Cattle and Their Diseases Robert Jennings 1524 downloads.pdf

The Project Gutenberg eBook of Cattle and Their Diseases
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the
world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-
use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of
the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Cattle and Their Diseases

Author: Robert Jennings

Release date: September 26, 2007 [eBook #22771]

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22771

Credits: Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Constanze Hofmann and the
Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
(This file was produced from images produced by Core
Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell
University)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES ***

Transcriber's Note:
A number of typographical errors have been corrected. They are
shown in the text with mouse-hover popups.

CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES

EMBRACING

THEIR HISTORY AND BREEDS, CROSSING AND BREEDING, AND
FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; WITH THE DISEASES

TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT, AND
THE REMEDIES BEST ADAPTED

TO THEIR CURE.

TO WHICH IS ADDED A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE.

BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S.,
PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY
COLLEGE OF

PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE
AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION
OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE
AND HIS DISEASES," ETC., ETC.

PHILADELPHIA:
John E. Potter and Company,

617 Sansom Street.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by
JOHN E. POTTER,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Eastern District of

Pennsylvania.

PREFACE.
A marked interest has of late years been manifested in our country relative to the subject of
breeding and rearing domestic cattle. This has not been confined to the dairyman alone. The
greater portion of intelligent agriculturists have perceived the necessity of paying more attention
than was formerly devoted to the improvement and perfection of breeds for the uses of the table as
well. In this respect, European cattle-raisers have long taken the precedence of our own.
The gratifying favor with which the author's former publication, "The Horse and his Diseases," has
been received by the public, has induced him to believe that a work, similar in spirit and general
treatment, upon Cattle, would not be without interest for the agricultural community.
In this belief, the present treatise has been prepared. The author has availed himself of the labors of
others in this connection; never, however, adopting results and conclusions, no matter how
strongly endorsed, which have been contradicted by his own observation and experience. In a field
like the one in question, assuredly, if anywhere, some degree of independent judgment will not be
censured by those who are familiar with the sad consequences resulting from the attempted
application of theories now universally exploded, but which in the day and generation of their
originators were sanctioned and advocated by those who claimed to be magnates in this
department.
To the following works, especially, the author acknowledges himself indebted: American Farmer's
Encyclopædia; Stephens's Book of the Farm; Flint's Milch-Cows and Dairy Farming; Laurence on
Cattle; Allen's Domestic Animals; Youatt and Martin on Cattle; Thomson's Food of Animals;
Allen's Rural Architecture; Colman's Practical Agriculture and Rural Economy; Goodale's
Breeding of Domestic Animals; and Prof. Gamgee's valuable contributions to veterinary science.
Particular attention is requested to the division of "Diseases." Under this head, as in his former
work, the author has endeavored to detail the symptoms of the most common ailments of cattle in
such a manner that every farmer and cattle-owner can at once understand them, and also to suggest
such procurable remedies as a wide experience has proved to be most efficacious.
A generous space has been devoted to the consideration of that fatal epidemic, now generally
known as "Pleuro-Pneumonia," as it has manifested itself in Europe and this country, in the belief
that a matter of such vital importance to the stock-raiser ought to receive a complete exposition in
a work like the present. As the author's personal experience in connection with the treatment of
this peculiar disease has been, perhaps, as large and varied as that of any American practitioner, he
is not without the hope that his views upon the matter may prove productive of some benefit to
others.
Should the present volume prove as acceptable to those interested as did his former work, the
author will be abundantly satisfied that he has not mistaken in this instance the wants of the public.

CONTENTS.
HISTORY AND BREEDS OF CATTLE, 13
The British Ox, 15
American Cattle, 21
The Ayrshire, 23
The Jersey, 30
The Short-Horns, 32
The Dutch, 36
The Hereford, 38
The North-Devon, 41
Native Cattle, 43
Natural History of Cattle, 50
Gestation, 51
Formation of Teeth, 51
Points of a Good Cow, 57
The Milk-Mirror, 61
CROSSING AND BREEDING, 77
Pregnancy, 92
Treatment Before Calving, 93
FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT, 97
Soiling, 118
Culture of Grasses for Fodder, 122
The Barn, 146
Milking, 155
Raising of Calves, 168
Points of Fat Cattle, 183
Driving and Slaughtering, 188
DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES, 205
Abortion, 206
Apoplexy, 215
Black-Water, 215
Bronchitis, 216
Consumption, 217
Coryza, 217
Cow-pox, 218
Diarrhœa, 219
Dysentery, 220
Enteritis, 222
Epizoötics, 224
Epizoötic Catarrh, 234
Fardel, 236
Foul in the Foot, 237
Garget, 237
Gastro-enteritis, 238

Hoose, 238
Hoove, 239
Hydatids, 240
Inflammation of the Bladder, 241
Inflammation of the Haw, 241
Inflammation of the Kidneys, 242
Inflammation of the Liver, 242
Laryngitis, 243
Lice, 244
Mange, 244
Murrain, 246
Navel-ill, 247
Obstructions in the Œsophagus, 247
Open Joints, 248
Parturition, 248
Free Martins, 251
Cleansing, 253
Inversion of the Uterus, 253
Phrenitis, 254
Pleurisy, 255
Pleuro-pneumonia, 256
Pneumonia, 300
Protrusion of the Bladder, 302
Puerperal Fever, 302
Quarter Evil, 303
Rabies, 304
Red Water, 305
Rheumatism, 307
Strangulation of the Intestines, 308
Thrush in the Mouth, 308
Tumors, 308
Ulcers about the Joints, 312
Warbles, 313
Worms, 315
Worms in the Bronchial Tubes, 316
Surgical Operations, 316
Castration, 316
Tracheotomy, 319
Spaying, 320
List of Medicines used in Treating Cattle, 330
Doses of Various Medicines, 336

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE
A Prize Bull,13
The Well-fed Beasts,19
An Ayrshire Bull,23
A Short-horn Bull,33
A North Devon Steer,41
Draft Oxen,45
Skeleton of the Ox,50
Teeth at Birth,52
Teeth at Second Week,52
Teeth at Three Weeks,53
Teeth at a Month,53
Teeth at Five to Eight Months,53
Ten Months Teeth,53
Twelve Months Teeth,54
Fifteen Months Teeth,54
Eighteen Months Teeth,55
Teeth at Two Years Past,55
Teeth at Three Years Past,56
Teeth at Four Years Past,56
Teeth at Five Years Past,56
Teeth at Ten Years Past,56
A Good Milch Cow,58
Milk-Mirror (A),62
Milk-Mirror (B),63
Milk-Mirror (C),63
Milk-Mirror (D),64
Milk-Mirror (E),65
Milk-Mirror (F),66
Milk-Mirror (G),69
Milk-Mirror (H),70
Milk-Mirror (K),72
Milk-Mirror (L),74
Cow and Calf,77
Ready for Action,83
A Sprightly Youth,89
Feeding,97
The Family Pets,102
Buying Cattle,107
Calling in the Cattle,112
"On the Rampage",117
Patiently Waiting,123
A Chance for a Selection,129

A West Highland Ox,139
Barn for Thirty-four Cows and Three Yoke of Oxen,150
Transverse Section,152
Room over the Cow-Room,153
The Preferable Method,159
Maternal Affection,168
Frolicksome,177
Points of Cattle,185
A Frontispiece,190
Scotch Mode of Cutting up Beef,195
English Mode of Cutting up Beef,197
Diseases and Their Remedies,205
A Chat on the Road,218
The Mad Bull,230
An Aberdeenshire Polled Bull,244
Taking an Observation,256
The Twins,268
A Rural Scene,285
Taking it Easily,299
Home Again,313

History and Breeds

It is quite certain that the ox has been domesticated and in the service of man from a very remote
period. We are informed in the fourth chapter of Genesis, that cattle were kept by the early
descendants of Adam; Jubal, the son of Lamech—who was probably born during the lifetime of
Adam—being styled the father of such as have cattle. The ox having been preserved by Noah from
the flood of waters, the original breed of our present cattle must have been in the neighborhood of
Mount Ararat. From thence, dispersing over the face of the globe—altering by climate, by food,
and by cultivation—originated the various breeds of modern ages.
That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and climates highly appreciated, we have ample
evidence. The natives of Egypt, India, and Hindostan, seem alike to have placed the cow amongst
their deities; and, judging by her usefulness to all classes, no animal could perhaps have been
selected whose value to mankind is greater. The traditions, indeed, of every Celtic nation enroll the
cow among the earliest productions, and represent it as a kind of divinity.
In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for their labor, for their milk, and for food. In
southern Africa they are as much the associates of the Caffre as the horse is of the Arab. They
share his toils, and assist him in tending his herds. They are even trained to battle, in which they
become fierce and courageous. In central Africa the proudest ebony beauties are to be seen upon
the backs of cattle. In all ages they have drawn the plough. In Spain they still trample out the corn;
in India they raise the water from the deepest wells to irrigate the thirsty soil of Bengal. When

Cæsar invaded Britain they constituted the chief riches of its inhabitants; and they still form no
inconsiderable item in the estimate of that country's riches.
The parent race of the ox is said to have been much larger than any of the present varieties. The
Urus, in his wild state at least, was an enormous and fierce animal, and ancient legends have
thrown around him an air of mystery. In almost every part of the continent of Europe and in every
district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle, have been found, far exceeding in bulk
any now known.
As the various breeds of cattle among us were introduced into this country from Great Britain, we
propose, before going into the details of the leading American breeds, to glance somewhat briefly
at the history of

THE BRITISH OX.

In the earliest and most reliable accounts which we possess of the British Isles—the Commentaries
of Cæsar—we learn that the ancient Britons possessed great numbers of cattle. No satisfactory
description of these cattle occurs in any ancient author; but, with occasional exceptions, we know
that they possessed no great bulk or beauty. Cæsar tells us that the Britons neglected tillage and
lived on milk and flesh; and this account of the early inhabitants of the British Isle is corroborated
by other authors. It was such an occupation and mode of life as suited their state of society. The
island was divided into many little sovereignties; no fixed property was secure; and that alone was
valuable which could be hurried away at the threatened approach of the invader. Many centuries
after this, when—although one sovereign seemed to reign paramount over the whole of the
kingdom—there continued to be endless contests among the feudal barons, and therefore that
property alone continued to be valuable which could be secured within the walls of the castle, or
driven beyond the assailant's reach—an immense stock of provisions was always stored up in the
various fortresses, both for the vassals and the cattle; or it was contrived that the latter should be
driven to the domains of some friendly baron, or concealed in some inland recess.
When the government became more powerful and settled, and property of every kind was assured
a proportionate degree of protection, as well as more equally divided, the plough came into use;
agricultural productions were oftener cultivated, the reaping of which was sure after the labor of
sowing. Cattle were then comparatively neglected and for some centuries injuriously so. Their
numbers diminished, and their size also seems to have diminished; and it is only within the last
century and a half that any serious and successful efforts have been made materially to improve
them.
In the comparatively roving and uncertain life which the earlier inhabitants led, their cattle would
sometimes stray and be lost. The country was at that time overgrown with forests, and the beasts
betook themselves to the recesses of these woods, and became wild and sometimes ferocious.
They, by degrees, grew so numerous as to be dangerous to the inhabitants of the neighboring
districts. One of the chronicles asserts that many of them harbored in the forests in the
neighborhood of London. Strange stories are told of some of them, and, doubtless, when irritated,
they were fierce and dangerous enough. As, however, civilization advanced, and the forests
became thinned and contracted, these animals were seen more rarely, and at length almost

disappeared. A few of them, however, are still to be found in the parks of some of the leading
English noblemen, who keep them for ornament and as curiosities.
The color of this wild breed is invariably white, the muzzle being black; the whole of the inside of
the ear, and about one-third of the outside, from the tips downward, red; horns white, with black
tips, very fine, and bent upward; some of the bulls have a thin, upright mane, about an inch and a
half or two inches long. The beef is finely marbled and of excellent flavor.
At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop, and at the distance of about two
hundred yards, make a wheel around and come boldly up again in a menacing manner; on a
sudden they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of
their surprise; but upon the least motion they all again turn round and fly off with equal speed, but
not to the same distance, forming a shorter circle; and, again returning with a more threatening
aspect than before, they approach probably within thirty yards, when they again make another
stand, and then fly off; this they do several times, shortening their distance and advancing nearer
and nearer, till they come within such short distance that most persons think it prudent to leave
them.
When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in some retired situation, and
go and suckle them two or three times a day. If any persons come near the calves they clap their
heads close to the ground to hide themselves—a proof of their native wildness. The dams allow no
one to touch their young without attacking with impetuous ferocity. When one of the herd happens
to be wounded, or has grown weak and feeble through age or sickness, the rest set on it and gore it
to death.
The breeds of cattle which are now found in Great Britain, are almost as various as the soil of the
different districts or the fancies of the breeders. They have, however, been very conveniently
classed according to the comparative size of the horns; the long-horns, originally from Lancashire,
and established through most of the midland counties; the short-horns, generally cultivated in the
northern counties and in Lincolnshire, and many of them found in every part of the kingdom where
the farmer pays much attention to his dairy, or where a large supply of milk is desired; and the
middle-horns, a distinct and valuable breed, inhabiting, principally, the north of Devon, the east of
Sussex, Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; and of diminished bulk and with somewhat different
character, the cattle of the Scottish and Welsh mountains. The Alderney, with its crumpled horn, is
found on the southern coast; while the polled, or hornless, cattle prevail in Suffolk, Norfolk, and
Galloway, whence they were first derived.
These leading breeds, however, have been intermingled in every possible way. They are found
pure only in their native districts, or on the estate of some wealthy and spirited individuals. Each
county has its own mongrel breed, often difficult to be described, and not always to be traced—
neglected enough, yet suited to the soil and the climate; and among small farmers, maintaining
their station, in spite of attempts at improvements by the intermixture or the substitution of foreign
varieties.
Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British cattle. The battle has been sharply
fought between the advocates of the middle and of the long-horns. The short-horns and the polls
are out of the lists; the latter, although it has existed in certain districts from time immemorial,
being probably an accidental variety. The weight of argument appears at present to rest with the
middle horns; the long-horns being evidently of Irish extraction.

THE WELL-FED BEASTS.
Great Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and oftener than they been overrun and
subjugated by invaders. As the natives retreated they carried with them some portion of their
property, consisting, in the remote and early times, principally of cattle. They drove along with
them as many as they could, when they retired to the fortresses of North Devon and Cornwall, or
the mountainous region of Wales, or when they took refuge in the retirement of East Sussex; and
there, retaining all their prejudices, manners, and customs, were jealous of the preservation of that
which reminded them of their native country before it yielded to a foreign yoke.
In this way was preserved the ancient breed of British cattle. Difference of climate produced some
change, particularly in their bulk. The rich pasturage of Sussex fattened the ox into its superior size
and weight. The plentiful, but not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of Devon produced a smaller
and more active animal; while the privations of Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of
the Welsh Stock. As for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance; or its inhabitants retreated for a
while, and soon turned again on their pursuers. They were proud of their country, and of their
cattle, their choicest possession; and there, also, the cattle were preserved, unmixed and
undegenerated.
Thence it has resulted, that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, and in Scotland, the cattle have been the
same from time immemorial; while in all the eastern coasts and through every district of England,
the breed of cattle degenerated, or lost its original character; it consisted of animals brought from
all the neighboring, and some remote districts, mingled in every possible variety, yet conforming
to the soil and the climate.
Careful observations will establish the fact, that the cattle in Devonshire, Sussex, Wales, and
Scotland are essentially the same. They are middle horned; not extraordinary milkers, and
remarkable for the quality rather than the quantity of their milk; active at work, and with an
unequalled aptitude to fatten. They have all the characters of the same breed, changed by soil,
climate, and time, yet little changed by man. The color, even, may be almost traced, namely: the

red of the Devon, the Sussex, and the Hereford; and where only the black are now found, the
recollection of the red prevails.
As this volume is intended especially for the farmers of our own country, it is deemed unnecessary
in this connection to present any thing additional under the present head, except the names of the
prominent species of British cattle. These are, commencing with the middle horns, the North
Devon, the Hereford, the Sussex, the Welsh (with the varieties of the Pembrokeshire, the
Glamorganshire, the Radnor black, the Anglesea and some others); and the Scotch with its chief
varieties, the West Highlanders, the North Highlanders, the North Eastern, the Fife, the Ayrshire,
and the Galloways.
As to the long horns, which came originally from Craven in Yorkshire, it may be remarked that
this breed has been rapidly disappearing of late, and has everywhere given place to better kinds. Of
this species there are—or perhaps were—two leading classes, the Lancashire and the
Leicestershire improved.
Of the short horns, the leading breeds are the Dutch, the Holderness, the Teeswater, the Yorkshire,
the Durham, the Northumberland, and some others.

AMERICAN CATTLE.

The breeds of cattle which stock the farms of the United States are all derived from Europe, and,
with few exceptions, from Great Britain. The highest breeds at the present time are of
comparatively recent origin, since the great improvements in breeding were only commenced at
about the period of the American Revolution. The old importations made by the early settlers, must
consequently have been from comparatively inferior grades.
In some sections of the Union, and more particularly in New England, the primitive stock is
thought to have undergone considerable improvement; whilst in many parts of the Middle, and
especially of the Southern States, a greater or less depreciation has ensued. The prevailing stock in
the Eastern States is believed to be derived from the North Devons, most of the excellent marks
and qualities of which they possess. For this reason they are very highly esteemed, and have been
frequently called the American Devon. The most valuable working oxen are chiefly of this breed,
which also contributes so largely to the best displays of beef found in the markets of Boston, New
York, and Philadelphia. By means of this domestic stock, and the importations still extensively
made of selections from the short horns, and others of the finest European breeds, the cattle, not
only of New England, but of other sections, are rapidly improving, especially in the Middle and
Western States.
A brief sketch of the principal breeds of American cattle, as well as of the grades or common stock
of the country, will be of service to the farmer in making an intelligent selection with reference to
the special object of pursuit—whether it be the dairy, the production of beef, or the raising of cattle
for work.
In selecting any breed, regard should be had to the circumstances of the individual farmer and the
object to be pursued. The cow most profitable for the milk dairy, may be very unprofitable in the
butter and cheese dairy, as well as for the production of beef; while, for either of the latter objects,

the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk might be very undesirable. A union and harmony
of all good qualities must be secured, so far as possible. The farmer wants a cow that will milk
well for some years; and then, when dry, fatten readily and sell to the butcher for the highest price.
These qualities, often supposed to be utterly incompatible, will be found united in some breeds to a
greater extent than in others; while some peculiarities of form have been found, by observation, to
be better adapted to the production of milk and beef than others.
It is proposed, therefore, to sketch the pure breeds now found in America.

THE AYRSHIRE.

AN AYRSHIRE BULL.
This breed is justly celebrated throughout Great Britain and this country for its excellent dairy
qualities. Though the most recent in their origin, they are pretty distinct from the Scotch and
English races. In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red and white, spotted or mottled, not roan
like many of the short horns, but often presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes,
though rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black and white; but the favorite color is red
and white brightly contrasted; and, by some, strawberry-color is preferred. The head is small, fine
and clean; the face long and narrow at the muzzle, with a sprightly, yet generally mild expression;
eye small, smart and lively; the horns short, fine, and slightly twisted upward, set wide apart at the
roots; the neck thin; body enlarging from fore to hind quarters; the back straight and narrow, but
broad across the loin; joints rather loose and open; ribs rather flat; hind quarters rather thin; bone
fine; tail long, fine, and bushy at the end; hair generally thin and soft; udder light color and
capacious, extending well forward under the belly; teats of the cow of medium size, generally set
regularly and wide apart; milk-veins prominent and well developed. The carcass of the pure bred
Ayrshire is light, particularly the fore quarters, which is considered by good judges as an index of
great milking qualities; but the pelvis is capacious and wide over the hips.
On the whole, the Ayrshire is good looking, but wants some of the symmetry and aptitude to fatten
which characterize the short horn, which is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable

breed on the basis of the original stock of the county of Ayr, which extends along the eastern shore
of the Firth of Clyde, in the southwestern part of Scotland.
The original stock of this country are described as of a diminutive size, ill fed, ill shaped, and
yielding but a scanty return in milk. They were mostly of a black color, with large stripes of white
along the chine and ridge of their backs, about the flanks, and on their faces. Their horns were high
and crooked, having deep ringlets at the root—the surest proof that they were but scantily fed; the
chine of their backs stood up high and narrow; their sides were lank, short, and thin; their hides
thick and adhering to the bones; their pile was coarse and open; and few of them gave more than
six or eight quarts of milk a day when in their best condition, or weighed, when fat, more than
from a hundred to a hundred and sixty pounds avoirdupois, rejecting offal.
A wonderful change has since been made in the condition, aspect, and qualities of the Ayrshire
dairy stock. They are now almost double the size, and yield about four times the quantity of milk
that the Ayrshire cows formerly yielded. A large part of this improvement is due to better feeding
and care, but much, no doubt, to judicious crossing. Strange as it may seem, considering the
modern origin of this breed, all that is certainly known touching it is, that about a century and a
half ago there was no such breed as Ayrshire in Scotland. The question has therefore arisen,
whether these cattle came entirely from a careful selection of the best native breed. If they did, it is
a circumstance without a parallel in the history of agriculture. The native breed may indeed be
ameliorated by careful selection; its value may be incalculably increased; some good qualities,
some of its best qualities, may be developed for the first time; but yet there will be some
resemblance to the original stock, and the more the animal is examined, the more clearly can be
traced the characteristic points of the ancestor, although every one of them is improved.
Youatt estimates the daily yield of an Ayrshire cow, for the first two or three months after calving,
at five gallons a day, on an average; for the next three months, at three gallons; and for the next
four months, at one gallon and a half. This would give eight hundred and fifty gallons as the
annual average; but, allowing for some unproductive cows, he estimates the average of a dairy at
six hundred gallons a year for each cow. Three gallons and a half of the Ayrshire cow's milk will
yield one and a half pounds of butter. Some have estimated the yield still higher.
One of the four cows originally imported into this country by John P. Cushing, Esq., of
Massachusetts, gave in one year three thousand eight hundred and sixty-four quarts, beer measure,
or about nine hundred and sixty-six gallons, at ten pounds the gallon; being an average of over ten
and a half beer quarts a day for the entire year. The first cow of this breed, imported by the
Massachusetts Society, for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1837, yielded sixteen pounds of butter
a week for several successive weeks, on grass feed only. It should be borne in mind, in this
connection that the climate of New England is less favorable to the production of milk than that of
England and Scotland, and that no cow imported after arriving at maturity can be expected to yield
as much, under the same circumstances, as one bred on the spot where the trial is made, and
perfectly acclimated.
On excellent authority, the most approved shape and marks of a good dairy cow are as follows:
Head small, long, and narrow toward the muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at
considerable distance from each other; eyes not large, but brisk and lively; neck slender and long,
tapering toward the head, with a little loose skin below; shoulders and fore quarters light and thin;
hind quarters large and broad; back straight, and joints slack and open; carcass deep in the rib; tail
small and long, reaching to the heels; legs small and short, with firm joints; udder square, but a
little oblong, stretching forward, thin skinned and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small,

pointing outward, and at a considerable distance from each other; milk-veins capacious and
prominent; skin loose, thin, and soft like a glove; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when
in flesh, handsome and well proportioned.
If this description of the Ayrshire cow be correct, it will be seen that her head and neck are
remarkably clean and fine, the latter swelling gradually toward the shoulders, both parts being
unencumbered with superfluous flesh. The same general form extends backward, the fore quarters
being, light the shoulders thin, and the carcass swelling out toward the hind quarters, so that when
standing in front of her it has the form of a blunted wedge. Such a structure indicates very fully
developed digestive organs, which exert a powerful influence on all the functions of the body, and
especially on the secretion of the milky glands, accompanied with milk-veins and udder partaking
of the same character as the stomach and viscera, being large and capacious, while the external
skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin and elastic, and all parts arranged in a manner
especially adapted for the production of milk.
A cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and docile temper, which greatly increases her
value. A cow that is of a quiet and contented disposition feeds at ease, is milked with ease, and
yields more than one of an opposite temperament; while, after she is past her usefulness as a
milker, she will easily take on fat, and make fine beef and a good quantity of tallow, because she
feeds freely, and when dry the food which went to make milk is converted into fat and flesh. But
there is no breed of cows with which gentle gentleness of treatment is so indispensable as with the
Ayrshire, on account of her naturally nervous temperament. If she receives other than kind and
gentle treatment, she will often resent it with angry looks and gestures, and withhold her milk; and
if such treatment is long continued, will dry up; but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand
that fondles her, and all her looks and movements toward her friends are quiet and mild.
The Ayrshires in their native country are generally bred for the dairy, and for no other object; and
the cows have justly obtained a world-wide reputation for this quality. The oxen are, however, very
fair as working cattle, though they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this respect. The Ayrshire
steer maybe fed and turned at three years old; but for feeding purposes the Ayrshires are greatly
improved by a cross with the short horns, provided regard is had to the size of the animal. It is the
opinion of good breeders that a high-bred short horn bull and a large-sized Ayrshire cow will
produce a calf which will come to maturity earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more
money than a pure-bred Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from the start, may be sold fat at two or
three years old, the improvement being most noticeable in the earlier maturity and size.
In the Cross with the short horn, the form ordinarily becomes more symmetrical, while there is,
perhaps, little risk of lessening the milking qualities of the offspring, if sufficient regard is paid to
the selection of the individual animals to breed from. It is thought by some that in the breeding of
animals it is the male which gives the external form, or the bony and muscular system of the
young, while the female imparts the respiratory organs, the circulation of the blood, the organs of
secretion, and the like.
If this principle be true, it follows that the milking qualities come chiefly from the mother, and that
the bull cannot materially alter the conditions which determine the transmission of these qualities,
especially when they are as strongly marked as they are in this breed.
Until, however, certain mooted questions connected with breeding are definitively settled, it is the
safest plan, in breeding for the dairy, to adhere to the rule of selecting only animals whose
progenitors on both sides have been distinguished for their milking qualities.

It may be stated, in conclusion, that for purely dairy purposes the Ayrshire cow deserves the first
place. In consequence of her small, symmetrical, and compact body, combined with a well-formed
chest and a capacious stomach, there is little waste, comparatively speaking, through the
respiratory system; while at the same time there is very complete assimilation of the food, and thus
she converts a very large proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable is this fact, that all dairy
farmers who have any experience on the point, agree in stating that an Ayrshire cow generally
gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed than a cow of any other breed. The absolute
quality may not be so great, but it is obtained at a less cost; and this is the point upon which the
question of profit depends. The best milkers which have been known in this country were grade
Ayrshires, larger in size than the pure bloods, but still sufficiently high grades to give certain signs
of their origin. This grade would seem to possess the advantage of combining, to some extent, the
two qualities of milking and adaptation to beef; and this is no small recommendation of the stock
to farmers situated as American farmers are, who wish for milk for some years and then to turn
over to the butcher.

THE JERSEY.

These cattle are now widely known in this country. Many of them have been imported from an
island of the same name in the British Channel, near the coast of France, and they may now be
considered, for all practical purposes, as fully acclimated. They were first introduced, upward of
thirty years ago, from the channel islands, Alderney, Guernsey, and Jersey.
This race is supposed to have been originally derived from Normandy, in the northern part of
France. The cows have been long celebrated for the production of very rich milk and cream, but
till within the last twenty-five or thirty years they were comparatively coarse, ugly, and ill-shaped.
Improvements have been very marked, but the form of the animal is still far from satisfying the
eye.
The head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek small, the throat clean, the muzzle fine
and encircled with a light stripe, the nostril high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, but not
very thick at the base, tapering and tipped with black; ears small and thin, deep orange color
inside; eyes full and placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; barrel hoofed, broad and
deep, well ribbed up; back straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the
setting of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and hanging down to the hocks; skin thin,
light color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair; fore legs short, straight and fine below the
knee, arm swelling and full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs short and straight
below the hocks, with bones rather fine, squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small;
udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up behind; teats of medium size, squarely
placed and wide apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The color is generally cream, dun, or
yellow, with more or less of white, and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-
like appearance, and make them objects of attraction in the park; but the hind quarters are often too
narrow to work well, particularly to those who judge animals by the amount of fat which they
carry.
It should be borne in mind, however, that a good race of animals is not always the most beautiful,
as that term is generally understood. Beauty in stock has no invariable standard. In the estimation
of some, it results mainly from fine forms, small bones, and close, compact frames; while others

consider that structure the most perfect, and therefore the most beautiful, which is best adapted to
the use for which it is destined. With such, beauty is relative. It is not the same in an animal
designed for beef and in one designed for the dairy or for work. The beauty of a milch cow is the
result of her good qualities. Large milkers are very rarely cows that please the eye of any but a
skillful judge. They are generally poor, since their food goes mainly to the production of milk, and
because they are selected with less regard to form than to good milking qualities. The prevailing
opinion as to the beauty of the Jersey, is based on the general appearance of the cow when in milk
—no experiments in feeding exclusively for beef having been made public, and no opportunity to
form a correct judgment from actual observation having been furnished; and it must be confessed
that the general appearance of the breed would amply justify the hasty conclusion.
The bulls are usually very different in character and disposition from the cows, and are much
inclined to become restive and cross at the age of two or three years, unless their treatment is
uniformly gentle and firm.
The Jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed, and that almost exclusively. It would not be sought
for large dairies kept for the supply of milk to cities; for, though the quality would gratify the
customer, the quantity would not satisfy the owner. The place of the Jersey cow is rather in private
establishments, where the supply of cream and butter is a sufficient object; or, in limited numbers,
to add richness to the milk of large butter dairies. Even one or two good Jersey cows with a herd of
fifteen or twenty, will make a great difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the whole
establishment; and they would probably be profitable for this, if for no other object.

THE SHORT HORNS.

No breed of cattle has commanded more universal admiration during the last half century than the
improved short horns, whose origin can be traced back for nearly a hundred years. According to
the best authorities, the stock which formed the basis of improvement existed equally in Yorkshire,
Lincolnshire, Northumberland, and the adjoining counties; and the pre-eminence was accorded to
Durham, which gave its name to the race, from the more correct principles of breeding which seem
to have obtained there.
There is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to how far it owes its origin to early
importations from Holland, whence many superior animals were brought for the purpose of
improving the old long horned breed. A large race of cattle had existed for many years on the
western shores of the continent of Europe. As early as 1633, they were imported from Denmark
into New England in considerable numbers, and thus laid the foundation of a valuable stock in
farming at a very early date in Holland, and experience led to the greatest care in the choice and
breeding of dairy stock. From these cattle many selections were made to cross over to the counties
of York and Durham. The prevailing color of the large Dutch cattle was black and white,
beautifully contrasted.

A SHORT HORN BULL.
The cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were known by the name of "Dutch." The cows
selected for crossing with the early imported Dutch bulls were generally long horned, large boned,
coarse animals, a fair type of which was found in the old "Holderness" breed of Yorkshire—slow
feeders, strong in the shoulder, defective in the fore quarter, and not very profitable to the butcher,
their meat being coarse and uninviting. Their milking qualities were good, surpassing those,
probably, of the improved short horns. Whatever may be the truth with regard to these crosses, and
however far they proved effective in creating or laying the foundation of the modern improved
short horns, the results of the efforts made in Yorkshire and some of the adjoining counties were
never so satisfactory to the best judges as those of the breeders along the Tees, who selected
animals with greater reference to fineness of bone and symmetry of form, and the animals they
bred soon took the lead and excited great emulation in improvement.
Importations of short horns have been frequent and extensive into the United States within the last
few years, and this famous breed is now pretty generally diffused over the country.
The high-bred short horn is easily prepared for a show, and, as fat will cover faults, the temptation
is often too great to be resisted; and hence it is not uncommon to see the finest animals rendered
unfit for breeding purposes by over-feeding. The race is susceptible of breeding for the production
of milk, as several families show, and great milkers have often been known among pure-bred
animals; but it is more common to find it bred mainly for the butcher, and kept accordingly. It is,
however, a well-known fact, that the dairies of London are stocked chiefly with short horns and
Yorkshires, or high grades between them, which, after being milked as long as profitable, feed
equal, or nearly so, to pure-bred short horns. It has been said, by very good authority, that the short
horns improve every breed with which they cross.
The desirable characteristics of the short horn bull may be summed up, according to the judgment
of the best breeders, as follows: He should have a short but fine head, very broad across the eyes,
tapering to the nose, with a nostril full and prominent; the nose itself should be of a rich flesh
color; eyes bright and mild; ears somewhat large and thin; horns slightly covered and rather flat,
well set on; a long, broad, muscular neck; chest wide, deep, and projecting; shoulders fine,
oblique, well formed into the chine; fore legs short, with upper arm large and powerful; barrel
round, deep, well-ribbed horns; hips wide and level; back straight from the withers to the setting

on of the tail, but short from hips to chine; skin soft and velvety to the touch; moderately thick
hair, plentiful, soft, and mossy. The cow has the same points in the main, but her head is finer,
longer, and more tapering; neck thinner and lighter, and shoulders more narrow across the chine.
The astonishing precocity of the short horns, their remarkable aptitude to fatten, the perfection of
their forms, and the fineness of their bony structure, give them an advantage over most other races
when the object of breeding is for the shambles. No animal of any other breed can so rapidly
transform the stock of any section around him as the improved short horn bull.
It does not, however, follow that the high-bred short horns are unexceptionable, even for beef. The
very exaggeration, so to speak, of the qualities which make them so valuable for the improvement
of other and less perfect races, may become a fault when wanted for the table. The very rapidity
with which they increase in size is thought by some to prevent their meat from ripening up
sufficiently before being hurried off to the butcher. The disproportion of the fatty to the muscular
flesh, found in this to a greater extent than in races coming more slowly to maturity, makes the
meat of the thorough-bred short horn, in the estimation of some, less agreeable to the taste, and
less profitable to the consumer; since the nitrogenous compounds, true sources of nutriment, are
found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so highly bred.
In sections where the climate is moist, and the food abundant and rich, some families of the short
horns may be valuable for the dairy; but they are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this
country, and in sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and beauty, so
little is thought of their milking qualities that they are often not milked at all, the calf being
allowed to run with the dam.

THE DUTCH.

This short horned race, in the opinion of many—as has been previously remarked—contributed
largely, about a century ago, to build up the Durham or Teeswater stock. It has been bred with
special reference to dairy qualities, and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the dairy
farmer. The cows of North Holland not only give a large quantity, but also a very good quality, so
that a yield of sixteen to twenty-five quarts, wine measure, at every milking, is not rare.
The principles upon which the inhabitants of Holland practise, in selecting a cow from which to
breed, are as follows: She should have, they say, considerable size—not less than four and a half or
five feet girth, with a length of body corresponding; legs proportionally short; a finely formed
head, with a forehead or face somewhat concave; clear, large, mild and sparkling eyes, yet with no
expression of wildness; tolerably large and stout ears, standing out from the head; fine, well curved
horns; a rather short, than long, thick, broad neck, well set against the chest and withers; the front
part of the breast and shoulders must be broad and fleshy; the low-hanging dewlap must be soft to
the touch; the back and loins must be properly projected, somewhat broad, the bones not too sharp,
but well covered with flesh; the animal should have long curved ribs, which form a broad breast
bone; the body must be round and deep, but not sunken into a hanging belly; the rump must not be
uneven, the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and spreading, but all the parts should be
level and well filled up; a fine tail, set moderately high up and tolerably long, but slender, with a
thick, bushy tuft of hair at the end, hanging down below the hocks; the legs must be short and low,
but strong in the bony structure; the knees broad, with flexible joints; the muscles and sinews must

be firm and sound, the hoofs broad and flat, and the position of the legs natural, not too close and
crowded; the hide, covered with fine glossy hair, must be soft and mellow to the touch, and set
loose upon the body. A large, rather long, white and loose udder, extending well back, with four
long teats, serves also as a characteristic mark of a good milch cow. Large and prominent milk-
veins must extend from the navel back to the udder; the belly of a good milch cow should not be
too deep and hanging. The color of the North Dutch cattle is mostly variegated. Cows with only
one color are no favorites. Red or black variegated, gray and blue variegated, roan, spotted and
white variegated cows, are especially liked.

