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Title: The Psychology of Management

Author: Lillian Moller Gilbreth

Release date: July 10, 2005 [eBook #16256]
Most recently updated: December 12, 2020

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT ***

THE PSYCHOLOGY
OF

MANAGEMENT

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO

THE PSYCHOLOGY
OF

MANAGEMENT

The Function of the Mind in Determining,
Teaching and Installing Methods
of Least Waste

BY

L.M. GILBRETH, PH.D.

New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1921

1914,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1914

TO MY
FATHER AND MOTHER

CONTENTS
CHAPTER I

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE
1
PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT
Definition of Psychology of Management — Importance of the
Subject — Purpose of this Book — Definition of Management —
The Three Types of Management — Possible Psychological Studies
of Management — Plan of Psychological Study Here Used —
Underlying Ideas or Divisions of Scientific Management — Outline
of Method of Investigation — Conclusions to be Reached.

CHAPTER II

INDIVIDUALITY 21
Definition of Individuality — Place of Individuality in Psychology
— Individuality Under Traditional Management — Individuality
Under Transitory Management — Individuality Under Scientific
Management — Selection of Workers — Separating Output —
Recording Output Separately — Individual Tasks — Individual
Instruction Cards — Individual Teaching — Individual Incentives
— Individual Welfare — Summary: (a) Effect of Individuality
upon Work; (b) Effect of Individuality upon Worker.

CHAPTER III

FUNCTIONALIZATION 52
Definition of Functionalization — Psychological Use of
Functionalization — Functionalization in Traditional Management
— Functionalization Under Transitory Management —
Functionalization Under Scientific Management — Separating the
Planning From the Performing — Functionalized Foremanship —

The Function of Order of Work and Route Clerk — The Function
of Instruction Card Clerk — The Function of Time and Cost Clerk
— The Function of Disciplinarian — The Function of Gang Boss
— The Function of Speed Boss — The Function of Repair Boss —
The Function of Inspector — Functionalizing the Worker —
Functionalizing the Work Itself — Summary: (a) Effect of
Functionalization upon the Work; (b) Effect of Functionalization
upon the Worker.

CHAPTER IV

MEASUREMENT 90
Definition of Measurement — Importance of Measurement in
Psychology — Relation of Measurement in Psychology to
Measurement in Management — Importance of Measurement in
Management — Measurement in Traditional Management —
Measurement in Transitory Management — Measurement in
Scientific Management — Qualifications of the Observer —
Methods of Observation — Definitions of Motion Study and Time
Study — Methods of Motion Study and Time Study — Summary:
(a) Effect of Measurement on the Work; (b) Effect of Measurement
on the Worker; (c) Future Results to be Expected; (d) First Step
Toward Obtaining These Results.

CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 123
Definition of Analysis — Definition of Synthesis — Use of
Analysis and Synthesis by Psychology — Importance of Analysis
and Synthesis in Management — Place in Traditional Management
— Place in Transitory Management — Place in Scientific
Management — The Work of the Analyst — Determining Factor
in Amount of Analysis — Field of Psychology in Analysis —
Qualifications of an Analyst — Worker's Interest in Analysis —
The Work of the Synthesist — Results of Synthesist's Work — The
Task — Discussion of the Name "Task" — Definition of "Task" in

Scientific Management — Field of Application of the Task Idea —
Qualifications of the Synthesist — Summary: (a) Effect of
Analysis and Synthesis on the Work; (b) Effect of Analysis and
Synthesis on the Worker.

CHAPTER VI

STANDARDIZATION 139
Definition of Standardization — Relation of the Standard to the
Task and the Incentive — Relation of the Standard to Psychology
— Purpose of Standardization — Standardization Under
Traditional Management — Standardization Under Transitory
Management — Value of Systems — Standardization Under
Scientific Management — Relation of Standard to Measurement
— Scope of Standardization Under Scientific Management —
Permanence of Results — Needs of Standardization Likened to
Needs in Field of Spelling — Standard Nomenclature —
Advantages of Mnemonic Symbols — Standard Phraseology —
The Standard Man — Standard Means of Conveying Information
— Definition of the Instruction Card — Detailed Description of
the Instruction Card — Value of Standard Surroundings —
Necessity for Proper Placing of the Worker — Standard
Equipment — Standard Tools and Devices — Standard Clothing
— Standard Methods — Rest from Fatigue — Standardization of
Work with Animals — Standard Quality — Standard "Method of
Attack" — Summary: (a) Effect of Standardization on the Work;
(b) Effect of Standardization on the Worker; (c) Progress of
Standardization Assured.

CHAPTER VII

RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES 183
Definition of Record — Records Under Traditional Management
— Records Under Transitory Management — Records Under
Scientific Management — Criterion of Records — Records of
Work and Workers — Records of Initiative — Records of Good

Behavior — Records of Achievement — Records of "Exceptions"
— Posting of Records — Summary of Results of Records to Work
and Worker — Definition of Programme — Programmes Under
Traditional Management — Programmes Under Transitory
Management — Programmes Under Scientific Management —
Programmes and Routing — Possibility of Prophecy Under
Scientific Management — Summary of Results of Programmes to
Work and Worker — Relation Between Records and Programmes
— Types of Records and Programmes — Interrelation of Types —
Illustrations of Complexity of Relations — Possibilities of
Eliminating Waste — Derivation of the Programme — Summary:
(a) Effect of Relations Between Records and Programmes on the
Work; (b) Effect on the Worker.

CHAPTER VIII

TEACHING 208

Definition of Teaching — Teaching Under Traditional
Management — Faults Due to Lack of Standards — Teaching
Under Transitory Management — Teaching Under Scientific
Management — Importance of Teaching — Conforming of
Teaching to Psychological Laws — Conservation of Valuable
Elements of Traditional and Transitory Management — Scope of
Teaching — Source of Teaching — Methods of Teaching —
Instruction Cards as Teachers — Systems as Teachers —
Drawings, Charts, Plans and Photographs — Functional Foremen
as Teachers — Object Lessons as Teachers — Training the Senses
— Forming Good Habits — Importance of Teaching Right
Motions First — Stimulating Attention — Forming Associations
— Educating the Memory — Cultivating the Imagination —
Developing the Judgment — Utilizing Suggestion — Utilizing
Native Reactions — Developing the Will — Adaptability of
Teaching — Provision of Places for Teaching — Measurement of
Teaching — Relation of Teaching to Academic Training and
Vocational Guidance — Summary: (a) Result of Teaching in the
Work; (b) Result of Teaching to the Worker; (c) Results to be
Expected in the Future.

CHAPTER IX

INCENTIVES 271
Definition of Incentive — Importance of Incentives — Direct and
Indirect Incentives — Definition of Reward — Definition of
Punishment — Nature of Direct Incentives — The Reward Under
Traditional Management — The Punishment Under Traditional
Management — The Direct Incentive Under Traditional
Management — Incentives Under Transitory Management —
Rewards Under Scientific Management — Promotion and Pay —
Relation of Wages and Bonus — Day Work — Piece Work —
Task Wage — Gain Sharing — Premium Plan — Profit Sharing —
Differential Rate Piece — Task Work with a Bonus — Differential
Bonus — Three Rate — Three Rate with Increased Rate — Other
Rewards — Negative and Positive Punishments — Fines and

Their Disposal — Assignment to Less Pleasant Work — Discharge
and Its Elimination — Use of Direct Incentives — Summary: (a)
Effect of Incentives upon the Work; (b) Effect of Incentives upon
the Worker.

CHAPTER X

WELFARE 311
Definition of Welfare — "Welfare" and "Welfare Work" —
Welfare Under Traditional Management — Welfare Work Under
Traditional Management — Welfare Under Transitory
Management — Welfare Work Under Transitory Management —
Welfare Under Scientific Management — Physical Improvement
— Mental Development — Moral Development — Interrelation of
Physical, Mental and Moral Development — Welfare Work Under
Scientific Management — Summary: (a) Result of Welfare to the
Work; (b) Result of Welfare to the Worker.
INDEX 333

The Psychology of Management

CHAPTER I

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF

Definition of Psychology of Management. — The Psychology of
Management, as here used, means, — the effect of the mind that is directing

work upon that work which is directed, and the effect of this undirected and
directed work upon the mind of the worker.
Importance of the Subject. — Before defining the terms that will be used
more in detail, and outlining the method of treatment to be followed, it is
well to consider the importance of the subject matter of this book, for upon
the reader's interest in the subject, and his desire, from the outset, to follow
what is said, and to respond to it, rests a large part of the value of this book.
Value of Psychology. — First of all, then, what is there in the subject of
psychology to demand the attention of the manager?
Psychology, in the popular phrase, is "the study of the mind." It has for
years been included in the training of all teachers, and has been one of the
first steps for the student of philosophy; but it has not, usually, been
included among the studies of the young scientific or engineering student,
or of any students in other lines than Philosophy and Education. This, not
because its value as a "culture subject" was not understood, but because the
course of the average student is so crowded with technical preparation
necessary to his life work, and because the practical value of psychology
has not been recognized. It is well recognized that the teacher must
understand the working of the mind in order best to impart his information
in that way that will enable the student to grasp it most readily. It was not
recognized that every man going out into the world needs all the knowledge
that he can get as to the working of the human mind in order not only to
give but to receive information with the least waste and expenditure of
energy, nor was it recognized that in the industrial, as well as the academic
world, almost every man is a teacher.
Value of Management. — The second question demanding attention is; —
Of what value is the study of management?
The study of management has been omitted from the student's training until
comparatively recently, for a very different reason than was psychology. It
was never doubted that a knowledge of management would be of great
value to anyone and everyone, and many were the queer schemes for
obtaining that knowledge after graduation. It was doubted that management
could be studied otherwise than by observation and practice. 1 Few
teachers, if any, believed in the existence, or possibility, of a teaching

science of management. Management was assumed by many to be an art,
by even more it was thought to be a divinely bestowed gift or talent, rather
than an acquired accomplishment. It was common belief that one could
learn to manage only by going out on the work and watching other
managers, or by trying to manage, and not by studying about management
in a class room or in a text book; that watching a good manager might help
one, but no one could hope really to succeed who had not "the knack born
in him."
With the advent of "Scientific Management," and its demonstration that the
best management is founded on laws that have been determined, and can be
taught, the study of management in the class room as well as on the work
became possible and actual.2
Value of Psychology of Management. — Third, we must consider the
value of the study of the psychology of management.3
This question, like the one that precedes it, is answered by Scientific
Management. It has demonstrated that the emphasis in successful
management lies on the man, not on the work; that efficiency is best secured
by placing the emphasis on the man, and modifying the equipment,
materials and methods to make the most of the man. It has, further,
recognized that the man's mind is a controlling factor in his efficiency, and
has, by teaching, enabled the man to make the most of his powers. 4 In
order to understand this teaching element that is such a large part of
management, a knowledge of psychology is imperative; and this study of
psychology, as it applies to the work of the manager or the managed, is
exactly what the "psychology of management" is.
Five Indications of This Value. — In order to realize the importance of the
psychology of management it is necessary to consider the following five
points: —
1. Management is a life study of every man who works with other men. He
must either manage, or be managed, or both; in any case, he can never work
to best advantage until he understands both the psychological and
managerial laws by which he governs or is governed.

2. A knowledge of the underlying laws of management is the most
important asset that one can carry with him into his life work, even though
he will never manage any but himself. It is useful, practical, commercially
valuable.
3. This knowledge is to be had now. The men who have it are ready and
glad to impart it to all who are interested and who will pass it on.5 The text
books are at hand now. The opportunities for practical experience in
Scientific Management will meet all demands as fast as they are made.
4. The psychology of, that is, the mind's place in management is only one
part, element or variable of management; one of numerous, almost
numberless, variables.
5. It is a division well fitted to occupy the attention of the beginner, as well
as the more experienced, because it is a most excellent place to start the
study of management. A careful study of the relations of psychology to
management should develop in the student a method of attack in learning
his selected life work that should help him to grasp quickly the orderly
array of facts that the other variables, as treated by the great managers,
bring to him.
Purpose of This Book. — It is scarcely necessary to mention that this book
can hope to do little more than arouse an interest in the subject and point the
way to the detailed books where such an interest can be more deeply
aroused and more fully satisfied.
What This Book Will Not Do. — It is not the purpose of this book to give
an exhaustive treatment of psychology. Neither is it possible in this book to
attempt to give a detailed account of management in general, or of the
Taylor plan of "Scientific Management" so-called, in particular. All of the
literature on the subject has been carefully studied and reviewed for the
purpose of writing this book, — not only what is in print, but considerable
that is as yet in manuscript. No statement has been made that is not along
the line of the accepted thought and standardized practice of the authorities.
The foot notes have been prepared with great care. By reading the
references there given one can verify statements in the text, and can also, if
he desires, inform himself at length on any branch of the subject that
especially interests him.

What This Book Will Do. — This book aims not so much to instruct as to
arouse an interest in its subject, and to point the way whence instruction
comes. If it can serve as an introduction to psychology and to management,
can suggest the relation of these two fields of inquiries and can ultimately
enroll its readers as investigators in a resultant great field of inquiry, it will
have accomplished its aim.
Definition of Management. — To discuss this subject more in detail —
First: What is "Management"?
"Management," as defined by the Century Dictionary, is "the art of
managing by direction or regulation."
Successful management of the old type was an art based on no
measurement. Scientific Management is an art based upon a science, —
upon laws deducted from measurement. Management continues to be what
it has always been, — the art of directing activity.
Change in the Accepted Meaning. — "Management," until recent years,
and the emphasis placed on Scientific Management was undoubtedly
associated, in the average mind, with the managing part of the organization
only, neglecting that vital part — the best interests of the managed, almost
entirely. Since we have come to realize that management signifies the
relationship between the managing and the managed in doing work, a new
realization of its importance has come about. 6
Inadequacy of the Terms Used. — It is unfortunate that the English
language is so poor in synonyms in this field that the same word must have
two such different and conflicting meanings, for, though the new definition
of management be accepted, the "Fringe" of associations that belong to the
old are apt to remain.7 The thoughts of "knack, aptitude, tact, adroitness,"
— not to speak of the less desirable "Brute Force," "shrewdness, subtlety,
cunning, artifice, deceit, duplicity," of the older idea of management remain
in the background of the mind and make it difficult, even when one is
convinced that management is a science, to think and act as if it were.
It must be noticed and constantly remembered that one of the greatest
difficulties to overcome in studying management and its development is the

meaning of the terms used. It is most unfortunate that the new ideas have
been forced to content themselves with old forms as best they may.
Psychological Interest of the Terms. — Psychology could ask no more
interesting subject than a study of the mental processes that lie back of
many of these terms. It is most unfortunate for the obtaining of clearness,
that new terms were not invented for the new ideas. There is, however, an
excellent reason for using the old terms. By their use it is emphasized that
the new thought is a logical outgrowth of the old, and experience has
proved that this close relationship to established ideas is a powerful
argument for the new science; but such terms as "task," "foreman," "speed
boss," "piece-rate" and "bonus," as used in the science of management,
suffer from misunderstanding caused by old and now false associations.
Furthermore, in order to compare old and new interpretations of the ideas of
management, the older terms of management should have their traditional
meanings only. The two sets of meanings are a source of endless confusion,
unwarranted prejudice, and worse. This is well recognized by the authorities
on Management.
The Three Types of Management. — We note this inadequacy of terms
again when we discuss the various types of Management.
We may divide all management into three types —
(1) Traditional
(2) Transitory

(3) Scientific, or measured functional. 8
Traditional Management, the first, has been variously called "Military,"
"Driver," the "Marquis of Queensberry type," "Initiative and Incentive
Management," as well as "Traditional" management.
Definition of the First Type. — In the first type, the power of managing
lies, theoretically at least, in the hands of one man, a capable "all-around"
manager. The line of authority and of responsibility is clear, fixed and
single. Each man comes in direct contact with but one man above him. A
man may or may not manage more than one man beneath him, but, however
this may be, he is managed by but one man above him.

Preferable Name for the First Type. — The names "Traditional," or
"Initiative and Incentive," are the preferable titles for this form of
management. It is true they lack in specificness, but the other names, while
aiming to be descriptive, really emphasize one feature only, and in some
cases with unfortunate results.
The Name "Military" Inadvisable. — The direct line of authority
suggested the name "Military," 9 and at the time of the adoption of that
name it was probably appropriate as well as complimentary.10 Appropriate
in the respect referred to only, for the old type of management varied so
widely in its manifestations that the comparison to the procedure of the
Army was most inaccurate. "Military" has always been a synonym for
"systematized", "orderly," "definite," while the old type of management was
more often quite the opposite of the meaning of all these terms. The term
"Military Management" though often used in an uncomplimentary sense
would, today, if understood, be more complimentary than ever it was in the
past. The introduction of various features of Scientific Management into the
Army and Navy, — and such features are being incorporated steadily and
constantly, — is raising the standard of management there to a high degree.
This but renders the name "Military" Management for the old type more
inaccurate and misleading.
It is plain that the stirring associations of the word "military" make its use
for the old type, by advocates of the old type, a weapon against Scientific
Management that only the careful thinker can turn aside.
The Names "Driver" and "Marquis of Queensberry" Unfortunate. —
The name "Driver" suggests an opposition between the managers and the
men, an opposition which the term "Marquis of Queensberry" emphasizes.
This term "Marquis of Queensberry" has been given to that management
which is thought of as a mental and physical contest, waged "according to
the rules of the game." These two names are most valuable pictorially, or in
furnishing oratorical material. They are constant reminders of the constant
desire of the managers to get all the work that is possible out of the men,
but they are scarcely descriptive in any satisfactory sense, and the visions
they summon, while they are perhaps definite, are certainly, for the
inexperienced in management, inaccurate. In other words, they usually lead
to imagination rather than to perception.

The Name "Initiative and Incentive" Authoritative. — The term
"Initiative and Incentive" is used by Dr. Taylor, and is fully described by
him. 11 The words themselves suggest, truly, that he gives the old form of
management its due. He does more than this. He points out in his definition
of the terms the likenesses between the old and new forms.
The Name "Traditional" Brief and Descriptive. — The only excuses for
the term "Traditional," since Dr. Taylor's term is available, are its brevity
and its descriptiveness. The fact that it is indefinite is really no fault in it, as
the subject it describes is equally indefinite. The "fringe" 12 of this word is
especially good. It calls up ideas of information handed down from
generation to generation orally, the only way of teaching under the old type
of management. It recalls the idea of the inaccurate perpetuation of
unthinking custom, and the "myth" element always present in tradition, —
again undeniable accusations against the old type of management. The
fundamental idea of the tradition, that it is oral, is the essence of the
difference of the old type of management from science, or even system,
which must be written.
It is not necessary to make more definite here the content of this oldest type
of management, rather being satisfied with the extent, and accepting for
working use the name "Traditional" with the generally accepted definition
of that name.
Definition of the Second Type of Management. — The second type of
management is called "Interim" or "Transitory" management. It includes all
management that is consciously passing into Scientific Management and
embraces all stages, from management that has incorporated one
scientifically derived principle, to management that has adopted all but one
such principle.
Preferable Name for Second Type of Management. — Perhaps the name
"Transitory" is slightly preferable in that, though the element of
temporariness is present in both words, it is more strongly emphasized in
the latter. The usual habit of associating with it the ideas of "fleeting,
evanescent, ephemeral, momentary, short-lived," may have an influence on
hastening the completion of the installing of Scientific Management.

Definition of the Third Type of Management. — The third form of
management is called "Ultimate," "measured Functional," or "Scientific,"
management, and might also be called, — but for the objection of Dr.
Taylor, the "Taylor Plan of Management." This differs from the first two
types mentioned in that it is a definite plan of management synthesized
from scientific analysis of the data of management. In other words,
Scientific Management is that management which is a science, i.e., which
operates according to known, formulated, and applied laws.13
Preferable Name of the Third Type of Management. — The name
"Ultimate" has, especially to the person operating under the transitory stage,
all the charm and inspiration of a goal. It has all the incentives to
accomplishment of a clearly circumscribed task. Its very definiteness makes
it seem possible of attainment. It is a great satisfaction to one who, during a
lifetime of managing effort, has tried one offered improvement after another
to be convinced that he has found the right road at last. The name is,
perhaps, of greatest value in attracting the attention of the uninformed and,
as the possibilities of the subject can fulfill the most exacting demands, the
attention once secured can be held.
The name "measured functional" is the most descriptive, but demands the
most explanation. The principle of functionalization is one of the
underlying, fundamental principles of Scientific Management. It is not as
necessary to stop to define it here, as it is necessary to discuss the
definition, the principle, and the underlying psychology, at length later.
The name "scientific" while in some respects not as appropriate as are any
of the other names, has already received the stamp of popular approval. In
derivation it is beyond criticism. It also describes exactly, as has been said,
the difference between the older forms of management and the new. Even
its "fringe" of association is, or at least was when first used, all that could
be desired; but the name is, unfortunately, occasionally used
indiscriminately for any sort of system and for schemes of operation that
are not based on time study. It has gradually become identified more or less
closely with
1. the Taylor Plan of Management
2. what we have defined as the "Transitory" plan of management

3. management which not only is not striving to be scientific, but which
confounds "science" with "system." Both its advocates and opponents have
been guilty of misuse of the word. Still, in spite of this, the very fact that the
word has had a wide use, that it has become habitual to think of the new
type of management as "Scientific," makes its choice advisable. We shall
use it, but restrict its content. With us "Scientific Management" is used to
mean the complete Taylor plan of management, with no modifications and
no deviations.
We may summarize by saying that:
1. the popular name is Scientific Management,
2. the inspiring name is Ultimate management,
3. the descriptive name is measured Functional management,
4. the distinctive name is the Taylor Plan of Management.
For the purpose of this book, Scientific Management is, then, the most
appropriate name. Through its use, the reader is enabled to utilize all his
associations, and through his study he is able to restrict and order the
content of the term.
Relationship Between the Three Types of Management. — From the
foregoing definitions and descriptions it will be clear that the three types of
management are closely related. Three of the names given bring out this
relationship most clearly. These are Traditional (i.e., Primitive), Interim,
and Ultimate. These show, also, that the relationship is genetic, i.e., that the
second form grows out of the first, but passes through to the third. The
growth is evolutional.
Under the first type, or in the first stage of management, the laws or
principles underlying right management are usually unknown, hence
disregarded.
In the second stage, the laws are known and installed as fast as functional
foremen can be taught their new duties and the resistances of human nature
can be overcome.14

In the third stage the managing is operated in accordance with the
recognized laws of management.
Psychological Significance of This Relationship. — The importance of
the knowledge and of the desire for it can scarcely be overestimated. This
again makes plain the value of the psychological study of management.
Possible Psychological Studies of Management. — In making this
psychological study of management, it would be possible to take up the
three types as defined above, separately and in order, and to discuss the
place of the mind in each, at length; but such a method would not only
result in needless repetition, but also in most difficult comparisons when
final results were to be deduced and formulated.
It would, again, be possible to take up the various elements or divisions of
psychological study as determined by a consensus of psychologists, and to
illustrate each in turn from the three types of management; but the results
from any such method would be apt to seem unrelated and impractical, i.e.,
it would be a lengthy process to get results that would be of immediate,
practical use in managing.
Plan of Psychological Study Used Here. — It has, therefore, seemed best
to base the discussion that is to follow upon arbitrary divisions of scientific
management, that is —
1. To enumerate the underlying principles on which scientific management
rests.
2. To show in how far the other two types of management vary from
Scientific Management.
3. To discuss the psychological aspect of each principle.
Advantages of This Plan of Study. — In this way the reader can gain an
idea of
1. The relation of Scientific Management to the other types of management.
2. The structure of Scientific Management.
3. The relation between the various elements of Scientific Management.

4. The psychology of management in general, and of the three types of
management in particular.
Underlying Ideas and Divisions of Scientific Management. — These
underlying ideas are grouped under nine divisions, as follows: —
1. Individuality.
2. Functionalization.
3. Measurement.
4. Analysis and Synthesis.
5. Standardization.
6. Records and Programmes.
7. Teaching.
8. Incentives.
9. Welfare.
It is here only necessary to enumerate these divisions. Each will be made
the subject of a chapter.
Derivation of These Divisions. — These divisions lay no claim to being
anything but underlying ideas of Scientific Management, that embrace
varying numbers of established elements that can easily be subjected to the
scrutiny of psychological investigation.
The discussion will be as little technical as is possible, will take nothing for
granted and will cite references at every step. This is a new field of
investigation, and the utmost care is necessary to avoid generalizing from
insufficient data.
Derivation of Scientific Management. — There has been much
speculation as to the age and origin of Scientific Management. The results
of this are interesting, but are not of enough practical value to be repeated
here. Many ideas of Scientific Management can be traced back, more or
less clearly and directly, to thinkers of the past; but the Science of

Management, as such, was discovered, and the deduction of its laws, or
"principles," made possible when Dr. Frederick W. Taylor discovered and
applied Time Study. Having discovered this, he constructed from it and the
other fundamental principles a complete whole.
Mr. George Iles in that most interesting and instructive of books, "Inventors
at Work," 15 has pointed out the importance, to development in any line of
progress or science, of measuring devices and methods. Contemporaneous
with, or previous to, the discovery of the device or method, must come the
discovery or determination of the most profitable unit of measurement
which will, of itself, best show the variations in efficiency from class. When
Dr. Taylor discovered units of measurement for determining, prior to
performance, the amount of any kind of work that a worker could do and
the amount of rest he must have during the performance of that work, then,
and not until then, did management become a science. On this hangs the
science of management.16
Outline of Method of Investigation. — In the discussion of each of the
nine divisions of Scientific Management, the following topics must be
treated:
1. Definition of the division and its underlying idea.
2. Appearance and importance of the idea in Traditional and Transitory
Management.
3. Appearance and importance of the idea in Scientific Management.
4. Elements of Scientific Management which show the effects of the idea.
5. Results of the idea upon work and workers.
These topics will be discussed in such order as the particular division
investigated demands. The psychological significance of the appearance or
non-appearance of the idea, and of the effect of the idea, will be noted. The
results will be summarized at the close of each chapter, in order to furnish
data for drawing conclusions at the close of the discussion.
Conclusions to be Reached. — These conclusions will include the
following: —

1. "Scientific Management" is a science.
2. It alone, of the Three Types of Management, is a science.
3. Contrary to a widespread belief that Scientific Management kills
individuality, it is built on the basic principle of recognition of the
individual, not only as an economic unit but also as a personality, with all
the idiosyncrasies that distinguish a person.
4. Scientific Management fosters individuality by functionalizing work.
5. Measurement, in Scientific Management, is of ultimate units of
subdivision.
6. These measured ultimate units are combined into methods of least
waste.
7. Standardization under Scientific Management applies to all elements.
8. The accurate records of Scientific Management make accurate
programmes possible of fulfillment.
9. Through the teaching of Scientific Management the management is
unified and made self-perpetuating.
10. The method of teaching of Scientific Management is a distinct and
valuable contribution to Education.
11. Incentives under Scientific Management not only stimulate but benefit
the worker.
12. It is for the ultimate as well as immediate welfare of the worker to work
under Scientific Management.
13. Scientific Management is applicable to all fields of activity, and to
mental as well as physical work.
14. Scientific Management is applicable to self-management as well as to
managing others.
15. It teaches men to coöperate with the management as well as to manage.

16. It is a device capable of use by all.
17. The psychological element of Scientific Management is the most
important element.
18. Because Scientific Management is psychologically right it is the
ultimate form of management.
19. This psychological study of Scientific Management emphasizes
especially the teaching features.
20. Scientific Management simultaneously
a. increases output and wages and lowers costs.
b. eliminates waste.
c. turns unskilled labor into skilled.
d. provides a system of self-perpetuating welfare.
e. reduces the cost of living.
f. bridges the gap between the college trained and the apprenticeship
trained worker.
g. forces capital and labor to coöperate and to promote industrial peace.

1. Charles Babbage, Economy of Manufacturers. Preface, p. v.
2. Halbert P. Gillette, Paper No. 1, American Society of Engineering
Contractors.
3. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management, p. 5.
4. F.B. Gilbreth, Motion Study, p. 98.
5. F.W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, p. 144.

6. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 16, Am. Soc. M.E., Paper No.
1003.
7. William James, Psychology, Vol. I, p. 258.
8. F.B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System, Chap. 1.
9. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5 of the Carnegie Foundation for
the Advancement of Teaching, p. 17.
10. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 234, Am. Soc. M.E., Paper No.
1003.
11. F.W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, pp. 33-38.
12. The idea called to mind by the use of a given word. — Ed.
13. Henry R. Towne, Introduction to Shop Management. (Harper & Bros.)
14. F.W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, p. 123. (Harper &
Bros.)
15. Doubleday, Page & Co.
16. F.W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, p. 137. (Harper &
Bros.)

CHAPTER II

INDIVIDUALITY

Definition of Individuality. — "An individual is a single thing, a being that
is, or is regarded as, a unit. An individual is opposed to a crowd. Individual
action is opposed to associate action. Individual interests are opposed to
common or community interests." These definitions give us some idea of
the extent of individuality. Individuality is a particular or distinctive
characteristic of an individual; "that quality or aggregate of qualities which

distinguishes one person or thing from another, idiosyncrasy." This
indicates the content.
For our purpose, we may define the study of individuality as a consideration
of the individual as a unit with special characteristics. That it is a unit
signifies that it is one of many and that it has likeness to the many. That it
has special characteristics shows that it is one of many, but different from
the many. This consideration of individuality emphasizes both the common
element and the diverging characteristics.
Individuality as Treated in This Chapter. — The recognition of
individuality is the subject of this chapter. The utilization of this
individuality in its deviation from class, is the subject of the chapter that
follows, Functionalization.
Individuality as Considered by Psychology. — Psychology has not
always emphasized the importance of the individual as a unit for study.
Prof. Ladd's definition of psychology, quoted and endorsed by Prof. James,
is "the description and explanation of states of consciousness, as such." 1
"By states of consciousness," says James, "are meant such things as
sensation, desires, emotions, cognitions, reasonings, decisions, volitions,
and the like." This puts the emphasis on such divisions of consciousness as,
"attention," "interest," and "will."
With the day of experimental psychology has come the importance of the
individual self as a subject of study, 2 and psychology has come to be
defined, as Calkins defines it, as a "science of the self as conscious." 3
We hear much in the talk of today of the "psychology of the crowd," the
"psychology of the mob," and the "psychology of the type," etc., but the
mind that is being measured, and from whose measurements the laws are
being deduced and formulated is, at the present the individual mind. 4
The psychology which interested itself particularly in studying such
divisions of mental activity as attention, will, habit, etc., emphasizes more
particularly the likenesses of minds. It is necessary to understand
thoroughly all of these likenesses before one can be sure what the
differences, or idiosyncrasies, are, and how important they are, because,
while the likenesses furnish the background, it is the differences that are

most often actually utilized by management. These must be determined in
order to compute and set the proper individual task for the given man from
standard data of the standard, or first-class man.
In any study of the individual, the following facts must be noted: —
1. The importance of the study of the individual, and the comparatively
small amount of work that has as yet been done in that field.
2. The difficulty of the study, and the necessity for great care, not only in
the study itself, but in deducing laws from it.
3. The necessity of considering any one individual trait as modified by all
the other traits of the individual.
4. The importance of the individual as distinct from the type.
Many students are so interested in studying types and deducing laws which
apply to types in general, that they lose sight of the fact that the individual
is the basis of the study, — that individuality is that for which they must
seek and for which they must constantly account. As Sully says, we must
not emphasize "typical developments in a new individual," at the expense of
"typical development in a new individual." 5 It is the fact that the
development occurs in an individual, and not that the development is
typical, that we should emphasize.
Individuality Seldom Recognized Under Traditional Management. —
Under Traditional Management there was little or no systematized method
for the recognition of individuality or individual fitness. 6 The worker
usually was, in the mind of the manager, one of a crowd, his only
distinguishing mark being the amount of work which he was capable of
performing.
Selecting Workers Under Traditional Management. — In selecting men
to do work, there was little or no attempt to study the individuals who
applied for work. The matter of selection was more of a process of "guess
work" than of exact measurement, and the highest form of test was
considered to be that of having the man actually tried out by being given a
chance at the work itself. There was not only a great waste of time on the
work, because men unfitted to it could not turn it out so successfully, but

there also was a waste of the worker, and many times a positive injury to
the worker, by his being put at work which he was unfitted either to
perform, to work at continuously, or both.
In the most progressive type of Traditional Management there was usually a
feeling, however, that if the labor market offered even temporarily a greater
supply than the work in hand demanded, it was wise to choose those men to
do the work who were best fitted for it, or who were willing to work for less
wages. It is surprising to find in the traditional type, even up to the present
day, how often men were selected for their strength and physique, rather
than for any special capabilities fitting them for working in, or at, the
particular line of work to be done.
Output Seldom Separated Under Traditional Management. — Under
Traditional Management especially on day work the output of the men was
not usually separated, nor was the output recorded separately, as can be
done even with the work of gangs.
Few Individual Tasks Under Traditional Management. — Seldom, if
ever, was an individual task set for a worker on day work, or piece work,
and even if one were set, it was not scientifically determined. The men were
simply set to work alone or in gangs, as the work demanded, and if the
foreman was overworked or lazy, allowed to take practically their own time
to do the work. If, on the other hand, the foreman was a "good driver," the
men might be pushed to their utmost limit of their individual undirected
speed, regardless of their welfare.
Little Individual Teaching Under Traditional Management. — Not
having a clear idea either of the present fitness and the future possibilities of
the worker, or the requirements of the work, no intelligent attempt could be
made at efficient individual teaching. What teaching was done was in the
form of directions for all, concerning the work in general, the directions
being given by an overworked foreman, the holding of whose position often
depended more upon whether his employer made money than upon the way
his men were taught, or worked.
Seldom an Individual Reward Under Traditional Management. — As a
typical example of disregard of individuality, the worker in the household
may be cited, and especially the "general housework girl." Selected with no

knowledge of her capabilities, and with little or no scientific or even
systematized knowledge of the work that she is expected to do, there is little
or no thought of a prescribed and definite task, no teaching specially
adapted to the individual needs of the taught, and no reward in proportion to
efficiency.
Cause of These Lacks Under Traditional Management. — The fault lies
not in any desire of the managers to do poor or wasteful work, or to treat
their workers unfairly, — but in a lack of knowledge and of accurate
methods for obtaining, conserving and transmitting knowledge. Under
Traditional Management no one individual knows precisely what is to be
done. Such management seldom knows how work could best be done; —
never knows how much work each individual can do. 7 Understanding
neither work nor workers, it can not adjust the one to the other so as to
obtain least waste. Having no conception of the importance of accurate
measurement, it has no thought of the individual as a unit.
Individuality Recognized Under Transitory Management. —
Recognition of individuality is one of the principles first apparent under
Transitory Management.
This is apt to demonstrate itself first of all in causing the outputs of the
workers to "show up" separately, rewarding these separated outputs, and
rewarding each worker for his individual output.
Benefits of This Recognition. — The benefits of introducing these features
first are that the worker, (1) seeing his individual output, is stimulated to
measure it, and (2) receiving compensation in accordance with his output, is
satisfied; and (3) observing that records are necessary to determine the
amount of output and pay, is glad to have accurate measurement and the
other features of Scientific Management introduced.
Individuality a Fundamental Principle of Scientific Management. —
Under Scientific Management the individual is the unit to be measured.
Functionalization is based upon utilizing the particular powers and special
abilities of each man. Measurement is of the individual man and his work.
Analysis and synthesis build up methods by which the individual can best
do his work. Standards are of the work of an individual, a standard man,
and the task is always for an individual, being that percentage of the

standard man's task that the particular individual can do. Records are of
individuals, and are made in order to show and reward individual effort.
Specific individuals are taught those things that they, individually, require.
Incentives are individual both in the cases of rewards and punishments, and,
finally, it is the welfare of the individual worker that is considered, without
the sacrifice of any for the good of the whole.
Individuality Considered in Selecting Workers. — Under Scientific
Management individuality is considered in selecting workers as it could not
be under either of the other two forms of management. This for several
reasons:
1. The work is more specialized, hence requires more carefully selected
men.
2. With standardized methods comes a knowledge to the managers of the
qualifications of the "standard men" who can best do the work and
continuously thrive.
3. Motion study, in its investigation of the worker, supplies a list of
variations in workers that can be utilized in selecting men.8
Variables of the Worker. — This list now includes at least 50 or 60
variables, and shows the possible elements which may demand
consideration. When it is remembered that the individual selected may need
a large or small proportion of most of the variables in order to do his
particular work most successfully, and that every single one of these
variables, as related to the others, may, in some way affect his output and
his welfare in doing his assigned work, the importance of taking account of
individuality in selection is apparent.
Scientific Management Needs Support in Studying Workers. — The
best of management is by no means at its ultimate stage in practice in this
field. This, not because of a lack in the laws of management, but because,
so far, Scientific Management has not received proper support from other
lines of activity.
Present Lack of Knowledge of Applicants. — At present, the men who
apply to the Industries for positions have no scientifically determined idea

of their own capabilities, neither has there been any effort in the training or
experience of most of those who apply for work for the first time to show
them how fit they really are to do the work which they wish to do.
Supplements Demanded by Scientific Management. — Before the
worker can be scientifically selected so that his individuality can be
appreciated, Scientific Management must be supplemented in two ways: —
1. By psychological and physiological study of workers under it. By such
study of the effect of various kinds of standardized work upon the mind and
body, standard requirements for men who desire to do the work can be
made.
2. By scientific study of the worker made before he comes into the
Industries, the results of which shall show his capabilities and possibilities.9
Whence This Help Must Come. — This study must be made
a. In the Vocational Guidance Work.
b. In the Academic Work, and in both fields psychological and
physiological investigations are called for.
Work of Vocational Guidance Bureaus. — Vocational Guidance Bureaus
are, at present, doing a wonderful work in their line. This work divides itself
into two parts:
1. Determining the capabilities of the boy, that is, seeing what he is, by
nature and training, best fitted to do.
2. Determining the possibilities of his securing work in the line where he is
best fitted to work, that is, studying the industrial opportunities that offer,
and the "welfare" of the worker under each, using the word welfare in the
broadest sense, of general wellbeing, mental, physical, moral and financial.
Work of Academic World. — The Academic World is also, wherever it is
progressive, attempting to study the student, and to develop him so that he
can be the most efficient individual. Progressive educators realize that
schools and colleges must stand or fall, as efficient, as the men they train

become successful or unsuccessful in their vocations, as well as in their
personal culture.
Need for Psychological Study in All Fields. — In both these
complementary lines of activity, as in Scientific Management itself, the
need for psychological study is evident.10 Through it, only, can scientific
progress come. Here is emphasized again the importance of measurement.
Through accurate measurement of the mind and the body only can
individuality be recognized, conserved and developed as it should be.
Preparedness of Experimental Psychology. — Experimental psychology
has instruments of precision with which to measure and test the minds and
bodies brought to it, and its leading exponents are so broadening the scope
of its activities that it is ready and glad to plan for investigations.
Method of Selection Under Ultimate Management. — Under Ultimate
Management, the minds of the workers, — and of the managers too, — will
have been studied, and the results recorded from earliest childhood. This
record, made by trained investigators, will enable vocational guidance
directors to tell the child what he is fitted to be, and thus to help the schools
and colleges to know how best to train him, that is to say, to provide what
he will need to know to do his life work, and also those cultural studies that
his vocational work may lack, and that may be required to build out his best
development as an individual.
It is not always recognized that even the student who can afford to postpone
his technical training until he has completed a general culture course,
requires that his culture course be carefully planned. Not only must he
choose those general courses that will serve as a foundation for his special
study, and that will broaden and enrich his study, but also he must be
provided with a counter-balance, — with interests that his special work
might never arouse in him. Thus the field of Scientific Management can be
narrowed to determining and preparing standard plans for standard
specialized men, and selecting men to fill these places from competent
applicants.
What part of the specialized training needed by the special work shall be
given in schools and what in the industries themselves can be determined
later. The "twin apprentice" plan offers one solution of the problem that has

proved satisfactory in many places. The psychological study should
determine through which agency knowledge can best come at any particular
stage of mental growth.
Effect on Workers of Such Selection. — As will be shown at greater
length under "Incentives," Scientific Management aims in every way to
encourage initiative. The outline here given as to how men must, ultimately,
under Scientific Management, be selected serves to show that, far from
being "made machines of," men are selected to reach that special place
where their individuality can be recognized and rewarded to the greatest
extent.
Selection Under Scientific Management To-day. — At the present day,
the most that Scientific Management can do, in the average case, is to
determine the type of men needed for any particular kind of work, and then
to select that man who seems, from such observations as can be made, best
to conform to the type. The accurate knowledge of the requirements of the
work, and the knowledge of variables of the worker make even a cursory
observation more rich in results than it would otherwise be. Even such an
apparently obvious observation, as that the very fact that a man claims that
he can do the work implies desire and will on his part to do it that may
overcome many natural lacks, — even this is an advance in recognizing
individuality.
Effect of This Selection. — The result of this scientific selection of the
workman is not only better work, but also, and more important from the
psychological side, the development of his individuality. It is not always
recognized that the work itself is a great educator, and that acute cleverness
in the line of work to which he is fitted comes to the worker.
Individuality Developed by Separating Outputs. — Under Scientific
Management the work of each man is arranged either so that his output
shows up separately and on the individual records, or, if the Work is such
that it seems best to do it in gangs, the output can often be so recorded that
the individual's output can be computed from the records.
Purpose of Separating Outputs. — The primary purpose of separating the
output is to see what the man can do, to record this, and to reward the man
according to his work, but this separating of output has also an individual

result, which is even more important than the result aimed at, and that is the
development of individuality.
Under Traditional Management and the usual "day work," much of the work
is done by gangs and is observed or recorded as of gangs. Only now and
then, when the work of some particular individual shows up decidedly
better or worse than that of his fellows, and when the foreman or
superintendent, or other onlooker, happens to observe this is the individual
appreciated, and then only in the most inexact, unsystematic manner.
Under Scientific Management, making individual output show up
separately allows of individual recording, tasks, teaching and rewards.
Effect on Athletic Contests. — Also, with this separation of the work of
the individual under Scientific Management comes the possibility of a real,
scientific, "athletic contest." This athletic contest, which proves itself so
successful in Traditional Management, even when the men are grouped as
gangs and their work is not recorded or thought of separately, proves itself
quite as efficient or more efficient under Scientific Management, when the
work of the man shows up separately. It might be objected that the old gang
spirit, or it might be called "team" spirit, would disappear with the
separation of the work. This is not so, as will be noted by a comparison to a
baseball team, where each man has his separate place and his separate work
and where his work shows up separately with separate records, such as
"batting average" and "fielding average." Team spirit is the result of being
grouped together against a common opponent, and it will be the same in
any sort of work when the men are so grouped, or given to understand that
they belong on the same side.
The following twelve rules for an Athletic Contest under Transitory System
are quoted as exemplifying the benefits which accrue to Individuality.
1. Men must have square deal.
2. Conditions must be similar.
3. Men must be properly spaced and placed.
4. Output must show up separately.

5. Men must be properly started.
6. Causes for delay must be eliminated.
7. Pace maker must be provided.
8. Time for rest must be provided.
9. Individual scores must be kept and posted.
10. "Audience" must be provided.
11. Rewards must be prompt and provided for all good scores — not for
winners only.

