon having items of quite another character.
It must not be supposed, however, that recent reductions in price mean
simply relinquishment of former profit margins, whether those were large
or small; some of the decline in price does mean a lower rate of profit,
partly atoned for by larger sales, but a great deal is covered by economies in
handling and marketing, and notably by reduced costs of production, which
are made possible by various means as above suggested, one of the chief of
these being automatic machinery. The disturbed condition of the bicycle
market has been adjusting itself and will continue to do so—all the sooner
and better for all concerned if volunteer assistants will remember that “it is
better not to know so much than to know so much that isn’t so.”

CHAPTER IV.
FRAME AND FORK CONSTRUCTION.
It is a trite but true remark that the modern
bicycle is a marvel of mechanical construction,
and certainly no part of it has received more
attention during the past decade than the frame.
The frame, with its braces, rods, diagonal struts,
chords and ties, is really a bridge on wheels
THE KEATING. built to carry man over the ground. The frame
usually consists of eight pieces of tubing, brazed
to either drop-forged or sheet steel connections;
but the latest fads of up-to-date construction vary even this rule by making
the rear forks and also the back stays of a continuous one-piece
construction, these, however, being connected to the frame by short lugs
projecting from the crank-hanger bracket and seat-pillar bracket. This style,
here illustrated, is used by the makers of the Manson, Iroquois, Hudson,
Globe, Colton, and is known as the three-crown construction. This style of
frame has become very popular.
There are no striking novelties in frame construction for ’98, the few
changes made being in the line of refinement rather than of newness. High
frames are altogether out of style, low frames being the proper thing,
cyclists evidently preferring to ride a low frame with a short head and
dropped crank-hanger and getting the necessary reach by raising the seat-
post.
Originally all bicycles were built with drop-forged connections, or
connections made from steel stampings. During the last three years sheet
steel stampings have been very largely used, but after the frame is
enamelled it is impossible to say what these connections are. On the old
“Ordinary” construction the use of large tubing for the backbone
necessitated the insertion of the forgings into the backbone, thus producing
flush joints. When the lowly Safety came in, with its tubing of small
diameter and thick gauge, external connections were used altogether, and

the tubing was inserted into the connections; but with the growing use of
large tubing, flush joints came into vogue again, and they are undoubtedly
the most popular today.
The joints used in bicycle frame
construction are of three kinds, the most popular
at present being the flush or butted joint, outside
joints and lapped joints. The flush joint, as its
name indicates, is one showing no connection
on the outside, being perfectly smooth and
apparently jointless, and is made by brazing the
tube over the connections, which are made of THE UNION.
forgings or stampings. The outside joint is
produced by inserting the tube inside of the
connecting lugs or brackets, which are therefore necessarily larger in
diameter than the tubing. When large tubing is used it does not make as neat
a joint as when tubing of smaller diameter is used, hence the outside joint,
although a good one, has fallen into disfavor since the advent of large
tubing. The lapped joint is made by splitting the tube and cutting away the
centre portion of the tube where split and cutting and brazing it to and
around the other tubes of the frame. All three of the styles of joints
described are pinned or riveted before brazing to hold them in place while
being brazed, and they all are usually reinforced internally, especially the
flush and lapped joints.
As noted in the previous article on
“Tendencies for ’98,” the use of the dropped
crank-hanger bracket is universal. It might be
said, in addition, that if this crank-hanger drop is
carried to a much greater extreme, it will
necessitate reversion to the old type—that is, not
THE VICTOR. having the upper tube horizontal or parallel with
the ground. In fact, there are some signs of that
reversion in both directions now, two or three of
the makers not making the upper tube entirely horizontal, slanting it from
the head to the seat-pillar bracket. One or two of the makers have taken a
backward step and slant the upper tube from the seat-pillar bracket to the
head, which has the effect of throwing the weight of the rider where it does

not belong. With the drop of the crank-hanger has come, however, a
shortening of the head. This was necessary, of course, in order to maintain
the horizontal position of the main tube. As is usual, however, in American
bicycle construction, a few of the makers are carrying this shortening of the
head to an extreme point. The use of flush joints has brought about a
refinement, so to speak, in the method of joining the cluster of tubes at the
seat pillar bracket, the rear stays being offset and cranked, or tapered in
many instances, at this point, which produces a very neat cluster or group.
Frame construction has passed through many eras of faddism. We have
had the heavy-weight fad, the narrow tread fad, and the light-weight fad,
which might strictly be called a craze. The frame, however, has survived all
these, and ’98 frames are to be commended for their medium weight and
medium tread, the only prominent fad on them being a dropped crank-
hanger and short head. For a long while a great deal of discussion went on
both in this country and in England as to the merits and demerits of a long
wheel base. Wheel bases in 1898 have settled down to from 42½ to 45½
inches, a fair average being about 43½ inches.
The first rear driving safety bicycle
constructed, the Rover, was built out of parts
such as were used in constructing the
“Ordinary,” as will be noted by referring to the
illustration of the Rover used in a previous
article. For three or four years after that the
cycle makers of England and America used the
most fantastic shapes and curves in frame THE CYGNET.
construction, one of the most popular of the
straight line variety being that known as the T-
shape; a single bar or stem ran from the head (which was usually an open
one) and was connected to another bar which crossed it at right angles in
front of the rear wheel, the upper part of this last-named bar or diagonal
being used for the seat-pillar bracket, and the lower part carrying the crank-
hanger bracket, the main tube continuing but divided to form the rear forks.
Necessarily there were no back stays or braces connecting the seat-pillar
with the rear forks.
But all the various forms and shapes were superseded when, in 1891,
Thomas Humber brought out the type which has since then been known as

the Humber diamond frame. This type of frame was first shown at the cycle
show in 1892 by the makers of the Liberty, and it attracted an enormous
amount of attention. At that time the frame was, of course, much heavier
than it is now. Round tubes were solely used; the rear forks were not offset
or cranked; and the upper or main tube did not run horizontal or parallel
with the ground. In 1893 and 1894 the crank-hanger bracket was slightly
raised, the original Humber frame having a dropped crank-hanger bracket,
such as is now so popular. With the raising of the crank-hanger bracket at
that time came the making of the upper part of the frame horizontal. That
style has prevailed ever since.
The makers of the Cleveland introduced the
use of large tubing in 1895, and in 1896 at the
New York Cycle Show the makers of the Singer,
the only English bicycle represented at that
show, exhibited a bicycle having D-shaped rear
forks and back stays, and it was predicted at that
time by the experts of the trade that in 1897 this
THE LIBERTY.
D-shaped tubing for use in the back part of the
frame would be the coming thing. This
prediction, however, was not as fully realized as anticipated, but in 1898 the
prediction has come to a full realization, a careful census of the makers
showing that more than 50 per cent. of them use D-shaped tubing for either
rear forks or back stays, and some of them use it wholly in the rear part of
the frame. Among the variations in frame construction might be mentioned
the aluminum frame, which is cast in one piece from an aluminum alloy.
Nothing, however, has been gained by this construction excepting
peculiarity, as the frame is no lighter and is no stronger (if it is as strong)
than the regular frame made of tubing; the makers also produce a frame
having a gear case as part of the frame.
The Chilion frame is of wood, with steel connections, and built of solid
rods of seasoned second growth hickory, oak, ash or maple, and the
connections are made of aluminum-bronze of a special composition, which
the makers think is a metal lighter and tougher than steel. The wooden rods
are rivetted to the connection with phosphor bronze rivets. The principle of
the joint is similar to a shovel handle, and it is here to be noted that no one
ever yet saw a shovel handle work loose. The makers claim that no shocks

or vibration will affect the frame, because the
wood fibre absorbs the vibration, and that the
frame will stand up under treatment which
would ruin a steel frame, it being impossible
to bend, crush or buckle the wooden rods,
and that should the frame be broken repairs
can be made at a fraction of the expense VICTOR SINGLE LOOP.
necessitated by the steel frame.
While all this may be true, somehow or
another the wood frame has not caught on, and we are still in the “steel age”
of cycle construction. The coming of the gear case has evidently caused the
makers of the Racycle to adapt their frame to it. They have, therefore,
produced a frame in which the gear case is an integral part of the frame,
since the frame of the gear case consists of a loop of D-shape tubing brazed
on and made part of the frame in place of the rear fork on the chain side,
which is thus dispensed with. They claim that this gear case also adds
greatly to the strength of the entire frame.
The makers of the Andrae make their
entire frame out of tapered gauge tubing,
which is 18-gauge at each end for two
inches, then tapered to 22-gauge through
the intermediate portion, while the exterior
surface is uniform in diameter. They make
the following claims for this:
THREE CROWN FRAME. “At the very inception of cycle
construction, cycle engineers were aware
that a straight tube of uniform thickness
was not right when made up into a cycle frame, as such a tube is apt to be
thin at the connections because of the operations of filing a brazed joint and
cleaning it by the use of a sand blast before going to the filer. The
consequence is that a thin tube, when brazed and cleaned up at the joints,
may be cut away to a mere film at some portions of its circumference, and
so made liable to break under a very light portion of the load which the tube
at its original thickness could safely sustain. Until the idea of tapered-gauge
tubing was conceived, mechanics were forced to use the ordinary tubes and
had no means of reducing the total weight of the frame without at the same

time reducing its strength, because the only lighter tube obtainable was one
thinner in every part, and it is not considered safe to make a braze on tubing
much less than 18-gauge in thickness. The tapered tube avoids all this and
gives a distribution of metal perfectly adapted to the manufacture of bicycle
frames, as all structures designed to bear the maximum of a load with the
minimum of weight must have their long members of varying thicknesses
of metal.”
The makers of the Eagle still continue
to use what they call their cold-swaged
process in all the joints of the tubing they
use. The process consists of placing a tube
inside of a tube, and then cold swaging the
double tube to the required thickness and
length. The Eagle people say that through
this method they know exactly how thick
their tube is at every point, and which the
makers of tubing as ordinarily swaged do
not. CHILION WOOD FRAME.
The Luthy frame is made with outside
lap-joint, taper-tongued reinforcements, which extend along the sides of the
uprights and reaches and brace the frame against both perpendicular and
colliding strain and prevent granulation at the corners by transmitting the
vibration to the centres of the reaches, where the vibrations are thrown off.
The Iroquois frame is fitted with three-inch eccentric chain adjuster at
the crank-hanger group. The rear wheel is always centred and provided with
two sprockets to allow a change of gear. A peculiar feature of this frame is
that while it is of the three-crown construction, with forged arched crowns
front and rear, and D shape tubing in the backstays and rear forks, the joints
are not flush but outside joints and nickel-plated.
A few makers are still making cushion frames, which were largely
shown by a number of makers at the cycle shows of 1897. Before the
advent of the pneumatic tire there was some reason for the use of cushion
and spring frames, but certainly with the comfortable seats now made and
the pneumatic tire in addition, cushion frames of any sort are uncalled for.

The Carlisle Manufacturing Company, in
order to give increased drop to the hanger, are
producing a cycle having a thirty-inch rear
wheel. The makers of the Rambler are making a
man’s heavy-weight roadster having thirty-inch
wheels both front and rear.
The makers of
the Clipper show a
variation of the
three-crown
WOLFF-AMERICAN construction,
FLUSH JOINT. inasmuch as they do
not use the
continuous one-piece
rear fork construction, and use what they call a
blade reinforcement straight tapered rear fork,
the rear forks being brazed to a lug which forms
part of their patent elliptical truss crank-hanger, CRESCENT
and they claim that through this construction FLUSH JOINT.
they have sufficient clearance for a tire as large
as 1⅞ inch, that a front sprocket as large as
twenty-five tooth can be used, fitted to a 4⅜-crank axle, with ball races
three inches apart, and with tread 4¾ inches over all. They claim that this
method of construction is an improvement over the old method, where in
order to get a tread less than 5⅜ inches the rear forks must be bent, which
prevented properly reinforcing a vital point and consequently weakened the
frame. They also claim that under the old method the crank bracket would
have to be extended, a process which is undesirable because more length
must be added to the chain, and the wheel base must also be lengthened,
thus adding weight without strength; also that there was a coming demand
for larger tires and sprockets, neither of which could clear the forks of a
wheel with forty-four-inch wheel base and straight forks, both of these last
being, for good reasons, mechanical features of no little value.
The Keating frame curves the diagonal stay just before it reaches the
crank-hanger and the Racycle also show one model of this style.

In the Luthy frame the diagonal stay instead of being brazed to the
crank-hanger bracket is brazed forward of it, on the lower main tube.
The makers of the Wolff-American and the
Howard do not believe in raking the diagonal
stay as much as some others do. Both of these
makers make the head of the frame at an angle
of twenty degrees from the perpendicular in
order to produce easy steering qualities, and
they bring the angle of the diagonal stay only
sixteen degrees from the perpendicular, thus
bringing the rider more directly over the pedals,
which is the popular position at present.
The truss frame,
COLUMBIA FORK as used on the
CROWN. Fowler and America,
is produced by
dividing the diagonal
stay midway between the seat-pillar bracket and
crank-hanger bracket into two parts, these two
parts running down to the crank-hanger bracket.
The Cygnet is another peculiar frame, and is
best described by the illustration, but is
interesting mainly as a novelty. It makes a very
taking and graceful looking ladies’ wheel, the
entire frame having two tubular connections, as
against twelve in the old diamond frame. The
rear portion of the frame is constructed of two
sections of tubing only. No wood or metal chain CRESCENT
or wheel guards are necessary on it, the rear FORK CROWN.
wheel and all the driving mechanism being
within two sections of frame, so that the skirts of the rider are fully
protected.
The makers of the Wolff-American still continue to use their process of
spring tempering to which every frame is subjected. The process has not
been publicly revealed, but they state that the finish and temper are the

same as they put upon the finest clock and watch springs; that their frames
are treated with the same care and delicacy as those springs are, and that
repeated tests have proved the increased strength resulting from this process
of spring tempering, which also renders every tube in the frame (their
tempers always varying originally) of an equal temper and gives life to the
frame and at the same time preserves its rigidity.
The makers of the Northampton claim to drop the top tube one inch
from seat-post to head, their only claim for this being that it enables the
rider to use a high frame if desired, and gives a very graceful appearance to
the wheel.

LYNDHURST FORK CROWN. ARCH FORK CROWN.

JUVENILE BICYCLES.

The Western Wheel Works, the Crawford and the Featherstone all
produce miniature models of their regular product for juvenile use. Only
one concern (the makers of the “Elfin”) confine themselves strictly to
making juvenile bicycles. They build a cute little diamond frame for boys in
four sizes of frames and wheels, and a double-loop drop frame for girls’ use
in the same number of sizes; they also build a diamond tandem and a
combination tandem. Their product is distinctively juvenile in every
particular, even to the cork grips at the ends of the little handlebars. They
use a reversible crank bracket and chain adjuster, by means of which an

adjustment of 2 inches in the distance between seat-post and pedals is
effected, so that an “Elfin” may be made to last a growing child for several
seasons. This is a decided advantage in this type of construction, because in
a year or two the youngsters outgrow the regular type of child’s cycle.

LADIES BICYCLE FRAMES.

There are no novelties in frame
construction of bicycles for ladies’ use.
The double-loop frame, like the arched
crown, seems to be the most popular
one with all the makers, both East and
West, only one other pattern being
largely used, and that having a straight
lower main tube and a curved upper
tube, as used by the makers of the
Humber, Stearns and others. The
makers of the Columbia, Liberty,
Wolff-American, Keating, Crescent,
Crawford, Eagle and many others use
CRAWFORD FORK CROWN.
the double-loop style altogether. The
Victoria seems to be the only single-
loop frame in the market, but even the makers of the Victoria make a
double-loop frame this year. Many reasons have been advanced why
bicycling is so popular, but certainly nothing added so much to its
popularity as the invention of the drop-frame safety for ladies’ use by Owen
of Washington in 1888.
The old “Ordinary,” of course could be ridden by men only, and
therefore cycling was always regarded by the feminine portion of the
community as a selfish sport, but with the invention of the ladies’ bicycle
this objection was removed, and the sport became one for all people. In
former years makers made about 10 per cent. of their product for ladies’
use. It is safe to say now that 40 per cent. of the product is now made for
ladies’ use, and a great deal of attention has been paid to constructing a
bicycle, particularly among the Eastern makers, that a lady could mount and
dismount from readily. The majority of the Western makers have for some

years past failed to note these tendencies, and continued building all sorts of
straight-frame cycles for ladies’ use with a very high crank-hanger; these
could not be marketed readily in the East, but for the coming season all the
makers have seen the handwriting on the wall and they are all building with
low-dropped crank-hangers in both styles of frames.

FRONT FORKS.

Front-fork construction in 1898 shows a
decided reversion to the old type used on the
“Ordinary,” where all the front forks were of the
arched crown construction. The makers of the
Rambler, who also built an “Ordinary,” have
persistently and consistently used this arched
fork construction, and to them must be given the
credit for its reintroduction. It has not only taken
the Western makers by storm, but it has captured
the fancy of very nearly all the Eastern makers.
A careful census of over one hundred makers
HUMBER shows that fully 75 per cent. of them are using
FORK CROWN. some form of arched crown construction, but
even in this arched-fork construction there are a
few variations. The Rambler, the originators of
it, use it with outside spearhead reinforcements. A notable departure in this
form of construction is shown by the illustration as one patented by Fauber,
who is also the inventor of the one-piece crank axle. He makes the front
fork, crown and stem of two pieces of D-shape tubing, bent to shape, and
brazed together the full length of the stem, one of the most taking and
strongest forms of stem connections known. Some of the makers use a
drop-forged arched crown, to which the stem and fork sides are brazed. The
Western Wheel Works, the makers of the Crescent, who first introduced
sheet steel stampings in bicycle construction, and still continue to use them,
make their fork crown of three pieces drawn and stamped together. A few of
the makers still continue to use the good old-fashioned two-piece flat plate
crown, which was invented by Thomas Humber a quarter of a century ago;
and among the distinctive fork crowns to be noted are the “Columbia,”
“Liberty,” “Orient,” “Union,” “Victor” and “Lyndhurst.” The World and

Adlake use three-piece flat crowns. The Victor fork sides are remarkable,
because for many years past all the great makers have invariably advertised
their fork sides as being made of cold-drawn tubing, flattened to an oval
shape. The Victor people claim, however, that for years past they have made
their fork sides of crucible sheet steel, which are brazed together and
reinforced by a steel wire running the entire length of the rear end, and are
brazed to a solid forged steel crown. But this is the first season they have
announced in their catalogues that they use it.
Another popular method is to make front
forks of continuous tapered one-piece tubing,
which is brazed to the fork crown. The majority
of forks of this shape, however, are of D-shape
section on the inside and flat on the outside. The
most prominent people using this method of
construction are the makers of the “Union,”
used by Jimmie Michael in all his rides, an
illustration of which is given herewith.
One-piece forks are tapered as follows:
MONARCH Sixteen-gauge at the top where the crown sets,
FORK CROWN. 20-gauge in the middle of the fork side and 18-
gauge at the fork or axle ends.
In the earlier forms of fork construction some peculiarities were noted;
the Warwick Company, for instance, made front forks that were perfectly
vertical. Now all forks are built with considerable rake to them. On some of
the ordinaries forks were built known as the “double hollow” fork, being
fluted. Variations in this consisted of two small tubes brazed together. The
rear forks of some of the ordinaries first built were known as semi-hollow,
being really nothing but a piece of sheet steel having flanged edges, and on
some of the early types of old velocipedes built the fork was only on one
side of the wheel and the elevating influence of the stage was felt at that
early period of its history, because Hanlon, the actor, in 1868 took out a
patent for a bifurcated fork.
A few makers still use the old-fashioned single piece straight fork
crown, the corners of which, however, are rounded so that they more
closely resemble the popular arched crown. The arched crown has a great

deal to commend it to popular favor, following
as it does the shape of the lines of the tire and
rim, and it is now made broader and more
proportionate to the size of the tubing used in
the frame. The arched crown has always been
very popular not only in the bicycle, but in other
mechanical and architectural constructions, the
Etruscans having early introduced the use of the
arch.
The Sterling Company have always used the
arched crown and have done much to popularize
it. Indeed, it would not be too much to say that
the Sterling people are entitled to whatever
credit is due the popularity of this idea in fork
crowns. It has been used in Sterling wheels
continuously for several years past, and will ORIENT
unquestionably be adopted by many leading FORK CROWN.
makers during the present season. When
properly made, the arch fork crown has
everything to commend it—strength, style, and grace and beauty of line.
That its largely increased use this year is due to a direct demand upon the
part of riders is undoubtedly true.
Tubing of 16-gauge is used to make a fork
stem, and some of the makers, for safety, are
using as thick a gauge as 13 this year.
The makers of the Lyndhurst show what
they call a “Triple Front Fork,” for which they
make the following claims:
“By pressing with your foot on the pedal of
a wheel made with a single front fork you will
be surprised to see how much sway or side
strain there is; this is because the power is not
applied on a direct line, but at right angles; this
side strain does not stay there, but travels
through the tube up to the front fork, which,

UNION having only a single stem, rocks and has side
FORK CROWN. play. With the square truss in the triple front
fork we claim to stiffen the neck and fork sides
so that a great deal of the side play is overcome.
“In a single front fork the handlebar is
clamped to the fork-stem, which goes through
the neck of the frame, and as you pull and haul
in climbing or against a head wind, the power
applied is not felt until the twisting strain is
taken up inside of the neck and localizes at top
of fork crown. By using the truss crown in the
triple front fork it enables us to lock the stem of
the fork crown, and the strain localizes at the top
of the triple fork, instead of at the lower end,
insuring greater rigidity and power.
“Sit down violently on the saddle and a
single fork springs forward fully half an inch;
the triple front fork carries the strain in a direct
line up to the top of the crown and the strain is LIBERTY
diffused throughout the entire fork and frame. FORK CROWN.

“In turning corners or upon a lumpy road, a
stiff front fork has a decided advantage, but we claim it is good on asphalt,
because of the decrease in twisting strain, enabling the wheels to track and
not sway out of alignment.
“The above claims are for increase of power, but the strength of the
triple fork is three times that of the single fork, which is a source of
satisfaction in coasting a steep hill.”

WORLD AND ADLAKE
FORK CROWN.

TUBE MAKING.

The air is filled with the vocabulary of the bicycle makers and their
agents and salesmen. Every one of them talks of cold drawn weldless steel
tubing, drop forgings, stampings and brazing. Their catalogues and their
advertisements teem with the same thing, and the cyclist who has heard and
read these terms necessarily feels as if he would like to know what they all
mean. Tube in its original shape consists of a solid billet of Swedish steel,
this being the only quality that can be used. When the tube is made from a
solid, the billet is about four inches in diameter and six inches in length.
When it is made from a hollow ingot, a piece about three feet long and
about four inches in diameter, with about half-inch walls, is used. These
pieces are cast. When solid billet is used, the core is practically either
pushed out or drilled out to produce a rough tube. This is done while hot,
and the hot pressure is continued until the tube is about four or five feet
long; the diameter then is about 2½ inches, with proportionate thickness of
walls.
The tube is then taken to the cold draw benches. Draw benches, so
called, are of two kinds, either operated by hydraulic or chain power. In the
case of the hydraulic bench, an immense plant is required to produce the
enormous pressure required, approximated at about 2,500 pounds to the
square inch. This power is applied through a cylinder three or four inches in
diameter and about eighteen feet long, operating a piston. The power is so

arranged that the piston can be made to either go forward or backward. The
operator crushes down one end of the tube to be drawn, to make it small
enough to pass through a die, and the tube is then grasped in a grip held by
the piston. As the bench moves the tube passes through the die and becomes
smaller. Inside of the tube and flush up against the die is kept a mandrel,
over which the shell of the tube passes in going through the die. This
mandrel is placed in the tube to keep the shell or gauge from thickening up,
and also to produce a thinner gauge when required. Each operation reduces
the diameter about an eighth of an inch. It is not possible to reduce the
gauge at the most more than 5⁄1000 of an inch at a time, and this is very severe
treatment. Between each drawing in the cold process the tubes are annealed,
the operation of drawing hardening them. After annealing they are pickled
in a solution of acid and water. The tubes are then washed in clear water;
then they are immersed in oil, and are ready to be drawn over again. This
process is repeated until such time as the tube reaches the desired gauge and
outside diameter. The tubes are then straightened and the ends cut off, and
they are ready for delivery.
The Pope Tube Company hold the exclusive license in the United
States, however, for a process of annealing steel tubes in iron cylinders
about a foot in diameter and 12 feet in length. These retorts hold about 100
to 150 tubes, and being charged with these are sealed up at the end and
placed in a furnace. The advantage of this method consists in that the tubes
being placed in the retort do not come in direct contact with the flames,
which form a scale upon the surfaces and require the subsequent operation
of pickling the tubes in large vats of acid in order to remove the scale. This
process of annealing in the retorts usually takes about forty minutes, and
necessarily in the process of drawing a tube before it reaches the proper size
it must go through the process of annealing from five to eight, or even ten,
times before being finished. The only difference between the operation of a
hydraulic draw bench and of a chain bench is that in the chain bench there
is a continuous chain, operated by steam power, and the grip is so arranged
that it will catch in any link desired. Seamless tubes are made from 1⁄32 to 10
inches in diameter. Gauge, or thickness of shell, is measured according to
the standard British wire gauge. Bicycle tubes run from 26 to 10 gauge. The
standard gauges used in bicycle construction for 1898 run from about 16 to
22.

It takes fifty thicknesses of 22-gauge tubing
to make an inch. Experts in the trade say that
tapered gauge tubing is the coming thing in
bicycle construction. By this term is meant that
style of tubing which is heavy where strain is
greatest and light in weight where there is not so
much strain. The outside diameter of the tubing,
however, remains the same all the way through.
This is opposed to the ordinary even-gauge
tubing or tubing of uniform thickness of shell.
Weldless steel fork sides are made out of the
straight tubing already described, the first
CLEVELAND operation consisting in drawing the tube to the
FORK CROWN. proper tapered design. It is then, by a series of
operations, brought to the flattened or oval
shape. Other operations are also necessary to
produce the required curve in the fork. The smaller end which receives the
axle of the wheel is flattened together by another operation. The making of
a weldless steel fork side usually takes from five to seven operations,
according to the shape desired.
The Mannesman tubing, which is made in Germany and was the first
kind known to be used for bicycles in this country, is made by an entirely
different method from any other. Until recently the making of tubing was so
restricted that those owning tubing mills were very secretive about their
processes, and not one cycle rider or manufacturer out of a hundred has
ever seen the material made out of which the frame of his machine is
constructed. They begin with the billet of steel like the English-American
makers, but it is not exactly the same material. They do not use the Swedish
steel, but a metal turned out by themselves. It is, however, a soft form of
steel, like the Swedish or Norway article. The billets are made up in lengths
of three feet and are about two inches in diameter. First the metal is heated
and then put into a rolling machine. This is a special device used only in
their plant under patents. It consists not only of the ordinary roller but of
two conical rolls, and they are set together on axles, which instead of being
parallel are oblique. The points of these conical rollers are in opposite
directions, of course, and by the peculiar action thus obtained the outside
skin of the heated metal is peeled and spun over the inside in a spiral

fashion, much as a rope is twisted. It is practically a huge spinning with hot
metal. After this single rolling process, the new formed tube is subjected to
two drawings in a mandrel, in practically the same fashion that American
tubing is treated, until it is reduced to the required diameter and gauge.
A billet of the size described makes a piece of tubing an inch and a
quarter in diameter, of gauge fourteen, or about one-twelfth of an inch thick.
An essential difference between this process and the one used in this
country is that here there are only two drawings and no annealing, where
other processes necessitate a dozen and sometimes a score of solid
drawings. It is claimed that with only two drawings the fibre of the steel is
better preserved. The fibres are not shortened or made brittle, as they are by
repeated drawings.
Very little tubing is now imported to this
country, our American makers now being able to
supply all the demand, and of the highest
quality. With the improved methods of
manufacture has come an improvement in the
quality of the steel for making tubing. It was
formerly necessary to use a very soft steel in
VICTOR RACQUET making tubing, but the American makers are
FRAME—1892. now able to turn out tubing from fifteen to fifty
point carbon. Right here, however, should be
explained the meaning of this trade phraseology.
For instance, the term “fifteen point” carbon is applied to steel which
contains carbon to the extent of 15⁄100 of 1 per cent., and other numbers are
used in the same way. Unquestionably the high grade carbon tubes possess
a great superiority over the lower carbon grades because they possess a
maximum of endurance under vibratory strain, and still are soft enough to
resist the shattering effects of a heavy blow. Popular interest in tubing now
centres very largely in the tubing known as the 5 per cent. nickel tubing,
and its method of manufacture is described in McClure’s Magazine by Mr.
Cleveland Moffett, in a visit to the Pope Tube Company’s works at
Hartford, Conn. He says: “The company has recently concluded, after
exhaustive experiments in the testing department, that it is possible to
obtain the very best results from the use of tubing drawn from steel
containing 5 per cent. nickel, an alloy of the same class as the famous

nickel-steel used in armor plate constructions for the Government.” Of
course, the exceptional hardness and toughness of this kind of steel
occasion great difficulties in its reduction, and call for special and powerful
machinery, and for special skill for all stages of manufacture. So slow and
expensive has been the drawing of this nickel-steel tubing that up to date
the product has been exceedingly limited, so much so that the mill has
undertaken to supply only the Pope Manufacturing Company with steel of
this quality. The main difficulties in working this nickel-steel come in
preparing it for the draw benches. In them it is treated very much as the
“fifty” carbon billets are, but before reaching them it requires almost as
much handling with as many elaborate processes as the Swedish billets
receive in their entire journey through the mill. The nickel-steel comes from
the works of the Bethlehem Iron Company, and is rolled into plates about
two feet long, one foot wide and one-tenth of an inch thick. These plates are
first punched into disks about a foot in diameter in a blanking machine that
weighs four tons, and bites through the cold steel as a housewife stamps out
biscuits. These disks are then put through a number of hydraulic presses,
even heavier than the blanking machine, and are forced through dies by
powerful rams. The first operation brings the disks to the shape of a shallow
basin; the next makes it an elongated cup; the next makes it still longer, and
so on, until finally it is reduced to the form of a tube, two feet or more in
length. Then the rounded end of the tube is sliced off, and the nickel-steel is
in the form of a billet ready for the draw benches.
“Simple enough these processes seem when one sees them going
smoothly; but it took months of patient toil, with many mistakes and
disappointments, before the company learned the right way of ‘cupping’
these disks into billets. And today the museum of the tube department bears
record of the many failures in cups crushed into fantastic shapes, some with
ragged sides, and in tubes of nickel-steel deformed in many ways and torn
apart in drawing.”