THE HEREFORD.

These cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of England. Their general
characteristics are a white face, sometimes mottled; white throat, the white generally extending
back on the neck, and sometimes, though rarely, still further along on the back. The color of the
rest of the body is red, generally dark, but sometimes light. Eighty years ago the best Hereford
cattle were mottled or roan all over; and some of the best herds, down to a comparatively recent
period, were either all mottled, or had the mottled or speckled face.
The expression of the face is mild and lively; the forehead open, broad, and large; the eyes bright
and full of vivacity; the horns glossy, slender and spreading; the head small, though larger than,
and not quite so clear as, that of the Devons; the lower jaw fine; neck long and slender; chest deep;
breast-bone large, prominent, and very muscular; the shoulder-blade light; shoulder full and soft;
brisket and loins large; hips well developed, and on a level with the chine; hind quarters long and
well filled in; buttocks on a level with the back, neither falling off nor raised above the hind
quarters; tail slender, well set on; hair fine and soft; body round and full; carcass deep and well
formed, or cylindrical; bone small; thigh short and well made; legs short and straight, and slender
below the knee; as handlers very excellent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the
shoulder, and along the sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of medium thickness, rolling on the
neck and the hips; hair bright; face almost bare, which is characteristic of pure Herefords.
They belong to the middle horned division of the cattle of Great Britain, to which they are
indigenous, and have been improved within the last century by careful selections.
Hereford oxen are excellent animals, less active but stronger than the Devons, and very free and
docile. The demand for Herefords for beef prevents their being much used for work in their native
county, and the farmers there generally use horses instead of oxen.
It is generally conceded that the qualities in which Herefords stand pre-eminent among the middle-
sized breeds are in the production of oxen and their superiority of flesh. On these points there is
little chance of their being excelled. It should, however, be borne in mind that the best oxen are not
produced from the largest cows; nor is a superior quality of flesh, such as is considered very soft to
the touch, with thin skin. It is the union of these two qualities which often characterizes the short
horns; but Hereford breeders—as a recent writer remarks—should endeavor to maintain a higher
standard of excellence—that for which the best of the breed have always been esteemed—a
moderately thick, mellow hide, with a well apportioned combination of softness with elasticity. A
sufficiency of hair is also desirable, and if accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately, it is
more in esteem; but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is objectionable.

In point of symmetry and beauty of form, the well bred Herefords may be classed with the
improved short horns, though they arrive somewhat more slowly at maturity, and never attain such
weight. Like the improved short horns, they are chiefly bred for beef, and their beef is of the best
quality in the English markets, commanding the highest price of any, except perhaps, the West
Highlanders. The short horn produces more beef at the same age than the Hereford, but consumes
more food in proportion.
The Herefords are far less generally spread over England than the improved short horns. They
have seldom been bred for milk, as some families of the latter have; and it is not very unusual to
find pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk sufficient to nourish their calves. They have been
imported to this country to some extent, and several fine herds exist in different sections; the
earliest importations being those of Henry Clay, of Kentucky, in 1817.
The want of care and attention to the udder, soon after calving, especially if the cow be on
luxuriant grass, often injures her milking properties exceedingly. The practice in the county of
Hereford has generally been to let the calves suckle from four to six months, and bull calves often
run eight months with the cow. But their dairy qualities are perhaps as good as those of any cattle
whose fattening properties have been so carefully developed; and, though it is probable that they
could be bred for milk with proper care and attention, yet, as this change would be at the expense
of other qualities equally valuable, it would evidently be wiser to resort to other stock for the dairy.

THE NORTH DEVONS.

A NORTH DEVON STEER.
This beautiful race of middle horned cattle dates further back than any well established breed
among us. It goes generally under the simple name of Devon; but the cattle of the southern part of
the country, from which the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the northern,
having a larger and coarser frame, and far less tendency to fatten though their dairy qualities are
superior.

The North Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry and beauty, and are generally bred for
work and for beef, rather than for the dairy. The head is fine and well set on; the horns of medium
length, generally curved; color usually bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to yellow; skin
thin and orange-yellow; hair of medium length, soft and silky, making the animals remarkable as
handlers; muzzle of the nose white; eyes full and mild; ears yellowish, or orange-color inside, of
moderate size; neck rather long, with little dewlap; shoulders oblique; legs small and straight, with
feet in proportion; chest of good width; ribs round and expanded; loins of first-rate quality, long,
wide, and fleshy; hips round, of medium width; rump level; tail full near the setting on, tapering to
the tip; thighs of the bull and ox muscular and full, and high in the flank, though in the cow
sometimes thought to be light; the size medium, generally called small. The proportion of meat on
the valuable parts is greater, and the offal less, than on most other breeds, while it is well settled
that they consume less food in its production. The Devons are popular with the Smithfield
butchers, and their beef is well marbled or grained.
As working oxen, the Devons perhaps excel all other races in quickness, docility, beauty, and the
ease with which they are matched. With a reasonable load, they are said to be equal to horses as
walkers on the road, and when they are no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and turn well.
As milkers, they do not excel—perhaps they may be said not to equal—the other breeds, and they
have a reputation of being decidedly below the average. In their native country the general average
of the dairy is one pound of butter a day during the summer. They are bred for beef and for work,
and not for the dairy; and their yield of milk is small, though of a rich quality. Several animals,
however, of the celebrated Patterson herd would have been remarkable as milkers even among
good milking stock.
Still, the faults of the North Devon cow, considered as a dairy animal, are too marked to be
overlooked. The rotundity of form and compactness of frame, though they contribute to her
remarkable beauty constitute an objection to her for this purpose: since it is generally admitted that
the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is somewhat incompatible with
good milking qualities. On this account, Youatt—who is standard authority in such matters—says
that for the dairy the North Devon must be acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds.
The milk is good, and yields more than the average proportion of cream and butter; but it is
deficient in quantity. He also maintains that its property as a milker could not be improved without
producing a certain detriment to its grazing qualities. Distinguished Devon breeders themselves
have come to the same conclusion upon this point. The improved North Devon cow may be
classed, in this respect, with the Hereford, neither of which has well developed milk-vessels—a
point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman.

NATIVE CATTLE.

The foregoing comprise the pure-bred races in America; for, though other and well-established
breeds—like the Galloways, the long horns, the Spanish, and others—have, at times, been
imported, and have had some influence on our American stock, yet they have not been kept
distinct to such an extent as to become the prevailing stock of any particular section.
A large proportion, however—by far the largest proportion, indeed—of the cattle known among us
cannot be included under any of the races to which allusion has been made; and to the

consideration of this class the present article is devoted.
The term "breed"—as was set forth in the author's treatise, "The Horse and his Diseases"—when
properly understood, applies only to animals of the same species, possessing, besides the general
characteristics of that species, other characteristics peculiar to themselves, which they owe to the
influence of soil, climate, nourishment, and the habits of life to which they are subjected, and
which they transmit with certainty to their progeny. The characteristics of certain breeds or
families are so well marked, that, if an individual supposed to belong to any one of them were to
produce an offspring not possessing them, or possessing them only in part, with others not
belonging to the breed, it would be just ground for suspecting a want of purity of bloods.
In this view, no grade animals, and no animals destitute of fixed peculiarities or characteristics
which they, share in common with all other animals of the class of which they are a type, and
which they are capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants, can be recognized by
breeders as belonging to any one distinct race, breed, or family.
The term "native" is applied to a vast majority of our American cattle, which, though born on the
soil, and thus in one sense natives, do not constitute a breed, race, or family, as correctly
understood by breeders. They do not possess characteristics peculiar to them all, which they
transmit with any certainty to their offspring, either of form, size, color, milking or working
properties.
But, though an animal may be made up of a mixture of blood almost to impurity, it does not follow
that, for specific purposes, it may not, as an individual animal, be one of the best of the species.
Indeed, for particular purposes, animals might be selected from among those commonly called
"natives" in New England, and "scrubs" at the west and south, equal, and perhaps superior, to any
among the races produced by the most skillful breeding.
There can be no objection, therefore, to the use of the term "native," when it is understood as
descriptive of no known breed, but only as applied to the common stock of a country, which does
not constitute a breed. But perhaps the entire class of animals commonly called "natives" would be
more accurately described as grades; since they are well known to have sprung from a great
variety of cattle procured at different times and in different places on the continent of Europe, in
England, and in the Spanish West Indies, brought together without any regard to fixed principles of
breeding, but only from individual convenience, and by accident.
The first importations to this country were doubtless those taken to Virginia previous to 1609,
though the exact date of their arrival is not known. Several cows were carried there from the West
Indies in 1610, and in the next year no less than one hundred arrived there from abroad.

DRAFT OXEN.
The earliest cattle imported into New England arrived in 1624. At the division of cattle which took
place three years after, one or two are distinctly described as black, or black and white, others as
brindle, showing that there was no uniformity of color. Soon after this, a large number of cattle
were brought over from England for the settlers at Salem. These importations formed the original
stock of Massachusetts.
In 1725, the first importation was made into New York from Holland by the Dutch West India
Company, and the foundation was then laid for an exceedingly valuable race of animals, which,
subsequent importations from the same country, as well as from England, have greatly improved.
The points and value of this race in its purity have been already adverted to under the head of the
Dutch cattle.
In 1627, cattle were brought from Sweden to the settlements on the Delaware, by the Swedish
West India Company. In 1631, 1632, and 1633, several importations were made into New
Hampshire by Captain John Mason who, with Gorges, had procured the patent of large tracts of
land in the vicinity of the Piscataqua river, and who immediately formed settlements there. The
object of Mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash. For this purpose he employed the
Danes; and it was in his voyage to and from Denmark that he procured many Danish cattle and
horses, which were subsequently scattered over that entire region, large numbers being driven to
the vicinity of Boston and sold. These Danish cattle are described as large and coarse, of a yellow
color; and it is supposed that they were procured by Mason as being best capable of enduring the
severity of the climate and the hardships to which they would be subjected.
However this may have been, they very soon spread among the colonists of the Massachusetts
Bay, and have undoubtedly left their marks on the stock of the New England and the Middle
States, which exist to some extent even to the present day, mixed in with an infinite multitude of
crosses with the Devons, the Dutch cattle already alluded to, the black cattle of Spain and Wales,
and the long horn and the short horn—most of which crosses were accidental, or due to local
circumstances or individual convenience. Many of these cattle, the descendants of such crosses,
are of a very high order of merit; but to which particular cross this is due, it is impossible to say.
They generally make hardy, strong, and docile oxen, easily broken to the yoke and quick to work,

with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed; while the cows, though often ill-shaped, are
sometimes remarkably good milkers, especially as regards the quantity which they give.
Indeed, it has been remarked by excellent judges of stock, that if they desired to select a dairy of
cows for milk for sale, they would make their selection from cows commonly called native, in
preference to pure-bred animals of any of the established breeds, and that they believed they
should find such a dairy the most profitable.
In color, the natives, made up as already indicated, are exceedingly various. The old Denmarks,
which to a considerable extent laid the foundation of the stock of Maine and New Hampshire, were
light yellow. The Dutch of New York and the Middle States, were black and white; the Spanish
and Welsh were generally black; the Devons, which are supposed to have laid the foundation of
the stock of some of the States, were red. Crosses of the Denmark with the Spanish and Welsh
naturally made a dark brindle; crosses of the Devon often made a lighter or yellowish brindle
while the more recent importations of Jerseys and short horns have generally produced a beautiful
spotted progeny. The deep red has long been a favorite color in New England; but the prejudice in
its favor is fast giving way to more variegated colors.
Among the earlier importations into this country were also several varieties of hornless cattle,
which have been kept measurably distinct in some sections; or where they have been crossed with
the common stock there has been a tendency to produce hornless grades. These are not
unfrequently known as "buffalo cattle." They were, in many cases, supposed to belong to the
Galloway breed; or, which is more likely, to the Suffolk dun, a variety of the Galloway, and a far
better milking stock than the Galloways, from which, it sprung. These polled, or hornless cattle
vary in color and qualities, but they are usually very good milkers when well kept, and many of
them fatten well, and attain good weight.
The Hungarian cattle have also been imported, to some extent, into different parts of the country,
and have been crossed upon the natives with some success. Many other strains of blood from
different breeds have also contributed to build up the common stock of the country of the present
day; and there can be no question that its appearance and value have been largely improved during
the last quarter of a century, nor that improvements are still in progress which will lead to
satisfactory results in the future.
But, though we already have an exceedingly valuable foundation for improvement, no one will
pretend to deny that our cattle, as a whole, are susceptible of it in many respects. They possess
neither the size, the symmetry, nor the early maturity of the short horns; they do not, as a general
thing, possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of form and color, nor the activity of the Devons or
the Herefords; they do not possess that uniform richness of milk, united with generous quality, of
the Ayrshires, nor the surpassing richness of milk of the Jerseys: but, above all, they do not possess
the power of transmitting the many good qualities which they often have to their offspring—which
is the characteristic of all well established breeds.
It is equally certain, in the opinion of many good judges, that the dairy stock of the country has not
been materially improved in its intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty or forty years. This
may not be true of certain sections, where the dairy has been made a special object of pursuit, and
where the custom of raising the best male calves of the neighborhood, or those that came from the
best dairy cows, and then of using only the best formed bulls, has long prevailed. Although in this
way some progress has, doubtless, been made, there are still room and need for more. More

attention must be paid to correct principles of breeding before the satisfactory results which every
farmer should strive to reach can be attained.
Having glanced generally at the leading breeds of cattle in Great Britain, and examined, more in
detail, the various breeds in the United States, the next subject demanding attention is,

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE.

SKELETON OF THE OX AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES.
1. The upper jaw-bone. 2. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 3. The lachrymal bone. 4. The malar,
or cheek bone. 5. The frontal bone, or bone of the forehead. 6. The horns, being processes or
continuations of the frontal. 7. The temporal bone. 8. The parietal bone, low in the temporal fossa.
9. The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. 10. The lower jaw. 11.
The grinders. 12. The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 13. The ligament of the neck, and its
attachments. 14. The atlas. 16. The dentata. 17. The orbits of the eye. 18. The vertebræ, or bones of
the neck. 19. The bones of the back. 20. The bones of the loins. 21. The sacrum. 22. The bones of
the tail. 23. The haunch and pelvis. 24. The eight true ribs. 25. The false ribs, with their cartilages.
26. The sternum. 27. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 28. The humerus, or lower bone of the
shoulder. 29. The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 40. The ulna, its upper part forming the
elbow. 41. The small bones of the knee. 42. The large metacarpal or shank bone. 43. The smaller or
splint bone. 44. The sessamoid bones. 45. The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger
pasterns to each foot. 46. The two smaller pasterns to each foot. 47. The two coffin bones to each
foot. 48. The navicular bones. 49. The thigh bone. 50. The patella, or bone of the knee. 51. The

tibia, or proper leg bone. 52. The point of the hock. 53. The small bones of the hock. 54. The
metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 55. The pasterns and feet.

Division. Vertebrata—possessing a back-bone.
Class. Mammalia—such as give suck.
Order. Ruminantia—chewing the cud.
Family. With horns.
Genus. Bovidæ—the ox tribe.

Of this tribe there are eight species:

Bos urus, the ancient bison.
Bos bison, the American buffalo.
Bos moschatus, the musk ox.
Bos frontalis, the gayal.
Bos grunniens, the grunting ox.
Bos caffer, the South African buffalo.
Bos bubalus, the common buffalo.
Bos taurus, the common domestic ox.

GESTATION.

The usual period of pregnancy in a cow is nine calendar months, and something over: at times as
much as three weeks. With one thousand and thirty one cows, whose gestations were carefully
observed in France, the average period was about two hundred and eighty-five days.

FORMATION OF TEETH.

It is of the utmost importance to be able to judge of the age of a cow. Few farmers wish to
purchase a cow for the dairy after she has passed her prime, which will ordinarily be at the age of
nine or ten years, varying, of course, according to care, feeding, &c., in the earlier part of her life.
The common method of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an examination of the horn.
At three years old, as a general rule, the horns are perfectly smooth; after this, a ring appears near
the nob, and annually afterward a new one is formed, so that, by adding two years to the first ring,
the age is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode of judging. The rings are distinct only in the
cow; and it is well known that if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old, or a little before or
after that time, a change takes place in the horn and the first ring appears; so that a real three-year-
old would carry the mark of a four-year-old.

TEETH AT BIRTH. SECOND WEEK.

The rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five, or they cannot be traced at all; while
in the ox they do not appear till he is five years old, and then are often very indistinct. In addition
to this, it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns, so as to make them smooth, and
to give the animal the appearance of being much younger than it really is. This is, therefore, an
exceedingly fallacious guide, and cannot be relied upon by any one with the degree of confidence
desired.
The surest indication of the age in cattle, as in the horse, is given by the teeth.
The calf, at birth, will usually have two incisor or front teeth—in some cases just appearing
through the gums; in others, fully set, varying as the cow falls short of, or exceeds, her regular
time of calving. If she overruns several days, the teeth will have set and attained considerable size,
as appears in the cut representing teeth at birth. During the second week, a tooth will usually be
added on each side, and the mouth will generally appear as in the next cut; and before the end of
the third week, the animal will generally have six incisor teeth, as denoted in the cut representing
teeth at the third week; and in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have
appeared, as seen in the next cut.

THREE WEEKS. MONTH.

FIVE TO EIGHT MONTHS. TEN MONTHS.

TWELVE MONTHS. FIFTEEN MONTHS.

These teeth are temporary, and are often called milk-teeth. Their edge is very sharp; and as the
animal begins to live upon more solid food, this edge becomes worn, showing the bony part of the
tooth beneath, and indicates with considerable precision the length of time they have been used.
The centre, or oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and often become somewhat worn before
the corner teeth appear. At eight weeks, the four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before. They
appear worn not so much on the outer edge or line of the tooth, as inside this line; but, after this,
the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness, and to present a more flattened surface; while the
next outer teeth wear down like the four central ones; and at three months this wearing off is very
apparent, till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn, but the inner ones the most. Now the
teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by a kind of contraction, as well as wearing down, and the
distance apart becomes more and more apparent.
From the fifth to the eighth month, the inner teeth will usually appear as in the cut of the teeth at
that time; and at ten months, this change shows more clearly, as represented in the next cut; and
the spaces between them begin to show very plainly, till at a year old they ordinarily present the
appearance of the following cut; and at the age of fifteen months, that shown in the next, where the
corner teeth are not more than half the original size, and the centre ones still smaller.

EIGHTEEN MONTHS. TWO YEARS PAST.

The permanent teeth are now rapidly growing, and preparing to take the place of the milk-teeth,
which are gradually absorbed till they disappear, or are pushed out to give place to the two
permanent central incisors, which at a year and a half will generally present the appearance
indicated in the cut, which shows the internal structure of the lower jaw at this time, with the cells
of the teeth, the two central ones protruding into the mouth, the next two pushing up, but not quite
grown to the surface, with the third pair just perceptible. These changes require time; and at two
years past the jaw will usually appear as in the cut, where four of the permanent central incisors
are seen. After this, the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly, but are slow to disappear; and at three
years old, the third pair of permanent teeth are but formed, as represented in the cut; and at four
years the last pair of incisors will be up, as in the cut of that age; but the outside ones are not yet
fully grown, and the beast can hardly be said to be full-mouthed till the age of five years. But
before this age, or at the age of four years, the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning to
wear at the edges, as shown in the cut; while at five years old the whole set becomes somewhat
worn down at the top, and on the two centre ones a darker line appears in the middle, along a line
of harder bone, as appears in the appropriate cut.

THREE YEARS PAST. FOUR YEARS PAST.

FIVE YEARS PAST. TEN YEARS PAST.

Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when the teeth do not so clearly indicate the
exact age, and the judgment must be guided by the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn.
This will depend somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal; but at seven years these
lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years, another change begins, which cannot be mistaken. A
kind of absorption begins with the two central incisors—slow at first, but perceptible—and these
two teeth become smaller than the rest, while the dark lines are worn into one in all but the corner
teeth, till, at ten years, four of the central incisors have become smaller in size, with a smaller and
fainter mark, as indicated in the proper cut. At eleven, the six inner teeth are smaller than the
corner ones; and at twelve, all become smaller than they were, while the dark lines are nearly
gone, except in the corner teeth, and the inner edge is worn to the gum.

POINTS OF A GOOD COW.

After satisfaction is afforded touching the age of a cow, she should be examined with reference to
her soundness of constitution. A good constitution is indicated by large lungs, which are found in a
deep, broad, and prominent chest, broad and well-spread ribs, a respiration somewhat slow and
regular, a good appetite, and if in milk a strong inclination to drink, which a large secretion of milk
almost invariably stimulates. In such a cow the digestive organs are active and energetic, and they
make an abundance of good blood, which in turn stimulates the activity of the nervous system, and
furnishes the milky glands with the means of abundant secretion. Such a cow, when dry, readily
takes on fat. When activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs, small and feeble
lungs, and a slow appetite, often attended by great thirst, the cow will generally possess only a
weak and feeble constitution; and if the milk is plentiful, it will generally be of bad quality, while
the animal, if she does not die of diseased lungs, will not readily take on fat, when dry and fed.
In order to have no superfluous flesh, the cow should have a small, clean, and rather long head,
tapering toward the muzzle. A cow with a large, coarse head will seldom fatten readily, or give a

large quantity of milk. A
coarse head increases the
proportion of weight of the
least valuable parts, while
it is a sure indication that
the whole bony structure is
too heavy. The mouth
should be large and broad;
the eye bright and
sparkling, but of a peculiar
placidness of expression,
with no indication of
wildness, but rather a mild
and feminine look. These
points will indicate
gentleness of disposition.
Such cows seem to like to
be milked, are fond of
being caressed, and often
return caresses. The horns
should be small, short,
tapering, yellowish, and
glistening. The neck
should be small, thin, and
tapering toward the head,
but thickening when it
approaches the shoulder;
the dewlaps small. The
A GOOD MILCH COW. fore quarters should be
rather small when
compared with the hind
quarters. The form of the barrel will be large, and each rib should project further than the
preceding one, up to the loins. She should be well formed across the hips and in the rump.
The spine or back-bone should be straight and long, rather loosely hung, or open along the middle
part, the result of the distance between the dorsal vertebræ, which sometimes causes a slight
depression, or sway back. By some good judges, this mark is regarded as of great importance,
especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely put together, leaving the
rump of great width and the pelvis large, and the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities
largely developed. The skin over the rump should be loose and flexible. This point is of great
importance; and as, when the cow is in low condition or very poor, it will appear somewhat harder
and closer than it otherwise would, some practice and close observation are required to judge well
of this mark. The skin, indeed, all over the body, should be soft and mellow to the touch, with soft
and glossy hair. The tail, if thick at the setting on, should taper and be fine below.
But the udder is of special importance. It should be large in proportion to the size of the animal,
and the skin thin, with soft, loose folds extending well back, capable of great distension when
filled, but shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty. It must be free from lumps in every
part, and provided with four teats set well apart, and of medium size. Nor is it less important to

observe the milk-veins carefully. The principal ones under the belly should be large and prominent,
and extend forward to the navel, losing themselves, apparently, in the very best milkers, in a large
cavity in the flesh, into which the end of the finger can be inserted; but when the cow is not in full
milk, the milk-vein, at other times very prominent, is not so distinctly traced; and hence, to judge
of its size when the cow is dry, or nearly so, this vein may be pressed near its end, or at its entrance
into the body, when it will immediately fill up to its full size. This vein does not convey the milk to
the udder, as some suppose, but is the channel by which the blood returns; and its contents consist
of the refuse of the secretion, or of what has not been taken up in forming milk. There are also
veins in the udder, and the perineum, or the space above the udder, and between that and the
buttocks, which it is of special importance to observe. These veins should be largely developed,
and irregular or knotted, especially those of the udder. They are largest in great milkers.
The knotted veins of the perineum, extending from above downwards in a winding line, are not
readily seen in young heifers, and are very difficult to find in poor cows, or those of only a
medium quality. They are easily found in very good milkers, and if not at first apparent, they are
made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum, when they swell up and send the
blood back toward the vulva. They form a kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum,
raising it up somewhat, in some cases near the vulva, in others nearer down and closer to the
udder. It is important to look for these veins, as they often form a very important guide, and by
some they would be considered as furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the
cow. Full development almost always shows an abundant secretion of milk; but they are far better
developed after the cow has had two or three calves, when two or three years' milking has given
full activity to the milky glands, and attracted a large flow of blood. The larger and more
prominent these veins the better. It is needless to say that in observing them some regard should be
had to the condition of the cow, the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded,
and the general activity and food of the animal. Food calculated to stimulate the greatest flow of
milk will naturally increase these veins, and give them more than usual prominence.

THE MILK-MIRROR.

The discovery of M. Guénon, of Bordeaux, in France—a man of remarkable practical sagacity, and
a close observer of stock—consisted in the connection between the milking qualities of the cow
and certain external marks on the udder, and on the space above it, called the perineum, extending
to the buttocks. To these marks he gave the name of milk-mirror, or escutcheon, which consists in
certain perceptible spots rising up from the udder in different directions, forms and sizes, on which
the hair grows upward, whilst the hair on other parts of the body grows downward. The reduction
of these marks into a system, explaining the value of particular forms and sizes of the milk-mirror,
belongs exclusively to Guénon.

MILK-MIRROR [A.]
He divided the milk-mirror into eight classes, and each class into eight orders, making in all no
less than sixty-four divisions, which he afterward increased by subdivisions, thus rendering the
whole system complicated in the extreme, especially as he professed to be able to judge with
accuracy, by means of the milk-mirror, not only of the exact quantity a cow would give, but also of
the quality of the milk, and of the length of time it would continue. He endeavored to prove too
much, and was, as a matter of consequence, frequently at fault himself.
Despite the strictures which have been passed upon Guénon's method of judging of cows, the best
breeders and judges of stock concur in the opinion, as the result of their observations, that cows
with the most perfectly developed milk-mirrors are, with rare exception, the best milkers of their
breed; and that cows with small and slightly developed milk-mirrors are, in the majority of cases,
bad milkers. There are, undoubtedly, cows with very small mirrors, which are, nevertheless, very
fair in the yield of milk; and among those with middling quality of mirrors, instances of rather
more than ordinary milkers often occur, while at the same time it is true that cases now and then
are found where the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor milkers.
These apparent exceptions, however, are to be explained, in the large majority of cases, by causes
outside of those which affect the appearance of the milk-mirror. It is, of course, impossible to
estimate with mathematical accuracy either the quantity, quality, or duration of the milk, since it is
affected by so many chance circumstances, which cannot always be known or estimated by even
the most skillful judges; such, for example, as the food, the treatment, the temperament, accidental
diseases, inflammation of the udder, premature calving, the climate and season, the manner in

which she has been milked, and a thousand other things which interrupt or influence the flow of
milk, without materially changing the size or shape of the milk-mirror. It has, indeed, been very
justly observed that we often see cows equally well formed, with precisely the same milk-mirror,
and kept in the same circumstances, yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities of
milk. Nor could it be otherwise; since the action of the organs depends, not merely on their size
and form, but, to a great extent, on the general condition of each individual.

MILK-MIRROR [B.] MILK-MIRROR [C.]

The different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded parts of cuts, lettered A, B, C,
D; but it is necessary to premise that upon the cows themselves they are always partly concealed
by the thighs, the udder, and the folds of the skin, which are not shown, and therefore they are not
always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts.

MILK-MIRROR [D.]
Their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched; while the cuts represent the skin as
uniform or free from folds, but not stretched out. It is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-
mirrors by the upward direction of the hair which forms them. They are sometimes marked by a
line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction, which surrounds them, forming a sort of
outline by the upward and downward growing hair. Yet, when the hair is very fine and short,
mixed with longer hairs, and the skin much folded, and the udder voluminous and pressed by the
thighs, it is necessary, in order to distinguish the part enclosed between the udder and the legs, and
examine the full size of the mirrors, to observe them attentively, and to place the legs wide apart,
and to smooth out the skin, in order to avoid the folds.
The mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against the perineum, and
drawing it from above downward, when the nails rubbing against the up-growing hair, make the
parts covered by it very perceptible.
As the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair which surrounds it, it may
often be distinguished by a difference in the shade reflected by it. It is then sufficient to place it
properly to the light in order to see the difference in shade, and to make out the part covered by the
upward-growing hair. Most frequently, however, the hair of the milk-mirror is thin and fine, and
the color of the skin can easily be seen. If the eye alone is trusted, we shall often be deceived.

MILK-MIRROR [E.]

In some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cow. Just after this operation the mirrors
can neither be seen nor felt; but this inconvenience ceases in a few days. It may be added that the
shaving—designed, as the dealers say, to beautify the cow—is generally intended simply to
destroy the milk-mirror, and to deprive buyers of one means of judging of the milking qualities of
the cows. It is unnecessary to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly
marked, and that it is prudent to take it for granted that cows so shorn are bad milkers.
Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure which they represent. They may be divided
according to their position, into mirrors or escutcheons, properly so called, or into lower and upper
tufts, or escutcheons. The latter are very small in comparison with the former, and are situated in
close proximity to the vulva, as seen at 1, in cut E. They are very common on cows of bad milking
races, but are very rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or two ovals, or small
bands of up-growing hair, and serve to indicate the continuance of the flow of milk. The period is
short, in proportion as the tufts are large. They must not be confounded with the escutcheon
proper, which is often extended up to the vulva. They are separated from it by bands of hair, more
or less large, as in cut marked F.

MILK-MIRROR [F.]
Milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical, and sometimes without symmetry. When there is a great
difference in the extent of the two halves, it almost always happens that the teats on the side where
the mirror is best developed give more milk than those of the opposite side. The left half of the
mirror, it may be remarked, is almost always the largest; and so, when the perinean part is folded
into a square, it is on this side of the body that it unfolds. Of three thousand cows in Denmark, but
a single one was found, whose escutcheon varied even a little from this rule.
The mirrors having a value in proportion to the space which they occupy, it is of great importance
to attend to all the rows of down-growing hairs, which diminish the extent of surface, whether
these tufts are in the midst of the mirror, or form indentations on its edges.
These indentations, concealed in part by the folds of the skin, are sometimes seen with difficulty;
but it is important to take them into account, since in a great many cows they materially lessen the
size of the mirror. Cows are often found, whose milk-mirrors at first sight appear very large, but

which are only medium milkers; and it will usually be found that lateral indentations greatly
diminish the surface of up-growing hair. Many errors are committed in estimating the value of
such cows, from a want of attention to the real extent of the mirror.
All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution in the quantity of the milk,
with the exception, however, of small oval or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror, on the
back part of the udders of the best cows, as represented in the cut already given, marked A. These
ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the downward direction of the hair which forms
them. In the best cows these ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed, as represented
in the cut just named.
In short, it should be stated that, in order to determine the extent and significance of a mirror, it is
necessary to consider the state of the perineum as to fat, and that of the fullness of the udder. In a
fat cow, with an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger than it really is; whilst in a lean
cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears smaller. Fat will cover faults—a fact to be borne
in mind when selecting a cow.
In bulls, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows; but they are less varied in their
form, and especially much less in size.
In calves, the mirrors show the shapes which they are afterwards to have, only they are more
contracted, because the parts which they cover are but slightly developed. They are easily seen
after birth; but the hair which then covers them is long, coarse, and stiff; and when this hair falls
off, the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow, but will be of less size.
With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition, that the milk-mirrors are more distinctly
recognized on those from cows that are well kept, and that they will generally be fully developed
at two years old. Some changes take place in the course of years, but the outlines of the mirror
appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy, or, in the case of cows giving milk, at the
times when the udder is more distended with milk than at others.
M. Mayne, who has explained and simplified the method of M. Guénon, divides cows, according
to the quantity which they give, into four classes: first, the very good; second, the good; third, the
medium; and fourth, the bad.
In the first class he places cows, both parts of whose milk mirror, the mammary—the tuft situated
on the udder, the legs and the thighs—and the perinean—that on the perineum, extending
sometimes more or less out upon the thighs—are large, continuous, and uniform, covering at least
a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner surface of the thighs, and extending more or less
out upon the legs, as in cut A, with no interruptions, or, if any, small ones, oval in form, and
situated on the posterior face of the udder.

MILK-MIRROR [G.]
Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may also be found on cows which can
scarcely be called good, and which should be ranked in the next class. But cows, whether having
very well developed mirrors or not, may be reckoned as very good, and as giving as much milk as
is to be expected from their size, food, and the hygienic circumstances in which they are kept, if
they present the following characteristics: veins of the perineum large, as if swollen, and visible on
the exterior—as in cut A—or which can easily be made to appear by pressing upon the base of the
perineum; veins of the udder large and knotted; milk-veins large, often double, equal on both sides,
and forming zig-zags, under the belly.
To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror, may be added also the following marks: a
uniform, very large, and yielding udder, shrinking much in milking, and covered with soft skin and
fine hair; good constitution, full chest, regular appetite, and great propensity to drink. Such cows
rather incline to be poor than to be fat. The skin is soft and yielding; short, fine hair; small head;
fine horns; bright, sparkling eye; mild expression; feminine look; with a fine neck.
Cows of this first class are very rare. They give, even when small in size, from ten to fourteen
quarts of milk a day; and the largest sized from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day, and even more.
Just after calving, if arrived at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food in sufficient
quantity and quality, adapted to promote the secretion of milk, they can give about a pint of milk
for every ten ounces of hay, or its equivalent, which they eat.
They continue in milk for a long period. The best never go dry, and may be milked even up to the
time of calving, giving from eight to ten quarts of milk a day. But even the best cows often fall
short of the quantity of milk which they are able to give, from being fed on food which is too dry,
or not sufficiently varied, or not rich enough in nutritive qualities, or deficient in quantity.