12. Appreciation must be shown. 11
This list shows the effects of many fundamental principles of Scientific
Management, — but we note particularly here that over half the rules
demand that outputs be separated as a prerequisite.
None of the benefits of the Athletic Contest are lost under Scientific
Management. The only restrictions placed are that the men shall not be
grouped according to any distinction that would cause hatred or ill feeling,
that the results shall be ultimately beneficial to the workers themselves, and
that all high scores shall win high prizes.
As will be brought out later under "Incentives," no competition is approved
under Scientific Management which speeds up the men uselessly, or which
brings any ill feeling between the men or any feeling that the weaker ones
have not a fair chance. All of these things are contrary to Scientific
Management, as well as contrary to common sense, for it goes without
saying that no man is capable of doing his best work permanently if he is
worried by the idea that he will not receive the square deal, that someone
stronger than he will be allowed to cheat or to domineer over him, or that he
will be speeded up to such an extent that while his work will increase for
one day, the next day his work will fall down because of the effect of the
fatigue of the day before.
The field of the contests is widened, as separating of the work of the
individual not only allows for competition between individuals, but for the

competition of the individual with his own records. This competition is not
only a great, constant and helpful incentive to every worker, but it is also an
excellent means of developing individuality.
Advantages to Managers of Separating Output. — The advantages to the
managers of separating the work are that there is a chance to know exactly
who is making the high output, and that the spirit of competition which
prevails when men compare their outputs to their own former records or
others, leads to increased effort.
Advantages to Workers of Separating Output. — As for advantages to
the men:
By separation of the individual work, not only is the man's work itself
shown, but at the same time the work of all other people is separated, cut
away and put aside, and he can locate the man who is delaying him by, for
example, not keeping him supplied with materials. The man has not only an
opportunity to concentrate, but every possible incentive to exercise his will
and his desire to do things. His attention is concentrated on the fact that he
as an individual is expected to do his very best. He has the moral stimulus
of responsibility. He has the emotional stimulus of competition. He has the
mental stimulus of definiteness. He has, most valuable of all, a chance to be
an entity rather than one of an undiscriminated gang. This chance to be an
individual, or personality, is in great contradistinction to the popular
opinion of Scientific Management, which thinks it turns men into machines.
A very simple example of the effect of the worker's seeing his output show
up separately in response to and in proportion to his effort and skill is that
of boys in the lumber producing districts chopping edgings for fire wood.
Here the chopping is so comparatively light that the output increased very
rapidly, and the boy delights to "see his pile of fire wood grow."
With the separation of the work comes not only the opportunity for the men
to see their own work, but also to see that of others, and there comes with
this the spirit of imitation, or the spirit of friendly opposition, either of
which, while valuable in itself is even more valuable as the by-product of
being a life-giving thought, and of putting life into the work such as there
never could be when the men were working together, more or less

objectless, because they could not see plainly either what they were doing
themselves, or what others were doing.
Separation of the output of the men gives them the greatest opportunity to
develop. It gives them a chance to concentrate their attention at the work on
which they are, because it is not necessary for them to waste any time to
find out what that work is. Their work stands out by itself; they can put their
whole minds to that work; they can become interested in that work and its
outcome, and they can be positive that what they have done will be
appreciated and recognized, and that it will have a good effect, with no
possibility of evil effect, upon their chance for work and their chance for
pay and promotion in the future. Definiteness of the boundaries, then, is not
only good management in that it shows up the work and that it allows each
man to see, and each man over him, or observing him to see exactly what
has been done, — it has also an excellent effect upon the worker's mind.
Individuality Developed by Recording Output Separately. — The spirit
of individuality is brought out still more clearly by the fact that under
Scientific Management, output is recorded separately. This recording of the
outputs separately is, usually, and very successfully, one of the first features
installed in Transitory Management, and a feature very seldom introduced,
even unconscious of its worth, in day work under Traditional Management.
It is one of the great disadvantages of many kinds of work, especially in this
day, that the worker does only a small part of the finished article and that he
has a feeling that what he does is not identified permanently with the
success of the completed whole. We may note that one of the great
unsatisfying features to such arts as acting and music, is that no matter how
wonderful the performer's efforts, there was no permanent record of them;
that the work of the day dies with the day. He can expect to live only in the
minds and hearts of the hearers, in the accounts of spectators, or in histories
of the stage.
It is, therefore, not strange that the world's best actors and singers are now
grasping the opportunity to make their best efforts permanent through the
instrumentality of the motion picture films and the talking machine records.
This same feeling, minus the glow of enthusiasm that at least attends the
actor during the work, is present in more or less degree in the mind of the
worker.

Records Make Work Seem Worth While. — With the feeling that his
work is recorded comes the feeling that the work is really worth while, for
even if the work itself does not last, the records of it are such as can go on.
Records Give Individuals a Feeling of Permanence. — With recorded
individual output comes also the feeling of permanence, of credit for good
performance. This desire for permanence shows itself all through the work
of men in Traditional Management, for example — in the stone cutter's art
where the man who had successfully dressed the stone from the rough block
was delighted to put his own individual mark on it, even though he knew
that that mark probably would seldom, if ever, be noticed again by anyone
after the stone was set in the wall. It is an underlying trait of the human
mind to desire this permanence of record of successful effort, and fulfilling
and utilizing this desire is a great gain of Scientific Management.
Mental Development of Worker Through Records. — It is not only for
his satisfaction that the worker should see his records and realize that his
work has permanence, but also for comparison of his work not only with his
own record, but with the work of others. The value of these comparisons,
not only to the management but to the worker himself, must not be
underestimated. The worker gains mental development and physical skill by
studying these comparisons.
Advantages to Worker of Making his Own Records. — These
possibilities of mental development are still further increased when the man
makes his own records. This leads to closer attention, to more interest in the
work, and to a realization of the man as to what the record really means,
and what value it represents. Though even a record that is made for him and
is posted where he can see it will probably result in a difference in his pay
envelope, no such progress is likely to occur as when the man makes his
own record, and must be conscious every moment of the time exactly where
he stands.
Possibilities of Making Individual Records. — Records of individual
efficiency are comparatively easy to make when output is separated. But
even when work must be done by gangs or teams of men, there is provision
made in Scientific Management for recording this gang work in such a way
that either the output or the efficiency, or both, of each man shows up

separately. This may be done in several ways, such as, for example, by
recording the total time of delays avoidable and unavoidable, caused by
each man, and from this computing individual records. This method of
recording is psychologically right, because the recording of the delay will
serve as a warning to the man, and as a spur to him not to cause delay to
others again.
The forcefulness of the "don't" and the "never" have been investigated by
education. Undoubtedly the "do" is far stronger, but in this particular case
the command deduced from the records of delay to others is, necessarily, in
the negative form, and a study of the psychological results proves most
instructive.
Benefits to Managers of Individual Records. — The value of the training
to the foremen, to the superintendents and to the managers higher up, who
study these records, as well as to the timekeepers, recorders and clerks in
the Time and Cost Department who make the records, is obvious. There is
not only the possibility of appreciating and rewarding the worker, and thus
stimulating him to further activity, there is also, especially in the Transitory
stage, when men are to be chosen on whom to make Time Study
observations, an excellent chance to compare various methods of doing
work and their results.
Incentives with Individual Records. — The greatest value of recorded
outputs is in the appreciation of the work of the individual that becomes
possible. First of all, appreciation by the management, which to the worker
must be the most important of all, as it means to him a greater chance for
promotion and for more pay. This promotion and additional pay are amply
provided for by Scientific Management, as will be shown later in discussing
Incentives and Welfare.
Not only is the work appreciated by the management and by the man
himself, but also the work becomes possible of appreciation by others. The
form of the record as used in Scientific Management, and as introduced
early in the transitory stage, makes it possible for many beside those
working on the job, if they take the pains to consult the records, which are
best posted in a conspicuous place on the work, to know and appreciate

what the worker is doing. This can be best illustrated, perhaps, by various
methods of recording output on contracting work, — out-of-door work.
The flag flown by the successful contestants in the athletic contests,
showing which gang or which individual has made the largest output during
the day previous, allows everyone who passes to appreciate the attainment
of that particular worker, or that group of workers. The photographs of the
"high priced men," copies of which may be given to the workers
themselves, allow the worker to carry home a record and thus impress his
family with what he has done. Too often the family is unable by themselves
to understand the value of the worker's work, or to appreciate the effect of
his home life, food, and rest conditions upon his life work, and this entire
strong element of interest of the worker's family in his work is often lost.
Relation of Individual Records to Scientific Management in General.
— Any study of Records of an individual's work again makes clear that no
one topic of Scientific Management can be properly noted without a
consideration of all other elements. The fact that under Scientific
Management the record with which the man most surely and constantly
competes is his own, as provided for by the individual instruction card and
the individual task; the fact that under Scientific Management the man need
be in no fear of losing his job if he does his best; the fact that Scientific
Management is founded on the "square deal"; — all of these facts must be
kept constantly in mind when considering the advantages of recording
individual output, for they all have a strong psychological effect on the
man's mind. It is important to remember that not only does Scientific
Management provide for certain directions and thoughts entering the man's
mind, but that it also eliminates other thoughts which would surely have a
tendency to retard his work. The result is output far exceeding what is
usually possible under Traditional Management, because drawbacks are
removed and impetuses added.
The outcome of the records, and their related elements in other branches of
Scientific Management, is to arouse interest. Interest arouses abnormally
concentrated attention, and this in turn is the cause of genius. This again
answers the argument of those who claim that Scientific Management kills
individuality and turns the worker into a machine.

Individual Task Under Scientific Management. — Individuality is also
taken into consideration when preparing the task. This task would always be
for an individual, even in the case of the gang instruction card. It usually
recognizes individuality, in that, —
1. It is prepared for one individual only, when possible.
2. It is prepared for the particular individual who is to do it.
The working time, as will be shown later, is based upon time study
observations on a standard man, but when a task is assigned for a certain
individual, that proportion of the work of the standard or first class man is
assigned to that particular given man who is actually to do it, which he is
able to do. It is fundamental that the task must be such that the man who is
actually put at it, when he obeys orders and works steadily, can do it; that is,
the task must be achievable, and achievable without such effort as would do
mental or physical injury to the worker. This not only gives the individual
the proper amount of work to do, recognizes his particular capabilities and
is particularly adapted to him, but it also eliminates all dread on the score of
his not being appreciated, in that the worker knows that if he achieves or
exceeds his task he will not only receive the wage for it, but will continue to
receive that wage, or more, for like achievement. The rate is not cut. Under
the "three-rate with increased rate system," which experience has shown to
be a most advanced plan for compensating workmen, the worker receives
one bonus for exactness as to methods, that is, he receives one bonus if he
does the task exactly as he is instructed to do it as to methods; and a second
bonus, or extra bonus, if he completes his task in the allotted time. This not
only assures adequate pay to the man who is slow, but a good imitator, but
also to the man who, perhaps, is not such a good imitator, and must put
attention on the quality rather than the quantity of his performance.
Individuality Emphasized by Instruction Card. — This individual task is
embodied in an individual instruction card.
In all work where it is possible to do so, the worker is given an individual
instruction card, even though his operations and rest periods are also
determined by a gang instruction card. This card not only tells the man what
he is to do, how he can best do it, and the time that it is supposed to take
him to do it, — but it bears also the signature of the man who made it. This

in order that if the worker cannot fulfill the requirements of the card he may
lose no time in determining who is to give him the necessary instructions or
help that will result in his earning his large wages. More than this, he must
call for help from his assigned teachers, as is stated in large type on a
typical Instruction Card as follows: "When instructions cannot be carried
out, foreman must at once report to man who signed this card."
The signature of the man who made the card not only develops his sense of
individuality and responsibility, but helps create a feeling of inter-
responsibility between the workers in various parts of the organization.
The Gang Instruction Card. — A gang instruction card is used for such
work only as must be done by a group of men all engaged at the work at
once, or who are working at a dependent sequence of operations, or both.
This card contains but those portions of the instructions for each man which
refer to those elements which must be completed before a following
element, to be done by the next man in the sequence, can be completed.
Because of the nature of the work, the gang instruction card must be put in
the hands of a leader, or foreman, whether or not it is also in the hands of
each of the individuals. The amount of work which can be required as a set
task for each individual member of the gang, the allowance for rest for
overcoming fatigue, the time that the rest periods must occur, and the
proper pay, are fully stated on the Individual Instruction Cards.
Methods of Teaching Foster Individuality. — As will be shown at length
in the Chapter on Teaching, under Scientific Management teaching is not
only general, by "Systems," "Standing Orders," or "Standard Practice," but
also specific. Specialized teachers, called, unfortunately for the emphasis
desired to be put on teaching, "functional foremen," help the individual
worker to overcome his peculiar difficulties.
This teaching not only allows every worker to supplement his deficiencies
of disposition or experience, but the teachers' places give opportunities for
those who have a talent for imparting knowledge to utilize and develop it.
Individual Incentive and Welfare. — Finally, individual incentive and
individual welfare are not only both present, but interdependent. Desire for
individual success, which might lead a worker to respond to the incentive
till he held back perhaps the work of others, is held in balance by

interdependence of bonuses. This will be explained in full in the Chapters
on Incentives and Welfare.

SUMMARY

Result of Idea of Individuality upon Work. — To recapitulate; — Under
Traditional Management, because of its frequent neglect of the idea of
individuality, work is often unsystematized, and high output is usually the
result of "speeding up" only, with constant danger of a falling off in quality
overbalancing men and injury to men and machinery.
Under Transitory Management, as outputs are separated, separately
recorded, and as the idea of Individuality is embodied in selecting men,
setting tasks, the instruction cards, periods of rest, teaching, incentives and
welfare, output increases without undue pressure on the worker.
Under Scientific Management — with various elements which embody
individuality fully developed, output increases, to the welfare of worker,
manager, employer and consumer and with no falling off in quality.
Effect Upon the Worker. — The question of the effect upon the worker of
emphasis laid upon individuality, can perhaps best be answered by asking
and answering the following questions: —
1. When, where, how, and how much is individuality considered?
2. What consideration is given to the relation of the mind to the body of the
individual?
3. What is the relative emphasis on consideration of individual and class?
4. In how far is the individual the unit?
5. What consideration is given to idiosyncrasies?
6. What is the effect toward causing or bringing about development, that is,
broadening, deepening and making the individual more progressive?
Extent of Consideration of Individuality. — 1. Under Traditional
Management consideration of individuality is seldom present, but those best

forms of Traditional Management that are successful are so because it is
present. This is not usually recognized, but investigation shows that the
successful manager, or foreman, or boss, or superintendent succeeds either
because of his own individuality or because he brings out to good
advantage the individual possibilities of his men. The most successful
workers under Traditional Management are those who are allowed to be
individuals and to follow out their individual bents of greatest efficiency,
instead of being crowded down to become mere members of gangs, with no
chance to think, to do, or to be anything but parts of the gang.
Under Transitory Management, and most fully under Scientific
Management, the spirit of individuality, far from being crowded out, is a
basic principle, and everything possible is done to encourage the desire to
be a personality.
Relation of Mind to Body. — Under Traditional Management, where men
worked in the same employ for a long time, much consideration was given
to the relation of the mind to the body. It was realized that men must not be
speeded up beyond what they could do healthfully; they must have good
sleeping quarters and good, savory and appetizing food to eat and not be
fatigued unnecessarily, if they were to become successful workers. More
than this, philanthropic employers often attempted to supply many kinds of
comfort and amusement.
Under Transitory Management the physical and mental welfare are
provided for more systematically.
Under Scientific Management consideration of the mind and body of the
workman, and his health, and all that that includes, is a subject for scientific
study and for scientific administration. As shown later, it eliminates all
discussion and troubles of so-called "welfare work," because the interests of
the employer and the worker become identical and everything that is done
becomes the concern of both.
Scientific Management realizes that the condition of the body effects every
possible mental process. It is one of the great advantages of a study of the
psychology of management that the subject absolutely demands from the
start, and insists in every stage of the work, on this relationship of the body

to the mind, and of the surroundings, equipment, etc., of the worker to his
work.
It is almost impossible, in management, to separate the subject of the
worker from that of his work, or to think of the worker as not working
except in such a sense as "ceasing-from-work," "about-to-work," "resting to
overcome fatigue of work," or "resting during periods of unavoidable
delays." The relation of the worker to his work is constantly in the mind of
the manager. It is for this reason that not only does management owe much
to psychology, but that psychology, as applied to any line of study, will,
ultimately, be recognized as owing much to the science of management.
Relative Emphasis on Individual and Class. — Under Traditional
Management the gang, or the class, usually receives the chief emphasis. If
the individual developed, as he undoubtedly did, in many kinds of
mechanical work, especially in small organizations, it was more or less
because it was not possible for the managers to organize the various
individuals into classes or gangs. In the transitory stage the emphasis is
shifting. Under Scientific Management the emphasis is most decidedly and
emphatically upon the individual as the unit to be managed, as has been
shown.
Individual as the Unit. — Under Traditional Management the individual
was seldom the unit. Under Transitory Management the individual is the
unit, but there is not much emphasis in the early stages placed upon his
peculiarities and personalities. Under Scientific Management the unit is
always the individual, and the utilizing and strengthening of his personal
traits, special ability and skill is a dominating feature.
Emphasis on Idiosyncrasies. — Under Traditional Management there is
either no consideration given to idiosyncrasies, or too wide a latitude is
allowed. In cases where no consideration is given, there is often either a
pride in the managers in "treating all men alike," though they might respond
better to different handling, or else the individual is undirected and his
personality manifests itself in all sorts of unguided directions, many of
which must necessarily be wasteful, unproductive, or incomplete in
development. Under Scientific Management, functionalization, as will be
shown, provides for the utilization of all idiosyncrasies and efficient

deviations from class, and promotion is so planned that a man may develop
along the line of his chief ability. Thus initiative is encouraged and
developed constantly.
Development of Individuality. — The development of individuality is
more sure under Scientific Management than it is under either of the other
two forms of management, (a) because this development is recognized to be
a benefit to the worker and to the employer and (b) because this
development as a part of a definite plan is provided for and perfected
scientifically.

1. William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 1.
2. Hugo Münsterberg, American Problems, p. 34.
3. Mary Whiton Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 1.
4. James Sully, Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 14.
5. James Sully, Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 577.
6. H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 52.
7. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, p. 25. (Harper & Bros.)
8. F.B. Gilbreth, Motion Study, p. 7.
9. L.B. Blan, A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation, p. 89.
10. Hugo Münsterberg, American Problems, pp. 38-39.
11. F.B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System, Chap. III.

CHAPTER III

FUNCTIONALIZATION

Definition of Functionalization. — A function, says the Century
Dictionary, is — "The fulfilment or discharge of a set duty or requirement,
exercise of a faculty or office, or power of acting, faculty, — that power of
acting in a specific way which appertains to a thing by virtue of its special
constitution; that mode of action or operation which is proper to any organ,
faculty, office structure, etc. (This is the most usual signification of the
term)."
"Functionalization" is not given in the Century Dictionary. The nearest to it
to be found there is "Functionality," which is defined as — "The state of
having or being a function." Functionalization as here used means — the
state of being divided into functions, or being functionalized.
"Functionalize" is given in the Century Dictionary, defined as "to assign
some office or function to" — the note being made that it is rare.
"Functionalize" may not be the best word that could be used in this
connection, but there seems to be no other word in the English language
which contains its full meaning, therefore we will use the word here in the
sense of assigning work according to capacity or faculty. A faculty means
— "A specific power, mental or physical; a special capacity for any
particular kind of action or affection; natural capability."
Psychological Use of Functionalization. — The word "Function" is in
constant use by modern psychologists, especially by those who believe that
— "Psychology is the science of the self in relation to environment," 1 or
that "Psychology is a scientific account of our mental processes."2 Sully
defines a function as "a psychologically simple process," 3 and compares its
elementariness to a muscular contraction as an element of a step in walking.
In investigating the principle of Functionalization as embodied in various
forms of Management, we must note that, while Management can, and does
under Scientific Management, attempt to functionalize work as far as
possible, it will be impossible to come to ultimate results until a
psychological study of the requirement of the work from the worker, and
results of the work on the worker is made.4

Functionalization in Management. — "Functional Management" consists,
to quote Dr. Taylor, "in so directing the work of management that each man
from the assistant superintendent down shall have as few functions as
possible to perform. If practicable, the work of each man in the
management should be confined to the performance of a single leading
function." 5
A study of functionalization as applied to management must answer the
following questions:
1. How is the work divided?
2. How are the workers assigned to the work?
3. What are the results to the work?
4. What are the results to the worker?
Traditional Management Seldom Functionalizes. — Under Traditional
Management the principle of Functionalization was seldom applied or
understood. Even when the manager tried to separate planning from
performing, or so to divide the work that each worker could utilize his
special ability, there were no permanently beneficial results, because there
was no standard method of division.
The Work of the Foreman Not Properly Divided. — The work of a
foreman was not divided, but the well rounded man, as Dr. Taylor says,6
was supposed to have
1. Brain
2. Education
3. Special or technical knowledge, manual dexterity or strength
4. Tact
5. Energy
6. Grit
7. Honesty

8. Judgment, or common sense
9. Good health.
Dr. Taylor says — "Plenty of men who possess only three of the above
qualities can be hired at any time for laborer's wages. Add four of these
qualities together, and you get a higher priced man. The man combining
five of these qualities begins to be hard to find, and those with 6, 7 and 8
are almost impossible to get."
Yet, under Traditional Management these general qualities and many points
of specific training were demanded of the foreman. Dr. Taylor has
enumerated the qualifications or the duties of a gang boss in charge of
lathes or planers. 7 Careful reading of this enumeration will show most
plainly that the demands made were almost impossible of fulfillment. 8
Another list which is interesting is found in "Cost Reducing System," a long
list of the duties of the Ideal Superintendent or foreman in construction
work. 9

QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES OF FIRST CLASS
FOREMAN

A first class foreman must have:
bodily
strength
brains
common sense
education
energy
good health
good judgment

grit
manual dexterity
special knowledge
tact
technical knowledge.
He must be:
able to concentrate his mind upon small things
able to read drawings readily
able to visualize the work at every stage of its progress, and even before
it begins
a master of detail
honest
master of at least one trade.
His duties consist of:
considering broad policies.
considering new applicants for important positions.
considering the character and fitness of the men.
determining a proper day's work.
determining costs.
determining the method of compensation.
determining the sequence of events for the best results.
disciplining the men.
dividing the men into gangs for speed contests.

fixing piece and day rates.
getting rid of inferior men.
handling relations with the unions.
hiring good men.
installing such methods and devices as will detect dishonesty.
instructing the workman.
keeping the time and disciplining those who are late or absent.
laying out work.
looking ahead to see that there are men enough for future work.
looking ahead to see that there is enough future work for the men.
making profits.
measuring each man's effort fairly.
obtaining good results in quality.
paying the men on days when they are discharged.
paying the men on pay day.
preventing soldiering.
readjusting wages.
retaining good men.
seeing that all men are honest.
seeing that men are shifted promptly when breakdowns occur.
seeing that repairs are made promptly before breakdowns occur,
seeing that repairs are made promptly after breakdowns occur.
seeing that the most suitable man is allotted to each part of the work.

seeing that the work is not slighted.
setting piece work prices.
setting rates.
setting tasks.
supervising timekeeping.
teaching the apprentices.
teaching the improvers.
teaching the learners.
In studying these lists we note —
1. That the position will be best filled by a very high and rare type of man.
2. That the man is forced to use every atom of all of his powers and at the
same time to waste his energies in doing much unimportant pay reducing
routine work, some of which could be done by clerks.
3. That in many cases the work assigned for him to do calls for
qualifications which are diametrically opposed to each other.
4. That psychology tells us that a man fitted to perform some of these duties
would probably be mentally ill fitted for performing others in the best
possible way that they could be performed.
Work Not Well Done. — Not only does the foreman under Traditional
Management do a great deal of work which can be done by cheaper men,
but he also wastes his time on clerical work in which he is not a specialist,
and, therefore, which he does not do as well as the work can be done by a
cheaper man, and this takes more of his time than he ought to devote to it.
The result is that the work is not done as well as it can and should be done.
A most perfect illustration of a common form of Traditional Management is
the old story of the foreman, who, in making his rounds of the various parts
of the work, comes to the deep hole being excavated for a foundation pier

and says hurriedly — "How many of yez is there in the hole?" "Seven."
"The half of yez come up."
The theoretical defects of the old type of management often seen before the
advent of the trained engineer on the work include: —
1. lack of planning ahead.
2. an overworked foreman.
3. no functionalizing of the work.
4. no standards of individual efficiency.
5. unmeasured individual outputs.
6. no standard methods.
7. no attempt at teaching.
8. inaccurate directions.
9. lack of athletic contests.
10. no high pay for extra efficiency.
11. poor investigation of workers' special capabilities.
In spite of the fact that under unfunctionalized management the foreman has
far more to do than he can expect to do well, the average foreman thinks
that he belongs to a class above his position. This is partly because the
position is so unstandardized that it arouses a sense of unrest, and partly
because he has to spend much of his time at low priced functions.
Under the feeling of enmity, or at least, of opposition, which often exists,
openly or secretly, between the average Traditional Management and men,
the foreman must ally himself with one side or the other. If he joins with the
men, he must countenance the soldiering, which they find necessary in
order to maintain their rates of wages. Thus the output of the shop will
seldom increase and his chance for appreciation and promotion by the
management will probably be slight and slow. His position as boss,
combined with that of ally of the men, is awkward.

If he allies himself to the management, he must usually become a driver of
the men, if he wishes to increase output. This condition will never be
agreeable to him unless he has an oversupply of brute instincts.
The Workers Not Best Utilized. — Under the best types of Traditional
Management we do find more or less spasmodic attempts at the
functionalization of the worker. When there was any particular kind of work
to be done, the worker who seemed to the manager to be the best fitted, was
set at that kind of work. For example — if there was a particularly heavy
piece of work he might say — "Let A do it because he is strong." If there
was a particularly fine piece of work to be done he might say — "Let B do
it because he is specially skilled." If there was a piece of work to be done
which required originality, he might say — "Let C do it for the reason that
he is inventive and resourceful;" but, in most cases, when the particular job
on hand was finished, the worker selected to do it returned to other classes
of work, and such special fitness or capability as he had, was seldom
systematically utilized, or automatically assigned to his special function,
neither was such experience as he had gained systematically conserved.
Moreover, no such study of the work to be done had been made as would
prove that the assignment of that particular worker to the work was right.
The psychology of this was entirely wrong, — not only had no such study
of the general and particular characteristics, traits, faculties, and talents of
the man been made as would prove that he was the right man to be
assigned, but the mere fact that he possessed one quality necessary for the
work, if he really did possess it, was no sign that the other qualities which
he possessed might not make him the wrong man to be chosen. Even if the
man did happen to be assigned to work for which he was particularly suited,
unless provision were made to keep him at such work only, to keep him
well supplied with work, to allow time for rest, and to provide proper pay,
he could not utilize his capabilities to the fullest extent.
Transitory Management Functionalizes. — Under Transitory
Management, management becomes gradually more and more
functionalized. With separated outputs and separate records, the worker's
capabilities become apparent, and he can be assigned to the standardized
positions which gradually evolve. Every recognition of individuality carries
with it a corresponding functionalization of men and work.

Functionalization a Fundamental of Scientific Management. — With
Scientific Management comes the realization that with close study and with
functionalization only, can that provision and assignment of the work which
is best for both work and worker be obtained. The principle is applied to
every part of management, and results in
1. separating the planning from the performing.
2. functionalizing foremen.
3. functionalizing workers.
4. assigning competent workers to fitting work.
Separating the Planning from the Performing. — The emphasis on
separating the planning from the performing in Scientific Management
cannot be over-estimated. It is a part of Dr. Taylor's fourth principle of
Scientific Management, "Almost equal division of the work and the
responsibility between the management and the workmen."10 The greatest
outputs can be achieved to the greatest benefit to managers and men when
the work is divided, the management undertaking that part of the work that
it is best fitted to do, the workmen performing that part which they are best
fitted to do.
The Work of the Planning Department. — It has been determined by
actual experience that the line of division most agreeable to the managers
and the workmen and most productive of coöperation by both, as well as
most efficient in producing low costs, is that which separates the planning
from the performing. Under Scientific Management the Planning
Department relieves the man of determining —
1. what work is to be done.
2. sequence in which it is to be done.
3. method by which it shall be done.
4. where it shall be done.
5. which men shall do it.

6. time that it shall take.
7. exact quality of product.
8. quantity of additional pay that shall be given for doing it.
Work of the Workers. — The men are simply given standard tasks to do,
with teachers to help them, and a standard wage according to performance
as a reward. There are but three things expected of them: —
1. coöperation with the management in obtaining the prescribed work,
method and quality.
2. the exercise of their ingenuity in making improvements after they have
learned the standard prescribed practice.
3. the fitting of themselves for higher pay and promotion.
Functionalized Foremanship. — The work that, under Scientific
Management, is usually done by one man, the Foreman, is subdivided into
eight or more functions. These functions are assigned to the following
functional foremen: 11
Planning Department
1. Order of work and route man
2. Instruction card man
3. Cost and time clerk
4. Disciplinarian
Performing Department
5. Gang boss
6. Speed boss
7. Repair boss
8. Inspector

Each of the above functions may be in charge of a separate man, or one man
may be in charge of several functions, or several men may do the work of
one function; the work being divided between them in some cases by
further functionalizing it, — and in others by separating it into similar parts.
Which of these conditions is most effective depends on the size of the job,
or the nature of the job to be done. The important question is, not the
number of men doing the planning, but the fact that every foreman, so far as
is possible, is assigned to the special kind of work that he is best fitted to do
with the greatest elimination of unnecessary waste.
Changes in the Functions of the Foreman. — A Foreman, under
Scientific Management, must have three qualifications. He must be
1. a specialist at the work that he is to do.
2. a good observer, able to note minute variations of method, work, and
efficiency.
3. a good teacher.
A comparison of these qualifications with those of the foreman under
Traditional Management, will show as important changes, —
1. the particular place in the field of knowledge in which the foreman must
specialize.
2. the change in the type of criticism expected from the foreman.
3. the far greater emphasis placed on duties as a teacher.
Importance of the Teaching Feature in Functional Foremanship. — The
teaching feature of management, — the most important feature of Scientific
Management, — will be discussed in the Chapter on Teaching. Only so
much is included here as shows its derivation from the principle of
functionalization, and its underlying importance.
Functionalization means specialization. This results in coöperation between
foremen, between foremen and workers, and between workers. By "co-
operate" is here meant not only "to work together," but also "to work
together to promote the object." This coöperation persists not only because

it is demanded by the work, but also because it is insured by the inter-
dependent bonuses.
Functionalization under Scientific Management separates planning from
performing. This means that the specialists who plan must teach the
specialist who performs, this being the way in which they co-operate to the
greatest personal advantage to all.
Basis of Division into Functions. — Under Scientific Management
divisions are made on the basis of underlying ideas. Functions are not
classified as they are embodied in particular men, but men are classified as
they embody particular functions. This allows of standardization, through
which alone can progress and evolution come quickest. It is comparatively
easy and simple to standardize a function. Being a "set duty," it can be
fixed, studied and simplified. It is extremely difficult and complex to
standardize an individual. This standardizing of the function, however, in no
wise stunts individuality. On the contrary, it gives each individual a chance
to utilize his particular faculty for obtaining the greatest efficiency, pleasure
and profit. This is well illustrated in the case of specialization in baseball,
for excellence as a pitcher does not stunt the player as a catcher.
Functions may be subdivided as far as the nature of the work demands.
Note here, again, that it is the relative complexity or simplicity of the nature
of the work that is to be done that determines the degree of its
functionalization, not the number of men employed at the work.
Note, also, that with every subdivision of functions comes greater
opportunity for specialization, hence for individual development.
Place of Operation of the Functions. — Four functions of the eight find
their place in the planning department. The other four are out on the work.
That is to say, — the men who represent four functions work almost
entirely in the planning room, while the men who represent the other four
functions work mostly among the workers. This division is, however,
largely a matter of convenience. Three of the first four groups of men
communicate with the workers mostly in writing and are seldom engaged as
observers, except in obtaining data for the creation of standards, while the
fourth is often in the planning room. The last four usually communicate
with the men orally, and must observe and teach the worker constantly.

In the descriptions that follow, each function is represented as embodied in
one man, this aiding simplicity and clearness in description.
The Order of Work and Route Clerk. — The Order of Work and Route
Clerk lays out the exact path of each piece of work, and determines the
sequence of events of moving and a general outline of performance. 12 With
the requirements of the work in mind, the most efficient day's work for each
worker is determined. The paths and sequences of transportation are
outlined by means of route charts and route sheets showing graphical and
detailed directions, which are the means by which the foremen of the other
functions are enabled to coöperate with other foremen and with the
workers.
The work of this function requires a practical man, of the successful
foreman type, experienced in the class of work to be executed, who is also
familiar with the theories of Scientific Management in general, and the
work of the other foremen in particular, and who has the faculty of
visualization and well developed constructive imagination. He must also
have at his command in systematic form, and available for immediate use,
records of previous experience.
The Instruction Card Clerk. — The Instruction Card Clerk prepares
written directions for the workers as to what methods should be used in
doing the work, the sequence of performance of the elements of the method,
the speeds and action of the accompanying machinery, the time that each
element should take for its performance, the time allowed for rest for
overcoming fatigue caused by its performance, and the total elapsed time
allowed for performing all of the work on the instruction card in order to
obtain the unusually high additional wages as a reward for his skill and
coöperation.
The work of this function requires the best available (but not necessarily the
fastest), practical experienced man in the trade described, who also has had
sufficient experience in motion study and time study to enable him to write
down the best known method for doing the work described, and also
prophesying the correct time that the work and rest from its resulting
fatigue will take. He must supplement the instruction card with such

sketches, drawings and photographs as will best assist the worker to
visualize his work before and during its performance.
Function of Time and Cost Clerk. — The work done by the Time and
Cost Clerk calls for accuracy and a love of statistical detail. It will help him
if he knows the trades with which he is coöperating, but such knowledge is
not absolutely essential. He will be promoted fastest who has a knowledge
of the theory of management, coupled with the theory and practice of
statistics and accountancy, for the true costs must include knowledge of
costs of materials, and the distribution of the overhead burden of running
expenses and selling.
Function of the Disciplinarian. — The function of the Disciplinarian must
be discussed at length, both because of the psychological effect upon the
men of the manner of the discipline and of the disciplinarian, and because
of the fact that the disciplinarian is the functional foreman of the four in the
planning department who comes in most personal contact with the workers,
as well as all of the other foremen, and the Superintendent.
It is important to note, in the discussion that is to follow, not only how
disciplining is transformed as management develops progressively, but also
that the intimate acquaintance of discipliner with disciplined is not done
away with, but rather supplemented by the standardizing which is the
outcome of Scientific Management.
The defects of methods of disciplining under Traditional Management are
remedied, but here, as always, Scientific Management retains and develops
that which is good. This because the good in the older forms conformed,
unconsciously, to the underlying laws.
Defects of Disciplining Under Traditional Management. — Under
Traditional Management, the disciplining is done by the foreman; that is,
the punishment is meted out by the man who has charge of all activities of
the men under him. This is actually, in practice and in theory,
psychologically wrong. If there is one man who should be in a state of mind
that would enable him to judge dispassionately, it is the disciplinarian. The
man to be disciplined is usually guilty of one of six offenses:
1. an offense against an employé of a grade above him.

2. an offense against an employé of the same grade.
3. an offense against an employé of a grade below him.
4. falling short in the quality of his work.
5. falling short in the quantity of his work.
6. an offense against the system (disobeying orders), falling down on
schedule, or intentionally not coöperating.
The employé over him, or the foreman, to whom he is supposed to have
done some injustice, would be in no state of mind to judge as to the man's
culpability. In the case of an offense against an employé of the same grade,
the best that the injured employé could do would be to appeal to his
foreman, who oftentimes is not an unprejudiced judge, and the multiplicity
of whose duties give him little time to give attention to the subject of
disciplining.
If the offense is against quantity or quality of work, again the old fashioned
foreman, for lack of time, and for lack of training and proper standards of
measurement, will find it almost impossible to know how guilty the man is,
and what form of punishment and what amount of punishment or loss of
opportunity for progress will be appropriate.
Changes in Disciplinarian's Function Under Scientific Management. —
All this is changed under Scientific Management. The disciplinarian is a
specially appointed functional foreman, and has few other duties except
those that are directly or indirectly connected with disciplining. He is in
touch with the requirements of the work, because he is in the Planning
Department; he is in touch with the employment bureau, and knows which
men should be employed; he has a determining voice in deciding
elementary rate fixing and should always be consulted before wages are
changed or a reassignment of duties is determined. All of these are great
advantages to him in deciding justly and appropriately punishments and
promotion, not for the workers alone but also for the foremen and the
managers.
Duties of the Disciplinarian. — The Disciplinarian keeps a record of each
man's virtues and defects; he is in position to know all about the man;

where he comes from; what his natural and acquired qualifications are;
what his good points, possibilities and special fitness are; what his wages
are, and his need for them. All that it is possible for the managers to know
of the men is to be concentrated in this disciplinarian. He is, in practice,
more the counsel and advocate of the worker than an unsympathetic judge,
as is indicated by the fact that his chief function is that of "diplomat" and
"peacemaker." His greatest duty is to see that the "square deal" is meted out
without fear or favor to employer or to employé.
Importance of Psychology in Disciplining. — Not only does the position
of disciplinarian under Scientific Management answer the psychological
requirements for such a function, but also the holder of the position of
disciplinarian must understand psychology and apply, at least
unconsciously, and preferably consciously, the known laws of psychology,
if he wishes to be successful.
The disciplinarian must consider not only what the man has done and the
relation of this act of his to his other acts; he must also investigate the cause
and the motive of the act, for on the cause and motive, in reality, depends
more than on the act itself. He must probe into the physical condition of the
man, as related to his mental acts. He must note the effect of the same kind
of discipline under different conditions; for example, he must note that, on
certain types of people, disciplining in the presence of other people has a
most derogatory effect, just as rewards before people may have a most
advantageous effect. Upon others, discipline that is meted out in the
presence of other people is the only sort of discipline which has the desired
effect. The sensitiveness of the person to be disciplined, the necessity for
sharp discipline, and for that particular sort of discipline which may require
the element of shame in it, must all be considered. He must be able to
discover and note whether the discipline should be meted out to a
ringleader, and whether the other employés, supposed to be blameworthy,
are really only guilty in acquiescing, or in failing to report one who has
really furnished the initiative. He must differentiate acts which are the result
of following a ringleader blindly from the concerted acts of disobedience of
a crowd, for the "mob spirit" is always an element to be estimated and
separately handled.

Inadequacy of Terms in Disciplining. — The words "disciplinarian" and
"punishment" are most unfortunate. The "Disciplinarian" would be far
better called the "peacemaker," and the "punishment" by some such word as
the "adjustment." It is not the duty of the disciplinarian to "take out
anybody's grudge" against a man; it is his duty to adjust disagreements. He
must remember constantly that his discipline must be of such a nature that
the result will be for the permanent best interests of the one disciplined, his
co-workers, his associates and his family.
The aim is, not to put the man down, but to keep him up to his standard, as
will be shown later in a chapter on Incentives. If the punishment is in the
form of a fine, it must not in any way return to the coffers of the
management. The fines collected — even those fines collected from the
individuals composing the management, should go in some form to the
benefit of the men themselves, such, for example, as contributions to a
workman's sick benefit fund or to general entertainment at the annual outing
of employés. In practice, the disciplinarian is rather the friend of the worker
than of the employer, if the two interests can possibly be separated. Again
"penalty" is a bad word to use. Any words used in this connection should
preferably have had taken from them any feeling that personal prejudice
affects the discipline. It is the nature of the offense itself which should
prescribe what the outcome of it shall be.
The position of disciplinarian requires a man who has a keen sense of
justice, who has had such experience as to enable him to smooth out
difficulties until all are in a frame of mind where they can look upon their
own acts and the acts of others calmly. He must be able so to administer his
duties that each decision inspires the realization that he acted to the best of
his knowledge and belief. He must be one who is fearless, and has no
tendency to have favorites. He must have a clear knowledge of the theories
and principles of Scientific Management, in order that he can fill the
position of enforcer of its laws.
The Gang Boss. — The duties of The Gang Boss are to see that the worker
has plenty of work ahead, to see that everything that he will need with
which to do the work is at hand, and to see that the work is actually "set," or
placed and performed correctly. This position calls for a practical
demonstrator, who must himself be able and willing actually to prepare and

help on the work. It calls particularly for a man with teaching ability, with
special emphasis on ability to teach, with great exactness, the prescribed
method and to follow the orders of the planning department implicitly.
The Speed Boss. — The speed boss is responsible for the methods of doing
work with machinery. He has charge of overseeing the work, and teaching
the worker, during the entire time that the work is being done. He must be
prepared constantly to demonstrate at any time not only how the work is
done, but also that it can be done in the specified time called for in order to
earn the bonus. This position calls for a man who is able, personally, to
carry out the detailed written orders of the instruction card in regard to
speeds, feeds, cuts, methods of operation, quality and quantity.
He must be proficient at the art of imparting his knowledge to other
workmen, and at the same time be able to secure the prescribed outputs and
quantities. He need not be the fastest worker in the shop, but he should be
one of the most intelligent workers and best teachers, with a keen desire to
coöperate, both with the workers and with the other foremen.
The Repair Boss. — The repair boss has charge of the plant and its
maintenance. He must have a natural love of order and of cleanliness, and a
systematic type of mind. This position calls for a man with an experience
that will enable him to detect liability of breakdowns before they actually
occur. He must be resourceful in repairing unexpected breakdowns in an
emergency, and be able at all times to carry out literally the directions given
on the instruction cards of the Planning Department for cleaning,
maintaining, and repairing the machines.
The Inspector. — The function of inspector under scientific or the Taylor
plan of management is most important, especially in connection with the
"first inspection." During the manufacture of the first piece and after it is
finished the inspector passes and reports upon it before the worker proceeds
with the other pieces. Here the worker gets a return in person for each
successive act on the first piece he makes under a new instruction card, or,
if he is a new worker, under an old instruction card. Ambiguity of
instructions, if present, is thus eliminated, and wrong actions or results are
corrected before much damage to material has been done and before much
time and effort are wasted. The first erroneous cycles of work are not

repeated, and the worker is promptly shown exactly how efficiently he has
succeeded in determining the requirements of his instructions.
The inspector is responsible for the quality of the work. He fulfills the
requirements of Schloss, who says, in speaking of the danger, under some
managements, that the foreman will sacrifice quality to speed, if he gets a
bonus for quantity of output, — "The best safeguard against this serious
danger would be found in the appointment of a distinct staff of inspectors
whose duty it should be to ascertain, as the work proceeds, that the
stipulated standards of excellence are at all times scrupulously maintained."
This position of inspector requires an observant man who naturally is
inclined to give constructive rather than destructive-criticism. He should be
a man who can coöperate with the workman and foreman to rescue
condemned or damaged material with the least expenditure of time, effort
and expense.
Functionalizing the Worker. — Under Scientific Management, the worker
as well as the foreman, is a specialist. This he becomes by being relieved of
everything that he is not best fitted to do, and allowed to concentrate upon
doing, according to exact and scientifically derived methods, that work at
which he is an expert.13
Relieving the Worker of the Planning. — The planning is taken away
from the worker, not because it is something too choice, sacred or
entertaining for him to do, or something which the managers desire to do
themselves, but because it is best, for the workers themselves as well as the
work, that the planning be done by specialists at planning. If he is expert
enough to plan, the worker will be promoted to the planning department. In
the meantime, he is working under the best plan that experts can devise.
Master Planning a Life Study. — The best planner is he who, — other
things being equal, — is the most ingenious, the most experienced and the
best observer. It is an art to observe; it requires persistent attention. The
longer and the more the observer observes, the more details, and variables
affecting details, he observes. The untrained observer could not expect to
compete with one of special natural talent who has also been trained. It is
not every man who is fitted by nature to observe closely, hence to plan. To
observe is a condition precedent to visualizing. Practice in visualizing

makes for increasing the faculty of constructive imagination. He with the
best constructive imagination is the master planner.
The art of observing is founded on a study of fundamental elements. In
order that planning may be done best, previous to starting work, the entire
sequence of operations must be laid out, so that the ideas of value of every
element of every subdivision of the process of working may be corrected to
act most efficiently in relation with each and all of the subsequent parts and
events that are to follow. This planning forwards and backwards demands
an equipment of time study, motion study and micro-motion study records
such as can be used economically only when all the planning is done in one
place, with one set of records. The planner must be able to see and control
the whole problem in all of its aspects.
For example, — the use that is to be made of the work after it is completed
may entirely change the methods best used in doing it. Thus, the face of a
brick wall that is to be plastered does not require and should not have the
usual excellence of nicely ruled joints required on a face that is not to be
plastered. In fact, the roughest, raggedest joints will be that quality of wall
that will make the plaster adhere the best.
As an example of professional observation and investigation with which no
untrained observer could compete, we cite the epoch making work of Dr.
Taylor in determining the most efficient speeds, feeds, cuts and shape of
tools to use for the least wastefulness in cutting metals.14
Dr. Taylor, an unusually brilliant man, at the end of twenty-six years,
working with the best scientists, engineers, experimenters, and workmen,
after an expenditure of literally hundreds of thousands of dollars, was able
to determine and write down a method for cutting metals many times less
wasteful in time than was ever known before; but the data from the
experiments was so complex and involved that a considerable knowledge of
higher mathematics had to be used to apply the data. Furthermore, the data
was in such form that it took longer to use the knowledge contained therein
than it did to do the work on any given piece of metal cutting. After
gathering this knowledge, Dr. Taylor, with his assistants, first Mr. Gantt and
finally Mr. Barth, reduced it to such a form that now it can be used in a
matter of a few seconds or minutes. This was done by making slide rules. 15

Today workers have this knowledge in a form that any machinist can use
with a little instruction. As a result, Dr. Taylor's observations have
revolutionized the design of metal cutting machinery and the metal cutting
industry, and the data he collected is used in every metal cutting planning
department.
Furthermore, as a by-product to his observations and investigations, he
discovered the Taylor-White process of making high speed steel, which
revolutionized the steel tool industry. No untrained workman could expect
ever to compete with such work as this in obtaining results for most
efficient planning and at the same time perform his ordinary work.
Wastefulness of Individual Planning. — Even if it were possible so to
arrange the work of every worker that he could be in close proximity to the
equipment for planning and could be given the training needed, individual
planning for "small lots" with no systematized standardization of planning-
results would be an economic waste that would cause an unnecessary
hardship on the worker, the employer and the ultimate consumer. Individual
planning could not fit the broad scheme of planning, and at best would
cause delays and confusion, and make an incentive to plan for the
individual self, instead of planning for the greatest good of the greatest
number.
Again, even if it were possible to plan best by individual planning, there is a
further waste in changing from one kind of work to another. This waste is
so great and so obvious that it was noticed and recognized by the earliest
manufacturers and economists.
Hardship to the Worker of Individual Planning. — To obtain the most
wages and profits there must be the most savings to divide. These cannot be
obtained when each man plans for himself (except in the home trades),
because all large modern operations have the quantity of output dependent
upon the amount of blockades, stoppages and interferences caused by
dependent sequences. It is not, therefore, possible to obtain the most profit
or most wages by individual planning. Planning is a general function, and
the only way to obtain the best results is by organized planning, and by
seeing that no planning is done for one worker without proper consideration
of its bearing and effect upon any or all the other men's outputs.