MAKING DROP FORGINGS.

A drop-forging differs from a hand-made forging because it is made
from a bar of steel suitable for the purpose required and formed in dies
placed in drop hammers, this bar of steel having been previously heated to

the proper degree in a furnace adjacent to the drop hammer which is used. A
drop hammer may be described as follows: The main part of the machine
consists of a heavy anvil, or base, weighing from 7,000 to 30,000 pounds,
depending on the size of the hammer. To this is attached two vertical
uprights, between which the head or ram of the hammer works. On the top
of these uprights is the lifting mechanism, a board being attached to the
hammer and the rolls that revolve in the head act upon this board and lift
the weight by friction. In the base first mentioned are fastened the lower
dies, the upper die being attached to the hammer. In these dies the
impression for the forging wanted is cut by skilled mechanics, the dies
afterward being tempered to make them as hard and durable as possible.
The piece of steel having already been heated to a white heat, is held on the
lower die by the workman, who then operates the drop hammer by means of
a foot treadle, the hammer with the upper die dropping by gravity and
forcing the heated metal into the impressions cut in the dies.
The surplus metal which has protruded
between the lower and upper dies resembles a
fin or web; this has caused the forging to be
mistaken for a casting of iron, because the fin
resembles in no small degree the gate or
connection between castings when moulded.
This fin of metal is trimmed off from the forging
by means of another machine, called the THE STEARNS.
trimming press, to which are fitted dies for this
purpose. Experts in the trade say that no “hand-
made” forgings or “castings” can ever wholly take the place of drop
forgings in bicycle construction. Drop-forging manufacturers say that hand-
made forgings are obsolete, owing to the enormous cost of manufacture.
Malleable iron castings, or steel castings, are used by some of the
makers, but entirely sub rosa. They are apt to be full of blow holes and
other defects and not at all reliable, and the maker of high-grade bicycles
who advertises that he uses such castings in his bicycles will soon find
himself out of the market with his product entirely on his hands.

WOLFF-AMERICAN
LAPPED JOINT.

SHEET STEEL PARTS.

Sheet steel parts, such as are used in bicycle construction, consisting of
cups, brackets, crown heads, etc., when made from sheet metal are stamped
in presses from dies. These presses stand about 6 feet high, 2½ feet square,
and weigh about 4,000 pounds. They are operated by a large driving pulley
and belt, the motion being given by means of an automatic clutch. They can
be placed on the floor of any building, owing to the fact that they do not
have the jar that is incident to “drop” press work.
The blanks are first cut out of cold sheet
steel, thereby avoiding the expense of heating
them. They are then placed between dies which
have been previously made to form the required
design and shape, but are not as a rule
completely struck up or formed at one
operation, the minimum number of operations
THE CLEVELAND. necessary to form the complete article being one
or two, and the maximum being from five to
seven. The parts are often annealed between the operations, as the pressure
has a tendency to harden the metal.
The makers and users of sheet steel parts claim for them as advantages
over drop forgings that they are of uniform size, shape and gauge; that they
weigh less; that there is but little waste of material, and that as many as ten
thousand operations can be done by one operator in a day. Of course, the
cost of production is thus made lower as compared with the cost of
production of drop forgings, which require a large amount of machining on
lathes and other milling machines, necessarily slow in operation. The

makers of these stamped form-drawn parts
claim that through the largely increased use of
their goods American makers have been able to
produce lighter bicycles than they were formerly
able to produce with the use of drop forgings for
their connections, that the popularity of the
bicycle in this country is due to the present
popular prices at which they are sold, and that
these popular prices are largely due to the low
cost of sheet metal parts. They also claim that
after the sheet metal parts and the tubes of the
bicycle are brazed together, they then form one
continuous piece, to all intents and purposes as
good as if a solid drop forging were used. The
average thickness of the sheet steel used in REMINGTON
making these stampings is from ⁄16 to ⅛ of an
1 FLUSH JOINT.
inch. Some very remarkable forms are produced
in steel stampings, notably a crank-hanger of 2
inches in diameter, having two projections or lugs to carry the rear forks,
and the two outer projections or lugs to carry the large lower main tubes and
the large diagonal stay of the bicycle frame.

CRESCENT SHEET STEEL PARTS.

Until the cycle show of 1895 but little else had been heard of for
making frame connections except drop forgings, but a revelation was placed
before the eyes of the master mechanics of rival cycle making concerns
who visited the show when they inspected the ’95 models of the Crescent,
made by the Western Wheel Works of Chicago. Here were shown for the
first time steering head connections, crank-hanger, seat pillar and rear fork
ends all made of sheet steel and brought to perfection by a combination of
the methods of stamping, drawing and forming. But even these parts did not
surprise these experts of the trade so much as a sprocket wheel shown. Here
was a sprocket wheel struck up out of a flat disk of sheet steel, its edge
turned and drawn over, thus doubling the width of its face, and on this
double edge were afterward milled the teeth. Of course, the parts shown in
those days conformed in general outline to the construction then in vogue.

The Crescent people, however, have continued to use this method of
making frame connections; and while a large number of other makers have
adopted this form of construction, they, as the pioneers of it, are still the
leaders. Their production is enormous, their gross sales last year being
83,000 bicycles, and certainly if this method of making frame connections
were not closely akin to absolute perfection their troubles under the
guarantee would be enormous, and would swamp them. This year their
frame connections are all of the flush joint style. The head connections are
formed out of sheet steel reinforcements, having a large bearing and brazing
surface.
Their crown is formed of two pieces of sheet steel drawn to a hollow
arch shape. These two pieces are placed together and the ends come into a
spearhead of capital letter A shape, two holes being drilled on each side in
order to allow the brazing spelter to flow through the crown freely when the
forksides are brazed to them. Before these forksides are brazed to the
crown, however, a third piece of arch shape steel is forced down over the
two pieces forming the crown. This third piece of sheet steel is lapped
underneath the bottom of the crown, so that when the three pieces are
brazed together they practically form one continuous piece. A drawn lug
projects over the top of the crown, and into this the fork stem, the end of
which is shaped to conform, is set on top of the crown and pinned and
brazed to the lug and crown.
Inside of this fork stem, in order to strengthen it, is also placed a sheet
steel liner, extending six inches into the length of the stem. The whole
construction of this fork crown and stem is one of the strongest in use.
A test made of this form of fork construction at their works showed that
by supporting it horizontally on a frame, the supports being about six inches
above and below the crown, it sustained a weight of 3,500 pounds without
deflection.

THE CRANK HANGER.

The crank-hanger is of the one-piece construction, and is made from a
five-inch disk of sheet steel, which is drawn into the shape of a tube through
the medium of five separate operations; and this tube, when finished, is
about two and a half inches in diameter. The four lugs to carry the rear

forks, lower main tube and diagonal stay, are then drawn and formed upon
it, this, however, requiring a total of twelve operations to complete it. The
part requires annealing after every operation, the process of drawing and
forming having a tendency not only to lengthen the fibre of the metal, but to
harden it. The quality of the metal used in making this hanger must
necessarily be of the best, and after the metal has survived all these
operations it must also necessarily be perfect, for any crack, seam or flaw in
it makes it useless and consigns it to the scrap heap.

MAKING CRESCENT
CRANK HANGER.
STAGE 1.

MAKING CRESCENT
CRANK HANGER.
STAGE 2.

MAKING CRESCENT
CRANK HANGER.
STAGE 3.

MAKING CRESCENT
CRANK HANGER.
STAGE 4.

MAKING CRESCENT
CRANK HANGER.
STAGE 5.

The seat-pillar lug or group, while not altogether seamless, is of the
one-piece construction, also having the three lugs drawn and formed upon
it. The rear fork jaws are also stamped out of crucible sheet steel, and are of
what is known of the semi-hollow construction.
The little brace which is usually placed between the rear forks and back
of the crank-hanger and called a bridge, is generally made by a short piece
of tubing and brazed to the two rear forks. The makers of the Crescent, who
use a D-shaped rear fork, which is drawn to a round shape where it is offset
and where it joins the rear lugs on the bottom bracket, make this bridge of
two pieces of sheet steel, which are pinned and brazed together and are
carried down on each side of the rear forks for several inches in a peculiar
lipped shape. It is an expensive method of bridging the rear forks, but
greatly adds to the strength at this point and prevents any serious lateral
deflection of the frame when the pressure is applied to the cranks on either
side. They are the only makers who form their sprockets out of a piece of

crucible sheet stamped steel. As it is now made to fit a three-sixteenth
chain, which is so popular and which they use, they do not show the wide
opening on the flanges of the sprocket between the teeth.

WORKING DRAWING DIAMOND FRAME MODEL. (See Page 52).
Fig. 1 shows the circular steel blank as made by the first operation on a
large double action drawing press. It is then drawn into a cup shape as
shown in fig 2. The practicability of the result obtained is noticeable at
once. The edge of the cup is smooth, and there is no wrinkling, cracking or
buckling in the steel, and it is still of the same thickness as the original
sheet. It is again drawn by successive operations into a cylindrical shape as
shown in fig. 3. The end is cut off, and the next operations form the lugs as
shown in fig. 4, until the final operation gives the result as in fig. 5, when
the crank-hanger is ready for the joining of the frame tubes. It requires ten
days to complete a finished crank-hanger. A marvellous piece of work this
certainly is, and it is doubtful if the result obtained in stamping this crank-
hanger can ever be equalled by the working of forgings, and the whole
result might be summed up by saying that it is “distinctively Crescent.”

BRAZING.

After the drop forgings or stampings are carefully finished by hand or
machine, they are carefully cleaned to remove any scale or oil. The tubes
having been cut to a proper length, are then closely fitted into the open joint
of the forging or stamping connection. In order, however, to hold them
securely in place they are pinned through. They are then taken to the
brazing furnace. This furnace consists of an open stand, about three feet
high, covered with fire brick, pumice stone or coke the purpose of which is
to retain the heat. The heat is produced by a mixture of atmospheric air and
gas or gasoline, which is controlled by the operator, and supplied by a
blower or fan. The flame is applied directly to the joint which is to be
brazed by a steel tube, resembling a Bunsen burner, and uses about nine
parts of air and one of gas. The combustion or air and gas in the brazing
apparatus is about the same mixture as is used in a gas engine. The joint
having been brought to the necessary heat, which must in a large measure
be left to the judgment and experience of the operator, powdered borax is
applied first, the object being to remove any oil or other foreign substance
which might interfere with the uniting of the two metals. The borax on
being applied flows almost like water. The spelter is then applied,
producing a flux, and owing to the expansion of the connection and the tube
it readily flows between the joints. The whole operation after the required
heat is obtained usually occupies five or six seconds, the object being to
secure a joint as rapidly as possible, provided the brazing metal is equally
distributed. The gas is then shut off. The supply of air is continued only in
order to rapidly cool the joint, the object of this being to prevent the flux
from disintegrating and losing its position in the joint. If a brazing has not
been rapidly and properly cooled the jar and vibration which the frame
receives when in use on a bicycle is apt to cause particles of the flux used in
brazing to become loose and rattle in the tube. Necessarily under this
operation what might be termed a congregation of scale and the brazing
flux is gathered on the outside of the joint. This is afterwards removed by
the use of sand blast or pickle, and last, but not least, by hand filing.

WORKING DRAWING DROP FRAME MODEL. (See Page 52.)
What is known as “brazing spelter” is really a misnomer, and should be
called brazing solder. Spelter is the crude product from which refined zinc
results. Brazing solder is a combination of copper and spelter first cast into
slabs or ingots, then placed into large mortars and pounded by a heavy
pestle by hand, and, strange to say, that in all our recent developments in
metal work no method can be found to supersede this method of
manufacture, as this is the original method of making it.
There are altogether about eight grades of brazing solder, ranging from
what is known as the coarse long grain to extra fine grain.
The first result of the pounding operation is the coarse long grain which
comes out almost in shreds; by further pounding the shreds are produced,
and the result is the fine long grain. From this operation comes the rough
grain, the first being coarse long grain, the next medium, then fine and
finally extra fine. The proportion of extra fine long grain to the other
coarser grades or varieties is only about ten per cent. of the total,
consequently making the latter grade the highest in price. The various
grades are separated by sifting through a sieve. The running qualities of this

solder are affected by the larger or smaller proportion of copper used in the
composition. The more copper used the more heat required to melt it, the
reverse being the case where more spelter than copper is used.
On bicycle frame work where the surface is largely exposed, the coarse
varieties can be successfully used, but for the fine work where little heat
can be used, and where the tubing is of extremely light gauge the extra fine
grade, which is known also as the quick running solder, gives the best
results.
Wire spelter, which comes in coils, has become very popular on account
of its lessened cost, its cleanliness, and also because it is not so wasteful as
loose spelter, and can be conveyed directly into the joint by the operator as
soon as it has reached the melting point.
Another method that is somewhat new is
known as liquid brazing, which is nothing really
but a special treatment of the joint plunged into
molten spelter, and out of which the joint comes
surprisingly free from scale, a cleaning by a
wire brush being about all the after treatment
necessary. The process is a secret one, and the
surrounding joints are covered with what is
known as the anti-flux, so that the spelter will
not adhere there, but joints to be united, of
course, are covered with a liquid flux as in the
old way.
EAGLE
The makers of the Union produce their flush
DROPPED FORGED
joints by using what they call pocket brazing.
FLUSH JOINT.
This mode requires the forming of a series of
pockets in the projecting ends of the brackets,
which may be oval, circular or of any desired shape, although the oval has
been found the most convenient. Before the tubing is completely fitted over
the bracket arm the pockets are filled with flux, and immediately upon the
application of the heat the brass begins to flow and with astonishing
evenness, so much so, in fact, that when after cooling, joints are cut out, the
brass is found as uniformly distributed as if laid on with a brush. Moreover,
no considerable amount of brass flows out of the joint and no filling is

necessary. Less heat is required for the reason that the brass is placed where
necessary and the parts need not be dangerously heated to cause the brass to
flow in. The pocket corrugations are found to stiffen the machine to a
marked degree. Taken all in all it is a sure, clean and highly ingenious
braze.

KANGAROO FRAME.

Apropos of frames, we reproduce here a cut
of the Kangaroo, which was the first bicycle
driven by chains. The earliest samples of the
Rover type antedated it, but there had been no
previous commercial use of a chain on a two-
wheeler, for the Otto accomplished nothing
commercially. The Kangaroo was brought out in
1884, and attracted attention because its makers
were fortunate enough to break with it the 24-
hour record, which had been standing
unchanged since the early years of bicycling.
This success, together with energetic pushing,
gave the Kangaroo quite a run for a couple of
years, when the rear-driver put an end to its
career. It was brought to this country in 1885,
but hardly obtained a firm foothold for even the
THE KANGAROO.
time being. The forks were bowed out widely,
there being no attempt to reduce width by
lessening the “dish” of the wheel, and consequently the tread was what
would have been considered in later years outlandishly wide. The wheel
was usually 36, geared to 54, with a 22-inch wheel behind. The chief
drawbacks were that the sprocket bearings were ill-supported, as a shaft
could not be run through the wheel, and so they did not stand well under the
twisting strain; the backlash was unusual, all the objectionable features of
chain driving, which had not at that time been modified by improved
construction, being increased by having it on both sides. The Kangaroo was
also heavy and clumsy, and for some reason never satisfactorily explained it
had a peculiar liability to side-slip.

EXIT THE WOOD FRAME.

A difficulty which has hung about wood frames from the first is that of
the joints, nor could it ever be questioned that appearance was not in favor
of the wood frame, although, on the other hand, it must be admitted that
objections to appearance are soon overcome in cycling construction if there
is a good balance of points on behalf of a thing. Perhaps the best-looking of
the wood frames was that produced by the “Old Tonk” people, who turned
to account the beauty which may be had from several layers of wood placed
together. The wood frame has succeeded quite as poorly abroad, and it will
probably remain forgotten until, some years hence, it comes up again as a
novelty of the season. The Bamboo Cycle Company has just failed in
London, and the Irish Cyclist expresses surprise that it remained afloat so
long as it did. Not a single expert or a single cycling journal, says the writer,
ever referred to the bamboo frame except with disapproval, although it was
well advertised and the parties interested were ready to pay for opinions. A
considerable number of the bicycles were sold, but the rarity of their
appearance on the road suggests that even those who bought them did not
use them much. Now that the company has failed, this writer says: “It is to
be hoped that no one else will be so foolish as to endeavor to accomplish
the impossible task of proving that a bamboo stick is as useful as a steel
tube.”
The two working drawings of frame are from W. C. Boak of Buffalo,
and are reproductions of his blue-print drawings used in designing and
drafting 1898 frames, and show on the men’s model the exact drop (3
inches) of the crank-hanger from a line drawn between the front and rear
axles. The length of head is five inches, and the wheel base—the distance
between front and rear axles—is 41 11⁄16 inches. On the ladies’ model the
crank-hanger is dropped 2½ inches, and the head is 7½ inches, the wheel
base being 41⅞ inches. The height of both frames is 22 inches. The small
numbers in the illustrations show the angles of the frame and indicate the
sizes of the tubing used. The designs call for the use of D-shape tubing for
the front and rear forks and backstays and round tubing throughout the rest
of the frame.

CHAPTER V.
CHAIN PROTECTION.
All through the preceding articles of this series the words “gear case”
appear here and there, and with good reason, too, for the year 1898 marks
the beginning of the era in this country of enclosed chains by the use of
what are called gear cases. They cannot, however, be strictly classed as a
novelty, because they have been known and largely used abroad,
particularly in England, for some years past. At the New York Cycle Show
of 1896 the only bicycle having a gear case on it was one shown by the
makers of the “Singer,” a bicycle-making company of Coventry, England,
who showed a gear case made of metal, leather and transparent celluloid.
Since that time a few returning tourists have brought with them foreign
models with gear cases attached, which, unfortunately for the rider’s
comfort and pleasure, were received with a great deal of ridicule and
derision, so that even the riders of these cycles bearing the imported gear
cases, not being made of that “stern stuff” that pioneers should be,
surrendered to public criticism, and, while they knew a gear case is a good
thing, took it off in order to avoid being used as the butts of the wit of their
facetious friends.
The introduction of the bevel-geared cycle, with its neat gear case, has
done much and will do more toward enforcing the necessity for a gear case
on all of our chain-driven cycles. In England no bicycle is considered
complete without a gear case, but, notwithstanding the fact that all the
authorities on the sport and mechanics of the trade of this country have
approved of it, not until this season has it gained a foothold here. It
certainly cannot be because “it is English, you know,” for everything on the
American cycle today, excepting the wood rim, originated in England. The
imported gear cases are clumsy and heavy, and, being made mostly of
metal, are apt to be noisy. The 1898 gear cases of American make are made
of a combination of rubber, leather and metal, and are light, noiseless and
graceful, and most of the leading makes of the chain cycles for the coming
season are built with sufficient clearance to take a gear case. The cases are

catalogued and offered as an option at an average cost of $5 extra, and this
last item suggests that the case might have been more popular before but
that the makers did not care to add the cost of it to their product in the face
of a falling market price. Many of the great retailers will, however, place
them on their $75 models without any extra charge to the purchaser.

CLEANLINESS INSURED.

The enclosed chain, obtained by adding a gear case to the chain wheel,
provides every advantage in one respect claimed for the chainless. It has
been shown by extensive tests of Prof. Carpenter of Cornell University and
Prof. Goodman of the Yorkshire College in England that when a chain is
clean and not worn it loses less than 1 per cent. in friction, thus realizing
over 99 per cent. of the applied power. How is it possible to obtain any
better mechanical movement? These same authorities agree that beveled
gears under the best conditions must develop from five to ten times the
friction of the chain. This low percentage of friction, however, is obtained
only with clean chains. They find that as the chain becomes filled with grit
or mud it rapidly increases the friction, running up as high as 10 per cent.
Your bicycle comes to you from the dealer with the case attached, chain
lubricated and adjusted ready for immediate use, and from that time on you
learn to forget that there is a chain on your bicycle. It runs easily, smoothly,
through rain and mud, over roads thick with dust, in the penetrating
moisture-laden air of the seashore, under all conditions of road and weather
the same easy running wheel, always ready, doing away absolutely with all
care of the chain; the chain and sprockets always in perfect condition,
realizing 99 per cent. of the power applied, never “stretching” or wearing
appreciably.
If in business costume the wheel may be used, as there is no dirty chain
to soil the clothing. One finds that he can ride longer distances with less
fatigue than formerly. Hills are more easily surmounted. The disagreeable
sensation of a slack chain is done away with, the chain remaining exactly as
it is adjusted, and there is a new sensation of absolute control over the
wheel. Long distance trips become a new source of pleasure, for you come
home with the same easy running wheel with which you started. Men who
ride for speed find that they can push a much higher gear with the same

expenditure of power. The lubricant rests unused
in the tool bag, the chain brushes and cleaning
paraphernalia gather cobwebs. In addition to all
these comforts the lady rider finds herself
independent of the small brother’s high-priced
services. She mounts and rides with perfect
confidence, knowing that by no possible means
can her skirt catch in the sprocket or her heel be
FROST GEAR CASE. hung in the chain guard lacings, while her skirts
remain clean and free from greasy streaks of an
exposed chain. She may be a business woman
with but limited time for riding. Every moment is available with the
enclosed chain. The silent steed standing groomed and ready. So far as its
care is concerned the chain ceases to exist. A neat, stylish cycle, with all
running parts covered and protected, and with a decidedly smart
appearance, takes the place of the half-finished cycle of the past, with its
greasy, dirty, bare-looking chain.
Century riders, tourists, military cyclists, pleasure riders, and, in fact,
wheelmen and wheelwomen of every description, have found pleasure and
comfort hitherto unattained.

ITS OTHER ADVANTAGES.

To sum up the advantages of the enclosed chain model as demonstrated
by the experience of riders during 1897 with a gear case attached to their
cycles (the latter comprising almost every make of bicycle in this country),
riders have found that a gear case:
First—Actually excludes dust, driving rain, mud and
all foreign matter, keeping the chain, sprockets and the
bearing absolutely clean, meaning an easy running
bicycle, always ready for service, and requiring no
attention to the running gear for an entire season.
Second—Its use allows the bicyclist to ride in
business costume, it being impossible for the chain to
soil the trousers, and there being no danger of catching

the clothing between the chain and sprocket. This feature
also strongly recommends it to lady riders.
Third—The bicycle is always ready for service. This
is an important matter with many people, especially
those who use the bicycle every day for business
purposes.
Fourth—It adds to the appearance of the bicycle,
giving a style and finish impossible with the dirty chain
and sprocket in view.
Fifth—By reason of its construction, it is practically
noiseless, the most important feature to cyclists.
Sixth—It transforms the bicycle from an article of
luxury useable only under certain conditions, to a
practical vehicle useable under every condition of the
road and weather.
Seventh—It has been found of great value by
military cyclists, as it enables troops to move with twice
the celerity possible under the ordinary open chain, to
say nothing of the time saved in not having to clean the
gear.
At the ’97 Cycle Show, held in Chicago,
an American gear case was exhibited for the
first time, and this exhibit was noted with a
great deal of satisfaction by all the
mechanical writers of the cycle trade press,
who had long labored, written and talked a
RACYCLE GEAR CASE. great deal for this desirable accessory.
Among the gear cases exhibited at Chicago
at that time was one invented by W. H. Frost
of New York City; another by S. D. Childs & Co., and another by H. Lauter
of Indianapolis. The makers of the Ben Hur showed a model fitted with
what they called the Wainwright gear case. The Stearns Company also had a
gear case attached to one of their models, and a Falcon exhibited was also
provided with one. The makers of the Cleveland showed a gear case of their

own production, and a Wolff-American was shown fitted with a Blumel
celluloid gear case, but this last was of English manufacture. Since that time
a careful census of all the catalogues that the makers have sent out this year
shows that nearly every cycle maker of prominence has arranged sufficient
clearance at the crank shaft and rear wheel so that a gear case of some kind
can be fitted to it, and a few of the makers are turning out gear cases of their
own, the notable ones being the makers of the Racycle, Rambler, Cleveland,
Humber and Aluminum, and there are three makers of gear cases who
supply them to the trade, these being known as the Frost, Centliver and
Safety gear cases.

LEADING ’98 GEAR CASES.

The Rambler case offers practically all that is claimed for a chainless
wheel with enclosed gear, with none of its objections and uncertainties. It is
absolutely mud and dust proof, and is one of the neatest, least obtrusive and
most practical of all gear cases we have seen, being easily attached and
detached. It is made of cold rolled drawing steel, and is light and noiseless.
All seams are locked and no rivets are used. The entire chain is enclosed, as
are also the front sprocket teeth. The centre and arms of the front sprocket
are not covered, but the dust is excluded from the front sprocket teeth, and
chain passing over them, by two large felt washers (much like those used in
bearings, only larger) placed one on either side of the sprocket. The rear
axle nut may be loosened, and the chain adjusted without disturbing the
case.
The Cleveland case is made of aluminum,
patent leather and transparent celluloid, and
while it is a very light and attractive gear case,
it is a desireable one, and wholly dust and storm
proof.
The St. Louis Aluminum Casting Company
SAFETY GEAR CASE. is now showing its models of the 1898 Lu-Mi-
Num. The special feature, which is rendered
practical by the company’s special process of
frame manufacture is the fixed gear case. This is an integral part of the
frame, being cast in one piece with it. The back wall of the gear case takes

the place of the right hand rear fork, thereby adding very materially to the
strength of the frame. The front of the case is composed of a celluloid plate,
which is sprung into it and fastened securely by two screws. It can be
removed from its place readily, and consists of only three pieces. The
celluloid being transparent, the working of the chain and sprocket may be
seen, and the chain may be oiled from the top of the case, immediately over
the front sprocket.
On the Special Racycle the gear case weighs only a few ounces more
than the same model without it. The case consists of a section of D tubing,
three-quarters inch wide, brazed on, and made part of the frame in place of
the right side rear fork, which is dispensed with. The right hand rear stay,
however, is carried down at an angle below the line of the rear wheel axle to
the bottom part of the gear case, thus forming a brace for the upper and
lower part of the gear case, and the gear case as thus constructed adds
greatly to the strength of the entire frame. The sides of the gear case are
made of transparent sheets of tough, pliable celluloid. They are strong
enough to withstand any ordinary accident, and being detachable can be
renewed at any time at a small cost. The construction of this frame and gear
case is certainly unique and original, and may be said to be one of the few
novel features shown in 1898.
The Centliver gear case, which is detachable and can be fitted to any
make of bicycle, is made by the L. A. Centliver Manufacturing Company of
Fort Wayne, Ind. This case is made entirely of metal. No rubber or leather is
used in its construction. Sheet aluminum is used, shaped under heavy
drawing presses, by which operation the metal gains great strength and
rigidity, besides being lighter than any other metal or material that could be
used. Cases are furnished either nickel-plated or enamelled, as preferred.
The simplicity of attachment is remarkable, as it does not require any
mechanic to attach it. Any one familiar with handling a bicycle can do it in
a few minutes in the following manner: Remove the chain, then place the
two parts together over the sprockets, forming an interlocking union. Set the
case in position and adjust clamps. Replace the chain, inserting the chain
bolt at front end by springing the case slightly. Keep the band in original
shape. Be sure to have it in its proper place before tightening. The bolt can
then be set with a small wrench.