MILK-MIRROR [H.]
The second class is that of good cows; and to this belong the best commonly found in the market
and among the cow-feeders of cities.
They have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed, but the perinean part contracted,
or wholly wanting, as in cut G; or both parts of the mirror are moderately developed, or slightly
indented, as in cut H. Cut E belongs also to this class, in the lower part; but it indicates a cow,
which—as the upper mirror, 1, indicates—dries up sooner when again in calf.
These marks, though often seen in many good cows, should be considered as certain only when the
veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a kind of network, which, without being very apparent,
may be felt by a pressure on them; when the milk-veins on the belly are well-developed, though
less knotty and less prominent than in cows of the first class; in short, when the udder is well
developed, and presents veins which are sufficiently numerous, though not very large.
It is necessary here, as in the preceding class, to distrust cows in which the mirror is not
accompanied by large veins. This remark applies especially to cows which have had several
calves, and are in full milk. They are medium or bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may, if the
veins of the belly are not large, and those of the udder apparent.
The general characteristics which depend on form and constitution combine, less than in cows of
the preceding class, the marks of good health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and
feminine look.
Small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk a day, and the largest from
thirteen to seventeen quarts. They can be made to give three-fourths of a pint of milk, just after
calving, for every ten ounces of hay consumed, if well cared for, and fed in a manner favorable to
the secretion of milk.
They hold out long in milk, when they have no upper mirrors or tufts. At seven or eight months in
calf, they may give from five to eight quarts of milk a day.

The third class consists of middling cows. When the milk-mirror really presents only the
mammary or lower part slightly indicated or developed, and the perinean part contracted, narrow,
and irregular—as in cut K—the cows are middling. The udder is slightly developed or hard, and
shrinks very little after milking. The veins of the perineum are not apparent, and those which run
along the lower side of the abdomen are small, straight, and sometimes unequal. In this case the
mirror is not symmetrical, and the cow gives more milk on the side where the vein is the largest.

MILK-MIRROR [K.]
These cows have large heads, and a thick, hard skin. Being ordinarily in good condition, they are
beautiful to look at, and seem to be well formed. Many of them are nervous and restive, and not
easily approached.
Cows of this class give, according to size, from three or four to ten quarts of milk. They very
rarely give, even in the most favorable circumstances, half a pint of milk for every ten ounces of
hay which they consume. The milk diminishes rapidly, and dries up wholly the fourth or fifth
month in calf.
The fourth class is composed of bad cows. As they are commonly in good condition, these cows
are often the most beautiful of the herd and in the markets. They have fleshy thighs, thick and hard
skin, a large and coarse neck and head, and horns large at the base.
The udder is hard, small and fleshy, with a skin covered with long, rough hair. No veins are to be
seen either on the perineum or the udder, while those of the belly are slightly developed, and the
mirrors are ordinarily small, as in cut L.

With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of milk a day, and dry up in a short time
after calving. Some of them can scarcely nourish their calves, even when they are properly cared
for and well fed.
Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the chest, the womb, and the lacteal
system, sometimes greatly affect the milk secretion, and cause cows troubled with them to fall
from the first or second to the third, and sometimes to the fourth class.
Without pushing this method of judging of the good milking qualities of cows into the
objectionable extreme to which it was carried by its originator, it may be safely asserted that the
milk-mirror forms an important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers; and it
may be laid down as a rule that, in the selection of milch cows, as well as in the choice of young
animals for breeders, the milk-mirror should, by all means, be examined and considered; but that
we should not limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it, and that other and long-known marks
should be equally regarded.
There are cases, however, where a knowledge and careful examination of the form and size of the
mirror become of the highest importance. It is well known that certain signs or marks of great
milkers are developed, only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely
developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and prominent in heifers and
young cows as in old ones, and the same may be said of the udder, and of the veins of the udder
and perineum; all of which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch cows.
Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost sufficient in themselves to warrant
a conclusion as to their merits as milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and
altogether in calves, as to which there is often doubt whether they shall be raised; and here a
knowledge of the form of the mirror is of immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset and
before any expense is incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking
capacities of the animal; or, if a male, of the probability of his transmitting milking qualities to his
offspring.

MILK-MIRROR [L.]
It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a good milch cow that, though the same marks
which indicate the greatest milking qualities may not always indicate the greatest aptitude to
fatten, yet that the signs which denote good fattening qualities are included among the signs
favorable to the production of milk; such as soundness of constitution, marked by good organs of
digestion and respiration fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of disposition—
which inclines the animal to rest and lie down while chewing the cud—and other marks which are
relied on by graziers in selecting animals to fatten.
In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to select young heifers, as they
give the promise of longer usefulness. But it is often the case that older cows are selected with the
design of using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for the butcher. In
either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose animals in low or medium condition. The farmer
cannot commonly afford to buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it, and to have it to
sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in flesh and products when
removed to better pastures and higher keeping, and they cost less in the original purchase.
It is, perhaps, superfluous to add that regard should be had to the quality of the pasturage and
keeping which a cow has previously had, as compared with that to which she is to be subjected.
The size of the animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the pastures into
which she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals accommodate themselves to ordinary
pastures far better than large ones. Where a very large cow will do well, two small ones will
usually do better; while the large animal might fail entirely where two small ones would do well. It
is better to have the whole herd, so far as may be, uniform in size; for, if they vary greatly, some

may get more than they need, and others will not have enough. This, however, cannot always be
brought about.

Crossing and Breeding

The raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many sections,—
to a greater extent, at least, than formerly—and it becomes a matter of great
practical importance to our farmers to take the proper steps to improve them.
Indeed, the questions—what are the best breeds, and what are the best
crosses, and how shall I improve my stock—are now asked almost daily; and
their practical solution would add many thousand dollars to the aggregate
wealth of the farmers of the country, if they would all study their own
interests.
The time is gradually passing away when the intelligent practical farmer will
be willing to put his cows to any bull, simply because his services may be
had for twenty-five cents; for, even if the progeny is to go to the butcher, the
calf sired by a pure-bred bull—particularly of a race distinguished for
fineness of bone, symmetry of form, and early maturity—will bring a much
higher price at the same age than a calf sired by a scrub. Blood has a money
value, which will, sooner or later, be generally appreciated.

The first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest return
in money for his labor and his produce; and it is for his interest to obtain an
animal—a calf, for example—that will yield the largest profit on the outlay.
If a calf, for which the original outlay was five dollars, will bring at the same
age and on the same keep more real net profit than another, the original
outlay for which was not twenty-five cents, it is certainly for the farmer's
interest to make the heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior
animal. Setting all fancy aside, it is merely a question of dollars and cents;
but one thing is certain—and that is, that no farmer can afford to keep poor
stock. It eats as much, and requires nearly the same amount of care and
attention, as stock of the best quality; while it is equally certain that stock of
ever so good a quality, whether grade, native, or thorough-bred, will be sure
to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor stock by neglect and want of
proper attention.
How, then, is our stock to be improved? Not, certainly, by that indiscriminate
crossing, with a total disregard of all well-established principles, which has
thus far marked our efforts with foreign stock, and which is one prominent
reason why so little improvement has been made in our dairies; nor by
leaving all the results to chance, when, by a careful and judicious selection,
they may be within our own control.
We want cattle for distinct purposes, as for milk, beef, or labor. In a large
majority of cases—especially in the dairy districts, at least, comprising the
Eastern and Middle States—the farmer cares more for the milking qualities
of his cows, especially for the quantity they give, than for their fitness for
grazing, or aptness to fatten. These latter points become more important in
the Western and some of the Southern States, where much greater attention
is paid to breeding and to feeding, and where comparatively slight attention
is given to the productions of the dairy. A stock of cattle which would suit
one farmer might be wholly unsuited to another, and in such particular case
the breeder should have some special object in view, and select his animals
with reference to it.
There are, however, some well-defined general principles that apply to
breeding everywhere, and which, in many cases, are not thoroughly
understood. To these attention will now be directed.

The first and most important of the laws to be considered in this connection
is that of similarity. It is by virtue of this law that the peculiar characters,
properties, and qualities of the parents—whether external or internal, good
or bad, healthy or diseased—are transmitted to their offspring. This is one of
the plainest and most certain of the laws of nature. The lesson which it
teaches may be stated in five words:—Breed only from the best.
Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding, and this should
have regard to every particular—general appearance, length of limb, shape
of carcass, development of chest; in cattle, to the size, shape, and position of
the udder, thickness of skin, touch, length and texture of hair, docility, and
all those points which go to make up the desirable animal.
Not only should care be exercised to avoid structural defects, but especially
to secure freedom from hereditary diseases; as both defects and diseases
appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities. There is,
oftentimes, no obvious peculiarity of structure or appearance which suggests
the possession of diseases or defects which are transmissible; and for this
reason, special care and continued acquaintance are requisite in order to be
assured of their absence in breeding animals; but such a tendency, although
invisible or inappreciable to careless observers, must still, judging from its
effects, have as real and certain an existence as any peculiarity of form or
color.
In neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at birth;
and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years, perhaps through
one or two generations, and afterward breaks out with all its former severity.
The diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are scrofula, consumption,
dysentery, diarrhœa, rheumatism, and malignant tumors. As these animals
are less exposed to the exciting causes of disease, and less liable to be
overtasked or subjected to violent changes of temperature, or otherwise put
in jeopardy, their diseases are not so numerous as those of the horse, and
what they have are less violent, and generally of a chronic character.
With regard to hereditary diseases, it is eminently true that "an ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure." As a general and almost invariable
rule, animals possessing either defects or a tendency to disease, should not
be employed for breeding. If, however, for special reasons it seems desirable
to breed from one which has some slight defect of symmetry, or a faint

tendency to disease—although for the latter it is doubtful whether the
possession of any good qualities can fully compensate—it should be mated
with one which excels in every respect in which it is itself deficient, and on
no account with one which is near of kin to it.
There is another law, by which that of similarity is greatly modified—the
law of Variation or divergence.
All animals possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of organization, which
renders them capable of change to a greater or less extent. When in a state of
nature, variations are comparatively slow and infrequent; but when in a state
of domestication they occur much oftener and to a much greater extent. The
greater variability in the latter case is doubtless owing, in some measure, to
our domestic productions' being reared under conditions of life not so
uniform as, and different from, those to which the parent species was
exposed in a state of nature.
Among what are usually reckoned the more active causes of variation may
be named climate, food, and habit. Animals in a cold climate are provided
with a thicker covering of hair than in warmer ones. Indeed, it is said that in
some of the tropical provinces of South America, there are cattle which have
an extremely rare and fine fur, in place of the ordinary pile of hair. The
supply of food, whether abundant or scanty, is one of the most efficient
causes of variation known to be within the control of man. A due
consideration of the natural effects of climate and food is a point worthy the
careful attention of the stock-husbandman. If the breeds employed be well
adapted to the situation, and the capacity of the soil be such as to feed them
fully, profit may be safely anticipated. Animals are to be regarded as
machines for converting herbage into money.
The bestowal of food sufficient, both in amount and quality, to enable
animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in them, and yield all the
profit of which they are capable, is something quite distinct from undue
forcing of pampering. The latter process may produce wonderful animals to
look at, but neither useful nor profitable ones, and there is danger of thus
producing a most undesirable variation, since in animals the process may be
carried far enough to produce barrenness. Instances are not wanting,
particularly among the more recent improved short-horns, of impotency
among the males and of barrenness among the females; and in some cases

where the latter have borne calves, they have failed to secrete sufficient milk
for their nourishment. Impotency in bulls of various breeds has, in many
instances, occurred from too high feeding, especially when connected with a
lack of sufficient exercise. A working bull, though perhaps not so pleasing to
the eye as a fat one, is a surer stock-getter; and his progeny is more likely to
inherit full health and vigor.
Habit has a decided influence toward producing variations. We find in
domestic animals that use—or the demand created by habit—is met by a
development or change in the organization adapted to the requirement. For
instance, with cows in a state of nature, or where required only to suckle
their young, the supply of milk is barely fitted to the requirement. If more is
desired, and the milk is drawn completely and regularly, the yield is
increased and continued longer. By keeping up the demand there is induced,
in the next generation, a greater development of the secreting organs, and
more milk is given. By continuing the practice, by furnishing the needful
conditions of suitable food and the like, and by selecting in each generation
those animals showing the greatest tendency toward milk, a breed specially
adapted for the dairy may be established. It is just by this mode that the
Ayrshires have, within the past century, been brought to be what they are—a
breed giving more good milk upon a certain amount of food than any other.

READY FOR ACTION.
It is a fact too well established to be controverted, that the first male
produces impressions upon subsequent progeny by other males. To what
extent this principle holds, it is impossible to say. Although the instances in
which it is known to be of a very marked and obvious character may be
comparatively few, yet there is ample reason to believe that, although in a
majority of cases the effect may be less noticeable, it is not less real; and it
therefore demands the special attention of breeders. The knowledge of this
law furnishes a clue to the cause of many of the disappointments of which
practical breeders often complain, and of many variations otherwise
unaccountable, and it suggests particular caution as to the first male
employed in the coupling of animals—a matter which has often been
deemed of little consequence in regard to cattle, inasmuch as fewer heifers'
first calves are reared, than those are which are borne subsequently.
The phenomenon—or law, as it is sometimes called—of atavism, or
ancestral influence, is one of considerable practical importance, and well
deserves the careful attention of the breeder of farm stock.
Every one is aware that it is by no means unusual for a child to resemble its
grandfather, or grandmother, or even some ancestor still more remote, more
than it does either its own father or mother. The same occurrence is found
among our domestic animals, and oftener in proportion as the breeds are
crossed or mixed up. Among our common stock of neat cattle, or natives—
originating, as they did, from animals brought from England, Scotland,
Denmark, France, and Spain, each possessing different characteristics of
form, color, and use, and bred, as our common stock has usually been,
indiscriminately together, with no special object in view, with no attempt to
obtain any particular type or form, or to secure adaptation for any particular
purpose—frequent opportunities are afforded of witnessing the results of this
law of hereditary transmission. So common, indeed, is its occurrence, that
the remark is often made, that, however good a cow may be, there is no
telling beforehand what sort of a calf she may have. The fact is sufficiently
obvious, that certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a generation or two
and then reappear in subsequent progeny. Stockmen often speak of it as
"breeding back," or "crying back."

The lesson taught by this law is very plain. It shows the importance of
seeking thorough-bred or well-bred animals; and by these terms are simply
meant such as are descended from a line of ancestors in which for many
generations the desirable forms, qualities, and characteristics have been
uniformly shown. In such a case, even if ancestral influence does come in
play, no material difference appears in the offspring, the ancestors being all
essentially alike. From this standpoint we best perceive in what consists the
money value of a good "pedigree." This is valuable, in proportion as it shows
an animal to be descended, not only from such as are purely of its own race
or breed, but also from such individuals of that breed as were specially noted
for the excellencies for which that particular breed is esteemed.
Probably the most distinctly marked evidence of ancestral influence among
us, is to be found in the ill-begotten, round-headed calves, not infrequently
dropped by cows of the common mixed kind, which, if killed early, make
very blue veal, and if allowed to grow up, become exceedingly profitless and
unsatisfactory beasts; the heifers being often barren, the cows poor milkers,
the oxen dull, mulish beasts, yielding flesh of very dark color, of ill flavor
and destitute of fat.
The relative influence of the male and female parents upon the
characteristics of progeny has long been a fruitful subject of discussion
among breeders. It is found in experience that progeny sometimes resembles
one parent more than the other—sometimes there is an apparent blending of
the characteristics of both—sometimes a noticeable dissimilarity to either,
though always more or less resemblance somewhere—and sometimes the
impress of one may be seen upon a portion of the organization of the
offspring, and that of the other parent upon another portion; yet we are not
authorized from such discrepancies to conclude that it is a matter of chance;
for all of nature's operations are conducted in accordance with fixed laws,
whether we be able fully to discover them or not. The same causes always
produce the same results. In this case, not less than in others, there are,
beyond all doubt, certain fixed laws; and the varying results which we see
are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the existence of conditions or
modifying influences not fully open to our observation.
It may be stated, on the whole—as a result of the varied investigations to
which this question has given rise—that the evidence, both from observation
and the testimony of the best practical breeders, goes to show that each

parent usually contributes certain portions of the organization to the
offspring, and that each has a modifying influence upon the other. Facts also
show that the same parent does not always contribute the same portions, but
that the order is at times, and not rarely, reversed. Where animals are of
distinct species or breeds, transmission is usually found to be in harmony
with the principle, that the male gives mostly the outward form and
locomotive system, and the female chiefly the interior system, constitution
and the like. Where the parents are of the same breed, it appears that the
proportions contributed by each are governed, in a large measure, by the
condition of each in regard to age and vigor, or by virtue of individual
potency or superiority of physical endowment. This potency or power of
transmission, seems to be legitimately connected with high breeding, or the
concentration of fixed qualities, obtained by continued descent for many
generations from such only as possess in the highest degree the qualities
desired.
Practically, the knowledge obtained dictates in a most emphatic manner that
every stock-grower use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services of the best
sires; that is, the best for the ends and purposes in view—that he depend
chiefly on the sire for outward form and symmetry—and that he select dams
best calculated to develop the good qualities of the male, depending chiefly
upon these for freedom, from internal disease, for hardihood and
constitution, and, generally, for all qualities dependent upon the vital or
nutritive system. The neglect of the qualities of the dam, which is far too
common—miserably old and inferior animals being often employed—
cannot be too strongly censured.
With regard to the laws which regulate the sex of the progeny very little is
known. Many and extensive observations have been made, without reaching
any definite conclusion. Nature seems to have provided that the number of
each sex; produced, shall be nearly equal; but by what means this result is
attained, has not as yet been discovered.
It has long been a disputed point, whether the system of breeding in-and-in,
or the opposite one of frequent crossing, has the greater tendency to improve
the character of stock This term, in-and-in, is often very loosely used and as
variously understood. Some confine the phrase to the coupling of those of
exactly the same blood, as brothers and sisters, while others include in it
breeding from parents and offsprings; and others still employ it to embrace

those of a more distant relationship. For the last, the term breeding-in, or
close breeding, is generally deemed more suitable.
The current opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from any
near relatives; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and often to a
serious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy, although very
common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence. That ill effects
follow, in a majority of cases, is not to be doubted; but this is easily and
sufficiently accounted for upon quite other grounds. Perhaps, however, the
following propositions may be safely stated: That in general practice, with
the grades and mixed animals common in the country, close-breeding should
be scrupulously avoided as highly detrimental. It is better always to avoid
breeding from near relatives whenever stock-getters of the same breed and
of equal merit can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not
possible, or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in
view—as the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular
animal not common to the breed—and the breeder possesses the knowledge
and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect in
health and development, close breeding may be practised with advantage.
The practice of crossing, like that of close breeding, has its strong and its
weak side. Judiciously practised, it offers a means of providing animals for
the butcher, often superior to, and more profitable than, those of any pure
breed. It is also admissible as the foundation of a systematic and well-
considered attempt to establish a new breed. But when crossing is practised
injudiciously and indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the
purpose of procuring breeding animals, it is scarcely less objectionable than
careless in-and-in breeding.

A SPRIGHTLY YOUTH.
The profitable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to adopt, is
neither to cross nor to breed from close affinities—except in rare instances,
and for some specific and clearly understood purpose—but to breed in the
line; that is, to select the breed or race best adapted to fulfil the requirement
demanded, whether it be for the dairy, for labor, or for such combination of
these as can be had without too great a sacrifice of the principal requisite,
and then to procure a pure-bred male of the kind determined upon, and breed
him to the females of the herd; and if these be not such as are calculated to
develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such as
will. Let the progeny of these be bred to another pure-bred male of the same
breed, but as distantly related to the first as may be. Let this plan be
faithfully pursued, and, although we cannot, without the intervention of
well-bred females, procure stock purely of the kind desired, yet in several
generations—if proper care be given to the selection of males, that each one
be such as to retain and improve upon the points gained by his predecessor
—the stock, for most practical purposes, will be as good as if thorough-bred.
If this plan were generally adopted, and a system of letting or exchanging

males established, the cost might be brought within the means of most
persons, and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond
belief.
A brief summing-up of the foregoing principles may not be inappropriate
here.
The law of similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which possess
the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and best
combination.
Regard should be had, not only to the more obvious characteristics, but also
to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from cursory
observation and demand careful and thorough investigation.
From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether good or bad, we
learn the importance of having all desirable qualities thoroughly inbred; or,
in other words, so firmly in each generation that the next is warrantably
certain to present nothing worse—that no ill results follow from breeding
back to some inferior ancestor—that all undesirable traits or points be, so far
as possible, bred-out.
So important is this consideration, that, in practice, it is decidedly preferable
to employ a male of ordinary external appearance—provided his ancestry be
all which is desired—rather than a grade, or cross-bred animal, although the
latter be greatly his superior in personal beauty.
A knowledge of the law of variation teaches us to avoid, for breeding
purposes, such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose in
view; to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained; as well as to
secure, as far as practicable, the conditions necessary to induce or continue
any improvement, such as general treatment, food, climate, habits, and the
like.
Where the parents do not possess the perfections desired, selections for
coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults or
deficiencies of one by corresponding excellencies in the other.
To correct defects, too much must not be attempted at once. Pairing those
very unlike oftener results in loss than gain. Avoid all extremes, and

endeavor by moderate degrees to attain the end desired.
Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of obtaining animals for
the shambles, may be advantageously practised to a considerable extent, but
not for the production of breeding animals. As a general rule, cross-bred
males should not be employed for propagation, and cross-bred females
should be served by thorough-bred males.
In ordinary practice, breeding from near relatives is to be scrupulously
avoided. For certain purposes, under certain conditions and circumstances,
and in the hands of a skillful breeder, it may be practised with advantage—
but not otherwise.
In a large majority of cases—other things being equal—we may expect in
progeny the outward form and general structure of the sire, together with the
internal qualities, constitution, and nutritive system of the dam; each,
however, modified by the other.
Particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam first
becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained; also, that at the time of
sexual congress both are in vigorous health.
Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but always kept in
thrifty condition; and such as are intended for the butcher should never be fat
but once.
In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to select those best
adapted to its surface, climate, and degree of fertility; also, with reference to
probable demand and proximity to markets.
No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation, no amount
of skill in breeding, can supersede, or compensate for, a lack of liberal
feeding and good treatment. The better the stock, the better care they
deserve.

PREGNANCY

The symptoms of pregnancy in its early stage were formerly deemed
exceedingly unsatisfactory. The period of being in season—which
commonly lasts three or four days, and then ceases for a while, and returns
in about three weeks—might entirely pass over; and, although it was then
probable that conception had taken place, yet in a great many instances the
hopes of the breeder were disappointed. It was not until between the third
and fourth month, when the belly began to enlarge—or, in many cases,
considerably later—and when the motions of the fœtus might be seen, or, at
all events, felt by pressing on the right flank, that the farmer could be
assured that his cow was in calf.
That greatest of improvements in veterinary practice, the application of the
ear to the chest and belly of various animals, in order to detect by the
different sounds—which after a short time, will be easily recognized—the
state of the circulation through most of the organs, and consequently, the
precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger, has now enabled the
breeder to ascertain the existence of pregnancy at as early a stage as six or
eight weeks. The beating of the heart of the calf may then be distinctly
heard, twice, or more than twice, as frequent as that of the mother; and each
pulsation will betray the singular double beating of the fœtal heart. This will
also be accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels
of the placenta. The ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on the
higher part of it, and gradually shifting downward and backward. These
sounds will thus soon be heard, and cannot be mistaken.

TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING.

Little alteration needs to be made in the management of the cow for the first
seven months of pregnancy; except that, as she has not only to yield milk for
the profit of the farmer, but to nourish the growing fœtus within, she should
be well, yet not too luxuriantly, fed. The half-starved cow will not
adequately discharge this double duty, nor provide sufficient nutriment for
the calf when it has dropped; while the cow in high condition will be
dangerously disposed to inflammation and fever, when, at the time of
parturition, she is otherwise so susceptible of the power of every stimulus. If

the season and the convenience of the farmer will allow, she will be better at
pasture, at least for some hours each day than when confined altogether to
the cow-house.
At a somewhat uncertain period before she calves, there will be a new
secretion of milk for the expected little one; and under the notion of
somewhat recruiting her strength, in order better to enable her to discharge
her new duty—but more from the uniform testimony of experience that there
is danger of local inflammation, general fever, garget in the udder, and
puerperal fever, if the new milk descends while the old milk continues to
flow—it has been usual to let the cow go dry for some period before
parturition. Farmers and breeders have been strangely divided as to the
length of this period. It must be decided by circumstances. A cow in good
condition may be milked for a much longer period than a poor one. Her
abundance of food renders a period of respite almost unnecessary; and all
that needs to be taken care of, is that the old milk should be fairly gone
before the new milk springs. In such a cow, while there is danger of
inflammation from the sudden rush of new milk into a bag already occupied,
there is almost always considerable danger of indurations and tumors in the
teats from the habit of secretion being too long suspended. The emaciated
and over-milked beast, however, must rest a while before she can again
advantageously discharge the duties of a mother.
If the period of pregnancy were of equal length at all times and in all cows,
the one that has been well fed might be milked until within a fortnight or
three weeks of parturition, while a holiday of two months should be granted
to the poorer beast; but as there is much irregularity about the time of
gestation, it may be prudent to take a month or five Weeks, as the average
period.
The process of parturition is necessarily one that is accompanied with a great
deal of febrile excitement; and, therefore, when it nearly approaches, not
only should a little care be taken to lessen the quantity of food, and to
remove that which is of a stimulating action, but a mild dose of physic, and a
bleeding regulated by the condition of the animal, will be very proper
precautionary measures.
A moderately open state of the bowels is necessary at the period of
parturition in the cow. During the whole time of pregnancy her enormous

stomach sufficiently presses upon and confines the womb; and that pressure
may be productive of injurious and fatal consequences, if at this period the
rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritious food, or the manyplus takes
on that hardened state to which it is occasionally subject. Breeders have been
sadly negligent in this respect.
The springing of the udder, or the rapid enlargement of it from the renewed
secretion of milk—the enlargement of the external parts of the bearing (the
former, as has been said by some, in old cows, and the latter in young ones)
—the appearance of a glaring discharge from the bearing—the evident
dropping of the belly, with the appearance of leanness and narrowness
between the shape and the udder—a degree of uneasiness and fidgetiness—
moaning occasionally—accelerated respiration—all these symptoms will
announce that the time of calving is not far off. The cow should be brought
near home, and put in some quiet, sheltered place. In cold or stormy weather
she should be housed. Her uneasiness will rapidly increase—she will be
continually getting up and lying down—her tail will begin to be elevated and
the commencement of the labor-pains will soon be evident.
In most cases the parturition will be natural and easy, and the less the cow is
disturbed or meddled with, the better. She will do better without help than
with it; but she should be watched, in order to see that no difficulty occurs
which may require aid and attention. In cases of difficult parturition the aid
of a skillful veterinary surgeon may be required.

Feeding and Management

No branch of dairy farming can compare in importance with the
management of cows. The highest success will depend upon it, whatever
breed be selected, and whatever amount of care and attention be given to the
points of the animals; for experience will show that very little milk comes
out of the bag, that is not first put into the throat. It is poor economy,
therefore, to attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of feed one has;
for it will generally be found that one good cow well-bred and well fed will
yield as much as two ordinary cows kept in the ordinary way; while a saving
is effected both in labor and room required, and in the risks on the capital
invested. If an argument for the larger number on poorer feed is urged on the
ground of the additional manure—which is the only basis upon which it can
be put—it is enough to say that it is a very expensive way of making

manure. It is not too strong an assertion, that a proper regard to profit and
economy would require many an American farmer to sell off nearly half of
his cows, and to feed the whole of his hay and roots hitherto used into the
remainder.
An animal, to be fully fed and satisfied, requires a quantity of food in
proportion to its live weight. No feed is complete that does not contain a
sufficient amount of nutritive elements; hay, for example, being more
nutritive than straw, and grains than roots. The food, too, must possess a bulk
sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion of the stomach;
and, to receive the full benefit of its food, the animal must be wholly
satisfied—since, if the stomach is not sufficiently distended, the food cannot
be properly digested, and of course many of the nutritive principles which it
contains cannot be perfectly assimilated. An animal regularly fed eats till it
is satisfied, and no more than is requisite. A part of the nutritive elements in
hay and other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet—that is,
to keep up its condition—and if the nutrition of its food is insufficient for
this, the weight decreases, and if it is more than sufficient the weight
increases, or else this excess is consumed in the production of milk or in
labor. About one sixtieth of their live weight in hay, or its equivalent, will
keep horned cattle on their feet; but, in order to be completely nourished,
they require about one thirtieth in dry substances, and four thirtieths in
water, or other liquid contained in their food. The excess of nutritive food
over and above what is necessary to sustain life will go, in milch cows,
generally to the production of milk, or to the growth of the fœtus, but not in
all cows to an equal extent; the tendency to the secretion of milk being much
more developed in some than in others.
With regard, however, to the consumption of food in proportion to the live
weight of the animal, it must be taken, in common with all general
principles, with some qualifications. The proportion is probably not uniform
as applied to all breeds indiscriminately, though it may be more so as applied
to animals of the same breed. The idea of some celebrated stock-raisers has
been that the quantity of food required depends much upon the shape of the
barrel; and it is well known that an animal of a close, compact, well-rounded
barrel, will consume less than one of an opposite make.
The variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more by the variations
in the nutritive elements of their food than by a change of the form in which

it is given. A cow, kept through the winter on mere straw, will cease to give
milk; and, when fed in spring on green forage, will give a fair quantity of
milk. But she owes the cessation and restoration of the secretion,
respectively, to the diminution and increase of her nourishment, and not at
all to the change of form, or of outward substance in which the nutriment is
administered. Let cows receive through winter nearly as large a proportion
of nutritive matter as is contained in the clover, lucerne, and fresh grass
which they eat in summer, and, no matter in what precise substance or
mixture that matter be contained, they will yield a winter's produce of milk
quite as rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as the summer's
produce, and far more ample in quantity than almost any dairyman with old-
fashioned notions would imagine to be possible. The great practical error on
this subject consists, not in giving wrong kinds of food, but in not so
proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration of it equally
rich in the elements of nutrition, and especially in nitrogenous elements, as
an average ration of the green and succulent food of summer.
We keep too much stock for the quantity of good and nutritious food which
we have for it; and the consequence is, that cows are, in nine cases out of
ten, poorly wintered, and come out in the spring weakened, if not, indeed,
positively diseased, and a long time is required to bring them into a
condition to yield a generous quantity of milk.
It is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in blood to fill up the
wasted system with the food which would otherwise have gone to the
secretion of milk; but, if she is well fed, well housed, well littered, and well
supplied with pure, fresh water, and with roots, or other moist food, and
properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding, and constant kindness,
she comes out ready to commence the manufacture of milk under favorable
circumstances.
Keep the cows constantly in good condition, ought, therefore, to be the motto
of every dairy farmer, posted up over the barn, and on and over the stalls,
and over the milk-room, and repeated to the boys whenever there is danger
of forgetting it. It is the great secret of success; and the difference between
success and failure turns upon it. Cows in milk require more food in
proportion to their size and weight than either oxen or young cattle.

In order to keep cows in milk well and economically, regularity is next in
importance to a full supply of wholesome and nutritious food. The animal
stomach is a very nice chronometer, and it is of the utmost importance to
observe regular hours in feeding, cleaning, and milking. This is a point, also,
in which very many farmers are at fault—feeding whenever it happens to be
convenient. The cattle are thus kept in a restless condition, constantly
expecting food when the keeper enters the barn; while, if regular hours are
strictly adhered to, they know exactly when they are to be fed, and they rest
quietly till the time arrives. If one goes into any well-regulated dairy
establishment an hour before feeding, scarcely an animal will rise to its feet;
while; if it happens to be the hour of feeding, the whole herd will be likely to
rise and seize their food with an avidity and relish not to be mistaken.
With respect to the exact nurture to be pursued, no rule could be prescribed
which would apply to all cases; and each individual must be governed much
by circumstances, both regarding the particular kinds of feed at different
seasons of the year, and the system of feeding. It has been found—it may be
stated—in the practice of the most successful dairymen, that, in order to
encourage the largest secretion of milk in stalled cows, one of the best
courses is, to feed in the morning, either at the time of milking—which is
preferred by many—or immediately after, with cut feed, consisting of hay,
oats, millet, or cornstalks, mixed with shorts, and Indian linseed, or cotton-
seed meal, thoroughly moistened with water. If in winter, hot or warm water
is far better than cold. If given at milking-time, the cows will generally give
down their milk more readily. The stalls and mangers should first be
thoroughly cleansed.

THE FAMILY PETS.
Roots and long hay may be given during the day; and at the evening milking,
or directly after, another generous meal of cut feed, well moistened and
mixed, as in the morning. No very concentrated food, like grains alone, or
oil-cakes, should be fed early in the morning on an empty stomach, although
it is sanctioned by the practice in the London milk-dairies. The processes of
digestion go on best when the stomach is sufficiently distended; and for this
purpose the bulk of food is almost as important as the nutritive qualities. The
flavor of some roots, as cabbages and turnips, is more apt to be imparted to
the flesh and milk when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise. After the
cows have been milked and have finished their cut feed, they are carded and
curried down, in well-managed dairies, and then either watered in the stall—
which, in very cold or stormy weather, is far preferable—or turned out to
water in the yard. While they are out, if they are let out at all, the stables are
put in order; and, after tying them up, they are fed with long hay, and left to
themselves till the next feeding time. This may consist of roots—such as
cabbages, beets, carrots, or turnips sliced—or of potatoes, a peck, or—if the
cows are very large—a half-bushel each, and cut feed again at the evening
milking, as in the morning; after which, water in the stall, if possible.

The less cows are exposed to the cold of winter, the better. They eat less,
thrive better, and give more milk, when kept housed all the time, than when
exposed to the cold. A case is on record, where a herd of cows, which had
usually been supplied from troughs and pipes in the stalls, were, on account
of an obstruction in the pipes, obliged to be turned out thrice a day to be
watered in the yard. The quantity of milk instantly decreased, and in three
days the diminution became very considerable. After the pipes were mended,
and the cows again watered, as before, in their stalls, the flow of milk
returned. This, however, must be governed much by the weather; for in very
mild and warm days it may be judicious not only to let them out, but to
allow them to remain out for a short time, for the purpose of exercise.
Any one can arrange the hour for the several processes named above, to suit
himself; but, when once fixed, it should be rigidly and regularly followed. If
the regular and full feeding be neglected for even a day, the yield of milk
will immediately decline, and it will be very difficult to restore it. It may be
safely asserted, as the result of many trials and long practice, that a larger
flow of milk follows a complete system of regularity in this respect than
from a higher feeding where this system is not adhered to.
One prime object which the dairyman should keep constantly in view is, to
maintain the animal in a sound and healthy condition. Without this, no profit
can be expected from a milch cow for any considerable length of time; and
with a view to this, there should be an occasional change of food. But, in
making changes, great care is requisite in order to supply the needful amount
of nourishment, or the cow will fall off in flesh, and eventually in milk. It
should, therefore, be remembered that the food consumed goes not alone to
the secretion of milk, but also to the growth and maintenance of the bony
structure, the flesh, the blood, the fat, the skin, and the hair, and in
exhalations from the body. These parts of the body consist of different
organic constituents. Some are rich in nitrogen, as the fibrin of the blood and
albumen; others destitute of it, as fat; some abound in inorganic salts,
phosphate of lime, and salts of potash. To explain how the constant waste of
these substances may be supplied, a celebrated chemist observes that the
albumen, gluten, caseine, and other nitrogenized principles of food, supply
the animal with the materials requisite for the formation of muscle and
cartilage; they are, therefore, called flesh-forming principles.