The Man Who Desires to Be a Planner Can Be One. — If the worker is
the sort of a man who can observe and plan, or who desires to plan, even
though he is not at first employed in the planning department, he is sure to
get there finally, as the system provides that each man shall go where he is
best fitted. Positions in planning departments are hard to fill, because of the
scarcity of men equipped to do this work. The difficulty of teaching men to
become highly efficient planners is one of the reasons for the slow advance
of the general adoption of Scientific Management.
The Man Who Dislikes Planning Can Be Relieved. — It must not be
forgotten that many people dislike the planning responsibility in connection
with their work. For such, relief from planning makes the performance of
the planned work more interesting and desirable.
Provision for Planning by All Under Scientific Management. — Much
has been said about the worker's "God-given rights to think," and about the
necessity for providing every worker with an opportunity to think.
Scientific Management provides the fullest opportunities for every man to
think, to exercise his mental faculties, and to plan
1. in doing the work itself, as will be shown at length in chapters that
follow.
2. outside of the regular working hours, but in connection with promotion in
his regular work.
Scientific Management provides always, and most emphatically, that the
man shall have hours free from his work in such a state that he will not be
too fatigued to do anything. Furthermore, if he work as directed, his number
of working hours per day will be so reduced that he will have more time
each day for his chosen form of mental stimulus and improvement.
Our friend John Brashear is a most excellent example of what one can do in
after hours away from his work. He was a laborer in a steel mill. His duties
were not such as resemble in any way planning or research work, yet he
became one of the world's most prominent astronomical thinkers and an
Honorary member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
because he had the desire to be a student. Under Scientific Management

such a desire receives added impetus from the method of attack provided
for through its teaching.
Functionalizing the Work Itself. — The work of each part of the planning
and performing departments may be functionalized, or subdivided, as the
result of motion study and time study. The elementary timed units are
combined or synthesized into tasks, made to fit the capabilities of
specialized workers. It is then necessary to: —
1. List the duties and requirements of the work.
2. Decide whether the place can be best handled as one, or subdivided into
several further subdivisions, or functions, or even sub-functions, for two or
more function specialists.
For the sake of analysis, all work may be considered as of one of two
classes: —
1. the short time job.
2. the long time job.
These two divisions are handled differently, as follows:
The Short Time Job. — On the short time job that probably will never be
repeated, there is little opportunity and no economic reason for specially
training a man for its performance. The available man best suited to do the
work with little or no help should be chosen to do it. The suitability of the
man for the work should be determined only by applying simple tests, or, if
even these will cause costly delay or more expense than the work warrants,
the man who appears suitable and who most desires the opportunity to do
the work can be assigned to it.
If the job is connected with a new art, a man whose habits will help him can
be chosen.
For example: — in selecting a man to fly, it has been found advantageous to
give a trick bicycle rider the preference.
There is no other reason why the man for the short job should not be fitted
as well to his work as the man for the long job, except the all-important

reason of cost for special preparation. Any expense for study of the workers
must be borne ultimately both by worker and management, and it is
undesirable to both that expense should be incurred which will not be
ultimately repaid.
The Long Time Job. — The long time job allows of teaching, therefore
applicants for it may be carefully studied. Usually that man should be
chosen who, with all the natural qualifications and capabilities for the job,
except practical skill, requires the most teaching to raise him from the lower
plane to that highest mental and manual plane which he is able to fill
successfully continuously. In this way each man will be developed into a
worker of great value to the management and to himself.
The man who is capable and already skilled at some work is thus available
for a still higher job, for which he can be taught. Thus the long job affords
the greatest opportunity for promotion. The long job justifies the
expenditure of money, effort and time by management and men, and is the
ideal field for the application of scientific selection and functionalization.

SUMMARY

Effect of Functionalization upon the Work. — Under Traditional
Management, there was little or no definite functionalization. If the quantity
of output did increase, as the result of putting a man at that work for which
he seemed best fitted, there was seldom provision made for seeing that the
quality of product was maintained by a method of constructive inspection
that prevented downward deviations from standard quality, instead of
condemning large quantities of the finished product.
Under Transitory Management, the Department of Inspection is one of the
first Functions installed. This assures maintained quality, and provides that
all increase in output shall be actual gain.
Under Scientific Management, functionalization results in increased
quantity of output, 16 with maintained and usually increased quality. 17 This
results in decreased cost. The cost is sufficiently lower to allow of increased
wages to the employés, a further profit to the employer, and a maintained,
or lowered, selling price. This means a benefit to the consumer.

It may be objected that costs cannot be lowered, because of the number of
so-called "non-producers" provided for by Scientific Management.
In answer to this it may be said that there are no non-producers under
Scientific Management. Corresponding work that, under Scientific
Management, is done in the planning department must all be done
somewhere, in a less systematic manner, even under Traditional
Management. 18 The planning department, simply does this work more
efficiently, — with less waste. Moreover, much work of the planning
department, being founded on elementary units, is available for constant
use. Here results an enormous saving by the conservation and utilization of
planning effort.
Also, standard methods are more apt to result in standard quality, and with
less occasion for rejecting output that is below the requisite standards than
is the case under Traditional Management.
Effect of Functionalization upon the Worker. — Under Traditional
Management, even if the worker often becomes functionalized, he seldom
has assurance that he will be able to reap the harvest from remaining so, and
even so, neither data nor teaching are provided to enable him to fulfill his
function most successfully.
Under Transitory Management the worker becomes more and more
functionalized, as the results of motion study and time study make clear the
advantages of specializing the worker.
Effects upon the Scientifically Managed Worker. — Under Scientific
Management the effects of Functionalization are so universal and so far
reaching that it is necessary to enumerate them in detail.
Worker Relieved of Everything but His Special Functions. —
Functionalization, in providing that every man is assigned a special
function, also provides that he be called upon to do work in that function
only, relieving him of all other work and responsibility. Realization of this
elimination has a psychological effect on action and habits of thinking. 19
Places are Provided for Specialists. — Functionalization utilizes men with
decided bents, and allows each man to occupy that place for which he is

fitted. 20 Assignment to functions is done according to the capabilities and
desires of those who are to fill them.
Specializing Is Encouraged. — It is most important to remember that the
man with any special talent or talents, individuality or special fitness is
much more likely, under Scientific Management, to obtain and retain the
place that he is fitted for than he ever could have been under Traditional
Management, for, while many fairly efficient men can be found who can fill
a general position, a man with the marked desirable trait necessary to fill a
distinct position requiring that trait, will be one of few, and will have his
place waiting for him.
One-Talent Men Utilized — .With Functionalization, men who lack
qualifications for the position which they may, at the start, endeavor to fill,
may be transferred to other positions, where the qualities they lack are not
required. If a man has one talent, Scientific Management provides a place
where that can be utilized.
For example: —
Men who cannot produce the prescribed output constantly, are placed on
other work. The slow, unskilled worker who has difficulty to learn, may be
put upon work requiring less skill, or where speed is not required so much
as watchfulness and faithfulness. The worker who is slow, but exceptionally
skilled, has the opportunity to rise to the position of the functional foreman,
especially in the planning department, where knowledge, experience and
resourcefulness, and especially ability to teach, are much more desired than
speed and endurance. Thus there are places provided, below and above, that
can utilize all kinds of abilities.
"All Round" Men Are Utilized. — The exceptional man who possesses
executive ability in all lines, and balance between them all, is the ideal man
for a manager, and his special "all round" ability would be wasted in any
position below that of a manager.
Stability Provided For. — Every man is maintained in his place by his
interresponsibility with other men. If he is a worker, every man's work is
held to standard quality by the inspector, while the requirements and

rewards of his function are kept before him by the instruction card man, rate
fixer and the disciplinarian.
Promotion and Development Provided For. — Functionalization
provides for promotion by showing every man not only the clearly
circumscribed place where he is to work, but also by showing him the
definite place above him to which he may be promoted and its path, and by
teaching him how he can fill it. This allows him to develop the possibilities
of his best self by using and specially training those talents which are most
marked in him.
Functional Foremanship allows many more people, to become foremen, and
to develop the will and judgment which foremanship implies.
Men in the Organization Preferred to Outsiders. — Men in the
organization are preferable to outsiders as functional foremen and for
promotion. Not only does a worker's knowledge of his work help him to
become more efficient when he is promoted to the position of foreman, —
but his efficiency as a teacher is also increased by the fact that he knows
and understands the workers whom he is there to teach.
All Men Are Pushed Up. — Scientific Management raises every man as
high as he is capable of being raised. It does not speed him up, but pushes
him up to the highest notch which he can fill. Actual practice has shown
that there is a greater demand for efficient men in the planning department
than there is supply; also, that men in the planning department who fit
themselves for higher work can be readily promoted to positions of greater
responsibility, either inside or outside the organization.
Years of Productivity Prolonged. — Under Functionalization the number
of years of productivity of all, workers and foremen alike, are increased.
The specialty to which the man is assigned is his natural specialty, thus his
possible and profitable working years are prolonged, because he is at that
work for which he is naturally fitted.
Moreover, the work of teaching is one at which the teacher becomes more
clever and more valuable as time goes on, the functional foreman has that
much more chance to become valuable as years go by.

Change in the Worker's Mental Attitude. — The work under
functionalization is such as to arouse the worker's attention and to hold his
interest. 21 But the most important and valuable change in the worker's
feelings is the change in his attitude towards the foremen and the employer.
From "natural enemies" as sometimes considered under typical Traditional
Management, these all now become friends, with the common aim,
coöperation, for the purpose of increasing output and wages, and lowering
costs. This change of feeling results in an appreciation of the value of
teaching, and also in promoting industrial peace.

1. Mary Whiton Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 273.
2. Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 1.
3. Ibid., p. 54.
4. Hugo Münsterberg, American Problems, p. 35.
5. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, p. 1.
6. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 221. Harper Ed., p. 96.
7. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 221-231. Harper Ed., pp. 96-98.
8. Compare H.L. Gantt, No. 1002, A.S.M.E., para. 9.
9. Compare H.P. Gillette, Cost Analysis Engineering, pp. 1-2.
10. F.W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management, p. 37.
11. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 245. Harper Ed., p. 104.
12. For excellent example of special routing see: Charles Day, Industrial
Plants, chap. VII.
13. C. Babbage, Economy of Manufacturers. p. 172. "The constant
repetition of the same process necessarily produces in the workman a
degree of excellence and rapidity in his particular department, which is

never possessed by a person who is obliged to execute many different
processes."
14. F.W. Taylor, On the Art of Cutting Metals, Paper No. 1119, A.S.M.E.
15. C.G. Barth, Slide Rules for Machine Shops and Taylor System. Paper
No. 1010, A.S.M.E.
16. H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 19.
17. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, p. 2. "The greatest improvement in the
productive powers of labor, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and
judgment, with which it is anywhere directed, or applied, seem to have been
the effects of the division of labor." Also p. 4.
18. H.K. Hathaway, The Value of "Non-Producers" in Manufacturing
Plants. Machinery, Nov., 1906, p. 134.
19. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, p. 11.
20. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching, p. 15.
21. H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 120.

CHAPTER IV

MEASUREMENT

Definition of Measurement. — "Measurement," according to the Century
Dictionary, — "is the act of measuring," and to measure is — "to ascertain
the length, extent, dimensions, quantity or capacity of, by comparison with
a standard; ascertain or determine a quantity by exact observation," or,
again, "to estimate or determine the relative extent, greatness or value of,
appraise by comparison with something else."

Measurement Important in Psychology. — Measurement has always
been of importance in psychology; but it is only with the development of
experimental psychology and its special apparatus, that methods of accurate
measurements are available which make possible the measurement of
extremely short periods of time, or measurements "quick as thought," These
enable us to measure the variations of different workers as to their abilities
and their mental and physical fatigue; 1 to study mental processes at
different stages of mental and physical growth; to compare different people
under the same conditions, and the same person under different conditions;
to determine the personal coefficient of different workers, specialists and
foremen, and to formulate resultant standards. As in all other branches of
science, the progress comes with the development of measurement.
Methods of Measurement in Psychology. — No student of management,
and of measurement in the field of management, can afford not to study,
carefully and at length, methods of measurement under psychology. This,
for at least two most important reasons, which will actually improve him as
a measurer, i.e. —
1. The student will discover, in the books on experimental psychology and
in the "Psychological Review," a marvelous array of results of scientific
laboratory experiments in psychology, which will be of immediate use to
him in his work.
2. He will receive priceless instruction in methods of measuring. No where
better than in the field of psychology, can one learn to realize the
importance of measurements, the necessity for determination of elements
for study, and the necessity for accurate apparatus and accuracy in
observation.
Prof. George M. Stratton, in his book "Experimental Psychology and
Culture," — says "In mental measurements, therefore, there is no pretense
of taking the mind's measure as a whole, nor is there usually any immediate
intention of testing even some special faculty or capacity of the individual.
What is aimed at is the measurement of a limited event in consciousness,
such as a particular perception or feeling. The experiments are addressed, of
course, not to the weight or size of such phenomena, but usually to their
duration and intensity."2

The emphasis laid on a study of elements is further shown in the same book
by the following, — "The actual laboratory work in time-measurement,
however, has been narrowed down to determining, not the time in general
that is occupied by some mental action, but rather the shortest possible time
in which a particular operation, like discrimination or choice or association
or recognition, can be performed under the simplest and most favorable
circumstances.3 The experimental results here are something like speed or
racing records, made under the best conditions of track and training. A
delicate chronograph or chronoscope is used, which marks the time in
thousandths of a second."
Measurement in Psychology Related to Measurement in Management.
— Measurement in psychology is of importance to measurement in
management not only as a source of information and instruction, but also as
a justification and support. Scientific Management has suffered from being
called absurd, impractical, impossible, over-exact, because of the emphasis
which it lays on measurement. Yet, to the psychologist, all present
measurement in Scientific Management must appear coarse, inaccurate and
of immediate and passing value only. With the knowledge that
psychologists endorse accurate measurement, and will coöperate in
discovering elements for study, instruments of precision and methods of
investigation, the investigator in industrial fields must persist in his work
with a new interest and confidence. 4
Scientific Management cannot hope to furnish psychology with either data
or methods of measurement. It can and does, however, open a new field for
study to experimental psychology, and shows itself willing to furnish the
actual working difficulties or problems, to do the preliminary investigation,
and to utilize results as fast as they can be obtained.
Psychologists Appreciate Scientific Management. — The appreciation
which psychologists have shown of work done by Scientific Management
must be not only a matter of gratification, but of inspiration to all workers
in Scientific Management.
So, also, must the new divisions of the Index to the Psychological Review
relating to Activity and Fatigue, and the work being so extensively done in

these lines by French, German, Italian and other nations, as well as by
English and American psychologists.
Measurement Important in Management. — The study of individuality
and of functionalization have made plain the necessity of measurement for
successful management. Measurement furnishes the means for obtaining
that accurate knowledge upon which the science of management rests, as do
all sciences — exact and inexact.5 Through measurement, methods of less
waste are determined, standards are made possible, and management
becomes a science, as it derives standards, and progressively makes and
improves them, and the comparisons from them, accurate.
Problem of Measurement in Management — One of the important
problems of measurement in management is determining how many hours
should constitute the working day in each different kind of work and at
what gait the men can work for greatest output and continuously thrive. The
solution of this problem involves the study of the men, the work, and the
methods, which study must become more and more specialized; but the
underlying aim is to determine standards and individual capacity as exactly
as is possible.6
Capacity. — There are at least four views of a worker's capacity.
1. What he thinks his capacity is.
2. What his associates think his capacity is.
3. What those over him think his capacity is.
4. What accurate measurement determines his actual capacity to be.
Ignorance of Real Capacity. — Dr. Taylor has emphasized the fact that the
average workman does not know either his true efficiency or his true
capacity. 7 The experience of others has also gone to show that even the
skilled workman has little or inaccurate knowledge of the amount of output
that a good worker can achieve at his chosen vocation in a given time. 8
For example, — until a bricklayer has seen his output counted for several
days, he has little idea of how many bricks he can lay, or has laid, in a day. 9

The average manager is usually even more ignorant of the capacity of the
workers than are the men themselves. 10 This is because of the prevalence
of, and the actual necessity for the worker's best interest, under some forms
of management, of "soldiering." Even when the manager realizes that
soldiering is going on, he has no way, especially under ordinary
management, of determining its extent.
Little Measurement in Traditional Management. — Under Traditional
Management there was little measurement of a man's capacity. The
emphasis was entirely on the results. There was, it is true, in everything
beyond the most elementary of Traditional Management, a measurement of
the result. The manager did know, at the end of certain periods of time, how
much work had been done, and how much it had cost him. This was a very
important thing for him to know. If his cost ran too high, and his output fell
too low, he investigated. If he found a defect, he tried to remedy it; but
much time had to be wasted in this investigation, because often he had no
idea where to start in to look for the defects. The result of the defects was
usually the cause for the inquiry as to their presence.
He might investigate the men, he might investigate the methods, he might
investigate the equipment, he might investigate the surroundings, and so on,
— and very often in the mind of the Traditional manager, there was not
even this most elementary division. If things went wrong he simply knew,
— "Something is wrong somewhere," and it was the work of the foremen to
find out where the place was, or so to speed up the men that the output
should be increased and the cost lowered. Whether the defects were really
remedied, or simply concealed by temporarily speeding up, was not
seriously questioned.
Moreover, until measuring devices are secured, the only standard is what
someone thinks about things, and the pity of it is that even this condition
does not remain staple.
Transitory Management Realizes Value of Measurement. — One of the
first improvements introduced when Traditional Management gives place to
the Transitory stage is the measurement of the separated output of
individual workers. These outputs are measured and recorded. The records
for extra high outputs are presented to the worker promptly, so that he may

have a keen idea constantly of the relation of effort to output, while the
fatigue and the effort of doing the work is still fresh in his mind.
The psychology of the prompt reward will be considered later at length, but
it cannot be emphasized too often that the prompter the reward, the greater
the stimulus. The reward will become associated with the fatigue in such a
way that the worker will really get, at the time, more satisfaction out of his
fatigue than he will discomfort; at the least, any dissatisfaction over his
fatigue will be eliminated, by the constant and first thought of the reward
which he has gotten through his efforts.
This record of efficiency is often so presented to the workers that they get
an excellent idea of the numerical measure of their efficiency and its trend.
This is best done by a graphical chart.
The records of the outputs of others on the same kind of work done
concurrently, or a corresponding record on work done previously, will show
the relative efficiency of any worker as compared with the rest. These
standards of comparison are a strong incentive and, if they are shown at the
time that such work is done, they also become so closely associated not
only with the mental but the bodily feeling of the man that the next time the
work is repeated, the thoughts that the same effort will probably bring
greater results, and that it has done so in the past with others, will be
immediately present in the mind.
Measurement Is Basic Under Scientific Management. — Under
Scientific Management measurement is basic. Measurement is of the work,
of outputs, of the methods, the tools, and of the worker, with the individual
as a unit, and motion study, time study and micro-motion study and the
chrono-cyclegraph as the methods of measurement.
Measurement is a most necessary adjunct to selecting the workers and the
managers and to assigning them to the proper functions and work. They
cannot be selected to the greatest advantage and set to functionalized work
until —
(a) the unit of measurement that will of itself tend to reduce costs has
been determined.
(b) methods of measurement have been determined.

(c) measurement has been applied.
(d) standards for measurement have been derived.
(e) devices for cheapening the cost of measuring have been installed.
Under Scientific Management Measurement Determines the Task. —
An important aim of measurement under Scientific Management is to
determine the Task, or the standard amount of any kind of work that a first
class man can do in a certain period of time. The "standard amount" is the
largest amount that a first class man can do and continuously thrive.
The "first-class" man is the man who can eventually become best fitted, by
means of natural and acquired capabilities, to do the work. The "certain
period of time" is that which best suits the work and the man's thriving
under the work. The amount of time allowed for a task consists of three
parts —
1. time actually spent at work.
2. time for rest for overcoming fatigue.
3. time for overcoming delays.
Measurement must determine what percentage of the task time is to be
spent at work and what at rest, and must also determine whether the rest
period should all follow the completed work, or should be divided into
parts, these parts to follow certain cycles through the entire work period.
The method of constructing the task is discussed under two chapters that
follow, Analysis and Synthesis, and Standardization. Here we note only that
the task is built up of elementary units measured by motion study, time
study, and micro-motion study.
When this standard task has been determined the worker's efficiency can be
measured by his performance of, or by the amount that he exceeds, the task.
Qualifications of the Observer or Measurer. — The position of observer,
or as he has well been called, "trade revolutionizer," should be filled by a
man specially selected for the position on account of his special natural
fitness and previous experience. He also should be specially trained for his

work. As in all other classes of work, the original selection of the man is of
vital importance. The natural qualities of the successful hunter, fisherman,
detective, reporter and woodsman for observation of minute details are
extremely desirable. It is only by having intimate knowledge of such
experiences as Agassiz had with his pupils, or with untrained "observers" of
the trade, that one can realize the lack of powers of observation of detail in
the average human being.
Other natural qualifications required to an efficient observer are that of
being
(a) an "eye worker";
(b) able to concentrate attention for unusually long periods;
(c) able to get every thought out of a simple written sentence;
(d) keenly interested in his work;
(e) accurate;
(f) possessed of infinite patience;
(g) an enthusiastic photographer.
The measurer or observer should, preferably, have the intimate knowledge
that comes from personal experience of the work to be observed, although
such a man is often difficult if not impossible to obtain.
The position of observer illustrates another of the many opportunities of the
workmen for promotion from the ranks to higher positions when they are
capable of holding the promotion. Naturally, other things being equal, no
man is so well acquainted with the work to be observed as he who has
actually done it himself, and if he have also the qualifications of the worker
at the work, which should, in the future, surely be determined by study of
him and by vocational guidance, he will be able to go at once from his
position in the ranks to that of observer, or time study man.
The observer must also familiarize himself with the literature regarding
motion study and time study, and must form the habit of recording
systematically the minutest details observable.

The effect upon the man making the observation of knowing that his data,
even though at the time they may seem unimportant, can be used for the
deduction of vital laws, is plain. He naturally feels that he is a part of a
permanent scheme, and is ready and willing to put his best activity into the
work. The benefits accruing from this fact have been so well recognized in
making United States surveys and charts, that the practice has been to have
the name of the man in charge of the work printed on them.
Anyone Interested May Become an Observer. — A review of the mental
equipment needed by a measurer, or observer, will show that much may be
done toward training oneself for such a position by practice. Much pleasure
as well as profit can be obtained by acquiring the habit of observation, both
in the regular working and in the non-working hours. Vocational Guidance
Bureaus should see that this habit of observation is cultivated, not only for
the æsthetic pleasure which it gives, but also for its permanent usefulness.
Unbiased Observation Necessary. — In order to take observations
properly, the investigator should be absolutely impartial, unprejudiced, and
unbiased by any preconceived notions. Otherwise, he will be likely to think
that a certain thing ought to happen. Or he may have a keen desire to obtain
a certain result to conform to a pet theory. In other words, the observer must
be of a very stable disposition. He must not be carried away by his
observations.
The elimination of any charting by the man who makes the observations, or
at least its postponement until all observations are made, will tend to
decrease the dangers of unconscious effect of what he considers the
probable curve of the observations should be.
As has been well said, watching the curve to be charted before all of the
data have been obtained develops a distinct theory in the mind of the
investigator and is apt to "bend the curve" or, at least, to develop a feeling
that if any new, or special, data do not agree with the tendency of the curve
— so much the worse for the reputation of the data for reliability.
Observed Worker Should Realize the Purpose of the Measurement. —
The observed worker should be made to realize the purpose and importance
of the measurement. The observing should always be done with his full
knowledge and hearty coöperation. He will attain much improvement by

intelligent coöperation with the observer, and may, in turn, be able to be
promoted to observing if he is interested enough to study and prepare
himself after hours.
Worker Should Never Be Observed Surreptitiously. — No worker
should ever be observed, timed and studied surreptitiously. In the first
place, if the worker does not know that he is being observed, he cannot
coöperate with the observer to see that the methods observed are methods
of least waste. Therefore the motion study and time study records that result
will not be fundamental standards in any case and will probably be
worthless.
In the second place, if the worker discovers that he is being observed
secretly, he will feel that he is being spied upon and is not being treated
fairly. The stop watch has too long been associated with the idea of "taking
the last drop of blood from the worker." Secret observations will tend
strongly to lend credence to this idea. Even should the worker thus observed
not think that he was being watched in order to force him, at a later time, to
make higher outputs, after he has once learned that he is being watched
secretly, his attention will constantly be distracted by the thought that
perhaps he is being studied and timed again. He will be constantly on the
alert to see possible observers. This may result in "speeding him up," but
the speed will not be a legitimate speed, that results to his good as well as to
that of his employer.
Worst of all, he will lose confidence in the "squareness" of his employer.
Hence he will fail to co-operate, and one of the greatest advantages of
Scientific Management will thus be lost.
It is a great advantage of micro-motion study that it demands coöperation of
the man studied, and that its results are open to study by all.
An Expert Best Worker to Observe. — The best worker to observe for
time study is he who is so skilled that he can perform a cycle of prescribed
standard motions automatically, without mental concentration. This enables
him to devote his entire mental activity to deviating the one desired variable
from the accepted cycle of motions.

The difficulty in motion study and time study is not so often to vary the
variable being observed and studied, as it is to maintain the other variables
constant. Neither skill nor appreciation of what is wanted is enough alone.
The worker who is to be measured successfully must
1. have the required skill.
2. understand the theory of what is being done.
3. be willing to coöperate.
Everyone Should Be Trained in Being Measured. — Accurate
measurement of individuals, in actual practice, brings out the fact that
lamentably few persons are accustomed to be, or can readily be, measured.
It has been a great drawback to the advance of Scientific Management that
the moment a measurer of any kind is put on the work, either a device to
measure output or a man to measure or to time reactions, motions, or
output, the majority of the workers become suspicious. Being
unaccustomed to being measured, they think, as is usually the case with
things to which we are unaccustomed, that there is something harmful to
them in it. This feeling makes necessary much explanation which in reality
should not be needed.
The remedy for this condition is a proper training in youth. A boy brought
up with the fundamental idea of the importance of measurement to all
modern science, for all progress, accustomed to being measured,
understanding the "why" of the measuring, and the results from it, will not
hesitate or object, when he comes to the work, to being measured in order
that he may be put where it is best for himself, as well as for the work, that
he be put.
The importance of human measurement to vocational guidance and to the
training of the young for life work has never been properly realized. Few
people understand the importance of psychological experiment as a factor
in scientific vocational guidance. For this alone, it will probably in time be
a general custom to record and keep as close track as possible of the
psychological measurements of the child during the period of education,
vocational guidance and apprenticeship. Not only this, but he also should be

accustomed to being measured, physically and psychologically, from his
first years, just as he is now accustomed to being weighed.
The child should be taught to measure himself, his faculties, his reactions,
his capabilities as compared with his former self and as compared with the
capabilities of others. It is most important that the child should form a habit
not only of measuring, but of being measured.
Motion Study and Time Study Are the Method of Measurement Under
Scientific Management. — Under Scientific Management, much
measuring is done by motion study and time study, which measure the
relative efficiency of various men, of various methods, or of various kinds
of equipment, surroundings, tools, etc. Their most important use is as
measuring devices of the men. They have great psychological value in that
they are founded on the "square deal" and the men know this from the start.
Being operated under laws, they are used the same way on all sorts of work
and on all men. As soon as the men really understand this fact, and realize
1. that the results are applied to all men equally;
2. that all get an ample compensation for what they do;
3. that under them general welfare is considered; the objections to such
study will vanish.
Motion Study Is Determining Methods of Least Waste. — Motion Study
is the dividing of the elements of the work into the most fundamental
subdivisions possible; studying these fundamental units separately and in
relation to one another; and from these studied, chosen units, when timed,
building up methods of least waste.
Time Study Is Determining Standard Unit Times. — Time study consists
of timing the elements of the best method known, and, from these
elementary unit times, synthesizing a standard time in which a standard
man can do a certain piece of work in accordance with the finally accepted
method.
Micro-motion study is timing sub-divisions, or elements of motions by
carrying out the principles of motion study to a greater degree of accuracy
by means of a motion picture camera, a clock that will record different

times of day in each picture of a moving picture film together with a cross
sectioned background and other devices for assisting in measuring the
relative efficiency and wastefulness of motions. It also is the cheapest,
quickest and more accurate method of recording indisputable time study
records. It has the further advantage of being most useful in assisting the
instruction card man to devise methods of least waste. 11
Motion Study and Time Study Measure Individual Efficiency. —
Motion Study and Time Study measure individual capacity or efficiency by
providing data from which standards can be made. These standards made,
the degree to which the individual approaches or exceeds the standard can
be determined.
Motion Study and Time Study Measure Methods. — Motion Study and
Time Study are devices for measuring methods. By their use, old methods
are "tried out," once and for all, and their relative value in efficiency,
determined. By their use, also, new methods are "tried out." This is most
important under Scientific Management.
Any new method suggested can be tested in a short time. Such elements of
it as have already been tested, can be valued at the start, the new elements
introduced can be motion studied and time studied, and waste eliminated to
as great an extent as possible, with no loss of time or thought.
Under Scientific Management, the men who understand what motion study
and time study mean, know that their suggested methods will be tested, not
only fairly, but so effectively that they, and everyone else, can know at once
exactly the worth of their suggestions.
Comparison of Methods Fosters Invention. — The value of such
comparative study can be seen at a glance. When one such method after
another is tried out, not only can one tell quickly what a new method is
worth, but can also determine what it is worth compared to all others which
have been considered. This is because the study is a study of elements,
primarily, and not of methods as a whole. Not only can suggested methods
be estimated, but also new methods which have never been suggested will
become apparent themselves through this study. Common elements, being
at once classified and set aside, the new ones will make themselves

prominent, and better methods for doing work will suggest themselves,
especially to the inventive mind.
Books of Preliminary Data Needed. — In order that this investigation
may be best fostered, not only must books of standards be published, but
also books of preliminary data, which other workers may attack if they
desire, and where they can find common elements. Such books of
preliminary data are needed on all subjects.>12
Motion Study and Time Study Measure Equipment and Tools. — Time
and motion study are measuring devices for ascertaining relative merits of
different kinds of equipment, surroundings and tools. Through them, the
exact capacities of equipment or of a tool or machine can be discovered at
once, and also the relative value in efficiency. Also motion study and time
study determine exactly how a tool or a piece of equipment can best be
used.
In "On The Art of Cutting Metals" Dr. Taylor explains the effect of such
study on determining the amount of time that tools should be used, the
speed at which they should be used, the feed, and so on.13 This paper
exemplifies more thoroughly than does anything else ever written the value
of Time Study, and the scientific manner in which it is applied.
The Scope of Time and Motion Study Is Unlimited. — It is a great
misfortune that the worker does not understand, as he should, that motion
study and time study apply not only to his work, but also to the work of the
managers. In order to get results from the start, and paying results, it often
happens that the work of the worker is the first to be so studied, but when
Scientific Management is in full operation, the work of the managers is
studied exactly to the same extent, and set down exactly as accurately, as
the work of the worker himself. The worker should understand this from the
start, that he may become ready and willing to coöperate.
Detailed Records Necessary. — Motion study and time study records must
go into the greatest detail possible. If the observations are hasty, misdirected
or incomplete they may be quite unusable and necessitate going through the
expensive process of observation all over again. Dr. Taylor has stated that
during his earlier experiences he was obliged to throw away a large quantity
of time study data, because they were not in sufficient detail and not

recorded completely enough to enable him to use them after a lapse of a
long period from the time of their first use. No system of time study, and no
individual piece of time study, can be considered a success unless by its use
at any time, when new, or after a lapse of years, an accurate prediction of
the amount of work a man can do can be made.
All results attained should invariably be preserved, whether they appear at
the moment to be useful or valuable or not. In time study in the past it has
been found, as in the investigations of all other sciences, that apparently
unimportant details of today are of vital importance years after, as a
necessary step to attain, or further proof of a discovery. This was
exemplified in the case of the shoveling experiment of Dr. Taylor. The laws
came from what was considered the unimportant portion of the data. There
is little so unimportant that time and motion study would not be valuable.
Just as it is a great help to the teacher to know the family history of the
student, so it is to the one who has to use time and motion study data to
know all possible of the hereditary traits, environment and habits of the
worker who was observed.
Specialized Study Imperative. — As an illustration of the field for
specialized investigation which motion study and time study present, we
may take the subject of fatigue. Motion Study and Time Study aim to show,
1. the least fatiguing method of getting least waste.
2. the length of time required for a worker to do a certain thing.
3. the amount of rest and the time of rest required to overcome fatigue.
Dr. Taylor spent years in determining the percentage of rest that should be
allowed in several of the trades, beginning with those where the making of
output demands weight hanging on the arms; but there is still a great
amount of investigation that could be done to advantage to determine the
most advisable percentage of rest in the working day of different lengths of
hours. Such investigation would probably show that many of our trades
could do the same amount of work in fewer hours, if the quantity and time
of rest periods were scientifically determined.
Again, there is a question of the length of each rest period. It has been
proven that in many classes of work, and especially in those where the work

is interrupted periodically by reason of its peculiar nature, or by reason of
inefficient performance in one of the same sequence of dependent
operations, alternate working and resting periods are best. There is to be
considered in this connection, however, the recognized disadvantage of
reconcentrating the attention after these rest periods. Another thing to be
considered is that the rate of output does not decline from the beginning of
the day, but rather the high point of the curve representing rate of
production is at a time somewhat later than at the starting point. The period
before the point of maximum efficiency is known as "warming up" among
ball players, and is well recognized in all athletic sports.
As for the point of minimum efficiency, or of greatest fatigue, this varies for
"morning workers," and "night workers." This exemplifies yet another
variable.
The minuteness of the sub-fields that demand observation, is shown by an
entry in the Psychological Index: "1202. Benedict, F.G. "Studies in Body —
Temperature." 1. Influence of the Inversion of the Daily Routine; the
Temperature of Night Workers."14
Selection of Best Unit of Measurement Necessary and Important. —
Selecting the unit of measurement that will of itself reduce costs is a most
important element in obtaining maximum efficiency.15 This is seldom
realized. 16 Where possible, several units of measurements should be used
to check each other. 17 One alone may be misleading, or put an incentive on
the workers to give an undesirable result.
The rule is, — always select that unit of output that will, of itself, cause a
reduction in costs.
For example: — In measuring the output of a concrete gang, counting
cement bags provides an incentive to use more cement than the instruction
card calls for. Counting the batches of concrete dumped out of the mixer,
provides an incentive to use rather smaller quantities of broken stone and
sand than the proportions call for, — and, furthermore, does not put the
incentive on the men to spill no concrete in transportation, neither does it
put an incentive to use more lumps for Cyclopean concrete.

Measuring the quantity actually placed in the forms puts no incentive to
watch bulging forms closely.
While measuring outputs by all these different units of measurements would
be valuable to check up accuracy of proportions, accuracy of stores account,
and output records, the most important unit of measurement for selection
would be, "cubic feet of forms filled," the general dimensions to be taken
from the latest revised engineer's drawings.
Necessity for Checking Errors. — Dr. Stratton says, — "No
measurements, whether they be psychic or physical, are exact beyond a
certain point, and the art of using them consists largely in checks and
counter checks, and in knowing how far the measurement is reliable and
where the doubtful zone begins." 18
Capt. Metcalfe says, — "Errors of observation may be divided into two
general classes; the instrumental and those due to the personal bias of the
observer; the former referring to the standard itself, and the latter to the
application of the standard and the record of the measurement." 19
The concrete illustration given above is an example of careful checking up.
Under Scientific Management so many, and such careful records are kept
that detecting errors becomes part of the daily routine.

SUMMARY

Results of Measurement to the Work. — Under Traditional Management,
even the crudest measurement of output and cost usually resulted in an
increase in output. But there was no accuracy of measurement of individual
efficiency, nor was there provision made to conserve results and make them
permanently useful.
Under Transitory Management and measurement of individual output,
output increased and rewards for the higher output kept up the standard.
Under Scientific Management Better Methods and Better Work
Results. — Under Scientific Measurement, measurement of the work itself
determines

1. what kind of workers are needed.
2. how many workers are needed.
3. how best to use them.
Motion Study and Time Study measurement, —
1. divide the work into units.
2. measure each unit.
3. study the variables, or elements, one at a time.
4. furnish resulting timed elements to the synthesizer of methods of least
waste.
Accurate Measuring Devices Prevent Breakdowns and Accidents. —
The accurate measuring devices which accomplish measurement under
Scientific Management prevent breakdowns and accidents to life and limb.
For example. —
1. The maintained tension on a belt bears a close relation to its delay
periods.
2. The speed of a buzz planer determines its liability to shoot out pieces of
wood to the injury of its operator, or to injure bystanders.
Scientific Management, by determining and standardizing methods and
equipment both, provides for uninterrupted output.
Effect on the Worker. — Under Traditional Management there is not
enough accurate measurement done to make its effect on the worker of
much value.
Under Transitory Management, as soon as individual outputs are measured,
the worker takes more interest in his work, and endeavors to increase his
output.
Under Scientific Management measurement of the worker tells
1. what the workers are capable of doing.

2. what function it will be best to assign them to and to cultivate in them.
Waste Eliminated by Accurate Measurement. — This accurate
measurement increases the worker's efficiency in that it enables him to
eliminate waste. "Cut and try" methods are eliminated. There is no need to
test a dozen methods, a dozen men, a dozen systems of routing, or various
kinds of equipment more than once, — that one time when they are
scientifically tried out and measured. This accurate measurement also
eliminates disputes between manager and worker as to what the latter's
efficiency is.
Efficiency Measured by Time and Motion Study. — Time and Motion
Study.
(a) measure the man by his work; that is, by the results of his activities;
(b) measure him by his methods;
(c) measure him by his capacity to learn;
(d) measure him by his capacity to teach.
Now measurement by result alone is very stimulating to increasing
activities, especially when it shows, as it does under Scientific
Management, the relative results of various people doing the same kind of
work. But it does not, itself, show the worker how to obtain greater results
without putting on more speed or using up more activities. But when the
worker's methods are measured, he begins to see, for himself, exactly why
and where he has failed.
Scientific Management provides for him to be taught, and the fact that he
sees through the measurements exactly what he needs to be taught will
make him glad to have the teacher come and show him how to do better.
Through this teaching, its results, and the speed with which the results
come, the workers and the managers can see how fast the worker is capable
of learning, and, at the same time, the worker, the teacher and the managers
can see in how far the foreman is capable of instructing.
Final Outcome Beneficial to Managers and Men. — Through
measurement in Scientific Management, managers acquire —

1. ability to select men, methods, equipment, etc.;
2. ability to assign men to the work which they should do, to prescribe the
method which they shall use, and to reward them for their output suitably;
3. ability to predict. On this ability to predict rests the possibility of making
calendars, chronological charts and schedules, and of planning determining
sequence of events, etc., which will be discussed at length later.
Ability to predict allows the managers to state "premature truths," which the
records show to be truths when the work has been done.
It must not be forgotten that the managers are enabled not only to predict
what the men, equipment, machinery, etc., will do, but what they can do
themselves.
The Effect on the Men Is That the Worker Co-operates. — 1. The
worker's interest is held. The men know that the methods they are using are
the best. The exact measurements of efficiency of the learner, — and under
Scientific Management a man never ceases to be a learner, — give him a
continued interest in his work. It is impossible to hold the attention of the
intelligent worker to a method or process that he does not believe to> be the
most efficient and least wasteful.
Motion study and time study are the most efficient measuring device of the
relative qualities of differing methods. They furnish definite and exact proof
to the worker as to the excellence of the method that he is told to use. When
he is convinced, lack of interest due to his doubts and dissatisfaction is
removed.
2. The worker's judgment is appealed to. The method that he uses is the
outcome of coöperation between him and the management. His own
judgment assures him that it is the best, up to that time, that they, working
together, have been able to discover.
3. The worker's reasoning powers are developed. Continuous judging of
records of efficiency develops high class, well developed reasoning powers.
4. The worker fits his task, therefore there is no need of adjustment, and his
attitude toward his work is right.

5. There is elimination of soldiering, both natural and systematic.20
All Knowledge Becomes the Knowledge of All. — Two outcomes may be
confidently expected in the future, as they are already becoming apparent
where-ever Scientific Management is being introduced:
1. The worker will become more and more willing to impart his knowledge
to others. When the worker realizes that passing on his trade secrets will not
cause him to lose his position or, by raising up a crowd of competitors,
lower his wages, but will, on the contrary, increase his wages and chances
of promotion, he is ready and willing to have his excellent methods
standardized.
Desire to keep one's own secret, or one's own method a secret is a very
natural one. It stimulates interest, it stimulates pride. It is only when, as in
Scientific Management, the possessor of such a secret may receive just
compensation, recognition and honor for his skill, and receive a position
where he can become an appreciated teacher of others that he is, or should
be, willing to give up this secret. Scientific Management, however, provides
this opportunity for him to teach, provides that he receives credit for what
he has done, and receive that publicity and fame which is his due, and
which will give him the same stimulus to work which the knowledge that he
had a secret skill gave him in the past.
One method of securing this publicity is by naming the device or method
after its inventor. This has been found to be successful not only in satisfying
the inventor, but in stimulating others to invent.
Measurement of Individual Efficiency Will Be Endorsed by All. — 2.
The worker will, ultimately, realize that it is for the good of all, as well as
for himself, that individual efficiency be measured and rewarded.
It has been advanced as an argument against measurement that it
discriminates against the "weaker brother," who should have a right to
obtain the same pay as the stronger, for the reason that he has equal needs
for this pay to maintain life and for the support of his family.