The 1897 Humber had a metal case which very much resembled the
metal cases used in England. This same case is furnished in 1898 by the
Humber Company, and is a very practical one. It was quite largely used last
year in New York and Brooklyn.
The Safety Gear Case is the patent of
James Parkes of Toledo, O., and the essential
features are as follows: The best quality of
harness leather is used in its manufacture,
and is first treated with a solution of their
own, which renders the leather very hard and
impervious to water. The leather is then
pressed in an iron form, in two similar
RAMBLER GEAR CASE.
sections, one of which fits over the upper
half, and one over the lower half of the
sprockets and chain. These two sections are held together by means of two
patent hook fasteners at the ends and a system of lacers down the side of the
case. On the inner side of the case an aluminum plate, through which the
rear hub passes, is arranged to slide freely with the rear wheel, thus
permitting the chain to be lengthened or shortened without removing the
gear case. The case is light, noiseless and dust-proof. A large variety of
patterns are made, and the case is made in sizes to fit any style of bicycle.
The leather is finally enamelled in any desired color, thus making a
beautiful and attractive addition to any bicycle.

ORIGIN OF THE GEAR CASE.

With the Englishman’s idea of utility, the first thought was to
completely cover sprockets and chain with a large sheet metal case, upon
the same plan as gear cases had been previously used in mills and factories
for enclosing running chains. Various devices for gear cases were in use
when, in 1886, J. H. Carter patented in England an oil-containing gear case
for bicycles. This was a standard in gear case construction for some years,
riders thinking it necessary to keep their chains running through a bath of
oil in order to insure easy movement of the joints; however, it was
discovered a few years later that a chain would run equally well without the
oil bath, and, in fact, there were many disadvantages about keeping a chain

constantly soaked in oil, especially because the oil would gum and thus
retard rather than assist. In the early nineties gear cases were brought out, of
many constructions, but the standard set up by Carter remains to this day
the English idea of a case, and, with all of their improvements in case
construction, they have not gotten very far beyond it.
To the English mind a gear case must be made entirely distinct from the
bicycle itself, not a part of it, but an accessory that shall be quickly
removable or attachable after it is once fitted. This, of course, necessitates a
great many joints, and as joints of thin material, whether sheet metal or
celluloid, cannot be perfectly made to exclude dust and driving rains, and as
such joints are always more or less noisy when a bicycle is in use, they are
not even yet satisfied with the gear case, but realize its great usefulness,
even when only partially efficient, so that it has become a fixture on nearly
every English wheel. Several attempts were made to introduce English
cases into this country, but with lamentable failure, for several causes. In
the first place American bicycles are not built to take English cases.

ESSENTIAL QUALITIES.

Every American bicycle has individualities of its own, and especially in
the running gear. No clearances have been allowed, and it is simply out of
the question to attach the foreign type of case unless the bicycle is built for
it. However, in some instances, bicycles were made with that end in view
and the cases were attached, but American riders found that their
unsightliness, excessive weight and inefficiency made them more of a
nuisance than a help, and the gear case came into public disfavor. However,
in spite of these discouragements, the necessity of a clean chain appealed so
strongly to an American mechanic that, without any knowledge of the gear
case constructions of Europe, he set to work to devise a method of
thoroughly protecting the chain, and during the season of ’96 made many
experiments to ascertain the construction that could be successfully applied
to American bicycles and appeal to American riders. The study of road
conditions showed that a gear case must be not simply a protection for mud,
but every joint must be dust-tight and rain-proof. In a country like England,
where mud is the prevailing condition, these absolutely tight joints are not
so essential, but in this country they took first place. Again, the case must

have good appearance and be comparatively light in weight, and, as the
worst problem of all, it must be adaptable to some few hundred distinct
makes of bicycles, no two of them alike in the running gear.
The inventor started with the idea of
covering the chain with an endless rubber tube,
which should be split in its inner length and run
with the chain. As it reached the sprockets it
would be separated by a separator and follow
around the sprocket over the chain, clinging to
either side of the sprocket. This was
CLEVELAND theoretically a very good idea, but in practice
GEAR CASE. developed many serious objections. In the first
place, the tube was liable to catch between chain
and sprocket teeth. It increased the friction of the machine and could not be
made to be of very long life. It was also neither dust nor rain tight, and
proved a nuisance instead of a blessing. Still following up the idea of
utilizing rubber, a case was devised having rubber chain runs with rubber
box over front and rear sprocket, this rubber box suitably supported by
metallic parts. The only objection to this was the quick wearing out of the
chain runs by the constant friction of the chain. Still retaining the rubber
boxes, light metallic chain runs were substituted for the rubber, and it was
then found that an ideal construction as regards strength and tightness of
joints was obtained. These cases were put in public use after being
exhibited at the Chicago and New York cycle shows of 1897, and have been
sold and used quite extensively during the past season. They have been very
much improved, so that all objections to the early models have been
completely done away with, and today an American gear case, known as the
Frost, is to be had upon any first class ’98 bicycle, being offered by nearly
every bicycle maker. As it can be attached to old bicycles, there is no reason
why every rider cannot have an up-to-date feature, with the comfort and
pleasure assured by a clean chain. It has been actually proven that they will
stand driving rains, snow storms, blizzards, dust storms, constant use on the
dustiest of roads, and, in fact, have proven absolutely impervious to all
foreign substances, keeping the chain and running gear perfectly clean and
in condition for an entire season without any attention being given.

These desirable features are obtained by the use of an elastic rubber
joint, the case itself being built of steel, but all the joints closed with this
soft elastic rubber, on the same principle as a rubber gas tube is connected
with a fixture. This case, to look at, is very compact and solid, but it can be
almost instantly separated, either for changing sprockets, getting at the
chain, or removing rear wheel. The operation is very brief, and even that
has to be gone through with seldom a change of tires or renewal of broken
spokes being almost the only occasion for separating the case. The chain
can be taken out if desired, but as a matter of fact one always forgets that
there is a chain when riding the “Enclosed Chain Model,” as this
construction is now called.

CHAPTER VI.
THE CHAIN AND ITS FUNCTIONS.
There are few, if any, parts of the modern bicycle that have played a
more important rôle in its development, than has the chain, and yet it is safe
to say that there is no part of the vehicle to which the average rider pays
less attention, save to occasionally clean it of its accumulated impediments,
or which he understands so little.
Every rider, of course, understands how
important is the office of the chain in the
propulsion of his wheel—that without it his
machine is an utterly useless structure of metal,
wood and rubber. As to its parts, however, and
their relation to one another, he is oftener than
not carelessly indifferent. While as to the
mechanical skill and genius that has overcome,
one by one, the past difficulties of chain and
BROWN sprocket propulsion, as applied to the bicycle,
ROLLER SPROCKET. bringing it in the end, to its present state of
perfection, he is wholly uninformed. Many
riders have been inconvenienced and annoyed to the extent of exasperation,
upon discovering that “something was wrong” about their wheels. Just
what, they have been utterly at a loss to tell or understand, but the fact has
remained that “something was wrong,” and so, cutting their rides short, they
have despatched their wheel forthwith to the repair shop. Had they known,
as the repair man knew, that it was their own lack of familiarity and
consequent sense of appreciation of that apparently simple, yet sensitive
part of their machines—the chain, to which their misfortunes were due, how
great would have been their astonishment.
It is with a thorough appreciation of how large a percentage of the
wheelman’s misfortunes are chargeable to a lack of knowledge of chain
construction and action, that the writer has deemed the subject one well
worthy of special treatment in these columns. That many readers will admit,

after perusal, that however well they may have understood their wheels in
other and less important parts, they still had much to learn of its most vital
and intricate parts, is altogether likely.
A study of cycle chain construction will show the regulation chain to be,
simply speaking, an endless belt provided with holes which engage
projections on a form of pulley called a sprocket. It is composed of blocks
alternating with and joined by a pair of links or side-plates; the blocks drop
down into the spaces between the teeth on the sprocket, and those teeth
come up through the spaces or openings between each two side links, these
links of course holding the whole together by pins through their ends.
The “pitch” of a sprocket, as of any toothed wheel, means usually the
number of teeth cut upon it for each inch of its diameter. The “pitch-line” is
circumferential, though not at the extreme ends of the teeth; it is the line
where the teeth of two engaging gear wheels come together, or the line
passing through the contact or acting surfaces of the teeth. As a chain lies
on the sprockets, this pitch line passes almost exactly through the centre of
the teeth, and the rivets of the chain.
To speak of a chain as “one-quarter-inch”
or as a “three-sixteenths chain” means that
such is its measure in width between the plates
of the links. This is also the thickness of the
sprocket, barring a very slight difference to
prevent too tight a fit. To speak of a chain as
having an “inch pitch” (which is the regular
standard in this country) means that the CHANTRELL CHAINS.
distance between the centres of the spaces
through which the sprocket teeth come (as
above stated) is one inch, and of course the same measurement applies to
the sprocket; the spaces on that, measured between the centres of two
adjacent teeth, must be an inch. It is plain that sprocket and chain must
correspond in order to work properly. A chain of a half-inch pitch would not
fit a sprocket of one-inch pitch, or vice versa. If the chain were made just a
little too “long,” it might go part way around the sprocket, but a
disagreement would soon be found. It is charged against the chain, and
correctly, that use (helped by dirt under the condition of being uncovered)
wears chain and sprocket both, so that they gradually cease to match

together, as at first. When this occurs, the chain is said to be “out of pitch.”
On the other hand, a chain will work a long time and very well after it has
considerably lost its first exactness of fit, whereas gears which have worn
grind and complain dismally.
To arrange the lines of gear teeth, either
straight or by various gentle curves, so that
when the teeth are in operation they will close
together and then separate with a rolling motion,
KEATING with no slipping or grinding, with no friction,
TWIN-ROLLER. has been a mechanical problem for a hundred
years. This has not been accomplished on the
bevel geared chainless bicycle, and it can never
be fully accomplished anywhere. Press the palms of your hands together
firmly, then slide one hand off the other while so pressed—that is rubbing
friction; now lay the backs of your hands together, pressing as before, and
roll them away from each other until they part at the ends of the fingers.
That is rolling friction, and if we could only manage to make gears and
other contacting surfaces in machinery meet and part company exactly thus,
we could avoid friction almost altogether.

OPERATION AND EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIN.

In considering the chain most people
forget that although made up of many
pieces of metal only a few are in action at a
time. Only the upper half is in tension (the
action is, of course, reversed in back-
pedalling), and if the chain is opened and
allowed to drop down it will for the
moment act just the same. It is full of
joints, but few are bending at any instant.
As the chain runs upon the sprocket, its
joints bend to conform to the circle, and
SOME ENGLISH CHAINS. they similarly bend back to an
approximately straight line when leaving
it. On the lower side, the joints bend easily;

on the upper, they do so under tension. Press your thumb on the palm of the
other hand, and, while pressing hard, draw it off; this gives some idea of the
rubbing friction when the chain block leaves the tooth against which it is
pulling. There is also some rub on the tooth where the chain is coming on
the sprocket; and unless it is avoided by devices to be presently described,
there is a rubbing between the tooth and the ends of the bending links, as
well as within the joints themselves when they bend under pull. The effect
of this friction is shown in the wear which comes on portions of the teeth; it
also shows by flat places worn on the chain blocks, and the wear within the
joints causes what is called “stretch,” the chain appearing to have grown
longer. In a very slight degree there is a yielding between the parts which is
called “set,” parts which are already in contact being pressed into still closer
contact; this “set” supplies the trifle of elasticity, already mentioned, which
tends to save the chain from fracture under heavy stress.
Chain and sprocket act on each other much as the teeth of gears act, and
in effect they are a peculiar form of gears, for if you can imagine one of a
pair of gear wheels flexible and flattened out like a chain, and thus running,
it is evident that this action is really that of gearing. Chains were used on
the tricycle before they were required for bicycles, and as long ago as 1881
there was a substitute attempted which was described thus: “The Queen
driving bands are made very thin and neat, of a compound of silk and other
strong substances, and are substituted for chains to save both weight, noise,
and appearance.” The early chains were heavy and wide, at least ⅝-inch,
and crudely made. The Ewart, as used on the Columbia Veloce ten years
ago, was ingenious and simple; block and side-link were one, there was
neither special joint nor rivet, and the chain could be opened at any point by
turning it (see cut on page 61) and sliding to one side. Width of chain and
thickness of sprocket gradually lessened; a few years ago, ¼ was the
standard, but now it has settled to 3⁄16, even on tandems, and on racing
wheels a ⅛ chain has been used in a few instances. The “B” chain has
almost displaced the “8.”
Quality of steel used, accuracy of pitch and
fineness of fit and finish have steadily
improved, and were never at so high a standard
as in 1898; accuracy of cutting and scientific
shaping of the sprocket teeth have also been

constantly studied and show greater advance DIAMOND “B.”
than ever, so that, as a result, the chains on this
year’s product run with a smoothness and
“sweetness” not before attained. The chainless movement has naturally
contributed to this advance, which is a substantial fact. Quality has
improved while cost of production and market price have declined, and the
high-grade chain of 1898 may without extravagance of language be called
“beautiful.” For instance, in a specimen before us the blocks are nickel
steel, straw color, and the links are of bright tool steel; the inner edges of
the links are chamfered or beveled to lessen the chance of the chain’s ever
“mounting the sprocket” if it is run when too slack, and the ends of the pins
are so perfectly headed that the operation has left no trace. This finely
finished specimen happens to be from the Lefevre Arms Company of
Syracuse, but like praise can be given to the best product of several other
makers. As to strength, chains used to be made with a breaking strain as
high as 1,800 pounds; we suppose the average with the narrower and lighter
product of today is about 1,000 pounds, which is far beyond any driving
strain it can receive.

ATTEMPTS TO DEAL WITH CHAIN FRICTION.

The friction of the chain is of three sorts and
at three places. First is the “block” friction,
where and when a few blocks at a time enter and
leave contact with the sprockets on the upper
THAMES side, the action on the lower side (except in
TWIN-ROLLER. back-pedalling) being so free that it need not be
taken into account; the second is the “pin”
friction, made by the side links as they turn on
the rivets; the third is where and when the ends of the links rub on the
sprockets while bending.
There have been many attempts to turn these rubbing frictions into
rolling movements. Only a few months ago application was filed for an
English patent on putting balls into the chain joints; but the great number of
joints and the small size of the parts make this plainly impracticable. A far
better and really practical thing is the Morse roller-joint chain, made in

Trumansburg, N. Y., and now in use on
several makes, among them the Sterling; it
would undoubtedly make its way faster into
use except that the parts have to be a little
larger, and therefore the pitch a little more MORSE ROLLER-JOINT
than the regular inch, and so the sprockets CHAIN.
must be cut specially; sprockets of inch
pitch can, however, be recut to fit. As the
illustration shows, the principle of this joint is the same as that of scales—
the knife-edge bearing. The pin with the two edges is fast to the side link;
the pin with one edge is dropped in loosely and the two rock on each other
instead of rubbing, producing no wear and so not needing lubrication. The
maker claims a frictional loss by his chain of less than one per cent. of the
power developed; there is always some loss, it should be observed, and so
the advertisement of the Eadie roller-chain, that “it transmits practically 100
per cent. of the force applied,” is somewhat too enthusiastically worded.

THE BROWN ROLLER-SPROCKET.

(See page 58.)
While giving due credit to the Morse chain, we must point out that it
attempts to deal with only the second of the sources of friction above stated.
The Brown roller-sprocket apparently attempts to deal with all three,
involving an action unlike any other. It has a rim with a double flange, in
which are inserted hardened steel rollers three-quarters of an inch in
diameter, running on hardened steel bushings, which in turn are free to
revolve on hard steel rivets. The chain is 3⁄16 and of 1¼ inches pitch; it is
reversible and the side links are longer than the blocks, which in action ride
over the rollers, reaching from one roller to another without touching the
rim of the sprocket. Instead of the block rubbing on the tooth as it leaves the
sprocket, it turns the roller and rolls off; thus, if the stress of use develops
no other action of the parts than is claimed, the only rubbing friction is at
the axes of the rollers, where the motion is comparatively slight. A
drawback is that the sprockets must be very large in order to get a goodly
number of rollers in the rear one, and the same difficulty of being special in

both sprocket and chain, which retards some other devices in the market
probably affects this one.

VARIOUS ROLLER-CHAINS.

The twin roller has entirely displaced the single. The value of the roller
depends upon the difference in diameter between the roller itself and the
axis on which it turns, the theory being that although there is a rubbing
friction on the axis, the motion there is so slight as to be insignificant as
respects wear. The smaller the roller the less this theory applies and the less
the practical effect in reducing friction. Rollers in a chain are necessarily
small; yet when the roller pulls off the sprocket tooth under pressure it is
free to turn, and so there must be some lessening of friction—at least, the
rollers cannot wear into flat spots as the blocks usually do. The twin-roller
was hailed with satisfaction in England, a year ago, the chief mechanical
authority in the trade press saying that “after using it for weeks in all sorts
of weather we are firmly convinced that it is the chain of the future; in a
gear-case it runs as smooth as oil, and even when unprotected and
smothered in mud, dirt and grit seem to have little effect on it.” Since then
some doubtful or dissentient opinions have been expressed, perhaps
because some makers cut up this chain into a shorter pitch, and therefore
get it slighter and more exposed to clogging. Without having practical
experience of the twin-roller as yet, we strongly incline to agree with the
opinion of it just quoted, and all theory is certainly in its favor. It has been
regularly used on the Keating during 1897, and seems to be coming on.
The Thames chain, which is called a “roller
block” instead of a twin-roller, has the
peculiarity of a fixed cross-bar (very poorly
shown in the cut) between each pair of rollers
constituting a “block.” Thus the “centre block”
is claimed to be rigid and the rollers to be kept
more free to work; it seems to us, however, that
BALDWIN the roller is slightly too small to be in the best
DETACHABLE. proportion to the side plates.

THE LINK FRICTION ON SPROCKET AND PIN.

As to the third of the three chain
frictions above described—that of the ends
of the links on the sprocket as they bend
into or out of the straight line—a serious
practical question is involved. Plainly, as
the chain is pulled hard toward the centre
of the sprocket, it must come to a firm rest
on something; what shall that something
be? The ends of two adjacent blocks may EWART CHAIN.
come to a stop on the sloping sides of the (Used by the Pope Co., 1888.)
tooth or either the ends of the blocks or the
ends of the side-plates (or possibly both)
may rest on the space on the sprocket between the teeth; or the side-plates
may have a resting place outside the teeth. There has been a flange on the
sprocket, just at the base of the teeth, sometimes on both sides and
sometimes on only one; this flange, called a “shroud” in England, has been
quite a subject of discussion there, as to its proper purpose, and even
whether it should be on the sprocket at all. All agree that it is useful in
stiffening the sprocket laterally, and some, including some of the best chain
makers, argue that it ought to be placed below the reach of the chain, for if
the chain touches it and wears it away, the chain will sink below its correct
pitch line and cause trouble. Others claim that the chief object of making a
shroud was to give the chain as much bearing surface as possible. Practice
is not uniform in either country. Sometimes the shroud has helped support
the chain; sometimes it has been kept out of reach of the chain, and
sometimes it has been cut away where the ends of the side-plates come.
The pins are, of course, fixed in the links, but form a bearing within the
ends of the blocks. To have these pins hard and yet be able to “upset” their
ends to make a “head” has been a matter of difficulty. Some of the best
English makers avoided this by using a soft pin and putting a hard bushing
of pen steel over it to make a bearing. As the links do not need to be hard,
the makers of the Cleveland use a hard pin with a groove at the end, and
force the end of the side-plates into this groove to hold the pin in place.
Other chain makers have contrived methods of getting the pin hard and still
having its ends capable of being headed over. The Myers Detachable, made
by the Bridgeport Chain Company of Bridgeport, Conn., and the Baldwin
Detachable, made by the Baldwin Chain Company of Worcester, Mass.,

avoid the difficulty by hardening the entire pin
and slotting the link plates, as shown in the
illustration. Any broken piece can thus be
replaced, or the chain can be made longer or
shorter at will, without needing any tools. The
Baldwin pattern is reversible, and the makers
publish a certificate of one of their chains,
which has a record of 29,573 miles; of this,
BRIDGEPORT 13,771 miles were done without any attention or
DETACHABLE. repairs being required, the remaining mileage
requiring replacement of a broken part but
twice.
We find in one of the British trade journals
a mention of a “spring chain,” but there is
neither cut nor detailed description. The maker
claims that by inserting a dozen or so of his
spring links in any suitable chain “it will be
made to run as easily and smoothly as a leather
driving band, and that it may be adjusted so
tightly as to practically do away with all
slackening on top, so that every ounce of
driving pressure applied to the pedals will be
reproduced on the rear sprocket wheel, thus LIBERTY SPROCKET.
getting rid of all backlash and consequent
friction and waste of power, even when ridden
over the roughest roads and by the most inexperienced pedallers.” The
editor thinks it impossible, without some dynamometer test, to say whether
there is any gain in driving ease, but after having one of the chains in use
for a good many months he can bear out the claim of smooth running, and
has found that it can be run on a tighter adjustment than the usual chain; so
“it certainly seems to be satisfactory.”
The circular chain is another peculiar English device, and is pronounced
by its maker to be the best and easiest running, wear-resisting and cleanest
he has ever tried. His claim is: “The circumferential speed of the block
chain is in excess of the corresponding speed of its chain wheel teeth, hence
the contradictory friction between tooth and block. The circumferential

speed of this chain and its wheel are similar;
entirely does away the frictional contact
between the teeth of the chain wheel and the
chain blocks.”
His first statement cannot possibly be
correct so long as the pitch line of the sprocket
and of the chain correspond, as is the case with
any reasonably good fit. His chain consists of
CRESCENT simple and uniform links, turned from the solid
CHAIN ADJUSTER. and joined by rivets. It suggests the old chain of
the chain pump, and, of course, requires a
peculiar sprocket.
The Tacagni standard pivot or rivetless is a recently offered English
article. It is light, weighing 7¾ ounces, against the usual 14½. Less friction
and greater strength are also claimed for it, the maker offering the report of
a testing firm that the elastic limit of the sample used was 900 pounds and
its breaking stress was 1440. Of course, a special sprocket grooved in the
rim must be made for it.

THE REMINGTON CHAIN.

The chain brought out by the Remington people for their $75 model
suggests the Tacagni, but is not quite like that. The illustration shows its
construction. The block is done away with, since it runs in a groove on the
sprocket rim; the usual link does the pulling instead, bearing on the flanges.
Another style of description is to say that the construction is reversed, the
link being one piece and central, being converted into a block, a space being
cut out so that it does not touch the sprocket in bending, while the usual
block is doubled and runs on the flanges. The same quality of steel is used
throughout, and the grain all runs lengthwise. Strength, great endurance and
a reduction of a fourth in friction are claimed. Use must decide the degree
of improvement, but the chain certainly runs smoothly and attractively.

THE LIBERTY SPROCKET.

(See page 62.)

The Liberty makers have brought out a sprocket with a change in the
form of the teeth which is so slight that it hardly shows in a cut and is not
even noticed on the bicycle itself at a careless glance. The change consists
in cutting down most of the teeth in height and thickness, so that only each
fifth tooth acts in the driving, the intermediate teeth serving only as guides
to keep the chain in track.
Concerning the new sprocket, the makers say: “The old method of
having each and every sprocket tooth engage the chain has been abandoned
by us, the friction occasioned by so much contact being unnecessary, and
the wear and strain on the chain intensified. Our new sprocket has been
tested under all conditions with the most satisfactory results. It permits a
chain to run as smoothly covered with mud and dust as it does when
thoroughly lubricated, and the cracking noise so prevalent when an ordinary
sprocket is used on muddy roads is entirely absent. The ease of propulsion
is marked (particularly noticeable in hill-climbing) and enables the rider to
attain speed instantly and with the highest gear. With this improved
sprocket the rider can use with ease a gear considerably higher than he
could attempt with sprockets of the ordinary pattern.”

THE VICTOR STRAIGHT-LINE SPROCKET.

(See page 66.)
The Victor straight-line sprocket is peculiar in the shape of the teeth or
in the shape of the spaces between the teeth. On the back side of each tooth
on the front sprocket and the front side of each tooth on the rear sprocket a
space is hollowed out, as shown in the cut. Ordinarily, each block and each
pair of side-plates or links is deflected from a straight line when wrapped
around the sprocket; but on this sprocket, as will be seen, each block and
adjacent pair of side-plates form a straight line. The joints at E—E and F—
F do not touch the sprocket, as it is cut away beneath them. As those
portions of the chain are always in a straight line, no motion is produced in
the joints there, the effect of the change being to greatly lessen friction,
especially under trying conditions.

VICTOR CHAIN TEST.

VICTOR CHAIN TEST.
If an accurate measure of the pressure required on the pedal in order to
overcome the varying resistances of surface, grade and wind, or what not,
could be found, then the resistance in each case could be weighed and
recorded in pounds. The Victor dynamometer—which is a peculiar pedal,
containing a pair of springs, with a recording pencil and a moving roll of
paper for making a record—does this weighing. Obviously the first effect of
pressure on this box-like pedal is to depress the springs; and the wheel will
not be moved at all until the springs have been depressed enough to
represent the resistance. Suppose the total resistance is equal to lifting a
weight of ten pounds, then press on the pedal; the springs will first yield
until the equivalent of ten pounds is reached, then the pedal will move and
the wheel will turn. If the resistance changes to fifteen and then to five
pounds, the springs will yield more and then less, and the pencil attached

will register accordingly, the result being an irregular line similar to that on
the steam engineer’s “indicator card.”
If the dynamometer pedal were used on the road the irregular line on the
card would show resistance fluctuations, but would not show the various
times and causes of resistance encountered. So, for a test of the peculiar
sprocket, a bicycle fitted with it was put on a stand and a resistance equal to
seven and six-tenths pounds at the rim of the wheel was arranged. Then
mud was daubed on the chain, and pressure was put on the dynamometer
pedal. The height of the wave line above the straight or zero line in the
diagram indicates the power required to turn the wheel. It ranged from 88 to
94 pounds, and was nearly uniform. Then another bicycle, with usual
sprockets, was set on the stand, with the same resistance at the wheel rim.
The same chain used before was put on (for this is a matter of sprocket
only, and any usual chain both fits and answers the purpose), mud was
again daubed on the chain, and the test was made. The pull required to turn
each ranged from 96 to 160 pounds, and fluctuated greatly, as indicated in
the other diagram. When the tests were carried further and the resistance at
the tire was brought up to 11¼ pounds the ordinary sprocket clogged under
the mud and could not be turned at all, while the straight-line sprocket
moved about as before, the card indicating a pull of 128 to 131½ pounds
applied.
At the Victor branch in Warren street, a
bicycle with these sprockets rests on a stand,
with a box of Jersey mud and a dish of water
and a trowel underneath; anybody is free to mix
the compound to suit, and to load on all the
chain will carry. Then he may get on the saddle,
there being an adjustable brake for the rear
wheel to represent road resistance, and pedal
away; or he may turn by hand. When the
WOLFF-AMERICAN
mudded slack of chain reaches the rear sprocket,
CHAIN ADJUSTER.
the first effect is a crunching noise and a partial
stoppage; this ceases when one revolution has
been made, and directly the wheel (the brake being off) spins as freely and
quietly as does another bicycle with the like sprockets which is mounted, all
clean, on another stand. The mud test is actual and fair. The snapping noise

which every rider knows is produced by mud on the chain, especially when
the bicycle is new and the fit is at its best, comes because the mud acts as a
wedge between sprocket and chain and the latter is temporarily put “out of
pitch.” The surprising performance of this sprocket under the severest
possible mud test can have only this explanation: that the spaces cut away
allow some room for mud without jamming, and that the sprocket clears
itself by throwing out the intruder. It is certainly one of the most remarkable
things of the season, and seems quite independent of outside disturbance,
hardly needing a case except for cleanliness and length of wear.

CHAIN BOLTS AND REPAIRS.

Of course, the ends of the chain have to be joined, and sometimes they
need to be separated for removal. The customary way has been to use a
screw-bolt, threaded into the link-plate on one side, and fastened with a
small lock-nut. As this small nut was liable to loosen and be lost, and as
there was also a possibility of the screw itself working out (in which case it
might strike something as the chain moved or might drop out on the road)
some securer fastening became desirable. The “Diamond” B chain now
dispenses with the nut (as shown in the cut of that make of chains) using in
place of it a swinging “latch” of thin steel; the head of the screw fits nearly
flush into the side-link, and the latch has a place raised up in one end to fit
the screw head, so that when this latch is turned down it snaps into place,
preventing the screw from backing out and being itself held fast by its own
elasticity. The Humber carries on its chain a similar latch, but slightly
different in shape at the end, which has a hexagonal hole that fits the head
of the screw. The Crescent meets the case by dispensing with the screw-
bolt. As shown in the cut, the side links are slotted, and in the centre of the
slot is an enlarged place through which a special pin with grooved ends can
be slipped in or out by slacking the chain for the purpose.