Fats, or oily matters of the food, are used to lay on fat, or for the purpose of
sustaining respiration.
Starch, sugar, gum, and a few other non-nitrogenized substances, consisting
of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, supply the carbon given off in respiration,
or they are used for the production of fat.
Phosphate of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish the animal with
the materials of which the bony skeleton of its body consists.
Saline substances—chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphate and
phosphate of potash and soda, and some other mineral matters occurring in
food—supply the blood, juice of flesh, and various animal juices, with the
necessary mineral constituents.
The healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved by a mixed food;
that is, food which contains all the proximate principles just noticed. Starch
or sugar alone cannot sustain the animal body, since neither of them
furnishes the materials to build up the fleshy parts of the animal. When fed
on substances in which an insufficient quantity of phosphates occurs, the
animal will become weak, because it does not find any bone-producing
principle in its food. Due attention should, therefore, be paid by the feeder to
the selection of food which contains all the kinds of matter required,
nitrogenized as well as non-nitrogenized, and mineral substances; and these
should be mixed together in the proportion which experience points out as
best for the different kinds of animals, or the particular purpose for which
they are kept.
Relative to the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes, milk may be regarded as
a material for the manufacture of butter and cheese; and, according to the
purpose for which the milk is intended to be employed, whether for the
manufacture of butter or the production of cheese, the cow should be
differently fed.
Butter contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and no nitrogen. Cheese, on
the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. Food which contains much fatty matter, or
substances which in the animal system are readily converted into fat, will
tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk. On the other hand, the
proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is increased by the use of
highly nitrogenized food. Those, then, who desire much cream, or who

produce cream for the manufacture of butter, select food likely to increase
the proportion of butter in the milk. On the contrary, where the principal
object is the production of milk rich in curd—that is, where cheese is the
object of the farmer—clover, peas, bran-meal, and other plants which
abound in legumine—a nitrogenized organic compound, almost identical in
properties and composition with caseine, or the substance which forms the
curd of milk—will be selected.
And so the quality, as well as the quantity, of butter in the milk, depends on
the kind of food consumed and on the general health of the animal. Cows fed
on turnips in the stall always produce butter inferior to that of cows living
upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the pastures.
Succulent food in which water abounds—the green grass of irrigated
meadows, green clover, brewers' and distillers' refuse, and the like—
increases the quantity, rather than the quality, of the milk; and by feeding
these substances the milk-dairyman studies his own interest, and makes thin
milk without diluting it with water—though, in the opinion of some, this
may be no more legitimate than watering the milk.
But, though the yield of milk may be increased by succulent or watery food,
it should be given so as not to interfere with the health of the cow.
Food rich in starch, gum, or sugar, which are the respiratory elements, an
excess of which goes to the production of fatty matters, increases the butter
in milk. Quietness promotes the secretion of fat in animals and increases the
butter. Cheese will be increased by food rich in albumen, such as the
leguminous plants.

BUYING CATTLE.
The most natural, and of course the healthiest, food for milch cows in
summer, is the green grass of the pastures; and when these fail from drought
or over-stocking, the complement of nourishment may be made up with
green clover, green oats, barley, millet, or corn-fodder and cabbage-leaves,
or other succulent vegetables; and if these are wanting, the deficiency may
be partly supplied with shorts, Indian-meal, linseed or cotton-seed meal.
Green grass is more nutritious than hay, which always loses somewhat of its
nutritive properties in curing; the amount of the loss depending chiefly on
the mode of curing, and the length of exposure to sun and rain. But, apart
from this, grass is more easily and completely digested than hay, though the
digestion of the latter may be greatly aided by cutting and moistening, or
steaming; and by this means it is rendered more readily available, and hence
far better adapted to promote a large secretion of milk—a fact too often
overlooked even by many intelligent farmers.
In autumn, the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures, so far as they are
available, green-corn fodder, cabbage, carrot, and turnip leaves, and an
addition of meal or shorts. Toward the middle of autumn, the cows fed in the
pastures will require to be housed regularly at night, especially in the more
northern latitudes, and put, in part at least, upon hay. But every farmer
knows that it is not judicious to feed out the best part of his hay when his
cattle are first put into the barn, and that he should not feed so well in the
early part of winter that he cannot feed better as the winter advances.
At the same time, it should always be borne in mind that the change from
grass to a poor quality of hay or straw, for cows in milk, should not be too
sudden. A poor quality of dry hay is far less palatable in the early part of
winter, after the cows are taken from grass, than at a later period; and, if it is
resorted to with milch cows, will invariably lead to a falling off in the milk,
which no good feed can afterward wholly restore.
It is desirable, therefore, for the farmer to know what can be used instead of
his best English or upland meadow hay, and yet not suffer any greater loss in
the flow of milk, or in condition, than is absolutely necessary. In some
sections of the Eastern States, the best quality of swale hay will be used; and
the composition of that is as variable as possible, depending on the varieties
of the grasses of which it was made, and the manner of curing. But, in other

sections, many will find it necessary to use straw and other substitutes.
Taking good English or meadow hay as the standard of comparison, and
calling that one, 4.79 times the weight of rye-straw, or 3.83 times the weight
of oat-straw, contains the same amount of nutritive matter; that is, it would
take 4.79 times as good rye-straw to produce the same result as good
meadow hay.
In winter, the best food for cows in milk will be good sweet meadow hay, a
part of which should be cut and moistened with water—as all inferior hay or
straw should be—with an addition of root-crops, such as turnips, carrots,
parsnips, potatoes, mangold-wurtzel, with shorts, oil-cake, Indian meal, or
bean meal.
It is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the feeding of moist food
cannot be too highly recommended for cows in milk, especially to those who
desire to obtain the largest quantity. Hay cut and thoroughly moistened
becomes more succulent and nutritive, and partakes more of the nature of
green grass.
As a substitute for the oil-cake, hitherto known as an exceedingly valuable
article for feeding stock, there is probably nothing better than cotton-seed
meal. This is an article whose economic value has been but recently made
known, but which, from practical trials already made, has proved eminently
successful as food for milch cows. Chemists have decided that its
composition is not inferior to that of the best flaxseed cake, and that in some
respects its agricultural value surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake.
It has been remarked by chemists, in this connection, that the great value of
linseed-cake, as an adjunct to hay, for fat cattle and milch cows, has been
long recognized; and that it is undeniably traceable, in the main, to three
ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants. The value of food depends
upon the quantities of matters it contains which may be appropriated by the
animal which consumes the food Now, it is proved that the fat of animals is
derived from the starch, gum, and sugar, and more directly and easily from
the oil of the food. These four substances, then, are fat-formers. The
muscles, nerves, and tendons of animals, the brine of their blood and the
curd of their milk, are almost identical in composition with, and strongly
similar in many of their properties to, matters found in all vegetables, but
chiefly in such as form the most concentrated food. These blood (and

muscle) formers are characterized by containing about fifteen and a half per
cent. of nitrogen; and hence are called nitrogenous substances. They are,
also, often designated as the albuminous bodies.
The bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime,
and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must supply
the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper proportions. The
addition of a small quantity of a food, rich in oil and albuminous substances,
to the ordinary kinds of feed, which contain a large quantity of vegetable
fibre or woody matter, more or less indigestible, but, nevertheless,
indispensable to the herbivorous animals, their digestive organs being
adapted to a bulky food, has been found highly advantageous in practice.
Neither hay alone nor concentrated food alone gives the best results. A
certain combination of the two presents the most advantages.
Some who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing
cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small doses, mixed with other palatable
food, they soon learn to eat it with relish. Cotton-seed cake is much richer in
oils and albuminous matters than the linseed cake. A correspondingly less
quantity will therefore be required. Three pounds of this cotton-seed cake are
equivalent to four of linseed cake of average quality.
During the winter season, as has been already remarked, a frequent change
of food is especially necessary, both as contributions to the general health of
animals, and as a means of stimulating the digestive organs, and thus
increasing the secretion of milk. A mixture used as cut feed and well
moistened is now especially beneficial, since concentrated food, which
would otherwise be given in small quantities, may be united with larger
quantities of coarser and less nutritive food, and the complete assimilation of
the whole be better secured. On this subject it has been sensibly observed
that the most nutritious kinds of food produce little or no effect when they
are not digested by the stomach, or if the digested food is not absorbed by
the lymphatic vessels, and not assimilated by the various parts of the body.
Now, the normal functions of the digestive organs not only depend upon the
composition of the food, but also on its volume. The volume or bulk of the
food contributes to the healthy action of the digestive organs, by exercising a
stimulating effect upon the nerves which govern them. Thus the whole
organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of bulky food, to
keep the animal in good condition.

Feed sweet and nutritious food, therefore, frequently, regularly, and in small
quantities, and change it often, and the best results may be confidently
anticipated. If the cows are not in milk, but are to come in in the spring, the
difference in feeding should be rather in the quantity than the quality, if the
highest yield is to be expected from them during the coming season.
The most common feeding is hay alone, and oftentimes very poor hay at
that. The main point is to keep the animal in a healthy and thriving
condition, and not to suffer her to fail in flesh; and with this object, some
change and variety of food are highly important.

CALLING IN THE CATTLE.
Toward the close of winter, a herd of cows will begin to come in, or
approach their time of calving. Care should then be taken not to feed too rich
or stimulating food for the last week or two before this event, as it is often

attended with ill consequences. A plenty of hay, a few potatoes or shorts, and
pure water will suffice.
In spring, the best feeding for dairy cows will be much the same as that for
winter; the roots in store over winter, such as carrots, mangold wurtzel,
turnips, and parsnips, furnishing very valuable aid in increasing the quantity
and improving the quality of milk. Toward the close of this season, and
before the grass of pastures is sufficiently grown to make it judicious to turn
out the cows, the best dairymen provide a supply of green fodder in the
shape of winter rye, which, if cut while it is tender and succulent, and before
it is half grown, will be greatly relished. Unless cut young, however, its stalk
soon becomes hard and unpalatable.
All practical dairymen agree in saying that a warm and well-ventilated barn
is indispensable to the promotion of the highest yield of milk in winter; and
most agree that cows in milk should not be turned out, even to drink, in cold
weather; all exposure to cold tending to lessen the yield of milk.
In the London dairies, in which, of course, the cows are fed so as to produce
the largest flow of milk, the treatment is as follows: The cows are kept at
night in stalls. About three A. M. each has a half-bushel of grains. When
milking is finished, each receives a bushel of turnips (or mangolds), and
shortly afterward, one tenth of a truss of hay of the best quality. This feeding
occurs before eight A. M., when the animals are turned into the yard. Four
hours after, they are again tied up in their stalls, and have another feed of
grains. When the afternoon milking is over (about three P. M.), they are fed
with a bushel of turnips, and after the lapse of an hour, hay is given them as
before. This mode of feeding usually continues throughout the cool season,
or from November to March. During the remaining months they are fed with
grains, tares, and cabbages, and a proportion of rowen, or second-cut hay.
They are supplied regularly until they are turned out to grass, when they pass
the whole of the night in the field. The yield is about six hundred and fifty
gallons a year for each cow.
Mr. Harley—whose admirable dairy establishment was erected for the
purpose of supplying the city of Glasgow with a good quality of milk, and
which has contributed more than any thing else to improve the quality of the
milk furnished to all the principal cities of Great Britain—adopted the
following system of feeding with the greatest profit: In the early part of the

summer, young grass and green barley, the first cutting especially, mixed
with a large proportion of old hay or straw, and a good quantity of salt to
prevent swelling, were used. As summer advanced, less hay and straw were
given, and as the grass approached ripeness, they were discontinued
altogether; but young and wet clover was never given without an admixture
of dry provender. When grass became scarce, young turnips and turnip
leaves were steamed with hay, and formed a good substitute. As grass
decreased, the turnips were increased, and at length became a complete
substitute. As the season advanced, a large proportion of distillers' grains and
wash was given with other food, but these were found to have a tendency to
make the cattle grain-sick; and if this feeding were long-continued, the
health of the cows became affected. Boiled linseed and short-cut wheat straw
mixed with the grains, were found to prevent the cows from turning sick. As
spring approached, Swedish turnips, when cheap, were substituted for
yellow turnips. These two roots, steamed with hay and other mixtures,
afforded safe food till grass was again in season. When any of the cows were
surfeited, the food was withheld till the appetite returned, when a small
quantity was given, and increased gradually to the full allowance.
But the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the feeding and
management of milch cows, are those made, not long since, by Mr. T.
Horsfall, of England, and published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society. His practice, though adapted more especially, perhaps, to his own
section, is nevertheless of such general application and importance as to be
worthy of attention. By his course of treatment he found that he could
produce as much and as rich butter in winter as in summer.
His first object was to afford a full supply of the elements of food adapted to
the maintenance, and also to the produce of the animal; and this could not be
effected by the ordinary food and methods of feeding, since it is impossible
to induce a cow to consume a quantity of hay requisite to supply the waste of
the system, and keep up, at the same time, a full yield of the best quality of
milk. He used, to some extent, cabbages, kohl rabi, mangolds, shorts, and
other substances, rich in the constituents of cheese and butter. "My food for
milch cows," says he, "after having undergone various modifications, has for
two seasons consisted of rape cake five pounds, and bran two pounds, for
each cow, mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and
shells of oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as

much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and blended
together, and, after being well steamed, are given to the animal in a warm
state. The attendant is allowed one pound to one pound and a half per cow,
according to circumstances, of bean-meal, which he is charged to give to
each cow in proportion to the yield of milk; those in full milk getting each
two pounds per day, others but little. It is dry, and mixed with the steamed
food on its being dealt out separately. When this is eaten up, green food is
given, consisting of cabbages, from October to December, kohl rabi till
February, and mangold till grass time, with a view to nicety of flavor. I limit
the quantity of green food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each.
After each feed, four pounds of meadow hay, or twelve pounds per day, is
given to each cow. They are allowed water twice a day, to the extent which
they will drink."
Bean-straw uncooked having been found to be hard and unpalatable, it was
steamed to make it soft and pulpy, when it possessed an agreeable odor, and
imparted its flavor to the whole mass. It was cut for this purpose just before
ripening, but after the bean was fully grown, and in this state was found to
possess nearly double the amount of albuminous matter, so valuable to milch
cows, of good meadow or upland hay. Bran or shorts is also vastly improved
by steaming or soaking with hot water, when its nutriment is more readily
assimilated. It contains about fourteen per cent. of albumen, and is rich in
phosphoric acid. Rape-cake was found to be exceedingly valuable. Linseed
and cotton-seed cake may probably be substituted for it in this country.
Mr. Horsfall turned his cows in May into a rich pasture, housing them at
night, and giving them a mess of the steamed mixture and some hay morning
and night; and from June to October they had cut grass in the stall, besides
what they got in the pasture, and two feeds of the steamed mixture a day.
After the beginning of October the cows were kept housed. With such
management his cows generally yielded from twelve to sixteen quarts of
milk (wine measure) a day, for about eight months after calving, when they
fell off in milk, but gained in flesh, up to calving-time. In this course of
treatment the manure was far better than the average, and his pastures
constantly improved. The average amount of butter from every sixteen
quarts of milk was twenty-five ounces—a proportion far larger than the
average.

"ON THE RAMPAGE."
How widely does this course of treatment differ from that of most farmers!
The object with many seems to be, to see with how little food they can keep
the cow alive. From a correct point of view, the milch cow should be
regarded as an instrument of transformation. The question should be—with
so much hay, so much grain, so many roots, how can the most milk, or
butter, or cheese, be made? The conduct of a manufacturer who owned good
machinery, and an abundance of raw material, and had the labor at hand,
would be considered very senseless, if he hesitated to supply the material,
and keep the machinery at work, at least so long as he could run it with
profit.
Stimulate the appetite, then, and induce the cow to eat, by a frequent change
of diet, not merely enough to supply the constant waste of her system, but
enough and to spare, of a food adapted to the production of milk of the
quality desired.

SOILING.

Of the advantages of soiling milch cows—that is, feeding exclusively in the
barn—there are yet many conflicting opinions. As to its economy of land
and feed there can be no question, it being generally admitted that a given
number of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space; nor is there much
question as to the increased quantity of milk yielded in stall feeding. Its
economy, in this country, turns rather upon the cost of labor and time; and
the question raised by the dairyman is, whether it will pay—whether its
advantages are sufficient to balance the extra expense of cutting and feeding,
over and above cropping on the pasture. The importance of this subject has
been strongly impressed upon the attention of farmers in many sections of
the country, by a growing conviction that something must be done to
improve the pastures, or that they must be abandoned altogether.
Thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older States are so poor
and worn out that from four to eight acres furnish but a miserable
subsistence for a good-sized cow. No animal can flourish under such
circumstances. The labor and exertion of feeding are too great, to say
nothing of the vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures,
compared with those on more recently seeded lands. True economy would
dictate that such pastures should either be allowed to run to wood, or be
devoted to sheep-walks, or ploughed and improved. Cows, to be able to
yield well, must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality; and,
unless they find it, they wander over a large space, if at liberty, and thus
deprive themselves of rest.
If a farmer or dairyman unfortunately owns such pastures, there can be no
question that, as a matter of real economy, he had better resort to the soiling
system for his milch cows; by which means he will largely increase his
annual supply of good manure, and thus have the means of improving, and
bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation. A very successful instance
of this management occurs in the report of the visiting committee of an
agricultural society in Massachusetts, in which they say: "We have now in
mind a farmer in this county who keeps seven or eight cows in the stable
through the summer, and feeds them on green fodder, chiefly Indian corn.
We asked him his reasons for it. His answer was: 1. That he gets more milk
than he can by any other method. 2. That he gets more manure, especially
liquid manure. 3. That he saves it all, by keeping a supply of mud or mould
under the stable, to be taken out and renewed as often as necessary. 4. That it

is less troublesome than to drive his cows to pasture; that they are less vexed
by flies, and have equally good health. 5. That his mowing land is every year
growing more productive, without the expense of artificial manure.—He
estimates that on an acre of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be
raised. That which is dried is cut fine, and mixed with meal or shorts, and
fed with profit. He believes that a reduced and worn-out farm—supposing
the land to be naturally good—could be brought into prime order in five
years, without any extra outlay of money for manure, by the use of green
fodder in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs; not fattening
them, but selling at the age of four or five months." He keeps most of his
land in grass, improving its quality and productiveness by means of top-
dressing, and putting money in his pocket—which is, after all, the true test
both for theory and practice.
Another practical case on this point is that of a gentleman in the same State
who had four cows, but not a rod of land on which to pasture them. They
were, therefore, never out of the barn—or, at least, not out of the yard—and
were fed with grass, regularly mown for them; with green Indian corn and
fodder, which had been sown broadcast for the purpose; and with about three
pints of meal a day. Their produce in butter was kept for thirteen weeks. Two
of them were but two years old, having calved the same spring. All the milk
of one of them was taken by her calf for six weeks out of the thirteen, and
some of the milk of the other was taken for family use, the quantity of which
was not measured. These heifers could not, therefore, be estimated as equal
to more than one cow in full milk. And yet from these cows no less than
three hundred and eighty-nine pounds of butter were made in the thirteen
weeks. Another pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week
for the whole time.
It appears from these and other similar instances of soiling, or stall-feeding
in summer on green crops cut for the purpose, that the largely increased
quantity of the yield fully compensates for the slightly deteriorated quality.
And not only is the quantity yielded by each cow increased, but the same
extent of land, under the same culture, will carry double or treble the number
of ordinary pastures, and keep them in better condition. There is also a
saving of manure. But with us the economy of soiling is the exception, and
not the rule.

In adopting this system of feeding, regularity is required as much as in any
other, and a proper variety of food. A succession of green crops should be
provided, as near as convenient to the stable. The first will naturally be
winter rye, in the Northern States, as that shoots up with great luxuriance.
Winter rape would probably be an exceedingly valuable addition to the
plants usually cultivated for soiling in this country, in sections where it
would withstand the severity of the winter. Cabbages, kept in the cellar or
pit, and transplanted early, will also come in here to advantage, and clover
will very soon follow them; oats, millet, and green Indian-corn, as the season
advances; and, a little later still, perhaps, the Chinese sugar-cane, which
should not be cut till headed out. These plants, in addition to other cultivated
grasses, will furnish an unfailing succession of succulent and tender fodder;
while the addition of a little Indian, linseed, or cotton-seed meal will be
found economical.
In the vicinity of large towns and cities, where the object is too often to feed
for the largest quantity, without reference to quality, an article known as
distillers' swill, or still-slop, is extensively used. This, if properly fed in
limited quantities, in combination with other and more bulky food, may be a
valuable article for the dairyman; but, if given—as it too often is—without
the addition of other kinds of food, it soon affects the health and constitution
of the animals fed on it. This swill contains a considerable quantity of water,
some nitrogenous compounds, and some inorganic matter in the shape of
phosphates and alkaline salts found in the different kinds of grain of which it
is made up, as Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, and the like. Where this forms
the principal food of milch cows, the milk is of a very poor quality—blue in
color, and requiring the addition of coloring substances to make it saleable.
It contains, often, less than one per cent. of butter, and seldom over one and
three-tenths or one and a half per cent.—while good, saleable milk should
contain from three to five per cent. It will not coagulate, it is said, in less
than five or six hours; while good milk will invariably coagulate in an hour
or less, under the same conditions. Its effect on the system of young children
is, therefore, very destructive, causing diseases of various kinds, and, if
continued, death.
So pernicious have been the consequences resulting from the use of this
"swill-milk," as it is called, in the largest city of this country, that the

Legislature of the State of New York, at a recent session (1861-2), interfered
in behalf of the community by making the sale of the article a penal offence.

CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER.

As has been already stated, the grasses in summer, and hay in winter, form
the most natural and important food for milch cows; and, whatever other
crops come in as additional, these will form the basis of all systems of
feeding.
The nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely; and their value as feed
for cows will depend, to a considerable extent, on the management of
pastures and mowing-lands. Some considerations bearing upon the subject of
the proper cultivation of these leading articles of food are, therefore,
proposed in this article.

PATIENTLY WAITING.
If the turf of an old pasture is carefully examined, it will be found to contain
a large variety of plants and grasses adapted for forage; some of them
valuable for one purpose, and some for another. Some of them, though
possessing a lower percentage of nutritive constituents than others, are
particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth, furnishing sweet
feed in early spring, before other grasses appear; some of them, for starting
more rapidly than others, after having been eaten off by cattle, and,
consequently, of great value as pasture grasses. Most grasses will be found to
be of a social character, and do best in a large mixture with other varieties.
In forming a mixture for pasture grasses, the peculiar qualities of each
species should, therefore, be regarded: as the time of flowering, the habits of
growth, the soil and location on which it grows best, and other
characteristics.
Among the grasses found on cultivated lands in this country, the following
are considered as among the most valuable for ordinary farm cultivation;
some of them being adapted to pastures, and others almost exclusively to
mowing and the hay-crop: Timothy, Meadow Foxtail, June or Kentucky Blue
Grass, Fowl Meadow, Rough-stalked Meadow, Orchard Grass, Perennial
Rye Grass, Italian Rye Grass, Redtop, English Bent, Meadow Fescue, Tall
Oat Grass, Sweet-scented Vernal, Hungarian Grass, Red Clover, White or
Dutch Clover, and some others.
Of these, the most valuable, all things considered, is Timothy. It forms a
large proportion of what is commonly called English, or in some sections
meadow, hay, though it originated and was first cultivated in this country. It
contains a large percentage of nutritive matter, in comparison with other
agricultural grasses. It thrives best on moist, peaty, or loamy soils, of
medium tenacity, and is not well suited to very light, sandy lands. On very
moist soils, its root is almost always fibrous; while on dry and loamy ones it
is bulbous. On soils of the former description, which it especially affects, its
growth is rapid, and its yield of hay large, sometimes amounting to three or
four tons the acre, depending much, of course, upon cultivation. But, though
very valuable for hay, it is not adapted for pasture, as it will neither endure
severe grazing, nor is its aftermath to be compared with that of meadow
foxtail, and some of the other grasses.

June Grass, better known in some sections as Kentucky Blue Grass, is very
common in most sections of the country, especially on limestone lands,
forming a large part of the turf, wherever it flourishes, and being held in
universal esteem as a pasture grass. It starts early, but varies much in size
and appearance, according to the soil; growing in some places with the
utmost luxuriance, and forming the predominant grass; in others, yielding to
the other species. If cut at the time of flowering, or a few days after, it makes
a good and nutritious hay, though it is surpassed in nutritive qualities by
several of the other grasses. It starts slowly after having been cut, especially
if not cut very early. But its herbage is fine and uniform, and admirably
adapted to lawns, growing well in almost all soils, though it does not endure
very severe droughts. It withstands, however, the frosts of winter better than
most other grasses.
In Kentucky—a section where it attains its highest perfection and
luxuriance, ripening its seeds about the tenth of June—and in latitudes south
of that, it sometimes continues green through the mild winters. It requires
three or four years to become well set, after sowing, and it does not attain its
highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is even older than that. It is not,
therefore, suited to alternate husbandry, where land usually remains in grass
but two or three years before being ploughed up. In Kentucky, it is sown any
time in winter when the sun is on the ground, three or four quarts of seed
being used to the acre. In spring the seeds germinate, when the sprouts are
exceedingly fine and delicate. Stock is not allowed on it the first year.
The Meadow Foxtail is also an excellent pasture grass It somewhat
resembles Timothy, but is earlier, has a softer spike, and thrives on all soils
except the dryest. Its growth is rapid, and it is greatly relished by stock of all
kinds. Its stalks and leaves are too few and light for a field crop, and it
shrinks too much in curing to be valuable for hay. It flourishes best in a rich,
moist, and rather strong soil, sending up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or
grazed off, which is much more valuable, both in quality and nutritive value,
than the first crop. In all lands designed for permanent pasture, therefore, it
should form a considerable part of a mixture. It will endure almost any
amount of forcing, by liquid manures or irrigation. It requires three or four
years, after soiling, to gain a firm footing in the soil. The seed is covered
with the soft and woolly husks of the flower, and is consequently light;

weighing but five pounds to the bushel, and containing seventy-six thousand
seeds to the ounce.
The Orchard Grass, or Rough Cocksfoot, for pastures, stands pre-eminent.
This is a native of this country, and was introduced into England, from
Virginia, in 1764, since which time its cultivation has extended into every
country of Europe, where it is universally held in very high estimation. The
fact of its being very palatable to stock of all kinds, its rapid growth, and the
luxuriance of its aftermath, with its power of enduring the cropping of cattle,
have given it a very high reputation, especially as a pasture grass. It
blossoms earlier than Timothy; when green, is equally relished by milch
cows; requires to be fed closer, to prevent its forming tufts and growing up
to seed, when it becomes hard and wiry, and loses much of its nutritive
quality. As it blossoms about the same time, it forms an admirable mixture
with red clover, either for permanent pasture or mowing. It resists drought,
and is less exhausting to the soil than either rye grass or Timothy. The seed
weighs twelve pounds to the bushel, and when sown alone requires about
two bushels to the acre.
The Rough-Stalked Meadow Grass is somewhat less common than the June
grass, but is considered equally valuable. It grows best on moist, sheltered
meadows, where it flowers in June and July. It is readily distinguished from
June grass by its having a rough sheath, while the latter has a smooth one,
and by having a fibrous root, while the root of the other is creeping. It
possesses very considerable nutritive qualities, and comes to perfection at a
desirable time, and is exceedingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. For
suitable soils it should form a portion of a mixture of seeds, producing, in
mixture with other grasses which serve to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far
above the average of grass usually sown on a similar soil. It should be cut
when the seed is formed. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will make a good
sward. The grass loses about seventy per cent. of its weight in drying. The
nutritive qualities of its aftermath exceed very considerably those of the crop
cut in the flower or in the seed.
Fowl Meadow Grass is another indigenous species, of great value for low
and marshy grounds, where it flourishes best; and, if cut and properly cured,
makes a sweet and nutritious hay, which, from its fineness, is eaten by cows
without waste. According to Sinclair—who experimented, with the aid of Sir
Humphrey Davy, to ascertain its comparative nutritive properties—it is

superior in this respect to either meadow foxtail, orchard grass, or tall
meadow oat grass; but it is probable that he somewhat overrates it. If
allowed to stand till nearly ripe, it falls down, but sends up innumerable
flowering stems from the joints, so that it continues green and luxuriant till
late in the season. It thrives best in mixture with other grasses, and deserves
a prominent place in all mixtures for rich, moist pastures, and low mowing-
lands.
Rye Grass has a far higher reputation abroad than in this country, and
probably with reason; for it is better adapted to a wet and uncertain climate
than to a dry and hot one. It varies exceedingly, depending much on soil and
culture; but, when cut in the blossom to make into hay, it possesses very
considerable nutritive power. If allowed to get too ripe, it is hard and wiry,
and not relished by cows. The change from a juicy and nutritious plant to a
woody fibre, containing but little soluble matter, is very rapid. Properly
managed, however, it is a tolerably good grass, though not to be compared to
Timothy, or orchard grass.
Redtop is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country. It is the Herd's
grass of Pennsylvania, while in New York and New England it is known by a
great variety of names and assumes a great variety of forms, according to the
soil in which it grows. It is well adapted to almost every soil, though it
seems to prefer a moist loam. It makes a profitable crop for spending, in the
form of hay, though its yield is less than that of Timothy. It is well suited to
our permanent pastures, where it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes
wiry and innutritious, and cattle refuse it. It stands the climate of the country
as well as any other grass, and so forms a valuable part of any mixture for
pastures and permanent mowing-lands; but it is, probably, rather over rated
by us.
English Bent, known also by a number of other names, is largely cultivated
in some sections. It closely resembles redtop, but may be distinguished from
it by the roughness of the sheaths when the hand is drawn from above
downward. It possesses about the same qualities as redtop.
Meadow Fescue is one of the most common of the fescue grasses, and is said
to be the Randall grass of Virginia. It is an excellent pasture grass, forming a
very considerable portion of the turf of old pasture lands and fields; and is
more extensively propagated and diffused from the fact that it ripens its

seeds before most other grasses are cut, and sheds them to spring up and
cover the ground. Its long and tender leaves are much relished by cattle. It is
rarely sown in this country, notwithstanding its great and acknowledged
value as a pasture grass. If sown at all, it should be in mixture with other
grasses, as orchard grass, and rye grass, or June grass. It is of much greater
value at the time of flowering than when the seed is ripe.

A CHANCE FOR A SELECTION.
The Tall Oat Grass is the Ray grass of France. It furnishes a luxuriant
supply of foliage, is valuable either for hay or for pasture, and has been
especially recommended for soiling purposes, on account of its early and
luxuriant growth. It is often found on the borders of fields and hedges,
woods and pastures, and is sometimes very plenty in mowing-lands. After
having been mown it shoots up a very thick aftermath, and, on this account,
partly, is regarded of nearly equal excellence with the common foxtail.
It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once naturalized. It has
been cultivated to a considerable extent in this country, and is esteemed by
those who know it mainly for its early, rapid, and late growth, making it very
well calculated as a permanent pasture grass. It will succeed on tenacious
clover soil.
The Sweet-Scented Vernal Grass is one of the earliest in spring and one of
the latest in autumn; and this habit of growth is one of its chief excellencies,
as it is neither a nutritious grass, nor very palatable to stock of any kind, nor

does it yield a very good crop. It is very common in New England and all
over the Middle States, coming into old worn-out fields and moist pastures
spontaneously, and along every roadside. It derives its name from its
sweetness of odor when partially wilted or crushed in the hand, and it is this
chiefly which gives the delicious fragrance to all new-mown bay. It is almost
the only grass that possesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor, which is
imparted to other grasses with which it is cured. Its seed weighs eight
pounds to the bushel. In mixtures for permanent pastures it may be of some
value.
Hungarian Grass, or millet, is an annual forage plant, introduced into
France in 1815, and more recently into this country. It germinates readily,
and withstands the drought remarkably, remaining green when other grasses
are parched and dried up. It has numerous succulent leaves which furnish an
abundance of sweet fodder, greatly relished by stock of all kinds. It attains
its greatest luxuriance on soils of medium consistency and richness, but does
very well on light and dry plains.
Red Clover is an artificial grass of the leguminous family, and one of the
most valuable cultivated plants for feeding to dairy cows. It flourishes best
on tenacious soils and stiff loams. Its growth is rapid, and a few months after
sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet and nutritious food. In the
climate of New England, clover should be sown in the spring of the year,
while most of the natural grasses do far better when sown in the fall. It is
often sown with perfect success on the late snows of March or April, and
soon finds its way down into the soil and takes a vigorous hold with its root.
It is valuable not only as a forage plant, but as shading the ground, and
thereby increasing its fertility.
The introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of the farm has done
more, perhaps, for modern agriculture than that of any other single plant. It
is now considered indispensable in all good dairy districts.
White Clover, often called Honeysuckle, is also widely diffused over this
country, to which it is undoubtedly indigenous. As a mixture in all pasture
grasses it holds a very high rank, as it is exceedingly sweet and nutritious,
and relished by all kinds of stock. It grows most luxuriantly in moist grounds
and moist seasons, but easily accommodates itself to a great variety of
circumstances.

With respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable for the dairy
farmer, no universal rule can be given, as they depend very much upon the
nature of the soil and the locality. The most important point to be observed,
and the one as to which, probably, the greatest deficiency exists, is to use a
large number of species, with smaller quantities of each than those most
commonly used. This is Nature's rule; for, in examining the turf of a rich old
pasture, a large number of different species will be found growing together,
while, if the turf of a field sown without two or three species is examined, a
far less number of plants is found to the square foot, even after the sod is
fairly set. In the opinion of the most competent judges, no improvement in
grass culture is more important than this.
As an instance of what he would consider an improvement on the ordinary
mixtures for permanent pastures, Mr. Flint, in his "Milch Cows and Dairy
Farming," suggests the following as likely to give satisfactory results,
dependent, of course, to a considerable extent, on the nature and preparation
of the soil:

Meadow Foxtail, flowering in May and June, 2 pounds
Orchard Grass, " " " " 6 "
Sweet-scented Vernal, " " April and May, 1 "
Meadow Fescue, " " May and June, 2 "
Redtop, " " June and July, 2 "
June Grass, " " May and June, 4 "
Italian Rye Grass, " " June, 4 "
Perennial do., " " " 6 "
Timothy, " " June and July, 3 "
Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, " " 2 "
Perennial Clover, flowering in June, 3 "
White Clover, " " May to September 5-40 "

For mowing-lands the mixture would, of course, be somewhat changed. The
meadow foxtail and sweet-scented vernal would be left out entirely, and
some six or eight pounds added to the Timothy and red clover. The proper
time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of New England is August or
September, and no grain crop should be sown with the seed.