Putting aside at the moment the emotional side of this argument, which is
undoubtedly a strong side and a side worthy of consideration, with much
truth in it, and looking solely at the logical side, — it cannot do the
"weaker" brother any good in the long run, and it does the world much
harm, to have his work overestimated. The day is coming, when the world
will demand that the quantity of the day's work shall be measured as
accurately where one sells labor, as where one sells sugar or flour. Then,
pretending that one's output is greater than it really is will be classed with
"divers weights and divers measures," with their false standards. The day
will come when the public will insist that the "weaker brother's" output be
measured to determine just how weak he is, and whether it is weakness,
unfitness for that particular job, or laziness that is the cause of his output
being low. When he reaches a certain degree of weakness, he will be
assisted with a definite measured quantity of assistance. Thus the "weaker
brother" may be readily distinguished from the lazy, strong brother, and the
brother who is working at the wrong job. Measurement should certainly be
insisted on, in order to determine whether these strong brothers are doing
their full share, or whether they are causing the weaker brothers to over-
exert themselves.
No one who has investigated the subject properly can doubt that it will be
better for the world in general to have each man's output, weak and strong,
properly measured and estimated regardless of whether the weak and strong
are or are not paid the same wages. The reason why the unions have had to
insist that the work shall not be measured and that the weaker brother's
weakness shall not be realized is, that in the industrial world the only
brotherhood that was recognized was the brotherhood between the workers,
there being a distinct antagonism between the worker and the manager and
little or no brotherhood of the public at large. When Scientific Management
does away, as it surely will, with this antagonism, by reason of the
coöperation which is its fundamental idea, then the workers will show
themselves glad to be measured.
As for the "weaker" brother idea, it is a natural result of such ill treatment.
It has become such a far-reaching emotion that even Scientific
Management, with its remedy for many ills, cannot expect in a moment, or
in a few years, to alter the emotional bias of the multitudes of people who
have held it for good and sufficient reasons for generations.

The Government Should Conserve Measurement Data. — The one thing
which can permanently alter this feeling forms the natural conclusion to this
chapter. That is, measurements in general and motion study and time study
in particular must become a matter of government investigation. When the
government has taken over the investigation and established a bureau where
such data as Scientific Management discovers is collected and kept on file
for all who will to use, then the possessor of the secret will feel that it can
safely place the welfare of its "weaker brothers" in the hands of a body
which is founded and operates on the idea of the "square deal."
Appreciation of Time Study by Workers the First Step. — The first step
of the workers in this direction must be the appreciation of time study, for
on time study hangs the entire subject of Scientific Management. It is this
great discovery by Dr. Taylor that makes the elimination of waste possible.
It has come to stay. Many labor leaders are opposed to it, but the wise thing
for them to do is to study, foster and cultivate it. They cannot stop its
progress. There is no thing that can stop it. The modern managers will
obtain it, and the only way to prevent it from being used by unscrupulous
managers is for the workman also to learn the facts of time study. It is of the
utmost importance to the workers of the country, for their own protection,
that they be as familiar with time study data as the managers are. Time
study is the foundation and frame work of rate setting and fixing, and
certainly the subject of rate fixing is the most important subject there is to
the workmen, whether they are working on day work, piece work, premium,
differential rate piece, task with bonus, or three-rate system.
Dr. Taylor has proved by time study that many of the customary working
days are too long, that the same amount of output can be achieved in fewer
hours per day. Time study affords the means for the only scientific proof
that many trades fatigue the workers beyond their endurance and strength.
Time study is the one means by which the workers can prove the real facts
of their unfortunate condition under the Traditional plan of management.
The workers of the country should be the very ones that should insist upon
the government taking the matter in hand for scientific investigation.
Knowledge is power, — a rule with no exception, and the knowledge of
scientific time study would prepare the workers of any trade, and would
provide their intelligent leaders with data for accurate decisions for

legislation and other steps for their best interests. The national bodies
should hire experts to represent them and to coöperate with the government
bureau in applying science to their life work.
The day is fast approaching when makers of machinery will have the best
method of operating their machines micro-motion studied and cyclegraphed
and description of methods of operation in accordance with such records
will be everywhere considered as a part of the "makers' directions for
using."
Furthermore associations of manufacturers will establish laboratories for
determining methods of least waste by means of motion study, time study
and micro-motion study, and the findings of such laboratories will be put in
standardized shape for use by all its members. The trend today shows that
soon there will be hundreds of books of time study tables. The government
must sooner or later save the waste resulting from this useless duplication
of efforts.

1. Hugo Münsterberg, American Problems, p. 34.
2. G.M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Its Bearing upon Culture,
p. 37.
3. Ibid., p. 38.
4. For apparatus for psychological experiment see Stratton, p. 38, p. 171,
p. 265.
5. H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 15.
6. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, The Carnegie Foundation for
the Advancement of Teaching, p. 7.
7. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 29. Harper Ed., p. 25.
8. H.L. Gantt, Paper No. 928, A.S.M.E., para. 6.

9. F.B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System.
10. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 61. Harper Ed., p. 33.
11. Industrial Engineering, Jan., 1913.
12. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, pp. 398-391. Harper Ed., p. 179.
Compare, U.S. Bulletin of Agriculture No. 208. The Influence of Muscular
and Mental Work on Metabolism.
13. President's Annual Address, Dec., 1906. Vol. 28, Transactions A.S.M.E.

14. American Journal of Physiology, 1904, XI, pp. 145-170.
15. R.T. Dana, For Construction Service Co., Handbook of Steam Shovel
Work, p. 161. H.P. Gillette, Vol. I, p. 71, A.S.E.C.
16. F.W. Taylor, Vol. 28, A.S.M.E., Paper 1119, para. 68.
17. Hugo Münsterberg, American Problems, p. 37.
18. G.M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 59.
19. Henry Metcalfe, Cost of Manufactures.
20. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 46. Harper Ed., p. 30. F.W.
Taylor, A Piece Rate System, Paper 647, A.S.M.E., para. 22.

CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

Definition of Analysis. — "Analysis," says the Century Dictionary is "the
resolution or separation of anything which is compound, as a conception, a
sentence, a material substance or an event, into its constituent elements or
into its causes;" that is to say, analysis is the division of the thing under
consideration into its definite cause, and into its definite parts or elements,
and the explanation of the principle upon which such division is made.1
Definition of Synthesis. — "Synthesis" is, "a putting of two or more things
together; composition; specifically, the combination of separate elements of
objects of thought into a whole, as of simple into compound or complex
conceptions, and individual propositions into a system."
Use of Analysis and Synthesis by Psychology. — Analysis is defined by
Sully as follows: "Analysis" is "taking apart more complex processes in

order to single out for special inspection their several constituent
processes."
He divides elements of thought activity into two
"(a) analysis: abstraction
(b) synthesis: comparison."
Speaking of the latter, he says, "The clear explicit detachment in thought of
the common elements which comparison secures allows of a new
reconstructive synthesis of things as made up of particular groupings of a
number of general qualities."
Place of Analysis and Synthesis in Management. — Any study of
management which aims to prove that management may be, and under
Scientific Management is, a science, must investigate its use of analysis and
of synthesis. 2 Upon the degree and perfection of the analysis depends the
permanent value and usefulness of the knowledge gained. Upon the
synthesis, and what it includes and excludes, depends the efficiency of the
results deduced.
Little Analysis or Synthesis Under Traditional Management. — Under
Traditional Management analysis and synthesis are so seldom present as to
be negligible. Success or failure are seldom if ever so studied and measured
that the causes are well understood. Therefore, no standards for future work
that are of any value can be established. It need only be added that one
reason why Traditional Management makes so little progress is because it
makes no analyses that are of permanent value. What data it has are
available for immediate use only. Practically every man who does the work
must "start at the beginning," for himself. If this is often true of entire
methods, it is even more true of elements of methods. As elements are not
studied and recorded separately, they are not recognized when they appear
again, and the resultant waste is appalling. This waste is inevitable with the
lack of coöperation under Traditional Management and the fact that each
worker plans the greater part of his work for himself.
Analysis and Synthesis Appear Late in Transitory Management. —
Division of output appears early in Transitory Management, but it is usually

not until a late stage that motion study and time study are conducted so
successfully that scientifically determined and timed elements can be
constructed into standards. As everything that is attempted in the line of
analysis and synthesis under Transitory Management is done scientifically
under Scientific Management, we may avoid repetition by considering
Scientific Management at once.
Relation of Analysis and Synthesis in Scientific Management to
Measurement and Standardization. — Analysis considers the subject that
is to be measured, — be it individual action or output of any kind, — and
divides it into such a number of parts, and parts of such a nature, as will
best suit the purpose for which the measurement is taken. When these
subdivisions have been measured, synthesis combines them into a whole. 3
Under Scientific Management, through the measurements used, synthesis is
a combination of those elements which are necessary only, and which have
been proven to be most efficient. The result of the synthesis is standardized,
and used until a more accurate standard displaces it.
Under Scientific Management analysis and synthesis are methods of
determining standards from available knowledge. Measurement furnishes
the means.
Analyst's Work Is Division. — It is the duty of the analyst to divide the
work that he is set to study into the minutest divisions possible. What is
possible is determined by the time and money that can be set aside for the
investigation.
The Nature of the Work Must Determine the Amount of Analysis
Practicable. — In determining the amount of time and money required, it
is necessary to consider —
1. the cost of the work if done with no special study.
2. how many times the work is likely to be repeated.
3. how many elements that it contains are likely to be similar to elements in
work that has already been studied.
4. how many new elements that it contains are likely to be available in
subsequent work.

5. the probable cost of the work after it has been studied —
(a) the cost of doing it.
(b) the cost of the investigation.
6. The loss, if any, from delaying the work until after it has been studied.
7. the availability of trained observers and measurers, analysts and
synthesists.
8. the available money for carrying on the investigations.
These questions at least must be answered before it is possible to decide
whether study shall be made or not, and to what degree it can be carried.
Cost the Determining Factor. — It is obvious that in all observation in the
industrial world cost must be the principal determining feature. Once the
cost can be estimated, and the amount of money that can be allowed for the
investigation determined, it is possible at least to approximate satisfactory
answers to the other questions. How closely the answers approximate
depends largely on the skill and experience of the analyst.
The greater number of times the work is to be repeated, the less the ultimate
cost. The more elements contained similar to elements already determined,
the less the additional cost, and the less the time necessary. The more
elements contained that can be used again, even in different work, the less
the ultimate cost. The better trained the analyst, the less the immediate or
additional cost and time.
Much depends on the amount of previous data at hand when the
investigation is being made, and on the skill and speed of the analyst in
using these data.
Process of Division Unending. — In practice, the process of division
continues as long as it can show itself to be a method for cost reducing.
Work may be divided into processes: each process into subdivisions; each
subdivision into cycles; each cycle into elements; each element into time
units; each time unit into motions, — and so on, indefinitely, toward the
"indivisible minimum."4

Measuring May Take Place at Any Stage. — At any of these stages of
division the results may be taken as final for the purpose of the study, —
and the operations, or final divisions of the work at that stage, may be
measured.
To obtain results with the least expenditure of time, the operations must be
subjected to motion study before they are timed as well as after. This
motion study can be accurate and of permanent value only in so far as the
divisions are final. The resulting improved operations are then ready to be
timed.
Ultimate Analysis the Field of Psychology. — When the analyst has
proceeded as far as he can in dividing the work into prime factors the
problem continues in the field of psychology. Here the opportunities for
securing further data become almost limitless.
Ultimate Analysis Justifiable. — It is the justification for analysis to
approach the ultimate as nearly as possible, that the smaller and more
difficult of measurement the division is, the more often it will appear in
various combinations of elements. The permanence and exactness of the
result vary with the effort for obtaining it.
Qualifications of an Analyst. — To be most successful, an analyst should
have ingenuity, patience, and that love of dividing a process into its
component parts and studying each separate part that characterizes the
analytic mind. The analyst must be capable of doing accurate work, and
orderly work.
To get the most pleasure and profit from his work he should realize that his
great, underlying purpose is to relieve the worker of unnecessary fatigue, to
shorten his work period per day, and to increase the number of his days and
years of higher earning power. With this realization will come an added
interest in his subject.
Worker Should Understand the Process of Analysis. — It is not enough
that the worker should understand the methods of measurement. He can get
most from the resultant standards and will most efficiently coöperate if he
understands the division into elements to be studied.

Schools Should Provide Training. — Much of the training in analysis in
the schools comes at such a late period of the course that the average
industrial worker must miss a large part of it. This is a defect in school
training that should be remedied. Even very young children soon are
capable of, and greatly enjoy, dividing a process into elements. If the
worker be taught, in his preparations, and in the work itself, to divide what
he does into its elements, he will not only enjoy analysis of his work, but
will be able to follow the analysis in his own mind, and to coöperate better
in the processes of measurement.
The Synthesist's Work Is Selection and Addition. — The synthesist
studies the individual results of the analyst's work, and their inter-relation,
and determines which of these should be combined, and in what manner, for
the most economic result. His duty is to construct that combination of the
elements which will be most efficient.
Importance of Selection Must Be Emphasized. — If synthesis in
Scientific Management were nothing more than combining all the elements
that result from analysis into a whole, it would be valuable. Any process
studied analytically will be performed more intelligently, even if there is no
change in the method.
But the most important part of the synthesist's work is the actual elimination
of elements which are useless, and the combination of the remaining
elements in such a way, or sequence, or schedule, that a far better method
than the one analyzed will result.

We may take an example from Bricklaying. 5 In "Stringing Mortar Method,
on the Filling Tiers before the Days of the Pack-on-the-Wall-Method" —
the division, which was into operations only, showed eighteen operations
and eighteen motions for every brick that was laid. Study and synthesis of
these elements resulted in a method that required only 1 3/4 motions to lay
a brick. Over half the original motions were found to be useless, hence
entirely omitted. In several other cases it was found possible to make one
motion do work for two or four brick, with the same, or less, fatigue to the
worker.
Result Is the Basis for the Task. — The result of synthesis is the basis for
the task, — it becomes the standard that shows what has actually been done,

and what can be expected to be repeated. It is important to note the relation
between the task and synthesis. When it becomes generally understood that
the "Task," under Scientific Management is neither an ideal which exists
simply in the imagination, nor an impossibly high estimate of what can be
expected, — but is actually the sum of observed and timed operations, plus
a definite and sufficient percentage of allowance for overcoming the
fatigue, — then much objection to it will cease.
General Lack of Knowledge the Chief Cause of Objection to the Task.
— As is the case with most objections to Scientific Management, or its
elements, ignorance is the chief obstacle to the introduction and success of
the Task Idea. This ignorance seems to be more or less prevalent
everywhere among managers as well as workers.
Scientific Management can, and does, succeed even when the workers are
ignorant of many of its fundamental principles, but it will never make the
strides that it should until every man working under it, as well as all
outside, understand why it is doing as it does, as well as what is done.
This educational campaign could find no better starting point than the word
"task," and the "task idea."

The Name Task Is Unfortunate. 6 — The Century Dictionary defines
"Task" as follows:
1. "a tax, an assessment, an impost
2. "labor imposed, especially a definite quantity or amount of labor; work to
be done; one's stint; that which duty or necessity imposes; duty or duties
collectively
3. "a lesson to be learned; a portion of study imposed by a teacher
4. "work undertaken, — an undertaking
5. "burdensome employment; toil."
Only the fourth meaning, as here given, covers in any way what is meant by
the task in Scientific Management.

The ideas included in the other four definitions are most unpleasant. The
thought of labor; the thought that the labor is imposed; the thought that the
imposition is definite; that duty makes it necessary that it be done; that it is
burdensome; that it is toilsome: these are most unfortunate ideas and have
been associated with the word so long in the human mind that it will be a
matter of years before a new set of associations can be formed which will
be pleasant, and which will render the word "task" attractive and agreeable
to the worker and to the public in general.
No Other Adequate Word Has Been Suggested. — However, there seems
to be no better word forthcoming; therefore, one can but follow the example
of the masters in management, who have accepted this word, and have done
their best to make it attractive by the way they themselves have used it.
To the writer, the word "stint" is far more attractive and more truly
descriptive than is "task." Perhaps because of the old-fashioned idea that a
reward, usually immediate, followed the completion of the "stint."
Opinions as to a preferable word will doubtless vary, but it is self-evident
that the word "task" has already become so firmly established in Scientific
Management that any attempt to change it would result in a confusion. It is
far better to concentrate on developing a new set of associations for it in as
many minds as possible.
Decided Advantage to the Use of the Word Task. — Perhaps in one way
it is fortunate that the use of the word "task" does coincide more or less
with the use of that word under Traditional Management. Under Traditional
Management the task is the work to be done. It may be just as well that the
same word should be used under Scientific Management, in order that both
the worker and investigator may realize, that, after all the work that is to be
done is, in its essentials, exactly the same. With this realization from the
beginning, the mind of the worker or investigator may be the more
predisposed to note the eliminations of waste and the cutting down of time,
effort and fatigue under the scientifically derived methods.
Definition of Task as Used in Scientific Management. — The task, under
Scientific Management, differs from the task under Traditional
Management in that —

1. The tools and surrounding conditions with which the work shall be done
are standardized.
2. The method in which the work shall be done is prescribed.
3. The time that the work shall take is scientifically determined.
4. An allowance is made for rest from fatigue.
5. The quality of the output is prescribed.
When to this is added the fact that the method is taught, and that the reward
is ample, fixed, prompt and assured, the attractive features of the task under
Scientific Management have been made plain.
Task Idea Applies to Work of Everyone. — Under Scientific Management
there is a task for every member of the organization, from the head of the
management to the worker at the most rudimentary work. This is too often
not known, or not appreciated by the worker, who feels that what is deemed
best for him should be good for everyone. The mental attitude will never be
right till all understand that the task idea will increase efficiency when
applied to any possible kind of work. With the application of the task idea
to all, will come added coöperation.
Task Idea Applies to the Work of the Organization. — The work which
is to be done by the organization should be considered the task of the
organization, and this organization task is studied before individual tasks
are set. The methods used in determining this organization task are analysis
and synthesis, just as in the case of the individual task.
Individual Tasks Are Elements of Organization Task. — The individual
tasks are considered as elements of the organization task. The problem is, to
determine the best arrangement of these individual tasks, the best schedule,
and routing. The individual task may be thought of as something moving,
that must be gotten out of the way.
Management has been called largely a matter of transportation. It may be
"transportation" or moving of materials, revolution of parts of fixed
machinery, or merely transportation of parts of one's body in manual
movements; 7 in any case, the laws governing transportation apply to all.

This view of management is most stimulating to the mind. A moving object
attracts attention and holds interest. Work that is interesting can be
accomplished with greater speed and less fatigue. Thinking in terms of the
methods of Scientific Management as the most accurate and efficient in
transporting the finished output and its "chips" 8 will be a great aid towards
attaining the best results possible by means of a new method of visualizing
the problem.
Qualifications of the Synthesist. — The synthesist must have a
constructive mind, for he determines the sequence of events as well as the
method of attack. He must have the ability to see the completed whole
which he is trying to make, and to regard the elements with which he works
not only as units, but in relation to each other. He must feel that any
combination is influenced not only by the elements that go into it, but by
the inter-relation between these elements. This differs for different
combinations as in a kaleidoscope.
The Synthesist a Conserver. — The Synthesist must never be thought of
as a destructive critic. He is, in reality, a conserver of all that is valuable in
old methods. Through his work and that of the analyst, the valuable
elements of traditional methods are incorporated into standard methods.
These standard methods will, doubtless, be improved as time goes on, but
the valuable elements will be permanently conserved.
Synthesist an Inventor. — The valuable inventions referred to as the result
of measurement are the work of the synthetic mind. It discovers new, better
methods of doing work, and this results in the invention of better means,
such as tools or equipment.
For example, — in the field of Bricklaying, the Non-stooping Scaffold, the
Packet and the Fountain Trowel were not invented until the analysis of
bricklaying was made, and the synthesis of the chosen elements into
standard methods made plain the need and specifications for new
equipment.
Relation of Invention to Scientific Management Important. — There has
been much discussion as to the relation of Invention to Scientific
Management. It has been claimed by many otherwise able authorities that
many results claimed as due to Scientific Management are really the results

of new machinery, tools or equipment that have been invented. 9 Scientific
Management certainly can lay no claim to credit for efficiency which comes
through inventions neither suggested nor determined by it. But the
inventions from the results of which Scientific Management is said to have
borrowed credit are usually, like the bricklaying inventions cited, not only
direct results of Scientific Management, but probably would not have
sprung from any other source for years to come.
Synthesist a Discoverer of Laws. — It is the synthetic type of mind that
discovers the laws. For example — it was Dr. Taylor, with the aid of a few
of his specially trained co-workers, who discovered the following
governing laws:
1. law of no ratio between the foot-pounds of work done and the fatigue
caused in different kinds of work.
2. law of percentage of rest for overcoming fatigue.
3. law of classification of work according to percentage of fatigue caused.
4. laws for making high-speed steel.
5. laws relating to cutting metals.
6. laws that will predict the right speed, feed and cut on metals for the
greatest output.
7. laws for predicting maximum quantity of output that a man can achieve
and thrive.
8. laws for determining the selection of the men best suited for the work.
Synthesist an Adviser on Introduction of New Methods. — Having
constructed the standard tasks or standard methods which are new, the
synthesist must remember to introduce his new task or method with as few
new variables as possible. He should so present it that all the old knowledge
will come out to meet the new, that all the brain paths that have already
been made will be utilized, and that the new path will lead out from paths
which are well known and well traveled.

Introduce with as Few New Variables as Possible. — The greatest speed
in learning a new method will be attained by introducing it with as few new
variables as possible.
For example, — learning to dictate to a dictaphone. The writer found it very
difficult, at first, to dictate into the dictaphone,— the whirling of the
cylinder distracted the eye, the buzzing of the motor distracted the ear, the
rubber tube leading to the mouth-piece was constantly reminding the touch
that something new was being attempted. At the suggestion of one well
versed in Scientific Management, the mouth-piece of the dictaphone was
propped on the desk telephone on a level with the mouth-piece of the latter.
The writer then found that as soon as one became interested in the dictating
and one's attention was concentrated on the thought, one was able
absolutely to forget the new variable, because it is one which is kept
constant, and to dictate fluently. The emphasis laid on the likeness in thus
dictating to the old accustomed act of talking through the telephone, seemed
to put all other differences into the background, and to allow of forming the
new and desired habit very quickly.

SUMMARY

Effect of Analysis and Synthesis on the Work. — As the outcome of
Analysis and Synthesis is Standardization, so the effect of them upon work
is standard work. Quantity of output can be predicted, quality of output is
assured.
Effect on the Worker. — The effect of Analysis and Synthesis upon the
worker is to make him feel that the methods which he is using are right, and
that, because of this, his work must be of value. The more the worker is
induced to coöperate in the determining and the combination of elements,
the more will he share with the investigators the satisfaction in getting
permanent results. The outcome of this coöperation will, again, result in
more perfect future results, and so on, progressively.

1. Compare Mechanical Analysis. Taylor and Thompson, Concrete, Plain
and Reinforced, p. 193.
2. H. LeChatelier, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., p. 303.
3. H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 35.
4. F.B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System.
5. F.B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, p. 151.
6. James M. Dodge, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 284.
7. F.B. Gilbreth, Motion Study.
8. James M. Dodge.
9. London, Engineering, Sept. 15, 1911.

CHAPTER VI

STANDARDIZATION

Definition of Standardization. — Standardization is "the act of
standardizing, or the state of being standardized." "A standard," according
to the Century Dictionary, "is that which is set up as a unit of reference; a
form, type, example, incidence, or combination of conditions accepted as
correct and perfect and hence as a basis of comparison. A criterion
established by custom, public opinion or general consent; a model." 1
We must note particularly that the standard is a "unit of reference," that it is
a "basis of comparison," and that it is "a model." These three phrases
describe the standard in management, and are particularly emphasized by
the use of the standard in Scientific Management.

Standards Derived from Actual Practice. — Management derives its
standards not from theories as to best methods, but from scientific study of
actual practice. 2 As already shown, the method of deriving a standard is —
1. to analyze the best practice known into the smallest possible elements,
2. to measure these elements,
3. to adopt the least wasteful elements as standard elements,
4. to synthesize the necessary standard elements into the standard.
The Standard Is Progressive. — A standard remains fixed only until a
more perfect standard displaces it. The data from which the standard was
derived may be reviewed because of some error, because a further
subdivision of the elements studied may prove possible, or because
improvements in some factor of the work, i.e., the worker, material, tools,
equipment, etc., may make a new standard desirable.
The fact that a standard is recognized as not being an ultimate standard in
no wise detracts from its working value. As Captain Metcalfe has said:
"Whatever be the standard of measurement, it suffices for comparison if it
be generally accepted, if it be impartially applied, and if the results be fully
recorded." 3
Change in the Standard Demands Change in the Task and in the
Incentive. — Necessarily, with the change in the standard comes a change
in the task and in the reward. All parts of Scientific Management are so
closely related that it is impossible to make a successful progressive step in
one branch without simultaneously making all the related progressions in
other branches that go with it.
For example, — if the material upon which a standard was based caused
more care or effort, a smaller task must be set, and wages must be
proportionately lowered. Proportionately, note, for determining that change
would necessitate a review and a redistribution of the cost involved.
In the same way, if an improvement in equipment necessitated a new
method, as does the packet in laying brick, a new task would become
imperative, and a reconsideration of the wage. The wage might remain the

same, it might go down, it might go up. In actual practice, in the case of
bricklayers, it has gone up. But the point is, it must be restudied. This
provides effectually against cutting the rate or increasing the task in any
unjust manner.
Similarity Between the Standard and the "Judgment" of Psychology.
— There are many points of similarity between the "Standard," of
management, and the "judgment" of psychology. Sully says, in speaking of
the judgment, 4 — "This process of judging illustrates the two fundamental
elements in thought activity, viz., analysis and synthesis." "To judge is
clearly to discern and to mark off as a special object of thought some
connecting relation." "To begin with, before we can judge we must have the
requisite materials for forming a judgment." "In the second place, to judge
is to carry out a process of reflection on given material." "In addition to
clearness and accuracy, our judgments may have other perfections. So far as
our statements accord with known facts, they should be adhered to, — at
least, till new evidence proves them untrue."
Psychology a Final Appeal as to Permanent Value of Any Standard. —
The standard under management, even under Scientific Management, can
lay no claim to being perfect. It can never nearly approach perfection until
the elements are so small that it is practicable to test them psychologically
and physiologically. The time when this can be done in many lines, when
the benefit that will directly accrue will justify the necessary expenditure,
may seem far distant, but every analysis of operations, no matter how
rudimentary, is hastening the day when the underlying, permanently
valuable elements can be determined and their variations studied.
Coöperation Will Hasten the Day of Psychological and Physiological
Study of Standards. — Coöperation in collecting and comparing the
results of motion study and time study everywhere will do much to assist
toward more ultimate determination of elements. At the present time the
problems that management submits to psychology are too indefinite and
cover too large a field to be attacked successfully. Coöperation between
management standardizers would mean —
1. that all management data would be available to psychologists and
physiologists.

2. that such data, being available also to all standardizers, would prevent
reduplication of results.
3. that savings would result.
4. that, from a study and comparison of the collected data a trained
synthetic mind could build up better standards than could be built from any
set of individual data.
5. Savings would result from this.
6. Inventions would also result.
7. Savings would again result from these.
8. All of these various savings could be invested in more intensive study of
elements.
9. These more valuable results would again be available to psychologists
and physiologists.
This cycle would go on indefinitely. Meantime, all would benefit with little
added cost to any. For the results of the psychological and physiological
study would be available to all, and investigators in those lines have shown
themselves ready and glad to undertake investigations.
Purpose of Standardization. — The purpose of standardizing is the same
under all types of management; that is, it is the elimination of waste.
Standardization Frequently Attempted Under Traditional
Management. — In much progressive Traditional Management there is an
appreciation of the necessity of standardizing tools and equipment, that is to
say, of having these on the "duplicate part system," that assembling may be
done quickly, and repairs made without delay.
The manager notices some particularly successful man, or method, or
arrangement of tools, equipment, or the surroundings, and decides to have a
record made thereof that the success may be repeated. These records, if
made in sufficient detail, are very valuable. The difficulty is that so often
the man making the records does not observe all the variables. Hence the
very elements which caused the success may be overlooked entirely.

Value of Standardization Not Appreciated Under Traditional
Management. — It is surprising, under Traditional Management, to note,
in many cases, the years that elapse before any need for standardization is
felt. It is also surprising that, even when some standardization has been
done, its importance is seldom realized. The new standard becomes a matter
of course, and the management fails to be impressed enough with its
benefits to apply the principle of standardization to other fields.
Under Transitory Management Standardization Becomes Constantly
More Important. — Not until Motion Study and Time Study have been
introduced can the full benefits of standardization be attained. But as soon
as the Transitory Stage of Management appears, the importance of
standardization is realized. This is brought about largely through the records
of individual outputs, which constantly call attention to the necessity of
making available to all the methods, tools and equipment of the most
successful workers.
Records of Successes Become More Profitable. — The rules which
embody successful practice become more profitable as the necessity for
more detailed recording of all the variables becomes possible. An
appreciation of what scientific motion study and time study will ultimately
do affects the minds of the management until the workers are given
directions as to methods to be used, and the incentive of extra pay for
following directions.
"Systems" Show an Appreciation of Psychology. — The "Systems,"
standing orders or collections of written directions, that are evolved at this
stage have a permanent value. This is especially true when the directions,
often called "rules," contain the reason for the rule. There is a decided
awakening to the importance of Psychology in this appeal to the reason of
the worker. He is not affronted by being forced to follow directions for
which he is given no reason and which he has no reason to believe have
been scientifically derived. These rules, in a certain typical case, are stated
in simple language, some in the form of commands, some in the form of
suggestions, and are obviously so prepared as to be understood and obeyed
by the workers with the least possible amount of effort, opposition and time.
As ample opportunity is given for suggestions, the worker's attention and

interest are held, and any craving he may have for self-expression is
gratified.
Systems Permanently Useful. — These systems, collections of rules,
directions or standing orders are useful even when Ultimate Management is
completely installed —
1. for use as records of successful methods which may be scientifically
studied for elements.
2. for use by the instruction card clerk in explaining to the men why the
rules on the instruction card are given.
Relation of Systems to Standards Should Be Emphasized. — The
worker is too often not made to understand the relation of Systems to
Standards. The average worker does not object to Systems, because he
realizes that the System is a collection of his best, least wasteful methods of
doing work. When he can be convinced that standards are only efficient
elements of his own methods scientifically studied and combined, any
opposition to them will disappear.
The Personal Note of the "System" Should Be Preserved. — Perhaps
one thing that makes the typical "Systems" so attractive is the personal note
that they contain. Illustrated with pictures of successful work that the
workers themselves have done, often containing pictures of the men
themselves that illustrate successful methods, with mention of the names of
men who have offered valuable suggestions or inventions, they make the
worker feel his part in successful results. They conserve the old spirit of
coöperation between the master and his apprentices.
The conditions of modern industry make it extremely difficult to conserve
this feeling. Scientific Management is successful not only because it makes
possible a more effective coöperation than has ever existed since the old
"master-and-apprentice" relation died out, but also because it conserves in
the Systems the interim channel for personal communication between the
various members of the organization.
Systems a Valuable Assistance in Transition to Scientific Management.
— One great problem which those introducing Scientific Management have
to face is exactly how to make the worker understand the relation of the

new type of management to the old. The usefulness of the written system in
use in most places where it is planned to introduce Scientific Management
as a means of making the worker understand the transition has, perhaps, not
been appreciated.
The development of the standard from the system is easy to explain. This
being done, all parts of Scientific Management are so closely related that
their interrelation can be readily made apparent.
It is the worker's right as well as privilege to understand the management
under which he works, and he only truly coöperates, with his will and
judgment as well as with his hands, when he feels that his mind is a part of
the directing mind.
Standardization Under Scientific Management Eliminates Waste
Scientifically. — Under Scientific Management the elimination of waste by
the use of standards becomes a science. Standards are no longer based on
opinions, as under Traditional Management, but are based upon scientific
investigation of the elements of experience.
As James says, in the "Psychology, Briefer Course," page 156, paragraph 4,
— "It is obvious and palpable that our state of mind is never precisely the
same. Every thought we have of a given fact is, strictly speaking, unique
and only bears a resemblance of kind with our other thoughts of the same
facts. When the identical fact recurs we must think of it in a fresh manner,
see it under a somewhat different angle, apprehend it in different relations
from those in which it last appeared."
The Standard the Result of Measurement. — It is obvious, therefore, that
a scientifically derived standard can never be the outcome of an opinion.
Whenever the opinion returns, the different thoughts with which it would be
accompanied would so color it as to change it, and the standard with it. It is
obvious, therefore, that a standard must be the result of definite
mathematical and other measured proof, and not of an opinion, and that the
standard must be in such physical shape that the subject-matter will always
be clearly defined, otherwise the ultimate losses resulting from dependent
sequences of the standard schedule and time-tables would be enormous.

Successful Standardization Demands Complete Conformity to
Standards. — The laws for establishment of standards; the laws of
achieving them; the laws for preventing deviations from those paths that
will permit of their achievement; the dependent sequences absolutely
necessary to perform the complete whole; these have been worked out and
given to the world by Dr. Taylor, who recognized, as James has said, page
157, that, "a permanently existing 'Idea' which makes its appearance before
the footlights of consciousness at periodic intervals, is as mythological an
entity as the Jack of Spades." The entire organization from the highest to the
lowest must conform to these standards. It is out of the question to permit
the deviations resulting from individual initiative. Individual initiative is
quite as objectionable in obtaining the best results, — that is, high wages
and low production cost, — as service would be on a railroad if each
locomotive engineer were his own train despatcher, determining at what
time and to what place he would go.
Initiative Provided For. — There is a distinct place for initiative in
Scientific Management, but that place is not outside of the planning
department, until the planning department's method has been proved to be
fully understood by achieving it. The standards must be made by the men to
whom this work is assigned, and they must be followed absolutely by the
worker. He is willing to follow them, under Scientific Management,
because he realizes that a place for his suggestions is supplied, and that, if
his suggestions are accepted, they will be incorporated into the new
standards which must then be followed by all thereafter.
Standardization Applies to the Work of All. — It is important to note that
standardizing is applied to the work of all. This, if understood by all, will do
away with all question of discrimination or the lack of a "square deal." It
will make the worker feel ready to follow his standard exactly, just as he
knows the manager is following his. So, also, the worker should be made to
realize that the very fact that there is a standardization means, under
Scientific Management, that that applies to every man, and that there is no
discrimination against him in any possible way.
Standardization Conserves and Develops Individuality. —
Standardization conserves individual capacity by doing away with the
wasteful process of trial and error of the individual workman. It develops

individuality by allowing the worker to concentrate his initiative upon work
that has not before been done, and by providing incentive and reward for
inventions.
Waste Eliminated Is Eliminated Permanently. — Scientific Management
not only eliminates waste, but provides that waste shall be eliminated for all
time in the future.
The standard once written down, there can be no slipping back into the old
methods based upon opinions of the facts.
Standardization Under Scientific Management Resembles
Standardization of Spelling. — The need for standardization has already
been emphasized, but might further be illustrated by the discussions, pro
and con, of the question of simplified spelling. Before the days of
dictionaries, our spelling was not standardized — it was the privilege of any
good writer to spell much as he desired; but the creation of written
standards of spelling, that is to say the making of dictionaries, fixed the
forms of spelling at that time, that is, created standards. The Simplified
Spelling Board is now endeavoring to make some new standards, their
action being based upon sufficient reasons for making a change, and also
for not changing the spelling of any word until it is determined that the
suggested spelling is more advisable than the old spelling.
Just so, under Scientific Management, the best known standards are used
continuously until better have been discovered. The planning department,
consisting of the best men available, whose special duty it is to create new
standards, acts as does the Simplified Spelling Board, as a court of appeals
for new standards, which must pass this court before they can hope to
succeed the old, and which must, if they are to be accepted, possess many
elements of the old and be changed only in such a way that the users can,
without difficulty, shift to the new use.
Under Scientific Management Nomenclature Is Standardized. — Under
Standardization in Scientific Management the standardization of the
nomenclature, of the names and of the terms used must be noted. The effect
of this upon the mind is excellent, because the use of a word very soon
becomes a habit — its associations become fixed. If different names are
used for the same thing, — that is to say, if different names are used

indiscriminately, the thing itself becomes hazy, in just such a degree as it
possesses many names. The use of the fixed term, the fixed word, leads to
definiteness always. Just so, also, the Mnemonic Symbol system in use by
Scientific Management, leads to swift identification of the subdivision of
the classification to which it is applied, and to elimination of waste in
finding and remembering where to find any particular thing or piece of
information desired. By it may be identified "the various articles of
manufacture and papers relating to it as well as the operations to be
performed on each piece and the various charges of the establishment."
Mnemonic Symbols Save Time and Effort. — These Mnemonic Symbols
save actual motions and time in speaking and writing, and save time in that
they are so designed as to be readily remembered. They also save time and
effort in that the mind accustomed to them works with them as collective
groups of ideas, without stopping to elaborate them into their more detailed
form.
Standard Phraseology Eliminates Waste. — As typical of the savings
effected by standardization, we may cite a lineman talking to the Central
Telephone Office: —
"John Doe — 1234 L. Placing Extension Station," This signified — "My
name is John Doe, I am telephoning from number 1234, party L. I have
finished installing an extension station. Where shall I go next?"
In the same way standard signals are remembered best by the man who
signals and are understood quickest by the man who receives them, with a
direct increase in speed to the work done.
Standard Man Is the Man upon Whom Studies Are Made. — The
standard man is the ideal man to observe and with whom to obtain the best
Motion Study and Time Study data. He is the fastest worker, working under
the direction of the man best informed in the particular trade as to the
motions of best present practice, and being timed by a Time Study Expert.
Relation Between the Standard Man, the First-Class Man, the Given
Man and the Task. — The "first-class man" under Scientific Management
means the man who is best fitted by nature and by training to do the task
permanently or until promoted.

The "given man" is the man who is actually put to work at the task, whether
or not he is well fitted for its performance.
The "task" is that percentage of the standard man's achievement that the
given man to whom the task is to be assigned can do continuously and
thrive, that he can do easily enough to win his bonus without injuring
himself, temporarily or permanently, in any way.
Writing the Standard Means for Conveying Information. — Under
Scientific Management, and even in the early stages of Transitory
Management, writing is the standard means of conveying information.
All orders, without exception, should be in writing. This insures that the
"eye workers" get their directions in the most impressive form; does away
with the need of constant oral repetition; eliminates confusion; insures a
clear impression in the mind of the giver as well as of the receiver of the
order as to exactly what is wanted; and provides a record of all orders
given. Putting the instructions in writing in no way precludes utilizing the
worker's natural aptitude to learn by imitation, for he also always has the
opportunity to watch and imitate the workings of the functional teachers as
well as his scientifically taught fellow-workers.
The Instruction Card the Standard Method of Conveying Instructions
as to the Task. — The records of the work of the standard man are
contained in data of the Motion Study and Time Study department. These
records, in the form in which they are to be used by the man who is to
perform the task, are, for the benefit of that man, incorporated in what is
known as the instruction card.
Definition of the Instruction Card. — The instruction card is a set of
directions for the man, telling him what he is to do, how he is to do it, how
long it should take him to do it, and what he will receive for doing it, and
giving him an opportunity to call for, and obtain, assistance the instant that
he finds he cannot do it, and to report back to the managers as to how he
has succeeded in the performance.
The Instruction Card has been called "a self-producer of a predetermined
product."

Comparative Definition of Instruction Cards, Under Scientific
Management. — There are three types of Instruction Cards, which may be
described as follows:
Type One: — Largely geographical, telling
1. Where to Work.
2. From Whom to Take Orders.
3. What to Do.
Type Two: — Typical engineer's specification, — telling
1. Results desired.
2. Qualities of Products.
Type Three: — A list of elementary, step-by-step instructions, subdivided
into their motions, with time allowed for each timable element, preferably
for each motion, and a division between
1. Getting ready.
2. Making or constructing.
3. Clearing up. This is the only type used by Scientific Management.
Directions, Pay Allowance and Time Allowance Essential. — The
Instruction Card under Scientific Management must contain directions, and
state the pay allowance and time allowance.
Directions as to how the work shall be done eliminate waste by cutting out
all wrong methods and prescribing the right method exactly.
The setting of a time in which the work is to be done is a great stimulus to
the worker, and is also necessary, because upon the attainment of this set
time depends the ability of the managers to pay the bonus to the worker, and
also to maintain a schedule, or time-table, that will make possible the
maintaining of necessary conditions for others, in turn, to earn their
bonuses. It cannot be too often emphasized that the extra wages are paid to
the men out of the savings, and are absolutely dependent upon the fact of

there being savings. It is only when the worker does the work within the
time prescribed, that the managers do save enough to warrant the payment
of the extra wages that compensate the man for doing the stipulated
quantity of work.
The instruction card contains a statement of the wage or bonus that will be
earned for the complete performance of the task set therein, thus furnishing
an incentive at the time that the work is done.
Standard Division of Instruction Card Necessary. — There are many
reasons for dividing an instruction card in the present standard way, namely,
—
(a) to reduce the amount of time study observation necessary to be
taken,
(b) to reduce the difficulties of synthesizing the time studied element,
(c) to locate quickly just where the worker needs help and instruction to
enable him to achieve his task,
(d) to keep up the interest of the worker by having short time elements
with which to measure his relative ability,
(e) to present the subject-matter of instruction in such natural
subdivisions that resting places are automatically provided that allow
the mind to recover from its absorption of each subdivision. This
provides definite stopping places between co-related units of instruction
holding the attention as a complete unit against distraction, and a
complete resting place between subdivisions that permits the mind to
relax and wander without losing complete grasp of each unit as a whole.
Detailed Instruction Educative. — The greater the perfection of the detail
of the instruction card, the greater the educative value of this plan of
management. The educative value of the instruction card will be discussed
at length under Teaching.
Those inexperienced in Scientific Management have complained that the
detail of Instruction Cards and other parts of Scientific Management is
tiresome. Dr. Taylor has answered such objectors in Discussions, and also in

his own directions for planning the Instruction Card, which are to be found
in "Shop Management."
The advantages of the detailed instruction card are more than might appear
on the surface. Not only does the man whose attention is easily distracted
keep to his work better if he is told every possible detail, but also the cards
when filed can be taken out again, and every detail and item of the method
reviewed at length and revised if necessary.
The experienced worker who gets to know the instruction by rote is not
bothered by extreme detail. On the contrary, he grasps it at a glance, and
focuses his mind upon any new feature and upon the speed and exactness of
muscular action needed for compliance with the card.
Language of Instruction Card Important. — The language in which
instructions and commands are transmitted on the instruction card is of
sufficient importance to warrant careful consideration. It would be helpful if
the instruction card clerk and the man who is to use the instruction cards
were both masters of English, but this is hardly to be expected. The best
substitute for such special English training is a "System" for the use of the
instruction card clerk that will give him some outline of English that will by
degrees make his wording terse, simple and unambiguous.
He should be impressed with the value of short sentences, and of sentences
that will require no punctuation other than a period at the end. The short
sentence is the most important step toward brevity, terseness, conciseness
and clear thinking.
The second most important feature is that the instruction card clerk always
uses the same standard wording for the same instructions. Repetition of
phrasing is a virtue, and the use of the same word for the same thing and the
same meaning repeatedly is very desirable. The wording, phrasing and
sentencing should be standard wherever possible.
Standard Phrasing Desirable. — After a short time a phrase or sentence
that is often repeated will be recognized as quickly as will a word or a letter.
Men who cannot read and write at all are comparatively few. Men who can
read and write but little are many. It is entirely possible to teach such men

standard groupings, which they can recognize on the Instruction Card and
use in a very short time.
For example, — laborers who do not even know their alphabets will learn
quickly to read setting marks on cut stone.
Just as mnemonic symbols save time and effort, so standard phrasing aids
toward finding out what is to be done, and remembering how it is to be
done. 5 Both of these can be accomplished if the standardization is so
complete that directions can be read and remembered almost at a glance. 6
Specific Terms Helpful. — To be most effective, directions should be in
the imperative form, and in specific terms.
The history and growth of language shows that the language of the savage
consisted of vague general terms as compared to the specific individual
terms of the modern language of civilized man. There are examples to be
seen on every hand to-day where the oral language of instructions and
orders to proceed, that are given to the worker, are still more vague,
comparatively, than the language between savages.
Similarity of Form and Shape Advisable. — As for the form and shape,
as Dr. Taylor says, "anything that will transmit ideas by sketch or wording
will serve as an instruction card." He advises, however, taking advantage of
the saving in time to be gained by having the instruction cards as nearly
alike as possible. They may, for convenience' sake, vary as to length, but in
width, ruling, spacing and wording they should be as nearly alike as
possible.
Standard Surroundings Valuable. — Standard environment, or
surroundings, of the worker are valuable for two reasons:
1. Because they directly increase output by eliminating everything which
might distract attention or cause needless fatigue, and by assisting in the
attainment of more output by having the best possible surroundings for
greater output.
2. Because all surroundings suggest an easy achievement. Knowing that
everything has been done to make his work possible and easy, the worker

feels this atmosphere of possibility and ease around him, and the suggestive
power of this is strong.
Unnecessary Fatigue Should Be Eliminated. — The walls, appliances and
furniture, and the clothing of the worker should be of that color which will
rest his eyes from the fatigue of the work. All unnecessary noise should be
eliminated, and provision should be made, where possible, that the workers
may enjoy their sleep or their rest hours in perfect quiet.
Records show the value of having quiet reign in and near the camp, that the
workers may not be disturbed. Even though they are not disturbed enough
to be waked up, every noise that is registered in the brain affects the body,
for it is now conceded that the body reflects every phase of mental activity.
All Mental States Affect Bodily States — Dr. Stratton says: "It is now
generally accepted that the body reflects every shade of psychic operations;
that in all manner of mental action there is some physical expression." 7 All
consciousness is motor "is the brief expression of this important truth; every
mental state somehow runs over into a corresponding bodily state."
Elimination of Worry Assists in Concentrating Attention. — The more
fireproof the building, and the more stable the other conditions, the greater
the efficiency of the inmate. Burglar-proof buildings not only actually
induce better sleep, in that possible intrusions are eliminated, but give a
state of mental peace by the removal of apprehension. So also, a "germ
proof" house is not only really more healthful for an inmate, but eliminates
worry over possible danger of ill health. The mental health of the worker
not only controls, in a measure, his physical health, but also his desire to
work. Having no distractions, he can put his mind upon that which is given
him to do.
Distracted Attention Causes Fatigue. — The attention of the worker is apt
to be distracted not only by recognized dangers, such as burglars, fires, and
disease, but also by other transitory things that, involuntarily on his part,
take his mind from the work in hand. A flickering light distracts the
attention and causes fatigue, whether we have consciously noticed it or not.
Many things are recorded by the senses without one's being conscious of
them.