CRESCENT
LEFEVER CHAIN.
CHAIN AND BOLT.

These several devices go to further lessen the troubles with chains
which are so great now, in the argument of some people, but have been so
slight in practice notwithstanding.

CIRCULAR CHAIN. REMINGTON CHAIN.

In the very rare event of a chain’s breaking on the road, the Missing
Link will be handy; it costs but a few cents, and can be carried in a vest
pocket. The cut explains its use. A break is most liable to be in the block,
but if a link goes the rider need not tear his hair; there are devices to meet
that case, and to get another piece in is not very severe, even without their
aid. Chains are “stretching, breaking,” etc., in their habits, we are told. Yet
each rider may consider the chance of the trick’s being played on him
nearly the same as of lightning’s striking him, and if he will only take a
little care of his chain, he can count himself insured.

THE MISSING LINK.

CHAIN ADJUSTMENTS.

Some form of adjuster will always be necessary to adjust the chain on a
chain driven bicycle. On the early models of the safety type of bicycles
made in this country the adjustment was produced by a swinging crank
bracket. The crank bracket was not an integral part of the frame, but was
bolted to it and was held in position by a set screw and lock-nut. Somewhat
later an improved form, which by the usual form of reversion has now come
into use again, consisted in making the crank bracket an integral part of the
frame and fitting an eccentric adjustment inside of it. The Remington
Company varied this somewhat by making the rear forks a detachable part
of the frame and having them bolted through and locked by a threaded lock-
nut and bolt at the crank hanger, and they thus produced their adjustment by
shifting the rear forks out backward or drawing them forward. Since that
time the makers of the Remington have always used the rear fork-end
adjustment, but this season they have a new feature. The crank-hanger ball
pocket is eccentric and turns in the bracket either forward or backward
when the set bolts are loosened. The whole arrangement is a very simple
one and prevents the liability of the rear wheel getting out of alignment.
The makers of the Iroquois also use a 3-inch eccentric hanger. The rear
wheel is always centred by this method, and is provided with two sprockets,
so as readily to allow a change of gear.
On the Defender is shown an eccentric crank-hanger, on which neither
the wheel, nuts or bearings are disturbed to make the adjustment.
The Shirk bicycles have a new rear fork and chain adjustment, the
advantage of which is that the rear wheel can be removed without
disconnecting the chain. The sides of the rear fork ends are machined with
teeth, which fit into the teeth of the washer, and by simply unscrewing nut
and withdrawing the axle bolt the wheel drops out of frame. Absolute
equality of adjustment on both sides is obtained, as the wrench is only used
to loosen the axle nut, and as the outward opening the rear fork ends is done
away with, strength and rigidity is thus added to this end of the frame.
The makers of the Northampton made a new chain adjuster consisting
of a small round steel plate on the outside of the rear forks, with scroll cut

on the inside which follows steel lug on the forks, making it easy to adjust
chain to any tension and set the wheel true in the frame rapidly.
The chain adjuster used on the Globe is of very neat and simple
construction. A threaded adjuster, having an open hook end is pivoted to the
upper part of the rear fork end, and is operated as follows: Loosen the axle
nuts and turn the thumb screw either way, as the case may be, until the
chain has the right tension and then tighten the axle nuts again. To take the
rear wheel out, loosen the axle nuts and swing the hooks off the axle. To
replace the wheel slip the hooks back over the axle, tighten the nuts and the
whole adjustment is complete.
On the Relay is shown a patent chain-adjusting device which enables
the rider by simply loosening the nuts on either side of the rear wheel to
remove the rear wheel without taking the chain apart. The fork ends are of
cold rolled steel, corrugated, with the washer corrugated to correspond,
allowing accurate adjustment of the chain.

VICTOR SPROCKET.
On the model 4 Humber is shown a rear fork chain adjuster, which is
similar in construction to the chain adjusters in use on the Humbers made in
England. The rear fork ends instead of being carried horizontal as before
now slant upward at an oblique angle, and the backstays instead of being
brazed to the rear forks as heretofore are separate and are carried backward
or forward, as the case may be, with the rear axle to tighten or loosen the
chain, the object of this change in construction being to cause the backstays
to help carry with the rear forks the weight of the rider on the axle.

The Wolff-American patent eccentric chain adjuster is almost too well
known to need describing. Still it is such a radical departure, and withal
such a good one, that it will bear describing here again. A square groove or
spline is cut on the sides of the rear axle, running about an inch from the
end. A pair of eccentric disks, having a tongue or key to fit this groove, are
slipped on the axle, thus becoming, as it were, a part of the rear axle. They
are then placed and held in the frame by semi-circular braces, which are a
part of the frame. The chain is adjusted from one side, the eccentrics acting
together. By loosening one nut on each side the eccentrics are free to move
either way. This completes the operation, and, it is needless to say, one need
not worry about getting the rear wheel out of line or readjusting the
bearings, because with this eccentric adjuster neither is disturbed. They use
the same method of adjustment on the rear wheel of their tandems, but the
front chain on the tandems is adjusted with an eccentric at the front crank-
hanger, same as most of the other makers use in tandem construction.
Nearly all the makers who make tandems adjust their rear wheel, however,
with their regular form of chain adjuster as used on their singles, a variation
of this, however, being to adjust both chains at the crank-hanger brackets
with an eccentric adjustment.
Another variation in chain adjustments on tandems consists of bolting
the crank bracket to the frame so that by moving the crank bracket forward
or backward the chain can be adjusted to the proper tension. The makers of
the juvenile “Elfin” not only use this form of construction on their juvenile
tandems, but also on their single models, and have in addition to that a
method of reversing the bracket, so that it can be either bolted on top or
underneath the rear forks which permits an adjustability of two inches
between the seat posts and pedals, by which an Elfin may be made to last a
growing child for several seasons.

HUMBER CHAIN ADJUSTER.

CHAPTER VII.
HUBS, SPOKES AND RIMS.
The wheels of the 1898 bicycle do not present any very remarkable or
striking novelties in construction. The old style of slender cylinder hub with
broad flanges has, however, disappeared, and the tubular or barrel hub, with
or without flanges, is the only one in use. But before surveying the state of
the art for this season let us take a look backward and see what led up to the
present types. At the Crystal Palace, London, England, was exhibited in
1889 a bicycle that was built by Gavin Dalzell, a Scotchman, some time
previous to 1846. This was described as “being wonderfully strong,
especially in the wheels,” these seeming to have stood the ravages of time
and rough usage much better than the framework. The rear wheel, or driver,
was of wood shod with iron, about 40 inches in diameter, and had twelve
spokes, each about one inch in diameter. The front wheel was of similar
construction, but only about 30 inches in diameter. The wooden velocipede
of 1866 usually had wooden spokes and flat iron tires, and about that time a
very crude high wheel was built in England by S. Madison, and this in 1868
was improved upon by Edward Cooper. In 1869 the bicycle called the
“Phantom” was put upon the market. It had wooden rims with rubber tires
nailed on. On the inside of the rim were staples, through which the wires
were passed and screwed at the centre of the wheel. It was really the first
practical suspension wheel ever built, its one fault being its liability to get
out of order and the inability of the mechanics of that time to true it up
again. James Starley brought out a bicycle a little later called the “Ariel,”
which had “lever tension” wheels and was popular. It had double wire
spokes and steel rims, and at the axle of each wheel was placed a lever bar.
He next designed one called the “Spider” and for a long while all
bicycle wheels were therefore called spider wheels. In 1876 Singer’s
“Challenge” appeared in London, which had lock-nut spokes, with a nipple
attached. Nipple and lock-nutted spokes long outlasted the construction of
that day, and they were certainly very far better than the butt-ended direct
spokes used later on.

The first tangent spokes were those made by the Coventry Tangent
Company, in England, and placed upon their bicycles and tricycles. A
singular fact is that for some years after that, however, tangent spokes
almost wholly disappeared, not only in this country, but in England, and,
while we were importing English safety bicycles, all of them had direct
spokes; but the first American safety bicycle built, the Victor, had tangent
spokes, and so had the high wheels previously made by the Victor
Company. In England, until two years ago, direct spokes were very largely
used.

THE “SUSPENSION” WHEEL.

Here American makers used direct spokes at first, but at present all the
American makers without exception use a tangent spoke, and there are
indeed very good reasons for the use of the tangent spoke in a suspension
wheel, which is a structure radically unlike the ordinary wagon wheel. Any
vehicle wheel receives the load of the weight carried directly at its hub,
through the axle, and this weight, of course, tends to bear the hub down to
the ground. The wagon wheel has stout spokes, as they are planned to
sustain the crushing downward strain; this strain is wholly borne by the few
spokes at any particular instant below the hub, the rest of them at that
instant having no work to do. In order to avoid the weight and clumsiness
inevitable if the bicycle wheel were made to carry the load in this way, the
load is “suspended,” in effect, instead of being above and upon the spokes.
That is, the load applied at the hub is hung from the few spokes which at the
instant are directly over the hub; the pull down on these spokes tends to
depress the upper part of the rim and thus to flatten down the wheel from a
circular to an elliptical shape; but this flattening is resisted by the spokes
which are then horizontal, or nearly so, and thus the wheel retains shape.
The thin wire spokes, which would instantly double up under a “crushing”
strain, resist tremendously the tensile pull. Imagine a thick-spoked wheel
with all spokes gone except those in say an eighth of its circle directly
underneath the hub and you have the ordinary wheel; then imagine a
bicycle wheel with all spokes gone except a few directly above the hub and
the few horizontal ones on each side of the hub, and you have the
“suspension” wheel illustrating its own principle, it being supposed that the
wheel in each case is not moving but simply holding up its load.

The wagon wheel is “dished,” that is, the
spoke ends at the hub are not quite in the same
plane with the rim; the spokes are also often
“staggered,” that is, one-half are in one plane at
the hub and the rest in another, the object being
that the wood may have room to expand and
contract somewhat, under changes in moisture,
without putting the wheel out of shape. The
suspension wheel is also dished, but the dish is a
double one, the wheel in section being like two
capital V’s, end to end, being somewhat wide at
CRESCENT HUB. the hub, the spokes being carried from the rim
alternately to one side of the hub and the other.
The object is to strengthen the wheel laterally,
for if it were made all in one plane from top to bottom it might sustain a
heavy load in a vertical direction, but would twist into pieces under the first
side strain. This explanation may not only give the uninitiated a better idea
of bicycle construction but may illustrate the fact that new problems have
had to be met and new devices thought out and worked out at every stage of
that construction.

CONSTRUCTION AND STRAINS OF HUB AND SPOKES.

The pressure applied on the pedals of the bicycle causes a transverse
strain on direct spokes which sometimes causes them to snap at the rim or
hub; but spokes which are set at a tangent to the hub receives this strain
directly, and in the tangent-spoke wheel, where the spoke is bent or hooked
in order to pass through the side of the hub, it is necessary that the very best
material and workmanship be used to prevent it from breaking at this point.
The tangent-spoked wheel being almost absolutely rigid, is the best hill-
climber, for there is no waste of power as in the direct-spoke wheel, the
transverse strain on the spokes of which causes a certain amount of “give.”
On the first safety bicycles built in this country 30 and 32 inch wheels were
used. Afterward we settled down to the use of 28-inch wheels as a standard.
There is now, however, a slight tendency to reversion toward using 30-inch
wheels. The makers of the Cleveland wheel have announced that they will
market a bicycle having 30-inch wheels. Probably the only reason for this

step lies in the dropped crank-hanger fad; so that, by using larger wheels,
they can still maintain the upper tube horizontal, and get the required drop
of from three to four inches. Viewed in another aspect, however, it will be
found a source of annoyance and expense to the makers and riders as
necessitating an extra stock of spokes, rims and tires to fit the same, and
where they are not to be had promptly delays will be sure to occur in
repairing. The ruling size of wheel is not arbitrary, but has been arrived at as
the best net adjustment of all the conditions, and any change to what has
been thoroughly tested and abandoned is to be strongly disapproved, unless
(which is not the case in this) substantial reasons can be shown.
Few people realize the torsional strain
exerted on the rear hub when full power is
applied to the pedals in climbing a steep hill
where the momentum is not sufficient to carry
the rider far and where the pull is more or less
continuous on successive groups of spokes as
the wheel revolves. In addition to this pull on
the spokes is to be considered the weight of the
rider, the greater proportion of which is
sustained by the upper half of the rim and the
corresponding spokes and not by the portion of COLUMBIA HUB.
the wheel nearest the ground as just explained. It
will be understood that each group will be
subjected for an infinitesimal space of time to a maximum pull as the chain
passes over the sprockets, the strain being accentuated at each downward
stroke of the pedals, so that a single spoke when at a very high tension as
compared with its neighbor frequently snaps when directly in line with the
chain at the proper instant of time. Originally all hubs were made of what is
known as gun metal, the flanges of the hubs were very thick and tapered
toward the centre of the hub. They were made in this manner to provide
sufficient room for tapping and threading the hub flanges so that the direct
spokes which were in use at that time could be directly threaded into the
hub.
The 1898 tubular and barrel hubs are, of course, the result of many
processes. Some of them are turned whole from bar steel; others are
stamped out of sheet metal; some of them are formed out of tubing, and a

few of the cheaper makers use malleable iron or
cast steel for this purpose. All of the spokes used
are made of either a special drawn steel wire or
a piano wire. They all possess great torsional or
twisting strength, and the tensile strength or
stretch is from 500 to 800 pounds. They average
KEATING HUB. in gauge of thickness from 13 gauge, which is
expressed by the figures .095, to 15 gauge,
which is expressed by the figures .072. Front
wheels have from twenty-four to thirty-six spokes and rear wheels from 28
to 40 spokes, and while it is true that all the makers now use a tangent
spoke there are a great many variations in its use. The majority of them tie
their spokes to each other where they cross. There are a great many of the
makers who do not tie them at all, there being some difference of opinion as
to the benefit to be derived from this treatment.
Those in favor of tying spokes say that tying two or more spokes
together at the crossing some distance above the hub shortens the leverage
from the rim and practically gives the wheel an additional hub; that they are
also stiffer against side or lateral strain, and that the only good tangent
spoke is one that is tied at the crossing with its mates. Those who are
opposed to tying spokes say that tying them together makes them too rigid
and inflexible, and that the process of wiring them and soldering them
together has a tendency to crystallize the spokes at this point owing to the
heat required to solder them. This part of the argument, however, has been
met by not wiring and soldering the spokes at the crossing, but by pinching
on them at this point a metal clamp such as is used on the Humber wheel.
The opponents of tying the spokes assert that the very stiffness and
rigidness which the wheel possesses when the spokes are tied has a
tendency to also crystallize them at the hub flanges as well as cause them to
break. It may, however, be here stated that the pneumatic tire acts as a
buffer, and that the use of heavier rims and more spokes, which are
prominent characteristic features of 1898 wheel construction, insures the
whole wheel a greater factor of safety than heretofore known in
construction, and therefore less liability to get out of true.
The Raleigh cycle, an English production, and which came into
prominence in this country because it was Arthur Zimmerman’s great

mount, had wheels in which two-thirds of the
spokes were direct from hub to rim, and the
remaining third were crossed at a tangent. It
was, however, a sort of a compromise between
the direct and tangent spokes, and ultimately led
the makers to use tangent spokes only.
STERLING HUB.

THE WOOD WHEEL.

A number of attempts were made a few years ago to introduce hickory
wheels in place of the wire suspension wheels, among the most notable
being a bicycle built by Sterling Elliott, and called the “Hickory.” The
frame was built of tubing as was usual, but the wheels—hubs, spokes and
rims—were made of hickory, the spokes being known as radial spokes. In
order to maintain its rigidness and to carry the pneumatic tire the rim was
surrounded by a metallic band in which the tire was placed. The public did
not take to this style of bicycle wheel, and their manufacture was
discontinued, not however before Mr. Elliott placed a pair of these ball
bearing hickory wheels with pneumatic tires on a high wheel sulky, which
had been converted to carry these wheels. The result was astonishing, and
today no other wheels are used on sulkies but 28 and 30-inch bicycle
wheels with ball bearings and pneumatic tires, and the result of their use
had been that the times of the trotting horses have been reduced six to ten
seconds per mile. Of course the present type of sulky is built specially with
arched axles and frames to carry these wheels, and the old high wooden
wheel is as rarely seen on the trotting track as the good old “ordinary” is
seen on the bicycle track.
Hubs using a spoke having a hooked
end with a rivet head on the end thereof,
which are drawn through the holes in the
flanges of the hubs are not as popular as
formerly, a great many of the makers
having departed from this method, now
WOLFF-AMERICAN HUB. using a spoke which is straight from the
hub to the nipple. They claim for this

method that the absence of the bend in the spoke minimizes the liability of
crystallization which is so apt to exist in spokes of the bent variety. This
style of direct tangent spoke was first shown in this country in 1892 by the
makers of the Liberty, and among the most prominent users of this style of
hub are the makers of the Spalding, Victor, Crawford and the Iroquois, and
which are almost duplicates of the Liberty hub. The Keating differs
somewhat from these, inasmuch as the projections from the sides of the
flanges are not opposite each other, but are placed alternatively to receive a
single spoke. The Liberty hub may be best described as follows: It is a one-
piece hub, with lateral projections from the sides, or flanges, and these
projections are drilled to carry the heads of two straight spokes, each spoke
running in a straight line to the opposite side of the rim. The usual style of
hub has a plain circular flange with holes drilled in it to receive the spokes;
this makes it necessary to bend the spokes at a right angle at the end, where
they are inserted over the face of the hub. This sometimes rendered them
liable to break, and, therefore, what is known as the direct tangent spoke
was invented.

CLEVELAND HUB. LIBERTY HUB.

In this method of construction the hub
end of the spoke is not bent, but has a head
made upon it like that of a rivet; the strain
comes in a direct line from end to end of the
spoke, and the entire spoke is in tension.
PLYMOUTH RIM JOINT. The early makers of direct tangent spokes
found it necessary to make these of a
somewhat heavier and softer wire than the
tangent spokes which were bent at right angles to form a hook. The use of

this soft thick wire proved rather objectionable, as it was with difficulty that
the wheels could be kept true, and the spokes were apt in compression to
slide through the end of the flanges on the hub and make a noise. However,
all makers who use direct tangent spokes are making them very much
thinner than heretofore, and of a harder quality of wire. In fact, the makers
of the Crescent (also having these direct spokes) use probably as light and
as thin a wire as any of the makers who use a spoke with a bend at the end.
The makers of the Wolff-American (who are also renowned as great makers
of wire) claim that there is no necessity for the use of a direct tangent spoke
if the proper quality of wire is used for making the spoke which has its end
bent at right angle, and that while it is undoubtedly true that the spoke bent
at right angles at the end does stretch its fibres on one side of the bend and
compress them on the other, still, if the spoke flanges and spoke holes and
the nipple holes at the rim were only drilled at a proper angle to each other,
there would be no danger of a broken spoke. All 1898 spokes are swaged
and butt-ended. Formerly spokes were known as upset and butt-ended.
Upsetting a spoke consists in heating the ends and driving it backwards,
thus making it thicker than the rest of the spoke. The objection to this
practice consisted in its tendency to crystallization where the “upset” ended.
Swaging a spoke consists in leaving the butt ends of the spoke the original
thickness of the wire, and reducing the diameter between the ends by a
hammering process in a machine built for the purpose, to a gauge or two
smaller than the original thickness. This method of making spokes reduces
the weight, leaves the heavy portion where it is most needed, and adds great
tensile strength to the spoke. In making a spoke by this method the wires
are at first made somewhat shorter than the length required, as the swaging
has a tendency to draw them out in length, and in the best of modern
practice of spoke making the threads are rolled on by machinery instead of
having them cut on by a die, as formerly. The rolling process has this
advantage, that it does not reduce the diameter of the spoke and cut away so
much material as the die threading process.

VARIOUS STYLES OF HUB AND
SELF-OILING DEVICES.

The makers of the Sterling, who have always used a direct tangent
spoke in connection with a hub having a corrugated flange, show a new hub

this season. It is machined from a piece of bar steel. The flanges or teeth are
somewhat like a small rear sprocket. They are, however, of the double
hollow construction, and on the rear hub on the sprocket side part of the
flange is cut away on the outside, leaving a large opening in the tooth,
which sits between the teeth of the sprocket wheel, so that a spoke can be
readily inserted without removing the sprocket wheel, and through the first-
mentioned hole the spoke is pushed forward and upward through a
buttonhole, and is then slid in a T-slot either right or left to its seat, each
tooth in the flange thus carrying two spokes, one to each side of the rim. On
the left hand side of the rear hub the construction is reversed, the flanges
not being cut away as on the right hand side, and the spokes are inserted
through a similar opening as before described on the inside portion of the
hub and flange. On both sides of the front hub a similar construction is
employed as that in use on the left side of the rear hub.

STEARNS SELF-OILING CRANK-HANGER MECHANISM.
The Windsor hub is of the corrugated pattern, having a double flange in
which the spoke holes are drilled, and with a buttonhole device for inserting
the same.
The Crescent hub is built with a straight flange over the body of the
hub, and this hub flange is turned over, forming a wide bearing surface,
which is drilled for the spoke holes, and underneath this outer edge a
buttonhole device is placed in the body of the flange by which the spokes
can be easily removed and replaced, and without the removal of the rear
sprocket.

The Columbia hub has a series of studs inserted in the body of the hub
and through these studs holes are drilled, and the direct tangent spokes are
inserted therein.
The Eclipse hub is turned from the solid bar of steel and has two flanges
at each end; these flanges have alternate slots and holes. A T-head spoke is
inserted by passing the head down the slot and pushing it sideways down
the opposite hole in the adjoining flange.
The Wolff-American hub, which was one of the first large tubular hubs
shown in this country, is made of steel tubing without either projection or
flanges, but has a buttonhole device which greatly simplifies the replacing
of spokes. Inside the hub and underneath the spoke holes is placed a dust-
proof ring which prevents the intrusion of dust into the bearings. They use a
hollow axle containing an absorbent wick saturated with oil. In the axle
over the wick is a minute hole on each side, through which the oil is drawn
by centrifugal force by the revolving of the balls, and thus is supplied to the
bearings in the crank-hanger in the same way and automatically the supply
is regulated by the demand.
The makers of the Cleveland also have an automatic oiling device on
their hubs. The wheel and crank axles are tubular and hollow. This space
forms an oil receiver. In order to prevent the oil from escaping from the
hollow axles the end is plugged with a screw; under the head of the screw is
a piece of packing, making the joint perfectly tight. The flow of oil is
regulated by wicking drawn through small holes drilled in the axles close to
the bearings. These holes are plugged so tightly that the oil will not escape
when the bicycle is not in use. The moment the wheel begins to revolve
capillary attraction produces a drop of oil at the end of the wicking.
There is this to be said in favor of both the Wolff-American and
Cleveland devices that there is no danger of losing any oil cups, and that
after a long, dusty ride oil has not surrounded the hubs and crank hanger
bracket to which the dust can be attracted, and the bicycle is therefore very
much easier to keep clean. The makers of these styles of automatic oiling
devices claim that they will carry a season’s supply of oil, but even if this
should not prove to be true, it is only necessary to lay the bicycle on its
side, remove the plugs in the ends of the axles and pour oil into the
reservoir.

WOOD RIMS.

As has been already noted in the article on tendencies, the wood rim has
undisputed possession of the field, not a single American maker cataloguing
a steel or other metal rim. Even the makers of the Eagle, who formerly used
an aluminum rim, now offer it as an option only, and show all their samples
with wood rims, and this may again be regarded as a reversion, the original
type of the old “Dandy Horse” velocipede having been built with wood
rims and shod with iron, the only difference now being that we use wood
rims shod with air, and when the “good old ordinary” came in vogue steel
rims were introduced. On the ordinary, however, which had only small solid
tires, the rim was a narrow grooved one, and possessing, as it did, very little
lateral strength, it had a great tendency to buckle under the force of a blow
or a collision, and when the safety came in vogue this same idea of rim
construction was carried into it. An improvement was made, however, in
their construction in making them of a double hollow construction which
increased its lateral resistance, but in case of accident made them extremely
difficult to repair. A little later, when the cushion tire arrived, the single rim
and the double-hollow rim were used, making them, of course, of a larger
cross-section to fit the tires used, and when the pneumatic tire was invented
the steel rims first used very much resembled a band of hoop iron used on
an ordinary washtub. Afterward double-hollow rims were used on bicycles
with pneumatic tires, and single rims which were fluted or corrugated in
order to give them additional stiffness were also used. In 1891 McKee &
Harrington of New York City, the makers of the Lyndhurst, introduced a
bicycle having wood rims. These rims were made of second-growth white
ash and were of the single-piece variety, joined together with a long,
tapering “skive,” and the entire rim and joint were covered with natural
color Pongee silk, which was glued on, producing a watertight rim. This rim
was the production of Mr. Charles Harrington of this firm, who for many
years before entering the bicycle business had been known as a practical
wood worker. Makers and riders were very skeptical of the value of the
wood rim, but after a few well-known racing men had won a few track and
road events on them and the wood rim had shown its utility and value by its
increased resiliency and speed, and that it was stronger across its lateral
plane than a steel rim of any type could ever hope to be, and with its non-
liability, therefore, to buckle in a collision, it became a popular thing, and in

less than two years, as has been seen, it has completely routed the steel rim
out of the American market. In England, however, owing to the large use of
the detachable tire and the moist climate, its advance has not been so rapid,
but it is coming along even there, and it bids fair to supplant the steel rim
there in another season or two. One-piece rims are not so largely used as
heretofore. The laminated rim as now made, which was originated in 1893,
seems to be the most popular one on a majority of the high cost bicycles on
the market. It is to be noted, however, that the rims of this season, almost
without exception, are broader across their face and thicker through in
section, which is an especially good feature, inasmuch as it gives the tire a
larger and firmer bed to rest upon, so that it is not so liable to be cut by the
edges of the rim. Of course, making the rim broader and thicker and heavier
takes away some of the points which were formerly used in its favor,
notably those of light weight and resiliency. The up-to-date wood rim more
closely approaches in weight the lightest possible form of steel rim, and it is
a notable fact that the wood rim is the only prominent contribution in
bicycle construction that America has presented to the world, and there is
good reason for this, however, because our Yankee and our Western wood
workers have long been famous for their progress in the art of wood
working and wood bending. One of the most famous wood benders is Mr.
H. H. Shepard of New Haven, Conn. In 1889 he had the temerity to send to
the Paris Exposition, in the care of a French exhibitor, not wishing to go to
the expense of a personal representation, some samples of his wood
bending. These samples came in direct competition with the great Vienna,
German and French wood benders, and although Mr. Shepard, as before
stated, was not personally represented, to his great surprise the
Commissioners unanimously awarded him the only solid silver medal for
superior excellence in that department.

PLYMOUTH RIM. KUNDTZ RIM.

This same Mr. H. H. Shepard (who, by the way, is a six-footer and
bearded like a patriarch), in a lecture in New York City on wood-bending
before the master mechanics of the Carriage Makers’ Association, placed
his audience in good humor with him when he declared that his earliest
recollections of bending were when, while a boy, his mother bent him over
her knee to keep him straight. The Shepard is a one-piece wood rim of
second growth white ash. The ends are butted together and an ovoid piece
of hardwood is inserted over the butt ends on the inside of the joint. This
insert extends about three inches each side of the butt-ended joint and is
flush with the remainder of the rim. These rims are bent by compressing the
inner surface in a hydraulic press without stretching the outer periphery of
the rim. This method shortens the inner surface about six inches, thereby
greatly toughening the inner surface of the wood. The average weight of the
steel rim formerly used was about 24 ounces. The average weight of the
wood rim used for a cemented-on tire as first made was about 14 ounces.
The average weight of the wood rim in use today is probably about 18
ounces.

VARIOUS MAKES OF WOOD RIMS.