Stiff or clayey pastures should never be overstocked, but when fed pretty
close the grasses are far sweeter and more nutritious than when they are
allowed to grow up rank and coarse; and if, by a want of sufficient feeding,
they get the start of the stock, and grow into rank tufts, they should be cut
and removed, when a fresh grass will start up, similar to the aftermath of
mowing-lands, which will be eaten with avidity. Grasses for curing into hay
should be cut either at the time of flowering, or just before, especially if
designed for milch cows. They are then more succulent and juicy, and, if
properly cured, form the sweetest food.
Grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if allowed to stand later.
Cut a little before the blossoming; it will make more than when in blossom,
and the cows prefer it, which is by no means an unimportant consideration,
since their tastes should always be consulted. Grass cut somewhat green, and
properly cured, is next to fresh, green grass in palatable, nutritive qualities.
Every farmer knows the milk-producing properties of rowen, or second crop,
which is generally cut before it ripens.
No operation on the farm is of greater importance to the dairyman than the
cutting of his grass and the manner of curing hay; and in this respect the
practice over the country generally is susceptible of very marked
improvement. The chief object is to preserve the sweetness and succulence
of the grass in its natural state, so far as possible; and this object cannot be
attained by exposing it too long to the scorching suns and drenching rains to
which our climate is liable. As a general thing, farmers try to make their hay
too much.
As to the best modes of curing clover, the following, among others, is
adopted by many successful farmers: What is mown in the morning is left in
the swath, to be turned over early in the afternoon. At about four o'clock, or
while it is still warm, it is put into small cocks with a fork, and, if the
weather is favorable, it may be housed on the fourth or fifth day, the cocks
being turned over on the morning of the day in which it is to be carted. By
this method all the heads and leaves are saved, and these are more valuable
than the stems. For new milch cows in winter scarcely any food is better. It
will cause them to give as great a flow of milk as any hay, unless it be good
rowen.

Indian Corn makes an exceedingly valuable fodder, both as a means of
carrying a herd of milch cows through our severe droughts of summer, and
as an article for soiling cows kept in the stall. No dairy farmer will neglect to
sow an extent in proportion to the number of cows which he keeps. The most
common practice is, to sow in drills from two and a half to three feet apart,
on land well tilled and thoroughly manured, making the drills from six to ten
inches wide with the plough, manuring in the furrow, dropping the kernels
about two inches apart, and covering with the hoe. In this mode of culture,
the cultivator may be used between the rows when the corn is from six to
twelve inches high, and, unless the ground is very weedy, no other after
culture is needed. The first sowing usually takes place about the middle of
May, and this is succeeded by other sowings, at intervals of a week or ten
days, till July, in order to have a succession of green fodder; but, if it is
designed to cut it up to cure for winter use, an early sowing is generally
preferred, in order to be able to cure it in warm weather, in August or early
in September. Sown in this way, about three or four bushels of corn are
required for an acre; since, if sown thickly, the fodder is better, the stalks
smaller, and the waste less.
The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose, and after the
methods just spoken of, arises from the fact that it comes at a season when
the weather is often colder, the days shorter, and the dews heavier, than when
the curing of hay takes place. Nor is the curing of corn cut up green so easy
and simple as that of the drying of stalks of Indian corn cut above the ear, as
in the common practice of topping. The plant is then riper, less juicy, and
cures more readily.
The method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after it is
somewhat wilted, and then to stook upon the ground, where it is allowed to
stand, subject to all the changes of weather, with only the protection of the
stook itself. The stooks consist of bunches of stalks first bound into small
bundles, and are made sufficiently large to prevent the wind from blowing
them over. The arms are thrown around the tops to bring them as closely
together as possible, when the tops are broken over or twisted together, or
otherwise fastened, in order to make the stook "shed the rain" as well as
possible. In this condition they remain out until they are sufficiently dried to
be put in the barn. Corn fodder is very excellent for young dairy stock.

Common Millet is another very valuable crop for fodder in soiling, or to
cure for winter use, but especially to feed out during the usual season of
drought. Many varieties of millet are cultivated in this country, the ground
being prepared and treated as for oats. If designed to cut for green fodder,
half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used; if to ripen seed, twelve
quarts, sown broadcast, about the last of May or early in June. A moist loam
or muck is the best soil adapted to millet; but very great crops have been
grown on dry upland. It is very palatable and nutritious for milch cows, both
green and when properly cured. The curing should be very much like that of
clover, care being taken not to over-dry it. For fodder, either green or cured,
it is cut before ripening. In this state all cattle eat it as readily as green corn,
and a less extent will feed them. Millet is worthy of a widely-extended
cultivation, particularly on dairy farms. Indian millet is another cultivated
variety.
Rye, as a fodder plant, is chiefly valuable for its early growth in spring. It is
usually sown in September or October—from the middle to the end of
September being, perhaps, the most desirable time—on land previously
cultivated and in good condition. If designed to ripen only, a bushel of seed
is required to the acre, evenly sown; but, if intended for early fodder in
spring, two or two and a half bushels of seed per acre should be used. On
warm land the rye can be cut green the last of April or the first of May. Care
should be taken to cut early; since, if it is allowed to advance too far towards
maturity, the stalk becomes hard and unpalatable to cows.
Oats are also sometimes used for soiling, or for feeding green, to eke out a
scanty supply of pasture feed; and for this purpose they are valuable. They
should be sown on well-tilled and well-manured land, about four bushels to
the acre, towards the last of April or the first of May. If the whole crop is to
be used as green fodder, five bushels of seed will not be too much for good,
strong soil. They will be sufficiently grown to cut by the first of July, or in
some sections earlier, depending upon the location.
The Chinese Sugar-Cane also may deserve attention as a fodder plant.
Experiments thus far made would seem to show that when properly
cultivated, and cut at the right time, it is a palatable and nutritious plant,
while many of the failures have been the result of too early cutting. For a
fodder crop the drill culture is preferable, both on account of the larger yield
obtained and because it is thus prevented from becoming too hard and stalky.

Of the root crops the Potato is the first to be mentioned. This produces a
large quantity of milk, though the quality is inferior. The market value of this
root is, at times, too great to allow of feeding extensively with it, even in
milk dairies, where it is most valuable as a food for cows; still, there are
locations where it may be judicious to cultivate this root for dairy feed, and
in all circumstances there is a certain portion of the crop of unmarketable
size, which will be of value fed to milch cows or swine. It should be planted
in April or May, but in many sections in June, on good mellow soil, first
thoroughly plowed and harrowed, then furrowed three feet apart, and
manured in the furrows with a mixture of ashes, plaster of Paris, and salt.
The seed may be dropped in the furrows, one foot apart, after the drill
system—or in hills, two and a half or three feet apart—to be covered with
the plough by simply turning the furrows back, after which the whole should
be rolled with the field-roller, when it can be done.
If the land is not already in good heart from continued cultivation, a few
loads of barnyard manure may be spread, and plowed under, by the first
plowing. Used in this way it is far less liable to cause the rot, than when it is
put in the hill. If a sufficient quantity of wood-ashes is not at hand, sifted
coal-ashes will answer the purpose, and these are said to be valuable as a
preventive of rot. In this way, one man, two boys, and a horse can plant from
three to four acres a day on mellow land.
By another method two acres a day on the sod have been planted. The
manure is first spread upon the grass, and then a furrow made by a yoke of
oxen and one man, another following after and dropping, a foot apart, along
the outer edge of the furrow on the grass. By quick work, one hand can
nearly keep up with the plow in dropping. When arrived at the end of the
piece, a back furrow is turned up to the potatoes, and a good plowman will
cover nearly all without difficulty. On the return furrow, the man or boy who
dropped follows after, covering up any that may be left or displaced, and
smoothing off the top of the back-furrows when necessary. Potatoes thus
planted have come out finely.
The cost of cultivation in this mode, it must be evident, is but trifling,
compared with the slower method of hand-planting. It requires a skillful
ploughman, a quick, active lad, and a good yoke of oxen, and the extent of
the work will depend somewhat upon the state of the turf. The nutritive
equivalent for potatoes in a hundred pounds of good hay is 319 pounds; that

is, it will take 3.19 pounds of potatoes to afford the same amount of
nourishment as one pound of hay. The great value of roots is as a change or
condiment calculated to keep the animal in a healthy condition.

A WEST HIGHLAND OX.
The Carrot is somewhat extensively fed, and is a valuable root for milch
cows. This, like the potato, has been cultivated and improved from a wild
plant. Carrots require a deep, warm, mellow soil, thoroughly cultivated, but
clean, and free from weed-seed. The difference between a very good profit
and a loss on the crop depends much upon the use of land and manures
perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind. Ashes, guano, seaweed, ground
bones, and other similar substances, or thoroughly-rotted and fermented
compost, will answer the purpose.
After plowing deep, and harrowing carefully, the seed should be planted
with a seed-sower, in drills about eighteen inches apart, at the rate of four
pounds to the acre, about the middle of May. The difference between sowing
on the fifteenth of May and on the tenth of June in New England is said to be
nearly one-third in the crop on an average of years. In weeding, a little wheel
hoe is invaluable, as with it a large part of the labor of cultivation is saved. A
skillful hand can run this hoe within a half an inch of the young plants
without injury, and go over a large space in the course of a day, if the land
was properly prepared in the first place.

The American farmer should always plan to economize labor, which is the
great item of expense upon a farm. By this is not meant that he should strive
to shirk or avoid work, but that he should make the least amount of work
accomplish the greatest and most profitable results. Labor-saving machinery
on the farm is applied, not to reduce the number of hours of labor, or to
make the owner a man of leisure—who is, generally, the unhappiest man in
the world—but to enable him to accomplish the greatest results in the same
time that he would be compelled to obtain smaller ones.
Carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late into the fall. When
ready to dig, plow around as near to the outside rows as possible, turning
away the furrow from the row. Then take out the carrots, pulling off the tops,
and throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the plowed furrows. In
this way a man and two boys can harvest and put into the cellar upwards of a
hundred bushels a day.
The Turnip, and the Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, are also largely cultivated
as a field crop to feed to stock; and for this purpose almost numberless
varieties are used, furnishing a great amount of succulent and nutritious
food, late into winter, and, if well-kept, late into spring. The chief objection
to the turnip is, that it taints the milk. This may be remedied—to a
considerable extent, if not wholly—by the use of salt, or salt hay, and by
feeding at the time of milking, or immediately after, or by steaming before
feeding, or putting a small quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail, and
milking upon it.
Turnips may be sown any time in June, in rich land, well mellowed by
cultivation. Very large crops are obtained, sown as late as the middle of July,
or the first of August, on an inverted sod. The Michigan, or double-mould-
board plow leaves the land light, and in admirable condition to harrow, and
drill in turnips. In one instance, a successful root-grower cut two tons of hay
to the acre, on the twenty-third of June, and after it was removed from the
land spread eight cords of rotten kelp to the acre, and plowed in; after which
about three cords of fine old compost manure were used to the acre, which
was sown with ruta baga seed, in drills, three feet apart, plants thinned to
eight or ten inches in the drill. No after cultivation was required. On the
fifteenth of November he harvested three hundred and seventy bushels of
splendid roots to the acre, carefully measured off.

The nutritive equivalent of Swedish turnips as compared with good meadow
hay is 676, taking hay as a standard at 100; that is, it would require 6.76
pounds of turnips to furnish the same nutriment as one pound of good hay;
but fed in connection with other food—as hay, for example—perhaps five
pounds of turnips would be about equal to one pound of hay.
The English or round turnip is usually sown broadcast after some other crop,
and large and valuable returns are often obtained. The Swede is sown in
drills. Both of these varieties are used for the production of milk.
The chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves many kinds of soil
unfit for a succession of some other crops, like Indian corn, for instance. In
some sections, no amount of manuring appears to make corn do well after
turnips or ruta bagas.
The Mangold Wurtzel, a variety of the common beet, is often cultivated in
this country with great success, and fed to cows with advantage, furnishing a
succulent and nutritive food in winter and spring. The crop is somewhat
uncertain. When it does well, an enormous yield is often obtained; but, not
rarely, it proves a failure, and is not, on the whole, quite as reliable as the
ruta baga, though a more valuable crop when the yield is good. It is
cultivated like the common beet in moist, rich soils; three pounds of seed to
the acre The leaves may be stripped off, towards fall, and fed out, without
injury to the growth of the root. Both mangolds and turnips should be cut
with a root-cutter, before being fed out.
The Parsnip is a very sweet and nutritious article of fodder, and adds
richness and flavor to the milk. It is worthy of extended culture in all parts of
the country where dairy husbandry is pursued. It is a biennial, easily raised
on deep, rich, well-cultivated and well-manured soils, often yielding
enormous crops, and possessing the decided advantage of withstanding the
severest winters. As an article of spring feeding, therefore, it is exceedingly
valuable. Sown in April or May, it attains a large growth before winter. Then,
if desirable, a part of the crop may be harvested for winter use, and the
remainder left in the ground till the frost is out, in March or April, when they
can be dug as wanted, and are exceedingly relished by milch cows and stock
of all kinds. They make an admirable feed at the time of milking, and
produce the richest cream, and the yellowest and finest-flavored butter, of
any roots used among us. The best dairy farmers on the Island of Jersey

often feed to their cows from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day, in
addition to hay or grass.
Both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this root to be
eminently adapted to dairy stock, where the richness of milk or fine-flavored
butter is any object. For mere milk-dairies, it is not quite so valuable,
probably, as the Swedish turnip. The culture is similar to that of carrots, a
rich, mellow, and deep loam being best; while it has a great advantage over
the carrot in being more hardy, and rather less liable to injury from insects,
and more nutritive. For feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted.
To be sure of a crop, fresh seed must be had, as it cannot be depended on for
more than one year. For this reason the largest and straightest roots should be
allowed to stand for seed, which, as soon as nearly ripe, should be taken out
and spread out to dry, and carefully kept for use. For field culture, the
hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most profitable; but on thin, shallow
soils the turnip-rooted variety should be used. Parsnips may be harvested
like carrots, by plowing along the rows. Let butter or cheese dairymen give
this crop a fair and full trial, and watch its effect in the quality of the milk
and butter.
The Kohl Rabi is also cultivated to a considerable extent in this country for
the purpose of feeding stock. It is supposed to be a hybrid between the
cabbage and the turnip and is often called the cabbage-turnip, having the
root of the former, with a turnip-like or bulbous stem. The special reason for
its more extensive cultivation among us is its wonderful indifference to
droughts, in which it seems to flourish best, and to bring forth the most
luxuriant crops. It also withstands the frosts remarkably, being a hardy plant.
It yields a somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary turnip, and the
crop is generally admitted to be as abundant and profitable. Very large crops
of it have been produced by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation. As in
cabbage-culture, it is best to sow the seed in March or April, in a warm and
well-enriched seed-bed; from which it is transplanted in May, and set out
after the manner of cabbages in garden culture. It bears transplanting better
than most other roots. Insects injure it less than the turnip, dry weather
favors it, and it keeps well through winter. For these reasons, it must be
regarded as a valuable addition to our list of forage plants adapted to dairy
farming. It grows well on stronger soils than the turnip requires.

Linseed Meal is the ground cake of flaxseed after the oil is pressed out. It is
very rich in fat-forming principles, and given to milch cows increases the
quality of butter, and keeps them in condition. Four or five pounds a day are
sufficient for cows in milk, and this amount will effect a great saving in the
cost of other food, and at the same time make a very rich milk. It is
extensively manufactured in this country, and largely exported, but it is
worthy of more general use here. It must not be fed in too large quantities to
milch cows, for it would be liable to give too great a tendency to fat, and
thus affect the quantity of the milk.
Cotton-seed Meal is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It is
obtained by pressing the seed of the cotton-plant, which extracts the oil,
when the cake is crushed or ground into meal, which has been found to be a
very valuable article for feeding stock. From analysis it is shown to be equal
or superior to linseed meal. Practical experiments only are needed to
establish it. It can be procured in market at a reasonable price.
The Manures used in this country for the culture of the above named plants
are mostly such as are made on the farm, consisting chiefly of barnyard
composts of various kinds, with often a large admixture of peat-mud. There
are few farms that do not contain substances, which, if properly husbanded,
would add very greatly to the amount of manure ordinarily made. The best
of the concentrated manures, which it is sometimes necessary to use, for
want of time and labor to prepare enough upon the farm, is, unquestionably,
Peruvian guano. The results of this, when properly applied, are well known
and reliable, which can hardly be said of any other artificial manure offered
for the farmer's notice. The chief objection to depending upon manures made
off the farm is, in the first place, their great expense; and in the second—
which is equally important—the fact, that, though they may be made
valuable, and produce at one time the best results, a want of care in the
manufacture, or designed fraud, may make them almost worthless, with the
impossibility of detecting the imposition, without a chemical analysis, till it
becomes too late, and the crop is lost.
It is, therefore, safest to rely mainly upon the home manufacture of manure.
The extra expense of soiling cattle, saving and applying the liquid manure,
and thus bringing the land to a higher state of cultivation, when it will be
capable of keeping more stock and furnishing more manure, would offer a
surer road to success than a constant outlay for concentrated fertilizers.

THE BARN.

The farm barn, next to the farm house, is the most important structure of the
farm itself, in the Northern and Middle States; and even at the South and
Southwest, where barns are less used, they are of more importance in the
economy of farm management than is generally understood. Indeed, to the
eyes of a person of taste, a farm or plantation appears incomplete, without
good barn accommodations, as much as without good household
appointments—and without them, no agricultural establishment can be
complete in all its proper economy.
The most thorough barn structures, perhaps, to be seen in the United States,
are those of the State of Pennsylvania, built by the German farmers of the
lower and central counties. They are large, and expensive in their
construction; and, in a strictly economical point of view, are, perhaps, more
costly than is required. Yet, there is a substantial durability about them, that
is exceedingly satisfactory, and, where the pecuniary ability of the farmer
will admit, they may well furnish models for imitation.
In the structure of the barn, and in its interior accommodation, much will
depend upon the branches of agriculture to which the farm is devoted. A
farm cultivated in grain chiefly requires but little room for stabling purposes.
Storage for grain in the sheaf, and granaries, will require its room; while a
stock farm requires a barn with extensive hay storage, and stables for its
cattle, horses, and sheep, in all climates which do not admit of such stocks
living through the winter in the field, as is the case in the great grazing
districts west of the Alleghanies. Again, there are wide districts of country
where a mixed husbandry of grain and stock is pursued, which require barns
and outbuildings accommodating both.
It may be well here to remark that many designers of barns, sheds, and other
outbuildings for the accommodation of farm stock, have indulged in fanciful
arrangements for the comfort and convenience of animals, which are so
complicated that when constructed, as they sometimes are, the practical,
common-sense farmer will not use them; and by reason of the learning

which is required for their use, they are altogether unsuitable for the
treatment and use which they generally receive from those who have the
daily care of the stock for which they are intended, and for the rough usage
which they experience from the animals themselves. A very pretty and
plausible arrangement of stabling, feeding, and all the other requirements of
a barn establishment may be thus got up by an ingenious theorist at the
fireside, which will work charmingly as he dilates upon its good qualities,
untried; but, which, when subjected to experiment, will be utterly worthless
for practical use. There can be no doubt that the simplest plan of
construction, consistent with an economical expenditure of the material of
food for the consumption of stock, is by far the most preferable.
Another item to be considered in this connection, is the comparative value of
the stock, the forage fed to them, and the labor expended in feeding and
taking care of them. To illustrate: Suppose a farm to lie in the vicinity of a
large town or city. Its value is, perhaps, a hundred dollars an acre. The hay
cut upon it is worth fifteen dollars a ton, at the barn, and straw and coarse
grains in proportion, and hired labor ten or twelve dollars a month.
Consequently, the manager of this farm should use all the economy in his
power, by the aid of cutting-boxes and other machinery, to make the least
amount of forage supply the wants of his stock; and the internal economy of
his barn should be arranged accordingly, since labor is his cheapest item, and
food his dearest. Therefore, any contrivance by which to work up his forage
the closest—by way of machinery, or manual labor—so that it shall serve the
purposes of keeping his stock, is true economy; and the making and saving
of manures are items of the first importance. His buildings and their
arrangements throughout should, for these reasons, be constructed in
accordance with his practice.
If, on the other hand, lands are cheap and productive, and labor
comparatively dear, a different practice will prevail. The farmer will feed his
hay from the mow without cutting. The straw will be stacked out, and the
cattle turned to it, to pick what they like of it, and make their beds of the
remainder; or, if it is housed, he will throw it into racks, and the stock may
eat what they choose. To do this requires but one-third, or one-half of the
labor which is required by the other mode, and the saving in this makes up,
and perhaps more than makes up, for the increased quantity of forage
consumed.

Again, climate may equally affect the mode of winter-feeding the stock. The
winters may be mild. The hay may be stacked in the fields when gathered, or
put into small barns built for hay storage alone; and the manure, scattered
over the fields by the cattle, as they are fed from either of them, may be
knocked to pieces with the dung-beetle, in the spring, or harrowed and
bushed over the ground; and with the very small quantity of labor required in
all this, such practice will be more economical than any other which can be
adopted.
In latitudes, however, in which it becomes necessary to stall-feed during
several months of the year, barns are indispensable. These should be warm,
and at the same time well ventilated. The barn should be arranged in a
manner suitable to keeping hay and other fodder dry and sweet, and with
reference to the comfort and health of the animals, and the economy of labor
and manure. The size and finish will, of course, depend on the wants and
means of the farmer or dairyman; but many little conveniences, it should not
be forgotten, can be added at comparatively trifling cost.
The accompanying cut of a barn is given merely as an illustration of a
convenient arrangement for a medium-sized dairy, and not as being adapted
to all circumstances or situations. This barn is supposed to stand upon a side-
hill or an inclined surface, where it is easy to have a cellar, if desired; and
the cattle-room, as shown in the cut, is in the second story, or directly over
the cellar, the bottom of which should be somewhat dished, or lower in the
middle than around the outer sides, and carefully paved, or laid in cement.

BARN FOR THIRTY-FOUR COWS AND THREE YOKE OF OXEN.
On the outside is represented an open shed, m, for carts and wagons to
remain under cover, thirty feet by fifteen, while l l l l l l are bins for
vegetables, to be filled through scuttles from the floor of the story above,
and surrounded by solid walls. The area of this whole floor equals one
hundred feet by fifty-seven. k, is an open space, nearly on a level with the
cow-chamber, through the door p. s, stairs to the third story and to the cellar,
d d d, passage next to the walls, five feet wide, and nine inches above the
dung-pit. e e e, dung-pit, two feet wide, and seven inches below the floor
where the cattle stand. The manure drops from this pit into the cellar below,
five feet from the walls, and quite around the cellar. c c c, plank floor for
cows, four feet six inches long. b b b, stalls for three yoke of oxen, on a
platform five feet six inches long, n n, calf-pens, which may also be used for
cows in calving. r r, feeding-troughs for calves. The feeding-boxes are made
in the form of trays, with partitions between them. Water comes in by a pipe,
to cistern a. This cistern is regulated by a cock and ball, and the water flows
by dotted lines, o o o, to the boxes; each box being connected by lead pipes

well secured from frost, so that, if desired, each animal can be watered
without leaving the stall, or water can be kept constantly before it. A scuttle,
through which sweepings and refuse may be put into the cellar, is seen at f. g
is a bin receiving cut hay from the third story, or hay-room, h h h h h h, bins
for grain-feed. i is a tunnel to conduct manure or muck from the hay-floor to
the cellar. j j, sliding-doors on wheels. The cows all face toward the open
area in the centre.
This cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer, clock, etc., and should
always be well ventilated by sliding windows, which at the same time admit
the light.
The next cut is a transverse section of the same cow-room; a being a walk
behind the cows, five feet wide; b, dung-pit; c, cattle-stand; d, feeding-
trough, with a bottom on a level with the platform where the cattle stand; k,
open area, forty-three feet, by fifty-six.

TRANSVERSE SECTION.
The story above the cow-room—as represented in the next cut—is one
hundred feet by forty-two; the bays for hay, ten on each side, being ten feet
front and fifteen feet deep; and the open space, p, for the entrance of
wagons, carts, etc., twelve feet wide. b, hay-scales. c, scale beam.
m m m m m m, ladders reaching almost to the roof. l l l, etc., scuttle-holes for
sending vegetables directly to the bins, l l l, etc., below. a a b b, rooms on
the corners for storage. d, scuttles; four of which are used for straw, one for
cut hay, and one for muck for the cellar. n and the other small squares are
eighteen-feet posts. f, passage to the tool-house, a room one hundred feet
long by eighteen wide. o, stairs leading to the scaffold in the roof of the tool-
house. i i, benches. g, floor. h, boxes for hoes, shovels, spades, picks, iron
bars, old iron, etc. j j j, bins for fruit. k, scuttles to put apples into wagons,
etc., in the shed below. One side of this tool-house may be used for plows
and large implements, hay-rigging, harness, etc.

Proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids the objection that
the hay is liable to injury from noxious gases.

ROOM OVER THE COW-ROOM.
The excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only under the cow-
room. It has a drive-way through doors on each side. No barn-cellar should
be kept shut up tight, even in cold weather. The gases are constantly
escaping from the manure, unless held by absorbents, which are liable not
only to affect the health of the stock, but also to injure the quality of the hay.
To prevent this, while securing the important advantages of a manure-cellar,
the barn may be furnished with good-sized ventilators on the top, for every
twenty-five feet of its length, and with wooden tubes leading from the cellar
to the top.
There should also be windows on different sides of the cellar to admit the
free circulation of air. With these precautions, together with the use of
absorbents in the shape of loam and muck, there will be no danger of rotting

the timbers of the barn, or of risking the health of the cattle or the quality of
the hay.
The temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is somewhere from
fifty to sixty degrees, Fahrenheit. The practice and the opinions of successful
dairymen differ somewhat on this point. Too great heat would affect the
health and appetite of the herd; while too low a temperature is equally
objectionable, for various reasons.
The most economical plan for room in tying cattle in their stalls, is to fasten
the rope or chain, whichever is used—the wooden stanchion, or stanchel, as
it is called, to open and shut, enclosing the animal by the neck, being
objectionable—into a ring, which is secured by a strong staple into a post.
This prevents the cattle from interfering with each other, while a partition
effectually prevents any contact from the animals on each side of it, in the
separate stalls.
There is no greater benefit for cattle, after coming into winter-quarters, than
a systematic regularity in every thing pertaining to them. Every animal
should have its own particular stall in the stable, where it should always be
kept. The cattle should be fed and watered at certain fixed hours of the day,
as near as may be. If let out of the stables for water, unless the weather is
very pleasant—when they may be permitted to lie out for a short time—they
should be immediately put back, and not allowed to range about with the
outside cattle. They are more quiet and contented in their stables than
elsewhere, and waste less food than if permitted to run out; besides being in
every way more comfortable, if properly bedded and attended to, as every
one will find upon trial. The habit which many farmers have, of turning their
cattle out of the stables in the morning, in all weathers—letting them range
about in a cold yard, hooking and annoying each other—is of no possible
benefit, unless it be to rid them of the trouble of cleaning the stables, which
pays more than twice its cost in the saving of manure. The outside cattle,
which occupy the yard—if there are any—are all the better that the stabled
ones do not interfere with them. They become habituated to their own
quarters, as do the others, and all are better for being, respectively, in their
proper places.

MILKING.

The manner of milking exerts a more powerful and lasting influence on the
productiveness of the cow than most farmers are aware. That a slow and
careless milker soon dries up the best of cows, every practical farmer and
dairyman knows; but a careful examination of the beautiful structure of the
udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of milking, in order to
obtain and keep up the largest yield.
The udder of a cow consists of four glands, disconnected from each other,
but all contained within one bag or cellular membrane; and these glands are
uniform in structure. Each gland consists of three parts: the glandular, or
secreting part, tubular or conducting part, and the teats, or receptacle, or
receiving part. The glandular forms by far the largest portion of the udder. It
appears to the naked eye composed of a mass of yellowish grains; but under
the microscope these grains are found to consist entirely of minute blood-
vessels forming a compact plexus, or fold. These vessels secrete the milk
from the blood. The milk is abstracted from the blood in the glandular part;
the tubes receive and deposit it in the reservoir, or receptacle; and the
sphincter at the end of the teat retains it there until it is wanted for use.
This must not be understood, however, as asserting that all the milk drawn
from the udder at one milking is contained in the receptacle. The milk, as it
is secreted, is conveyed to the receptacle, and when that is full, the larger
tubes begin to be filled, and next the smaller ones, until the whole become
gorged. When this takes place, the secretion of the milk ceases, and
absorption of the thinner or more watery part commences. Now, as this
absorption takes place more readily in the smaller or more distant tubes, it is
invariably found that the milk from these, which comes last into the
receptacle, is much thicker and richer than what was first drawn off. This
milk has been significantly styled afterings, or strippings; and should this
gorged state of the tubes be permitted to continue beyond a certain time,
serious mischief will sometimes occur; the milk becomes too thick to flow
through the tubes, and soon produces, first irritation, then inflammation, and
lastly suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or

altogether destroyed. Hence the great importance of emptying these smaller
tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the occurrence of
disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk; for, so long as the
smaller tubes are kept free, milk is constantly forming; but whenever, as has
already been mentioned, they become gorged, the secretion of milk ceases
until they are emptied. The cow herself has no power over the sphincter at
the end of her teat, so as to open it, and relieve the overcharged udder;
neither has she any power of retaining the milk collected in the reservoirs
when the spasm of the sphincter is overcome.
Thus is seen the necessity of drawing away the last drop of milk at every
milking; and the better milker the cow, the more necessary this is. What has
been said demonstrates, also, the impropriety of holding the milk in cows
until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary size, for the sake of
showing its capacity for holding milk—a device to which many dealers in
cows resort.
Thus much of the internal structure of the udder. Its external form requires
attention, because it indicates different properties. Its form should be
spheroidal, large, giving an idea of capaciousness; the bag should have a
soft, fine skin, and the hind part upward toward the tail be loose and elastic.
There should be fine, long hairs scattered plentifully over the surface, to
keep it warm. The teats should not seem to be contracted, or funnel-shaped,
at the inset with the bag. In the former state, teats are very apt to become
corded, or spindled; and in the latter, too much milk will constantly be
pressing on the lower tubes, or receptacle. They should drop naturally from
the lower parts of the bag, being neither too short, small, or dumpy, or long,
flabby, and thick, but, perhaps, about three inches in length, and so thick as
just to fill the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of the udder were
equal in size, the front quarters projecting a little forward, and the hind ones
a little more dependent. Each quarter should contain about equal quantities
of milk; though, in the belief of some, the hind quarters contain rather the
most.
Largely developed milk-veins—as the subcutaneous veins along the under
part of the abdomen are commonly called—are regarded as a source of milk.
This is a popular error, for the milk-vein has no connection with the udder;
yet, although the office of these is to convey the blood from the fore part of
the chest and sides to the inguinal vein, yet a large milk-vein certainly

indicates a strongly developed vascular system—one favorable to secretions
generally, and to that of the milk among the rest.
Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and handling. Stripping consists
in seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face of the thumb and the
side of the fore-finger, the length of the teat passing through the other
fingers, and in milking the hand passes down the entire length of the teat,
causing the milk to flow out of its point in a forcible stream. The action is
renewed by again quickly elevating the hand to the root of the teat. Both
hands are employed at the operation, each having hold of a different teat,
and being moved alternately. The two nearest teats are commonly first
milked, and then the two farthest. Handling is done by grasping the teat at its
root with the fore-finger like a hoop, assisted by the thumb, which lies
horizontally over the fore-finger, the rest being also seized by the other
fingers. Milk is drawn by pressing upon the entire length of the teat in
alternate jerks with the entire palm of the hand. Both hands being thus
employed, are made to press alternately, but so quickly following each other
that the alternate streams of milk sound to the ear like one forcible,
continued stream. This continued stream is also produced by stripping.
Stripping, then, is performed by pressing and passing certain fingers along
the teat; handling, by the whole hand doubled, or fist, pressing the teat
steadily at one place. Hence the origin of both names.

THE PREFERABLE METHOD.
Of these two modes, handling is the preferable, since it is the more natural
method—imitating, as it does, the suckling of the calf. When a calf takes a
teat into its mouth, it makes the tongue and palate by which it seizes it, play
upon the teat by alternate pressures or pulsations, while retaining the teat in
the same position. It is thus obvious that handling is somewhat like sucking,
whereas stripping is not at all like it. It is said that stripping is good for
agitating the udder, the agitation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of
a large quantity of milk; but there is nothing to prevent the agitation of the
udder as much as the dairymaid pleases, while holding in the other mode.
Indeed, a more constant vibration could be kept up in that way by the
vibrations of the arms than by stripping. Stripping, by using an
unconstrained pressure on two sides of the teat, is much more apt to press it
unequally, than by grasping the whole teat in the palm of the hand; while the
friction occasioned by passing the finger and thumb firmly over the outside
of the teat, is more likely to cause heat and irritation in it than a steady and
full grasp of the entire hand. To show that this friction causes an unpleasant
feeling even to the dairymaid, she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently
with milk, and to wet it at first with water; whereas the other mode requires

no such expedients. And as a further proof that stripping is a mode of
milking which may give pain to the cow, it cannot be employed, when the
teats are chapped, with so much ease to the cow as handling.
The first requisite in the person that milks is, of course, the utmost
cleanliness. Without this, the milk is unendurable. The udder should,
therefore, be carefully cleaned before the milking commences.
Milking should be done fast, to draw away the milk as quickly as possible,
and it should be continued as long as there is a drop of milk to bring away.
This is an issue which cannot be attended to in too particular a manner. If
any milk is left, it is re-absorbed into the system, or else becomes caked, and
diminishes the tendency to secrete a full quantity afterward. Milking as dry
as possible is especially necessary with young cows with their first calf; as
the mode of milking and the length of time to which they can be made to
hold out, will have very much to do with their milking qualities as long as
they live. Old milk left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy
state, and the caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking,
is apt to irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation,
especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and
thumb in stripping. The consequence of this repeated irritation is the
thickening of the lining membrane, which at length becomes so hardened as
to close up the orifice at the end of the teat. The hardened membrane may be
easily felt from the outside of the teat, when the teat is said to be corded.
After this the teat becomes deaf, as it is called, and no more milk can
afterward be drawn from the quarter of the udder to which the corded teat is
attached.
The milking-pail is of various forms and of various materials. The Dutch use
brass ones, which are brilliantly scoured every time they are in use. Tin
pitchers are used in some places, while pails of wood in cooper-work are
employed in others. A pail of oak, having thin staves bound together by
bright iron hoops, with a handle formed by a stave projecting upward, is
convenient for the purpose, and may be kept clean and sweet. One nine
inches in diameter at the bottom, eleven inches at the top, and ten inches
deep, with an upright handle or leg of five inches, has a capacious enough
mouth to receive the milk as it descends; and a sufficient height, when
standing on the edge of its bottom on the ground, to allow the dairymaid to
grasp it firmly with her knees while sitting on a small three-legged stool. Of

course, such a pail cannot be milked full; but it should be large enough to
contain all the milk which a single cow can give at a milking; because it is
undesirable to rise from a cow before the milking is finished, or to exchange
one dish for another while the milking is in progress.
The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is, oftentimes so easily
offended that if the maid rise from her before the milk is all withdrawn, the
chances are that she will not again stand quietly at that milking; or, if the
vessel used in milking is taken away and another substituted in its place,
before the milking is finished, the probability is that she will hold her milk—
that is, not allow it to flow. This is a curious property which cows possess, of
holding up or keeping back their milk. How it is effected has never been
satisfactorily ascertained; but there is no doubt of the fact that when a cow
becomes irritated, or frightened from any cause, she can withhold her milk.
Of course, all cows are not affected in the same degree; but, as a proof how
sensitive cows generally are, it may be mentioned that very few will be
milked so freely by a stranger the first time, as by one to whom they have
been accustomed.
There is one side of a cow which is usually called the milking side—that is
the cow's left side—because, somehow custom has established the practice
of milking her from that side. It may have been adopted for two reasons:
one, because we are accustomed to approach all the larger domesticated
animals by what we call the near side—that is, the animal's left side—as
being the most convenient one for ourselves; and the other reason may have
been, that, as most people are right-handed, and the common use of the right
hand has made it the stronger, it is most conveniently employed in milking
the hinder teats of the cow, which are often most difficult to reach on
account of the position of the hind legs and the length of the hinder teats, or
of the breadth of the hinder part of the udder. The near side is most
commonly used in this country and in Scotland; but in many parts of
England the other side is preferred. Whichever side is selected, that should
uniformly be used, as cows are very sensitive to changes.
In Scotland it is a rare thing to see a cow milked by any other person than a
woman, though men are very commonly employed at it in this country and
in England. One never sees a man milking a cow without being impressed
with the idea that he is usurping an office which does not become him; and
the same thought seems to be conveyed in the terms usually applied to the

person connected with cows—a dairy-maid implying one who milks cows,
as well as performs the other duties connected with the dairy—a dairy-man
meaning one who owns a dairy. There can be but little question that the
charge of this branch of the dairy should generally be entrusted to women.
They are more gentle and winning than men. The same person should milk
the same cow regularly, and not change from one to another, unless there are
special reasons for it.
Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked; and the kicks and
knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness, only render them
more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps will never
make them better. The truth is, restless habits are continued in them by the
treatment which they receive at first, when, most probably, they have been
dragooned into submission. Their teats are tender at first; but an unfeeling,
horny hand tugs at them at stripping, as if the animal had been accustomed
to the operation for years. Can the creature be otherwise than uneasy? And
how can she escape the wincing but by flinging out her heels?—Then
hopples are placed on the hind fetlocks, to keep her heels down. The tail
must then be held by some one, while the milking is going on; or the hair of
its tuft be converted into a double cord, to tie the tail to the animal's leg. Add
to this the many threats and scoldings uttered by the milker, and one gets a
not very exaggerated impression of the "breaking-in."
Some cows, no doubt, are very unaccomodating and provoking; but,
nevertheless, nothing but a rational course toward them, administered with
gentleness, will ever render them less so. There are cows which are
troublesome to milk for a few times after calving, that become quite quiet for
the remainder of the season; others will kick pertinaciously at the first
milking. In this last case the safest plan—instead of hoppling, which only
irritates—is for the dairymaid to thrust her head against the flank of the cow,
and while standing on her feet, stretch her hands forward, get hold of the
teats the best way she can, and send the milk on the ground; and in this
position it is out of the power of the cow to hurt her. These ebullitions of
feeling at the first milking after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a
tender state of the teat, most probably from inflammation in the lining
membrane of the receptacle; or they may arise from titillation of the skin of
the udder and teat, which becomes the more sensible to the affection from a
heat which is wearing off.