For example, the ceasing of a clock to tick, although we have not noticed
that it was ticking. Another example is the effect upon the pulse or the brain
of being spoken to when asleep.
The flickering lamp of the chronocyclegraph device is much more fatiguing
than the steady lamp of plain cyclegraphs.
Proper Placing of Workers Eliminates Distracted Attention. — Workers
must be placed so that they do not see intermittently moving objects out of
the corners of their eyes. In the early history of man it was continuously
necessary to watch for first evidence of things behind one, or at a distance,
in order to be safe from an enemy. From generations of survival of the most
fit there have developed human eyes most sensitive to moving objects that
are seen out of the corner of the eye. Even civilized man has his attention
distracted quickest, and most, by those moving objects that he sees the least
distinctly, and furthest to one side from the direction in which he is looking.
The leaf that moves or the grass that trembles may attract the attention
where seen "out of the corner of the eye" to a point where it will even cause
a start and a great fear.
As an example of the distracting effect of moving objects seen "out of the
corner of the eye," try reading a book facing a window in a car where the
moving scenery can be seen on each side of the book. The flitting object
will interrupt one, one cannot get the full meaning out of what one is
reading — yet if one lays down the book and looks directly at the scenery,
the mind can concentrate to a point where one does not see that moving
scenery which is directly in front of the eyes.
There is a great difference in this power of sensitiveness of the corners of
some workers' eyes from that of others. The first move of Scientific
Management is to place and arrange all workers, as far as is possible, in
such a position that nothing to distract them will be behind them, and later
to see that the eyes of workers are tested, that those whose eyes are most
sensitive may be placed accordingly.
This Elimination May Take Place in All Kinds of Work. — The
necessity of removing all things which will distract the attention is as great
for the brain worker as for the shop or construction worker. All papers that

attract the eye, and hence the attention, should be cleaned from the desk,
everything except that on which the worker is working. The capability of
being distracted by the presence of other things varies in all workers.
In using the dictaphone, one can do much better work if one is in a room
where there is little or nothing to distract attention. An outline of work
ahead, may tempt to study and planning of what is ahead, rather than to
carrying out the task scheduled for immediate performance. The presence of
a paper with an outline merely of what is being done is found to be a great
help, as the eye can rest on that, and after a few moments, will become so
accustomed to it that the whole attention will be given to the dictating.
Benefits of Eliminating "Decision of Choice." — There is always time
lost by "decision of choice." The elimination of this is well illustrated by the
bricks that are piled on the packet, which decides for the bricklayer which
brick is next, making an obvious sequence, hence the saving of time of
decision regarding motions, also the saving coming from the play for
position. Oftentimes a handicap of slow mental action can be compensated
for, in a measure, by planning ahead in great detail. In this way, if the plan
is made sufficiently in detail, there is absolutely no time possible left to be
wasted in "decision of choice." The worker goes from one step to another,
and as these steps are arranged logically, his mind does not tend to wander
away, but to keep on in an uninterrupted sequence to the goal.
Standard Equipment Important. — As for equipment, the phenomena of
habit are among the most important features of the psychology of
management and the possibilities of the elimination of unnecessary waste
resulting from taking advantage of this feature is possible only when the
equipment, surroundings and methods of the worker are standardized.
Therefore the insistence upon standardization, even down to the smallest
things, is vital for achieving the greatest output.
For example, — suppose the keys of the monotype machine, piano or
typewriter were not located permanently in the same relative position.
Consider the loss of time in not being able to use habits in finding each key.
Such an arrangement sounds ridiculous on the face of it, yet it is a common
practice for many operators, especially of monotype machines, to make a

complete mental decision as to the muscles and fingers with which they will
strike the desired key.
Imagine the records of output of a typist who was using a different
keyboard every day, if there were that many kinds of keyboards. It is easy
for anyone to conceive the great advantages of standard keyboards for such
machines, but only those who have made a study of output of all kinds of
workers can fully realize that similar differences in sizes of output are being
produced by the workers of the country for lack of similar standardization
of working conditions and equipment.
Utmost Standardization Does Not Make "Machines" of the Workers
Operating Under It. — The attention of those who believe that
standardization makes machines out of the workers themselves, is called to
the absence of such effect upon the typist as compared with the scribe, the
monotype and linotype operator as compared with the compositor, and the
mechanical computing machine operator as compared with the
arithmetician.
Standard Methods Demand Standard Tools and Devices. — Habits
cannot be standardized until the devices and tools used are of standard
pattern. It is not nearly so essential to have the best tools as it is to have
standard tools. 8 Experience in the hospitals points to the importance of this
fact in surgery. Tools once adopted as standard should not be changed until
the improvement or greater efficiency from their use will compensate for
the loss during the period of "breaking in" the user, that is, of forming new
habits in order to handle strange tools. As will be brought out more fully
under "Teaching," good habits are as difficult to break as bad ones, the only
difference being that one does not usually desire to break good ones.
Naturally, if a new device is introduced, what was an excellent habit for the
old device becomes, perhaps, a very bad habit for the new device. There
must come a time before the manipulation of the new device has become a
habit when output will go down and costs will go up. It is necessary, before
introducing this device, to investigate whether the ultimate reduction of
costs will be sufficient to allow for this period of lower production. It is not
fair, however, to the new device or method really to consider its record until
the use of it has become such a habit with the workers as was the use of the
old device.

No one who has not made a study of cutting tools can realize the crying
need for standardizing in that field. Dr. Taylor says, writing in the Revised
"Shop Management" of 1911, — "Hardly a shop can be found in which
tools made from a dozen different qualities of steel are not used side by
side, in many cases with little or no means of telling one make from
another." 9 The effect of the slightest variation in the shape or the method of
handling the tool upon the three dimensions of the work that the tool can do
in a given time, is astounding. 10 More important, from the psychological
point of view, is the effect upon the mind of the worker of seeing such
unstandardized equipment; of having to stop to select the particular tool that
he desires, and thus having his attention distracted from his work; and of
knowing that his act of judgment in so selecting is of no permanent value,
as the next time he needs a similar tool he will probably have to reselect.
Standard Clothing a Crying Need. — There is a great need today for
standardization in the field of clothing. The idea prevalent that wearing
apparel is attractive only when it is "different" is unfortunate in its influence
upon the cost of living. How much more unfortunate is it, when it affects
the mind of the worker, and leads him to look upon standard working
clothes with distaste.
To a careful observer, there is nothing more disheartening than a study of
workers' clothes, especially the clothes of women workers. Too warm
clothes where work requiring high temperature is done, with no provision
for adding needed wraps for the trip home; high-heeled shoes where the
worker must stand at her task for hours at a time; tight waists and ill fitting
skirts, where every muscle should have free play, — these are but examples
of hundreds of places where reforms are needed.
Little or no blame attaches to the worker for this state of affairs. Seldom, if
ever, does the management attempt to standardize working clothes.
Moreover, the underlying idea is not made clear that such clothes bear no
resemblance to the meaningless uniforms which are badge and symbol of
service. They resemble rather the blouse or pinafore of the artist, the outfit
of the submarine diver or the fireman.
The Sports Present a Fine Example of This. — The greatest advance
toward standardizing clothing has come in the sports, which, in many

respects, present admirable object-lessons. In the tennis court, on the links,
on the gridiron, the diamond, or track, the garment worn of itself does not
increase fatigue. On the contrary, it is so designed as not to interfere with
the efficiency of the wearer.
Management Should Provide Clothing Standards. — Under Ultimate
Management the most efficient clothing for any kind of work will be
standardized. The expense of such articles of clothing as will add to the
quantity or quality of output will, directly or indirectly, be borne by the
management, just as it now bears the expense for equipment and tools.
These essentials being supplied, and the underlying dignity and importance
of standardization understood, the worker will gladly conform, and supply
the minor accessories.
Such Standards Must Apply to All. — It is of the utmost importance that
such standardization, when adopted, should apply to the clothing of all,
managers as well as employés. When the old pride in the "crafts" returns, or
when efficiency is as universal in the industrial world as it is in the world of
sport, — then one may look for results.
Effects of Such Standards Enormous. — The effect which such
standardized clothing would have on the physical and mental well-being of
the wearers can scarcely be overestimated. Fatigue would be eliminated,
and the old "joy in working" might return. Not being based upon looks
alone, — though the æsthetic appeal should not be neglected, — the
worker's ability to work more and better with greater content of mind would
be the criterion. The success of the clothing would be scientifically
measured, the standards improved, and progress itself become standardized.
Standard Methods Eliminate Fatigue. — There is no doubt in the minds
of those who have made it a study, that the constant receipt of the same kind
of impressions, caused by the same kind of stimulation of the same terminal
sense organs, causes semi-automatic response with less resulting fatigue,
corresponding to the lessened effort. All methods should, therefore, as far as
possible, be made up of standard elements under standard conditions, with
standard devices and appliances, and they should be standardized from the
standpoint of all of our senses as to color, shape, size, weight, location,
position and surface texture, that the worker may grasp at a single thought

by means of each or all his senses, that no special muscles or other fatiguing
processes need be operated to achieve the standard result desired.
Muscles That Tire Easily Should Be Saved. — It must be remembered
that all work should be so arranged that the muscle that changes the position
or shape of the eye or the size of its pupil should not be operated except
when necessary. Care in planning can oftentimes standardize conditions so
as to relieve these and other muscles, which grow tired easily, or transfer
this work to other muscles which are not so easily tired.
Not only do the reactions from such standards require less bodily effort, but
it also requires less mental effort to work under methods that are
standardized. Therefore, both directly and indirectly, the worker benefits by
the standardization.
Rest from Fatigue Is Provided for Scientifically. — Scientific
Management provides and prescribes rest for overcoming fatigue of the
worker more scientifically and economically than he could possibly provide
it for himself. Weber's law is that "our power of detecting differences
between sensations does not depend on the absolute amount of difference in
the stimuli, but on the relative amount."11 The additional fatigue from
handling additional weights causes fatigue to increase with the weight, but
not in direct proportion to the extra weight handled. When the correct
weight of the unit to be handled has been determined, the additional weight
will cause fatigue in quantities greater in proportion than the extra weight
handled.
Rest Periods Arranged for Best Good of Work and Worker. — If
possible, rest from fatigue is so arranged as to interfere with work the least.
The necessary rest periods of the individuals of a gang should come at that
period of the cycle that does not cause any allowance to be made for rest in
between the performance of the dependent operations of different members
of the gang. Such an arrangement will enable the worker to keep a sustained
interest in the work.
Work with Animals Should Be Standardized. — The necessity for
standardizing work with animals has been greatly underestimated, although
it has been done more or less successfully in systems for construction work.
For work with horses and carts, the harnesses and the carts should be

standardized and standards only should be used. The instruction card
dealing with the action, motions and their sequence should be standard to
save time in changing teams from the full to the empty cart and vice versa.
While standardized action is necessary with men, it is even more necessary
for men in connection with the work of animals, such as horses, mules and
oxen. The instruction card for the act of changing of teams from an empty
cart to a full cart should state the side that the driver gets down from his
seat to the ground, the sequence in which he unhooks the harness and hooks
it up again, and the side on which he gets up to his seat in the cart. Even the
wording of his orders to his horse should be standardized.
While this book will deal with the human mind only, it is in order to state
that a book could be written to advantage on training the horse by means of
a standard man-horse language and a standard practice of their combined
action.
Animals have not the capacity for forming new habits that they have for
remembering the sequence of former acts. They have little ability to adapt
themselves to a sequence of motions caused by unexpected conditions,
unless those conditions suggest the opportunity of revenge, or the necessity
of self-preservation, or immediate welfare. This is only touched upon here
from the man side.
Naturally, the output earning power of a man working with animals depends
largely upon the handling of the animal, and the man can never attain his
full output, or the managers get what they might expect to get from the
man-horse combination, until the psychology of the horse, or mule, or
elephant, or whatever animal is used, is also studied and combined with the
other studies on Scientific Management.
An example of the benefits of standardized work with animals: — The
standard fire signals in the Fire House cause such perfect horse action that
fire horses always have a reputation for superior intelligence.
The Worker Who Is Best Suited for His Work in the Performing
Department Is Incapable of Discovering the Best Method. — An
exaggerated case of the result of leaving the selection of the method to the
worker is that of the West Indian negro who carried the wheelbarrow on his
head. 12 This well-known example, though it seems impossible and absurd,

is no more inefficient than are hundreds of methods in use in the industrial
world to-day.
Under Scientific Management Quality Is Standardized. — Scientific
Management determines exactly what quality as well as what quantity of
work is needed, and the method prescribed is that one not only of lower
costs, but which fits the particular need of the particular occasion most
accurately.
Workers are kept under pressure for quality, yet the pressure is not irksome,
because the worker understands exactly what quality is desired, and what
variations from exactness are permitted.
Variations in Quality or Exactness Indicated by Standard Signs. — All
dimensions on the drawings of work have either a letter or symbol or plus
or minus signs. There is much to be said about the effect this has on the
worker.
1. It gives the worker immediate knowledge of the prescribed quality
demanded.
2. He does not have to worry as to the maximum variation that he can make
without interfering with his bonus.
3. There is no fear of criticism or discharge for using his own faulty
judgment.
Scientific Management Has a Standard "Method of Attack." — We
must note next the standard "method of attack" in Scientific Management. It
is recognized that sensations are modified by those that come before, by
those that come simultaneously, and by those that follow. The psychic effect
of each and every kind of sensation depends upon what other sensations
have been experienced, are being experienced at that time, or will presently
be experienced. The scientific manager realizes this, and provides for the
most desirable sequence of sensation; then, having seen, to the best of his
ability, that the sensation occurs at the time which he desires it to occur, he
provides for concentration upon that one sensation and elimination of all
other thoughts or desires.

Professor Faraday says: "That part of self-education which consists in
teaching the mind to resist the desires and inclinations until they are proved
to be right is the most important of all." How this is shown under Scientific
Management will be shown in "Teaching." It is sufficient to say here that
the method of attack of Scientific Management is to eliminate all possible
bodily as well as mental exertion, — to cut down motions, to cut down even
sensations and such mental acts as visualizing. The object is, not so much to
eliminate these motions and these sensations, and this visualizing from the
life of the worker, as simply to use up less energy in producing the output.
This allows the worker an extra supply of energy upon which to fall back to
produce greater output and to get greater wages. If his energy is not all
utilized in his working hours, then, as will be shown more clearly under
"Welfare," there is that much more left for him to enjoy in his own leisure
time.

SUMMARY

Result to the Work. — Under Traditional Management, where standards
are not established, the worker is constantly delayed by the necessity for
decision of choice, by the lack of knowing what should be chosen, and by a
dearth of standard equipment, materials and tools from which to choose.
Under Transitory Management, with the introduction of standards, the
elimination of delays and the provision for standard surroundings and
supplies of all kinds, comes increased output of the desired quality.
Under Scientific Management, not only is output increased and quality
assured, but results of work can be predicted. 13
Results to the Worker. — Results from standardization to the worker
under Traditional and Transitory Management are the same as, and are
included in, results under Scientific Management.
State of Worker's Feelings Improved. — Under Scientific Management
the state of the employé's feelings is improved by the standardization. It is a
recognized fact that mental disturbance from such causes as fear of losing
his job will sometimes have the same ill effect upon a workman as does
overwork, or insufficient rest for overcoming fatigue. It will occasionally

wear upon the nervous system and the digestive organs. Now Scientific
Management by standardization removes from the workman this fear of
losing his job, for the worker knows that if he conforms to the standard
instructions he certainly will not lose his position unless the business as a
whole is unsuccessful.
On the other hand, feelings, such as happiness and contentment, and even
hearing rhythmic sounds, music, etc., are an aid toward increasing output.
For the best results, therefore, under Scientific Management the worker is
furnished with standard conditions; his train of ideas is held upon the work
in hand without interruption, and the working conditions are such that the
managers furnish the worker with inducements to conform to the standard
conditions happily.
Worker's Retentive Power Increased. — We note in the second place, the
increased retentive power of anyone who is working with standards. There
is great difference between different people of the same degree of
intelligence as to their ability to memorize certain things, especially such as
sequences of the elements of a process. This lack of retentive power is
illustrated particularly well in the cases often found where the student has
difficulty in learning to spell. It is here that the standard instruction card
comes into play to good effect. Its great detail remedies the defect in
memorizing of certain otherwise brilliant workers, and its standard form
and repetition of standard phrases aid the retentive power of the man who
has a good memory.
Standard Elements Serve as Memory Drills. — This use of standardized
elements makes the time elapsing between repetitions shorter, for, while it
may be a long time before the worker again encounters the identical work
or method, still, the fact that elements are standard means that he will have
occasion to repeat elements frequently, and that his memory will each time
be further drilled by these repetitions.
Gang Instruction Card an Aid to Memory. — The gang instruction card
has been used with good effect at the beginning of unfamiliar repetitive
cycles of work to train the memory of whole gangs of men at once, and to
cut down the elapsed time from the time when one man's operation is
sufficiently completed to permit the next man to commence his. It has been

found, in the case of setting timbers in mill construction for example, that to
have one man call out the next act in the sequence as fast as the preceding
one is finished, until all have committed the sequence to memory, will
materially decrease the time necessary for the entire sequence of elements
in a cycle of work.
Individual Instruction Card an Inanimate Memory. — The instruction
card supplies a most accurate memory in inanimate form, that neither blurs
nor distorts with age.
The ranter against this standard memory is no more sensible than a man
who would advocate the worker's forgetting the result of his best
experience, that his mind might be periodically exercised by rediscovering
the method of least waste anew with each problem.
Other things being equal, that worker has the longest number of years of
earning power who remembers the largest number of right methods; or at
least remembers where to find them described in detail; and, conversely,
those who have no memory, and know not where to look for or to lay their
hand on the method of least waste, remain at the beginning of their
industrial education. "Experience," from an earning standpoint, does not
exist when the mind does not retain a memory of the method. The
instruction card, then, acts as a form of transferable memory — it conserves
memory. Once it is made, it furnishes the earning power without the
necessity of the former experience having been had more than once.
Plans, details, free-hand sketches, and two-dimension photographs surpass
the highest form of mental imagery, and such cultivated imagery is
undoubtedly a high achievement. There is no kind of memory, visualization,
nor constructive imagination that can equal the stereoscopic or three-
dimension photographs that may accompany the instruction card for
enabling the worker to "see the completed work before it is begun."
Probably the greatest hindrance to development of lower forms of animal
life is their inability to picture past experiences, and the reason for the
intellectual strides made by the worker under Scientific Management is the
development of this faculty.
A Conserver of Individual Memories. — Many people believe that the
memory of a person ceases at his death. Whether this is so or not, the loss to

the world, and particularly the industrial world, of not having the instruction
card for the passing on of the worker's experience to the workers who
follow is stupendous and incalculable, and this loss, like so many other
losses, can be eliminated by the process of making written standards.
Motor Memory Improved by Standardization. — Not only are the
retentive powers of the brain improved, but also the brain centers, and the
muscles, etc., become trained through standardization. With standardization
a long sequence of muscular motions or operations can be noted at a glance,
and can be remembered without difficulty.
Standards Prevent Men from Becoming Machines. — Those who object
to the worker taking advantage of these scientifically derived standards
which aid the memory, can only be compared to such people as desire the
workers to turn into unthinking animals. Psychologists believe that some of
the lower animals have no memory. Turning the workers into machines
which do not in any way utilize thought-saving devices is simply putting
them but little above the class of these lower, memory-less, animals.
Through Standards the Worker's Attention Is Gained at the Start. —
The general act of attention plays an important part in Scientific
Management. The insistence upon standardized performance requires the
utmost attention at the beginning of learning a new method of performance.
This extra output of mental activity, which is always required for
accomplishing new methods of work, could not be continuously
maintained, but after the new method has once been learned, its repetition
requires less attention, consequently less fatigue. The attention of the
worker is, therefore, strongly demanded at the beginning and when, later, it
is not needed except for new and unfamiliar work, an opportunity arises for
invention and mental advancement.
Attention Allowed to Lapse and Then Recalled. — Standardization shifts
the objects of attention and eliminates the need for constant concentration.
The standardization of processes relieves the worker to a marked extent
from the extremely fatiguing mental effort of unproductive fixed, valueless,
and unnecessary attention on the stream of consciousness. The repeated
elements which form a part of all standards reconcentrates the attention if it
is allowed to lapse.

Standardization Eliminates the Shifting Viewpoint. — Under old-time
Traditional Management the way that the man happened to feel at the
particular time made a great difference, not only in his work, but in his
relations with other men. The standardization not only of the relationship
between the men, but of the relationships between the foreman, the
manager, and the worker, the fact that the disciplining is put in the hands of
a man who is not biased by his personal feelings in his dealings with the
men; — all of these things mean that the viewpoint of the men as to their
work and their relationship remains fixed. This standardizing of the
viewpoint is an enormous help toward increasing output.
The Common Viewpoint Is an Impetus. — There are those who believe
that the concerted standard process of thought of the many minds assists the
operation of any one mind. However this may be, there is no doubt that the
fact that the standard thought is present in all minds at one time at least
eliminates some cause for discussion and leads to unity and consequent
success in the work.
Invention Is Stimulated. — Chances for invention and construction are
provided by standardization. 14 By having a scientifically derived standard
method as a starter, the worker can exert much of his mental power toward
improvement from that point upward, instead of being occupied with
methods below it and in wasting, perhaps, a lifetime in striving to get up to
it,15 this in distinction to the old plan, where a worker knew only what he
could personally remember of what had been handed down by tradition,
tradition being the memory of society. Under Scientific Management a
worker has many repetitions of experience, some of which he does not
always recognize as such. When he does recognize them, he has the power
and daring for rapid construction that come to those only who "know that
they know."
Standardization of ultimate subdivisions, as such, brings that power to the
worker sooner. The conscious knowledge of familiarity of process is an
essential for attaining the complete benefits of experience.
Far from making machines out of the men, standardization causes a mental
state that leads to invention, for the reason that the worker's brain is in most
intimate contact with the work, and yet has not been unnecessarily fatigued

by the work itself. No more monotonous work could be cited than that of
that boy whose sole duty was to operate by hand the valve to the engine, yet
he invented the automatic control of the slide valve used throughout the
world to-day.
Standardization Prevents Accidents. — The results of standardization so
far given, concern changes in the worker's mental capacity, or attitude. Such
changes, and other changes, will be discussed from a different viewpoint
under "Teaching." As for results to the worker's body, one of the most
important is the elimination of causes for accidents.
The rigid inspection, testing, and repairing provided for by Scientific
Management provides against accidents from defects in equipment, tools, or
material. The fact that instructions are written, provides against wrong
methods of handling work. 16 The concentrated attention caused by
standardization, is a safeguard against accidents that occur from the
worker's carelessness.17 The proper allowance of rest for overcoming
fatigue, insures that the worker's mind is fresh enough to enable him to
comply with standards, and, finally, the spirit of coöperation that underlies
Scientific Management is an added check against accidents, in that
everyone is guarding his fellows as well as himself.
Progress of Standardization Assured. — As Scientific Management
becomes older, progress will be faster, because up to this time there has
been a hindrance standing in the way of rapid advancement of the best
standards. This hindrance has been the tendency of habits of thought
coinciding with former practice. For example, the design of concrete
building for years followed the habit of thinking in terms of brick, or wood,
or steel, and then attempting to design and construct in reinforced concrete.
Again, in the case of the motor car, habits of thinking in vehicles drawn by
animals for years kept the design unnecessarily leaning toward that of horse
vehicles. As soon as thought was in terms of power vehicles, the efficient
motor truck of to-day was made, using the power also for power loading
and power hoisting, as is now done in motor trucks specially designed for
transporting and handling pianos and safes. So, also, while the thought was
of traditional practice, standard practice was held back. Now that the
theories of standardization are well understood, standardization and
standards in general can advance with great rapidity.

1. Compare R.T. Dana and W.L. Sanders, Rock Drilling, chap. XVI.
2. The idea of perfection is not involved in the standard of Scientific
Management. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, of The Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 6.
3. Cost of Manufactures.
4. Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, pp. 290-292.
5. C.B. Going, Methods of the Sante Fé, p. 66.
6. For desirability of standard signals see R.T. Dana, Handbook of Steam
Shovel Work, p. 32.
7. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, pp. 268-269.
8. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 285, Harper Ed., pp. 123-124.
9. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, revised 1911, pp. 124-125.
10. F.W. Taylor, On the Art of Cutting Metals, A.S.M.E., No. 1119.
11. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 11.
12. Mary Whiton Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 65.
13. C.G. Barth, A.S.M.E., Vol. 25, Paper 1010, p. 46.
14. Charles Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures,
Secs. 224-225. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book 1, chap. 1, p. 4.
15. F.W. Taylor, paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 51; para. 98-100.
16. F.A. Parkhurst, Applied Methods of Scientific Management, Industrial
Engineering, Oct. 1911, p. 251.
17. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., para. 15.

CHAPTER VII

RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES

Definition of Record. — A record is, according to the Century Dictionary
— "something set down in writing or delineated for the purpose of
preserving memory; specifically a register; an authentic or official copy of
any writing, or an account of any fact and proceedings, whether public or
private, usually entered in a book for preservation; also the book containing
such copy or account." 1 The synonyms given are "note, chronicle, account,
minute, memorandum."
Few Written Records Under Traditional Management. — For the
purposes of this preliminary study of records, emphasis will be laid on the
fact that the record is written. Under Traditional Management there are
practically no such labor records. What records are kept are more in the
nature of "bookkeeping records," as Gillette and Dana call them, records
"showing debits and credits between different accounts." In many cases,
under Traditional Management, not even such records of profit or loss from
an individual piece of work were kept, the manager, in extreme cases,
oftentimes "keeping his books in his head" and having only the vaguest idea
of the state of his finances.
Importance of Records Realized Under Transitory Management. — As
has been amply demonstrated in discussing Individuality and
Standardization, the recognition of the value of records is one of the first
indications of Transitory Management. Since this stage of management has
Scientific Management in view as "a mark to come to," the records evolved
and used are not discarded by Scientific Management, but are simply
perfected. Therefore, there is no need to discuss these transitory records,
except to say that, from the start, quality of records is insisted upon before
quantity of records.

No "Bookkeeping" Records Under Scientific Management. — Under
Scientific Management there are no "bookkeeping records" kept of costs as
such. Instead, there are "time and cost records," so called, of the time and
efficiency of performance. From these, costs can be deduced at any time.
Items of cost without relation to their causes, on work that is not to be
repeated, have little value. Cost records, as such, usually represent a
needless, useless expenditure of time and money. It must be emphasized
that Scientific Management can in no way be identified with "cost keeping,"
in the sense that is understood to mean aimlessly recording unrelated costs.
Under Scientific Management costs are an ever-present by-product of the
system, not a direct product.
Records Must Lower Costs and Simplify Work. — The quantity of
records that should be made depends on the amount, diversity and state of
development of the work done. No record should be made, which does not,
directly or indirectly, actually reduce costs or in some way increase
efficiency. The purpose of the records, as of Scientific Management in
general, is to simplify work. Only when this is recognized, can the records
made be properly judged. Numerous as they may at times seem to be, their
number is determined absolutely by the satisfactory manner in which they
—
1. Reduce costs.
2. Simplify work.
3. Increase efficiency.
Records of Work and Workers. — Records may be of the work or of the
worker 2 — that is to say, of material used, tools used, output produced,
etc., or of individual efficiency, in one form or another. Records of
efficiency may be of workers, of foremen, and of managers, and a record
may be made of any man in several capacities; for example, a record is kept
of a functional foreman in the form of the work of the men who are under
him, while another record might be kept of him as a worker himself; for
example, the time being taken that it took him to teach others their duties,
the time to learn what was to be done on any new work, etc.

Records of Initiative. — Records of initiative are embodied in the
Suggestion Card. Even under advanced Traditional Management the cards
are furnished to the men upon which to write any ideas as to improvements.
These suggestions are received, and, if accepted, are rewarded.
Under Scientific Management such suggestions become more valuable, for,
as has been shown, they are based upon standards; thus if accepted, they
signify not only a real, but a permanent improvement. Their greatest value,
however, is in the stimulus that they furnish to the worker, in the
information that they furnish the management as to which workers are
interested, and in the spirit of coöperation that they foster.
The worker receives not only a money-reward, but also publicity, for it is
made known which worker has made a valuable suggestion. This indicates
that the worker has shown good judgment. His interest is thus stimulated,
his attention is held to his work, and the habit of initiative comes to him.
That this habit of initiative can be fostered, is shown by the actual fact that
in many sorts of work the same man constantly makes suggestions. It
becomes a habit with him to look for the new way, and as he is constantly
rewarded, the interest is not allowed to diminish.
Records of Good Behavior. — Records of good behavior are incorporated
in the White List File. The White List File contains the names of all men
who have ever been employed who merit a recommendation, if they should
go to work for others, and would deserve to be given work as soon as
possible, if they came back. This White List File should be filled out with
many details, but even if it contains nothing but a record of the names, and
the addresses where the men can be reached when new work starts up, it has
a stimulating effect upon the worker. He feels, again, the element of
permanence; there is a place for individuality, and not only does the
manager have the satisfaction of actually having this list, and of using it, but
a feeling that his men know that he is in some way recognizing them, and
endeavoring to make them and their good work permanent.
Records of Achievement. — Records of achievement vary with the amount
and nature of the work done. Such records are, as far as possible, marked
upon programmes.

Records Made by Worker Where Possible. — Wherever possible the
worker makes his own records. Even when this is not advisable he is
informed of his record at as short intervals as are practicable.3
Records Made on the "Exception Principle." — Much time is saved by
separating records for the inspection of the man above, simply having him
examine the exceptions to some desired condition, — the records which are
exceptionally good, the records which are exceptionally bad. This not only
serves as a reward to the man who has a good record, and a punishment for
the man who has had a bad record, but it also enables the manager to
discover at once what is wrong and where it is wrong, and to remedy it.
The value of the exception principle can hardly be overestimated. It would
be of some value to know of exceptionally good or poor work, even if the
cause were not known. At least one would be made to observe the signpost
of success or of danger. But, under Scientific Management, the cause
appears simultaneously with the fact on the record, — thus not only
indicating the proper method of repeating success, or avoiding failure, in
the future, but also showing, and making clear, the direct relation of cause
to effect, to the worker himself.
This Discussion Necessarily Incomplete. — The records mentioned above
are only a few of the types of records under Scientific Management.
Discussion has been confined to these, because they have the most direct
effect upon the mind of the worker and the manager. Possible records are
too numerous, and too diverse, to be described and discussed in detail. They
constitute a part of the "how" of Scientific Management, — the manner in
which it operates. This is covered completely in the literature of Scientific
Management, written by men who have made Scientific Management and
its installation a life study. We need only further discuss the posting of
records, and their effect.
Posting of Records Beneficial. — As has been already noted under
Individuality, and must be again noted under Incentives, much benefit is
derived from posting records, especially when these are of such a character,
or are so posted, that the worker may see at a glance the comparative
excellence of his results.

SUMMARY

Results of Records to the Work. 4 — The results of recording are the same
under all forms of management, if the records are correct.
Output increases where records are kept. Under Traditional Management
there is the danger that pressure for quantity will affect quality, especially if
insufficient records of the resultant quality are kept. Under Transitory and
Scientific Management, quality is maintained or improved, both because
previous records set the standard, and because following records exhibit the
quality.
Results to the Worker. — James says, "A man's social use is the
recognition which he gets from his mates. We are not only gregarious
animals, liking to be liked in sight of our fellow, but we have an innate
propensity to get ourselves noticed, and noticed favorably, by our kind. No
more fiendish punishment could be devised, were such a thing physically
possible, than that one should be turned loose in society and remain
absolutely unnoticed by all the members thereof. If no one turned around
when we entered, answered when we spoke or minded what we did, but if
every person we met 'cut us dead' and acted as if we were non-existing
things, a kind of rage and impotent despair would ere long well up in us,
from which the cruelest bodily tortures would be a relief; for these would
make us feel that, however bad might be our plight, we had not sunk to such
a depth as to be unworthy of attention at all."5 This recognition the worker
gets partly through the records which are made of him.
Self-Knowledge Attained Through Records. — Through records of
output, and especially through charts of such records, and timed motion-
picture films, or micro-motion study pictures the worker may, if he be
naturally observant, or if he be taught to observe, gain a fine knowledge of
himself.
The constant exhibit of cause and effect of the relation of output to, for
example, — drink of alcoholic beverages; to smoking; to food values; to
nutrition; to family worries; and to other outside influences; — in fact, the
effects of numerous different modes of living, are shown promptly to the
worker in the form of records.

Two things should here be noted:
1. The necessity of having more accurate records of the worker and the
work, that the relation o£ cause to effect may be more precise and authentic.
2. The necessity for so training the worker, before, as well as after, he enters
the industrial world, that he can better understand and utilize the lesson
taught by his own records and those of others.
Educative Value of Worker Making His Own Record. — Under
Scientific Management in its most highly developed form, the worker
makes his own records on his return cards and hands them in. The worker
thus not only comes to realize, by seeing them and by writing them down,
what his records are, but he also realizes his individual position to-day
compared to what it was yesterday, and compared to that of his fellows in
the same line of work. Further, he gains accuracy, he gains judgment, he
gains a method of attack. He realizes that, as the managers are more or less
recorders, so also he, in recording himself, is vitally connected with the
management. It is, after all, more or less an attitude of mind which he gains
by making out these records himself. It is because of this attitude of mind,
and of the value which it is to him, that he is made to make out his own
record under the ultimate form of management, even though at times this
may involve a sacrifice of the time in which he must do it, and although he
may work slower than could a specialist at recording, who perhaps would,
in spite of that, be paid less for doing the work.
Exact Knowledge Valuable. — We cannot emphasize too often in this
connection the far-reaching psychological effect upon the worker of exact
knowledge of the comparative efficiency of methods. The value of this is
seldom fully appreciated; for example, we are familiar with the many
examples where the worker has been flattered until he believes that he
cannot make mistakes or do inefficient work. This is most often found
where the glowing compliments to the manufacturing department, found in
the advertising pages of the magazine and in the praises sung in print by the
publicity department, oftentimes ends in an individual overconfidence. This
unjustified self-esteem is soon shattered by accurate comparative records.
On the other hand, hazing of the new worker and the sneers of the jealous,
accompanied by such trite expressions as — "You can't teach an old dog

new tricks," have often destroyed self-confidence in a worker, who, in the
absence of accurate records of his efficiency, is trying to judge himself at
new methods. The jibes and jokes at the new man at the new work, and
especially at the experienced, efficient man at unfamiliar work cease, or at
least are wholly impotent, so far as discouraging the man is concerned,
provided the worker sees by the records of a true measuring device, or
method, that his work compares favorably with others of the same
experience, made under the same conditions.
Definition of Programme. — The word "programme" is defined by the
Century Dictionary as "a method of operation or line of procedure prepared
or announced beforehand. An outline or abstract of something to be done or
carried out."
Two Meanings of "Programme" in Management. — The word
"programme" has two meanings in management.
1. the work, as it comes to the management to be done
2. the work as it is planned out by the managers, and handed over to the
worker to be done.
Programme as here used is a plan for doing work, the plan which the
planning department lays out and hands over for the performers, or the
workers, to do.
Under Traditional Management No Accurate Programme Is Possible.
— Under Traditional Management the plan is at best a repetition of records
of unscientifically planned work. The most that the managers can hope to
do is to lay out the time in which they expect, after consulting previous
elapsed time records, the work to be done. Methods are not prescribed, so
there is no assurance that the calendar will be followed, for the times are set
by guess, or at best by referring to old unscientifically made records.
Under Transitory Management Calendars Can Be Designed. — Under
Transitory Management, with the introduction of systems, that is, records of
how the work has been done best at various times, come methods and a
possibility of a more exact calendar. There is some likelihood under
Transitory System of the work being done on time, as the method has been
considered and, in many cases, is specified.

Under Scientific Management Accurate Calendars Possible. — Under
Scientific Management programmes are based on accurate records
scientifically made and standardized, and a calendar may be made that can
be conformed to with exactness.
Programmes a Matter of Routing. — The problems of a programme
under Scientific Management are two, both problems of routing: —
1. to route materials to the work place.
2. to route the worker to the placed materials.
At first glance it might seem simpler to consider the worker as static and the
materials as in motion. The "routing" of the worker is really often not a
question of motion at all, as the worker, if he were operating a machine, for
example, would not change his position between various pieces of work —
except to rest from fatigue — enough to be considered. The word "routing"
is used figuratively as regards the worker. He is considered as transported
by the management through the day's work.
But, whether the work move, or the worker, or both, programmes must so
plan out the progress of each, in detail, for as many days ahead as possible,
that the most efficient outcome will ensue.
Routing of Work. — The work is routed through schedules of materials to
buy, schedules of material to handle, and schedules of labor to be
performed. The skilled worker finds all the materials for his work ready and
waiting for him when he arrives at the task, this being provided for by
programmes made out many tasks ahead.
Routing of Workers. — The workers themselves are routed by means of
the route sheet, route chart, pin plan and bulletin board.
The devices for laying out the work of the workers appeal to the
imagination as well as the reason. The route chart is a graphical
representation of a large river, starting with the small stream, — the first
operation, gathering to itself as the tributaries, the various other operations,
— till it reaches its full growth, the completed work.

The pin plan, with each pin or flag representing a worker, or work place,
and following his progress on a plan of the work, presents a bird's-eye view
in miniature of the entire working force; and the bulletin board, with its
cards that represent work ahead, not only eliminates actual delay of shifting
from one task to another, but permits studying out one task while doing
another, and also destroys all fear of delay between jobs.
Impossibility of Describing Routing Devices Accurately. — These
routing devices might all be described at length, but no description could do
them justice. A visit to a shop, or factory, or other industrial organization
operating under Scientific Management is necessary, in order to appreciate
not only their utility, but the interest that they arouse. These programmes
are no dead, static things. They are alive, pulsing, moving, progressing with
the progress of the work.
Prophecy Becomes Possible Under Scientific Management. — The
calendar, or chronological chart, becomes a true prophecy of what will take
place. This is based on the standardized elementary units, and the variations
from it will be so slight as to allow of being disregarded.

SUMMARY

Results of Programme to the Work. — Under Traditional Management
the tentative calendar might cause speed, but could not direct speed. Under
Transitory Management elimination of waste by prescribed methods and
routing increases output. This increase becomes greater under Scientific
Management. Standardized routing designs the shortest paths, the least
wasteful sequence of events, the most efficient speed, the most fitting
method. The result is more and better work.
Results of Programmes to the Worker. — A programme clarifies the
mind, is definite. The Traditional worker was often not sure what he had
better do next. The worker under Scientific Management knows exactly
what he is to do, and where and how he is to do it.
The attention is held, a field of allied interests are provided for possible
lapses, as are also methods for recalling attention.

The programme provides for a look ahead, and the relief that comes from
seeing the path before one. This ability to foresee also leads to a feeling of
stability. The knowledge that there is a large amount of work ahead, ready
to be attacked with no delay, eliminates anxiety as to future employment.
This allows of concentration on the work in hand, and a feeling that, this
work being properly done, one is free to turn to the next piece of work with
the absolute assurance that what has been done will be satisfactory.
Relation Between Records and Programmes. — No discussion of records
and programmes would be complete that did not consider the relation
between them.
Importance of This Relation. — The relation between records and
programmes in the various types of management is most important, for the
progress from one type to another may be studied as exemplified in the
change in these relations.
A Broadening of the Definitions. — In order to understand more plainly
the complexity of this relation, we will not confine ourselves here to the
narrower definition of a record as a written account, but will consider it to
mean a registering of an experience in the mind, whether this expresses
itself in a written record or not, A programme will, likewise, be a mental
plan.
Many Possible Types of Records and Programmes. — In order to
understand the number of different types of records and programmes that
can be made for a worker, the table that follows may be examined (Table I).
It exemplifies twelve possible records and twelve possible programmes.