Another popular rim is called the Winona. The process of making the
Winona rim is as follows: There is about six inches difference in the
circumference between the inside and outside of the rough rim. The bars
being straight before they are bent, it is obvious the inside must stretch or
the outside upset. The process used prevents stretching of the outside fibre
of the rim, and actually upsets the outside as well as the inside, thereby
interlocking the entire fibre and doubling its original strength. They use a
plain beveled dovetail joint. They also make a laminated rim, and what they
call a screwed rim. This rim has screws at stated intervals running crosswise
of the rim, coming just under the seat of the groove, as the greatest strain on
the rims is caused by the spokes, which sometimes result in splitting the
rim. They have undertaken to overcome this, or, rather, to strengthen the
rim by putting in these screws. The illustration shows a sectional end view
of the rim and the manner of inserting the screw from side to side. The

Winona rims are made of butt cuts, and they use what is known as a second
cut rock elm only for their rims. Rock elm has dark streaks running through
and is dark in color, differing, therefore, from second growth white ash,
which is very light in color.
A well known wood rim is that known as the Plymouth, which consists
of a single piece of rock elm bent, jointed and turned on a lathe. The joint in
the Plymouth rim is so constructed that the ends come together square
across. It consists of a series of tongues and grooves interlocking, the
tension of the spokes making them tighter instead of straining them apart.
One of the special features of the Plymouth rim is the fact that the spoke
holes are eyeletted and are thus made waterproof. The illustration shows
their reinforced joint.
The Kundtz is known as a double reinforced rim. It requires two rims to
make one, and the manner of cementing one rim into the other, with a
section of thin wood between them, which has its grain running crosswise
to the two main sections, as shown in the illustration, produces one of the
strongest wood rims made. Another improvement in this make is the fact
that its glued joints are not exposed to the weather, which has been
considered a detriment in building up rims of the old style.
One of the most popular rims is that which is known as the Fairbanks-
Boston. A laminated wood rim is one, as is now quite generally known,
formed of curvilinear maple segments, indissolubly cemented into perfect
unity under enormous hydraulic pressure, which, because of this principle
of jointure, remains perfectly true both laterally and in periphery, while the
transverse grains of the adjoining segments or laminæ absolutely prevent
splitting along the line of spokes in the impact of collision or shock. The
fact that no single joint extends through the rim effectually overcomes any
tendency to break off in any direction or manner. The makers use three
curvilinear segments of Pennsylvania rock maple. Each segment is planed
on both sides to a thickness of mathematical exactness throughout the entire
length, thus insuring absolute unbroken contact when cementing to the
adjoining segments.
The overlapping ends of each segment are by special machinery then
“scarfed” to feather edges, obtaining laps equal in length tapering on an
angle which experience has proven correct. By this process of bending the

rims do not require steaming, which disintegrates the fibre of the wood, and
in cementing the joints the three laps are placed at points of the
circumference of equal distance apart, rendering the tensile strength
absolutely uniform in all parts. In compressing the segments of the rim
together hydraulic pressure is applied to the periphery of the rim after the
application of the cement. An enormous pressure is applied equally at all
circumferential points, and it is maintained until the cement has completely
solidified the three independent segments into the form of a permanent
circle. They also make what is known as a covered laminated rim, the
enveloping fabric, which is a special quality of pure Irish linen, fitted
exactly on the rim and secured permanently with liquid cement, and it is
estimated that enclosing the rim in this manner imparts at least 30 per cent.
to its strength, with a corresponding increase in is resiliency, and these rims
are therefore recommended in damp climates, and for use on tandems and
other multicycles. All the makers furnish their rims in a natural varnish, and
also stained in imitation of rosewood and other woods, and many of the
makers in addition to this furnish the rims painted and striped in different
colors, in many instances matching the colors of the enamels used on the
frames.
At the ’96 Cycle Show papier-maché rims were shown, for which great
claims were made and a great deal expected, but none of the well-known
manufacturers adopted them, and the company that brought them out has
since gone out of existence. Trials within the knowledge of the writers
proved that these rims as made then were not practical.

CHAPTER VIII.
EVOLUTION OF THE TIRE.
At all times through the history of the art of cycle construction distinct
efforts were made to decrease the vibration and to increase the velocity, and
none of these efforts were successful with the exception of the pneumatic
tire.
Indeed the pneumatic tire has been well described as being “the great
marvel of bicycle making, both literally and figuratively, and the foundation
upon which the modern bicycle rests.”
Spring forks, spring frames and springy saddles were at one bound
replaced by it. Invented late in 1888 by John Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon
of Belfast, Ireland, it was tested quietly for nearly a year in and around
Belfast before being launched on the British and foreign cycle markets, and
its success in 1889 and ’90 was so remarkable that it was regarded as the
distinctive feature of the decade. The first pneumatic tires were received in
this country in the fall of 1889 on some English bicycles. They were placed
on a flat steel rim, were about 2 inches in diameter, and the outer shoe or
cover had a heavy, thickened tread, and was fastened to the rim by two
canvas flaps, which were slit to pass the spokes, thus completely enveloping
the rim. The inner tube was a very heavy one, not nearly so resilient as
those in use at the present time. The great features of this tire were,
however, its strength and its non-liability to puncture. Its chief objections
were its great cost, its enormous weight, and the difficulty to repair when
once punctured. It was almost a day’s work to soften with naphtha the
cemented flaps, remove them carefully from the rim, withdraw the inner
tube from its enveloping tube of seamless constricted canvas which
enveloped it to repair the puncture and to replace the tube and to recement
the flaps to the rim. This type of tire is, however, now extinct, save that
Dunlop’s fundamental idea of the pneumatic tire still prevails with
modifications only in methods of attachment, material and details of
construction. The advantages which the pneumatic tire possesses are so
many and so well known that it is not here necessary, however, to

enumerate them. Comfort to the rider is, of course, its greatest point.
Vibration is intercepted at the best possible point, namely at the point of
contact between the tire and the ground, and thus the vibration is not
distributed through the entire structure of the bicycle, the air cushion of the
tire being really a spring which is always ready for use, and which works
without rubbing surfaces. When an obstruction is encountered it sinks into
the tire and the bicycle rides over it without vibration or jolt being
communicated to the rider. Its next great point of advantage is of course its
speed. The invention of the Dunlop, or inner, tube tire in England, was
followed in England by the invention of a type of tire known familiarly here
as the hosepipe tire. The hosepipe or single tube tire was first suggested and
fully described by I. W. Boothroyd of London, England, in a letter to the
Cyclist in 1890. He did not, however, patent the tire, and he has,
unfortunately, no pecuniary interest whatever in the single tube tire. The old
Draisene, the wooden and iron “Boneshakers” or velocipedes all had iron
tires on wooden rims. The Phantom, an English production, was the first
bicycle put upon the market that had wooden rims and rubber tires. Its
rubber tires, however, were nailed on. When the ordinary came into vogue,
U and V shaped steel rims were used. These were usually made solid,
although some of the makers made them hollow. Into these rims solid
rubber tires were cemented, and a few of the English makers had an
arrangement for fixing them in mechanically, with corrugated wires. They
averaged ⅞ and 1 inch in size and were very comfortable riding, although
they were somewhat heavy. Between 1876 and 1882 there was a tendency
to decrease the thickness of the rubber tire and a perfect fad ensued for thin
tires. This, however, like other fads in bicycle construction did not last very
long, and a few years later there was a distinct tendency to return to tires of
a larger diameter. Shortly after the safety bicycle was introduced in this
country the cushion tire was invented. This was usually a large round
rubber tire, which was moulded with a core in the centre and which, when
withdrawn, left a hole varying in size from ¼ to ⅜ of an inch, according to
the size of the core. The ends were then lapped and then vulcanized
together, forming a complete circle and having an unpuncturable air cushion
of small diameter. The objections to this style of tire were its weight and
cost. It was, of course, superior to the solid tire, but greatly inferior to the
pneumatic tire in every way, and, coming, as it did, into existence at about
the same time that the pneumatic tire did, of course, it did not survive. One

of the most popular American cushion tires at that time was the Victor. They
used a hollow rim and the tire was a simple arch of rubber extending from
edge to edge of the rim. Its side walls were held against spreading by side
flanges having rounded edges, and which the tire covered and protected.
The base of the tire rested upon a horizontal rim bed, and which added
greatly in giving lateral stiffness to the tire and strength to the hollow rim.
Like the pneumatic tire, this tire displaced inwardly under pressure, and the
movement of the rubber was, therefore, wholly radial, which accounted for
the great elasticity of the Victor cushion tire. These tires were not, however,
cemented to the rim or stretched over the rim, but were compressed to the
rim by a peculiar process of their own, and it was almost impossible to pull
a Victor tire from the rim. In 1890 T. B. Jeffery of the Gormully & Jeffery
Manufacturing Company of Chicago, who had invented a detachable tire in
the days of the use of the solid tire, conceived the idea of applying his
previous ideas in regard to detachable tires to the pneumatic tire, and the
result was the invention of the G. & J. tire with a corrugated tread. From
year to year it has been improved in detail, always retaining the
corrugations, the number of which is changed annually to indicate the year
of manufacture, but the principle of the tire remains unchanged. The G. & J.
tire, as adapted to wooden rims, has proven a great success. The wood rim
is made with a square central groove, with a supplementary groove at each
side with double beads at each edge of the outer case of the tire, which fit
into the grooves of the rim. The tire is so constructed that the entire strain of
the air pressure comes upon the square central groove, where the rim is
strongest. The outer cover is made with a supplementary flap. In applying
the tire the edge of the case having the flap is placed on the rim first. The
flap extends a little past the edge of the rim and the other edge is easily
slipped under the supplementary flap into its place in the rim.
A tire somewhat similar to this was
invented in England about the same
time, known as Bartlett’s Clincher, and
manufactured by the North British
Rubber Co., under Bartlett’s patents,
and a tire largely used in this country in
1891 to 1893 was that known as the
Bidwell-Thomas tire, and which was
similar in construction to the Dunlop

MORGAN & WRIGHT TIRE. tire already described; and among the
early American tires in addition to those
already mentioned were the hosepipe
tires known as the Columbia, Ideal, the New York Belting and Packing
Co.’s Protective Strip and the Palmer. But even of these, some that have
survived have undergone some radical changes in their construction. The
Dunlop tire, for instance, now has an endless wire in each side of its outer
shoe. The inner tube lies in the base of the rim, and when the inner tube is
inflated the air pressure holds the outer shoe to the rim. The Dunlop,
although it is largely used in this country, is still more largely used in
England, although plans have been laid by the American makers of
hosepipe tires to increase the sale of their product in England this year.
To the makers of the Columbia, however, must be given the credit of
introducing the hosepipe tire in this country, for in 1892 they were
practically alone in their belief that the single tube tire was the coming tire.
The hosepipe tires made at that time were, of course, very heavy and
difficult to repair, but they continued to manufacture them and gradually
became skilful in their processes of manufacture, and developed repair
methods that are still in use. At the Chicago Cycle Shows of 1895 there
were only two tire makers who exhibited hosepipe tires, but a year later at
the shows nearly every great tire maker in the country exhibited hosepipe
tires, and since that time they have been the most popular tires in use in this
country.
Mention here should be made, however, of
the invention in this country at this time of what
has been popularly known as the Morgan &
Wright inner tube tire, and which differed from
the detachable inner tube tires in its
construction, the outer shoe resembling a
hosepipe tire with the exception that on its inner
or rim side it is slit open for about six inches
each side of the valve stem, and the inner tube is
drawn into the shoe through this opening. When
the tube is placed in position the slits, which BUCKEYE RIM.
have eye-holes on their sides, are laced together,
and the tire is cemented to the rim. The Morgan

& Wright tire is one of the most popular on the market, and has been
improved by placing in the inside of the inner tube what is known as a
quick repair strip.
The Quick Repair strip is simply the addition of a thin web or film of
rubber which lies inside of the inner tube next to the rim. They also make
this year, for the first time, a single tube tire containing this quick repair
strip, so that punctures can be easily repaired without plugs and with the
added advantage of permanence. This tire also has a valve which can be
removed so that a defective valve stem does not mean a ruined tire. In
making the tire the inner rubber lining is vulcanized before the tire is built
up instead of afterward, so that it is much less likely to have holes in it or
leak. Another advantage of this type of single tube tire is that large cuts in it
can be readily vulcanized.
The Palmer tire is also one of the original tires that has survived. In
construction the Palmer tire differs from other pneumatics in that linen
threads are used instead of woven cotton fabric. To use the language of the
inventor, “Upon a pure gum tube is wound spirally two layers of thread;
each thread imbedded in rubber and out of contact with its neighbors, the
two layers separated from each other by a wall of pure rubber, and one
wound at an angle of forty-five degrees to the other. This method makes a
seamless, endless, spirally laid tube, unequalled in strength, speed and
durability, in combination with resiliency. Its advantages are summed up as
follows: Each thread being laid straight under high tension and at a tangent
to the rim of the wheel, power is transmitted without loss. Each thread
being separated from all neighboring threads by an elastic body of rubber,
they are free to move over each other without friction to the limits of the
elasticity of the said rubber. This, in combination with the construction
described, gives the greatest possible speed and resiliency. By reason of the
threads being separately cushioned by soft rubber, the whole strength of the
fibres is utilized. As there is absolutely no friction between the threads, they
cannot wear each other out. Hence durability is assured. As there are but
one hundred and twenty threads in the whole tube each extending spirally
around its entire length and imbedded in an elastic body, any inequality in
tension adjusts itself. As the tube is seamless there is no chance of its
bursting through bad joints.”

A well-known detachable inner tube tire is that known as the Liberty. It
resembles the Dunlop in its general construction, save that the wires instead
of being endless are joined together at their ends by a turnbuckle, having
right and lefthand threads, and after the outer shoe is placed in the steel rim
these turnbuckles are slipped into holes cut into the edges of the rim on the
opposite side, and operated and adjusted by inserting a wire key into the
holes in the turnbuckles. In using this tire on a wooden rim, however, the
turnbuckles are not exposed, but lie on the interior edge of the rim, so that
by deflating the tire slightly and pushing the shoe back the turnbuckles are
exposed and can be readily operated.
Among the old tire makers who are still in the field are the New York
Belting and Packing Company. Their League Special single tube tire is a
high speed road tire, constructed of precisely the same rubber and fabric
used in the League racing tire, the quantity of each being practically
doubled, to give the strength and wear required for road service. The rubber
is fine Para, the fabric Sea Island, strong and light, woven so that each
individual thread has free play in every direction. This elasticity of texture
permits the tire to yield instantly to obstructions, carries it over small
obstacles without jolt or jar and reduces vibration to a marked degree.
The Vim tire people, who were the first in the field with the famous
pebble tread tire, are this year showing a new design which they call the
“Vim Serrate.” This tire has a narrow strip of perfectly smooth rubber about
three-eighths of an inch wide encircling the tire on the tread. On either side
of this strip are eight fine and accurately moulded corrugations. The effect
of this construction is to produce a tire which has a perfectly smooth tread
when the tire is vertical, but which when the wheel is inclined at an angle in
rounding corners will bring these serrations in contact with the ground, thus
counteracting the natural tendency of the tire to slip in turning corners at
speed. This design combines the advantages of both the smooth and pebble
tread, and in addition to its utility in this direction gives the tire a very
stylish appearance. The Serrate is being fitted to a very generous number of
the early ’98 model sample wheels. Its appearance is certainly in its favor,
but it remains to be seen how well it will take with the public.
The ’98 Defender Special single tube tire is manufactured by the
Kokomo Rubber Company, Kokomo, Ind. The material used in the
construction of this tire is the same as was used in the ’97 Defender, being

the finest of Sea Island cotton fabric and Old
Upriver Para. The tire itself does not differ
materially from the Defender single tube, aside
from the tread, which has a corrugation about
one-half inch on either side of the centre of the
tread, and is entirely new and very sightly.
INDIAN
A novelty in treads is a tire called the
ARROW TREAD TIRE.
“Won’t Slip,” which was invented by C. J.
Bailey, the inventor and patentee of Bailey’s
rubber brushes. The entire tread of the tire is covered with round teeth
closely set together. The makers say it will not slip under any conditions of
surface, such as wet car rails, asphalt or macadam, and that it is 90 per cent.
puncture proof when under pressure.
The B. F. Goodrich Company of Akron, O., make a corrugated rubber
tread band which is endless and which can be applied with rubber cement to
the worn treads of all kinds of pneumatic tires. A pair of these treads cost
only $1.50. They look as if they might be a practical thing. The Hodgman
tire, style F, has a fleur-de-lis design on the tread. This may be regarded
simply as a novelty in roughened tread construction.
The American Tire Company of New York are marketing a new tire
called the Apex, the base of which is round, but the whole construction of
the tire somewhat resembles an arrow or spearhead, and on the point of
which is a very thickened tread preventing puncture, but having thin
flexible side walls. The India Rubber Company of Akron, O., have a tire
presenting what they call an “arrow” tread. It has a small arch or rib on the
centre of the tread of the tire, from which run tapering ribs to the sides
somewhat resembling an arrow in shape, the idea of this being to prevent
side slip on wet or greasy pavement, and on turning corners.
The Dreadnaught tire is a peculiar one, its peculiarity consisting in
having an articulated tread band, which consists of pieces of wood having
concave sides and pivots between them which enables freedom of yield
with the give of the tire, but preventing sharp pointed projections from
passing between the joints, and this articulated band is enveloped in a bed
of rubber that is coated with a suitable fabric, the arrangement being such
that the individual members of the band have free movement, enabling the

pneumatic cushion behind to yield to the same
extent as it would without this band, but the
manner of yielding is different. For whereas
the ordinary pneumatic tire absorbs at its point
of contact the Dreadnaught yields at its tread
over an extended surface, and also yields
freely at its side walls. They claim that this
tire possesses great speed owing to the very
slight frictional contact of the surface and that
upon a loose or sandy road its broad flat
surface will ride upon the top of the sand and
not sink down in it like the ordinary round
DREADNAUGHT TIRE. tread tire would. Side slip is also avoided by
the use of the rib and the edge of the tread.
Every one
actively interested in the subject of tires will
readily admit that the puncture proof tire is the
tire of the future. Inventors are aiming to that
end, and it is unfortunately true that the aim of
most of them, while high, has not been straight
or true. The result has been a confusion of so-
called puncture proof tires, the non-utility and
impracticability of which are observable at a
glance. Steel, iron, wood, cork and chemical
compounds have all been brought into use, and STRAUS
in such ludicrous shapes as to make the average PROTECTED TIRE.
puncture proof tire an object of deserved
ridicule. In common with other interested
people, the inventor of the Straus protected tire has for years sought the end
in view—a practical puncture proof tire. He was one of the very first to
engage in the tire trade, and since the year 1890 has been continuously and
prominently identified with the business in expert capacities as inventor,
manufacturer and seller. His extensive knowledge has been concentrated in
the Straus protection tire. It is composed entirely of rubber and fabric, the
same as all of the practical tires now in universal use. As the single tube tire
is now the leading tire in use in this country, and as for easy riding and
speed it cannot be excelled, the Straus protected tire is made in the single

tube form. It can be produced, however, in double and detachable forms. It
is called a “protected tire” because the tire proper is protected by a shoe,
which is made with six plies of fabric and which surrounds the tire proper
loosely when fully inflated. This protector is not a part of the tire proper,
but a fixed attachment thereto, affording a surface over which the tire rides.
The tire proper is a highly resilient single tube tire, actually a racing tire,
which gives the tire its life. The cover or protector does not in any way
subtract from its resiliency for the reason that the outer cover does not come
in contact with it any more than the ground does with any tire, the cover
being simply the road over which the tire proper travels. In fact, the “Straus
protected tire” carries its own road, so to speak. In other words, the
protector acts the same as if it were laid on the ground and the tire proper
passed over it. We have found that the tire does not slip on wet pavements
or wet asphalt, and that it prevents cutting on the rim. In coasting tests the
tire complete has coasted as far as the same tire with the cover removed,
sufficiently proving that the protector does not take away any of the life of
the tire proper. It is proof against nails, thorns, pins, glass and all other of
the “ills” which a tire encounters on the road in everyday use, and the result
is obtained without a resort to freakdom or without affecting the life and
practical utility of the tire. In appearance the tire is just the same as any
other single tube tire, and is applied to the rim in exactly the same way. In
case of puncture remove the protector, the protector being only cemented to
the tire with rubber solution and easily removed. It is very necessary that
the space between the tire proper and the protector is not too great, else the
tire will drag. It should be just loose enough to be felt when the tire is fully
inflated, and no more. The weight of a pair of the regulation 1⅝ in. tires is
about 4½ pounds.
The Buckeye tire has a square base and is held to the rim by steel
toothed washers which are held in place by the heads of the spoke nipples,
and the teeth of these washers prevent creeping of the tire, making
cementing unnecessary, and there is no possibility of the tire ever creeping
and cutting the valve stem off. The outer cover is open at its base and laced
all around in sections, so that when punctured only one section needs to be
unlaced. The lacing holes through the base and the side screws which
enditch the cord are vulcanized in a mould. The inner air tube is endless and
is entirely surrounded by the outer cover, thus giving an even pressure of air
all around, which sometimes butt ended tubes do not.

In producing a tire that has all the qualities demanded by experienced
riders, namely, speed, resilience, strength and durability, the manufacturers
of the Kangaroo, the National India Rubber Company, have made a radical
departure in the construction of their tire. The Kangaroo tire is made to
conform to the prevailing weight in tires, but in doing so it has been
necessary to use more rubber, owing to the fact that only about one-half the
quantity of thread is used.

THE KANGAROO.
One of the principal objects sought in designing the Kangaroo tire was
to reduce to the lowest possible point consistent with strength the inelastic
material (thread or fabric) employed, and to this end a special yarn or thread
of Sea Island cotton of a tensile strength of seven and one-quarter pounds
each was obtained. To secure greater elasticity in the fabric continuous
threads, coated with rubber, are wound spirally from one end of the tire to
the other, doing away with the friction of thread upon thread and stiffness to
the ordinary fabric. The inner tube is placed on the mandrel of the tire
machine, and the threads are wound spirally around it at an angle of 45
degrees, after first being immersed in a solution of rubber. An intermediate
inner tube is then put on, and a second layer of thread wound about it at the
same angle, but in an opposite direction, making an angle of 90 degrees
between the two layers. It will be readily seen that only one-half as much
thread is used as is contained in two-ply of woven fabric, and yet the
peculiar construction gives, among other advantages, nearly twice the
strength of any other make of tire.
The next step is the application of the tread strip, which serves a double
purpose. In the road tire it is used to thicken the tire at its most vulnerable
points, and in the track racing tire serves as a tread and as a protector of the
threads. The outer cover is now put on, the ends spliced and the tire is ready

for the mold. A great increase of speed is obtained by this method of
construction, and the pliability, elasticity and yielding qualities of the
Kangaroo tire lend an additional pleasure to road riding. Its constructive
features make punctures exceedingly rare and easily repaired.
The intermediate inner tube, it is claimed, positively prevents porosity.
The method of manufacture, as above described, produces their road tire.
The only difference between their track tire and road tire is that in the
racing tire the outer shoe is omitted. In all other respects they are the same.

REPAIR TOOLS.

Next to the make of tire, its resilient and lasting qualities, the efficiency
of the valve and the merit of the various claims for advantage set forth by
the different makers, the question of emergency repair in case of puncture,
is equal, in importance with any of the foregoing considerations. In the
early days of the pneumatic, a puncture upon the road was a matter of grave
moment, and the more serious accident of the tearing off of the valve stem,
or the cracking of the shoe itself, was a cause for lamentation, indeed.
Repair shops were not then equipped with the necessary means to quickly
set such conditions to right, and the emergency repair kits furnished riders
were exceedingly crude compared with those now provided by every first-
class tire manufacturer. Today, however, the rider, by virtue of the improved
puncture repairing tools carried in his tool bag, regards the average
puncture merely as a possible incident of his spin, and more serious
mishaps to either tire or valve stem are handled by the ordinary repair man,
where, not many years ago, they necessitated the sending of the tire to the
makers and a consequent long and tedious delay, with the alternative of
purchasing a new tire.

GOODRICH JIFFY TOOL.
Of course the old solid tires that were so long in use on the ordinary and
on the first safeties did not need many repairs. Not being air cushions, they
could not be punctured, their main trouble being usually their liability to get
detached from the rim and the tendency to stretch. The usual method of
relieving this excess in length caused by stretching was to cut them, take
out a piece and revulcanize them together again, but even this was not done
very often. When the cushion tire came in vogue, considerable difficulty
was experienced, owing to the fact of their wearing in a peculiar manner.
They did not break, as might be expected, on the outside, but they broke
from the walls, as the hollow core itself did not offer sufficient support, and
many efforts were made to solve this problem. The first Dunlop pneumatic
tires used in this country, as before stated, were very difficult to repair, but
when once the tube was brought to light, patching it was an easy thing. In
fact, the same method of repairing the inner tube is today in use. A portion
of the tube immediately surrounding the puncture is roughened with
sandpaper to remove the sulphur bloom, a little rubber solution is smeared
around the spot, a piece of sheet rubber, or material similar to that of which
the tube is constructed is similarly smeared with solution, and when this
solution reaches what is called a “tacky” condition, the patch is pressed
over the puncture until it gets “set,” and the only improvement in repairing
inner tube tires is what is known as the Morgan & Wright quick repair
method. In this method the inner tube has an addition of a thin web or film
of rubber which lies inside of the inner tube, next to the rim, and adds about
1½ ounces to the weight of the tire, and yet does not affect the resiliency of

the tire in any way. Should, however, a repair in this method fail, the old
method of withdrawing the tube from the casing can still be adopted. One
method of repairing this style of inner tube is as follows: A repair tool,
having a hollow needle point containing thick rubber solution, is inserted
through the outer casing and the inner tube; the top of the tool containing
the solution is then withdrawn, and this top contains a slender wire, which,
when in place, was in the hollow needle. The butt end of this hollow needle
plug is then screwed into the tube, which, therefore, forces the cement
through the needle point and down on top of the web or film of rubber
inside of the tube. The needle and needle plug are then withdrawn; the tire
is then pressed together, and upon releasing it the quick repair strip adheres
to the punctured spot, and the tire is permanently repaired. The first
hosepipe tires used in this country were extremely difficult to repair, and it
looked for a time as if the repair of this type of tire could not be made a
success. When punctured it was extremely hard to locate the leak and still
harder to repair it properly. After numerous abortive attempts to produce a
repair kit that would be satisfactory in every way, the mushroom patch was
introduced. The next great step forward in repairing tires was that of
vulcanizing them where punctured, but at that time this necessitated their
being returned to the rubber works to be repaired. At present every bicycle
repairer of any consequence does his own vulcanizing, and there is now a
neat little vulcanizer on the market by which every rider can do his own
vulcanization. But of the process of vulcanization we will treat later on. A
peculiar fact, however, is that when Mr. Boothroyd suggested building a
hosepipe tire he at the same time suggested the use of plugs for repairs, and
the use of plastic compounds also. There are a number of repair kits on the
market today, and among the most popular is one called the Hartford. This
kit contains the usual mushroom plugs, a pair of light steel plyers to hold
the plugs and to force them through the tire, with the necessary solution,
and among the plastic compounds that are popular are those known as the
Vimoid, the Goodrich Jiffy, the Palmer, the Chase, the “Kokomo Korker,”
and the Amazon. All these plastic compound repair kits are operated on the
one principle. The puncture is first located, and the wheel is then turned so
as to work from the under side. The compound is contained in a collapsible
tube, which is inserted into a nickel-plated holder, which has a hollow
needle point. This needle point is inserted in the puncture and the
compound is forced through the puncture, which operation leaves a mass

resembling a large button over the puncture. The instrument is then
withdrawn with a twisting motion. These compounds are necessarily very
quick drying, and after two or three moments of waiting the tire is inflated,
and, if the operation has been a success, the puncture is permanently
repaired.
The Common Sense Repair Kit has a cutter which cuts a clean hole
through the puncture in the tire, instead of burning the same out, and also
avoids the tearing caused by expanding tools. The plugs in use with this
repair kit have a tapered stem, to which is attached a strong linen loop. The
back of the plug also has a slight indentation to guide the pointer while
pushing it through the tire. The kit is used as follows: After the hole has
been cut and the parts thoroughly cleaned and cement applied, the plug is
forced in the tire up to the flange, the linen loop being retained on the
outside by passing it over the thumb. The plug is then forced inside the tire
with the pointer, after which it is drawn up against the tire by means of the
linen loop.
The Griswold Repair Tool takes the ordinary mushroom plug and inserts
it in easily and perfectly. The tool itself is a pointed sliding expansion
holder, which carries the plug on the inside of it and forces the head of the
plug through the tire, and upon withdrawing the tool leaving one end of the
plug sticking through the puncture. This end is then cut off smoothly with
the tread of the tire.
The Minute Repair Kit can be used on either an inner tube or a hosepipe
tire. It does not, like some other repair kits, cut and impair the strength of
the fabric, but simply forces and holds the threads apart while the patch is
inserted and cemented, when the threads are allowed to assume their normal
positions. The repair is not made with a plug as usual, which is sometimes
liable to become displaced when in use, or leak air when the tire is inflated
and the fabric distended, but is made with a flat patch or disk of pure
rubber, strengthened by a cloth backing, and is placed on the inside or inner
wall of the tire.
The Newton Puncture Repair Tool somewhat resembles the other plastic
repair tools previously mentioned, with the exception that the solution is not
carried in collapsible tubes, but is contained in the tool itself, the tool
holding sufficient cement to repair three punctures. In case of large

punctures, however, where a plug is necessary, they use a plug which differs
from the ordinary mushroom plug because it has two heads to it, one head
being very much larger than the other. In inserting these plugs the small
head of the plug is firmly gripped with a pair of plyers, and both the plug
and the jaws of the plyers are liberally coated with cement. The end of the
plug gripped by the plyers is then forced into the puncture, leaving the large
flange remaining on the tread of the tire, and to which it will adhere firmly.
The “Sure Thing” Tire Mender repairs punctures in single tube tires
without either cement or patent solution, using small rubber bands which
are plugged and rivetted inside and out. A long steel needle, having on one
end a large ring to hold it by, and on the other end a long slit or eye, with an
opening in it, is used as a tool. On this tool ten or twelve little elastic rubber
bands are slipped in order to repair an ordinary puncture. For large
punctures more bands are added. The needle end of the tool is then inserted
into the tire, leaving the opening of the eye outside of the tire. One repair
band at a time is then pushed into the slit of the tool and then pushed
through the puncture. The tool is then withdrawn, and this operation is then
repeated until all the bands are inside the tire. A third operation consists in
drawing the bunch of bands out through the puncture until nearly half of
their length is outside. This causes them to stretch to almost their full
tension without pulling clear out. A head of rubber bands like a rivet
remains on the inside as well as on the outside of the tire.
The constant tendency of the bands to
expand sideways and contract lengthwise forms
a positive and permanent stoppage of the leak.
The fourth operation consists in releasing the
bands through the opening of the eye. The ends
SURE THING of the bands can be trimmed down to a sixteenth
REPAIR TOOL. of an inch without danger of their drawing back
into the tire. It is better to ride the tire a few
minutes before doing so, as the bands will then
have settled into place. Very often the bands are not cut off at all. One of the
main and good features of this repair is that no solution or cement of any
kind is required, and therefore the tool is always ready for use.