At the age of two or three years the milking glands have not become fully
developed, and their largest development will depend very greatly upon the
management after the first calf. Cows should have, therefore, the most milk-
producing food; be treated with constant gentleness; never struck, or spoken
harshly to, but coaxed and caressed; and in ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred, they will grow up gentle and quiet. The hundredth had better be
fatted and sent to the butcher. Harshness is worse than useless. Be the cause
of irritation what it may, one thing is certain, that gentle discipline will
overcome the most turbulent temper. Nothing does so much to dry a cow up,
especially a young cow, as the senseless treatment to which she is too often
subjected.
The longer the young cow, with her first and second calf, is made to hold
out, the more surely will this habit be fixed upon her. Stop milking her four
months before the next calf, and it will be difficult to make her hold out to
within four or six weeks of the time of calving afterward. Induce her, if
possible, by moist and succulent food, and by careful milking, to hold out
even up to the time of calving, if you desire to milk her so long, and this
habit will be likely to be fixed upon her for life. But do not expect to obtain
the full yield of a cow the first year after calving. Some of the very best
cows are slow to develop their best qualities; and no cow reaches her prime
till the age of five or six years.
The extreme importance of care and attention to these points cannot be
overestimated. The wild cows grazing on the plains of South America, are
said to give not more than three or four quarts a day at the height of the flow;
and many an owner of large herds in Texas, it is said, has too little milk for
family use, and sometimes receives his supply of butter from the New York
market. There is, therefore, a constant tendency in milch cows to dry up; and
it must be guarded against with special care, till the habit of yielding a large
quantity, and yielding it long, becomes fixed in the young animal, when,
with proper care, it may easily be kept up.
Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in the udder, afford
different degrees of pleasure in milking them, even in the quietest mood.
Some yield their milk in a copious flow, with the gentlest handling that can
be given them; others require great exertion to draw the milk from them
even in streams no larger than a thread. The udder of the former will be
found to have a soft skin and short teats; that of the latter will have a thick

skin, with long rough teats. The one feels like velvet; the other is no more
pleasant to the touch than untanned leather. To induce quiet and persuade the
animal to give down her milk freely, it is better that she should be fed at
milking-time with cut feed, or roots, placed within her easy reach.
If gentle and mild treatment is observed and persevered in, the operation of
milking, as a general thing, appears to be a pleasure to the animal, as it
undoubtedly is; but, if an opposite course is pursued—if at every restless
movement, caused, perhaps, by pressing a sore teat, the animal is harshly
spoken to—she will be likely to learn to kick as a habit, and it will be
difficult to overcome it ever afterward.
Whatever may be the practice on other occasions, there can be no doubt that,
for some weeks after calving, and in the height of the flow, cows ought, if
possible, to be milked regularly three times a day—at early morning, noon,
and night. Every practical dairyman knows that cows thus milked give a
larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice, though it may not be quite
so rich; and in young cows, no doubt, it has a tendency to promote the
development of the udder and milk-veins. A frequent milking stimulates an
increased secretion, therefore, and ought never to be neglected in the milk-
dairy, either in the case of young cows, or very large milkers, at the height of
the flow, which will commonly be for two or three months after calving.
There being a great difference in the quality as well as in the quantity of the
milk of different cows, no dairyman should neglect to test the milk of each
new addition to his dairy stock, whether it be an animal of his own raising or
one brought from abroad. A lactometer—or instrument for testing the
comparative richness of different species of milk—is very convenient for
this purpose; but any one can set the milk of each cow separately at first, and
give it a thorough trial, when the difference will be found to be great.
Economy will dictate that the cows least to the purpose should be disposed
of, and their places supplied with better ones.

THE RAISING OF CALVES.

It has been found in practice that calves properly bred and raised on the farm
have a far greater intrinsic value for that farm, other things being equal, than
any that can be procured elsewhere; while on the manner in which they are
raised will depend much of their future usefulness and profit. These
considerations should have their proper weight in deciding whether a
promising calf from a good cow and bull shall be kept, or sold to the butcher.
But, rather than raise a calf at hap-hazard, and simply because its dam was
celebrated as a milker, the judicious farmer will prefer to judge of the
peculiar characteristics of the animal itself. This will often save the great and
useless outlay which has sometimes been incurred in raising calves for dairy
purposes, which a more careful examination would have rejected as
unpromising.

MATERNAL AFFECTION.
The method of judging stock which has been recommended in the previous
pages is of practical utility here, and it is safer to rely upon it to some extent,
particularly when other appearances concur, than to go on blindly. The milk-
mirror on the calf is, indeed, small, but no smaller in proportion to its size
than that of the cow; while its shape and form can generally be distinctly
seen, particularly at the end of ten or twelve weeks. The development of the
udder, and other peculiarities, will give some indication of the future
capacities of the animal, and these should be carefully studied. If we except
the manure of young stock, the calf is the first product of the cow, and as
such demands our attention, whether it is to be raised or hurried off to the
shambles. The practice adopted in raising calves differs widely in different
sections of the country, being governed very much by local circumstances,
as the vicinity of a milk-market, the value of milk for the dairy, the object of
breeding, whether mainly for beef, for work, or for the dairy, etc.; but, in
general, it may be said, that, within the range of thirty or forty miles of good
veal-markets, which large towns furnish, comparatively few are raised at all.
Most of them are fattened and sold at ages varying from three to eight or ten

weeks; and in milk-dairies still nearer large towns and cities they are often
hurried off at one or two days, or, at most, a week old. In both of these cases,
as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed to suck the cow, and, as the
treatment is very simple, there is nothing which particularly calls for remark,
unless it be to condemn the practice entirely, upon the ground that there is a
more profitable way of fattening calves for the butcher, and to say that
allowing the calf to suck the cow at all is objectionable on the score of
economy, except in cases where it is rendered necessary by the hard and
swollen condition of the udder.
If the calf is so soon to be taken away, it is better that the cow should not be
suffered to become attached to it at all: since she is inclined to withhold her
milk when it is removed, and thus a loss is sustained. The farmer will be
governed by the question of profit, whatever course it is decided to adopt. In
raising blood-stock, however, or in raising beef cattle, without any regard to
economy of milk, the system of suckling the calves, or letting them run with
the cow, may and will be adopted, since it is usually attended with somewhat
less labor.
The other course, which is regarded as the best where the calf is to be raised
for the dairy, is to bring it up by hand. This is almost universally done in all
countries where the raising of dairy cows is best understood—in
Switzerland, Holland, some parts of Germany, and England. It requires
rather more care, on the whole; but it is decidedly preferable, since the
calves cost less, as the food can be easily modified, and the growth is not
checked, as is usually the case when the calf is taken off from the cow.
Allusion is here made, of course, to sections where the milk of the cow is of
some account for the dairy, and where it is too valuable to be devoted
entirely to nourishing the calf. In this case, as soon as the calf is dropped the
cow is allowed to lick off the slimy moisture till it is dry, which she will
generally do from instinct, or, if not, a slight sprinkling of salt over the body
of the calf will immediately tempt her. The calf is left to suck once or twice,
which it will do as soon as it is able to stand. It should, in all cases, be
permitted to have the first milk which comes from the cow, which is of a
turbid, yellowish color, unfit for any of the purposes of the dairy, but
somewhat purgative and medicinal, and admirably and wisely designed by
Nature to free the bowels and intestines of the new-born animal from the
mucous, excrementitious matter always existing in it after birth. Too much of

this new milk may, however, be hurtful even to the new-born calf, while it
should never be given at all to older calves. The best course would seem to
be—and such is in accordance with the experience of the most successful
stock-raisers—to milk the cow dry immediately after the calf has sucked
once, especially if the udder is painfully distended, which is often the case,
and to leave the calf with the cow during one day, and after that to feed it by
putting the fingers into its mouth, and gently bringing its muzzle down to the
milk in a pail or trough when it will imbibe in sucking the fingers. No great
difficulty will be experienced in teaching the calf to drink when taken so
young, though some take to it much more readily than others. What the calf
does not need should be given to the cow. Some, however, prefer to milk
immediately after calving; and, if the udder is overloaded, this may be the
best course, though the better practice appears to be, to leave the cow as
quietly to herself as possible for a few hours. The less she is disturbed, as a
general thing, the better. The after-birth should be taken from her
immediately after it is dropped. It is customary to give the cow, as soon as
convenient after calving, some warm and stimulating drink—a little meal
stirred into warm water, with a part of the first milk which comes from her,
seasoned with a little salt.
In many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately; and before she
has seen it, to a warm, dry pen out of her sight, and there rubbed till it is
thoroughly dry; and then, when able to stand, fed with the new milk from the
cow, which it should have three or four times a day, regularly, for the first
fortnight, whatever course it is proposed to adopt afterwards. It is of the
greatest importance to give the young calf a thrifty start. The milk, unless
coming directly from the cow, should be warmed.
Some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way, on the ground of
its apparent cruelty. But the objection to letting the calf suck the cow for
several days, as they do, or indeed of leaving it with the cow for any length
of time, is, that she invariably becomes attached to it, and frets and
withholds her milk when it is at last taken from her. She probably suffers
much more, after this attachment is once formed, at the removal of the object
of it, than she does at its being taken at first out of her sight. The cow's
memory is far more retentive than many suppose; and the loss and injury
sustained by removing the calf after it has been allowed to suck her for a
longer or shorter period are never known exactly, because it is not usually

known how much milk the calf takes; but it is, without doubt, very
considerable. If the udder is all right, there seems to be no good reason for
leaving the calf with the cow for two or three days, if it is then to be taken
away.
The practice in Holland is to remove the calf from its mother even before it
has been licked, and to take it into a corner of the barn, or into another
building, out of the cow's sight and hearing, put it on soft, dry straw, and rub
it dry with some hay or straw, when its tongue and gums are slightly rubbed
with salt, and the mucus and saliva removed from the nostrils and lips. After
this has been done, the calf is made to drink the milk first taken as it comes
from the mother. It is slightly diluted with water, if taken last from the udder;
but, if the first of the milking, it is given just as it is. The calf is taught to
drink in the same manner as in this country, by putting the fingers in its
mouth, and bringing it down to the milk, and it soon gets so as to drink
unaided. It is fed, at first, from four to six times a day, or even oftener; but
soon only three times, at regular intervals. Its food for two or three weeks is
clear milk, as it comes warm and fresh from the cow. This is never omitted,
as the milk during most of that time possesses certain qualities which are
necessary to the calf, and which cannot be effectually supplied by any other
food. In the third or fourth week the milk is skimmed, but warmed to the
degree of fresh milk; though, as the calf grows a little older, the milk is given
cold, while less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother, that of
other cows now answering equally well. In some places, calves are fed on
buttermilk at the age of two weeks and after; but the change from new milk,
fresh from the cow, is made gradually, some sweet skimmed milk and warm
water being first added to it.
At three weeks old, or thereabouts, the calf will begin to eat a little sweet,
fine hay, and potatoes cut fine, and it very soon becomes accustomed to this
food. Many now begin to give linseed-meal mixed into hot water, to which is
added some skim-milk or buttermilk; and others use a little bran cooked in
hay-tea, made by chopping the hay fine and pouring on boiling-hot water,
which is allowed to stand awhile on it. An egg is frequently broken into such
a mixture. Others still take pains at this age to have fresh linseed-cake,
broken into pieces of the size of a pigeon's egg; putting one of these into the
mouth after the meal of milk has been finished, and when it is eager to suck
at any thing in its way. It will very soon learn to eat linseed-meal. A little

sweet clover is put in its way at the age of about three weeks, and it will
soon begin to eat that also.
In this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to the seventh week,
the quantity of solid food being gradually increased. In the sixth or seventh
week the milk is by degrees withheld, and water or buttermilk used instead;
and soon after this, green food may be safely given, increasing it gradually
with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks, when it will do to put them
upon grass alone, if the season is favorable. A lot as near the house as
possible, where they can be easily looked after and frequently visited, is the
best. Calves should be gradually accustomed to all changes; and even after
having been turned out to pasture, they ought to be put under shelter if the
weather is not dry and warm. The want of care and attention relative to these
little details will be apparent sooner or later; while, if the farmer gives his
personal attention to these matters, he will be fully paid in the rapid growth
of his calves. It is especially necessary to see that the troughs from which
they are fed, if troughs are used, are kept clean and sweet.
But there are some—even among intelligent farmers—who make a practice
of turning their calves out to pasture at the tender age of two or three weeks
—and that, too, when they have sucked the cow up to that time—and allow
them nothing in the shape of milk and tender care. This, certainly, is the
poorest possible economy, to say nothing of the manifest cruelty of such
treatment. The growth of the calf is checked, and the system receives a
shock from so sudden a change, from which it cannot soon recover. The
careful Dutch breeders bring the calves either skimmed milk or buttermilk to
drink several times a day after they are turned to grass, which is not till the
age of ten or twelve weeks; and, if the weather is chilly, the milk is warmed
for them. They put a trough generally under a covering, to which the calves
may come and drink at regular times. Thus, they are kept tame and docile.
In the raising of calves, through all stages of their growth, great care should
be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed. A calf should never be surfeited,
and never be fed so highly that it cannot be fed more highly as it advances.
The most important part is to keep it growing thriftily without getting too fat,
if it is to be raised for the dairy.
The calves in the dairy districts of Scotland are fed on the milk, with seldom
any admixture; and they are not permitted to suck their dams, but are taught

to drink milk by the hand from a dish. They are generally fed on milk only
for the first four, five, or six weeks, and are then allowed from two to two
and a half quarts of new milk each meal, twice in the twenty-four hours.
Some never give them any other food when young except milk, lessening the
quantity when the calf begins to eat grass or other food, which it generally
does when about five weeks old, if grass can be had; and withdrawing it
entirely about the seventh or eighth week of the calf's age. But, if the calf is
reared in winter, or early in spring, before the grass rises, it must be supplied
with at least some milk until it is eight or nine weeks old, as a calf will not
so soon learn to eat hay or straw, nor fare so well on them alone as it will on
pasture. Some feed their calves reared for stock partly with meal mixed in
the milk after the third or fourth week. Others introduce gradually some new
whey into the milk, first mixed with meal; and, when the calf gets older, they
withdraw the milk, and feed it on whey and porridge. Hay-tea, juices of peas
and beans, or pea or bean-straw, linseed beaten into powder, treacle, etc.,
have all been sometimes used to advantage in feeding calves; but milk, when
it can be spared, is, in the judgment of the Scotch breeders, by far their most
natural food.
In Galloway, and other pastoral districts, where the calves are allowed to
suck, the people are so much wedded to their own customs as to argue that
suckling is much more nutritious to the calves than any other mode of
feeding. That it induces a greater secretion of saliva, which, by promoting
digestion, accelerates the growth and fattening of the young animal, cannot
be doubted; but the secretion of that fluid may likewise be promoted by
placing an artificial teat in the mouth of the calf, and giving it the milk
slowly, and at the natural temperature. In the dairy districts of Scotland, the
dairymaid puts one of her fingers into the mouth of the calf when it is fed,
which serves the purpose of a teat, and will have nearly the same effect as
the natural teat in inducing the secretion of saliva. If that, or an artificial teat
of leather, be used, and the milk be given slowly before it is cold, the
secretion of saliva may be promoted to all the extent that can be necessary;
besides, secretion is not confined to the mere period of eating, but, as in the
human body, the saliva is formed and part of it swallowed at all times. As
part of the saliva is sometimes seen dropping from the mouths of the calves,
it might be advisable not only to give them an artificial teat when fed, but to
place, as is frequently done, a lump of chalk before them to lick, thus leading
them to swallow the saliva. The chalk would so far supply the want of salt,

of which cattle are often so improperly deprived, and it would also promote
the formation of saliva. Indeed, calves are very much disposed to lick and
suck every thing which comes within their reach, which seems to be the way
in which Nature teaches them to supply their stomachs with saliva.

FROLICKSOME.
But though sucking their dams may be most advantageous in that respect,
yet it has also some disadvantages. The cow is always more injured than the
calf is benefited by that mode of feeding. She becomes so fond of the calf
that she does not, for a long time after, yield her milk freely to the dairyman.
The calf does not when young draw off the milk completely, and when it is
taken off by the hand, the cow withholds a part of her milk, and, whenever a
cow's udder is not completely emptied every time she is milked, the lactic
secretion—as before stated—is thereby diminished.
Feeding of calves by hand is also, in various respects, advantageous. Instead
of depending on the uncertain, or perhaps precarious supply of the dam,
which may be more at first than the young animal can consume or digest,
and at other times too little for its supply, its food can, by hand-feeding, be
regulated to suit the age, appetite, and the purposes for which the calf is
intended; other admixtures or substitutes can be introduced into the milk,
and the quantity gradually increased or withdrawn at pleasure. This is highly
necessary when the calves are reared for stock. The milk is in that case

diminished, and other food introduced so gradually that the stomach of the
young animal is not injured as it is when the food is too suddenly changed.
And, in the case of feeding calves for the butcher, the quantity of milk is not
limited to that of the dam—for no cow will allow a stranger-calf to suck her
—but it can be increased, or the richest or poorest parts of the milk given at
pleasure.
Such are, substantially, the views upon this subject which are entertained by
the most judicious farmers in the first dairy districts of Scotland.
In those districts—where, probably, the feeding and management of calves
are as well and as judiciously conducted as in any other part of Great Britain
—the farmers' wives and daughters, or the female domestics, have the
principal charge of young calves; and they are, doubtless, much better
calculated for this duty than men, since they are more inclined to be gentle
and patient. The utmost gentleness—as has been already remarked, in
another connection—should always be observed in the treatment of all stock;
but especially of milch cows, and calves designed for the dairy. Persevering
kindness and patience, will, almost invariably, overcome the most obstinate
natures; while rough and ungentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of
way, perhaps, by withholding the milk, which will always have a tendency to
dry up the cow; or, what is nearly as bad, by kicking and other modes of
revenge, which often contribute to the personal discomfort of the milker. The
disposition of the cow is greatly modified, if not, indeed, wholly formed, by
her treatment while young; and therefore it is best to handle calves as much
as possible, and make pets of them, lead them with a halter, and caress them
in various ways. Calves managed in this way will always be docile, and
suffer themselves to be approached and handled, both in the pasture and in
the barn.
With respect to the use of hay-tea—often used in this country, but more
common abroad, where greater care and attention are usually bestowed upon
the details of breeding—Youatt says: "At the end of three or four days, or
perhaps a week, or near a fortnight, after a calf has been dropped, and the
first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to drink as much of the
cow's milk as it feels inclined for, let the quantity usually allotted for a meal
be mixed, consisting, for the first week, of three parts of milk and one part of
hay-tea. The only nourishing infusion of hay is that which is made from the
best and sweetest hay, cut by a chaff-cutter into pieces about two inches

long, and put into an earthen vessel; over this, boiling water should be
poured, and the whole allowed to stand for two hours, during which time it
ought to be kept carefully closed. After the first week, the proportions of
milk and hay-tea may be equal; then composed of two-thirds of hay-tea and
one of milk; and at length, one-fourth part of milk will be sufficient. This
food should be given to the calf in a lukewarm state at least three, if not four
times a day, in quantities averaging three quarts at a meal, but gradually
increasing to four quarts as the calf grows older. Toward the end of the
second month, beside the usual quantity given at each meal—composed of
three parts of the infusion and one of milk—a small wisp or bundle of hay is
to be laid before the calf, which will gradually come to eat it; but, if the
weather is favorable, as in the month of May, the beast may be turned out to
graze in a fine, sweet pasture, well sheltered from the wind and sun. This
diet may be continued until toward the latter end of the third month, when, if
the calf grazes heartily, each meal may be reduced to less than a quart of
milk, with hay-water; or skimmed milk, or fresh buttermilk, may be
substituted for new milk. At the expiration of the third month, the animal
will hardly require to be fed by hand; though, if this should still be
necessary, one quart of the infusion given daily—which, during the summer,
need not be warmed—will suffice." The hay-tea should be made fresh every
two days, as it soon loses its nutritious quality.
This and other preparations are given, not because they are better than milk,
—than which nothing is better adapted to fatten a calf, or promote its
growth,—but simply to economize by providing the simplest and cheapest
substitutes. Experience shows that the first two or three calves are smaller
than those which follow; and hence, unless they are pure-bred, and to be
kept for the blood, they are not generally thought to be so desirable to raise
for the dairy as the third or fourth, and those that come after, up to the age of
nine or ten years. Opinions upon this point, however, differ.
According to the comparative experiments of a German agriculturist, cows
which as calves had been allowed to suck their dams from two to four
weeks, brought calves which weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight
pounds; while others, which as calves had been allowed to suck from five to
eight weeks, brought calves which weighed from sixty to eighty pounds. It is
difficult to see how there can be so great a difference, if, indeed, there be
any; but it may be worthy of careful observation and experiment, and as such

it is stated here. The increased size of the calf would be due to the increased
size to which the cow would attain; and if as a calf she were allowed to run
in the pasture with her dam for four or five months, taking all the milk she
wanted, she would doubtless be kept growing on in a thriving condition. But
taking a calf from the cow at four or even eight weeks must check its growth
to some extent; and this may be avoided by feeding liberally, and bringing
up by hand.
After the calf is fully weaned, there is nothing very peculiar in the general
management. A young animal will require for the first few months—say up
to the age of six months—an average of five or six pounds daily of good hay,
or its equivalent. At the age of six months, it will require from four and a
half to five pounds; and at the end of the year, from three and a half or four
pounds of good hay, or its equivalent, for every one hundred pounds of its
live weight; or, in other words, about three and a half or four per cent. of its
live weight. At two years old, it will require three and a half, and some
months later, three per cent. of its live weight daily in good hay, or its
equivalent. Indian-corn fodder, either green or cured, forms an excellent and
wholesome food at this age.
The heifer should not be pampered, nor yet poorly fed or half starved, so as
to receive a check in her growth. An abundant supply of good healthy dairy
food and milk will do all that is necessary up to the time of her having her
first calf—which should not ordinarily be till the age of three years, though
some choose to allow them to come in at two, or a little over, on the ground
that it early stimulates the secretion of milk, and that this will increase the
milking propensity through life. This is undoubtedly the case, as a general
rule; but greater injury is at the same time done by checking the growth,
unless the heifer has been fed up to large size and full development from the
start—in which case she may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or eighteen
months without injury. Even if a heifer comes in at two years, it is generally
deemed desirable to let her run barren for the following year, which will
promote her growth and more perfect development.
The feeding which young stock often get is not such as is calculated to make
good-sized or valuable cattle of them. They are often fed on the poorest of
hay or straw through the winter, not infrequently left exposed to cold,
unprotected and unhoused, and thus stinted in their growth. This is, surely,
the very worst economy, or rather it is no economy at all. Properly viewed, it

is an extravagant wastefulness which no farmer can afford. No animal
develops its good points under such treatment; and if the starving system is
to be followed at all, it had better be after the age of two or three years, when
the animal's constitution has attained the strength and vigor which may,
possibly, enable it to resist ill treatment.
To raise up first-rate milkers, it is absolutely necessary to feed on dairy food
even when they are young. No matter how fine the breed is, if the calf is
raised on poor, short feed, it will never be so good a milker as if raised on
better keeping; and hence, in dairy districts, where calves are raised at all,
they ought to be allowed the best pasture during the summer, and good,
sweet and wholesome food during the winter.

POINTS OF FAT CATTLE.

Whatever theoretical objections may be raised against over-fed cattle, and
great as may be the attempts to disparage the mountains of fat,—as highly-
fed cattle are sometimes designated,—there is no doubt of the practical fact,
that the best butcher cannot sell any thing but the best fatted beef; and of
whatever age, size, or shape a half-fatted ox may be, he is never selected by
judges as fit for human food. Hence, a well-fatted animal always commands
a better price per pound than one imperfectly fed, and the parts selected as
the primest beef are precisely the parts which contain the largest deposits of
fat. The rump, the crop, and the sirloin, the very favorite cuts,—which
always command from twenty to twenty-five per cent. more than any other
part of the ox,—are just those parts on which the largest quantities of fat are
found; so that, instead of the taste and fashion of the age being against the
excessive fattening of animals, the fact is, practically, exactly the reverse.
Where there is the most fat, there is the best lean; where there is the greatest
amount of muscle, without its share of fat, that part is accounted inferior, and
is used for a different purpose; in fact, so far from fat's being a disease, it is a
condition of muscle, necessary to its utility as food,—a source of luxury to
the rich, and of comfort to the poor, furnishing a nourishing and healthy diet
for their families.

Fattening is a secretive power which grazing animals possess, enabling them
to lay by a store of the superfluous food which they take for seasons of cold
or scarcity. It collects round the angular bones of the animal, and gives the
appearance of rotundity; hence the tendency to deposit fat is indicated, as
has been stated, by a roundness of form, as opposed to the fatness of a milk-
secreting animal. But its greatest use is, that it is a store of heat-producing
aliment, laid up for seasons of scarcity and want. The food of animals, for
the most part, may be said to consist of a saccharine, an oleaginous, and an
albuminous principle. To the first belong all the starchy, saccharine, and
gummy parts of the plants, which undergo changes in the digestive organs
similar to fermentation before they can be assimilated in the system; by them
also animal heat is sustained. In indolent animals, the oily parts of plants are
deposited and laid up as fat; and, when vigor and strength fail, this is taken
up and also used in breathing to supply the place of the consumed saccharine
matter. The albuminous, or gelatinous principle of plants is mainly useful in
forming muscle; while the ashes of plants, the unconsumable parts, are for
the supply, mainly, of bone, hair, and horn, but also of muscle and of blood,
and to supply the waste which continually goes on.
Now, there are several qualities which are essentially characteristic of a
disposition to fatten. There have not, as yet, been any book-rules laid down,
as in the case of M. Guénon's indications of milking-cows; but there are,
nevertheless, marks so definite and well understood, that they are
comprehended and acted upon by every grazier, although they are by no
means easy to describe. It is by skillful acumen that the grazier acquires his
knowledge, and not by theoretical rules; observation, judgment, and
experience, powerful perceptive faculties, and a keen and minute
comparison and discrimination, are essential to his success.

POINTS OF CATTLE.
The first indication upon which he relies, is the touch. It is the absolute
criterion of quality, which is supposed to be the keystone of perfection in all
animals, whether for the pail or the butcher. The skin is so intimately
connected with the internal organs, in all animals, that it is questionable
whether even our schools of medicine might not make more use of it in a
diagnosis of disease. Of physiological tendencies in cattle, however, it is of
the last and most vital importance. It must neither be thick, nor hard, nor
adhere firmly to the muscles. If it is so, the animal is a hard grazer, a difficult
and obstinate feeder—no skillful man will purchase it—such a creature must
go to a novice, and even to him at a price so low as to tempt him to become a
purchaser. On the other hand, the skin must not be thin, like paper, nor
flaccid, nor loose in the hand, nor flabby. This is the opposite extreme, and is
indicative of delicateness, bad, flabby flesh, and, possibly, of inaptitude to
retain the fat. It must be elastic and velvety, soft and pliable, presenting to
the touch a gentle resistance, but so delicate as to give pleasure to the
sensitive hand—a skin, in short, which seems at first to give an indentation
from the pressure of the fingers, but which again rises to its place by a gentle
elasticity.

The hair is of nearly as much importance as the skin. A hard skin will have
straight and stiff hair; it will not have a curl, but be thinly and lankly
distributed equally over the surface. A proper grazing animal will have a
mossy coat, not absolutely curled, but having a disposition to a graceful curl,
a semifold, which presents a waving inequality; but as different from a close
and straightly-laid coat, as it is from one standing off the animal at right
angles, a strong symptom of disease. It will also, in a thriving animal, be
licked here and there with its tongue, a proof that the skin is duly performing
its functions.
There must be, also, the full and goggle eye, bright and pressed outward by
the fatty bed below; because, as this is a part where Nature always provides
fat, an animal capable of developing it to any considerable extent, will have
its indications here, at least, when it exists in excess.
So much for feeding qualities in the animal, and their conformations
indicative of this kindly disposition. Next come such formations of the
animal itself as are favorable to the growth of fat, other things being equal.
There must be size where large weights are expected. Christmas beef, for
instance, is expected to be large as well as fat. The symbol of festivity
should be capacious, as well as prime in quality. But it is so much a matter of
choice and circumstance with the grazier, that profit alone will be his guide.
The axiom will be, however, as a general rule, that the better the grazing soil
the larger the animal may be; the poorer the soil, the smaller the animal.
Small animals are, unquestionably, much more easily fed, and they are well
known by experienced men to be best adapted to second-rate feeding
pastures.
But, beyond this, there must be breadth of carcass. This is indicative of
fattening, perhaps, beyond all other qualifications. If rumps are favorite
joints and produce the best price, it is best to have the animal which will
grow the longest, the broadest, and the best rump; the same of crop, and the
same of sirloin; and not only so, but breadth is essential to the consumption
of that quantity of food which is necessary to the development of a large
amount of fat in the animal. Thus, a deep, wide chest, favorable for the
respiratory and circulating functions, enables it to consume a large amount
of food, to take up the sugary matter, and to deposit the fatty matter,—as
then useless for respiration, but afterwards to be prized. A full level crop will

be of the same physiological utility; while a broad and open framework at
the hips will afford scope for the action of the liver and kidneys.
There are other points, also, of much importance; the head must be small and
fine; its special use is indicative of the quick fattening of the animal so
constructed, and it is also indicative of the bones being small and the legs
short. For constitutional powers, the beast should have his ribs extended well
towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to leave as little unprotected space as
possible. There must be no angular, or abrupt points; all must be round, and
broad, and parallel. Any depression in the lean animal will give a deficient
deposit of flesh and fat at that point, when sold to the butcher, and thus
deteriorate its value; and hence the animal must be round and full.
But either fancy, or accident, or skill—it is unnecessary to decide which—
has associated symmetry with quality and conformation, as a point of great
importance in animals calculated for fattening; and there is no doubt that, to
a certain extent, this is so. The beast must be a system of mathematical lines.
To the advocate of symmetry, the setting-on of a tail will be a condemning
fault; indeed the ridge of the back, like a straight line, with the outline of the
belly exactly parallel, viewed from the side, and a depth and squareness
when viewed from behind,—which remind us of a geometrical cube, rather
than a vital economy,—may be said to be the indications of excellence in a
fat ox. The points of excellence in such an animal are outlined under the
subsequent head, as developed in the cutting up after slaughter.
Now, these qualities are inherent in some breeds; there may be cases and
instances in all the superior breeds, and in most there may be failures.

DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING.