TABLE I

/ /
| |1.
unconscious record
| |2.
conscious record,
/1. Man working--| | not
written
| for himself | |3.

written record
| | |4.
standardized record
| \ \
|
I. RECORDS-----| /1.
unconscious record
| |2.
conscious record, not written
| /(a) One of a gang---|3.
written record
| | |4.
standardized record
| | \
/(a) made by man
\2. Man working--|
|(b) " " manager
for another | /1.
unconscious record |(a) made by man
| |2.
conscious record, |(b) " " manager
\(b) Individual | not
written ---|(a) made by man
output |3.
written record |(b) " " manager
\4.
standardized record |(a) made by man

|(b) " " manager

|(a) made by man

\(b) " " manager

/
|1.
unconscious programme
/1. Man working-----------------------|2.
conscious programme
| for himself |3.
written programme
| |4.
standardized programme
| \
|
II. PROGRAMMES--|

| /
/(a) made by man
| /(a) One of a gang-|
|(b) " " manager
| | |1.
unconscious programme |(a) made by man
| | |2.
conscious programme, |(b) " " manager
\2. Man working--| | not
written ---|(a) made by man
for another | |3. written
programme |(b) " " manager
| |4.
standardized programme |(a) made by man
\(b) Individual----|
|(b) " " manager
output |
|(a) made by man
\
\(b) " " manager

Interrelation of These Types. — The man is classified first, as working for
himself, or working for another. There will usually be a fundamental
difference, at the outset, in the minds of these two men, for the man
working for himself will be of a more independent cast of thought. There
will be no question as to the man's output showing up separately, unless he
chooses to prevent this by having others work with him. Neither will there
be any question but that, if a record is made, he makes it himself, unless
someone who is not vitally connected with the work, as some onlooker,
interested or disinterested, should make the records for him. But the typical
case of the man working for himself would be that he was working as an
individual, and that the record was made by himself. There would then be
four kinds of records — an unconscious record, a conscious record not
written, a written record and a standardized record. The "unconscious
record" would be, in reality, no record at all. It would simply be, that
somewhere in the man's mind there would be a record of what he had done,
which, except as a "fringe of consciousness" would not particularly
influence his programme. What we mean by a "conscious record" would be
more of a set habit, the man knowing that he had done the work in a certain
way. This would begin to influence, more or less, his programme, and also
his knowledge of his capacity for work. With a written record, would come

a thorough knowledge on his part of what he had done and how he had done
it, and we must note that with this written record comes the possibility for
some sort of a set programme, the man knowing what it will be possible to
do, and how he had best do it. With the standardized record comes the
standardized method.
Relationships Complex. — When we consider the man working for
another, he may either be one of a gang, or one whose work is considered as
that of an individual. In either case, any of the four sorts of records can be
made of his work that have been already described for the man working for
himself. Each one of these records may be made by the man, or by the
management; for with the man working for another, naturally the second
mind, that of the other, or the manager, enters in, and a great many more
combinations are possible.
For example, — there might be an unconscious record made by the man
and a conscious record, or a written record, made by the manager. There
might be a conscious record made by the man, but an unconscious or a
written record made by the manager, etc. There are too many combinations
made to be here considered. Each one of these combinations would have a
definite and a different effect, both upon the mind of the man, and upon the
mind of the manager; and also upon their relation to each other. The second
half of this chart is similar, but treats of programmes, as many variables
enter here.
It may be thought that the details of the preceding chart and the three
following charts are uninteresting, obvious, and show too many possible
combinations. If this be so, then it is most necessary to include them to
illustrate the conditions that are passed through and slipped back into too
often in our schools, our apprenticeship and in all but the best of
managements.
The outline of advancement must be known and recognized if the quality of
teaching, efficiency, and management is to be graded in its right class.
When we consider that each type of record bears a relation to each type of
programme, the complexity of the problems involved become apparent.
This will be better shown in Table II.

TABLE II

1. Unconscious record, unconscious
programme.
2. Conscious record, unconscious programme.
3. Unconscious record, conscious programme.
4. Conscious record, conscious programme.
I. Man working for 5. Unconscious record, written programme.
himself. 6. Written record, unconscious programme.
7. Conscious record, written programme.
8. Written record, conscious programme.
9. Written record, written programme.
10. Standardized record, standardized
programme.

Illustration of This Complexity. — Table II represents the man working
for himself, with subdivisions under it showing the possible relationship
between his record and his programme. We find that these are at least ten,
reaching all the way from the unconscious record and unconscious
programme of the migrating transitory laborer to the standardized record
and the standardized programme of the manager who manages himself
scientifically.
Each one of these represent a distinct psychological stage. The progression
may not be regular and smooth as is here given, — it may be a jump,
possibly even from one to nine. It may, however, be a slow progression
from one stage to another, largely to be determined by the type of mind that
is considered, and the opportunities for development along scientific lines
which are afforded. It is the writer's intention to discuss these at length at
some other time. Here it is only possible to enumerate, in order to show the
size and complexity of the problem which is here involved.
The table does not indicate, as perhaps it should, the fact that the
relationship between an unconscious record and an unconscious programme
is slight, while the relation between a written programme and a written
record is very close indeed. In Table IV this will be indicated.

TABLE III

1. One of a gang, unconscious record, unconscious
programme, on part of both manager and man.

II. Man working
for himself.
2. Individual output, — standardized record and
programme, known to, or made by, both manager and
man.

Elimination of Waste Possible. — The third table — that of the man
working for another man — attempts to do no more than indicate the first
and last step of a long series, beginning with the man, one of a gang, an
unconscious record, and an unconscious programme, on the part of both the
manager and the man, down to the final stage of individual output, with the
written record and programme known to both manager and man. It would
be a most interesting problem to work out the various steps stretching
between these two, and the various ways in which progression might be
made through these steps, either taking one step after another slowly or
making the various possible jumps long and short. A psychological
discussion of each step would be of value, and certainly must in time be
made, but this book has not the scope, nor can the time be devoted to such a
discussion.
If this third chart had no other purpose, it would be useful to suggest to the
student the wide tracts which still remain for study and development. It
must not be thought that any of the steps omitted on this chart are not in
existence. Every single possible combination of record and programme is in
existence to-day, and must be studied by the manager of men. Not until
these are all discovered, described, and standardized, the progression noted,
and standard progressions outlined, can methods of least waste be adopted.
With a more thorough experimental study of the mind will come a possible
prediction as to which stages the various types of mind must pass through.
So, too, with the training of the young mind in the primary schools and in
the methods of Scientific Management, will come the elimination of many
stages now necessary, and the possibility, even, that the final stage may be

introduced at the outset, and the enormous waste of time, energy and
wearing of unnecessary brain paths be absolutely abolished.
The Programme Derived from the Record. — Having considered the
various records and programmes and their relation, we will now consider
the four stages of the record, — (1) unconscious, (2) conscious, (3) written,
(4) standardized, and trace the derivation of the programme from each
stage.

TABLE IV

I. Record unconscious. Programme cannot be definite.
Method is indefinite.

II. Record conscious. Programme becomes more definite.
Method becomes more definite.

III. Record written. Programme yet more definite.
Method definite.

IV. Record standardized. Programme standardized, i.e.,
Results predictable.
Methods standard.

Unconscious Records Mean Indefinite Programmes. — First, then,
suppose that the records are unconscious. What does this imply? It implies
in the first place that the worker has no idea of his capacity; never having
thought of what he has done, he has no idea what can be done, neither has
he a comparative idea of methods, that is, of how to do it. It is impossible
for a definite programme to be laid out by such a worker, — that is to say,
no predictions by him as to the time of completing the work are possible.
Neither could a method be derived by him from his previous work.
Note here the alarming amount of waste. All good methods which the
worker may possibly have acquired are practically lost to the world, and

perhaps also to him. Not only this, but all bad methods which he has fallen
into will be fallen into again and again, as there are no warning signs to
keep him out of them.
As there is no possibility of an accurate chronological chart, the worker
may undertake more than he can do, thus delaying work which should have
been done by others. On the other hand, he may underestimate his capacity,
and be left idle because work he should have done has been assigned to
others. Either of these leads to a sense of insecurity, to wavering attention,
to "hit or miss" guess work, "rule-of- thumb methods," which are the signs
of Traditional Management.
With Conscious and Written Records Come Definite Programmes. —
We turn now to the case where the record is conscious, — that is, where the
worker keeps in mind exactly what he has done. With this conscious record
the idea of capacity develops. The man realizes what he can do. So also, the
idea of method develops, and the man realizes how he can do the work.
Third, there comes gradually an idea of a margin; that is, of a possible way
by which capacity can be increased for a higher speed, or methods can be
slightly varied to meet any particular deviation in the work to be done.
From this ability to estimate capacity, and to plan the method ahead, comes
the ability to lay out a more definite programme. When the record becomes
written the exactness of the programme increases. Methods also become
written, and, though accurate prediction is not possible, such prediction is
more and more nearly approached. This increasing accuracy is the work of
Transitory System in all its stages.
Standard Records Permit of Standard Programmes. — In the last case,
the record is standardized, that is, the result of the method of processes of
analysis and synthesis. Through this process, as has been shown, the reason
for success is discovered and rendered usable. The programme becomes
standard, results can be predicted accurately, and methods by which these
results can be best obtained are also standard.
It may at first escape notice that these standardized records, of the ultimate
or scientific management type, imply not a greater rigidity, but a greater
elasticity. This because of the nature of the elements of the records, which

may, in time, be combined into a great number of different, predictable
programmes.

SUMMARY

Results of Relations Between Records and Programmes on the Work.
— The most noteworthy result of the closer relations between records and
programmes which appear during the evolution of Scientific Management is
the fact that they cause constant simplification. The more carefully records
are standardized, the simpler becomes the drafting of the programme. As
more and more records become standard, the drafting of programmes
becomes constantly an easier and cheaper process.
Programmes Become Records. — Under Traditional Management the
record that follows a programme may appear very different from the
programme. Under Scientific Management the record that follows a
programme most closely resembles the programme. Improvements are not
made between the programme and the following record, — they find their
place between the record and the following programme. Thus programmes
and records may be grouped in pairs, by similarity, with a likelihood of
difference between any one pair (one programme plus one record) and other
pairs.
Result on the Worker. — The greatest effect, on the worker, of these
relations of record to programme under Scientific Management is the
confidence that he gains in the judgment that is an outcome of Scientific
Management. When the worker sees that Scientific Management makes
possible accurate predictions of times, schedules, tasks, and performance;
that the methods prescribed invariably enable him to achieve prescribed
results, his confidence in Scientific Management grows. So also does the
manager's confidence in Scientific Management grow, — and in this mutual
confidence in the system of management is another bond of sympathy.
The place left for suggestions and improvements, in the ever-present
opportunities to better standards, fulfills that longing for a greater efficiency
that is the cause of progress.

1. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, p. 65.
2. H.L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A.S.M.E., page 2.
3. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, p. VII.
4. H.L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A.S.M.E., p. 1336.
5. William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 179.

CHAPTER VIII

TEACHING

Definition of Teaching. — The Century Dictionary defines "teaching" as
"the act or business of instructing," with synonyms: "training" and
"education;" and "to teach" is defined: —
1. "to point out, direct, show;" "to tell, inform, instruct, explain;"
2. "to show how (to do something); hence, to train;"
3. "to impart knowledge or practical skill to;" "to guide in learning,
educate."
"Educate," we find meaning "to instruct, to teach methodically, to prescribe
to; to indoctrinate;" and by "indoctrinate" is meant "to cause to hold as a
doctrine or belief." "To educate," says the same authority, "is to develop
mentally or morally by instruction; to qualify by instruction and training for
the business and duty of life."
Under Traditional Management No Definite Plan of Teaching. — Under
Traditional Management there is either no definite scheme of teaching by
the management itself, or practically none; at least, this is usually the
condition under the most elementary types of Traditional Management. In

the very highest examples of the traditional plan the learner may be shown
how, but this showing is not usually done in a systematic way, and under so-
called Traditional Management is seldom in the form of written
instructions.
No Specified Time for or Source of the Teaching. — Under Traditional
Management there is no particular time in which this teaching goes on, no
particular time allowed for the worker to ask for the instruction, nor is there
any particular source from which he obtains the instructions. There is,
moreover, almost every hindrance against his getting any more instruction
than he absolutely must have in order to get the work done. The persons to
whom he can possibly appeal for further information might discharge him
for not already knowing. These persons are, if he is an apprentice, an older
worker; if he is a journeyman, the worker next to him, or the foreman, or
someone over him. An important fact bearing on this subject is that it is not
to the pecuniary advantage of any particular person to give this teaching. In
the first place, if the man be a fellow-worker, he will want to do his own
work without interruption, he will not want to take the time off; moreover,
he regards his particular skill as more or less of a trade secret, and desires to
educate no more people than necessary, to be as clever as he is. In the third
place, there is no possible reward for giving this instruction. Of course, the
worker necessarily improves under any sort of teaching, and if he has a
receptive mind, or an inventive mind, he must progress constantly, either by
teaching himself or by the instruction, no matter how haphazard.
Great Variation Under Traditional Management. — Only discussion of
teaching under this type of management with many men who have learned
under it, can sufficiently emphasize the variations to be found. But the
consensus of opinion would seem to prove that an apprentice of only a
generation ago was too often hazed, was discouraged from appealing for
assistance or advice to the workers near him, or to his foreman; was unable
to find valuable literature for home-study on the subject of his trade. The
experience of many an apprentice was, doubtless, different from this, but
surely the mental attitude of the journeymen who were the only teachers
must have tended toward some such resulting attitude of doubt or hesitancy
in the apprentice.

Mental Attitude of the Worker-Teacher. — Under the old plan of
management, the apprentice must appear to the journeyman more or less of
a supplanter. From the employee's standpoint it was most desirable that the
number of apprentices be kept down, as an oversupply of labor almost
invariably resulted in a lowering of wages. The quicker and better the
apprentice was taught, the sooner he became an active competitor. There
seldom existed under this type of management many staff positions to
which the workers could hope to be promoted, certainly none where they
could utilize to the fullest extent their teaching ability. There was thus every
reason for a journeyman to regard the teaching of apprentices as
unremunerative, irksome, and annoying.
Worker Not to Blame for This. — The worker is not to be blamed for this
attitude. The conditions under which he worked made it almost inevitable.
Not only could he gain little or nothing by being a successful teacher, but
also the bullying instinct was appealed to constantly, and the desire of the
upper classmen in hazing days to make the next class "pay up" for the
hazing that they were obliged to endure in their Freshman year.
Attitude of the Learner. — The attitude of the typical learner must
frequently be one of hesitancy and self-distrust if not of fear, though
conditions were so varied as almost to defy classification. One type of
apprentice was expected to learn merely by observation and imitation.
Another was practically the chore boy of the worker who was assigned to
teach him. A third was under no direct supervision at all, but was expected
to "keep busy," finding his work by himself. A fourth was put through a
severe and valuable training by a martinet teacher, — and so on.
Teaching Often Painstaking. — It is greatly to the credit of the worker
under this type of management that he was, in spite of all drawbacks,
occasionally a painstaking teacher, to the best of his lights. He insisted on
application, and especially on quality of work. He unselfishly gave of his
own time and skill to help the apprentice under him.
Methods of Teaching Usually Wrong. — Unfortunately, through no fault
of the worker-teacher the teaching was usually done according to wrong
methods. Quality of resulting output was so emphasized that neither speed
nor correct motions were given proper consideration.

Teacher Not Trained to Teach. — The reason for this was that the worker
had no training to be a teacher. In the first place, he had no adequate idea of
his own capabilities, and of which parts of his own method were fit to be
taught. In the second place, he did not know that right motions must be
insisted on first, speed next, and quality of output third; or in other words
that if the motions were precise enough, the quality would be first. In the
fourth place he had no pedagogical training.
Lack of Standards an Underlying Lack. — All shortcoming in the old
time teaching may be traced to lack of standards. The worker had never
been measured, hence had no idea of his efficiency, or of possible
efficiency. No standard methods made plain the manner in which the work
should be done. Moreover, no standard division and assignment of work
allowed of placing apprentices at such parts of the work that quality could
be given third place. No standard requirements had determined his fitness
as a teacher, nor the specialty that he should teach, and no incentive held his
interest to the teaching. These standards the worker-teacher could not
provide for himself, and the wonder is that the teaching was of such a high
character as it was.
Very Little Teaching of Adults. — Under Traditional Management,
teaching of adults was slight, — there being little incentive either to teacher
or to learner, and it being always difficult for an adult to change his method.
1 Moreover, it would be difficult for a worker using one method to persuade

one using another that his was the better, there being no standard. Even if
the user of the better did persuade the other to follow his method, the final
result might be the loss of some valuable elements of the poorer method
that did not appear in the better.
Failure to Appreciate the Importance of Teaching. — An
underestimation of the importance of teaching lay at the root of the lack of
progress. This is so directly connected with all the other lacks of Traditional
Management, — provision for adequate promotion and pay, standards, and
the other underlying principles of Scientific Management, especially the
appreciation of coöperation, — that it is almost impossible to disentangle
the reasons for it. Nor would it be profitable to attempt to do so here. In
considering teaching under Scientific Management we shall show the

influence of the appreciation of teaching, — and may deduce the lacks from
its non-appreciation, from that discussion.
Under Transitory System Teaching Becomes More Important. — Under
Transitory Management the importance of teaching becomes at once more
apparent. This, both by providing for the teaching of foremen and
journeymen as well as apprentices, and by the providing of written systems
of instructions as to best practice. The worker has access to all the sources
of information of Traditional Management, and has, besides these, in effect,
unsystematically derived standards to direct him.
Systems Make Instruction Always Available. — The use of written
systems enables every worker to receive instruction at any time, to feel free
to ask it, and to follow it without feeling in any way humiliated.
The result of the teaching of these systems is a decided improvement in
methods. If the written systems are used exclusively as a source of teaching,
except for the indefinite teachers of the Traditional Management, the
improvement becomes definitely proportioned to the time which the man
spends upon the studying and to the amount of receptive power which he
naturally has.
Incentives to Conform to System. — The worker has incentives to follow
the systems —
1. In that he is required to render reasons in writing for permanent filing, for
every disobedience of system.
2. That, as soon as work is placed on the bonus basis, the first bonus that is
given is for doing work in accordance with the prescribed method.
Even before the bonus is paid, the worker will not vary for any slight
reasons, if he positively knows at the time that he must account for so
doing, and that he will be considered to have "stacked his judgment" against
that of the manager. Being called to account for deviations gives the man a
feeling of responsibility for his act, and also makes him feel his close
relationship with the managers.
No Set Time for Using Systems. — There is, under this type of
management, no set time for the study of the systems.

Systems Inelastic. — Being written, these systems have all the
disadvantages of anything that is written. That is to say, they require
considerable adaptability on the part of the man who is using them. He must
consider his own mind, and the amount of time which he must put on
studying; he must consider his own work, and adapting that method to his
work while still obeying instructions. In the case of the system being in
great detail, he can usually find a fairly detailed description of what he is
going to do, and can use that. In the case of the system being not so
complete, if his work varies, he must show intelligence in varying the
system, and this intelligence often demands a knowledge which he has not,
and knows not where to obtain.
Waste of Time from Unstandardized Systems. — The time necessitated
by the worker's laying out details of his method is taken from the total time
of his working day, hence in so far cuts down his total product. Moreover, if
no record is kept of the details of his planning the next worker on the same
kind of work must repeat the investigation.
Later Transitional Management Emphasizes Use of Standards. — Later
Transitional Management eliminates this waste of time by standardizing
methods composed of standardized timed units, thus both rendering
standards elastic, and furnishing details.
Teaching Most Important Under Scientific Management. — Teaching is
a most important element under Scientific Management not only because it
increases industrial efficiency, but also because it fosters industrial peace. 2
Importance Depends on Other Elements of Scientific Management. —
As we have seen, Scientific Management has as a basic idea the necessity
of divided responsibility, or functionalization. This, when accompanied by
the interdependent bonus, creates an incentive to teach and an incentive to
learn. Scientific Management divides the planning from the performing in
order to centralize and standardize knowledge in the planning department,
thus making all knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the disposal
of all more than any could have alone. The importance of having this
collected and standardized knowledge conveyed best to the worker cannot
be overestimated. Through this knowledge, the worker is able to increase
his output, and thus insure the lowered costs, that provide the funds with

which to pay his higher wages, — to increase his potential as well as actual
efficiency, and best to coöperate with other workers and with the
management.
Importance of Teaching Element Best Claim to Permanence of
Scientific Management. — Upon the emphasis which it places on teaching
rests/a large part of the claim of Scientific Management for permanence. 3
We have already shown the derivation of the standards which are taught.
We have shown that the relation between the planning and performing
departments is based largely on means and methods for teaching. We have
only to show here that the teaching is done in accordance with those laws of
Psychology that are the laws of Pedagogy.
Teaching in Scientific Management Not the Result of Theory Only. —
The methods of teaching under Scientific Management were not devised in
response to theories of education. They are the result of actual experience in
getting work done most successfully. The teachers, the methods, the devices
for teaching, — all these grew up to meet needs, as did the other elements
of Scientific Management.
Conformity of Teaching to Psychological Laws Proof of Worth of
Scientific Management. — The fact that teaching under Scientific
Management does conform, as will be shown, to the laws of Psychology, is
an added proof of the value of Scientific Management.
Change from Teaching Under Traditional Management. — Mr. Gantt
says, "The general policy of the past has been to drive; but the era of force
must give way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the future will be to
teach and to lead, to the advantage of all concerned." 4 This "driving"
element of Traditional Management is eliminated by Scientific
Management.
Necessity for Personally Derived Judgment Eliminated. — So also is
eliminated the old belief that the worker must go through all possible
experiences in order to acquire "judgment" as to best methods. If the worker
must pass through all the stages of the training of the old-fashioned
mechanic, and this is seriously advocated by some, he may fail to reach the
higher planes of knowledge afforded by training under Scientific
Management, by reason of sheer lack of time. If, therefore, by artificial

conditions caused by united agreement and collective bargaining, workmen
insist upon forcing upon the new learners the old-school training, they will
lose just so much of the benefits of training under those carefully arranged
and carefully safe-guarded processes of industrial investigation in which
modern science has been successful. To refuse to start in where others have
left off, is really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to use mathematical
formulas because they have been worked out by others. It might be
advocated that the mind would grow by working out every possible
mathematical formula before using it, but the result would be that the
student would be held back from any further original investigation.
Duplicating primary investigations might be original work for him, but it
would be worthless as far as the world is concerned. The same is absolutely
true in management. If the worker is held back by acquiring every bit of
knowledge for himself instead of taking the work of others as the starting
point, the most valuable initiative will be lost to the world.
Bad Habits the Result of Undirected Learning. — Even worse than the
waste of time would be the danger of acquiring habits of bad methods,
habits of unnecessary motions, habits of inaccurate work; habits of
inattention. Any or all of these might develop. These are all prevented under
Scientific Management by the improved methods of teaching.
Valuable Elements of Traditional Management Conserved. — There are,
however, many valuable elements of the old Traditional system of teaching
and of management which should be retained and not be lost in the new.
For example, — the greatest single cause of making men capable under the
old plan was the foreman's unconscious ability to make his men believe,
before they started a task, that they could achieve it.
It must not be thought that because of the aids to the teacher under
Scientific Management the old thought of personality is lost. The old ability
to convert a man to the belief that he could do a thing, to inspire him with
confidence in his foreman, with confidence in himself, and a desire to do
things, is by no means lost, on the contrary it is carefully preserved under
Scientific Management.
Teaching of Transitory Management Supplemented. — In the
transforming of Transitory into Scientific Management, we note that the

process is one of supplementing, not of discarding. Written system, which is
the distinguishing characteristic of Transitory Management, is somewhat
limited in its scope, but its usefulness is by no means impaired.
Scope of Teaching Under Scientific Management. — Under Scientific
Management teaching must cover
1. Teaching of right methods of doing work,
2. Teaching of right habits of doing the right methods.
The teacher must so impart the knowledge that judgment can be acquired
without the learner being obliged himself to experience all the elements of
the judgment.
Needs for Teaching Under Scientific Management. — The needs for this
teaching have been stated, but may be recapitulated here.
1. Worker may not observe his own mistakes.
2. Worker has no opportunity under the old industrial conditions to
standardize his own methods.
3. Worker must know standard practice.
4. Waste can be eliminated by the teaching.
5. Right habits can be instilled.
Sources of Teaching Under Scientific Management. — The sources of
teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Friends or Relatives }
2. Fellow workers }
If the worker chooses
3. Literature of the Trade }
to use them.
4. Night schools and study }
5. The Management. }

Methods of Teaching Under Scientific Management. — The Methods of
Teaching under Scientific Management are
1. Written, by means of

(a) Instruction Cards telling what is to be done and how.
(b) Systems, explaining the why.
(c) Drawings, charts, plans, photographs, illustrating methods.
(d) Records made by the worker himself.
2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen.
3. Object-lessons:
(a) Exhibits.
(b) Working models.
(c) Demonstrations by the Teacher.
(d) Demonstrations by the worker under Supervision.
Worker a Source of These Methods. — It should be often stated that,
ultimately, the elements of all methods are derived from a study of workers,
and that the worker should be enabled to realize this. Only when he feels
that he is a part of what is taught, and that the teachers are a means of
presenting to him the underlying principles of his own experience, will the
worker be able to coöperate with all his energy.
Instruction Cards Are Directions. — Instruction Cards are direct
instructions for each piece of work, giving, in most concise form, closely
defined description of standard practice and directions as to how each
element of the standardized task is to be performed. The makers know that
they must make their directions clear ultimately, therefore they strive
constantly for clearness.
Instruction Cards Teach Directly and Indirectly. — These Instruction
Cards not only teach the worker directly best to do his work, but also teach
him indirectly how to become a leader, demonstrator, teacher and functional
foreman. Study of them may lead to an interest in, and a study of, elements,
and to preparation for becoming one of the planning department. The
excellent method of attack of the Instruction Card cannot fail to have some
good effect, even upon such workers as do not consciously note it.5

Systems Are Reasons and Explanations. — "Systems" or standing orders
are collections of detailed reasons for, and explanations of, the decisions
embodied in the directions of the Instruction Cards. There is a system
showing the standard practice of each kind of work.
They Enlist the Judgment of the Worker. — Under really successful
management, it is realized that the worker is of an inquiring mind, and that,
unless this inquiring tendency of his is recognized, and his curiosity is
satisfied, he can never do his best work. Unless the man knows why he is
doing the thing, his judgment will never reënforce his work. He may
conform to the method absolutely, but his work will not enlist his zeal
unless he knows just exactly why he is made to work in the particular
manner prescribed. This giving of the "why" to the worker through the
system, and thus allowing his reason to follow through all the details, and
his judgment to conform absolutely, should silence the objections of those
who claim that the worker becomes a machine, and that he has no incentive
to think at his work. On the contrary, it will be seen that this method
furnishes him with more viewpoints from which he can consider his work.
Drawings, Charts, Plans and Photographs Means of Making Directions
Clearer. — The Instruction Cards are supplemented with drawings, charts,
plans and stereoscopic and timed motion photographs, — any or all, — in
order to make the directions of the Instruction Cards plainer.
Stereoscopic and Micro-Motion Study Photographs Particularly
Useful. — Stereoscopic photographs are especially useful in helping non-
visualizers, and in presenting absolutely new work. The value as an
educator of stereoscopic and synthesized micro-motion photographs of right
methods is as yet but faintly appreciated.
The "timed motion picture," or "micro-motion study photograph" as it is
called, consists of rapidly photographing workers in action accompanied by
a specially constructed chronometer that shows such minute divisions of
time that motion pictures taken at a speed that will catch the most rapid of
human motions without a blur, will show a different time of day in each
photograph. The difference in the time in any two pictures gives the elapsed
time of the desired motion operation or time unit.

Self-Made Records Educative. — The educative value of the worker's
making his own records has never been sufficiently appreciated. Dr. Taylor
insists upon this procedure wherever possible.6 Not only does the worker
learn from the actual marking in of the spaces reserved for him, but also he
learns to feel himself a part of the record making division of the
management. This proof of the "square deal," in recording his output, and
of the confidence in him, cannot fail to enlist his coöperation.
Oral Instruction Comes from the Functional Foremen. — The
Functional Foremen are teachers whose business it is to explain, translate
and supplement the various written instructions when the worker either
does not understand them, does not know how to follow them, or makes a
mistake in following them.
Oral Instruction Has Its Fitting Place Under Scientific Management. —
Oral instruction under Scientific Management has at least four advantages
over such instruction under Traditional Management.
1. The Instructor is capable of giving instruction.
2. The Instructor's specialty is giving instruction.
3. The instruction is a supplement to written instructions.
4. The instruction comes at the exact time that the learner needs it.
Teacher, or Functional Foreman, Should Understand Psychology and
Pedagogy. — The successful teacher must understand the minds of his
men, and must be able to present his information in such a way that it will
be grasped readily. Such knowledge of psychology and pedagogy as he
possesses he may acquire almost unconsciously
1. from the teaching of others,
2. from his study of Instruction Cards and Systems,
3. from actual practice in teaching.
The advantages of a study of psychology itself, as it applies to the field of
teaching in general, and of teaching in the industries in particular, are
apparent. Such study must, in the future, become more and more prevalent.

Advantage of Functional Foreman-Teacher Over Teacher in the
Schools. — The Functional Foreman-teacher has an advantage over the
teacher in the school in that the gap between him and those he teaches is not
so great. He knows, because he remembers, exactly how the worker must
have his information presented to him. This gap is narrowed by
functionalizing the oral teaching, by using it merely as a supplement to the
written teaching, and by supplementing it with object-lessons.
Teacher Must Have Practical Knowledge of the Trade He Is to Teach.
— The teacher must have an intimate practical knowledge of the art or trade
that he is to teach. The most profound knowledge of Psychology will never
be a substitute for the mastery of the trade, as a condition precedent to
turning out the best craftsmen. This is provided for by securing teachers
from the ranks of the workers.7
He Must Have a Thorough Knowledge of the Standards. — He must
have more than the traditional knowledge of the trade that he is to teach; he
must have also the knowledge that comes only from scientific investigation
of his trade. This knowledge is ready and at hand, in the standards of
Scientific Management that are available to all for study.
He Must Be Convinced of the Value of the Methods He Teaches. — The
teacher must also have an intimate acquaintance with the records of output
of the method he is to teach as compared with those of methods held in high
esteem by the believer in the old methods; for it is a law that no teacher can
be efficient in teaching any method in which he does not believe, any more
than a salesman can do his best work when he does not implicitly believe in
the goods that he is selling.
He Must Be an Enthusiast. — The best teacher is the one who is an
enthusiast on the subject of the work itself, who can cause contagion or
imitation of his state of mind, by love of the problems themselves.
Such Enthusiasm Contagious. — It is the contagion of this enthusiasm
that will always create a demand for teachers, no matter how perfect
instruction cards may become. There is no form or device of management
that does away with good men, and in the teacher, as here described, is
conserved the personal element of the successful, popular Traditional
foreman.

Valuable Teacher Interests Men in the Economic Value of Scientific
Management. — The most valuable teacher is one who can arouse his
pupils to such a state of interest in the economic values of the methods of
Scientific Management, that all other objects that would ordinarily distract
or hold their attention will be banished from their minds. They will then
remember each step as it is introduced, and they will be consumed with
interest and curiosity to know what further steps can be introduced, that will
still further eliminate waste.
Object-lesson May Be "Working Models." — The object-lesson may be a
"fixed exhibit" or a "working model," "a process in different stages," or "a
micro-motion study film" of the work that is to be done. Successful and
economical teaching may be done with such models, which are especially
valuable where the workers do not speak the same language as the teacher,
where many workers are to perform exactly similar work, or where the
memory, the visualizing and the constructive imagination, are so poor that
the models must be referred to constantly. Models naturally appeal best to
those who take in information easiest through the eyes.
Object-lessons May Be Demonstrations by the Teacher. — The teacher
may demonstrate the method manually to the worker, or by means of films
showing synthesized right methods on the motion-picture screen. This, also,
is a successful method of teaching those who speak a different language, or
of explaining new work, — though it calls for a better memory than does
the "working model," The model, however, shows desired results; the
demonstration, desired methods.
Demonstration Method Chief Method of Teaching by Foremen. — The
manual demonstration method is the chief method of teaching the workmen
by the foremen under Scientific Management, and no method is rated as
standard that cannot be successfully demonstrated by the teacher, at any
time, on request.
Worker may Demonstrate Under Supervision. — If the worker is of that
type that can learn only by actually doing the work himself, he is allowed to
demonstrate the method under supervision of the teacher. 8
Teaching Always Available Under Scientific Management. — Under
Scientific Management all of these forms of teaching are available

constantly. The instruction card and accompanying illustrations are given to
the worker before he starts to work, and are so placed that he can consult
them easily at any time during the work. As, also, if object-lessons are used,
they are given before work commences, and repeated when necessary.
The teacher is constantly available for oral instruction, and the systems are
constantly available for consultation.
Methods of Teaching Under Scientific Management Psychologically
Right. — In order to prove that teaching under Scientific Management is
most valuable, it is necessary to show that it is psychologically right, that it
leads to mental development and improvement. Under Scientific
Management, teaching, —
1. uses and trains the senses.
2. induces good habits of thinking and acting.
3. stimulates attention,
4. provides for valuable associations.
5. assists and strengthens the memory.
6. develops the imagination.
7. develops judgment.
8. utilizes suggestion.
9. utilizes "native reactions."
10. develops the will.
Teaching Under Scientific Management Trains the Senses. — Scientific
Management, in teaching the man, aims to train all of his senses possible.
Not only does each man show an aptitude for some special sense training, 9
but at certain times one sense may be stronger than another; for example,
the sense of hearing, as is illustrated by the saying, "The patient in the
hospital knoweth when his doctor cometh by the fall of his footsteps, yet
when he recovereth he knoweth not even his face." At the time that a certain

thing becomes of interest, and becomes particularly interesting to one sense,
that sense is particularly keen and developed.
Scientific Management cannot expect, without more detailed psychological
data than is as yet available, to utilize these periods of sense predominance
adequately. It can, and does, aim to utilize such senses as are trained, and to
supply defects of training of the other senses.
Such Training Partially Determines the Quality of the Work. — The
importance of sense training can scarcely be overestimated. Through his
senses, the worker takes in the directions as to what he is to do, and on the
accuracy with which his senses record the impressions made upon them,
depends the mental model which he ultimately follows, and the accuracy of
his criticism of the resulting physical object of his work. Through the
senses, the worker sets his own task, and inspects his work.
Sense Training Influences Increase of Efficiency. — With the training of
the senses the possibility of increased efficiency increases. As any sense
becomes trained, the minimum visable is reduced, and more accurate
impressions become possible.10 They lead to more rapid work, by
eliminating time necessary for judgment. The bricklayer develops a fineness
of touch that allows him to dispense with sight in some parts of his work.
Selective Power of Senses Developed. — James defines the sense organs
as "organs of selection." 11 Scientific Management so trains them that they
can select what is of most value to the worker.
Methods of Sense Training Under Scientific Management. — The senses
are trained under Scientific Management by means of the various sources of
teaching. The instruction card, with its detailed descriptions of operations,
and its accompanying illustrations, not only tends to increase powers of
visualization, but also, by the close observation it demands, it reduces the
minimum visible. The "visible instruction card," or working model, is an
example of supplementing weak power of visualization. The most available
simple, inexpensive and easily handled device to assist visualizing is the
stereo or three-dimension photograph, which not only serves its purpose at
the time of its use, but trains the eye to see the third dimension always.

Much training is given to the eye in Scientific Management by the constant
insistence on inspection. This inspection is not confined to the inspector, but
is the constant practice of worker and foremen, in order that work may be of
such a quality as will merit a bonus.
Senses That Are Most Utilized Best Trained. — The relative training
given to the various senses depends on the nature of the work. When the ear
is the tester of efficiency, as it often is with an engineer watching machinery
in action, emphasis is laid on training the hearing. In work where touch is
important, emphasis is on such training as will develop that sense. 12
Variations in Sense Power Should Be Utilized. — Investigations are
constantly going to prove that each sense has a predominance at a different
time in the age of the child or man. Dottoressa Montessori's experience with
teaching very young children by touch shows that that sense is able to
discriminate to an extraordinary extent for the first six years of life. 13
So, also, acute keenness of any sense, by reason of age or experience should
be conserved. 14 Such acuteness is often the result of some need, and, unless
consciously preserved, will vanish with the need.
Progress in Such Training. — The elementary sense experiences are
defined and described by Calkins. 15 Only through a psychological study
can one realize the numerous elements and the possibility of study. As yet,
doubtless, Scientific Management misses many opportunities for training
and utilizing the senses. But the standardizing of elements, and the
realization of the importance of more and more intensive study of the
elements lends assurance that ultimately all possibilities will be utilized.
As Many Senses as Possible Appealed To. — Scientific Management has
made great progress in appealing to as many senses as possible in its
teaching. The importance of the relation between the senses is brought out
by Prof. Stratton.16
In teaching, Scientific Management has, in its teachers, animate and
inanimate, great possibilities of appealing to many senses simultaneously.
The instruction card may be
1. read to oneself silently — eyes appealed to

2. read to oneself aloud — eyes and ears appealed to, also muscles used
trained to repeat
3. read aloud to one — ears
4. read aloud to one and also read silently by one, — eyes and ears
5. read aloud, and at the same time copied — eyes, ears, muscles of mouth,
muscles of hand
6. read to one, while process described is demonstrated
7. read to one while process is performed by oneself
There are only a few of the possible combinations, any of which are used,
as best suits the worker and the work. 17
Untrained Worker Requires Appeal to Most Senses. — The value of
appeal to many senses is best realized in teaching an inexperienced worker.
His senses help to remind him what to do, and to "check up" his results.
At Times Appeal to But One Sense Preferable. — In the case of work
that must be watched constantly, and that involves continuous processes, it
may prove best to have directions read to the worker. So also, the Gang
Instruction Card may often be read to advantage to the gang, thus allowing
the next member of a group of members to rest, or to observe, while
directions are taken in through the ears only. In this way time is allowed to
overcome fatigue, yet the work is not halted.
At Times One Sense Is Best Not Utilized. — At times teaching may well
omit one sense in its appeal, because that sense will tend to confuse the
learning, and will, when the method is learned, be otherwise utilized than it
could be during the learning process. In teaching the "touch system" of
typewriting, 18 the position of the keys is quickly remembered by having
the key named aloud and at the same time struck with the assigned finger,
the eyes being blindfolded. Thus hearing is utilized, also mouth muscles
and finger muscles, but not sight.
Importance of Fatigue Recognized. — A large part of the success of sense
appeal and sense training of Scientific Management is in the appreciation of

the importance of fatigue. This was early recognized by Dr. Taylor, and is
constantly receiving study from all those interested in Scientific
Management.
Psychology Already Aiding the Industries in Such Study. — Study of the
Psychological Review will demonstrate the deep and increasing interest of
psychologists in the subject of fatigue. The importance of such stimulating
and helpful work as that done by Doctor A. Imbert of the University of
Montpellier, France, is great.19 Not only are the results of his investigations
commercially valuable, but also they are valuable as indicating the close
connection between Psychology and Industrial Efficiency.

Importance of Habits. 20 — Prof. William James says "an acquired habit,
from the psychological point of view, is nothing but a new pathway of
discharge formed in the brain, by which certain incoming currents ever after
tend to escape."
And again, — "First, habit simplifies our movements, makes them accurate,
and diminishes fatigue," 21 and habit diminishes the conscious attention
with which our acts are performed. Again he says, page 144, "The great
thing, then, in all education, is to make our nervous system our ally instead
of an enemy; as it is to fund and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease
upon the interest of the fund. For this we must make automatic and habitual,
as early as possible, as many useful actions as we can, and guard against the
growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous to us, as we should
guard against the plague."
These quotations demonstrate the importance of habit.
How deep these paths of discharge are, is illustrated by the fact that often a
German, having spent the early years of his school life in Germany, will,
even after learning to speak, read, write and think in English, find it difficult
to figure in anything but German.
Habit Easily Becomes the Master. — Another illustration of the power of
habit is exhibited by the bricklayer, who has been trained under old-time
methods, and who attempts to follow the packet method. The standard
motions for picking up the upper row of bricks from the packet are entirely
different from those for picking up the lower row. The bricklayers were

taught this, yet invariably used the old-time motions for picking up the
bricks, in spite of the waste involved. 22
Wrong Preconceived Ideas Hamper Development. — Wrong habits or
ideas often retard development. For example, it took centuries for artists to
see the colors of shadows correctly, because they were sure that such
shadows were a darker tone of the color itself.23
Teaching Under Scientific Management Results in Good Habits. — The
aim of teaching under Scientific Management, as has been said, is to create
good habits of thinking and good habits of doing.
Standards Lead to Right Methods of Thinking and Acting. — The
standards of Scientific Management, as presented to the worker in the
instruction card, lead to good habits, in that they present the best known
method of doing the work. They thus aid the beginner, in that he need waste
no time searching for right methods, but can acquire right habits at once.
They aid the worker trained under an older, supplanted method, in that they
wage a winning war against old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. Old
motor images, which tend to cause motions, are overcome by standard
images, which suggest, and pass into, standard motions. The spontaneous
recurring of images under the old method is the familiar cause of inattention
and being unable to get down to business, and the real cause of the
expression, "You can't teach old dogs new tricks." On the other hand, the
spontaneous recurrence of the images of the standard method is the cause of
greater speed of movement of the experienced man, and these images of the
standard methods do recur often enough to drive down the old images and
to enable all men who desire, to settle down and concentrate upon what
they are doing.
Through Standards Bad Habits Are Quickest Broken. — Through the
standards the bad habit is broken by the abrupt acquisition of a new habit.
This is at once practiced, is practiced without exception, and is continually
practiced until the new habit is in control.24
Through Standards New Habits Are Quickest Formed. — These same
standards, as presented in teaching, allow of the speediest forming of habits,

in that repetition is exact and frequent, and is kept so by the fact that the
worker's judgment seconds that of the teacher.
Habits Are Instilled by Teaching. — The chief function of the teacher
during the stage that habits are being formed is the instilling of good habits.
Methods of Instilling Good Habits. — This he does by insisting on
1. right motions first, that is to say, — the right number of right motions in
the right sequence.
2. speed of motions second, that is to say, constantly increasing speed.

3. constantly improving quality. 25
This Method Is Contrary to Most Old-time Practice. — Under most old-
time practice the quality of the work was the first consideration, the
quantity of work the second, and the methods of achieving the results the
third.
Results of Old-time Practice. — As a result, the mechanical reactions,
which were expected constantly to follow the improved habits of work,
were constantly hindered by an involuntary impulse of the muscles to
follow the old methods. Waste time and low output followed.
Some Early Recognition of "Right Motions First." — The necessity of
teaching the right motions first was early recognized by a few progressive
spirits, as is shown in military tactics; for example, see pages 6 and 7,
"Cavalry Tactics of U.S.A." 1879, D. Appleton, also page 51.
Note also motions for grooming the horse, page 473. These directions not
only teach the man how, but accustoms the horse to the sequence and
location of motions that he may expect.
Benefits of Teaching Right Motions First. — Through teaching right
motions first reactions to stimuli gain in speed. The right habit is formed at
the outset. With the constant insistence on these right habits that result from
right motions, will come, naturally, an increase in speed, which should be
fostered until the desired ultimate speed is reached.