VULCANIZING.

The riding public as a rule knows very little about the process of
vulcanization, and very often have objected to the time taken and the
charges made by repairers for vulcanizing, and perhaps after reading what is
here stated as to the necessary operations in vulcanization of a tire the
riding public will be more gracious as regards the time allowed and be more
willing to pay the charges asked for vulcanization.
The first principle to be employed to vulcanize a tire is cleanliness. A
successful result cannot be expected if the hands of the operator are oily or
greasy. Four ingredients are used in the vulcanization process, viz., naphtha,
vulcanizing cement, friction or coated fabric and pure gum. Naphtha is used
to clean the surfaces to be united. Vulcanizing cement is used to cement the
surfaces to be united firmly. Friction or coated fabric is employed as a strain
resisting agent, and the pure gum is used to make the hole airtight, and also
to make the rubber cover as it was originally. The vulcanizing cement is
nothing but dissolved pure gum of the same consistency as the pure gum.
The first operation in vulcanizing a tire is to cut a round hole in the tire
where the puncture is, making the hole as small as possible; then the rubber
cover which is around the hole is peeled off, so that the canvas of the tire
for about three-quarters of an inch around the hole is exposed. Then the
inside, as well as the outside of the tire is cleaned thoroughly with a clean
rag saturated with naphtha; the naphtha is allowed to evaporate, and then
the vulcanizing cement is used in the same way. The cement is allowed to
dry, and when dry the cementing operation is repeated, so as to give the
surfaces two coats of cement. It is important that both coats of cement are
thoroughly dry before inserting the rubber patch, and before doing so
soapstone is rubbed on the underside of the patch. Care should be taken not
to have any soapstone on the part of the patch which is to be united to the
tire. The best way to insert the patch is to roll it around a stiff wire about
one-eighth inch thick, holding it closed with the fingers, and when in this
position it should be dipped into the naphtha and slipped into the hole
quickly; as soon as it enters the hole the patch will open. The patch remains
in the tire, and the hole in the tire is sewed up. After this the upper side of
the tire is pressed firmly against the patch (which lies on the inside of the
tire) with the fingers, or better still, as is done in rubber factories, with a
stitcher. This tool resembles a pinker without teeth, and is about one-
sixteenth of an inch on its periphery. Then the surface to be vulcanized is

covered with uncured gum, flush with the tire and no more. Naphtha should
always be used to clean the uncured gum, as well as the part of the tire to
which it is to be applied, but before this is done it is cemented as before and
the cement allowed to dry. Soapstone is then rubbed over the patched part
and then “baked.” The utmost care should be taken to have the proper
degree of heat and the time required. A thermometer which registers the
heat correctly should be employed, and not a pressure gauge, as with the
latter there may be fifty pounds pressure, but not the required heat. If a
thermometer is used, the heat can always be ascertained as a rule. Three
hundred and ten degrees of heat for twenty minutes will vulcanize a tire.
The patch to be inserted in a tire is made up as follows: (1) a layer of
uncured gum; (2) one or two layers of frictioner or coated duck; (3) another
layer of uncured gum. The surfaces to be united should always be wiped
with naphtha, and care should be taken that no air is enclosed in the patch
when preparing it. Many repairers do not sew the puncture to be vulcanized,
and in such a case at least two layers of canvas should be used, or three is
still better. It is not always desirable to vulcanize a valve stem. The better
way to repair a defective valve stem is as follows: A new hole is cut, a brass
or shoe valve is inserted, and the old hole is plugged up the same as a
puncture is repaired.

CHAPTER IX.
BEARINGS AND POINTS OF CONTACT.
Friction gives us a grip on the earth, and is indispensable for propulsion,
but it is not in the least wanted in cycle bearings or in any other bearings,
and one of the problems of mechanics is how to reduce it as much as
possible in places where it consumes power as well as produces wear.
No material thing, however polished, is quite smooth; every surface
may therefore be considered as covered with irregular hooks or teeth,
however flat and smooth it appears to the unassisted eye, and these catch
and hold one another, producing the hang or drag called friction. Oil, being
a fluid, fills up the spaces between these invisible teeth and levels off the
surface; the office of lubrication is, therefore, to get between the contact
surfaces and keep the hooks or teeth thereon from touching. When surfaces
are desired to slip and slide on each other easily, oil is helpful; when the
hooks or teeth are to catch into each other, as between locomotive driving
wheels and the rail, grease is out of place, whether it is oil or grasshoppers,
for it spoils the “adhesion.”
The earliest mode of reducing friction is doubtless as old as the Tower
of Babel, for the idea must have occurred to the primitive man. It is simply
to put a roller underneath and convert sliding into rolling motion. This is in
principle equivalent to mounting the weight on wheels, and it is the solitary
and final way of dealing with the problem of friction. The common
grindstone bearing is a familiar example; the axle of the stone rests on the
rims of a pair of small wheels which stand so as to lap past each other. Here
the axle rolls the wheels as it turns, and their motion at their centres is so
slight that friction is nearly eliminated.

EVOLUTION OF THE BEARING.

In cycle construction, the first bearing was the “plain” one in common
use elsewhere; then a nicely fitted and hardened sleeve was added, and this
was known as the “parallel” bearing. Rollers were also tried, but rollers

have a determined habit of going askew, one end moving faster than the
other, and as soon as they get out of parallel thus, they set up a great
resistance. To meet this difficulty, the ends were sometimes made so as to
overlap and match into one another, or the ends were loosely passed
through thin rings, which revolved with the rollers around the axle; but the
rollers still tried to run askew, and the efforts of the rings to prevent them
caused another friction, so that the roller was abandoned. About the same
time, the “adjustable cone” was tried. This was a male cone, threaded on the
axle and fitting into a female coned space in the hub. The character of the
rubbing action was not changed by this device, which was called a device to
make wear in order that wear might be taken up, but the parts could
obviously be kept in contact (though not in nice fit) by screwing the cone
further in.
The next and final step was to interpose steel balls between these coned
faces; and as the ball is a very short roller, with ends rounded off, it can go
in any direction it pleases. The principle of lateral adjustment by moving a
coned surface to or from another coned surface opposed thereto, with balls
placed between, was patented more than twenty years ago and is still in
universal use; yet, as just remarked, this is the adjustable cone modified. It
is to be borne in mind that the only possible service of the cone, as before,
is still to take up wear, and also that the retention of the cone for adjustment
introduces new difficulties. Note also that on the old high “Ordinary” the
large wheel had its bearing cases fixed and the axle revolving, because the
power was applied to the axle, while the rear wheel had its axle fast and the
wheel hubs revolved around it. On the modern bicycle the method reverses,
both wheels revolving around fixed axles, while the crank shaft, which is
the part receiving the driving power, revolves within a fixed bearing-case.
The revolving axle used to have two grooves, matching grooves within
the fixed case, and the balls were held in holes in loosely fitting rings which
slowly travelled around with them, these rings having no use except to aid
while putting parts together. This double row bearing was called non-
adjustable, because the sole way of tightening it up was to move the two
halves of the bearing-case closer together; for this purpose the case was
made in halves, as a “split lug,” and held by screw bolts. Yet this
construction, if well made, solved the difficulty of the “points” in bearings
and gave the balls a correct rolling motion.

THE QUESTION OF “POINTS” OF CONTACT

The ball may be regarded as a number of tiny thin wheels or disks,
borne on a common axis. Obviously, the larger the wheel the more easily it
will roll; hence we reach the first rule, namely: the ball should rest and roll
on its largest diameter, if possible, and, as a corollary, large balls (within
reasonable limits) are better than small ones. In order to fully carry out this
rule and use the largest diameter, the ball must be placed between two plain
cylinders or rings, and the weight must bear in a direction at right angles to
the plain surfaces; the ball will then roll at its best, and yet this construction
is not practicable. This is so because there would be no means of keeping
the balls in one track and because the surfaces and the balls would not stay
in contact, there being no “adjustability” or means of moving them closer
together. Coming, then, to the usual construction of a fixed axle having on it
a stationary cone, and a wheel hub revolving about this, we reach the
important practical but not half-considered question of “points.” That is, on
how many points in its surface shall the ball rest? The hub is commonly
called the “case” or the “cup.” If the ball rests on the cup at one spot and on
the cone at another, the bearing is called “two-point,” or “spot” is more
nearly accurate than “point,” if by the latter the literal mathematical point is
meant; if the ball rests on the cup at two places and on the cone at one, the
bearing is called “three point;” if the ball rests at two places on cup and
cone both, the bearing is called “four point.”
Referring to the cut of the two-point, it is plain that one of the coned
surfaces shown, revolving in a plane at right angles with the axle, must roll
the ball on the other cone, the ball running on both in planes parallel to the
plane of motion of the revolving cone, as is indicated by the dotted lines;
hence the ball will roll, and not slip or slide. To a very limited extent the
two-point bearing has been used in this country. We can at the moment
name only one make which we are sure has had this form really so made,
and well made, with the surfaces accurately curved so as to place the balls
correctly and with grinding after shaping. This make is the Humber, which
deserves honorable mention for the importance attached to the bearings and
for the intelligent care with which they have been constructed. This remark,
however, is by no means meant as exclusive or as implying that no other
makes have excellent bearings.

An interesting
form of two-point
bearing is the Lake,
made by the C. S.
Caffrey Company of
Camden, N. J. It
makes the coned
faces of cone and
cup parallel and flat, LOWER HALF OF
inclined at an angle DOUBLE-ROW
of 45 degrees to the BALL BEARING.
OLD DOUBLE-ROW axle. Here it is
BALL BEARING. evident that the ball will run without twisting or
skewing, and in order to keep the balls in place
the old device of putting them in a perforated
loose ring is employed. The holes in this ring for the balls are made oval
instead of round, in what does not seem a very well grounded expectation
of thus removing the slight friction between ball and ring. The holes are
also “staggered,” so that the balls do not run on exactly the same tracks. It is
claimed that, on a test, a front wheel with this bearing, being whirled by the
hand, ran an hour and five minutes. This must be admitted to be a
remarkable performance, even if the adjustment were loose.
Far the commonest construction, however, has been the three-point,
partly because, by a confusion of ideas, a three-point bearing has seemed as
if it must be firmer than a two-point, and partly because the former can be
turned out at a very moderate cost. As in almost universal use during
several years past, and as produced by the parts-makers almost without
exception, the form of this is as shown in the cut. (See page 86.) Turn the
page so as to bring the surface C on the cone horizontal, and if you then
imagine this surface C in the same plane as line CD, it is easy to see that the
ball will roll upon the case at A and B both; and as the diameters of the ball
at A and B are equal, it will roll around the circle easily and without
skewing. As the inter-action of the parts is not changed thereby, we for the
moment, as a matter of convenience, assume that the cup is stationary and
the axle turns, which is the reverse of the fact. In actual position and
working it is evident that under the weight of the load the ball will slip
down the slope at C and be pressed hard against the side B as well as

against the bottom A. The relative pressure on these two points will depend
on the flatness or steepness of the surface C, but ordinarily the pressure on
the two will be nearly equal. The action at C tries to roll the ball on a
horizontal axis, parallel with the wheel axle; the action of B upon the ball
tries to roll it on a vertical axis, parallel with CC. Moved by C, the ball may
roll on A and slide on B, or it may stick fast to C and slide on A and B both,
or it may stick fast to both A and B and slide on C. Certainly it cannot have
more than one of these movements at any time, and hence the ball cannot
possibly roll in two directions at once.
To make this more clear, imagine the ball and the two surfaces to be
toothed where they come in contact, thus being visibly gear wheels; if these
teeth are spur-teeth, the cone will impel the ball in its own plane of motion,
namely, line CC, and the ball will then roll on side A and rub on side B; if
the teeth are bevel, the ball will roll on B and rub on A.

ACTUAL
“FOUR-POINT” BEARING—
“FOUR-POINT” BEARING—
TWO POSSIBLE FORMS.
“E AND D” PATTERN.

HEEDLESS CONSTRUCTION.

For this reason—that this “jammed in a corner” pattern of bearing
requires the ball to perform a physical impossibility—it must be
unsparingly condemned. Indeed, if there is one form of polite and
parliamentary phrase more decisive than another, we wish to be understood
as using such form in condemning this particular construction. It does not
violate any statute law, but it does violate laws of mechanics and good
sense. What the ball actually does under such conditions is to “get around”

as best it can, rolling somewhat, sliding somewhat, and slipping and
skewing between times. The balls rub a little on each other and their
contacting surfaces are moving in opposite directions; hence it is not to be
supposed that they invariably roll, under even the best conditions, the only
certainty being that they always follow the line of least resistance. Here we
might say that exhibitions of a transparent bearing on a large scale, such as
were at the recent shows, amuse visitors but prove little, and yet a close
scrutiny of them will show that the balls have an irregular action; moreover,
such a device as the “dynagraph,” professing to show graphically on an
indicator card the frictional resistance of bearings, is a waste of ingenuity
and construction, because it cannot be worked under actual practical
conditions as when the wheel is in use. The difficulty with bearings as
generally made hitherto has been that notwithstanding much talk in
catalogues about “tool steel” and smooth grinding the common way has
been to press the cups into the hubs, screw cones on the axle, drop in balls,
turn up to place, and let it go so. Even in 1898, many catalogues furnish no
information, either by text or by cuts, as to construction of bearings, and
when we have had no other means of knowledge it has been in not a few
cases impossible to find out certainly even such a distinct and practical
matter as whether the adjustment is “cup” or “cone,” in such a heedless way
has this part of the bicycle been passed over. Makers have been too prone to
count anything with balls and a cone as a ball bearing, and they have had a
good degree of liberty allowed them to so consider by these two facts: the
rider does not know and the repairman does not care, and if a bearing is not
screwed up too hard and run entirely dry it will move with a fair degree of
ease even though the balls can not roll much. And yet in all such cases the
defect makes its own witness by the “flats” made on cone and balls and by
the ball track cut into the cup.

BALL-MAKING.

About eighteen years ago Col. Pope said to the writer, referring to the
first Columbia, then in market and the first American product, that it would
cost $25 to put ball bearings on the back wheel (or possibly it was on both
wheels). The usual extra on English makes at that time for balls to back-
wheel was one pound sterling; the first ball pedals were also expensive, but
for some years past any bearing without balls, even on the lowest-priced

wheels, would have been rejected by every buyer. The difference has come
largely by cheapened processes of ball-making, and, as in other things,
reduction in cost and betterment in quality have come together. There are
several ways of producing balls. According to one of the best, the Simonds
Rolling Machine Co. of Fitchburg use forging machines, which are
substantially two uprights, a half-die on each upright, and work
automatically. Heated rods of tool steel are inserted in this machine, which
forges a ball rough and at the same moment bites off the bit from the rod
with the die. Next follow grinding and polishing automatically between
horizontal disks about three feet in diameter in conjunction with emery
wheels; finally come tempering, the last polishing and gauging
automatically. Ordinarily a maximum variation of 1⁄1000 of an inch has been
considered close enough, but this Company are able to guarantee a variation
not over 4⁄10,000, the highest accuracy and uniformity being naturally
considered somewhat in the price. The machines used are patented, and this
bare outline is all we are permitted to publish.
There remains to be considered the four-point bearing, and no better
example of this can be given than in the cut of one as used on the used on
the “E. & D.” as made by the Canadian Typograph Company of Windsor,
Ontario. It is proper to say here that only minor details on this are
patentable, for the principle is old and was in the old Bown Eolus bearing as
long ago as 1877. Reference to the cut shows clearly that the ball rests on
two points on cone and cup each, that its diameters are equal at these places
of contact, and (most important of all) that the direction of pressure on the
ball is at right angles to the axle, and hence that the ball will roll on an axis
parallel to the axle; therefore there can be no sliding or skewing.
The contact surfaces are a right angle V in section, or can be made by
cutting open a square diagonally. At the last show in New York, as a test,
ten single wheels of this make were suspended in pyramidal form, and these
were all run, day after day, by a single length of No. 100 sewing silk. A
wheel was also shown with the balls removed from one bearing and tightly
screwed in the other. This wheel was then whirled, being supported by one
end of the axle on the finger, gyroscope fashion, to show the extraordinary
absence of friction.

THE “CUP” OR “DISK” ADJUSTMENT.

Of the highest importance is also “cup” adjustment, as opposed to the
usual “cone.” As seen in the cut of the three-point bearing, in the latter form
the cup is pressed into the hub and stays fast there, as a seat for the balls,
with its coned surface facing outward. The adjusting cone faces inward and
screws on the axle. The “cup” form reverses this, facing the axle cone
outward and leaving it fast on the axle; the cup faces inward and adjusts by
screwing into the hub end, as shown in cut of the bearing last described.
The practical advantages of this method are very real and are these, as may
be indicated by the somewhat rude cut:
1. When the cup is pressed into the hub it may not be
quite true across the axle line—all the more if it is
afterward removed and replaced, as in changing the rear
sprocket. Any nut has some degree of side-to-side
movement on its thread, however nicely fitted; an
adjustment cone on the axle can also never be held quite
firmly in position, and the grip of the fork ends upon it is
even liable to cant it to one side to the slight extent of its
looseness in the thread. This interferes with accuracy in
the bearing. But the cup is of larger diameter and hence
is steadier in the fit of its thread, and it is also practicable
to lock the adjustment more firmly on the cup.
Moreover, in the “cone” form the cone has to run on the
same thread with the outer nuts which hold the wheel in
the fork, and this thread must be coarse, because a fine
one would not have sufficient strength to bear the strain
of locking the wheel; so the adjustment must be on the
coarse thread. But when the cup screws into the hub as
proposed, it has its own separate thread, which may be
as fine as desired; thus it gains in steadiness by fineness
of thread as well as by larger diameter.
2. Dirt cannot enter through the thread, but only
through the open joint. The opening close to the axle is
obviously a smaller circle than at the edge of the
movable cone on the old method; hence the cup form
excludes dirt better, and if a felt washer is used the

friction from that is less when put close to the axle than
when farther away.
3. The cup adjustment has the great and obvious
advantage that the adjustment is wholly independent of
the fork, being only on the hub itself; hence the
adjustment can be made more easily and accurately, and
after being so made once for all the wheel can be
removed and replaced without danger of disturbing it.
4. In the other form of hub, oil naturally runs out;
with the cup adjustment, the parts are readily and
naturally arranged so that oil is held at the bottom as in a
reservoir, and the balls can run in it. Reservoir hubs of
this pattern are quite well known in England, and the
makers of the “E. & D.,” who use a felt washer as
indicated in the cut, claim such a perfect exclusion of
dirt and retention of oil that the latter is found still in its
place at the bottom, not discolored, after over a thousand
miles’ running.
In England the cup adjustment has long been standard, although perhaps
not invariable; the tardiness of its adoption in this country must be ascribed
to an insufficient study and appreciation of the practical importance of
bearings, and to the considerable investment already made in parts and tools
on the other plan. The first step in adopting the cup form here was at the
crank-hanger, where it has been quite largely in use for several years; but it
is being applied to the wheels as well, and among the makers using it all
over we note such well-known concerns as the Liberty, the Sterling,
Humber, Victor, Howard and Lyndhurst. This is not an exhaustive list, for
we have not studied every catalogue; moreover, it is impossible to
determine the point in all instances, and many who do not use this form on
wheels have it on the crank bearings, as also some others screw the cup into
the wheel hub and “back out” the axle cone for adjustment—this last is
good as far as it goes and is a half-way step. After having constantly
advocated the cup adjustment for several years past it is a gratification to
find it thus making progress, and we note this as the chief step in
improvement of bearings in 1898.

GENERAL IMPROVEMENT IN BEARINGS.

Yet it should be said that there is betterment in bearings generally—in
accuracy and temper of balls, in fitting and grinding of cones and cups, and
also in the means of adjustment. But excellence in details may also have
some effect to conceal errors in plan, and it should be clearly noted that
easy spinning of a bearing may even mislead. The parts being hard and
smooth, and oil being present also, the balls will get around with slight
resistance, whether rolling or sliding; but the test comes only under load,
especially under the heavy strains which tend to cross-twist frames. The
two-point bearing, provided it is really designed and made in the best
manner as such—and the proviso means a good deal—will work
satisfactorily; the three-point also can be so designed and made as to allow
rolling of the balls, although it is less facile and manageable than the others;
the four-point is the best theoretically and seems easiest to construct. The
“corner” pattern we have felt obliged to condemn will “go” after a fashion,
as above admitted; but bicycle evolution is toward uniformity and
simplicity, and as it has been proved just as economical to construct right as
to construct wrong, after the preparations are once made, there ought to be
positive insistence on one thing always, and that thing “the best.”

“THREE-POINT” BEARING: COMMON FORM AT LEFT—
POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENT AT RIGHT.

LUBRICATION AND DUST EXCLUSION.

It is always a mistake to suppose that even a ball bearing can
successfully and wisely be run without lubrication, under load, although the
feasibility of so doing has been declared on what ought to be pretty fair
authority. But the rolling movement can never be made absolutely constant
and the sliding perfectly gotten rid of; even if this could be, the contact
sides of the balls move in opposite directions, and, therefore, must rub
slightly on one another; if the balls are held apart by a perforated collar they
cannot touch each other, but they touch the collar instead and rub on that—
so a little friction will remain in the most favorable circumstances. By the
way, some stick vaseline in bearings, but we must disapprove this; we do
not regard that substance as a lubricant in any proper sense, and the very
quality of adhesiveness which makes it convenient sometimes for holding
balls in place while assembling a bearing also makes its presence
objectionable after the assembling is done. It has the property of staying in
place and not flowing out, not being fluid; but this property is possessed by
other substances—by tar, for instance.
Of course, there must always be an open joint in every bearing (the
outer end of the pedal excepted) where a moving part passes a fixed one.
Nicety of fit, so that these two parts shall be almost in contact, is the first
requisite, and is not to be found on “cheap” wheels, albeit such wheels (on
paper) have tool steel and dust-proof bearings, like all others. Hard-rubber
washers cannot close these joints; soft rubber would quickly be destroyed
by the oil. Felt and velvet have been the only recourse, and this not an
entirely satisfactory one, although if dust and mud could be perfectly
excluded the oil might retain color almost indefinitely. For this, at the risk
of repetition, we must say that the cup adjustment—called disk adjustment
generally in England, and sometimes here—is exactly adapted, and that the
four-point serves best. These soft packings are still retained by quite a
number of makers. For instance, the Monarch puts on the left side of the
rear wheel an octagonal-faced dust cap, and next to that a felt washer, and
next to that the usual ball retainer; the front hub has this construction on
both sides, and the crank bearings are fitted with cup adjustment.

SOME DISTINCTIVE 1898 FEATURES.

The Crescent has a new mode of adjusting the bearings at the crank
bracket. A loose collar, with a projection which fits in a slot in the edge of
the adjusting bush and has its own inner edge finely scalloped goes over the
bracket; the lock-nut having been loosened, this bush is free to turn to the
right point, when the sliding collar is simply slid back until one of its
scallops catches on a pin set on the bracket, and then turning up the lock-nut
makes all fast. On the wheel axles, a separate nut is added to lock the
adjustment cones, so that this can be done with the wheel either in or out of
the frame, and tightening up the fork nuts cannot affect the adjustments.
Felt washers and ball retainers are used throughout.
The Magnet Bicycle Company of Chicago, makers of materials and
fittings, offer in the Magnet hub a novelty in a combination of a concave
and convex lock-nut and washers, which, when the parts are screwed home,
avoids one of the defects of a cone adjustment, namely, the liability of the
axle cone to tilt or tip on its thread under a not parallel approach of the fork
end: the adjustment is also not affected by handling the hub.
The Shirk shows several peculiarities.
Not only are all bearings of the cup
adjustment pattern, but the axle cones
(which are on a sleeve) are two-faced and
reversible, so that each hub has two reserve
cones or cone faces; moreover, as the axle
is independent and serves only as a support
it can be pulled entirely through and out,
after removing the outside nuts, so that the
COMMON THREE-POINT front fork does not have to be spread to put
BEARING. in or remove the wheel, and the rear wheel
can be dropped out of the frame without
disturbing the chain.
It is quite the way to make the crank-hanger only a shell or a support for
the working parts within, without having them directly fastened to it. The
Phœnix follows this fashion by inclosing the bearings in a separate sleeve,
splitting the bracket itself on the under side, and providing it with projecting
lugs and screw bolts, so that it can be pinched up to grip the bearing shell
and hold it in position. But the peculiarity goes further, for the opening
underneath is so wide that by turning these bolts out of the way and

bringing the left crank opposite the opening the cranks and axle with
sprocket on—indeed, the entire contents—can be slid to the right clear out
of the hanger.
The Relay has a dust cap at the crank axle bearing, with a portion of it
consisting of translucent celluloid, and claims the makers’ catch phrase
“you see the balls.”

BALL CONTACT IN “TWO-POINT” BEARING.
Besides using the cup adjustment, as already noted, the Howard—made
by the E. Howard Watch and Clock Company—has a peculiarity in that the
adjusting cone slides on the axle without being threaded. On the crank axle
is a nut working on a thread at the axle centre and bearing against the end of
the short sliding sleeve which constitutes the acting cone. A set screw in this
central nut is loosened by inserting a wire or a nail through a hole in the
bracket; the nut is held fast by putting this wire or nail into a slot therein;
then a slight turn of the crank forward or back tightens or loosens the
bearings at both ends simultaneously by causing the nut, thus held from
turning, to move the axle to right or left instead; then the set screw is again
fastened. A similar nut is on the wheel hubs, and the wheel is turned back or
forth a little to adjust the bearings, the single nut at the left side of the frame
then locking the adjustment. On behalf of this peculiar device it is claimed,
with evident justice, that the operation is both quick and sure, and that as
the coned sleeve slides on the axle instead of being threaded the bearings
are bound to be true and in line. We ought to add that although we have
classed this form as a cup adjustment, it is not literally quite so, the sole
difference being that it belongs in the class of bearings which face cones
and cups in the way proper to that form, but screw the cup into place once
for all and adjust by “backing out” the cone. Last year the Humber wheel
bearings were of this type, and so are the Lyndhurst now, although that

make we have also classed with the cup adjustment type, the difference
being so small.
The Lyndhurst makers, by the way, while using the cup adjustment
strictly at the crank bracket, with an admirably made sleeve having the
cones slipped thereon, lay great stress—as relating to accuracy of fit—upon
making bearing parts “from the centre” in the old-fashioned screw lathe, as
against the monitor or automatic lathe; they aver that the special hardness of
tool steel forbids working it on the automatic lathe, and that “there are not
over six makes of bicycles in the United States with centred axles, cones
and shells turned from tool steel.” Especial significance here attaches to the
word “centred;” and every cone is separately ground in a lathe upon its own
axle.
The makers of the National of Bay City, Mich., have all bearings on
their best models, removable by sliding out intact, using also a peculiar
form of cup adjustment.
At the 1897 cycle shows, the Indiana Bicycle Company, makers of the
Waverley bicycles, exhibited their bicycles with cones sliding on the axles
instead of threading and screwing the cones or cups for adjustment in the
usual way. They used this system during the past year upon many thousand
Waverley bicycles, and the results have demonstrated that this method is
one by which absolutely true bearings can be obtained; the cones and cups
remaining always in the precise relative positions in which they were
ground, the cones in adjustment sliding to or from the cups. In this season’s
construction they have made a slight change, however, and which may be
regarded as a good step toward the long sought for interchangeability in
construction. The change consists in having universal cones fitting either
side of the front or rear wheel hubs and having a double face with two ball
races they can be put on the axles in eight different places or ways, thus
making it impossible to assemble the bearings incorrectly. The construction
is also such that the bearings are as nearly dust proof as it is possible to
make them without binding friction. A bicycle adjusting cone or cup that is
threaded, no matter whether the thread be fine or coarse, must necessarily
have some sort of a spiral twist to it which prevents the cone or cup from
setting perfectly true as ground. The sliding method, however, obviates this
difficulty.