It is necessary that cattle which have been disposed of to the dealer or
butcher, or which are intended to be driven to market, should undergo a
preparation for the journey. If they were immediately put to the road to
travel, from feeding on grass or turnips, when their bowels are full of
undigested vegetable matter, a scouring might ensue which would render

them unfit to pursue their journey; and this complaint is the more likely to be
brought on from the strong propensity which cattle have to take violent
exercise upon feeling themselves at liberty after a long confinement. They in
fact, become light-headed whenever they leave the barn or enclosure, so
much so that they actually "frisk and race and leap," and their antics would
be highly amusing, were it not for the apprehension that they may hurt
themselves against some opposing object, as they seem to regard nothing
before them.
On being let out for the first time, cattle should be put for awhile into a
larger court, or on a road well fenced with enclosures, and guarded by men,
to romp about. Two or three such allowances of liberty will render them
quiet; and, in the mean time, to lighten their weight of carcass, they should
have hay for a large proportion of their food. These precautions are
absolutely necessary for cattle which have been confined in barns;
otherwise, accidents may befall them on the road, where they will at once
break loose. Even at home serious accidents sometimes overtake them, such
as the breaking down of a horn, casting off a hoof, spraining a tendon,
bruising ribs, and heating the whole body violently; and, of course, when
any such ill luck befalls, the animal affected must be left behind, and
become a drawback upon the value of the rest, unless kept for some time
longer.
Having the cattle prepared for travel, the drover takes the road very slowly
for the first two days, not exceeding seven or eight miles a day. At night, in
winter, they should be put into an open court, and supplied with hay, water,
and a very few turnips; for, if roots are suddenly withdrawn from them,—
since it is taken for granted that these have formed a staple portion of their
food,—their bellies will become shrunken up into smaller dimensions—a
state very much against favorable appearance in market. After the first two
days they may proceed faster, say twelve or thirteen miles a day, if very fat;
and fifteen, if moderately so. When the journey is long and the beasts get
faint from travel, they should have corn to support them. In frosty weather,
when the roads become very hard, they are apt to become shoulder-shaken,
an effect of founder; and if sleet falls during the day, and becomes frozen
upon them at night, they may become so chilled as to refuse food, and shrink
rapidly away. Cattle should, if possible, arrive the day before in the
neighborhood of a distant market, and be supplied with a good feed of roots

and hay, or grass, to make them look fresh and fill them up again; but if the
market is at but short distance, they can travel to it early in the morning.
In driving cattle the
drover should have no
dog, which will only
annoy them. He should
walk either before or
behind, as he sees them
disposed to proceed too
fast or to loiter upon the
road; and in passing
carriages, the leading
ox, after a little
experience, will make
way for the rest to
follow. On putting oxen
on a ferry-boat the
shipping of the first one
only is attended with
much trouble. A man on
A FRONTISPIECE. each side should take
hold of a horn, or of a
halter made of any piece
of rope, should the beast be hornless, and two other men, one on each side,
should push him up behind with a piece of rope held between them as a
breeching, and conduct him along the plank into the boat; if it have low
gunwales, a man will be required to remain beside him until one or two more
of the cattle follow their companion, which they will most readily do. From
neglecting this precaution in small ferry-boats, the first beast sometimes
leaps into the water, when it becomes a difficult task to prevent some of the
rest doing the same thing.
Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market, they should never
be overdriven. There is great difference of management in this respect
among drovers. Some like to proceed upon the road quietly, slowly, but
surely, and to reach the market in a placid, cool state. Others, again, drive
smartly along for some distance, and then rest to cool awhile, when the

beasts will probably get chilled and have a staring coat when they reach their
destination; while others like to enter the market with their beasts in an
excited state, imagining that they then look gay; but distended nostrils, loose
bowels, and reeking bodies are no recommendations to a purchaser. Good
judges are shy of purchasing cattle in a heated state, because they do not
know how long they may have been in it; and to cover any risk, will give at
least five dollars a head below what they would have offered for them in a
cool state. Some drovers have a habit of thumping at the hindmost beast of
the lot with a stick while on the road. This is a censurable practice, as the
flesh, where it is thumped, will bear a red mark after the animal has been
slaughtered,—the mark receiving the appropriate name of blood-burn—and
the flesh thus affected will not take on salt, and is apt to putrefy. A touch up
on the shank, or any tendonous part, when correction is necessary, is all that
is required; but the voice, in most cases, will answer as well. The flesh of
overdriven cattle, when slaughtered, never becomes properly firm, and their
tallow has a soft, melted appearance.
A few large oxen in one lot look best in a market on a position rather above
the eye of a spectator. When a large lot is nearly alike in size and
appearance, they look best and most level on a flat piece of ground. Very
large fat oxen never look better than on ground on the same level with the
spectator. An ox, to look well, should hold his head on a line with the body,
with lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a well-licked hide, and should stand
firmly on the ground on all his feet. These are all symptoms of high health
and good condition. Whenever an ox shifts his standing from one foot to
another, he is foot-sore, and has been driven far. Whenever his head hangs
down and his eyes water, he feels ill at ease inwardly. When his coat stares,
he has been overheated some time, and has got a subsequent chill. All these
latter symptoms will be much aggravated in cattle that have been fed in a
barn.
Cattle are made to fast before being slaughtered. The time they should stand
depends upon their state on their arrival at the shambles. If they have been
driven a considerable distance in a proper manner, the bowels will be in a
tolerably empty state, so that twelve hours may suffice; but if they are full
and just off their food, twenty-four hours will be required. Beasts that have
been overdriven, or much struck with sticks, or in any degree infuriated,
should not be immediately slaughtered, but allowed to stand on dry food,

such as hay, until the symptoms disappear. These precautions are absolutely
necessary that the meat may be preserved in the best state.
The mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different countries. In the great
slaughter-houses at Montmartre, in Paris, they are slaughtered by bisecting
the spinal cord of the cervical vertebræ; and this is accomplished by the
driving of a sharp-pointed chisel between the second and third vertebræ,
with a smart stroke of a mallet, while the animal is standing, when it drops,
and death or insensibility instantly ensues, and the blood is let out
immediately by opening the blood-vessels of the neck. The plan adopted in
England is, first to bring the ox down on his knees, and place his under-jaw
upon the ground by means of ropes fastened to his head and passed through
an iron ring in the floor of the slaughterhouse. He is then stunned with a few
blows from an iron axe made for the purpose, on the forehead, the bone of
which is usually driven into the brain. The animal then falls upon his side,
and the blood is let out by the neck. Of the two modes, the French is
apparently the less cruel, for some oxen require many blows to make them
fall. Some butchers, however, allege that the separation of the spinal cord, by
producing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body, prevents the
blood from flowing as rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is
stunned in the forehead. The skin is then taken off to the knees, when the
legs are disjointed, and also off the head. The carcass is then hung up by the
tendons of the hough on a stretcher, by a block and tackle, worked by a small
winch, which retains in place what rope it winds up by means of a wheel and
ratchet.
After the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours, it should be cut down by
the back-bone, or chine, into two sides. This is done either with the saw, or
chopper; the saw making the neatest job in the hands of an inexperienced
butcher, though it is the most laborious; and with the chopper is the quickest,
but by no means the neatest plan, especially in the hands of a careless
workman. In London, the chine is equally divided between both sides; while
in Scotland, one side of a carcass of beef has a great deal more bone than the
other, all the spinous processes of the vertebræ being left upon it. The bony
is called the lying side of the meat. In London, the divided processes in the
fore-quarters are broken in the middle when warm, and chopped back with
the flat side of the chopper, which has the effect of thickening the fore and
middle ribs considerably when cut up. The London butcher also cuts the

joints above the hind knee, and, by making some incisions with a sharp
knife, cuts the tendons there, and drops the flesh of the hind-quarter on the
flank and loins, which causes it to cut up thicker than in the Scotch mode. In
opening the hind-quarter he also cuts the aitch bone, or pelvis through the
centre, which makes the rump look better. Some butchers in the north of
England score the fat of the closing of the hind-quarter, which has the effect
of making that part of both heifer and ox look like the udder of an old cow.
There is far too much of this scoring practised in Scotland, which prevents
the pieces from retaining—which they should, as nearly as possible—their
natural appearance.
In cutting up a carcass of beef the London butcher displays great expertness;
he not only discriminates between the qualities of its different parts, but can
cut out any piece to gratify the taste of his customers. In this way he makes
the best use of the carcass and realizes the largest value for it, while he
gratifies the taste of every grade of customers. A figure of the Scotch and
English modes of cutting up a carcass of beef will at once show the
difference; and upon being informed where the valuable pieces lie, an
opinion can be formed as to whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or
feeding possess the properties which will enable him to demand the highest
price for them.

SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.

The sirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very handsome dish, and
is a universal favorite. It consists of two portions, the Scotch and English
sides; the former is above the lumbar bones, and is somewhat hard in ill-fed
cattle; the latter consists of the muscles under these bones, which are
generally covered with fine fat, and are exceedingly tender. The better the
beast is fed, the larger is the under muscle, better covered with fat, and more
tender to eat. The hook-bone and the buttock are cut up for steaks, beefsteak
pie, or minced collops, and both these, together with the sirloin, bring the
highest price. The large round and the small round are both well known as
excellent pieces for salting and boiling, and are eaten cold with great relish.
The hough is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup, having a large
proportion of gelatinous matter. Brown soup is the principal dish made of the
hough, but its decoction forms an excellent stock for various dishes, and will
keep in a state of jelly for a considerable time. The thick and the thin flank
are both admirable pieces for salting and boiling. The tail, insignificant as it
may seem, makes a soup of a very fine flavor. Hotel-keepers have a trick of
seasoning brown soup or rather beef-tea, with a few joints of tail, and
passing it off for genuine ox-tail soup. These are all the pieces which
constitute the hind-quarter; and it will be seen that they are valuable both for
roasting and boiling, not containing a single coarse piece.
In the fore-quarter, is the spare rib, the six ribs of the back end of which
make an excellent roast, and when taken from the side opposite to the lying
one, being free of the bones of the spine, it makes a large one; and it also
makes excellent beefsteaks and beefsteak pie. The two runners and the
nineholes make salting and boiling pieces; but, of these, the nineholes is
much the best, as it consists of layers of fat and lean without any bone;
whereas the fore parts of the runners have a piece of shoulder-blade in them,
and every piece connected with that bone is more or less coarse-grained. The
brisket eats very well boiled fresh in broth, and may be cooked and eaten
with boiled greens or carrots. The shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit
only for boiling fresh to make into broth or beef-tea. The nap, or shin, is
analogous to the hough of the hind-leg, but not so rich and fine, there being
much less gelatinous matter in it. The neck makes good broth; and the
sticking-piece is a great favorite with some epicures, on account of the
pieces of rich fat in it. It makes an excellent stew, as also sweet barley-broth,
and the meat eats well when boiled in it.

These are all the pieces of the fore-quarter; and it will be seen that they
consist chiefly of boiling-pieces, and some of them none of the finest—the
roasting-piece being confined to the six ribs of the spare rib, and the finest
boiling-piece, corned, only to be found in the nineholes.

ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.
The loin is the principal roasting-piece; the rump is the favorite steak-piece;
the aitch-bone, the favorite stew; the buttock, the thick flank, and the thin
flank are all excellent boiling-pieces when corned; the hock and the shin
make soup and afford stock for the various requirements of the culinary art;
and the tail furnishes ox-tail soup—a favorite English luncheon. These are
all the pieces of the hind-quarter, and they are valuable of their respective
kinds.
In the fore-quarter, the fore-rib, middle-rib, and chuckle-rib are all roasting-
pieces, not alike good; but in removing the part of the shoulder-blade in the
middle-rib, the spare-ribs below make a good broil or roast; the neck makes
soup, being used fresh, boiled; the back end of the brisket is boiled, corned,
or stewed; the leg-of-mutton piece is coarse, but is as frequently stewed as
boiled; the shin is put to the same use as the shin and hock of the hind-
quarter.
On comparing the two modes of cutting-up, it will be observed that in the
English there are more roasting-pieces than in the Scotch, a large proportion

of the fore-quarter being used in that way. The plan, too, of cutting the loin
between the rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter, lays open the steak-
pieces to better advantage than in the Scotch bullock. Extending the
comparison from one part of the carcass to the other, in both methods, it will
be seen that the most valuable pieces—the roasting—occupy its upper, and
the less valuable—the boiling—its lower part. Every beast, therefore, that
lays on beef more upon the upper part of its body is more valuable than one
that lays the same quantity of flesh on its lower parts.
It is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the modes of cutting-up
most in vogue in this country, as there is a needlessly great want of
uniformity.
Of the qualities of beef obtained from the different breeds of cattle in
England, there is no better meat than from the West Highlanders for fineness
of grain and cutting up into convenient pieces for family use. The Galloways
and Angus, when fattened in English pastures, are great favorites in the
London market. The Short Horns afford excellent steaks, being thick of
flesh, and the slice deep, large and juicy, and their covered flanks and
nineholes are always thick, juicy, and well-mixed. The Herefords are
somewhat similar to the Short Horns, and the Devons, may, perhaps, be
classed among the Galloways and Angus, while the Welsh cannot be
compared to the West Highlanders. Taking, then, the breeds of Scotland as
suppliers of good beef, they seem to be more valuable for the table than
those of England.
There are, perhaps, not sufficient data in existence to determine the true
proportion of offal of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox; but
approximations have been made, which may serve the purpose until the
matter is investigated by direct experiment, under various circumstances.
The dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio varying between .571 and
.605 to 1; and on applying one or the other multiplier to the cases of the live
weight, a pretty correct approximation is reached. The tallow is supposed to
be eight one-hundredths of the live weight; so that the multiplier is the
decimal .08. The hide is supposed to be five one-hundredths of the live
weight; so to obtain its weight, a multiplier, .05, is used. The other offals are
supposed to be in a proportion of about one-fourth of the live weight; so that
the multiplier, .28, is as near as can be proposed under existing experience.

Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it is used in various states
—fresh, salted, smoked, roasted, and boiled. When intended to be eaten
fresh, the ribs will keep the best, and with care will keep five or six days in
summer, and in winter ten days. The middle of the loin is the next best, and
the rump the next. The round will not keep long, unless it is salted. The
brisket is the worst, and will not keep more than three days in summer, and
in winter a week.
In regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef, that which is eaten
boiled with salt only, is digested in two hours and forty-five minutes. Beef,
fresh, lean, and rarely-roasted, and a beefsteak broiled, takes three hours to
digest; that fresh, and dry-roasted, and boiled, eaten with mustard, is
digested in three and a half hours. Lean fresh beef fried, requires four hours,
and old hard salted beef boiled, does not digest in less than four and a
quarter hours. Fresh beef-suet boiled takes five and a half hours.
The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting; and, when intended to keep
for a long time, such as for the use of shipping, it is always salted with brine;
but for family use it should be salted only with good salt; for brine dispels
the juice of meat, and saltpetre only serves to make the meat dry, and give it
a disagreeable and unnatural red color. Various experiments have been made
in curing beef with salt otherwise than by hand-rubbing, and in a short space
of time, and also to preserve it from putrefaction by other means than salt.
Some packers put meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight, and an air-
pump then creates a vacuum within it, thereby extracting all the air out of the
meat; then brine is pumped in by pressure, which, entering into every pore of
the meat formerly occupied by the air, is said to place it in a state of
preservation in a few minutes. The carcass of an ox was preserved, in
France, for two years from putrefaction by injecting four pounds of saline
mixture into the carotid artery. Whether any such contrivance can be made
available for family purposes, seems doubtful.
Cattle, when slaughtered, are useful to man in various other ways than by
affording food from their flesh,—their offal of tallow, hides, and horns,
forming extensive articles of commerce. Of the hide, the characteristics of a
good one for strong purposes are strength in its middle, or butt, as it called,
and lightness in the edges, or offal. A bad hide is the opposite of this—thick
in the edges and thin in the middle. A good hide has a firm texture; a bad
one, loose and soft. A hide improves as the summer advances, and it

continues to improve after the new coat of hair in autumn until November or
December, when the coat gets rough from the coldness of the season, and the
hide is then in its best state. It is surprising how a hide improves in thickness
after the cold weather has set in. The sort of food does not seem to affect the
quality of the hide; but the better it is, and the better cattle have been fed,
and the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the better the hide.
From what has been said of the effect of weather upon the hide, it seems a
natural conclusion that a hide is better from an ox that has been fed in the
open air, than from one that has been kept in the barn. Dirt adhering to a hide
injures it, particularly in stall-fed animals; and any thing that punctures a
hide, such as warbles arising from certain insects, is also injurious. The best
hides are obtained from the West Highlanders. The Short Horns produce the
thinnest hides, the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same
breed, the ox affords the strongest hide; but, as hides are applied to various
uses, the cow's, provided it be large, may be as valuable as that of the ox.
The bull's hide is the least valuable. Hides are imported from Russia and
South America.
Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into leather by an infusion
of the astringent property of bark. The old plan of tanning used to occupy a
long time; but, such was the value of the process, that the old tanners used to
pride themselves upon producing a substantial article—which is more than
can be said in many instances under modern improved modes, which hasten
the process, much to the injury of the article produced. Strong infusions of
bark make leather brittle; one hundred pounds of skin, quickly tanned in a
strong infusion, produce one hundred and thirty-seven pounds of leather;
while a weak infusion produces only one hundred and seventeen and a half,
—the additional nineteen and a half pounds serving only to deteriorate the
leather, and causing it to contain much less textile animal solid. Leather thus
highly charged with tanning is so spongy as to allow moisture to pass readily
through its pores, to the great discomfort and injury of those who wear shoes
made of it. The proper mode of tanning lasts a year, or a year and a half,
according to the quality of the leather wanted and the nature of the hides. A
perfect leather can be recognized by its section, which should have a
glistening marbled appearance, without any white streaks in the middle. The
hair which is taken off hides in tanning, is employed to mix with plaster, and
is often surreptitiously put into hair-mattresses.

The principal substances of which glue is made are the parings of ox and
other thick hides, which form the strongest article and the refuse of the
leather-dresser. Both afford from forty-five to fifty-five per cent. of glue. The
tendons, and many other offals of slaughter-houses, also afford materials,
though of an inferior quality, for this purpose. The refuse of tanneries—such
as the ears of oxen and calves—are better articles. Animal skins also, in any
form, uncombined with tannin, may be worked into glue.
Ox-tallow is of great importance in the arts. Candles and soap are made of it,
and it enters largely into the dressing of leather and the use of machinery.
Large quantities are annually exported from Russia. Ox-tallow consists of
seventy-six parts of stearine and twenty-four of oleine, out of one hundred
parts.
The horns of oxen are used for many purposes. The horn consists of two
parts: an outward horny case, and an inward conical-shaped substance,
somewhat intermediate between indurated hair and bone, called the fluid of
the horn. These two parts are separated by means of a blow upon a block of
wood. The horny exterior is then cut into three portions by means of a frame
saw. The lowest of these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing several
processes by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs.
The middle of the horn, after having been flattened by heat, and its
transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a substitute
for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. The tip of the horns is used by
makers of knife-handles and of the tops of whips, and for other similar
purposes. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled down in water. A large
quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is put aside, and sold to the makers of
yellow soap. The itself is used as a kind of glue, and is purchased by the
cloth-draper for stiffening. The bony substance remaining behind is then sent
to the mill, and, after having been ground down, is sold to farmers for
manure.
Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn are
applied, the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the farmer for
manure, as well as the shavings which form the refuse of the lantern-makers.
Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and pliant in warm water; and
by this peculiarity and its property of adhering like glue, large plates of horn
can be made by cementing together the edges of small pieces rendered flat

by a peculiar process, as a substitute for glass. Imitation of tortoise-shell can
be given to horn by means of various metallic solutions. Horn, also, when
softened, can be imprinted with any pattern, by means of dies.

Diseases and their Remedies

Under this head it is proposed to notice such diseases as are most common
among cattle, together with their symptoms, and to suggest such treatment of
the same as has been found in the practice of the author, in the main,
effective. He is aware that much more space might have been appropriated
to this head, as has been the case in other treatises of this class; but he doubts
the propriety of multiplying words about diseases which are of very rare
occurrence, deeming it more fitting to leave such instances exclusively to the
intelligent consideration of the reliable veterinary practitioner.
For convenience of reference, the diseases here noticed have been arranged
in alphabetical order; the whole concluding with information as to two or
three operations which cannot be uninteresting to, or unprofitable for, the
reader.

ABORTION.

The cow is, more than any other animal, subject to abortion, or slinking,
which takes place at different periods of pregnancy, from half of the usual
time to the seventh, or almost to the eighth month. The symptoms of the
approach of abortion, unless the breeder is very much among his stock, are
not often perceived; or, if perceived, they are concealed by the person in
charge, lest he should be accused of neglect or improper treatment.
The cow is somewhat off her feed—rumination ceases—she is listless and
dull—the milk diminishes or dries up—the motions of the fœtus become
more feeble, and at length cease altogether—there is a slight degree of
enlargement of the belly—there is a little staggering in her walk—when she
is down she lies longer than usual, and when she gets up she stands for a
longer time motionless.
As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glairy fluid runs from the vagina
(this is a symptom, which rarely, or never, deceives) her breathing becomes
laborious and slightly convulsive. The belly has for several days lost its
natural rotundity, and has been evidently falling,—she begins to moan,—the
pulse becomes small, wiry, and intermittent. At length labor comes on, and is
often attended with much difficulty and danger.
If the abortion has been caused by blows or violence, whether from brutality,
or the animal's having been teased by other cows in season, or by oxen, the
symptoms are more intense. The animal suddenly ceases to eat and to
ruminate—is uneasy, paws the ground, rests her head on the manger while
she is standing, and on her flank when she is lying down—hemorrhage
frequently comes on from the uterus, or when this is not the case the mouth
of that organ is spasmodically contracted. The throes come on, are
distressingly violent, and continue until the womb is ruptured. If all these
circumstances be not observed, still the labor is protracted and dangerous.
Abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular districts, or on
particular farms, appearing to assume an epizoötic or epidemic form. This
has been accounted for in various ways. Some have imagined it to be
contagious. It is, indeed, destructively propagated among the cows, but this

is probably to be explained on a different principle from that of contagion.
The cow is a considerably imaginative animal, and highly irritable during the
period of pregnancy. In abortion, the fœtus is often putrid before it is
discharged; and the placenta, or after-birth, rarely or never follows it, but
becomes decomposed, and, as it drops away in fragments, emits a peculiar
and most noisome smell. This smell seems to be peculiarly annoying to the
other cows: they sniff at it and then run bellowing about. Some sympathetic
influence is exercised on their uterine organs, and in a few days a greater or
less number of those that had pastured together likewise abort. Hence arises
the rapidity with which the fœtus is usually taken away and buried deeply,
and far from the cows; and hence the more effectual preventive of smearing
the parts of the cow with tar or stinking oils, in order to conceal or subdue
the smell; and hence, too, the inefficacy, as a preventive, of removing her to
a far-distant pasture.
The pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is most prevalent are
those on which the cows oftenest slink their calves. Whatever can become a
source of general excitation and fever is likely, during pregnancy, to produce
inflammation of the womb; or whatever would, under other circumstances,
excite inflammation of almost any organ, has at that time its injurious effect
determined to this particular one.
Every farmer is aware of the injurious effect of the coarse, rank herbage of
low, marshy, and woody countries, and he regards these districts as the
chosen residence of red water; it may be added, that they are also the chosen
residence of abortion. Hard and mineral waters are justly considered as
laying the foundation of many diseases among cattle, and of abortion among
the rest.
Some careful observers have occasionally attributed abortion to
disproportion in size between the male and the female. Farmers were
formerly too fond of selecting a great overgrown bull to serve their dairy or
breeding cows, and many a heifer, or little cow, was seriously injured; and
she either cast her calf, or was lost in parturition. The breeders of cattle in
later years are beginning to act more wisely in this matter.
Cows that are degenerating into consumption are exceedingly subject to
abortion. They are continually in heat; they rarely become pregnant, or if
they do, a great proportion of them cast their calves. Abortion, also, often

follows a sudden change from poor to luxuriant food. Cows that have been
out, half-starved in the winter, when incautiously turned on rich pasture in
the spring, are too apt to cast their calves from the undue general or local
excitation that is set up. Hence it is, that when this disposition to abort first
appears in a herd, it is naturally in a cow that has been lately purchased.
Fright, from whatever cause, may produce this trouble. There are singular
cases on record of whole herds of cows slinking their calves after having
been terrified by an unusually violent thunder-storm. Commerce with the
bull soon after conception is also a frequent cause, as well as putrid smells—
other than those already noticed—and the use of a diseased bull. Besides
these tangible causes of abortion, there is the mysterious agency of the
atmosphere. There are certain seasons when abortion is strangely frequent,
and fatal; while at other times it disappears in a manner for several
successive years.
The consequences of premature calving are frequently of a very serious
nature; and even when the case is more favorable, the results are,
nevertheless, very annoying. The animal very soon goes again to heat, but in
a great many cases she fails to become pregnant; she almost invariably does
so, if she is put to the bull during the first heat after abortion. If she should
come in calf again during that season, it is very probable that at about the
same period of gestation, or a little later, she will again abort: or that when
she becomes in calf the following year, the same fatality will attend her.
Some say that this disposition to cast her young gradually ceases; that if she
does miscarry, it is at a later and still later period of pregnancy; and that, in
about three or four years, she may be depended upon as a tolerably safe
breeder. He, however, would be sadly inattentive to his own interests who
keeps a profitless beast so long.
The calf very rarely lives, and in the majority of cases it is born dead or
putrid. If there should appear to be any chance of saving it, it should be
washed with warm water, carefully dried, and fed frequently with small
quantities of new milk, mixed, according to the apparent weakness of the
animal, either with raw eggs or good gruel; while the bowels should, if
occasion requires, be opened by means of small doses of castor-oil. If any
considerable period is to elapse before the natural time of pregnancy would
have expired, it will usually be necessary to bring up the little animal
entirely by hand.

The treatment of abortion differs but little from that of parturition. If the
farmer has once been tormented by this pest in his dairy, he should carefully
watch the approaching symptoms of casting the calf, and as soon as he
perceives them, should remove the animal from the pasture to a comfortable
cow-house or shed. If the discharge be glairy, but not offensive, he may hope
that the calf is not dead; he will be assured of this by the motion of the fœtus,
and then it is possible that the abortion may still be avoided. He should
hasten to bleed her, and that copiously, in proportion to her age, size,
condition, and the state of excitation in which he may find her; and he
should give a dose of physic immediately after the bleeding. When the
physic begins to operate, he should administer half a drachm of opium and
half an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre. Unless she is in a state of great
debility, he should allow nothing but gruel, and she should be kept as quiet
as possible. By these means he may occasionally allay the general or local
irritation that precedes or causes the abortion, and the cow may yet go to her
full time.
Should, however, the discharge be fetid, the conclusion will be that the fœtus
is dead, and must be got rid of, and that as speedily as possible. Bleeding
may even then be requisite if much fever exists; or, perhaps, if there is
debility, some stimulating drink may not be out of place. In other respects
the animal must be treated as if her usual time of pregnancy had been
accomplished.
Much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of abortion among
cows. The fœtus must be got rid of immediately. It should be buried deep,
and far from the cow-pasture. Proper means should be taken to hasten the
expulsion of the placenta. A dose of physic should be given; ergot of rye
administered; the hand should be introduced, and an effort made, cautiously
and gently, to detach the placenta; all violence, however, should be carefully
avoided; for considerable and fatal hemorrhage may be speedily produced.
The parts of the cow should be well washed with a solution of the chloride
of lime, which should be injected up the vagina, and also given internally. In
the mean time, and especially after the expulsion of the placenta, the cow-
house should be well washed with the same solution.
The cow, when beginning to recover, should be fattened and sold. This is the
first and the grand step toward the prevention of abortion, and he is unwise
who does not immediately adopt it. All other means are comparatively

inefficient and worthless. Should the owner be reluctant to part with her, two
months, at least, should pass before she is permitted to return to her
companions. Prudence would probably dictate that she should never return
to them, but be kept, if possible, on some distant part of the farm.
Abortion having once occurred among the herd, the breeding cows should be
carefully watched. Although they should be well fed, they should not be
suffered to get into too high condition. Unless they are decidedly poor and
weak, they should be bled between the third and fourth months of pregnancy,
and a mild dose of physic administered to each. If the pest continues to
reappear, the owner should most carefully examine how far any of the causes
of abortion that have been detected, may exist on his farm, and exert himself
to thoroughly remove them.
An interesting paper upon this subject may be found in the Veterinary
Review, vol. 1., p. 434, communicated by Prof. Henry Tanner, of Queen's
College, Birmingham, England. As it suggests a theory as to the origin of
this disease which is, to say the least, quite plausible, we transfer the article:
—
"I shall not go into any notice of the general subject of abortion, but rather
restrict my remarks to a cause which is very much overlooked, and yet
which is probably more influential than all other causes combined. I refer to
the growth of ergotized grass-seeds in our pastures.
"The action of ergot of rye (secale cornutum) upon the womb is well known
as an excitant to powerful action, which usually terminates in the expulsion
of the fœtus. We have a similar disease appearing on the seeds of our
grasses, but especially on the rye grass, and thus we have an ergot of the
seeds of rye grass produced, possessing similar exciting powers upon the
womb to those produced by the ergot of rye.
"Two conditions are necessary for the production of this ergot upon the seed
of rye grass. The first is, the grass must be allowed to run to seed; and the
second is, that the climate must be favorable for encouraging the
development of the ergot.
"In practice, we find that on land which has been fed on during the summer,
unless it has been grazed with unusual care, much of the grass throws up
seed-stalks and produces seed. In districts where the climate is humid and

rain abundant, as well as in very wet seasons, these seeds become liable to
the growth of this ergot. Cattle appear to eat it with a relish, and the result is
that abortion spreads rapidly through the herd. Heifers and cows, which, up
to the appearance of the ergot, have held in calf, are excited to cast their
calves by consuming it in their food. The abortion having once commenced,
we know that the peculiarly sensitive condition of the breeding animal will
cause its extension, even where the original cause may not be in operation;
but their combined action renders the loss far more serious. If we add to this
the tendency which an animal receives from her first abortion, to repeat it
when next in calf, we see how seriously the mischief becomes multiplied.
"A somewhat extended observation, added to my own experience, has led
me to the conviction that very much of the loss arising from abortion in our
cows may be traced to the cause I have named. I feel assured the influence is
even more extended than I have stated; for not only would the fœtus be
thrown off in its advanced stage, but also in its earlier growth, thus causing
great trouble to breeders of high-bred stock, the repeated turning of cows to
the bull, and at most irregular intervals.
"The remedy differs in no respect from the ordinary mode of treatment,
except that it compels a removal of the stock from the influence of the cause.
Much, however, may be done by way of prevention; and this I shall briefly
notice.
"It simply consists in keeping breeding cows and heifers upon land free from
these seeds. Grass which has been grazed during the summer, will very
generally, in a humid climate, have some of this ergotized seed; but I have
not observed it produced before the end of July, or early in August; and I
doubt its existence, to any injurious degree, up to this time. We may,
therefore, consider such ground safe up to this period. If the breeding stock
are then removed to grass land which, having been mown for this operation
is a guaranty against any seeds remaining, it will seldom, if ever, happen that
any injury will result from the production of ergotized grass later in the
season.
"I will not venture to say that such will not appear in some cases where the
grass has been cut early and has been followed by a rapid growth; but, at any
rate, we have grazing land free from this excitant from July until September;
and in the grass which has been mown late, I do not consider that there is the

least fear of ergot's being again formed in that season. In this manner a
farmer may keep grass land for his breeding stock entirely free from
ergotized grass; and, consequently, so far as this cause is concerned, they
will be free from abortion. How far young heifers may be prejudicially
influenced, before they are used for breeding, by an excitement of the womb,
appears to me to be a subject worthy of some attention on the part of the
veterinary profession."

APOPLEXY.

This is a determination of blood to the head, causing pressure upon the brain.
Animals attacked with this disease are generally in a plethoric condition. The
usual symptoms are coma (a sleepy state), eyes protruding, respiration
accelerated; finally, the animal falls, struggles, and dies.
In such cases, bleeding should be resorted to at an early period; give in drink
one pound of Epsom-salts.

BLACK WATER.

This is simply an exaggerated stage of the disease known as Red Water,—to
which the reader is referred in its appropriate place,—the urine being darker
in color in consequence of the admixture of venous blood.
The symptoms are similar, though more acute. There is constipation at first,
which is followed by diarrhœa, large quantities of blood passing away with
the evacuations from the bowels; symptoms of abdominal pain are present;
the loins become extremely tender; and the animal dies in a greatly
prostrated condition.
The treatment does not differ from that prescribed in case of Red Water.

BRONCHITIS.

The trachea and bronchial tubes are frequently the seat of inflammation,
especially in the spring of the year,—the symptoms of which are often
confounded with those of other pulmonary diseases. This inflammation is
frequently preceded by catarrhal affections; cough is often present for a long
time before the more acute symptoms are observed. Bronchitis occasionally
makes its appearance in an epizoötic form.
Symptoms.—A peculiarly anxious expression of the countenance will be
observed; respiration laborious; a husky, wheezing, painful cough; on
placing the ear to the windpipe a sonorous râle is heard; symptomatic fever
also prevails to a greater or less extent.
Treatment.—Counter-irritation should be early resorted to; strong mustard,
mixed with equal parts of spirits of hartshorn and water, and made into a thin
paste, should be applied all along the neck, over the windpipe, and to the
sides, and should be well rubbed in; or, the tincture of cantharides, with ten
drops of castor-oil to each ounce, applied in the same manner as the former,
will be found equally effective. Give internally ten drops of Fleming's
tincture of aconite every four hours, until five or six doses have been given;
after which give one of the following powders twice a day: nitrate of potash,
one ounce; Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce;
pulverized-gentian root, one ounce; mix and divide into eight powders. If
necessary a pound of salts may be given.

CONSUMPTION.

This affection—technically known as phthisis pulmonalis—is the
termination of chronic disease of the lungs. These organs become filled with
many little cysts, or sacks, containing a yellowish or yellowish-white fluid,
which in time is hardened, producing a condition of the lungs known as
tuberculous. These tubercles in turn undergo another change, becoming soft
in the centre and gradually involving the whole of the hardened parts, which,
uniting with adjoining ones, soon forms cysts of considerable size. These
cysts are known as abscesses.

No treatment will be of much service here. It is, therefore, better, if the
animal is not too poor in flesh, to have it slaughtered.

CORYZA.

In the spring, and late in the fall, catarrhal affections are quite common,
occurring frequently in a epizoötic form. Coryza, or nasal catarrh,—
commonly called a cold in the head,—is not very common among cows. As
its name implies, it is a local disease, confined to the lining membrane of the
nose; and, consequently, the general system is not usually disturbed.
Symptoms.—The animal will be observed to sneeze; the Schneiderian
membrane (membrane of the nose) is heightened in color; cough sometimes
accompanies; there is also a muco-purulent discharge from the nose. Neglect
to attend to these early symptoms frequently occasions disease of a more
serious nature; in fact, coryza may be regarded as the forerunner of all
epizoötic pulmonary disorders.

A CHAT ON THE ROAD.

Treatment.—The animal should be kept on a low diet for a few days; the
nostrils occasionally steamed, and one of the following powders given night
and morning, which, in most cases, will be all the medicine required: nitrate
of potassa, one ounce; digitalis leaves pulverized and tartrate of antimony, of
each one drachm; sulphate of copper, two drachms; mix, and divide into
eight powders. Should the disease prove obstinate, give for two or three days
two ounces of Epsom-salts at a dose, dissolved in water, three times a day.

COW-POX.

Two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow, in the form of pustular
eruptions. They first appear as small vesicles containing a purulent matter,
and subsequently assume a scabby appearance, or small ulcers remain,
which often prove troublesome to heal. This latter is the cow-pox, from
which Jenner derived the vaccine matter.
Treatment.—Foment the teats well with warm water and Castile-soap; after
which, wipe the bag dry, and dress with citrine ointment. The preparations of
iodine have also been recommended, and they are very serviceable.

DIARRHŒA.

Cattle are frequently subject to this disease, particularly in the spring of the
year when the grass is young and soft. Occasionally it assumes a very
obstinate form in consequence of the imperfect secretion of gastric juice; the
fæces are thin, watery, and fetid, followed by very great prostration of the
animal.
The symptoms of diarrhœa are too well known to require any detailed
description.
Treatment.—If in a mild form, the diet should be low; give two ounces of
Epsom-salts, twice a day. In a more obstinate form, give two drachms of
carbonate of soda in the food. Oak-bark tea will be found very useful in

these cases; or one of the following powders, twice a day, will be found very
advantageous: pulverized opium and catechu, each one and a half ounces;
prepared chalk, one drachm; to be given in the feed.
Calves are particularly subject to this disease, and it often proves fatal to
them. It sometimes assumes an epizoötic form, when it is generally of a mild
character. So long as the calf is lively and feeds well, the farmer should
entertain no fear for him; but if he mopes about, refuses his food, ceases to
ruminate, wastes in flesh, passes mucus and blood with the fæces, and
exhibits symptoms of pain, the case is a dangerous one.
In such an emergency, lose no time, but give two or three ounces of Castor-
oil with flour-gruel, or two ounces of salts at a dose, followed with small
draughts of oak-bark tea; or give, twice a day, one of the following powders:
pulverized catechu, opium, and Jamaca ginger, of each half an ounce;
prepared chalk, one ounce; mix, and divide into twelve powders. Bran
washes, green food, and flour-gruel should be given, with plenty of salt.