Ultimately, Standard Quality Will Result. — The result of absolute
insistence on right motions will be prescribed quality, because the standard
motions prescribed were chosen because they best produced the desired
result.
Under Scientific Management No Loss from Quality During Learning.
— As will be shown later, Scientific Management provides that there shall
be little or no loss from the quality of the work during the learning period.
The delay in time before the learner can be said to produce such work as
could a learner taught where quality was insisted upon first of all, is more
than compensated for by the ultimate combination of speed and quality
gained.
Results of Teaching the Right Motions First Are Far-reaching. — There
is no more important subject in this book on the Psychology of
Management than this of teaching right motions first. The most important
results of Scientific Management can all, in the last analysis, be formulated
in terms of habits, even to the underlying spirit of coöperation which, as we
shall show in "Welfare," is one of the most important ideas of Scientific
Management. These right habits of Scientific Management are the cause, as
well as the result, of progress, and the right habits, which have such a
tremendous psychological importance, are the result of insisting that right
motions be used from the very beginning of the first day.
From Right Habits of Motion Comes Speed of Motions. —
Concentrating the mind on the next motion causes speed of motion. Under
Scientific Management, the underlying thought of sequence of motions is so
presented that the worker can remember them, and make them in the
shortest time possible.
Response to Standards Becomes Almost Automatic. — The standard
methods, being associated from the start with right habits of motions only,
cause an almost automatic response. There are no discarded habits to delay
response.
Steady Nerves Result. — Oftentimes the power to refrain from action is
quite as much a sign of education and training as the power to react quickly
from a sensation. Such conduct is called, in some cases, "steady nerves."
The forming of right habits is a great aid toward these steady nerves. The

man who knows that he is taught the right way, is able almost automatically
to resist any suggestions which come to him to carry out wrong ways. So
the man who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, in laying brick,
will not be tempted to make those extra motions which, after all, are merely
an exhibition in his hand of the vacillation that is going on in his brain, as to
whether he really is handling that brick in exactly the most efficient manner,
or not.
Reason and Will Are Educated. — "The education of hand and muscle
implies a corresponding training of reasoning and will; and the coördination
of movements accompanies the coördination of thoughts." 26
The standards of Scientific Management educate hand and muscle; the
education of hand and muscle train the mind; the mind improves the
standards. Thus we have a continuous cycle.
Judgment Results with No Waste of Time. — Judgment is the outcome of
learning the right way, and knowing that it is the right way. There is none of
the lost time of "trying out" various methods that exists under Traditional
Management.
This power of judgment will not only enable the possessor to decide
correctly as to the relative merits of different methods, but also somewhat
as to the past history and possibilities of different workers.
This, again, illustrates the wisdom of Scientific Management in promoting
from the ranks, and thus providing that every member of the organization
shall, ultimately, know from experience how to estimate and judge the work
of others.
Habits of Attention Formed by Scientific Management. — The good
habits which result from teaching standard methods result in habits of
attention. The standards aid the mind in holding a "selective attitude," 27 by
presenting events in an orderly sequence. The conditions under which the
work is done, and the incentives for doing it, provide that the attention shall
be "lively and prolonged."
Prescribed Motions Afford Rhythm and Æsthetic Pleasure. — The
prescribed motions that result from motion study and time study, and that

are arranged in cycles, afford a rhythm that allows the attention to "glide
over some beats and linger on others," as Prof. Stratton describes it, in a
different connection.28 So also the "perfectly controlled" movements, which
fall under the direction of a guiding law, and which "obey the will
absolutely,"29 give an æsthetic pleasure and afford less of a tax upon the
attention.
Instruction Card Creates and Holds Attention. — As has been already
said in describing the instruction card under Standardization, it was
designed as a result of investigations as to what would best secure output,
— to attract and hold the attention.30 Providing, as it does, all directions
that an experienced worker is likely to need, he can confine his attention
solely to his work and his card; usually, after the card is once studied, to his
work alone. The close relation of the elements of the instruction card
affords a field for attention to lapse, and be recalled in the new elements
that are constantly made apparent.
Oral Individual Teaching Fosters Concentrated Attention. — The fact
that under Scientific Management oral teaching is individual, not only
directly concentrates the attention of the learner upon what he is being
taught, but also indirectly prevents distraction from fear of ridicule of others
over the question, or embarrassment in talking before a crowd.
The Bulletin Board Furnishes the Element of Change. — In order that
interest or attention may be held, there must be provision for allied subjects
on which the mind is to wander. This, under Scientific Management, is
constantly furnished by the collection of jobs ahead on the bulletin board.
The tasks piled up ahead upon this bulletin board provide a needed and
ready change for the subject of attention or interest, which conserves the
economic value of concentrated attention of the worker upon his work.
Such future tasks furnish sufficient range of subject for wandering attention
to rest the mind from the wearying effect of overconcentration or forced
attention. The assigned task of the future systematizes the "stream of
attention," and an orderly scheme of habits of thought is installed. When the
scheme is an orderly shifting of attention, the mind is doing its best work,
for, while the standardized extreme subdivision of Taylor's plan, the
comparison of the ultimate unit, and groupings of units of future tasks are
often helps in achieving the present tasks, without such a definite orderly

scheme for shifting the attention and interest, the attention will shift to
useless subjects, and the result will be scattered.
Incentives Maintain Interest. — The knowledge that a prompt reward will
follow success stimulates interest. The knowledge that this reward is sure
concentrates attention and thus maintains interest.
In the same way, the assurance of promotion, and the fact that the worker
sees those of his own trade promoted, and knows it is to the advantage of
the management, as well as to his advantage, that he also be promoted, —
this also maintains interest in the work.
This Interest Extends to the Work of Others. — The interest is extended
to the work of others, not only by the interrelated bonuses, but also by the
fact that every man is expected to train up a man to take his place, before he
is promoted.
Close Relationship of All Parts of Scientific Management Holds
Interest. — The attention of the entire organization, as well as of the
individual worker, is held by Scientific Management and its teaching,
because all parts of Scientific Management are related, and because
Scientific Management provides for scientifically directed progression.
Every member of the organization knows that the standards which are
taught by Scientific Management contain the permanent elements of past
successes, and provide for such development as will assure progress and
success in the future. Every member of the organization realizes that upon
his individual coöperation depends, in part, the stability of Scientific
Management, because it is based on universal coöperation. This provides an
intensity and a continuity of interest that would still hold, even though some
particular element might lose its interest.
This Relationship Also Provides for Associations. — The close
relationship of all parts of Scientific Management provides that all ideas are
associated, and are so closely connected that they can act as a single group,
or any selected number of elements can act as a group.
Scientific Management Establishes Brain Groups That Habitually Act
in Unison. — Professor Read, in describing the general mental principle of
association says, "When any number of brain cells have been in action

together, they form a habit of acting in unison, so that when one of them is
stimulated in a certain way, the others will also behave in the way
established by the habit."31 This working of the brain is recognized in
grouping of motions, such as "playing for position." 32 Scientific
Management provides the groups, the habit, and the stimulus, all according
to standard methods, so that the result is largely predictable.
Method of Establishing Such Groups in the Worker's Brain. — The
standard elements of Scientific Management afford units for such groups.
Eventually, with the use of such elements in instruction cards, would be
formed, in the minds of the worker, such groups of units as would aid in
foreseeing results, just as the foreseeing of groups of moves aids the expert
chess or checker player. The size and number of such groups would indicate
the skill of the worker.
That such skill may be gained quickest, Scientific Management synthesizes
the units into definite groups, and teaches these to the workers as groups.
Teaching Done by Means of Motion Cycles. — The best group is that
which completes the simplest cycle of performance. This enables the
worker to associate certain definite motions, to make these into a habit, and
to concentrate his attention upon the cycle as a whole, and not upon the
elementary motions of which it is composed.
For example — The cycle of the pick and dip process of bricklaying is to
pick up a brick and a trowel full of mortar simultaneously and deposit them
on the wall simultaneously. 33 The string mortar method has two cycles,
which are, first to pick a certain number of trowelfuls of mortar and deposit
them on the wall, and then to pick up a corresponding number of bricks and
deposit them on the wall. 34 Each cycle of these two methods consists of an
association of units that can be remembered as a group.
Such Cycles Induce Speed. — The worker who has been taught thus to
associate the units of attention and action into definite rhythmic cycles, is
the one who is most efficient, and least fatigued by a given output. The
nerves acquire the habit, as does the brain, and the resulting swift response
to stimulus characterizes the efficiency of the specialist. 35

Scientific Management Restricts Associations. — By its teaching of
standard methods, Scientific Management restricts association, and thus
gains in the speed with which associated ideas arise.36 Insistence on causal
sequence is a great aid. This is rendered by the Systems, which give the
reasons, and make the standard method easy to remember.
Scientific Management Presents Scientifically Derived Knowledge to
the Memory. — Industrial memory is founded on experience, and that
experience that is submitted by teaching under Scientific Management to
the mind is in the form of scientifically derived standards. These furnish
(a) data that is correct.
(b) images that are an aid in acquiring new habits of forming efficient
images.
(c) standards of comparison, and constant demands for comparison.
(d) such arrangement of elements that reasoning processes are
stimulated.
(e) conscious, efficient grouping.
(f) logical association of ideas.
Provision for Repetition of Important Ideas. — Professor Ebbinghaur
says, "Associations that have equal reproductive power lapse the more
slowly, the older they are, and the oftener they have been reviewed by
renewed memorizing." Scientific Management provides for utilizing this
law by teaching right motions first, and by so minutely dividing the
elements of such motions that the smallest units discovered are found
frequently, in similar and different operations.
Best Periods for Memorizing Utilized. — As for education of the
memory, there is a wide difference of opinion among leading psychologists
in regard to whether or not the memorizing faculty, as the whole, can be
improved by training; but all agree that those things which are specially
desired to be memorized can be learned more easily, and more quickly,
under some conditions than under others:

For example, there is a certain time of day, for each person, when the
memory is more efficient than at other times. This is usually in the morning,
but is not always so. The period when memorizing is easiest is taken
advantage of, and, as far as possible, new methods and new instruction
cards are passed out at that time when the worker is naturally best fitted to
remember what is to be done.
Individual Differences Respected. — It is a question that varies with
different conditions, whether the several instruction cards beyond the one
he is working on shall be given to the worker ahead of time, that he may use
his own judgment as to when is the best time to learn, or whether he shall
have but one at a time, and concentrate on that. For certain dispositions, it is
a great help to see a long line of work ahead. They enjoy getting the work
done, and feeling that they are more or less ahead of record. Others become
confused if they see too much ahead, and would rather attack but one
problem at a time. This fundamental difference in types of mind should be
taken advantage of when laying out material to be memorized.
Aid of Mnemonic Symbols to the Memory. — The mnemonic
classifications furnish a place where the worker who remembers but little of
a method or process can go, and recover the full knowledge of that which
he has forgotten. Better still, they furnish him the equivalent of memory of
other experiences that he has never had, and that are in such form that he
can connect this with his memory of his own personal experience.
The ease with which a learner or skilled mechanic can associate new,
scientifically derived data with his memory, because of the classifications of
Scientific Management, is a most important cause of workers being taught
quicker, and being more intelligent, under Scientific Management, than
under any other type of management.
Proper Learning Insures Proper Remembering. — Professor Read says,
"Take care of the learning and the remembering will take care of itself." 37
Scientific Management both provides proper knowledge, and provides that
this shall be utilized in such a manner that proper remembering will ensue.
Better Habits of Remembering Result. — The results of cultivating the
memory under Scientific Management are cumulative. Ultimately, right

habits of remembering result that aid the worker automatically so to arrange
his memory material as to utilize it better.38
"Imagination" Has Two Definitions. — Professor Read gives definitions
for two distinct means of Imagination.
1. "The general function of the having of images."
2. "The particular one of having images which are not consciously
memories or the reproduction of the facts of experience as they were
originally presented to consciousness." 39
Scientific Management Provides Material for Images. — As was shown
under the discussion of the appeals of the various teaching devices of
Scientific Management, — provision is made for the four classes of
imagination of Calkins40 —
1. visual,
2. auditory,
3. tactual, and
4. mixed.
It Also Realizes the Importance of Productive Imagination. — Scientific
Management realizes that one of the special functions of teaching the trades
is systematic exercising and guiding of imaginations of apprentices and
learners. As Professor Ennis says, — "Any kind of planning ahead will
result in some good," but to plan ahead most effectively it is necessary to
have a well-developed power of constructive imagination. This consists of
being able to construct new mental images from old memory images; of
being able to modify and group images of past experiences, or thoughts, in
combination with new images based on imagination, and not on experience.
The excellence of the image arrived at in the complete work is dependent
wholly upon the training in image forming in the past. If there has not been
a complete economic system of forming standard habits of thought, the
worker may have difficulty in controlling the trend of associations of
thought images, and difficulty in adding entirely new images to the groups
of experienced images, and the problem to be thought out will suffer from

wandering of the mind. The result will be more like a dream than a well
balanced mental planning. It is well known that those apprentices, and
journeymen as well, are the quickest to learn, and are better learners, who
have the most vivid imagination. The best method of teaching the trade,
therefore, is the one that also develops the power of imagination.
Scientific Management Assists Productive Imagination. — Scientific
Management assists productive, or constructive, imagination, not only by
providing standard units, or images, from which the results may, be
synthesized, but also, through the unity of the instruction card, allows of
imagination of the outcome, from the start.
For example, — in performing a prescribed cycle of motions, the worker
has his memory images grouped in such a figure, form, or sequence, —
often geometrical, — that each motion is a part of a growing, clearly
imagined whole.
The elements of the cycle may be utilized in other entirely new cycles, and
are, as provided for in the opportunities for invention that are a part of
Scientific Management.
Judgment the Result of Faithful Endeavor. — Judgment, or the "mental
process which ends in an affirmation or negation of something," 41 comes
as the result of experience, as is admirably expressed by Prof. James, —
"Let no youth have any anxiety about the upshot of his education whatever
the line of it may be. If he keeps faithfully busy each hour of the working
day, he may safely leave the final result to itself. He can with perfect
certainty count on waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the
competent ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he may have singled
out. Silently, between all the details of his business, the power of judging in
all that class of matter will have built itself up within him as a possession
that will never pass away. Young people should know this truth in advance.
42
The ignorance of it has probably engendered more discouragement and
faint-heartedness in youths embarking on arduous careers than all other
causes put together." 43
Teaching Supplies This Judgment Under Scientific Management. —
Under Scientific Management this judgment is the result of teaching of

standards that are recognized as such by the learner. Thus, much time is
eliminated, and the apprentice under Scientific Management can work with
all the assurance as to the value of his methods that characterized the
seasoned veterans of older types of management.
Teaching Also Utilizes the Judgment. — The judgment that is supplied by
Scientific Management is also used as a spring toward action.44 Scientific
Management appeals to the reason, and workers perform work as they do
because, through the Systems and otherwise, they are persuaded that the
method they employ is the best.

The Power of Suggestion Is Also Utilized. 45 — The dynamic power of
ideas is recognized by Scientific Management, in that the instruction card is
put in the form of direct commands, which, naturally, lead to immediate
action. So, also, the teaching written, oral and object, as such, can be
directly imitated by the learner. 46
Imitation, which Dr. Stratton says "may well be counted a special form of
suggestion," will be discussed later in this chapter at length.47
Worker Always Has Opportunity to Criticise the Suggestion. — The
worker is expected to follow the suggestion of Scientific Management
without delay, because he believes in the standardization on which it is
made, and in the management that makes it. But the Systems afford him an
opportunity of reviewing the reasonableness of the suggestion at any time,
and his constructive criticism is invited and rewarded.
Suggestion Must Be Followed at the Time. — The suggestion must be
followed at the time it is given, or its value as a suggestion is impaired. This
is provided for by the underlying idea of coöperation on which Scientific
Management rests, which molds the mental attitude of the worker into that
form where suggestions are quickest grasped and followed. 48
"Native Reactions" Enumerated by Prof. James. — Prof. James
enumerates the "native reactions" as (1) fear, (2) love, (3) curiosity, (4)
imitation, (5) emulation, (6) ambition, (7) pugnacity, (8) pride, (9)
ownership, (10) constructiveness.49 These are all considered by Scientific

Management. Such as might have a harmful effect are supplanted, others
are utilized.
Fear Utilized by Ancient Managers. — The native reaction most utilized
by the first managers of armies and ancient works of construction was that
of fear. This is shown by the ancient rock carvings, which portray what
happened to those who disobeyed.50
Fear Still Used by Traditional Management. — Fear of personal bodily
injury is not usual under modern Traditional Management, but fear of less
progress, less promotion, less remuneration, or of discharge, or of other
penalties for inferior effort or efficiency is still prevalent.
Fear Transformed Under Scientific Management. — Under Scientific
Management the worker may still fear that he will incur a penalty, or fail to
deserve a reward, but the honest, industrious worker experiences no such
horror as the old-time fear included. This is removed by his knowledge
1. that his task is achievable.
2. that his work will not injure his health.
3. that he may be sure of advancement with age and experience.
4. that he is sure of the "square deal."
Thus such fear as he has, has a good and not an evil effect upon him. It is an
incentive to coöperate willingly. Its immediate and ultimate effects are
advantageous.
Love, or Loyalty, Fostered by Scientific Management. — The worker's
knowledge that the management plans to maintain such conditions as will
enable him to have the four assurances enumerated above leads to love, or
loyalty, between workers and employers.51
Far from Scientific Management abolishing the old personal and
sympathetic relations between employers and workers, it gives
opportunities for such relations as have not existed since the days of the
guilds, and the old apprenticeship. 52

The coöperation upon which Scientific Management rests does away with
the traditional "warfare" between employer and workers that made
permanent friendliness almost impossible. Coöperation induces friendliness
and loyalty of each member in the organization to all the others.
Mr. Wilfred Lewis says, in describing the installation of Scientific
Management in his plant, "We had, in effect, been installing at great
expense a new and wonderful means for increasing the efficiency of labor,
in the benefits of which the workman himself shared, and we have today an
organization second, I believe, to none in its loyalty, efficiency and
steadfastness of purpose."53 This same loyalty of the workers is plain in an
article in Industrial Engineering, on "Scientific Management as Viewed
from the Workman's Standpoint," where various men in a shop having
Scientific Management were interviewed.54 After quoting various workers'
opinions of Scientific Management and their own particular shop, the writer
says: "Conversations with other men brought out practically the same facts.
They are all contented. They took pride in their work, and seemed to be
especially proud of the fact that they were employed in the Link-Belt
shops." 55
Teaching Under Scientific Management Develops Such Loyalty. — The
manner of teaching under Scientific Management fosters such loyalty. Only
through friendly aid can both teacher and taught prosper. Also, the
perfection of the actual workings of this plan of management inspires
regard as well as respect for the employer.
Value of Personality Not Eliminated. — It is a great mistake to think that
Scientific Management underestimates the value of personality. 56 Rather,
Scientific Management enhances the value of an admirable personality. This
is well exemplified in the Link-Belt Co., 57 and in the Tabor Manufacturing
Co. of Philadelphia, as well as on other work where Scientific Management
has been installed a period of several years.

Curiosity Aroused by Scientific Management. — Scientific Management
arouses the curiosity of the worker, by showing, through its teaching,
glimpses of the possibilities that exist for further scientific investigation.
The insistence on standard methods of less waste arouses a curiosity as to
whether still less wasteful methods cannot be found.
Curiosity Utilized by Scientific Management. — This curiosity is very
useful as a trait of the learner, the planner and the investigator. It can be
well utilized by the teacher who recognizes it in the learner, by an
adaptation of methods of interpreting the instruction card, that will allow of
partially satisfying, and at the same time further exciting, the curiosity.
In selecting men for higher positions, and for special work, curiosity as to
the work, with the interest that is its result, may serve as an admirable
indication of one sort of fitness. This curiosity, or general interest, is usually
associated with a personal interest that makes it more intense, and more
easy to utilize.
Scientific Management Places a High Value on Imitation. — It was a
popular custom of the past to look down with scorn on the individual or
organization that imitated others. Scientific Management believes that to
imitate with great precision the best, is a work of high intelligence and
industrial efficiency.
Scientific Management Uses Both Spontaneous and Deliberate
Imitation. — Teaching under Scientific Management induces both
spontaneous and deliberate imitation. The standardization prevalent, and the
conformity to standards exacted, provide that this imitation shall follow
directed lines.
Spontaneous Imitation Under Scientific Management Has Valuable
Results. — Under Scientific Management, the worker will spontaneously
imitate the teacher, when the latter has been demonstrating. This leads to
desired results. So, also, the worker imitates, more or less spontaneously,
his own past methods of doing work. The right habits early formed by
Scientific Management insure that the results of such imitation shall be
profitable.

Deliberate Imitation Constantly Encouraged. — Deliberate imitation is
caused more than anything else by the fact that the man knows, if he does
the thing in the way directed, his pay will be increased.
Such imitation is also encouraged by the fact that the worker is made to
believe that he is capable, and has the will to overcome obstacles. He knows
that the management believes he can do the work, or the instruction card
would not have been issued to him. Moreover, he sees that the teacher and
demonstrator is a man promoted from his rank, and he is convinced,
therefore, that what the teacher can do he also can do. 58
Scientific Management Provides Standards for Imitation. — It is of
immense value in obtaining valuable results from imitation, that Scientific
Management provides standards. Under Traditional Management, it was
almost impossible for a worker to decide which man he should imitate.
Even though he might come to determine, by constant observation, after a
time, which man he desired to imitate, he would not know in how far he
would do well to copy any particular method. Recording individually
measured output under Transitory Management allows of determining the
man of high score, and either using him as a model, or formulating his
method into rules. Under Scientific Management, the instruction card
furnishes a method which the worker knows that he can imitate exactly,
with predetermined results.
Imitation Is Expected of All. — As standardization applies to the work of
all, so imitation of standards is expected of all. This fact the teacher under
Scientific Management can use to advantage, as an added incentive to
imitation. Any dislike of imitation is further decreased, by making clear to
every worker that those who are under him are expected to imitate him, —
and that he must, himself, imitate his teachers, in order to set a worthy
example.
Imitation Leads to Emulation. — Imitation, as provided for by teaching
under Scientific Management, and admiration for the skillful teacher, or the
standard imitated, naturally stimulate emulation. This emulation takes three
forms:
1. Competition with the records of others.

2. Competition with one's own record.
3. Competition with the standard record.
No Hard Feeling Aroused. — In the first sort of competition only is there
a possibility of hard feeling being aroused, but danger of this is practically
eliminated by the fact that rewards are provided for all who are successful.
In the second sort of competition, the worker, by matching himself against
what he has done, measures his own increased efficiency. In the third sort of
competition, there is the added stimulus of surprising the management by
exceeding the task expected. The incentive in all three cases is not only
more pay and a chance for promotion, but also the opportunity to win
appreciation and publicity for successful performance.
Ambition Is Aroused. — The outcome of emulation is ambition. This
ambition is stimulated by the fact that promotion is so rapid, and so outlined
before the worker, that he sees the chance for advancement himself, and not
only advancement that means more pay, but advancement also that means a
chance to specialize on that work which he particularly likes.
Pugnacity Utilized. — Pugnacity can never be entirely absent where there
is emulation. Under Scientific Management it is used to overcome not
persons, but things. Pugnacity is a great driving force. It is a wonderful
thing that under Scientific Management this force is aroused not against
one's fellow-workers, but against one's work. The desire to win out, to fight
it out, is aroused against a large task, which the man desires to put behind
him. Moreover, there is nothing under Scientific Management which
forbids an athletic contest. While the workers would not, under the ultimate
form, be allowed to injure themselves by overspeeding, a friendly race with
a demonstration of pugnacity which harms no one is not frowned upon.
Pride Is Stimulated. — Pride in one's work is aroused as soon as work is
functionalized. The moment a man has something to do that he likes to do,
and can do well, he takes pride in it. So, also, the fact that individuality, and
personality, are recognized, and that his records are shown, makes pride
serve as a stimulus. The outcome of the worker's pride in his work is pride
in himself. He finds that he is part of a great whole, and he learns to take
pride in the entire management, — in both himself and the managers, as
well as in his own work.

Feeling of Ownership Provided For. — It may seem at first glance that
the instinct of ownership is neglected, and becomes stunted, under
Scientific Management, in that all tools become more or less standardized,
and the man is discouraged from having tools peculiar in shape, or size, for
whose use he has no warrant except long time of use.
Careful consideration shows that Scientific Management provides two
opportunities for the worker to conserve his instinct for ownership, —
1. During working hours, where the recognition of his personality allows
the worker to identify himself with his work, and where his coöperation
with the management makes him identified with its activities.
2. Outside the work. He has, under Scientific Management, more hours
away from work to enjoy ownership, and more money with which to
acquire those things that he desires to own.
The teacher must make clear to him both these opportunities, as he readily
can, since the instinct of ownership is conserved in him in an identical
manner.
Constructiveness a Part of Scientific Management. — Every act that the
worker performs is constructive, because waste has been eliminated, and
everything that is done is upbuilding. Teaching makes this clear to the
worker. Constructiveness is also utilized in that exercise of initiative is
provided for. Thus the instinct, instead of being weakened, is strengthened
and directed.
Progress in Utilizing Instincts Demands Psychological Study. —
Teaching under Scientific Management can never hope fully to understand
and utilize native reactions, until more assistance has been given by
psychology. At the present time, Scientific Management labors under
disadvantages that must, ultimately, be removed. Psychologists must, by
experiments, determine more accurately the reactions and their
controlability. More thorough study must be made of children that Scientific
Management may understand more of the nature of the reactions of the
young workers who come for industrial training. Psychology must give its
help in this training. Then only, can teaching under Scientific Management
become truly efficient.

Scientific Management Realizes the Importance of Training the Will. —
The most necessary, and most complex and difficult part of Scientific
Management, is the training of the will of all members of the organization.
Prof. Read states in his "Psychology" five means of training or influencing
the will. These are59
"1. The first important feature in training the will is the help furnished by
supplying the mind with a useful body of ideas.
"2. The second great feature of the training of the will is the building up in
the mind of the proper interests, and the habit of giving the attention to
useful and worthy purposes.
"3. Another important feature of the training of the will is the establishing
of a firm association between ideas and actions, or, in other words, the
forming of a good set of habits.
"4. Another very important feature of the training of the will has reference
to its strength of purpose or power of imitation.
"5. The matter of discipline."
Teaching under Scientific Management does supply these five functions,
and thus provide for the strengthening and development of the will.
Variations in Teaching of Apprentices and Journeymen. — Scientific
Management must not only be prepared to teach apprentices, as must all
types of management, it must also teach journeymen who have not acquired
standard methods.
Apprentices Are Easily Handled. — Teaching apprentices is a
comparatively simple proposition, far simpler than under any other type of
management. Standard methods enable the apprentice to become proficient
long before his brother could, under the old type of teaching. The length of
training required depends largely on how fingerwise the apprentice is.
Older Workers Must Be Handled with Tact. — With adult workers, the
problem is not so simple. Old wrong habits, such as the use of ineffective
motions, must be eliminated. Physically, it is difficult for the adult worker
to alter his methods. Moreover, it may be most difficult to change his

mental attitude, to convince him that the methods of Scientific Management
are correct.
A successful worker under Traditional Management, who is proud of his
work, will often be extremely sensitive to what he is prone to regard as the
"criticism" of Scientific Management with regard to him.
Appreciation of Varying Viewpoints Necessary. — No management can
consider itself adequate that does not try to enter into the mental attitude of
its workers. Actual practice shows that, with time and tact, almost any
worker can be convinced that all criticism of him is constructive, and that
for him to conform to the new standards is a mark of added proficiency, not
an acknowledgment of ill-preparedness. The "Systems" do much toward
this work of reconciling the older workers to the new methods, but most of
all can be done by such teachers as can demonstrate their own change from
old to standard methods, and the consequent promotion and success. This is,
again, an opportunity for the exercise of personality.
Scientific Management Provides Places for Such Teaching. — Under the
methods of teaching employed by Scientific Management, — right motions
first, next speed, with quality as a resultant product, — it is most necessary
to provide a place where learners can work. The standard planning of
quality provides such a place. The plus and minus signs automatically
divide labor so that the worker can be taught by degrees, being set at first
where great accuracy is not demanded by the work, and being shifted to
work requiring more accuracy as he becomes more proficient. In this way
even the most untrained worker becomes efficient, and is engaged in actual
productive work.
Measurement of Teaching and Learning. — Under Scientific
Management the results of teaching and learning become apparent
automatically in records of output. The learner's record of output of proper
prescribed quality determines what pay he shall receive, and also has a
proportionate effect on the teacher's pay. Such a system of measurement
may not be accurate as a report of the learner's gain, — for he doubtless
gains mental results that cannot be seen in his output, — but it certainly
does serve as an incentive to teaching and to learning.

Relation of Teaching in Scientific Management to Academic Training
and Vocational Guidance. 60 — Teaching under Scientific Management
can never be most efficient until the field of such teaching is restricted to
training learners who are properly prepared to receive industrial training. 61
This preparedness implies fitting school and academic training, and
Vocational Guidance.
Learner Should Be Manually Adept. — The learner should, before
entering the industrial world, be taught to be manually adept, or fingerwise,
to have such control over his trained muscles that they will respond quickly
and accurately to orders. Such training should be started in infancy, 62 in the
form of guided play, as, for example, whittling, sewing, knitting, handling
mechanical toys and tools, and playing musical instruments, and continued
up to, and into, the period of entering a trade.
Schools Should Provide Mental Preparedness. — The schools should
render every student capable of filling some place worthily in the industries.
The longer the student remains in school, the higher the position for which
he should be prepared. The amount and nature of the training in the schools
depends largely on the industrial work to be done, and will be possible of
more accurate estimation constantly, as Scientific Management standardizes
work and shows what the worker must be to be most efficient.
Vocational Guidance Must Provide Direction. — As made most clear in
Mr. Meyer Bloomfield's book, "Vocational Guidance,"63 bureaus of
competent directors stand ready to help the youth find that line of activity
which he can follow best and with greatest satisfaction to himself. At
present, such bureaus are seriously handicapped by the fact that little data of
the industries are at hand, but this lack the bureaus are rapidly supplying by
gathering such data as are available. Most valuable data will not be
available until Scientific Management has been introduced into all lines.
Progress Demands Coöperation. — Progress here, as everywhere,
demands coöperation. 64 The three sets of educators, — the teachers in the
school, in the Vocational Guidance Bureaus, and in Scientific Management,
must recognize their common work, and must coöperate to do it. There is
absolutely no cause for conflict between the three; their fields are distinct,

but supplementary. Vocational Guidance is the intermediary between the
other two.

SUMMARY

Results to the Work. — Under the teaching of Traditional Management,
the learner may or may not improve the quantity and quality of his work.
This depends almost entirely on the particular teacher whom the learner
happens to have. There is no standard improvement to the work.
Under the teaching of Transitory Management, the work gains in quantity
as the methods become standardized, and quality is maintained or
improved.
Under the teaching of Scientific Management, work, the quantity of work,
increases enormously through the use of standards of all kinds; quantity is
oftentimes tripled.
Under the teaching of Scientific Management, when the schools and
Vocational Guidance movement coöperate, high output of required quality
will be obtained at a far earlier stage of the worker's industrial life than is
now possible, even under Scientific Management.
Results to the Worker. — Under Traditional Management, the worker
gains a knowledge of how his work can be done, but the method by which
he is taught is seldom, of itself, helpful to him. Not being sure that he has
learned the best way to do his work, he gains no method of attack. The
result of the teaching is a habit of doing work which is good, or bad, as
chance may direct.
Under Transitory Management, with the use of Systems as teachers, the
worker gains a better method of attack, as he knows the reason why the
prescribed method is prescribed. He begins to appreciate the possibilities
and benefits of standardized teaching.
The method laid down under Scientific Management is devised to further
the forming of an accurate accumulation of concepts, which results in a
proper method of attack. The method of instruction under Scientific
Management is devised to furnish two things:

1. A collection of knowledge relating in its entirety to the future work of the
learner.
2. A definite procedure, that will enable the learner to apply the same
process to acquiring knowledge of other subjects in the most economical
and efficient way.
It teaches the learner to be observant of details, which is the surest method
for further development of general truths and concepts.
The method of attack of the methods provided for in Scientific Management
results, naturally, in a comparison of true data. This is the most efficient
method of causing the learner to think for himself.
Processes differing but little, apparently, give vastly different results, and
the trained habits of observation quickly analyze and determine wherein the
one process is more efficient than the other.
This result is, of course, the one most desired for causing quick and
intelligent learning.
The most valuable education is that which enables the learner to make
correct judgments. The teaching under Scientific Management leads to the
acquisition of such judgment, plus an all-around sense training, a training in
habits of work, and a progressive development.
A partial topic list of the results may make more clear their importance.
1. Worker better trained for all work.
2. Habits of correct thinking instilled.
3. Preparedness provided for.
4. Productive and repetitive powers increased.
5. Sense powers increased.
6. Habits of proper reaction established.
7. "Guided original work" established.

8. System of waste elimination provided.
9. Method of attack taught.
10. Brain fully developed.
11. "Standard response" developed.
12. Opportunities and demands for "thinking" provided.
13. Self-reliance developed.
14. Love of truth fostered.
15. Moral sentiment developed.
16. Resultant happiness of worker.
Results To Be Expected in the Future. — When the schools, vocational
guidance and teaching under Scientific Management coöperate, the worker
will not only receive the benefits now obtained from Scientific
Management, but many more. There will be nothing to unlearn, and each
thing that is learned will be taught by those best fitted to teach it. The
collection of vocational guidance data will begin with a child at birth, and a
record of his inheritance will be kept. This will be added to as he is
educated, and as various traits and tendencies appear. From this
scientifically derived record will accrue such data as will assist in making
clear exactly in what place the worker will be most efficient, and in what
sphere he will be able to be most helpful to the world, as well as to himself.
All early training will be planned to make the youth adept with his muscles,
and alert, with a mind so trained that related knowledge is easily acquired.
When the vocation for which he is naturally best fitted becomes apparent,
as it must from the study of the development of the youth and his desires,
the school will know, and can give exactly, that training that is necessary for
the vocation. It can also supplement his limitations intelligently, in case he
decides to follow a vocation for which he is naturally handicapped.
This will bring to the industry learners prepared to be taught those things
that characterize the industry, the "tricks of the trade," and the "secrets of
the craft," now become standard, and free to all. Such teaching Scientific

Management is prepared to give. The results of such teaching of Scientific
Management will be a worker prepared in a short time to fill efficiently a
position which will allow of promotion to the limit of his possibilities.
The result of such teaching will be truly educated workers, equipped to
work, and to live,65 and to share the world's permanent satisfactions.
The effect of such education on industrial peace must not be
underestimated. With education, including in education learning and
culture, — prejudice will disappear. The fact that all men, those going into
industries and those not, will be taught alike to be finger wise as well as
book wise, up to the time of entering the industries, will lead to a better
understanding of each other all through life.
The entire bearing of Scientific Management on industrial peace cannot be
here fully discussed. We must note here the strong effect that teaching under
Scientific Management will ultimately have on doing away with industrial
warfare, — the great warfare of ignorance, where neither side understands
the other, and where each side should realize that large immediate sacrifices
should be made if necessary, that there may be obtained the great permanent
benefit and savings that can be obtained only by means of the heartiest
coöperation.

1. F.B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, para. 541-545.
2. H.K. Hathaway, Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific
Management, Engineering Magazine, April, 1911, p. 141.
3. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 372.
4. H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 116.
5. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 342.
6. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 289, Harper Ed., pp. 127-128.
7. H.K. Hathaway, Engineering Magazine, April, 1911, p. 144.

8. W.D. Ennis, An Experiment in Motion Study, Industrial Engineering,
June, 1911, p. 462.
9. C.S. Myers, M.D., An Introduction to Experimental Psychology, chap.
V, p. 73.
10. G.M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 125.
11. William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 171.
12. F.B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, chap. I, Training of Apprentices.
13. McClure's Magazine, May, 1911, Dec, 1911, Jan., 1912.
14. As a woodman's keenness of hearing.
15. M.W. Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, chap. III.
16. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, chap. VII.
17. Compare with an actor's learning a part.
18. As proved by experimenting with a six-year-old child.
19. Imbert, Etudes experimentales de travail professionnel ouvrier, Sur la
fatigue engendree par les mouvements rapides.
20. William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 134.
21. Ibid., p. 138. William James, Psychology, Advanced Course. p. 112.
22. F.B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, p. 142.
23. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 214.
24. Prof. Bain, quoted In William James' Psychology, Briefer Course, pp.
145-147.
25. F.B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, para. 18-19.
26. M.W. Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 354.
27. James Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 119.

28. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 99.
29. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture p. 240.
30. Attracting the attention is largely a matter of appealing to what is known
to interest, for example, to a known ambition.
31. M.S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, p. 183.
32. F.B. Gilbreth, Motion Study, p. 89.
33. Ibid., </>Bricklaying System, para. 555-557.
34. F.B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, p. 150.
35. M.S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, pp. 179-194.
36. G.M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 42.
37. M.S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, p. 208.
38. William James, Psychology, Advanced Course, Vol. I, p. 667.
39. M.S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, pp. 212-213. William James,
Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 302.
40. M.W. Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 25.
41. James Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 290.
42. William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 150.
43. W.D. Scott, Influencing Men in Business, chap. II.
44. Ibid., chap. III.
45. W.D. Scott, The Theory of Advertising, p. 71.
46. W.D. Scott, Increasing Human Efficiency in Business, p. 41.
47. G.M. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 200.
48. F.W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management, p. 36.

49. William James, Talks to Teachers, chap. III.
50. Knight's Mechanical Dictionary, Vol. III, p. 2204.
51. For example, see W.D. Scott's Increasing Efficiency in Business, chap.
IV.
52. R.A. Bray, Boy Labor and Apprenticeship, chap. II, especially p. 8.
53. Wilfred Lewis, Proceedings of the Congress of Technology, 1911, p.
175.
54. November, 1910.
55. The Link-Belt Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
56. For value of personality see J.W. Jenks's, Governmental Action for
Social Welfare, p. 226.
57. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 311, Harper Ed., p. 143.
58. Compare with the old darkey, who took her sons from a Northern
school, where the teacher was white, in order to send them to a Southern
school having a colored teacher that they might feel, as they looked at him,
"What that nigger can do, this nigger can do."
59. M.S. Read, An Introductory Psychology, pp. 297-303.
60. Hugo Münsterberg, American Problems, p. 29.
61. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5 of The Carnegie Foundation
for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 70. William Kent, Discussion of Paper
647, A.S.M.E., p. 891.
62. A well known athlete started throwing a ball at his son in infancy, to
prepare him to be an athlete, thus practically sure of a college education.
63. Meyer Bloomfield, The Vocational Guidance of Youth, Houghton
Mifflin & Co.
64. A. Pimloche, Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern Elementary
School, p. 139.

65. Friedrich Froebel, Education of Man, "To secure for this ability skill and
directness, to lift it into full consciousness, to give it insight and clearness,
and to exalt it into a life of creative freedom, is the business of the
subsequent life of man in successive stages of development and
cultivation."

CHAPTER IX

INCENTIVES

Definition of Incentive. — An "incentive" is defined by the Century
Dictionary as "that which moves the mind or stirs the passions; that which
incites or tends to incite to action; motive, spur." Synonyms — "impulse,
stimulus, incitement, encouragement, goad."
Importance of the Incentive. — The part that the incentive plays in the
doing of all work is enormous. This is true in learning, and also in the
performance of work which is the result of this learning: manual work and
mental work as well. The business man finishing his work early that he may
go to the baseball game; the boy at school rushing through his arithmetic
that he may not be kept after school; the piece-worker, the amount of whose
day's pay depends upon the quantity and quality he can produce; the student
of a foreign language preparing for a trip abroad, — these all illustrate the
importance of the incentive as an element in the amount which is to be
accomplished.
Two Kinds of Incentives. — The incentive may be of two kinds: it may be
first of all, a return, definite or indefinite, which is to be received when a
certain portion of the work is done, or it may be an incentive due to the
working conditions themselves. The latter case is exemplified where two
people are engaged in the same sort of work and start in to race one another
to see who can accomplish the most, who can finish the fixed amount in the
shortest space of time, or who can produce the best quality. The incentive
may be in the form of some definite aim or goal which is understood by the

worker himself, or it may be in some natural instinct which is roused by the
work, either consciously to the worker, or consciously to the man who is
assigning the work, or consciously to both, or consciously to neither one. In
any of these cases it is a natural instinct that is being appealed to and that
induces the man to do more work, whether he sees any material reward for
that work or not.
Definitions of Two Types. — We may call the incentive which utilizes the
natural instinct, "direct incentive," and the incentive which utilizes these
secondarily, through some set reward or punishment, "indirect incentive."
This, at first sight, may seem a contradictory use of terms — it may seem
that the reward would be the most direct of incentives; yet a moment's
thought will cause one to realize that all the reward can possibly do is to
arouse in the individual a natural instinct which will lead him to increase his
work.
Indirect Incentives Include Two Classes. — We will discuss the indirect
incentives first as, contrary to the usual use of the word "indirect," they are
most easy to estimate and to describe. They divide themselves into two
classes, reward and punishment.
Definition of Reward. — Reward is defined by the Century Dictionary as
— "return, recompense, the fruit of one's labor or works; profit," with
synonyms, "pay, compensation, remuneration, requital and retribution."
Note particularly the word "retribution," for it is this aspect of reward, that
is, the just outcome of one's act, that makes the reward justly include
punishment. The word "reward" exactly expresses what management would
wish to be understood by the incentive that it gives its men to increase their
work.
Definition of Punishment. — The word "punishment" is defined as —
"pain, suffering, loss, confinement, or other penalty inflicted on a person for
a crime or offense by the authority to which the offender is subject," with
synonyms, "chastisement, correction, discipline."
The word punishment, as will be noted later, is most unfortunate when
applied to what Scientific Management would mean by a penalty, though
this word also is unfortunate; but, in the first place, there is no better word
to cover the general meaning; and in the second place, the idea of pain and

suffering, which Scientific Management aims to and does eliminate, is
present in some of the older forms of management Therefore the word
punishment must stand.
Rewards and Punishments Result in Action. — There can be no doubt
that a reward is an incentive. There may well be doubt as to whether a
punishment is an incentive to action or not. This, however, is only at first
glance, and the whole thing rests on the meaning of the word "action." To
be active is certainly the opposite of being at rest. This being true,
punishment is just as surely an incentive to action as is reward. The man
who is punished in every case will be led to some sort of action. Whether
this really results in an increase of output or not simply determines whether
the punishment is a scientifically prescribed punishment or not. If the
punishment is of such a nature that the output ceases because of it, or that it
incites the man punished against the general good, then it does not in any
wise cease to be an active thing, but it is simply a wrong, and
unscientifically assigned punishment, that acts in a detrimental way.
Soldiering Alone Cuts Down Activity. — It is interesting to note that the
greatest cause for cutting down output is related more closely to a reward
than a punishment. Under such managements as provide no adequate
reward for all, and no adequate assurance that all can receive extra rewards
permanently without a cut in the rate, it may be advisable, for the worker's
best interests, to limit output in order to keep the wages, or reward, up, and
soldiering results. The evils of soldiering will be discussed more at length
under the "Systems of Pay." It is plain, however, here that soldiering is the
result of a cutting down of action, and it is self-evident that anything which
cuts down action is harmful, not only to the individual himself, but to
society at large.
Nature of Rewards and Punishments. — Under all types of management,
the principal rewards consist of promotion and pay, pay being a broad word
used here to include regular wages, a bonus, shorter hours, other forms of
remuneration or recompense; anything which can be given to the man who
does the work to benefit him and increase his desire to continue doing the
work. Punishments may be negative, that is, they may simply take the form
of no reward; or they may be positive, that is, they may include fines,
discharge, assignment to less remunerative or less desirable work, or any

other thing which can be given to the man to show him that he has not done
what is expected of him and, in theory at least, to lead him to do better.
Nature of Direct Incentives. — Direct incentives will be such native
reaction as ambition, pride and pugnacity; will be love of racing, love of
play; love of personal recognition; will be the outcome of self-confidence
and interest, and so on.
The Reward Under Traditional Management Unstandardized. — As
with all other discussions of any part or form of Traditional Management,
the discussion of the incentive under Traditional Management is vague from
the very nature of the subject. "Traditional" stands for vagueness and for
variation, for the lack of standardization, for the lack of definiteness in
knowledge, in process, in results. The rewards under Traditional
Management, as under all types of management, are promotion and pay. It
must be an almost unthinkably poor system of management, even under
Traditional Management, which did not attempt to provide for some sort of
promotion of the man who did the most and best work; but the lack of
standardization of conditions, of instructions, of the work itself, and of
reward, makes it almost impossible not only to give the reward, but even to
determine who deserves the reward. Under Traditional Management, the
reward need not be positive, that is, it might simply consist in the negation
of some previously existing disadvantage. It need not be predetermined. It
might be nothing definite. It might not be so set ahead that the man might
look forward to it. In other words it might simply be the outcome of the
good, and in no wise the incentive for the good. It need not necessarily be
personal. It could be shared with a group, or gang, and lose all feeling of
personality. It need not be a fixed reward or a fixed performance; in fact, if
the management were Traditional it would be almost impossible that it
would be a fixed reward. It might not be an assured reward, and in most
cases it was not a prompt reward. These fixed adjectives describe the
reward of Scientific Management — positive, predetermined, personal,
fixed, assured and prompt. A few of these might apply, or none might apply
to the reward under Traditional Management.
Reward a Prize Won by One Only. — If this reward, whether promotion
or pay, was given to someone under Traditional Management, this usually
meant that others thereby lost it; it was in the nature of a prize which one

only could attain, and which the others, therefore, would lose, and such a
lost prize is, to the average man, for the time at least, a dampener on action.
The rewarding of the winner, to the loss of all of the losers, has been met by
the workmen getting together secretly, and selecting the winners for a week
or more ahead, thus getting the same reward out of the employer without
the extra effort.
Punishment Under Traditional Management Wrong in Theory. — The
punishment, under Traditional Management, was usually much more than
negative punishment; that is to say, the man who was punished usually
received much more than simply the negative return of getting no reward.
The days of bodily punishment have long passed, yet the account of the
beatings given to the galley slaves and to other workers in the past are too
vividly described in authentic accounts to be lost from memory. To-day,
under Traditional Management, punishment consists of
1. fines, which are usually simply a cutting down of wages, the part
deducted remaining with the company,
2. discharge, or
3. assignment to less pleasant or less desirable work.
This assignment is done on an unscientific basis, the man being simply put
at something which he dislikes, with no regard as to whether his efficiency
at that particular work will be high or not.
Results Are Unfortunate. — The punishment, under Traditional
Management, is usually meted out by the foreman, simply as one of his
many duties. He is apt to be so personally interested, and perhaps involved,
in the case that his punishment will satisfy some wrong notions, impulse of
anger, hate, or envy in him, and will arouse a feeling of shame or wounded
pride, or unappreciation, in the man to whom punishment is awarded.
Direct Incentives Not Scientifically Utilized. — As for what we have
called direct incentive, the love of racing was often used under Traditional
Management through Athletic Contests, the faults in these being that the
men were not properly studied, so that they could be properly assigned and
grouped; care was not always exercised that hate should not be the result of
the contest; the contest was not always conducted according to the rules of

clean sport; the men slighted quality in hastening the work, and the results
of the athletic contests were not so written down as to be thereafter utilized.
Love of play may have been developed unconsciously, but was certainly not
often studied, Love of personal recognition was probably often utilized, but
in no scientific way. Neither was there anything in Traditional Management
to develop self-confidence, or to arouse and maintain interest in any set
fashion. Naturally, if the man were in a work which he particularly liked,
which under Traditional Management was a matter of luck, he would be
more or less interested in it, but there was no scientific way of arousing or
holding his interest. Under Traditional Management, a man might take pride
in his work, as did many of the old bricklayers and masons, who would set
themselves apart after hours if necessary, lock themselves in, and cut bricks
for a complicated arch or fancy pattern, but such pride was in no way
fostered through the efforts of the management. Pugnacity was aroused, but
it might have an evil effect as well as a good, so far as the management had
any control. Ambition, in the same way, might be stimulated, and might not.
There is absolutely nothing under Traditional Management to prevent a man
being ambitious, gratifying his pride, and gratifying his pugnacity in a right
way, and at the same time being interested in his work, but there was
nothing under Traditional Management which provided for definite and
exact methods for encouraging these good qualities, seeing that they
developed in a proper channel, and scientifically utilizing the outcome
again and again.
Pay for Performance Provided for by Transitory Management. —
Under Transitory Management, as soon as practicable, one bonus is paid for
doing work according to the method prescribed. As standardization takes
place, the second bonus for completing the task in the time set can be paid.
As each element of Scientific Management is introduced, incentives
become more apparent, more powerful, and more assured.
Direct Incentives More Skillfully Used. — With the separating of output,
and recording of output separately, love of personal recognition grew, self-
confidence grew, interest in one's work grew. The Athletic Contest is so
conducted that love of speed, love of play, and love of competition are
encouraged, the worker constantly feeling that he can indulge in these, as he
is assured of "fair play."