It is worth noting—especially as being a step toward simplicity and
uniformity in construction—that the Humber is now made with the bearing
cups of the rear wheel interchangeable with those of the crank hanger.
Another novelty in its way is the insertion of ball retainers in pedals
made by the American Watch Tool Co. The Sartus pedal, made by the
Warwick & Stockton Co., also uses a somewhat peculiar retainer.

CHAPTER X.
CRANKS, PEDALS AND AXLES.
Second only in importance to the bearings, sprockets and chain of the
modern bicycle, as affecting the smooth running qualities of the machine,
are the axles, cranks and pedals. Many have been the changes and rapid the
march of improvement in these points within the past three years, until,
with the advent of the season of 1898, there seems little that is desirable left
for attainment in this direction.
“The hub is composed of two parts, viz., the axle and the collars or
flanges. The former is a stout bar of iron or steel, forming the true centre of
the wheel. It varies from ½ inch to 1 inch in thickness, and should not be
less than 10 inches in length. The collars are circular plates of metal,
varying in thickness from 3⁄16 to ½ inch at the edges and from ¾ inch to 2
inches in the centre. These are firmly secured to the axle by different
methods. In some makes both collars and axle are one solid piece; but most
are constructed separately, and are firmly united by brazing, increased
facilities being thereby obtained for case-hardening the axle. For nutted
spokes the collars are generally of steel or iron, wide at the edges in order to
take the width of the nipple; out when direct-action spokes are used they are
usually of gun-metal or brass (some few use steel), thin at the edges and
gradually spreading out inward until they reach the axle. This is in order to
give a large surface against the axle, as, unless a firm hold is obtained and
the brazing well done, they are apt to work loose. These gun-metal flanges
have, or ought to have, the exterior lower portion recessed to the depth of
about ¼ inch, the indentations extending some 1½ inches around the axle,
and the holes for the spokes drilled right through. By this a little weight is
saved, and the spokes may easily be tapped out in case of breakage on the
worm and a portion remaining in the hub. The pedals are thus brought
closer together without decreasing the distance between the flanges, which
should never, unless on very small wheels, be less than six inches apart, as,
with a less amount of ‘dish,’ as it is called, the wheel is liable to buckle. The
hubs for the back wheel are usually constructed solid, of either steel, iron or

gun-metal, but occasionally they are complex. They are hollow, simply
having a hole drilled longitudinally through them for the reception of the
back wheel pin. If composed of gun-metal or brass, they should have a steel
core to receive the friction, or they will soon wear out.”
This extract is given complete because it so well describes the regular
construction at wheel centres twenty years ago. The gun-metal flange,
ordinarily written in English catalogues as “gum hubs,” long ago
disappeared; the back wheel, and the non-driven hub of early “safeties”
were gum, with the bearing cups pressed into the ends, much as in the
present fashion. The driven hub was fastened to the steel axle by
“sweating,” aided by a key driven in flush between. In this country the G M
hub did not prevail. The Columbia front hub, for example, comes up before
the mental eye—a great spool of excessive strength and weight, both
threaded and pinned on, so that parting from the axle was not to be thought
of. In the present type the driving axle is a third, independent of the wheels,
and the wheel hubs are either turned from the solid steel bar or drop-forged
from steel, or formed from steel tube, the “bike metal” casting being kept
very quiet in this as in other portions, or else reserved for the people who
suggest that the cheapest way to procure a bicycle is to buy ready made
parts and “build” one’s own.

THE “DIVIDED AXLE.”

(See Page 93.)
Cranks were sometimes shrunk on, sometimes threaded on, and
sometimes held on by wedging keys. Of the many ways, the survivors are
the transverse key known now as the plain “cotter pin and nut,” and the D-
shaped end, the latter being sometimes made like a square with three
corners rounded, as recently on the Wolff-American and Remington, for
example. A shape quite in vogue now is a tapered round, with one or two
sides shaved to a flat and also tapered. Up to the time of the last Garden
Show, two years ago, axles had been made in one piece, and the separate
cranks had been attached in some of these above-mentioned ways, with a
very few exceptions. It may also be said that this was the most ordinary and
obvious mode of construction. But at that show appeared a very simple and
good specimen of divided axle, the Gard, although not the first, for the

Columbia had been trying the idea for a year or two, and had set the
fashion. For some reason the Gard axle—which was joined at the centre by
mortice-and-tenon, each half axle being one piece with its corresponding
crank—has not gone much into use. This is probably because makers have
desired to have devices of their own; at least, there has since that time been
a raging epidemic of “divided axle.” It is quite within bounds to say that at
least a page of this journal would be required to intelligently describe and
illustrate the manifold devices of perverted and costly ingenuity for cutting
the crank axle into two parts and then sticking the sundered parts together
again. There are axles cut on single-tenon and on double-tenon; axles with
straight bevel, zig-zag bevel, circular-notch lap, and with a long “skived”
lap, as if glueing were proposed and a lot of surface were required for a
joint; there are sleeves threaded and sleeves not threaded; there are halved
hollow axles, to be held together by a screw bolt lengthwise through them.
Some of these may perhaps have fallen, together with the makes of which
they were a part, in the conflict of last season, but mostly they are still
extant. Generally, the division is at or near the centre, but sometimes it is
well at one side, thus approaching a more reasonable and quite common
form which has axle and one crank in one piece and attaches to them the
other crank removably. It is admitted that occasion to remove a crank may
occur, and the wearing strain and exposure to dirt are so great on the present
crank bracket that some device for detachability is almost necessary; yet
only the seeking for peculiarity and the feeling on the part of designers that
they must appear to be earning their pay can account for these
constructional frenzies which it is not practicable to describe in detail. Here
we may say that the Humber still adheres to the ancient and substantial
device of separable cranks, held on by the transverse “cotter pin.”

EXTENSION PEDAL—
AMERICAN WALTHAM PEDAL.
AMERICAN WALTHAM.

STRICT “ONE-PIECE” CONSTRUCTION.

In strong contrast with this may be mentioned the Fauber one-piece
construction, by which both the cranks and the axle are made of a single
piece, being passed into place endwise into the open bracket, the bearing
parts and fastenings being next put on and finally the pedals. This patent is
a radical departure in the direction of extreme simplicity and strength,
having obviously no chances of getting loose and giving the desired
absence of nuts and projections about the bracket ends. It seems to be
steadily working its way into use, and it may be easily recognized by the
“star” sprocket, which is commonly used, in connection with it, although
not a necessary part of it.
Heinz & Munschaur of Buffalo, working under a license from Fauber
and some pending patent of their own, describe their own one-piece
construction as being from steel of high carbon, and say they will replace
any which may be broken from any cause whatever. They fasten the spider
to the crank mechanically, not by brazing; the sprocket rim is firmly held,
but is readily detachable; the ball cases contain fifteen 5⁄16 balls with
retainers, “and fit to a shoulder in the hanger, doing away with any threads,
which are liable to give trouble.”

STRAUS REMOVABLE PEDAL RUBBERS.

Among makers using the Fauber construction are the Winton, World,
Defender, Fenton, Outing and Union (the last-named on their special).

CRANK THROW AND VARIABLE GEAR.

The crank, like the axle and most other
parts, used to be very thick and heavy. As the
quality of steel was improved and a more exact
knowledge was obtained of the relative
strength required through the parts of the
structure, the metal was gradually pared away;
in fact, there could be no better object lesson
THE RAMSEY PEDAL. of bicycle evolution as a problem in
mechanical work than to compare, side by
side, the axles, cranks, hubs and pedals of
today with those used in 1878. The old slot for variation of crank throw,
sometimes replaced by three holes, disappeared from the crank long ago.
Right here we might say—without stopping to consider the topic at my
length, because it is not at present in agitation—that two-speed or three-
speed gear and variable pedal stroke, while a tempting subject for inventors,
are not and never can be really practical in the complete sense. To exchange
power for speed or vice versa at will, so that one may vary his “gear ratio”
to suit surface and circumstances, is indeed desirable; it is not in question
that if one could drive the driving-wheel as fifty or as 120 or as anything
between at pleasure it would be a consummation devoutly to be wished—
but this cannot be done. If lever-driving is used, which is the most
manageable mode for this particular object, a variable leverage can be
obtained; but the offsetting disadvantages, which are not small, must be
accepted too. As for shifting gears, they allow only two speeds, and it is not
wholly easy to decide in advance what two are on the whole best; when the
choice has been made one is sure to want more than two and almost sure to
be as little satisfied as before. Moreover, the weight, complication, wear and
cost of these devices are obstacles which must ever bar them out.

CRANK DROP AND CRANK THROW.

There seems to be some disposition to substitute “what is the drop” for
the recent question “what does it weigh?” It is not certain that most people
understand that “drop” means anything more than a lowering of the crank-
hanger and a relatively slight lowering of centre of gravity; it does in fact

mean more. The drop is the lowering of the crank axle below a line drawn
between the two wheel axles. This line is fourteen inches from the ground.
If one will stop to consider that from this must be taken, in use, the drop of
axle, the crank throw, the dip of pedal below its own pivot, and the further
dip of the toe-clip which no strictly up-to-date scorcher can omit without
endangering his caste, he will see that to combine (as some wish and
propose to do) a 3-inch drop with a 7-inch crank is to invite disaster. Not
more than a single inch of clearance from the ground remains. This inch is
as good as a yard while it lasts, but can anybody carry it in his pocket and
thus make sure of always having it? There is the inclination on curves, and
ruts and stones may be encountered, even if riding is confined strictly to the
asphalt.
The length of crank throw is periodically discussed, and there is a
disposition to jump to the conclusion that excessively high gear ratios may
be made easy by increasing throw to 7 or 8 or even to 8½ inches. We do not
think it worth while to go into this discussion at present, but will state five
propositions: 1. The customary crank throw, like the size of wheel and some
other factors, has not been obtained arbitrarily, but as a compromise
between opposing considerations. 2. The labor of high gears is not thus
easily disposed of, because the increased leverage involves a longer circle
of travel, a change in the position of seat relative to pedal, and different
angles in the muscular action. 3. The throw is closely related to the length
of argument set up by some that proper crank upper and lower leg and the
length of foot is fanciful rather than sound. 4. The question of crank throw,
like that of vertical or forward thrust, must be counted among individual
matters and is not to be disposed of by the dictum of any one person set up
against the rest of mankind. 5. A long crank is, however, positively wrong
for use by women, because it increases the high rise of the knee which, for
them, is so ungraceful and is both mechanically and hygienically wrong.

“CLOCK” DIAGRAM—ORDINARY PEDAL.

GEAR RATIO.

This is a proper place to explain gear ratio or “gear,” which is a phrase
not generally well understood, although in constant use; for instance,
women have been known to ask dealers for a wheel with low gear, because
they liked to be seated near the ground. The term gear, which is an
adaptation from the old high wheel, expresses the ratio of forward travel of
the bicycle for each pedal revolution, and yet this has nothing to do with
either the height of the rider or the length of his leg, or the length of the
crank. It depends—with a given size of wheel—solely on the relative size
of the two sprockets, as measured by the number of their teeth. For
example, if the front sprocket has 20 teeth and the rear has 8, it is plain that
each tooth of the former will pull a tooth of the latter; so when the former
has made one turn it has pulled 20 teeth on the latter, thus causing the rear
sprocket and wheel to make two and a half revolutions; as two and a half

times 28 are 70, we say that a bicycle with such sprockets has a 70 gear,
meaning that one revolution of the pedal drives it as far as one pedal
revolution would drive a wheel actually 70 inches in diameter.

“CLOCK” DIAGRAM—RAMSEY PEDAL.
Computation of this ratio is by the rule of three. Thus as the number of
teeth in the small sprocket is to the number in the large one, so is the actual
to the equivalent or running diameter of the wheel. Multiply the wheel
diameter in inches by the number of teeth in the large sprocket, and divide
the product by the number in the small one. Or, for each size of rear
sprocket, multiply the number of teeth in the front one by a certain number
(which is a constant factor) and the result is the gear. Thus, if the rear
sprocket has 7 teeth, multiply by four; if it has 8 multiply by three and a
half; if it has 9 multiply by three and one-ninth; if it has 10, multiply by two
and four-fifths; if it has 11, multiply by two and six-elevenths; if it has 12,
multiply by two and one-third. This is for a twenty-eight-inch wheel; other
sizes require slightly different factors.
For a bevel-gear chainless the method is to multiply the number of teeth
in the crank-shaft gear by the number in the rear pinion on the shaft and
multiply this product by the number of inches of diameter of the rear wheel;

then divide this product by the product of multiplying the number on the
wheel hub by the number on the forward pinion on the shaft.

SHAPES OF CRANK AND SPROCKET.

The original crank or rectangular section has for some years been
generally round, or of an elliptical section tapering to round at its slightest
portion at the end; a few makers have used a bayonet section, or have
chamfered out the inner side; fluted sections have also been used, and one
or two have brought out a crank in the shape of an S, in the not well-
founded notion that it is a good point to depart from rigidity in the driving,
or perhaps imagining that a longer throw is thus obtained in the effective
portion of the stroke. But there is now a decided reversion to the rectangular
and even to the tapered square crank; cranks of bayonet or flattened
diamond section are also quite in vogue, notably on the Fauber one-piece
construction. There does not seem any considerable reason for choice
between round and square, on the score of strength, but the round should
hold nickel better, which always shows an inclination to peel on an edge.
Still another shape may be mentioned, which has some novelty and
neatness—a square or rectangular crank that smooths off into round a few
inches from the axle.
Although not new this year, we may mention the peculiar Victor
reversal of usual construction by putting the axle on the crank, so to speak,
instead of the crank on the axle; the axle is hollow, and the crank stands
through instead of over its end. The Spalding crank has on its end a lug or
boss which fits a sort of heart-shaped end on the axle, the crank proper
being very slightly outside the line of the axle instead of exactly across that.
The Racycle continues its well known peculiarity of putting the
bearings of the crank axle within the crank ends, so as to increase the
distance between the two ball rows and bring the line of chain pull between
them. The Cleveland has a similar arrangement for the same purpose.
There is a disposition to return to the fixed front sprocket in a single
piece, as was the construction before the central “spider” with a removable
rim attached came into use. The spider itself has been strong enough, but
the portions to which its arms were screwed and the rim itself have been
rather slight of late, and the toothed rim has not always had support enough.

There has therefore been a liability in the sprocket to spring under strain or
even to take a “set” out of line, and the change is to be approved on the
whole, especially as a very easy detachability in the front sprocket is rather
a “talking point” than otherwise, since it is rare that any rider avails himself
of it in order to make a change of gear ratio.
Hewitt Brothers, of Cumberland, Md., have a form of sprocket in which
the central portion, which comprises the whole except a rim just large
enough to have the teeth on it, remains fast and immovable on the crank
bracket. This rim, being coned on its inside edge to match a coned recess on
the outer edge of the fixed central portion, has a row of balls between and
runs around on those balls, just as the intermediate spur gear wheel does on
the Hildick chainless, already described and illustrated. For this sprocket
device the usual claim is made that it so increases ease of movement that a
gear of 120 with it requires no more power to drive than one of 70 without
it.

EVOLUTION OF THE PEDAL.

The old pedal was two elliptical disks of sheet steel, joined in the centre
by a tube to pass over the pedal shaft, and having two round rubbers for the
tread, on rods which were riveted into the ends of the side plates. The
bearing was either plain or the wretched “adjustable cone” already
described. Later, corrugated or ovoid rubbers came in; still later, the
sensible “square rubber,” for which the Overman people may claim the
credit. The same pedals went on the early rear-driving “safeties,” for those
not only followed the manner of the high bicycle in general construction as
far as could be done, but utilized its actual parts considerably. Probably in
the process of paring off ounces of weight, the fixed rubber, of whatever
shape, disappeared from the pedal; the serrated-edged or “rat-trap,” which
used to be thought fit only for the race track, took possession, and rubber is
to this day used only in the form of light and removable slips. These have
commonly been of a section like two T’s set end to end, the flat portion
being on the inner sides of the tread plates and the roughened T sides
forming the rest for the foot. The Wolff-American now offers slips of a
triangular section, four for each pedal, which are held by a sheet steel clip
screwed on the side plates, and have three edges each, so that they can be

turned in their seats to present a fresh surface until worn out. The Straus
removable rubber is also simple and practical; it can be slipped over the
pedal plate or removed at will, without need of tools, and another form of it
can also be slipped over the outer ends of the pedal to take any blow from
falls. It does not interfere with a toe-clip.
The pedal shaft grew more slender with other portions. The early ball
pedals, by a strange slip backward, were made without a tube to connect the
bearings and keep off dirt from the foot, nor did this bad method quite
disappear until about a year ago. A recent bad construction which has not
yet wholly gone out is the very thin connecting arm and the very light side
plate, the whole put together so poorly as to be liable to twist. This has been
dubbed the “tin pedal,” and there are pedals today, even on some well-
known makes, which have too much of this characteristic. The Wolff-
American pedal of 1898 is an example of what a pedal should be in point of
quality of steel used and firmness and durability of construction; yet this is
not mentioned as if it were the only praise-worthy one, but only as a good
example of high quality which comes to mind. No very low-priced bicycle
can be found in market with such quality running through it.
The most decisive step in pedal improvement was the appearance of the
Record type, patented by A. C. Davison, an Englishman, consisting
essentially of a central core with two cross-arms thereon, drop-forged in one
piece. This secures strength and permanent alignment of the bearings, and a
single piece of spring steel is brought around to form the tread. As now
made, this continuous plate itself forms an end to take any blows from side
falls and a guard to keep the foot from slipping off. So long as the pedal
remains two faced and rotary it is hard to conceive how this can be
materially bettered. It is a long step from the original pedal of thirty years
ago to the light but strong one of 1898. The earliest one was a round spool;
then triangular in section; then improved by having a balance weight of
acorn shape hung below to keep it presented to the foot. In lever-driven
bicycles it was a plain flat top, as on the American Star, or a round rubber-
covered bar, as on the Facile.
The early fastening to the crank was the natural large nut, screwed up
against the inner side of the crank. Demand for reduction of tread abolished
this in favor of the now almost invariable method of simply screwing into
the crank. But the use of right and left hand threads for this ought to be

discontinued. In effect, the pedal revolves
toward the rear wheel, so that, in theory, if the
bearing should bind there would be a tendency
to turn the pedal shaft in that same direction
within the crank end; to meet this, the right
pedal crank was tapped with a left hand thread,
so that the revolution of the pedal might always
tend to screw the pedal shaft in and not out. But
WOLFF-AMERICAN experience has quite satisfied us that if a pedal
CRANK AXLE. loosens (as it not infrequently does) it is as often
one as the other, and the reason is that the force
which loosens is not the tendency of the pedal to carry the shaft with it, but
the downward pressure coming on the shaft itself. If, therefore, the fit of
thread between shaft and crank is good, and if the shaft is screwed firmly
home, and if (very particularly) the outer edge of the hole in the crank is
turned out so as to allow the pedal shaft’s being driven close up against the
face of the crank, nothing more can be done to prevent loosening, nor need
anything be. The objection to making a left hand thread on one pedal is that
by this common method each pedal must have its own shaft; this bothers
dealers and repairers, and if a rider about to take a long tour wants to
provide against the chance of a break here by carrying a spare pedal shaft
he must carry two instead of one. Simplicity, uniformity and convenience
would gain by making all pedals and cranks with right hand threads.

ANKLE MOTION IN PEDALLING.

The early pedal already mentioned, consisting of a round spool on a
plain wagon bolt, with an outside nut, preceded any knowledge of “ankle
motion,” or rather, it might be said, the extreme forward thrust then made
necessary by the position of the rider with reference to the pedal made ankle
motion impossible; the thrust was with the sole of the foot and the heel
came against the spool as a stop against pushing off. The Ramsey swinging
pedal—or, as the inventor prefers to call it, the under-swinging pedal—is
the farthest possible departure from the original pedal, its sole suggestion of
old-time devices being that it always keeps itself in the position of
presentation for the foot, because the weight hangs below the centre, as on
the balance weight pattern of 1869. The Ramsey can never be caught by the

foot on the edge, as the usual pedal so often is when mounting; even if the
toe-clip (which seems less necessary with this pedal) is insisted on, it is
readily attached and still the tread surfaces remain horizontal and ready for
the foot. But these are comparatively trifling matters; the claims for this
pedal relate to ankling and a more favorable use of the crank leverage.
When a crank is turned by a mere reciprocal or back-and-forth
movement, the radius or leverage of the crank is constantly varying from
full length to zero and back again; the zero position is called “dead centre,”
because all power applied at that point is pushing upon the axle and has no
tendency to rotate the crank. If the hollow of the foot is placed on a pedal,
so that the line of thrust is directly in line with the lower leg, the calf
muscles do no work and the thrust is a straight leg-thrust, as if the foot were
lacking or the leg were wood; the same result would be obtained if the
ankle joint were anchylosed or if the rider habitually maintained his foot at
a right angle to the lower leg—in each of these cases there would be no
ankle motion whatever. Here we may remark that although lever-driving
has its claims its worst defect is that very little ankle motion is possible
when the fulcrum is a swinging one and when the fulcrum is stationary
there can be none at all. In turning a grindstone with the hand, the crank is
easily followed around the circle and thus the full leverage of the crank is
used (subject to some disadvantage from the position of the arm) all the
way around. If we could clasp our toes about the pedal—as the evolutionists
say our ancestors clasped theirs about tree branches—we might pull the
pedal clear around. Ankling, as it is called, consists in alternately raising
and dropping the heel so as to give the foot some hold on the pedal, and
then in pushing forward or “clawing” backward, so as to apply some power
during the greater part of the circle, instead of merely shoving down on the
pedal after it has passed the upper centre. The more this can be done the
more nearly the full leverage of the crank is retained and the more nearly
“dead centre” is abolished.
Constant and uniform application of power—that is to say, effective
application—largely depends on this. For example, the writer (who counts
himself not more than up to good average as to ankling) can climb a pretty
fair grade, on a good surface, with only the forward push over the upper
centre. Of course, people differ in pedalling, as in other features of riding,
but ankle motion must be deemed one of the best tests of correct pedalling

and therefore of good riding; it is no fad, but in the utmost degree practical,
and whatever contributes to it is, so far, valuable.

GARD CRANK AND DIVIDED AXLE.

THE RAMSEY SWINGING PEDAL.

(See Pages 90 and 91.)
The usual pedal has its tread above the pivotal point; the Ramsey pedal
reverses this and always has the tread below that point. Its great claim is
that “it transmits automatically, in conformity with the arc of the circle

described by the pedal, the applied power of the rider, thus maintaining the
full leverage of the crank over a vastly increased arc of the circle; in other
words, it converts the straight push into an improved and automatic ankle
motion and renders possible a higher development of foot power than has
hitherto been obtained.” The ingenious “clock” diagrams, the circle being
cut into twelve divisions representing hours and of 30 degrees each,
illustrate this. As the inventor is pleading his own cause it need not be
counted against him that he unconsciously exaggerates the foot positions
somewhat, and when he says that a continual pressure may be applied
“from 11.30 to 8, or 8½ hours out of 12,” our comment is that we think it
possible for a good rider who pays attention to doing it to apply pressure
thus on the usual pedal. But the difference is that the Ramsey gives a better
hold to the foot, thus applying mere pressure instead of merely “some”
pressure, and makes the ankling semi-unconscious and automatic; this
forms a substantial improvement, and, as the inventor puts it, “it gives ankle
motion where there was none before, and those who ankled some now ankle
more.”
Incidentally, the twitch which many riders give to the chain slack by
incorrect pedalling is more easily avoided with this pedal, and, of course,
there is less trouble about being “caught on the centre,” hence hill climbing
and control in crowded places are favored; as one trouble with a high gear
is in passing over the centre at slow speed, the Ramsey pedal has an
advantage in control for this reason. The “pick-up,” either when mounting
or when quickly spurting ahead, is also particularly good with it. Another
peculiarity of this remarkable pedal is that its tread is as much below the
pivot at the top as at the bottom, so that the leg reach is increased near the
ground and decreased at the top. This will be valued in practice, according
as the riders find it comfortable to drive (as does the writer) with a full leg
reach, or not; yet it is plain that the Ramsey must be a very desirable pedal
for women, because it decreases the objectionable rise of the knee.
The construction is clearly shown in the cut. A removable screw
replaces the usual pedal shaft, and the pedal will fit any wheel, but it
requires lowering the saddle or using a lower frame, and it therefore rather
strikingly suits the present fad for reduced frame heights. Although a single
row of balls has to be used, they are one-quarter inch, eighteen in number,
and two-thirds are claimed to be always under pressure. As to durability, the

inventor says that after some thousand miles’ use under average conditions,
the nickel on the cones has been found intact; this must be explained by the
large number and size of the balls, the large diameter of their track, the
correct construction of the bearing (which is a four-point of right-angled V
section), and the complete exclusion of dirt and retention of oil. In the last
particular nothing could be more perfect.
After careful practical test, we think the inventor’s claims are well
sustained. The Ramsey pedal is certainly fast, and distinctly good on hills.
Other conditions being equal, it should beat the ordinary pedal in pace and
endurance, and we regard it as one of the most practical contributions of the
season.

CHAPTER XI.
THE SADDLE.
Naturally, the saddle for the steel horse followed that long used on the
living one. It began as a pear-shaped sheet metal plate, inclosed between
two pieces of pigskin, sometimes with a thin padding of hair and sometimes
without. Of course, this was hard underneath and rigid on the edges, and
gradually there was enforced consideration of the practical difference
between sitting on a broad-surfaced horse saddle, with nothing for the legs
to do, and a concentration of pressure on a small surface, with the legs
compelled to be in constant working up and down. Take a chair—not a big,
stuffed Turkish chair, but any decent, ordinary one—and observe how large
a portion of the body the support is spread over; then assume the nearly
vertical position and observe how small the available surface left for
support, and it will not seem strange that the saddle is a serious problem in
cycling, and one not wholly solved yet.
The first step in advance was the appearance of the “suspension,” the
upper plate being left off and the leather being hung from three points of
support, without padding; this left the edges flexible. In later years the so-
called “hammock” type appeared, and in essence this is still in vogue in all
the saddles bearing the name of “hygienic,” the leather being hung from the
front as one point of support, and a cantle (formerly of steel, but now
largely of wood), serving to give the needed breadth at the rear. Yet the
principle is the same as originally used, many years ago, by Lamplugh &
Brown of Birmingham in their “suspension,” and afterward in their “Long
Distance” suspension. And this principle can never be quite abandoned.
The early saddles had some form of spring under them, and were not
made to attach without one. The “boneshaker” saddle rested flatly on a very
long plate, like a leaf from an ordinary wagon spring, extending from the
head clear back to the rear wheel; but this was not so much from choice as
dictated by the construction as a whole. On the high wheel the usual support
was a flat spring, hinged at the head, and curving back to slide slightly on
the backbone by some sort of movable clip. This was varied in several ways

—by curved or spiral springs, and even by suspension from enormously
thick rubber bands; but the most notable one was the Arab Cradle, a spring
formed of a single piece of steel rod, bent about into four acting single
coils, which had an open-and-shut work like that of the familiar safety pin
of the nursery.
The early rigid saddle survives substantially in the “hard” saddle of the
Brown type; the old “suspension” is in the type with hard nose, steel cantle
and stiff sides; the “hammock” is represented by the soft-nosed and
flexible-sides saddle of the Hunt X type, having wood cantle and aiming to
support gently everywhere; the air saddle, one of the oldest, reappears in
pneumatics of various sorts; the old “pan” seat is now in the Christy, with
solid metal base, which does not touch the body, but supports by raised
pads; the “cradle” is represented by various looped wire springs, usually of
a few wound coils, which are to yield by compression. The term “pigskin,”
as designating the bicycle saddle, seems, however, to have entirely dropped
out, as has also the use of that material itself. Cycle saddles are now made
almost exclusively of tanned leather, and it may be suggested that the
increase in the number of cyclers has outrun the increase in the number of
pigs; but probably the saddle maker has some commercial reason for the
change.

SAFETY SADDLES.

A popular type of saddle on the early safety was the Garford. It had a
leather top, which was mounted on a U-shaped spring, the open part of the
U being in the rear. Necessarily this spring was a very heavy one, but it
undoubtedly served the purpose for which it was designed, as, owing to its
great height, it was particularly useful on the low frames then in use by
those who desired a longer reach. In England, all bicycle saddles are made
larger, longer and heavier in every way than our American models, and they
are fitted with some sort of a flat or coiled spring.
A little later again, these large saddles were abandoned for the saddle of
a smaller size, having a hooked pommel and steel cantle fastened to a very
rigid and unyielding spring, and had leather tops, and of which the type
known as the Sager was very popular. Another popular type still in use was
known as the Mesinger, the base of which consisted of strands of rattan

woven into a style resembling chair seats, and which was covered by a layer
of stitched felt and leather, suitably mounted on round wire springs. The
leather portion of this had an opening of a somewhat irregular V shape. The
Climax saddle, which had a small degree of popularity also, was made of a
series of small coiled wire springs which were nickel plated, but even this
style of saddle was sometimes covered with thin pieces of leather. The next
change in construction, as a variation on these, was produced by the makers
of the Hunt saddle. Their saddle had a leather cover lined with all wool felt,
which rested upon a laced framework of leather strands, these being
fastened like the Mesinger, and having a bent wood cantle instead of one of
sheet steel. The makers of the Sager saddle also made a pneumatic saddle
which had a flat wooden base, through which protruded two valves, which
were connected to two small rubber inner tubes, and these were covered by
a leather covering which was laced to the wooden base. This pattern with
some modifications is still made by the Sager Company. The above list, of
course, is somewhat incomplete from the fact that of the many freak saddles
that were introduced few survived, and therefore are hardly worth
considering here as leading up to the present types of saddles shown in
1898.

THE CHRISTY TYPE.

At the 1895 cycle show was shown for the first time by Messrs. A. G.
Spalding & Bros., the distinctive type of saddle now so well known as the
Christy. At that time the base was of cast aluminum, having a smooth edge,
but the body of the plate was perforated with holes, and it had a long peak
or pommel. It was mounted upon a flat steel spring. Within the past two
years the saddle has become justly popular, not only among riders, but
among physicians who have made a study of the cycle saddle question.
Over five thousand well-known physicians and surgeons in this country
have given favorable written opinions concerning it. The changes in this
year’s type are mainly in the details of construction, the same broad, general
principles prevailing. The metal frame is now constructed of sheet steel,
which is highly polished and nickel plated. The leather pads have been
lengthened and thickened. The springs are made of a continuous piece of
round wire spring steel, and the seat-post clamp has two sets of screws, one
on each side of the clamp. The bolt in the pommel of the saddle, which

formerly had a round head, is now made with a head of a flattened L shape,
thus covering more surface, and the lock-nut underneath the saddle is
prevented from loosening or falling off by being struck with a centre punch
after it is set in place. One of the illustrations shows for the first time their
latest model of Christy saddles, known as the racing Christy. As will be
noted the usual construction has been somewhat departed from. Instead of
the metal edge or flange being turned down as in the other models this
flange is turned up, and the saddle pads run continuously on each side from
the cantle to the ends of the long pommel. The entire model of course is
very narrow, and the object of the long pommel is to permit the track or the
road racer to slide forward on the pommel in starting to sprint, or climbing a
hill, only using the pommel to hold himself in place, and thus prevent
lateral displacement of the body while under rapid pedalling movement.

THE CHRISTY—MEN’S. THE CHRISTY—WOMEN’S.

THE CHRISTY—
THE “SAFETY POISE.”
UNDER SIDE.

The hygienic feature of the Christy saddle has been universally
recognized and confirmed by testimonials from all the leading physicians
and surgeons in the country. It is moulded in anatomical conformity to the
parts, and comfortable cushions are so placed as to receive the bony
prominence of the pelvis, sustaining the weight of the body, the open centre
protecting those tender parts susceptible to injury. The frame being
constructed of metal, maintains its correct shape under all circumstances.
By slight changes here and there, more saddle than ever has been embodied
in the 1898 models, although the general lines of the saddle are unchanged.
All models are made with the continuous wire spring, greatly simplifying
the construction and materially strengthening the entire saddle. The
cushions are upholstered with the finest curled hair moulded to proper form,
and always retain their elasticity and shape. The five models or styles
comprise different widths and vary sufficiently to satisfy all tastes. Many of
the prominent bicycle manufacturers of the country now equip their cycles
with the Christy, or list it as an option.

THE CHRISTY RACING SADDLE.

THE SAGER LINE.

The Sager Manufacturing Co. of Rochester, N. Y., one of the oldest
makers of saddles in this country, are showing this year a new saddle which
they call the “Flexible.” They also say that they “are willing to stake their
reputation that the flexible line of saddles comes nearer to a solution of the
much discussed saddle problem than anything heretofore presented.” They
are entirely new in construction and appearance, and are very simple, and
beyond question they will suit a greater variety of riders than anything
heretofore produced. One of their saddles has a solid leather base, on which
are placed pads covered with leather, and stitched to the lower base. The
pads are made in two forms. In one form the pads extend from the pommel
to the cantle, having an open centre, however, from the cantle to a point
about midway of the saddle. In the other form of construction the pads are
on each side of the base, and the pommel is not covered, but it is depressed
below the line of the pads, with an opening running from the end of the
pommel between the pads to the cantle. They have also improved their
Hygienic saddles by adding to the seating surface; also a new take up, and
improved edge binding, and also say that they will retain their shape as well
as the old hard leather tops did—something, it is claimed, no hygienic
saddle has ever done before. They also show a pneumatic moulded saddle,
which is moulded to fit the body, and the entire seating surface is padded
with air. A deep depression in the centre prevents any possibility of any
uncomfortable pressure. They also make a racing saddle, which is
composed of veneered wood, cross grained, and glued together, and
covered, of course, with leather. Another form of anatomical pattern of
theirs has a solid wooden base on which are placed two leather pads which
are fastened to the base by a strap of nickel-plated steel which is screwed
thereto. A nickel-plated steel plate also extends between the pads from the
pommel to the cantle. The Sager Pneumatic saddle consists of a three-ply
wood base to which is fitted a leather cover. Its peculiarity lies in the use of
two separate air tubes, which are inflated with a regulation tire pump, but
these tubes are entirely independent of each other, thus preventing any
rolling or side motion and giving perfect steadiness. There are two holes
through the saddle in the centre of the depressions on the rear part of the
seat, which serve the double purpose of ventilation and also to retain the
base of the pelvis, and the saddle is laced down the centre, which prevents

any undue pressure there; the present style may be considered a decided
improvement over their former models of pneumatic saddles. The Sager Co.
also make a saddle called the Peck, but it may more properly be called a
seat, being radically different from anything in the market. The rider sits
upon a formed cushion seat and not astride. The body finds a steady
support, the reciprocating parts of the seat support while giving free
movement to the limbs. There is no pommel to this seat, and therefore this
saddle is particularly suitable to those riders of either sex who desire to sit
upright. If properly adjusted it is claimed that there is not the slightest
danger of sliding off the seat, and that the absence of the pommel does not
in anyway interfere with steadiness in riding.

THE MESINGER SADDLE.

The Mesinger Saddle Company show by far the best model line yet
made of this well-known make for 1898. It is softer, both in the back and on
the pommel, than any of their previous styles, and softer on the pommel
than any saddle ever shown by them. The reason for this is that the weaving
of the rattan gives the strength, durability and elasticity, while, being wood
fibre, it is not affected by water, and cannot stretch or sag. On this springy,
but non-stretchable base is a cover of felt, over which is leather to
waterproof it and give it a finished appearance. A V-shaped opening is cut
in the centre of the cover, anatomically formed to relieve all injurious
pressure, ventilate, prevent numbness, or any possible injury to the delicate
parts of the body. The general shape of the saddle is made to conform to the
anatomical requirements of the body, the ends of the pelvis bones being
supported on the felt on each side of the anatomically shaped opening and
the curves of the outer sides of the saddle conforming to the folds of the
flesh naturally formed in pedalling.
The Mesinger people are now manufacturing a saddle with an upturned
cantle, model H, which is an excellent specimen of this shape of saddle.
They have not only obtained the desirable features of this style of saddle but
have produced a very soft seat. The base is made of woven rattan, which
cannot sag, and this saddle will always retain its shape. The rattan is woven
in such a manner as to give a peculiar flexibility to the sides; presents a soft,
yielding side surface to the leg when pedalling.

The Mesinger hygienic saddle is made with
an outer finish like their regular saddle, but the
base of this saddle, instead of rattan, is made of
rawhide. The base is made of one continuous
strip of rawhide, interwoven with leather, and
passing through the wood cantle. The
“RUBBER NECK.” interweaving is made in such a manner that the
weight of the body, resting upon the leather,
always keeps the central strands tight and firm.
The peculiar shape of their spring with its tension actually takes up any
stretch. The saddle is light and of good appearance.
The principal points of the new Mesinger
saddles are found in the new base, which
consists of a very strong woven strap (web),
specially made for this purpose, laced through
the cantle and nose, and also a very strong and
effective stretcher, by which the saddle can be
made hard or soft, as desired by the rider,
without removing the saddle from the bicycle.
From a mechanical standpoint their saddles will
recommend themselves everywhere; they are BERNASCO.
soft and pliable from the tip of the nose to the
edge of the cantle, and having an anatomical
shape there can be absolutely no pressure on the tender parts of the body.
Some materials used in hygienic saddles are not pliable enough, others
stretch out of shape. The woven strap which is used in the base of their
saddles yields sufficiently and conforms to the body. Being seven-eighths of
an inch wide it cannot show through the felt and leather cover, as narrow
leather strips or other materials do after having been ridden for a length of
time. They also make a padded saddle for racing on the plan of their regular
saddles, with the exception that it has a concave wooden cantle.

THE GARFORD SADDLES.

The Garford Manufacturing Company show seven models of padded
saddles, furnished with various styles of pads and springs. Their leading

saddle this year is one known as the “Cavalry.”
It has a wood base which is finished with shellac
and varnish and the rear part covered with
leather, corresponding with the top. The top has
raised pads, with a decided upward curve at the
rear. The pommel drops over from the front
edge of the pads, giving a very racy appearance.
This is made with either a plain flat spring, or a
GARFORD—“128.” spring with two rear coils. The women’s model
is about one inch shorter in the pommel. Their
hygienic saddle is made with raw hide strands
from the pommel to the wooden cantle in the rear, and has an adjustment so
arranged as to permit tightening of the strands alone, or the strands and the
leather top together. The top is made of two thicknesses of leather with felt
between, and has a large opening in the centre. Another one of their models
has a wood base somewhat similar to their Cavalry saddle, but the curve of
the saddle from the front to the rear somewhat resembles the T or Truss
saddle made by this company during the past four years, which was one of
the most popular saddles ever made. This new model has a padded top, the
pad extending to the top of the pommel, and having a deep impression in
the centre opening out at the back, thus forming two raised pads at the rear.

THE TILLINGHAST
TILLINGHAST.
FRAME.

THE GILLIAM LINE.

The Gilliam saddles for 1898 present a wide variety of styles and
shapes, sufficient to meet the demands of every kind of rider.
Their No. 76 is a road or racing saddle, made with a light steel base as
foundation, over which is glued thick all-wool felt, the whole being covered
top and bottom with the best quality leather. Their No. 76 is a woman’s
saddle made on the same lines. They furnish both these saddles with cantle
raised somewhat giving more dip or curve to the seat.
The Gilliam Hygienic laced saddle has a truss spring bolted to a hickory
cantle (bent by special process), over which is stretched a stripped single
piece rawhide frame as shown in cut. By folding and stitching the rawhide
in front they obtain the same amount of strength in material as in the rear or
broader portion. This at the same time gives a narrower pommel. The top or
cover of their Nos. 70 and 75 saddles is made of boarded pebble leather,
and being lined with all-wool felt, makes a firm and pliable cushion over
the frame. The front end of the soft top covering is not fastened to the
frame, as is some times seen in this style of saddle. The advantage in not
attaching the top to the frame proper is that it assumes the shape of the rider
without stretching or wearing the top.
The Gilliam Company also make a padded saddle, which has a
continuous laminated open frame, and which is covered with rawhide
drawn tightly over it, thus making a pliable base upon which are built pads
of all-wool felt. This pliable base prevents the pads from matting and
getting out of shape, and from the nature of the construction the weight of
the rider is made to force the pads toward the centre instead of toward the
sides. They furnish it with either coiled or truss springs.

THE BROWN TYPE.

One of the most popular saddles of the day is that known as the Brown.
The base is of three pieces of wood firmly joined together. After being
thoroughly sized with glue, this is covered with a strong linen and
waterproofed with two coats of lead paint. Over this is stretched a cover of
oak-tanned saddle leather, which is hand-sewed and finely finished. It is
built upon absolutely correct anatomical lines and never loses its shape. It is
strong, light and very handsome and finished in black or russet. It is entirely

a hand-made saddle and made by skilled workmen. The design of the
Brown saddle is one of perfect curves in all its parts.
Variations in this type consist in furnishing them with either flat or wire
spring and also with an easy coil spring in the rear. The saddle tops are also
furnished in broader pattern and with wool felt between the lining, making a
soft easy seat for road riding. The type is also produced in juvenile models
and models for ladies’ use, and a broad, heavy padded one, which they call
their “fat man’s” saddle.

THE “UNIVERSAL” SADDLE.

The “Universal” saddle, into the
construction of which rubber and
aluminum alone enter, is built upon the
principle that the weight of the rider
should rest upon the flesh covering the
pelvic bones as well as upon the bones
themselves. The surface of the saddle is a
perforated aluminum plate ten inches
broad, with depressions to conform
THE “UNIVERSAL.” anatomically to the positions assumed by
both the male and female pelvis when the
body is in a sitting posture. There is no pommel, and the centre opening
prevents the pressure calculated to work injurious results. Aluminum being
a heat dispellor, the surface of the saddle is cool at all times. Instead of
spiral steel springs the seat plate is supported upon pneumatic rubber bulbs.
These completely separate the metal post springs from the seat proper, and
by thus avoiding contact between the metal of the wheel and the seat plate,
effectually do away with vibration, which, it is claimed, is responsible for
the nervousness and headaches experienced by the users of some saddles.
These, briefly stated, are the leading claims of the Dr. Richmond
“Universal,” set forth in a circular letter to the manufacturers by several
well known New York physicians. A good idea of its design and
construction may be gained from a glance at the accompanying cuts.

THE HUNT SADDLES.

The saddles made by the Hunt
Manufacturing Company of Westboro, Mass.,
have long been deservedly popular, not only on
account of their design, but also because of the
excellent material used in their construction.
One of their most popular saddles is known as
their “Hygienic,” and of this they were the
introducers. The leather cover is lined with all-
BROWN. wool felt and rests upon a laced framework of
leather strands. These strands are not raw hide
or alum-tanned leather, which readily absorb
moisture and also stretch and become brittle and hard when dry, but a
specially tanned leather which is elastic and impervious to moisture. This
leather is, of course, much more expensive than raw hide or alum-tanned
leather used by the makers of cheap saddles who imitate their construction.
Their ’98 Hygienic saddles have a depression in the middle in the rear, the
object of which is to prevent danger to the spinal column by jolt. The
leather top has an opening in the centre to afford ventilation and prevent
perineal pressure. A modification of their Hygienic pattern consists in
placing pads on the top of them, the saddle, of course, having the same
laced framework found in their other patterns, so that in this construction
framework as well as pads yield under the rider’s weight. For those riders
who do not care for the padded saddle with a depression running between
the pads, they furnish a pattern of padded saddle which only has a
depression on the front and rear of the padded portion and not through the
centre. Another variation in their Hygienic pattern consists in using strands
of a special woven fabric instead of leather, making the whole leather
smaller than their other styles, thus adapting it to young and light weight
riders who only require small sitting space. They also make a rigid saddle,
which is constructed of two plates of sheet steel so shaped that the edges of
the leather cover, which is lined with thick felt, are firmly held by the two
plates when assembled, without stitching or rivets. Another new type of
saddle made by this company is a saddle absolutely without a pommel. It is
of the padded pattern, with leather strand supports, similar to their Hygienic
padded saddle, but without pommel. This model is said to be very
comfortable for riders who have no difficulty in maintaining their balance
without the pommel.

SUNDRY OTHER MAKERS.

The “Stylish Gordon” saddle, made by the Beckley-Ralston Co.,
Chicago, is one that has made a reputation for itself during the past two
seasons. It is a well-made saddle and has a racy appearance, with no edges
to pedal over or retard the circulation in long distance riding. The same dish
that gives the racing man a brace affords in solid comfort models rooms for
a thick sanitary felt padding. The Gordon has a steel base covered with felt
and leather, and this steel base (which was made from a master plate) was
the result of long experiment, to produce a perfect model, nearly fifty hand-
made models being rejected before one that was considered perfect was
produced. The Perry Pneumatic saddle was placed on the market last year. It
was one of the first to combine anatomical formation with the added feature
of a pneumatic air cushion. One of its peculiarities is that it can be ridden
deflated as well as inflated. The saddle is constructed by placing upon a
steel plate, which is covered with a layer of felt to prevent friction, an
inflated rubber air cushion, the whole being covered with leather above and
below sewed together by hand.

GILLIAM FRAME. GILLIAM.

The Phillips Hammock saddle has the base made of linen cord covered
with leather. This cord of course is not of unyielding texture, and therefore
conforms to the movements of the rider and the bicycle. It permits an easy
oscillating motion corresponding to the natural action of the limbs in
pedalling. This saddle presents somewhat peculiar features in construction.
Instead of the cantle being round as in the usual saddle construction the
back of the saddle is perfectly square or straight. It is made entirely without
rivets or screws and the leather portion of the saddle only extends about

two-thirds of the distance between the pommel and the cantle. The base is
made of one continuous cord looped to the pommel and cantle, a sliding
loop changing the shape or width of the saddle to the liking of the rider
without the use of any tools. The adjusting of the rods forming a universal
joint at the centre of the cantle is one of the peculiar features of this
invention. It is also to be noted that each cord on the top of the saddle has a
return strand beneath with a free motion over to the cantle, so that the extent
of the saddle’s flexibility is measured by twice its length.
The Safety Poise Saddle is the invention of Dr. Otis K. Newell of
Boston. The perineal or middle flesh pressure is entirely eliminated by its
use. It is the only open frame saddle in the market, and the cut gives an
excellent idea of its construction. They show a new model for 1898, which
is about two-thirds of the size of the regular pattern, and is constructed so
that the rider sits more on the saddle than in it. This change has been made
so that the rider at once accustoms himself to the saddle.
The makers of the Rusch have departed entirely from the idea of using
for the foundation of a saddle a metal or wooden base, and construct the
base of their saddles of specially prepared oak tanned leather. It has an
indentation in the centre which is one of their patented mechanical features.
This centre depression is sufficiently deep to prevent irritation and allows
the use of sloping sides. The cantle is so placed under the body of the saddle
that it is almost impossible to strike against it either in mounting or in
pedaling.
The Bernasco Adjustable Saddle is built in two parts, so that it is
adjustable to the form of all riders.
The Tillinghast Hygienic saddle has a continuous open frame work of
bent ash, on top of which are fastened leather straps covered with a padded
leather top.
The P. & F. Anatomical saddle has a rigid base covered all over, in the
pommel of which is constructed a mechanical pneumatic device which does
not require any valves, and cannot get punctured. It gives the effect of a full
pneumatic construction without using a depressed pommel or raised pads.
The La Tulip saddle is made wholly of raw hide, which the makers
claim will not stretch or sag; also that it weighs less than one pound. It is

made on some new ideas of anatomical construction. The “Rubber Neck”
saddle has a steel base covered with a rubber cushion in the shape of
vertical rubber tubes forming a honeycomb which yields to every motion.
This honeycomb also produces air spaces or cells extending from the plate
to the cover, which keep the saddle cool and thoroughly ventilated.
The Bunker Pneumatic saddle is similar in shape to a flattened crescent,
and is used transversely to the frame. A variation of it is somewhat of the
regulation shape, and is provided with a yielding rubber cushion an inch
thick over its entire surface, having at each side of the centre a depression to
receive the pelvis bones, and an opening from the centre to the front to
relieve all pressure. They also make a pneumatic saddle which is open in
the centre, the whole construction being only a rim which is inflated.
The Glover Perfection Saddle has a platform of crucible steel so shaped
and coiled that a diamond-shaped opening is left in the central and front
parts of the saddle, thus preventing any pressure at these points and also
affording proper ventilation. Instead of having a horn or protuberance in
front to bump against the Glover saddle drops away from the plane on
which the rider sits, making it impossible to strike it in riding. The Glover
saddle can also be ridden without tilting it up at an angle. The springs are
reversible, and the leather cover is easily removable. The coiled steel
platform is padded with felt. This saddle was designed by a physician who
has long been an enthusiastic wheelman.

IN GENERAL.

It is practically impossible to construct a bicycle saddle which will meet
the views and requirements of all riders. The style of riding and the rider
determine the pattern of saddle best suited to each individual. Care should
be taken in the adjustment and tilt of the saddle. It will often be found that a
slight change in the tilt will render comfortable a saddle which has been the
cause of much complaint. For average riders and riding a nearly horizontal
position is advised. For racing and fast road riding, however, lower the nose
of the saddle in order that the weight of the rider may be thrown more on
the pedals.
To get perfect comfort the saddle must be properly adjusted. It all
depends on whether you want a seat or a saddle. A seat is to sit on. A saddle

is simply a support. If you put your weight all
on your seat you lose the power of your weight.
It is harder work to go fast, but perhaps it is
easier for those who do not want to ride far and
fast. With a saddle it is best to tip up the cantle
and put more weight on the pedals. You can ride
fast this way, but it involves more muscular
LA TULIP. exertion. As a general rule ladies prefer the seat;
gentlemen, the saddle. The saddle must not be
placed too far back or front, but well toward the
pedals, to give more weight to the stroke. As to height, the right height is
when the rider, sitting on the saddle and his foot parallel with the ground,
can just rest the heel on the pedal at its lowest position. This leaves room
for the necessary ankle play.
The rider of the bicycle must remember that not only are the legs
affected by riding, but the exercise benefits nearly every portion of the
human body. This seems at first to be rather odd, but at the same time it is
perfectly true, and has been proven by the best experiments. The new rider,
after taking a ten-mile jaunt, expects to feel tired in the legs, and is
considerably, not to say disagreeably, surprised to find himself aching all
over. Probably he has more discomfort in the thighs than anywhere else, or
maybe the ache is in the loins, back or between the shoulder blades. A
number of muscles in the arms, shoulders and chest begin to ache, and he is
quite unable to explain it. In fact, the thought that his fatigue is due to the
character of the saddle of his wheel is probably the last thing to enter his
mind. To ride a bicycle and avoid the discomforts mentioned, you want a
saddle which conforms to the shape of the body and prevents pressure on
the sensitive parts.
As a rule, sufficient care is not taken in selecting a saddle suited to the
rider. Many people in purchasing a bicycle accept unquestioned the saddle
found on the cycle at the time of purchase without stopping to determine
whether or not it is adapted to their use. Some actual trial of a saddle should
be insisted upon, for a saddle that “fits anybody” is really a saddle that fits
nobody.
No saddle is perfect. The perfect saddle, as the public looks at it, is the
saddle that fits everybody. It will never be made, for “people are different.”

The true wisdom of saddle buying is to get one that will fit you. Choose a
saddle as you choose a pair of shoes. Wrong shoes cause corns. So do
wrong saddles. Saddle corns are decidedly uncomfortable.
During the season of 1898 the rider will, more than ever before, be
allowed the privilege of stipulating the make of saddle he will have
furnished on the cycle he buys, because competition in the cycle trade has
reached such a stage that only cycles with exceptional advantages in the
way of equipment will sell easily. With the reduction in price of bicycles
has come a reduction in the price of saddles, so that at present the difference
in price between saddles of recognized merit and inferior imitations is not
so great as the difference in actual value.

SEAT POSTS.

Of seat posts little need be said. Such adjustability in height as once
existed was had by the slot in crank, the saddle position being fixed. The
rear-driver allows a large vertical adjustment, which is still obtained by
telescoping one tube into another. In this there is no recent change save in
the modes of fastening, which are more in the direction of internal binders,
nearly all working on the principle of expanding one of the tubes to bind on
the other by the use of a wedge. Many of these devices are neat, convenient
and invisible. A peculiarity is the one on the Wolff-American, working by
an external lever and using an internal “thumb-latch,” which jams of itself
when borne down to the horizontal. The goose-neck spring stem, of the day
when saddles were borne high above the frame, has disappeared; but if the
present craze for short heads and extreme drop continues the tall rider will
be compelled to return gradually to this or some other device for raising up,
including the long draw-out of the stem which used to be characteristic
about six years ago.

CHAPTER XII.
HANDLEBARS, GRIPS AND BRAKES.
The old-time handlebar was
almost invariably passed directly
through projecting lugs on the
“head,” made for the purpose of
holding it. For a number of years it
was straight and solid, varying from
fifteen inches in length to the other
extreme of even thirty or thirty-two.
The usual handle or grip was pear-
shaped, although in a few instances
round; the common material was
horn, but wood and rubber were
sometimes used. The common
mode of fastening was to work the
KELLY ADJUSTABLE BAR. end of the bar into a sort of “tang”
like the end of a caseknife or
similar tool and hold the grip on by
a thin nut run on the bar and let down into a cavity in the end of the handle.
This illustrates again adaptation of old devices to new uses.
As lightness came to be more considered, makers having also found it
easier to manipulate hollow steel tubing, the hollow bar was introduced.
The dropped and the cow-horn pattern were not long in coming. The
present type of bicycle compelled the ends of the bar to be carried backward
in order to bring the grips within reach of the rider; but the various curves
upward and downward, with ramshorn and other twists which have
sometimes seemed almost humorous, are of such recent date that they need
not be referred to in detail. The straight pear-shaped grip became a T, then a
spade, then a shape resembling the short and chunky pistol stock; then—on
the rear driving safety—settled into the oblong shape, slipped upon the end

of the hollow tube, which has become so familiar and has hardly changed
except in the material used to make it.
Concerning the length of bar—more
properly, width, since the point is the
measurement in a direct line between the
grips—the London Cyclist, in a long and
ponderous article about three years ago,
argued against the short bar, declaring that
“its absurdity is apparent.” The reasons
given were two: that a bar less than what
the editor dictatorially pronounced the
proper length (about 23½ inches) brings the
grip around in the way of the thigh in
making a short turn, and that a short bar is PLYMOUTH WOOD BAR.
hygienically wrong. The hands should not
be brought nearer than when they hang at
the sides. “By measuring the distance between the shoulders, or between the
seams of the coat, and then throwing the handle grips 1½ to 2 inches farther
out on each side, or by measuring the distance between the shoulders over
all from outside to outside of the shoulders, riders will obtain the proper
length of bar for their own individual requirements.” The writer proceeded
to say that men put their hands on the bar not because the grips are too far
apart, but because the grips are set too low, and he found a supporter in a
Coventry firm who said they had always adhered to 23½ inches and wished
“manufacturers as a body would follow their own convictions more and not
be so led by a few riders who think they are authorities on cycle
construction.”
As to this, a maker may well take a stand
and stick to it when impossibilities are
demanded, as when the craze for lightness
called for steady reduction in weight without
impairment of strength, or when, as now, people
seem to call for such excess of crank-hanger
drop as involves risk of “drop” of a disagreeable
nature; short of such positive folly, and in
general, the maker will do well to keep in touch

LYNDHURST with the public and provide what is wanted,
ADJUSTABLE BAR. even if it be not the most rational and if he
reserve the right of having his private judgment.
As to length of handlebar, we count this, along
with crank-throw and saddle, a matter for individual choice rather than for
the dictum of any individual authority. A long bar is certainly a plague in
passing through doors and in leaning a wheel safely; it is probable that
women more or less err in having saddle too low and handles too high; it is
certain that fashion (apparently set by the scorcher class) governs the bar
and the grips; and yet the better course for “authority” is to let the rider do
as he pleases, which he is pretty sure to do willy-nilly.

THE MODERN HANDLEBAR.

As above remarked, the plain straight bar of the high wheel could not be
used on the modern type. The first bend was the simple one of pulling the
grips back in the same plane with the bar, until they pointed straight back or
nearly so; then the intermediate curving set in. Now, the commonest form is
a simple bend, which brings the grips below the top tube, and whether the
wheel will turn around on the steering or strikes on the bar seems to be the
test that divides the true up-to-date pacer as a class from the unclassed
“citizens and strangers.” But between the head and the grip the bar may
wander variously in length consumed and in vagary of curve, the very latest
being a downward-slanted reversed V form, which joins with the short head
in showing that the rider “has a new ’98.”
In connection with the distinctive triple
front fork already described, the Lyndhurst
has a bar arranged to slide on the upper tubes
of the fork, instead of inside the head; it is
also reversible, thus giving several positions.
Many forms of bar adjustable at the head are
also in the market. That of the Kelly
Company of Cleveland is hinged at the centre,
and the grips may be moved up or down
directly, with an extreme travel, each position
being capable of being firmly locked, the