Incentives Under Scientific Management Constructive. — It is most
important, psychologically and ethically, that it be understood that
Scientific Management is not in any sense a destructive power. That only is
eliminated that is harmful, or wasteful, or futile; everything that is good is
conserved, and is utilized as much as it has ever been before, often much
more than it has ever been utilized. The constructive force, under Scientific
Management, is one of its great life principles. This is brought out very
plainly in considering incentives under Scientific Management. With the
scientifically determined wage, and the more direct and more sure plan of
promotion, comes no discard of the well-grounded incentives of older types
of management. The value of a fine personality in all who are to be imitated
is not forgotten; the importance of using all natural stimuli to healthful
activity is appreciated. Scientific Management uses all these, in so far as
they can be used to the best outcome for workers and work, and
supplements them by such scientifically derived additions as could never
have been derived under the older types.
Characteristics of the Reward. — Rewards, under Scientific Management
are —
(a) positive; that is to say, the reward must be a definite, positive gain to
the man, and not simply a taking away of some thing which may have
been a drawback.
(b) predetermined; that is to say, before the man begins to work it must
be determined exactly what reward he is to get for doing the work.
(c) personal; that is, individual, a reward for that particular man for that
particular work.
(d) fixed, unchanged. He must get exactly what it has been determined
beforehand that he shall get.
(e) assured; that is to say, there must be provision made for this reward
before the man begins to work, so that he may be positive that he will
get the reward if he does the work. The record of the organization must
be that rewards have always been paid in the past, therefore probably
will be in the future.

(f) the reward must be prompt; that is to say, as soon as the work has
been done, the man must get the reward. This promptness applies to the
announcement of the reward; that is to say, the man must know at once
that he has gotten the reward, and also to the receipt of the reward by
the man.
Positive Reward Arouses Interest and Holds Attention. — The benefit of
the positive reward is that it arouses and holds attention. A fine example of
a reward that is not positive is that type of "welfare work" which consists of
simply providing the worker with such surroundings as will enable him to
work decently and without actual discomfort. The worker, naturally, feels
that such surroundings are his right, and in no sense a reward and incentive
to added activity. The reward must actually offer to the worker something
which he has a right to expect only if he earns it; something which will be a
positive addition to his life.
Predetermined Reward Concentrates Attention. — The predetermined
reward allows both manager and man to concentrate their minds upon the
work. There is no shifting of the attention, while the worker wonders what
the reward that he is to receive will be. It is also a strong factor for
industrial peace, and for all the extra activities which will come when
industrial conditions are peaceful.
Personal Reward Conserves Individuality. — The personal reward is a
strong incentive toward initiative, towards the desire to make the most of
one's individuality. It is an aid toward the feeling of personal recognition.
From this personal reward come all the benefits which have been
considered under individuality.1
Fixed Reward Eliminates Waste Time. — The fact that the reward is
fixed is a great eliminator of waste to the man and to the manager both. Not
only does the man concentrate better under the fixed reward, but the
reward, being fixed, need not be determined anew, over and over again; that
is to say, every time that that kind of work is done, simultaneous with the
arising of the work comes the reward that is to be paid for it. All the time
that would be given to determining the reward, satisfying the men and
arguing the case, is saved and utilized.

Assured Reward Aids Concentration. — The assured reward leads to
concentration, — even perhaps more so than the fact that the reward is
determined. In case the man was not sure that he would get the reward in
the end, he would naturally spend a great deal of time wondering whether
he would or not. Moreover, no immediate good fortune counts for much as
an incentive if there is a prospect of bad luck following in the immediate
future.
Need for Promptness Varies. — The need for promptness of the reward
varies. If the reward is to be given to a man of an elementary type of mind,
the reward must be immediately announced and must be actually given very
promptly, as it is impossible for anyone of such a type of intellect to look
forward very far.2 A man of a high type of intellectual development is able
to wait a longer time for his reward, and the element of promptness, while
acting somewhat as an incentive, is not so necessary.
Under Scientific Management, with the ordinary type of worker on manual
work, it has been found most satisfactory to pay the reward every day, or at
the end of the week, and to announce the score of output as often as every
hour. This not only satisfies the longing of the normal mind to know exactly
where it stands, but also lends a fresh impetus to repeat the high record.
There is also, through the prompt reward, the elimination of time wasted in
wondering what the result will be, and in allaying suspense. Suspense is not
a stimulus to great activity, as anyone who has waited for the result of a
doubtful examination can testify, it being almost impossible to concentrate
the mind on any other work until one knows whether the work which has
been done has been completed satisfactorily or not.
Promptness Always an Added Incentive. — There are many kinds of life
work and modes of living so terrible as to make one shudder at the thoughts
of the certain sickness, death, or disaster that are almost absolutely sure to
follow such a vocation. Men continue to work for those wages that lead
positively to certain death, because of the immediateness of the sufficient
wages, or reward. This takes their attention from their ultimate end. Much
more money would be required if payment were postponed, say, five years
after the act, to obtain the services of the air-man, or the worker subject to
the poisoning of some branches of the lead and mercury industries.

If the prompt reward is incentive enough to make men forget danger and
threatened death, how much more efficient is it in increasing output where
there is no such danger.
Immediate Reward Not Always Preferable. — There are cases where the
prompt reward is not to be preferred, because the delayed reward will be
greater, or will be available to more people Such is the case with the reward
that comes from unrestricted output.
For example, — the immediacy of the temporarily increased reward caused
by restricting output has often led the combinations of working men to such
restriction, with an ultimate loss of reward to worker, to employer, and to
the consumer.
Rewards Possible of Attainment by All. — Every man working under
Scientific Management has a chance to win a reward. This means not only
that the man has a "square deal," for the man may have a square deal under
Traditional Management in that he may have a fair chance to try for all
existing rewards. There is more than this under Scientific Management. By
the very nature of the plan itself, the rewards are possible of achievement
by all; any one man, by winning, in no way diminishes the chances of the
others.
Rewards of Management Resemble Rewards of Workers. — So far the
emphasis, in the discussion of reward, has been on the reward as given to
the worker, and his feeling toward it. The reward to the management is just
as sure. It lies in the increased output and therefore the possibility of lower
costs and of greater financial gain. It is as positive; it is as predetermined,
because before the reward to the men is fixed the management realizes what
proportion that reward will bear to the entire undertaking, and exactly what
profits can be obtained. It is a fundamental of Scientific Management that
the management shall be able to prophesy the outputs ahead. It will
certainly be as personal, if the management side is as thoroughly
systematized as is the managed; it will be as fixed and as assured, and it
certainly is as prompt, as the cost records can be arranged to come to the
management every day, if that is desired.
Results of Such Rewards. — There are three other advantages to
management which might well be added here. First, that a reward such as

this attracts the best men to the work; second, that the reward, and the
stability of it, indicates the stability of the entire institution, and thus raises
its standing in the eyes of the community as well as in its own eyes; and
third, that it leads the entire organization, both managed and managing, to
look favorably at all standardization. The standardized reward is sure to be
attractive to all members. As soon as it is realized that the reason that it is
attractive is because it is standardized, the entire subject of standardization
rises in the estimation of every one, and the introduction of standards can be
carried on more rapidly, and with greater success.
Rewards Divided into Promotion and Pay. — Rewards may be divided
into two kinds; first, promotion and, second, pay. Under Scientific
Management promotion is assured for every man and, as has been said, this
promotion does not thereby hold back others from having the same sort of
promotion. There is an ample place, under Scientific Management, for
every man to advance. 3 Not only is the promotion sure, thus giving the
man absolute assurance that he will advance as his work is satisfactory, but
it is also gradual.4 The promotion must be by degrees, otherwise the
workers may get discouraged, from finding their promotion has come faster
than has their ability to achieve, and the lack of attention, due to being
discouraged, may be contagious. It is, therefore, of vital importance that the
worker be properly selected, in order that, in his advancement and
promotion, he shall be able to achieve his task after having been put at the
new work. He must be advanced and promoted in a definite line of gradual
development, in accordance with a fully conceived plan. This should be
worked out and set down in writing as a definite plan, similar to the plan on
the instruction card of one of his tasks.
Promotion May Be to Places Within or Without the Business. — In
many lines of business, the business itself offers ample opportunity for
promoting all men who can "make good" as rapidly as they can prepare
themselves for positions over others, and for advancement; but under
Scientific Management provision is made even in case the business does not
offer such opportunities.5 This is done by the management finding places
outside their own organization for the men who are so trained that they can
be advanced.

Such Promotion Attracts Workers. — While at first glance it might seem
a most unfortunate thing for the management to have to let its men go, and
while, as Dr. Taylor says, it is unfortunate for a business to get the
reputation of being nothing but a training school, on the other hand, it has a
very salutary effect upon the men to know that their employers are so
disinterestedly interested in them that they will provide for their future,
even at the risk of the individual business at which they have started having
to lose their services. This will not only, as Dr. Taylor makes clear, stimulate
many men in the establishment whose men go on to take the places of those
who are promoted, but will also be a great inducement to other men to come
into a place that they feel is unselfish and generous.
Subdivisions of "Pay." — Under "Pay" we have included eight headings:
1. Wages
2. Bonus
3. Shorter hours
4. Prizes other than money
5. Extra knowledge
6. Method of attack
7. Good opinion of others
8. Professional standing.
Relation Between Wages and Bonus. — Wages and bonus are closely
related. By wages we mean a fixed sum, or minimum hourly rate, that the
man gets in any case for his time, and by bonus we mean additional money
that he receives for achievement of method, quantity or quality. Both might
very properly be included under wages, or under money received for the
work, or opportunities for receiving money for work, as the case might be.
In the discussion of the different ways of paying wages under Scientific
Management, there will be no attempt to discuss the economic value of the
various means; the different methods will simply be stated, and the
psychological significance will be, as far as possible, given.

Before discussing the various kinds of wages advised by the experts in
Scientific Management, it is well to pause a moment to name the various
sorts of methods of compensation recognized by authorities. David F.
Schloss in his "Method of Industrial Remuneration" divides all possible
ways of gaining remuneration into three —
1. the different kinds of wages
1. time wage
2. piece wage
3. task wage
4. progressive wage
5. collective piece wage
6. collective task wage
7. collective progressive wage
8. contract work
9. coöperative work
with
2. profit sharing, and
3. industrial coöperation. These are defined and discussed at length in his
book in a lucid and simple manner.
It is only necessary to quote him here as to the relationship between these
different forms, where he says, page 11, — "The two leading forms of
industrial remuneration under the Wages System are time wages, and piece
wages. Intermediate between these principal forms, stands that known as
task wage, while supplemental to these two named methods, we find those
various systems which will here be designated by the name of Progressive
Wages." 6

Day Work Never Scientific. — The simplest of all systems, says Dr.
Taylor in "A Piece Rate System," paragraph 10, in discussing the various
forms of compensation "is the Day Work plan, in which the employés are
divided into certain classes, and a standard rate of wages is paid to each
class of men," He adds — "The men are paid according to the position
which they fill, and not according to their individual character, energy, skill
and reliability," The psychological objection to day work is that it does not
arouse interest or effort or hold attention, nor does it inspire to memorizing
or to learning.
It will be apparent that there is no inducement whatever for the man to do
more than just enough to retain his job, for he in no wise shares in the
reward for an extra effort, which goes entirely to his employer. "Reward,"
in this case, is usually simply a living wage, — enough to inspire the man,
if he needs the money enough to work to hold his position, but not enough
to incite him to any extra effort.
It is true that, in actual practice, through the foreman or some man in
authority, the workers on day work may be "speeded up" to a point where
they will do a great deal of work; the foreman being inspired, of course, by
a reward for the extra output, but, as Dr. Taylor says, paragraph 17 — "A
Piece Rate System," this sort of speeding up is absolutely lacking in self-
sustaining power. The moment that this rewarded foreman is removed, the
work will again fall down. Therefore, day wage has almost no place in
ultimate, scientifically managed work.
Piece Work Provides Pay in Proportion to Work Done. — Piece Work is
the opposite of time work, in that under it the man is paid not for the time
he spends at the work, but for the amount of work which he accomplishes.
Under this system, as long as the man is paid a proper piece rate, and a rate
high enough to keep him interested, he will have great inducements to
work. He will have a chance to develop individuality, a chance for
competition, a chance for personal recognition. His love of reasonable
racing will be cultivated. His love of play may be cultivated.
All of these incentives arise because the man feels that his sense of justice
is being considered; that if the task is properly laid out, and the price per
piece is properly determined, he is given a "square deal" in being allowed to

accomplish as great an amount of work as he can, with the assurance that
his reward will be promptly coming to him.
Danger of Rate Being Cut. — Piece work becomes objectionable only
when the rate is cut. The moment the rate is cut the first time, the man
begins to wonder whether it is going to be cut again, and his attention is
distracted from the work by his debating this question constantly. At best,
his attention wanders from one subject to the other, and back again. It
cannot be concentrated on his work. After the rate has been cut once or
twice, — and it is sure to be cut unless it has been set from scientifically
derived elementary time units, — the man loses his entire confidence in the
stability of the rate, and, naturally, when he loses this confidence, his work
is done more slowly, due to lack of further enthusiasm. On the contrary, as
long as it is to his advantage to do the work and he is sure that his reward
will be prompt, and that he will always get the price that has been
determined as right by him and by the employers for his work, he can do
this work easily in the time set. As soon as he feels that he will not get it, he
will naturally begin to do less, as it will be not only to his personal
advantage to do as little as possible, but also very much to the advantage of
his fellows, for whom the rate will also be cut.
Task Wage Contains No Incentive to Additional Work. — What Schloss
calls the Task Wage would, as he well says, be the intermediate between
time or day wage and piece wage; that is, it would be the assigning of a
definite amount of work to be done in definite time, and to be paid for by a
definite sum. If the task were set scientifically, and the time scientifically
determined, as it must naturally be for a scientific task, and the wage
adequate for that work, there would seem to be nothing about this form of
remuneration which could be a cause of dissatisfaction to the worker.
Naturally, however, there would be absolutely no chance for him to desire
to go any faster than the time set, or to accomplish any more work in the
time set than that which he was obliged to, in that he could not possibly get
anything for the extra work done.
Worth of Previous Methods in the Handling. — It will be noted in the
discussion of the three types of compensation so far discussed, that there is
nothing in them that renders them unscientific. Any one of the three may be
used, and doubtless all are used, on works which are attempting to operate

under Scientific Management. Whether they really are scientific methods of
compensation or not, is determined by the way that they are handled.
Certainly, however, all that any of these three can expect to do is to
convince the man that he is being treated justly; that is to say, if he knows
what sort of a contract he is entering into, the contract is perfectly fair,
provided that the management keeps its part of the contract, pays the
agreed-upon wage.
In proceeding, instead of following the order of Schloss we will follow the
order, at least for a time, of Dr. Taylor In "A Piece Rate System"; this for
two reasons:
First, for the reason that the "Piece Rate System" is later than Schloss' book,
Schloss being 1891, and the "Piece Rate" being 1895; in the second place
that we are following the Scientific Management side in distinction to the
general economic side, laid down by Schloss. There is, however, nothing in
our plan of discussion here to prevent one's following fairly closely in the
Schloss also.
The Gain-sharing Plan. — We take up, then, the Gain-sharing Plan which
was invented by Mr. Henry R. Towne and used by him with success in the
Yale & Towne works. This is described in a paper read before the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, in professional paper No. 341, in 1888
and also in the Premium Plan, Mr. Halsey's modification of it, described by
him in a paper entitled the "Premium Plan of Paying for Labor," American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1891, Paper 449. In this, in describing the
Profit-sharing Plan, Mr. Halsey says — "Under it, in addition to regular
wages, the employés were offered a certain percentage of the final profits of
the business. It thus divides the savings due to increased production
between employer and employé."
Objections to This Plan. — We note here the objection to this plan: First,
— "The workmen are given a share in what they do not earn; second, the
workmen share regardless of individual deserts; third, the promised rewards
are remote; fourth, the plan makes no provision for bad years; fifth, the
workmen have no means of knowing if the agreement is carried out."
Without discussing any farther whether these are worded exactly as all who
have tried the plan might have found them, we may take these on Mr.

Halsey's authority and discuss the psychology of them. If the workmen are
given a share in what they do not earn, they have absolutely no feeling that
they are being treated justly. This extra reward which is given to them, if in
the nature of a present, might much better be a present out and out. If it has
no scientific relation to what they have gotten, if the workmen share
regardless of individual deserts, this, as Dr. Taylor says, paragraph 27 in the
"Piece Rate System," is the most serious defect of all, in that it does not
allow for recognition of the personal merits of each workman. If the
rewards are remote, the interest is diminished. If the plan makes no
provision for bad years, it cannot be self-perpetuating. If the workmen have
no means of knowing if the agreement will be carried out or not, they will
be constantly wondering whether it is being carried out or not, and their
attention will wander.
The Premium Plan. — The Premium Plan is thus described by Mr. Halsey
— "The time required to do a given piece of work is determined from
previous experience, and the workman, in addition to his usual daily wages,
is offered a premium for every hour by which he reduces that time on future
work, the amount of the premium being less than his rate of wages. Making
the hourly premium less than the hourly wages is the foundation stone upon
which rest all the merits of the system."
Dr. Taylor's Description of This Plan. — Dr. Taylor comments upon this
plan as follows:
"The Towne-Halsey plan consists in recording the quickest time in which a
job has been done, and fixing this as a standard. If the workman succeeds in
doing the job in a shorter time, he is still paid his same wages per hour for
the time he works on the job, and, in addition, is given a premium for
having worked faster, consisting of from one-quarter to one-half the
difference between the wages earned and the wages originally paid when
the job was done in standard time," Dr. Taylor's discussion of this plan will
be found in "Shop Management," paragraphs 79 to 91.
Psychologically, the defect of this system undoubtedly is that it does not
rest upon accurate scientific time study, therefore neither management nor
men can predict accurately what is going to happen. Not being able to
predict, they are unable to devote their entire attention to the work in hand,

and the result cannot be as satisfactory as under an assigned task, based
upon time study. The discussion of this is so thorough in Dr. Taylor's work,
and in Mr. Halsey's work, that it is unnecessary to introduce more here.
Profit-sharing. — Before turning to the methods of compensation which
are based upon the task, it might be well to introduce here mention of
"Coöperation," or "Profit-sharing," which, in its extreme form, usually
means the sharing of the profits from the business as a whole, among the
men who do the work. This is further discussed by Schloss, and also by Dr.
Taylor in paragraphs 32 to 35, in "A Piece Rate System"; also in "Shop
Management," quoting from the "Piece Rate System," paragraphs 73 to 77.
Objections to Profit-sharing. — The objections, Dr. Taylor says, to
coöperation are, first in the fact that no form of coöperation has been
devised in which each individual is allowed free scope for his personal
ambition; second, in the remoteness of the reward; third, in the unequitable
division of the profits. If each individual is not allowed free scope, one sees
at once that the entire advantage of individuality, and of personal
recognition, is omitted. If the reward is remote, we recognize that its power
diminishes very rapidly; and if there cannot be equitable division of the
profits, not only will the men ultimately not be satisfied, but they will, after
a short time, not even be satisfied while they are working, because their
minds will constantly be distracted by the fact that the division will
probably not be equitable, and also by the fact that they will be trying to
plan ways in which they can get their proper share. Thus, not only in the
ultimate outcome, but also during the entire process, the work will slow up
necessarily, because the men can have no assurance either that the work
itself, or the output, have been scientifically determined.
Scientific Management Embodies Valuable Elements of Profit-sharing.
— Scientific Management embodies the valuable elements of profit-
sharing, namely, the idea of coöperation, and the idea that the workers
should share in the profit.
That the latter of these two is properly emphasized by Scientific
Management is not always understood by the workers. When a worker is
enabled to make three or four times as much output in a day as he has been
accustomed to, he may think that he is not getting his full share of the

"spoils" of increased efficiency, unless he gets a proportionately increased
rate of pay. It should, therefore, be early made clear to him that the saving
has been caused by the actions of the management, quite as much as by the
increased efforts for productivity of the men. Furthermore, a part of the
savings must go to pay for the extra cost of maintaining the standard
conditions that make such output possible. The necessary planners and
teachers usually are sufficient as object-lessons to convince the workers of
the necessity of not giving all the extra savings to the workers.
It is realized that approximately one third of the extra profits from the
savings must go to the employer, about one third to the employés, and the
remainder for maintaining the system and carrying out further
investigations.
This once understood, the satisfaction that results from a coöperative,
profit-sharing type of management will be enjoyed.
The five methods of compensation which are to follow are all based upon
the task, as laid down by Dr. Taylor; that is to say, upon time study, and an
exact knowledge by the man, and the employers, of how much work can be
done.
Differential Rate Piece Work the Ultimate Form of Compensation. —
Dr. Taylor's method of compensation, which is acknowledged by all
thoroughly grounded in Scientific Management to be the ultimate form of
compensation where it can be used, is called Differential Rate Piece Work.
It is described in "A Piece Rate System," paragraphs 50 to 52, as follows:
—
"This consists, briefly, in paying a higher price per piece, or per unit, or per
job, if the work is done in the shortest possible time and without
imperfection, than is paid if the work takes a longer time or is imperfectly
done. To illustrate — suppose 20 units, or pieces, to be the largest amount
of work of a certain kind that can be done in a day. Under the differential
rate system, if a workman finishes 20 pieces per day, and all of these pieces
are perfect, he receives, say, 15 cents per piece, making his pay for the day
15 times 20 = $3.00. If, however, he works too slowly and turns out only,
say 19 pieces, then instead of receiving 15 cents per piece he gets only 12
cents per piece, making his pay for the day 12×19= $2.28, instead of $3.00

per day. If he succeeds in finishing 20 pieces — some of which are
imperfect — then he should receive a still lower rate of pay, say 10¢ or 5¢
per piece, according to circumstances, making his pay for the day $2.00 or
only $1.00, instead of $3.00."
Advantages of This System. — This system is founded upon knowledge
that for a large reward men will do a large amount of work. The small
compensation for a small amount of work — and under this system the
minimum compensation is a little below the regular day's work — may lead
men to exert themselves to accomplish more work. This system appeals to
the justice of the men, in that it is more nearly an exact ratio of pay to
endeavor.
Task Work with a Bonus. — The Task work with Bonus system of
compensation, which is the invention of Mr. H.L. Gantt, is explained in "A
Bonus System of Rewarding Labor," paper 923, read before the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, December, 1901, by Mr. Gantt. This
system is there described as follows: —
"If the man follows his instructions and accomplishes all the work laid out
for him as constituting his proper task for the day, he is paid a definite
bonus in addition to the day rate which he always gets. If, however, at the
end of the day he has failed to accomplish all of the work laid out, he does
not get his bonus, but simply his day rate." This system of compensation is
explained more fully in Chapter VI of Mr. Gantt's book, "Work, Wages and
Profits," where he explains the modification now used by him in the bonus.
Advantages of Task Work with a Bonus. — The psychological advantage
of the task with a Bonus is the fact that the worker has the assurance of a
living wage while learning, no matter whether he succeeds in winning his
bonus or not. In the last analysis, it is "day rate" for the unskilled, and
"piece rate" for the skilled, and it naturally leads to a feeling of security in
the worker. Mr. Gantt has so admirably explained the advantages,
psychological as well as industrial, of his system, that it is unnecessary to
go farther, except to emphasize the fine feeling of brotherhood which
underlies the idea, and its expression.
The Differential Bonus System. — The Differential Bonus System of
Compensation is the invention of Mr. Frederick A. Parkhurst, and is

described by him in his book "Applied Methods of Scientific Management."
"The time the job should be done in is first determined by analysis and time
study. The bonus is then added above the day work line. No bonus is paid
until a definitely determined time is realized. As the time is reduced, the
bonus is increased."
Three Rate with Increased Rate System. — The Three Rate System of
Compensation is the invention of Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth and consists of day
work, i.e., a day rate, or a flat minimum rate, which all who are willing to
work receive until they can try themselves out; of a middle rate, which is
given to the man when he accomplishes the work with exactness of
compliance to prescribed motions, according to the requirements of his
instruction card; and of a high rate, which is paid to the man when he not
only accomplishes the task in accordance with the instruction card, but also
within the set time and of the prescribed quality of finished work.
Advantage of This System. — The advantage of this is, first of all, that the
man does not have to look forward so far for some of his reward, as it
comes to him just as soon as he has shown himself able to do the prescribed
methods required accurately. The first extra reward is naturally a stimulus
toward winning the second extra reward. The middle rate is a stimulus to
endeavor to perform that method which will enable him easiest to achieve
the accomplishment of the task that pays the highest wage. The day rate
assures the man of a living wage. The middle rate pays him a bonus for
trying to learn. The high rate gives him a piece rate when he is skilled.
Lastly, as the man can increase his output, with continued experience,
above that of the task, he receives a differential rate piece on the excess
quantity, this simply making an increasing stimulus to exceed his previous
best record.
All Task Systems Investigate Loss of Bonus. — Under all these bonus
forms of wages, if the bonus is not gained the fact is at once investigated, in
order that the blame may rest where it belongs. The blame may rest upon
the workers, or it may be due to the material, which may be defective, or
different from standard; it may be upon the supervision, or some fault of the
management in not supplying the material in the proper quality, or
sequence, or a bad condition of tools or machinery; or upon the instruction

card. The fact that the missing of the bonus is investigated is an added
assurance to the workman that he is getting the "square deal," and enlists his
sympathy with these forms of bonus system, and his desire to work under
them. The fact that the management will investigate also allows him to
concentrate upon output, with no worry as to the necessity of his
investigating places where he has fallen short.
Necessity for Workers Bearing This Loss. — In any case, whether the
blame for losing the bonus is the worker's fault directly or not, he loses his
bonus. This, for two reasons; in the first place, if he did not lose his bonus
he would have no incentive to try to discover flaws before delays occurred;
he would, otherwise, have an incentive to allow the material to pass through
his hands, defective or imperfect as the case might be. This is very closely
associated with the second reason, and that is, that the bonus comes from
the savings caused by the plan of management, and that it is necessary that
the workers as well as the management shall see that everything possible
tends to increase the saving. It is only as the worker feels that his bonus is a
part of the saving, that he recognizes the justice of his receiving it, that it is
in no wise a gift to him, simply his proper share, accorded not by any
system of philanthropy, or so-called welfare work, but simply because his
own personal work has made it possible for the management to hand back
his share to him.
Users of Any Task System Appreciate Other Task Systems. — It is of
great importance to the workers that the users of any of these five methods
of compensation of Scientific Management are all ready and glad to
acknowledge the worth of all these systems. In many works more than one,
in some all, of these systems of payment may be in use. Far from this
resulting in confusion, it simply leads to the understanding that whatever is
best in the particular situation should be used. It also leads to a feeling of
stability everywhere, as a man who has worked under any of these systems
founded on time study can easily pass to another. There is also a great gain
here in the doing away of industrial warfare.
Shorter Hours and Holidays Effective Rewards. — Probably the greatest
incentive, next to promotion and more pay, are shorter hours and holidays.
In some cases, the shorter hours, or holidays, have proven even more
attractive to the worker than the increase of pay. In Shop Management,

paragraph 165, Dr. Taylor describes a case where children working were
obliged to turn their entire pay envelopes over to their parents. To them,
there was no particular incentive in getting more money, but, when the task
was assigned, if they were allowed to go as soon as their task was
completed, the output was accomplished in a great deal shorter time.
Another case where shorter hours were successfully tried, was in an office
where the girls were allowed the entire Saturday every two weeks, if the
work was accomplished within a set amount of time. This extra time for
shopping and matinees proved more attractive than any reasonable amount
of extra pay that could be offered.
Desire for Approbation an Incentive. — Under "Individuality" were
discussed various devices for developing the individuality of the man, such
as his picture over a good output or record. These all act as rewards or
incentives. How successful they would be, depends largely upon the
temperament of the man and the sort of work that is to be done. In all
classes of society, among all sorts of people, there is the type that loves
approbation. This type will be appealed to more by a device which allows
others to see what has been done than by almost anything else. As to what
this device must be, depends on the intelligence of the man.
Necessity for Coöperation a Strong Incentive. — Under Scientific
Management, many workers are forced by their coworkers to try to earn
their bonuses, as "falling down on" tasks, and therefore schedules, may
force them to lose their bonuses also.
The fact that, in many kinds of work, a man falling below his task will
prevent his fellows from working, is often a strong incentive to that man to
make better speed. For example, on a certain construction job in Canada,
the teamsters were shown that, by their work, they were cutting down
working opportunities for cart loaders, who could only be hired as the
teamsters hauled sufficient loads to keep them busy.
Value of Knowledge Gained an Incentive to a Few Only. — Extra
knowledge, and the better method of attack learned under Scientific
Management, are rewards that will be appreciated by those of superior
intelligence only. They will, in a way, be appreciated by all, because it will
be realized that, through what is learned, more pay or promotion is

received, but the fact that this extra knowledge, and better method of attack,
will enable one to do better in all lines, not simply in the line at which one
is working, and will render one's life more full and rich, will be appreciated
only by those of a wide experience.
Acquired Professional Standing a Powerful Incentive. — Just as the
success of the worker under Scientific Management assures such admiration
by his fellow-workers as will serve as an incentive toward further success,
so the professional standing attained by success in Scientific Management
acts as an incentive to those in more responsible positions.
As soon as it is recognized that Scientific Management furnishes the only
real measure of efficiency, its close relationship to professional standing
will be recognized, and the reward which it can offer in this line will be
more fully appreciated.
Punishments Negative and Positive. — Punishments may be first
negative, that is, simply a loss of promised rewards. Such punishments,
especially in cases of men who have once had the reward, usually will act
as the necessary stimulus to further activity. Punishments may also be
positive, such things as fines, assignment to less pleasant work, or as a last
resort, discharge.
Fines Never Accrue to the Management. — Fines have been a most
successful mode of punishment under Scientific Management. Under many
of the old forms of management, the fines were turned back to the
management itself, thus raising a spirit of animosity in the men, who felt
that everything that they suffered was a gain to those over them. Under
Scientific Management all fines are used in some way for the benefit of the
men themselves. All fines should be used for some benefit fund, or turned
into the insurance fund. The fines, as has been said, are determined solely
by the disciplinarian, who is disinterested in the disposition of the funds
thus collected. As the fines do not in any way benefit the management, and
in fact rather hurt the management in that the men who pay them, no matter
where they are applied, must feel more or less discouraged, it is, naturally,
for the benefit of the management that there shall be as few fines as
possible. Both management and men realize this, which leads to industrial
peace, and also leads the managers, the functional foremen, and in fact

every one, to eliminate the necessity and cause for fines to as great an
extent as is possible.
Assignment to Less Pleasant Work Effective Punishment. —
Assignment to less pleasant work is a very effective form of discipline. It
has many advantages which do not show on the surface, The man may not
really get a cut in pay, though his work be changed, and thus the damage he
receives is in no wise to his purse, but simply to his feeling of pride. In the
meantime, he is gaining a wider experience of the business, so that even the
worst disadvantage has its bright side.
Discharge To Be Avoided Wherever Possible. — Discharge is, of course,
available under Scientific Management, as under all other forms, but it is
really less used under Scientific Management than under any other sort,
because if a man is possibly available, and in any way trained, it is better to
do almost anything to teach him, to assign him to different work, to try and
find his possibilities, than to let him go, and have all that teaching wasted as
far as the organization which has taught it is concerned.
Discharge a Grave Injury to a Worker. — Moreover, Scientific
Management realizes that discharge may be a grave injury to a worker. As
Mr. James M. Dodge, who has been most successful in Scientific
Management and is noted for his good work for his fellow-men, eloquently
pleads, in a paper on "The Spirit in Which Scientific Management Should
Be Approached," given before the Conference on Scientific Management at
Dartmouth College, October, 1911:
"It is a serious thing for a worker who has located his home within
reasonable proximity to his place of employment and with proper regard for
the schooling of his children, to have to seek other employment and readjust
his home affairs, with a loss of time and wages. Proper management takes
account not only of this fact, but also of the fact that there is a distinct loss
to the employer when an old and experienced employé is replaced by a new
man, who must be educated in the methods of the establishment. An old
employé has, in his experience, a potential value that should not be lightly
disregarded, and there should be in case of dismissal the soundest of
reasons, in which personal prejudice or temporary mental condition of the
foreman should play no part.

"Constant changing of employés is not wholesome for any establishment,
and the sudden discovery by a foreman that a man who has been employed
for a year or more is 'no good' is often a reflection on the foreman, and
more often still, is wholly untrue. All working men, unless they develop
intemperate or dishonest habits, have desirable value in them, and the
conserving and increasing of their value is a duty which should be assumed
by their superiors."
Punishment Can Never Be Entirely Abolished. — It might be asked why
punishments are needed at all under this system; that is, why positive
punishments are needed. Why not merely a lack of reward for the slight
offenses, and a discharge if it gets too bad? It must be remembered,
however, that the punishments are needed to insure a proper appreciation of
the reward. If there is no negative side, the beauty of the reward will never
be realized; the man who has once suffered by having his pay cut for
something which he has done wrong, will be more than ready to keep up to
the standard. In the second place, unless individuals are punished, the rights
of other individuals will, necessarily, be encroached upon. When it is
considered that under Scientific Management the man who gives the
punishment is the disinterested disciplinarian, that the punishment is made
exactly appropriate to the offense, and that no advantage from it comes to
any one except the men themselves, it can be understood that the
psychological basis is such as to make a punishment rather an incentive
than a detriment.
Direct Incentives Numerous and Powerful. — As for the direct
incentives, these are so many that it is possible to enumerate only a few. For
example —
This may be simply a result of love of speed, love of play, or love of
activity, or it may be, in the case of a man running a machine, not so much
for the love of the activity as for a love of seeing things progress rapidly.
There is a love of contest which has been thoroughly discussed under
"Athletic Contests," which results in racing, and in all the pleasures of
competition.
Racing Directed Under Scientific Management. — The psychology of
the race under Scientific Management is most interesting. The race is not a

device of Scientific Management to speed up the worker, any speed that
would be demanded by Scientific Management beyond the task-speed
would be an unscientific thing. On the other hand, it is not the scope of
Scientific Management to bar out any contests which would not be for the
ultimate harm of the workers. Such interference would hamper
individuality; would make the workers feel that they were restricted and
held down. While the workers are, under Scientific Management, supposed
to be under the supervision of some one who can see that the work is only
such as they can do and continuously thrive, any such interference as, for
example, stopping a harmless race, would at once make them feel that their
individual initiative was absolutely destroyed. It is not the desire of
Scientific Management to do anything of that sort, but rather to use every
possible means to make the worker feel that his initiative is being
conserved.
All "Native Reactions" Act as Incentives. — Pride, self-confidence,
pugnacity, — all the "native reactions" utilized by teaching serve as direct
incentives.
Results of Incentives to the Work. — All incentives in every form of
management, tend, from their very nature, to increase output. When
Scientific Management is introduced, there is selection of such incentives as
will produce greatest amount of specified output, and the results can be
predicted.
Results of Incentives to the Worker. — Under Traditional Management
the incentives are usually such that the worker is likely to overwork himself
if he allows himself to be driven by the incentive. This results in bodily
exhaustion. So, also, the anxiety that accompanies an unstandardized
incentive leads to mental exhaustion. With the introduction of Transitory
Management, danger from both these types of exhaustion is removed. The
incentive is so modified that it is instantly subject to judgment as to its
ultimate value.
Scientific Management makes the incentives stronger than they are under
any other type, partly by removing sources of worry, waste and hesitation,
partly by determining the ratio of incentive to output. The worker under
such incentives gains in bodily and mental poise and security.

1. W.P. Gillette, Cost Analysis Engineering, p. 3.
2. F.W. Taylor, Paper 647, A.S.M.E., para. 33, para. 59.
3. Hugo Diemer, Factory Organization and Administration, p. 5.
4. James M. Dodge, Paper 1115, A.S.M.E., p. 723.
5. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 310-311, Harper Ed., pp. 142-
143.
6. See also C.U. Carpenter, Profit Making in Shop and Factory
Management, pp. 113-115. For an extended and excellent account of the
theory of well-known methods of compensating workmen, see C.B. Going,
Principles of Industrial Engineering, chap. VIII.

CHAPTER X

WELFARE

Definition of Welfare. — "Welfare" means "a state or condition of doing
well; prosperous or satisfactory course or relation; exemption from evil;" in
other words, well-being. This is the primary meaning of the word. But, to-
day, it is used so often as an adjective, to describe work which is being
attempted for the good of industrial workers, that any use of the word
welfare has that fringe of meaning to it.
"Welfare" Here Includes Two Meanings. — In the discussion of welfare
in this chapter, both meanings of the word will be included. "Welfare" under
each form of management will be discussed, first, as meaning the outcome

to the men of the type of management itself; and second, as discussing the
sort of welfare work which is used under that form of management.
Discussion of First Answers. Three Questions. — A discussion of welfare
as the result of work divides itself naturally into three parts, or three
questions:
What is the effect upon the physical life?
What is the effect upon the mental life?
What is the effect upon the moral life?
Under Traditional Management No Physical Improvement. — The
indefiniteness of Traditional Management manifests itself again in this
discussion, it being almost impossible to make any general statement which
could not be controverted by particular examples; but it is safe to say that in
general, under Traditional Management, there is not a definite physical
improvement in the average worker. In the first place, there is no provision
for regularity in the work. The planning not being done ahead, the man has
absolutely no way of knowing exactly what he will be called upon to do.
There being no measure of fatigue, he has no means of knowing whether he
can go to work the second part of the day, say, with anything like the
efficiency with which he could go to work in the first part of the day. There
being no standard, the amount of work which he can turn out must vary
according as the tools, machinery and equipment are in proper condition,
and the material supplies his needs.
No Good Habits Necessarily Formed. — In the second place, under
Traditional Management there are no excellent habits necessarily formed.
The man is left to do fairly as he pleases, if only the general outcome be
considered sufficient by those over him. There may be a physical
development on his part, if the work be of a kind which can develop him, or
which he likes to such an extent that he is willing to do enough of it to
develop him physically; this liking may come through the play element, or
through the love of work, or through the love of contest, or through some
other desire for activity, but it is not provided for scientifically, and the
outcome cannot be exactly predicted. Therefore, under Traditional
Management there is no way of knowing that good health and increased

strength will result from the work, and we know that in many cases poor
health and depleted strength have been the outcome of the work. We may
say then fairly, as far as physical improvement is concerned that, though it
might be the outcome of Traditional Management, it was rather in spite of
Traditional Management, in the sense at least that the management had
nothing to do with it, and had absolutely no way of providing for it. The
moment that it was provided for in any systematic way, the Traditional
Management vanished.
No Directed Mental Development. — Second, mental development. Here,
again, there being no fixed habits, no specially trained habit of attention, no
standard, there was no way of knowing that the man's mind was improving.
Naturally, all minds improve merely with experience. Experience must be
gathered in, and must be embodied into judgment. There is absolutely no
way of estimating what the average need in this line would be, it varies so
much with the temperament of the man. Again, it would usually be a thing
that the man himself was responsible for, and not the management, certainly
not the management in any impersonal sense. Some one man over an
individual worker might be largely responsible for improving him
intellectually. If this were so, it would be because of the temperament of the
over-man, or because of his friendly desire to impart a mental stimulus;
seldom, if ever, because the management provided for its being imparted.
Thus, there was absolutely no way of predicting that wider or deeper
interest, or that increased mental capacity, would take place.
Moral Development Doubtful. — As for moral development, in the
average Traditional Management it was not only not provided for, but rather
doubtful. A man had very little chance to develop real, personal
responsibilities, in that there was always some one over him who was
watching him, who disciplined him and corrected him, who handed in the
reports for him, with the result that he was in a very slight sense a free
agent. Only men higher up, the foremen and the superintendents could
obtain real development from personal responsibilities. Neither was there
much development of responsibility for others, in the sense of being
responsible for personal development of others. Having no accurate
standards to judge by, there was little or no possibility of appreciation of the
relative standing of the men, either by the individual of himself, or by
others of his ability. The man could be admired for his strength, or his skill,

but not for his real efficiency, as measured in any satisfactory way. The
management taught self-control in the most rudimentary way, or not at all.
There was no distinct goal for the average man, neither was there any
distinct way to arrive at such a goal; it was simply a case, with the man
lower down, of making good for any one day and getting that day's pay. In
the more enlightened forms of Traditional Management, a chance for
promotion was always fairly sure, but the moment that the line of
promotion became assured, we may say that Traditional Management had
really ceased, and some form of Transitory Management was in operation.
"Square Deal" Lacking. — Perhaps the worst lack under Traditional
Management is the lack of the "square deal." In the first place, even the
most efficient worker under this form of management was not sure of his
place. This not only meant worry on his part, which distracted his attention
from what he did, but meant a wrong attitude all along the line. He had
absolutely no way of knowing that, even though he did his best, the man
over him, in anger, or because of some entirely ulterior thing, might not
discharge him, put him in a lower position. So also the custom of spying,
the only sort of inspection recognized under Traditional Management of the
most elementary form, led to a feeling on the men's part that they were
being constantly watched on the sly, and to an inability to concentrate. This
brought about an inability to feel really honest, for being constantly under
suspicion is enough to poison even one's own opinion of one's integrity.
Again, being at the beck and call of a prejudiced foreman who was all-
powerful, and having no assured protection from the whims of such a man,
the worker was obliged, practically for self-protection, to try to conciliate
the foremen by methods of assuming merits that are obvious, on the
surface. He ingratiates himself in the favor of the foreman in that way best
adapted to the peculiarities of the character of the foreman, sometimes
joining societies, or the church of the foreman, sometimes helping him elect
some political candidate or relative; at other times, by the more direct
method of buying drinks, or taking up a subscription for presenting the
foreman with a gold watch, "in appreciation of his fairness to all;"
sometimes by consistently losing at cards or other games of chance. When
it is considered that this same foreman was probably, at the time, enjoying a
brutal feeling of power, it is no wonder that no sense of confidence of the
"square deal" could develop. There are countless ways that the brutal