DYSENTERY.

This disease is very frequently confounded with the foregoing. A distinction,
however, exists,—since inflammation appears in this disease, while it is
absent in the former. In this affection, inflammation of the large intestines
takes place, which is attended with diarrhœa. The fæces are covered with
blood; the animal rapidly becomes prostrated, and death frequently comes to
his relief.
Youatt says: "It is, however, with dysentery that the practitioner is most loth
to cope,—a disease that betrays thousands of cattle. This, also, may be either
acute or chronic. Its causes are too often buried in obscurity, and its
premonitory symptoms are disregarded or unknown. There appears to be a
strong predisposition in cattle to take on this disease. It seems to be the
winding-up of many serious complaints, and the foundation of it is
sometimes laid by those that appear to be of the most trifling nature. It is that
in cattle which glanders and farcy are in the horse,—the breaking up of the
constitution.

"Dysentery may be a symptom and concomitant of other diseases. It is one
of the most fearful characteristics of murrain; it is the destructive
accompaniment, or consequence, of phthisis. It is produced by the sudden
disappearance of a cutaneous eruption; it follows the cessation of chronic
hoose; it is the consequence of the natural or artificial suspension of every
secretion. Were any secretion to be particularly selected, the repression of
which would produce dysentery, it would be that of the milk. How often
does the farmer observe that no sooner does a milch cow cease her usual
supply of milk than she begins to purge! There may not appear to be any
thing else the matter with her; but she purges, and, in the majority of cases,
that purging is fatal.
"It may, sometimes, however, be traced to sufficient causes, exclusive of
previous disease. Unwholesome food—exposure to cold—neglect at the
time of calving—low and marshy situations—the feeding in meadows that
have been flooded, where it is peculiarly fatal—the grazing (according to
Mr. Leigh, and our experience confirms his statement) upon the clays lying
over the blue lias rock—the neighborhood of woods and of half-stagnant
rivers—the continuation of unusually sultry weather—overwork, and all the
causes of acute dysentery, may produce that of a chronic nature; an acute
dysentery—neglected, or badly, or even most skillfully treated—may
degenerate into an incurable chronic affection. Half starve a cow, or over-
feed her, milk her to exhaustion, or dry her milk too rapidly—and dysentery
may follow.
"The following will, probably, be the order of the symptoms, if they are
carefully observed: There will be a little dullness or anxiety of countenance,
the muzzle becoming short or contracted; a slight shrinking when the loins
are pressed upon; the skin a little harsh and dry; the hair a little rough; there
will be a slight degree of uneasiness and shivering that scarcely attracts
attention; then—except it be the degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery
—constipation may be perceived. It will be to a certain extent, obstinate; the
excrement will voided with pain; it will be dry, hard, and expelled in small
quantities. In other cases, perhaps, purging will be present from the
beginning; the animal will be tormented with tenesmus, or frequent desire to
void its excrement, and that act attended by straining and pain, by soreness
about the anus, and protrusion of the rectum, and sometimes by severe
colicky spasms. In many cases, however, and in those of a chronic form, few

of these distressing symptoms are observed, even at the commencement of
the disease; but the animal voids her fæces oftener than it is natural that she
should, and they are more fluid than in a state of health; while at the same
time she loses her appetite and spirits and condition, and is evidently wasting
away."
Treatment.—Give one drachm of the extract of belladonna, three times a
day, dissolved in water; or calomel and powdered opium, of each one
drachm three times daily. As soon as the inflammatory stage passes by, give
one of the following three times daily, in their gruel: nitrate of potash
pulverized, gentian-root pulverized, of each one ounce; pulverized Jamaica
ginger, one half an ounce; pulverized caraway, or anise-seed, six drachms. A
bottle of porter given once or twice a day, will be found of very great
advantage.

ENTERITIS.

This is an inflammation of the external or internal coat of the intestines,
sometimes attended with violent purging, especially when it is confined to
the internal coats. Oxen in good condition are more subject to this disease
than are cows. It most frequently occurs in dry, hot weather. It is sudden in
its attacks, and often fatal in its termination.
Symptoms.—The animal is dull, and not disposed to move about; the muzzle
is dry, and the coat staring; the animal yields, on pressure of the loins; a
weak, staggering gait, when forced to move; respiration hurried; pulse
accelerated but small; eyes red, full and fiery; head protruding; mouth, ears,
and horns hot; appetite bad; rumination ceases; the bowels become
constipated; the animal moans continually, and froths at the mouth. These
symptoms violently increase as the disease advances. The animal becomes
more depressed and feeble, grinds his teeth, and appears half unconscious,
and dies in convulsions.
Of the causes of this disease, Youatt, who is almost the only authority we
have upon this subject, says: "It seems occasionally to be epidemic; for
several instances of it occur, of the same character, and in the same district.

M. Cruzel gives an illustration of this in his description of the disease that
destroyed so many cattle, in the years 1826 to 1827, in the Department de la
Nievre. Out of two hundred and eighteen cattle belonging to three farmers,
one hundred and thirteen were attacked by this disease, and eighty-three of
them died. One farmer in a neighboring district had nineteen head of cattle,
all of which sickened, but only three were lost. These were unusually hot
summers. The upland pasture was burnt up, or what remained of it was
rendered unusually stimulating; and the acrid plants of the marshes and low
grounds acquired additional deleterious agency.
"When isolated cases occur, they may generally be attributed to
mismanagement. Exposure to cold, or the drinking of cold water when
overheated with work; too hard work in sultry weather; the use of water
stagnant, impure, or containing any considerable quantity of metallic salts;
the sudden revulsion of some cutaneous eruption; the crowding of animals
into a confined place; too luxuriant and stimulating food generally; and the
mildewed and unwholesome food on which cattle are too often kept, are
fruitful sources of this complaint."
Treatment.—In the early stage of the disease, give an active purge, and
follow it with ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite, four times daily, for
two days; then give drachm doses of the extract of belladonna; give no food
for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according to circumstances. Bleeding, if
done early, is often beneficial. Counter-irritants to the belly are also
recommended; the best are mustard, hartshorn, and water, mixed together—
or tincture of cantharides, with one drachm of croton-oil added to every
ounce.

EPIZOÖTICS.

Diseases of this class have the same relation to the inferior animals that
epidemic diseases have to man. Of course, they assume a very pestilential
character. Scarcely a year passes away without diseases of this nature
making their appearance in some parts of the world. They occur at all
seasons of the year, but more generally prevail in the spring and fall. The
period of their duration varies from months to years. They are, at times, mild

in their attacks, and yield readily to proper treatment; at other times, they
become painful pestilences, destroying every thing in their course.
The causes are generally sought for in some peculiar condition of the
atmosphere. The use of the milk and flesh of diseased cattle has frequently
been productive of malignant diseases in the human family.
Silius Italicus describes a fearful epizoötic, which first attacked the dog, then
the feathered biped, then horses, and cattle, and, last of all, the human being.
"On mules and dogs the infection first began,
And, last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man."
Epizoötics, occurring in rats, cats, dogs, horses, and cattle, which were
followed in the succeeding years by more fearful ones which attacked the
human family, are numerously recorded. These scourges have appeared in all
ages of the world; but, as time and space will not allow our entering upon an
extended consideration of them,—however interesting they might be to the
general reader,—we shall content ourselves by quoting, somewhat in brief,
from the lectures of the late William Youatt on these fatal maladies:—
"In the year 801, and at the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne, an
epidemic disease devastated a great portion of his dominions. This was
attributed to the villainy of the Duke of Benevento, who was said to have
employed a great many persons in scattering an enchanted powder over the
fields, which destroyed both the cattle and the food of the cattle. M. Paulet
seems inclined to give full credence to this, and says that history offers many
proofs of this destructive and diabolical practice. He affirms that many
persons were punished in Germany, France, and, particularly, at Toulouse,
for the commission of this crime. Several of the suspected agents of these
atrocities were put to the torture and made full confession of their crime.
"Of the occurrence of these diseases from the year 800 to 1316,—an interval
of mental darkness, and of horrors and calamities of every kind,—history
records twenty cases, more or less destructive, and extending, with greater or
less devastation, over France and Germany, Italy and England. Of these
twenty, four date their origin from an excessive moisture in the air,
accompanied by almost continual rains, and flooding the country to a
considerable extent. One was supposed to be the consequence of long-
continued drought and excessive heat; one was traced to the influence of an

eclipse of the sun; another, to a comet; and a fourth, to a most unusually
stormy winter. The reader will have the kindness to remember that we are
here expressing the opinions of the writers of the day, and by no means, our
own belief of the matter.
"Of the four which trace their origin to extreme wet and its consequences,
the first occurred in France, in 820, after a long continuance of rain; and it
was equally fatal to men and cattle. The second, which was equally fatal to
both, appeared in Lorraine, in 889. The third broke out among the cavalry of
the army of Arnoul, in its passage over the Alps, on its return to Italy. The
fourth pervaded the whole of England in 1125, and was equally fatal to the
biped and the quadruped.
"That which followed excessive heat and drought, was generally prevalent
throughout Europe, but especially so in Germany. It attacked oxen, sheep,
and pigs. It appeared in 994, and lasted six months.
"The one which was attributed to the comet, and which principally attacked
cattle, appeared in France in 943 Almost every animal perished.
"Another, that was supposed to be connected with an eclipse of the sun, was
prevalent throughout the greater part of Germany, among men and animals,
in 989.
"The disease, which was the consequence of a cold and boisterous winter,
was principally prevalent in France, in 887, and committed sad ravages
among the herds of cattle and sheep.
"Of the twelve others, of which, authors do not indicate the cause, the first
was in France, in 810, and principally among cattle. The second was also in
France, in 850, and almost depopulated the country of cattle. The third, in
868, was common to all animals in France. The fourth, in 870, was in the
same country, and caused severe loss among cattle. The fifth prevailed on
the Rhine and in Germany, and destroyed an almost incalculable number of
cattle. The sixth attacked the horses of the army of Arnoul in Lorraine, in
888. The seventh, in 940, destroyed a vast number of cattle in France, Italy,
and Germany. The eighth and ninth were in France, in 941 and 942, and
almost all the cattle in the country perished. The tenth pestilence broke out in
England, in the year 1041, and frightful was its devastation among all
animals, and, particularly, horned cattle. The eleventh also devastated our

country, in 1103, and the ravages were dreadful. The twelfth was chiefly
fatal in Germany, and particularly in Gueldres, in 1149.
"These twenty pestilences occurred in the space of 506 years. Five or six of
them were most prevalent among cattle; two were almost confined to horses;
twelve included, to a greater or less degree, almost every species of
quadrupeds; and four extended to the human being. Among these the ravages
of eight were most destructive in France; as many in Germany; and four in
Italy and England.
"As far as we have hitherto proceeded, it will also appear that cattle are more
subject to these diseases than any other species of domesticated animals, and
that the pestilence is always most fearful among them. It is also evident that
the maladies which proceed from cold or humidity are more frequent in the
temperate and southern parts of Europe than those which depend upon
drought, or almost any other cause.
"The malady lingers in different countries, in proportion to its want of power
to accomplish at once all its devastation.
"After this time, there are few satisfactory accounts of these diseases for
more than five centuries. We only know that, occasionally suspending their
ravages,—or, rather, visiting new districts when they had ceased to desolate
others—they have continued to be objects of terror and instruments of
devastation, even unto the present day; and it is only within a few years that
they have been really understood, and have become, to a certain degree,
manageable."
In the United States, epizoötic diseases have been of frequent occurrence;
but, owing to the want of properly qualified veterinary surgeons, they have
not, until within a very recent period, been properly described or understood.
The day however, is fast approaching when this void will be filled, and when
epizoötic and other diseases will be correctly noted and recorded. The
necessity for this must have been forcibly impressed upon the minds of the
inhabitants of our country from the experience of the last ten or twelve years.
Respecting the late epizoötic among cattle in Portage County, Ohio, William
Pierce, V.S., of Ravenna, thus describes the symptoms as they appeared, in a
letter to the author: "A highly-colored appearance of the sclerotic coat of the
eye, also of the conjunctiva (a lining membrane of the eyelid) and the

Schneiderian membrane of the nose; a high animal heat about the head and
horns; a highly inflammatory condition of the blood; contraction of all the
abdominal viscera; hurried respiration; great prostration and nervous
debility; lameness; followed by gangrene of the extremity of the tail, and the
hind-feet; terminating in mortification and death."
Mr. Pierce is convinced that these symptoms are produced by the continued
use of the ergot, or spur of the June grass,—the effects being similar to those
produced upon the human family by long-continued use of ergot of rye. This
disease assumes both an acute and chronic form.
The same gentleman also says: "Ordinary observers, as well as those who
claim to be scientific, have entertained very conflicting opinions as to its
general character; some regarding it as epizoötic, others as contagious; some
attributing it to atmospheric influence, others to foulings in the stable or
yard. Others, again, attribute it to freezing of the feet in winter. Cattle-
doctors in a majority of cases, fail to cure it. I have, however, by a simple
course of treatment, effected many signal cures. Some parties are so
confident of the contagious character of the disease that they refuse to drive
cattle along a road where it is known to exist. They even, oftentimes, wash
their boots previous to entering their barnyards, after walking over the
ground where such diseased cattle have been running.
"Caution is both proper and commendable. I do not, however, regard it as a
contagious disease, nor can it be transmitted by inoculation. The calf is
carried during the progress of the disease, and delivered in apparently good
health. The milk of the cow appears to be unaffected and harmless. I call this
disease sphacial fever, or gangrenous fever.

THE MAD BULL.
"The ergot, or spur of the hay, is confined to the June grass, as far as my
observation extends; owing, probably, to its early maturity. Most other kinds
of grass are cut before the seeds have matured sufficiently to produce the
spur. I was suspicious of the foulness of the feed before I examined any hay,
and have found the spur in the hay wherever the disease is found.
"Mr. Sanford, of Edinburgh, Ohio, purchased one half of a mow of hay from
Mr. Bassett, of Randolph, which was removed to his farm in Randolph, eight
miles distant. Of this hay, Mr. Sanford fed eleven cows some six or eight
weeks. Mr. Bassett had been feeding the same to four cows. At about the
same time, both heads began to show lameness. I visited Mr. S. after he had
lost six cows, and examined the remaining five, four of which were lame and
the other showed symptoms of the disease. He had two other cows, one of
which was loaned to a neighbor, and the other was fed upon different hay,
for convenience. The loaned cow was returned about the first of March,—
the two then running with the ailing ones until the 24th of April, when I saw
them sound and in good health.
"I then visited Mr. Bassett's stock, which I found infected with the same
disease,—he having lost one, and the remaining three being lame, and much
debilitated. The hoofs were sloughing off. Some of the same hay remained in
the snow, which, upon examination, exhibited an abundance of the spur.

Upon inquiry, I found that no such disease existed between the two farms, or
in the neighborhood of either Mr. S. or Mr. B. The peculiarity of this
circumstance at once swept away the last vestige of doubt from my mind.
Mr. E. Chapman, of Rootstown, accompanied me, and can vouch for the
correctness of these statements.
"He hooted at my opinions, asserting that he understood the disease, and that
it was caused by the freezing of the feet. He has since, however, abandoned
that idea, and honestly 'acknowledged the corn.' This ergot is regarded by
some as a parasitic fungus, formed in other grains, an abundant vegeto-
animal substance, and much disposed to putrefaction. We appear to be in the
dark regarding its real composition. The little which has been written upon
the subject, appears to be founded upon hypothesis, and that the most
obscure. The articles to which I refer may differ in quality or property to a
considerable extent, and we may forever remain in the dark, unless chemical
investigation be instituted.
"In this particular disease, there appears to be singularity in the symptoms
through all its various stages, which is likely to originate in the peculiarity of
the cause which produces them. The effects and symptoms arising from the
continued use of the ergot of rye, as manifested in the human system, have
been but briefly hinted at by authors, and, probably, some of them are only
reasonable conjectures. All they say is, that it produces violent headache,
spaculation in the extremities, and death. Hitherto, its effects upon the
inferior animal have been subjected to no investigation, and its peculiarity in
the symptoms, differing from like phenomena by other causes, may yet be
demonstrated. I am not alone in my opinion of this disease. I have taken
counsel of those whose judgment cannot be questioned. Whatever difference
of opinion exists is attributable to a want of investigation, and it will
continue to exist until this singular phenomenon is clearly accounted for.
Every opinion should be thoroughly criticized till facts are obtained. Every
man's opinion is sacred to himself, but we should yield to conviction.
"Two classes of this disease are exhibited: one, of irritation, and the other, of
debility; one, an acute, the other, a chronic form. The point at which it
assumes the chronic form is between congestion and gangrene. By close
observation we can discover these to be different and higher degrees of the
same disease. All subsequent degrees are dependent upon the first.

"The first symptom, or degree, is, probably, an attack upon the systematic
circulation, produced by a certain medicinal and deleterious property
existing in the ergot, and communicated to the blood through the absorption
of the tongue. This is more evident from the fact that the digestive organs
retain their normal condition till the last stages of the chronic form. The
blood in the first two stages is healthy, and the peculiar influence is only
apparent in the subsequent stages; as evidenced by the fact that the muscles
and general good appearance, as well as life itself, last longer than could be
possible, if this deleterious influence were exhausted upon the digestive
organs and the blood, in its first stages. And, as we suppose that fever and
congestion constitute an attack upon the red blood, which is exhibited by
hurried pulsation, we might rationally infer that the next degree would be
gangrene of the globule, causing sloughing, the same as if it were carried to
the muscles, or surface. This sloughing of the globule would be the same as
if exhibited on any other part of the organization, for the fibrin is identical
with muscle, as albumen is identical with the white of an egg; and since
congestion is the forerunner of gangrene at the extremities, or on the surface,
so fever and quick pulsation are the forerunners of congestion of the blood.
Gangrene cannot ensue without obstruction in the blood-vessels; and
congestion cannot take place without obstruction in that which sustains the
globule. As gangrene, then, is the first stage of decomposition of animal
matter, so is congestion the first stage of decomposition of the globule; and
as mortification is death in the organized body, so is congestion death in the
organized globule.
"It appears evident that this disease, in all its forms and degrees of intensity,
seeks vent or release; in other words, Nature conflicting with it, throws it off
its track, or balance, and offers means of escape, or shows it a door by which
it may make its exit. In the first stage of the disease, the dermoid (skin)
tissues make the effort. In the inflammatory, the serous, and the congestive,
the mucous gangrene seeks vent; if obtained, mortification is prevented; if
not, mortification directly supervenes, and death terminates the case.
"In the case to which I refer, observation confirms my opinion that absolute
mortification without vent determines the gangrene of the blood, and is
hardly curable; but that gangrene's finding vent determines it to be curable,
and the recovery highly probable."

EPIZOÖTIC CATARRH.

Catarrh frequently assumes an epizoötic form of a very virulent character,
originating spontaneously and extending over a large section of country at or
about the same time. A cold spring succeeding a mild winter, is peculiarly
productive of malignant catarrh. This is one of the most distressing and fatal
diseases to which cattle are subject.
Symptoms.—The animal appears dull, and unwilling to move about,
staggering when forced to do so; obstinate costiveness is usually one of the
earliest symptoms, succeeded by diarrhœa, which is equally difficult of
management; sometimes, however, diarrhœa is present from the first; the
animal loses flesh rapidly; the coat is staring; appetite is lost; tumors form
about the head, neck, back, and joints, which appear to be filled with air, and
upon pressure cause a crepitating sound; saliva flows from the mouth,
becoming very fetid as the disease progresses. The animal always dies of
putrefaction.
Treatment.—This disease should be treated early, or not at all. Good nursing
is very essential. When costiveness is present, give Barbadoes aloes, one
ounce; croton-oil, ten drops; mix together; or give one pint of linseed-oil, to
which add from ten to twenty drops of castor-oil. If the bowels are not open
in twenty-four hours, give four ounces of sulphate of magnesia every six
hours until they are opened. Follow this with tincture of aconite, ten drops in
water, every four hours, until the fever has abated.
Bleeding has been recommended by some writers; but the author has failed
to experience any benefit from resorting to it, but, on the contrary, has seen
much injury result from the use—or, rather, the abuse—of the lancet. He is,
indeed, inclined to attribute much of the fatality attending this disease to
indiscriminate blood-letting.
When much debility exists, the animal should be sustained by tonics and
stimulants. One ounce of nitric ether and half an ounce of tincture of opium,
given in a little water, will be found beneficial. It should be given twice a
day. Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce;
pulverized cloves, half an ounce; mixed, and divided into four powders, one

to be given at night and at morning; will be found useful, in place of the
opium and ether.

FARDEL.

This disease is properly known by the name of clue-bound. The manyplus,
or omasum (third stomach), frequently becomes so choked up with food that
it is hard and dry, and the operation of the digestive organs is very seriously
impaired. The animal eats voraciously, for a time, but stops suddenly and
trembles; the countenance assumes a peculiarly haggard appearance; there is
a wild expression of the eye; a foaming at the mouth; a tendency to pitch
forward, and at times a falling head-foremost to the ground. Occasionally,
the symptoms are very active, speedily terminating in death. There are few
diseases of a constitutional character in which the stomach is not, more or
less, sympathetically involved.
"Toward the end of September, 1746, a great number of cows died at
Osterwich, in the principality of Halberstadt. Lieberkuhn, a celebrated
physician,—there were no veterinary surgeons at that time,—was sent to
examine into the nature of the disease, which was supposed to be one of the
species of murrain that was then committing such ravages among the cattle
in various parts of the Continent. There were none of the tumors, or
pestilential buboes, that, in an earlier or later period of the malady, usually
accompanied and characterized murrain; but upon inspection of the dead
bodies, considerable peritoneal inflammation was found; the first and second
stomachs were filled with food, but the third stomach was the palpable seat
of the disease; its leaves were black and gangrened. The mass contained
between the leaves was black, dry, and so hard that it could scarcely be cut
with a scalpel. It intercepted the passage of the food from the first two
stomachs to the fourth; and this latter stomach was empty and much
inflamed. Neither the heart, nor the lungs, nor the intestines exhibited any
trace of disease. Twelve cows were opened, and the appearances were nearly
the same in all of them."
Treatment.—Give one and a half pounds of Epsom-salts, dissolved in three
pints of water; or one quart of potash, three times daily, dissolved in water,

will be found useful in this disease.

FOUL IN THE FOOT.

This is caused by hard or irritating substances making their way in between
the claws of the foot, causing inflammation, and sometimes ulceration, in the
parts. The pasterns swell, and the animal becomes lame.
The foot should be thoroughly washed, and all foreign substances removed.
A pledget of tow, saturated with tar and sprinkled with powdered sulphate of
copper, should be inserted between the claws. This usually requires but one
or two applications.

GARGET.

This is a hard, knotty condition of the udder, which sometimes follows
calving, in consequence of the sudden distention of the bag with milk; and
the inflammation which supervenes causes a congealed or coagulated
condition of the milk to take place, of which, if neglected, suppuration and
abscesses are the result.
Treatment.—Let the calf suck the dam as speedily as possible, and, if the
hardness is not then removed, foment the udder with warm water; after
which, wipe it dry, and apply to the entire surface melted lard as hot as the
animal will bear. This is, generally, all that is required, the most obstinate
cases yielding to it. If abscesses form, they should be lanced.

GASTRO-ENTERITIS.

This disease—otherwise known as wood-evil, or moor-ill—arises from
eating the buds of oak, young ash, and other trees, which are of a very highly
stimulating or irritating character. As the intestinal canal is liable to

inflammatory action from irritant substances admitted into it, animals are
found to become diseased from eating too freely of these vegetable
substances.
Symptoms.—Loss of appetite and suspended rumination; mouth hot; skin
dry; pulse from sixty to seventy; swelling and pain of the belly; obstinate
constipation; fæces hard and covered with blood; urine of a strong odor,
highly colored, and voided with difficulty.
Treatment.—The animal should be bled, and a strong purgative
administered, followed by aconite and belladonna, as in enteritis. Injections
of Castile-soap and water should be freely used; the application of the
mustard, hartshorn, and water to the belly will also be found very beneficial.

HOOSE.

This disease—known also as catarrh—is occasionally the sequence of
coryza, but more frequently it arises from an impure atmosphere;
consequently, in cow-houses where animals are crowded together in
numbers, it is most frequently found. Scanty provender, and of an inferior
quality, is among the exciting causes of hoose, producing, as it does, a
debilitated state of the system, which, upon exposure of the animal to cold,
or wet, hastens the disorder. Some breeds of cattle are peculiarly liable to
this disease, which, if not arrested in its early stage, runs on, involving the
lungs, and frequently terminating in consumption. Of all our domestic
animals, neat cattle are most subject to pulmonary diseases. This is
attributable to the neglect and exposure which are far too often their lot.
Butchers will testify that a large portion of all cattle slaughtered have
abscesses and other diseases of the lungs.
Symptoms.—Loss of appetite; muzzle dry; coat rough, or staring; respiration
quickened; horns hot; ears, nose, and legs cold; husky cough; pulse from
sixty to seventy, small and thready; bowels frequently constipated.
Treatment.—Give one ounce of the following powders every six hours, until
the bowels are opened: Barbadoes aloes, one and half ounces; nitrate of

potassa, half an ounce; ginger, six drachms; mix and divide into six powders.
Setons in the dewlap are often of great benefit.

HOOVE.

Hoove, or blown, so common, and often so speedily fatal in cattle, is the
result of fermentation in the rumen, or paunch, in consequence of the
animal's having eaten large quantities of wet grass, luxuriant clover, turnips,
etc. An accumulation of gas is the result of this fermentation, which greatly
disturbs the haunch and left side of the belly, causing much pain to the
animal, and frequently threatening suffocation.
Treatment.—Drench the animal with one ounce of spirits of hartshorn in one
quart of water, the object being to neutralize the gas which is present in the
rumen; or, two ounces of table salt dissolved in one quart of water will be
found very effectual. If these do not speedily give relief, an active purge
should be given. Injections of soap and water should be freely used. If the
case still proves obstinate, and the life of the animal is threatened, the
paunch should be punctured. For this purpose, the trochar—an instrument
specially adapted—should be used; but, in the absence of an instrument, an
ordinary pocket-knife may be employed, taking care not to make a large
opening. The proper point to operate is midway between the last rib and the
prominent point of the hip-bone, about twelve inches from the centre of the
back or loins. Few cases have a fatal termination where this operation has
been properly performed.

HYDATIDS.

Worms in the brain occasionally occur, causing great uneasiness to the
animal and generally proving fatal.
The symptoms are, loss of appetite; suspended rumination; a fevered
condition of the system; horns and ears hot; respiration disturbed; coat
staring, etc. No course of treatment will prove efficacious in this disease.

Pressure on the brain may occur from an accumulation of water, tumors,
bruises, etc., in the cranial case. In either case, the same effects are produced
as are observed in apoplexy.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

Inflammation of the bladder generally accompanies inflammation of the
kidneys, though it is sometimes found disconnected and alone. It is
occasionally caused by calculous concretions in the bladder,—which should
be removed,—causing very acute abdominal pain to the animal. She makes
frequent efforts to stale, passing but a few drops of urine at a time. The pulse
is full and rapid; mouth clammy; nose dry; eyes bloodshot; appetite lost;
moaning, and walking with a staggering gait.
Treatment.—Inject into the bladder one quart of tepid water, and from one to
two ounces of tincture of opium mixed together. Give internally one of the
following powders every hour until relieved; nitrate of potassa, one ounce;
tartrate of antimony, and pulverized digitalis leaves, each one drachm; mix,
and divide into six powders. Mucilaginous draughts should be freely given.
Rupture of the bladder sometimes occurs, but there are no symptoms by
which it may be known; and, if there were, no service could be rendered in
the way of repairing the injury; the animal must die.

INFLAMMATION OF THE HAW.

The ox, like the horse, has a membrane of semilunar form in the inner corner
of the eye, which is capable of being thrown over the entire eyeball, for the
purpose of cleansing the eye from any foreign substance which may get into
it. This membrane is commonly called the haw, and is susceptible of attacks
of inflammation, which cause it to swell, frequently even closing up the eye.
Treatment.—Give a dose of physic, and, if the animal is plethoric, extract a
little blood from the vein on the same side as the affected eye. Apply to the

eye either of the following washes: tincture of opium, one ounce; rain-water,
one pint; or, tincture of aconite, one drachm, to one pint of water. Bathe two
or three times a day.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.

This disease—sometimes called nephritis—occurs occasionally in cattle in
consequence of their eating bad or unwholesome food, or of the abuse of
diuretics, etc.
The symptoms are very insidious in their approach. The loins are very tender
upon pressure; the urine is voided in small quantities. As the disease
advances, the symptoms become more marked and acute. The animal is dull,
and feeds daintily; the evacuation of urine is attended with increased pain,
and the urine is highly colored and bloody; the nose is dry; the horns, ears,
and extremities are cold; respiration hurried; the pulse full, hard, and
throbbing.
Treatment.—Give one pint of linseed-oil and ten drops of castor-oil, mixed
together; follow this with small doses of salts once a day, for three or four
days; give injections of water, one half a gallon to two ounces of tincture of
arnica. Mustard applications to the loins are also very useful.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

Diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence,—a fact with which all
beef-butchers are familiar. Perhaps no organ in the animal economy is so
liable to disease. The obscurity of the symptoms and the good condition of
the animal prevent its discovery, as a general thing, during its lifetime.
When, however, the disease assumes an active form,—known as the
yellows, jaundice, or inflammation of the liver,—the symptoms are more
readily detected.

Symptoms.—A yellowish color of the eye will be observed; skin, urine, etc.,
highly colored; soreness, on pressure, on the right side; loss of appetite;
dullness; constipation of the bowels, etc.
Treatment.—Calomel is the most reliable medicine known to practitioners
for diseases of the liver. Its abuse, however, has brought it into disrepute.
Yet, as with ordinary care it may be advantageously used, we will prescribe
it as that upon which the most dependence is to be placed, and in doing so,
will endeavor to have it used safely. Bleeding has been recommended: but
the author has never found any benefit resulting. Give Epsom-salts, in doses
of four ounces each, every night, with one scruple of calomel, until the
animal is relieved. Mustard and water should be frequently applied to the
right side, and well rubbed in.

LARYNGITIS.

This disease is of rare occurrence in cattle. In it, the mucous membrane
lining the larynx is in a very irritable condition; the least pressure upon the
parts affected causes intensely excruciating pain; the respiration becomes
quick, painful, and laborious; the animal often appears to be hungry, yet does
not eat much, in consequence of the pain occasioned by the act of
swallowing.
Treatment.—Apply to the throat externally strong mustard, mixed, with
equal parts of aqua ammonia and water, to a thin paste, every hour, until it
produces an effect upon the skin; sponging the parts each time with warm
water before applying the mustard. The animal should not be bled. Give
upon the tongue, or in drink, half-drachm doses of nitrate of potassa, every
three or four hours, until relief is obtained. If suffocation threatens, the
operation of tracheotomy is the only resort.

AN ABERDEENSHIRE POLLED BULL.
Cloths saturated with cold water, wrapped around the neck so as to cover the
larynx, frequently afford relief. A purgative will also be found useful.

LICE.

Cattle are very subject to lice, particularly when they are neglected, half-
starved, and in poor condition. Good care and good feeding—in connection
with the treatment recommended in mange, to which the reader is referred—
will comprise all that is requisite.

MANGE.

Mange, or leprosy, is one of the most unpleasant and difficult diseases to
manage of all the ailments to which cattle are subject requiring the nicest
care and attention to render it easy of cure. An animal badly nursed will not,
under the most skillful treatment, quickly recover. Its causes are in the main,
due to poor food, which produces a debilitated condition of the system, and
in connection with a want of cleanliness, causes a development of the acari,

or minute insects, exciting very great irritation upon the skin and causing the
cow to rub herself against every object with which she comes in contact. The
hair falls off; a scurfy appearance of the skin is perceptible; and the animal is
poor in condition and in milk. The great trouble in treating this disease
springs from its contagious character; for, no sooner is the animal,
oftentimes, once free from the acari than it comes in contact with some
object against which it has previously been rubbing, when the acari which
were left upon that object are again brought in contact with the animal, and
the disease is reproduced. If, immediately after the proper applications are
made, the animal is removed to other quarters, and not allowed to return to
the former ones for six or eight weeks, there is, generally speaking, but little
trouble in treating the disease.
Take the animal upon a warm, sunny day, and with a scrubbing-brush
cleanse the skin thoroughly with Castile-soap and water; when dry, apply in
the same manner the following mixture; white hellebore, one ounce; sulphur
flower, three ounces; gas-water, one quart; mix all well together. One or two
applications are, generally, all that will be required. Give internally one of
the following powders in the feed, night and morning: flowers of sulphur,
two ounces; black antimony, one ounce; nitrate of potassa, one ounce; mix,
and divide into eight powders.

MURRAIN.

This is one of the most malignant diseases to which cattle are liable.
Fortunately, however, true murrain is comparatively rare in this great stock-
raising country.
The entire system seems to partake of the disease. The first indication of its
approach is a feverish condition of the system, attended with a frequent and
painful cough; the pulse is small, hard, and rapid. As the disease advances,
the respiration becomes disturbed; the flanks heave; vesicular eruption is
observed upon the teats, mouth, and feet; the horns are cold; the animal is
sometimes lame; constipation and, sometimes, diarrhœa are accompanying
symptoms; fæces black and fetid; the eyes weep and become much swollen;
great tenderness along the spine; a brown or bloody discharge from the nose

and mouth; the animal moans incessantly, grinds his teeth, rarely lies down,
but to get up again quickly; finally, the breath becomes very offensive;
tumors make their appearance in various parts of the body, which, in
favorable cases, suppurate, and discharge a fetid matter.
Treatment.—Give one fourth of a pound of Epsom-salts, with one drachm of
Jamaica ginger, twice a day, for two or three days. A bottle of porter, twice a
day, will be found serviceable. Very little medicine is required internally in
this disease, but much depends upon good nursing. External applications are
chiefly to be depended upon. A solution of chloride of lime should be
applied to the eruptions, or a solution of the chloride of zinc, twenty grains
to an ounce of water; or, of sulphate of zinc, two drachms to a pint of water;
or pulverized charcoal applied to the parts will be found useful.

NAVEL-ILL.

Inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally occurs, causing redness,
pain, and sudden swelling in the part affected. This disease, if not promptly
attended to, speedily carries off the creature.
Treatment.—Foment the part well with warm hop-tea; after which, the
application of a cloth, well saturated with lead-water and secured by
bandages, should be applied. Internally, doses of Epsom-salts, of two ounces
each, dissolved in half a pint of water, should be given until the bowels are
acted upon. After the inflammation has subsided, to counteract the weakness
which may follow, give a bottle of porter two or three times a day.

OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE ŒSOPHAGUS.

Choking in cattle is of common occurrence, in consequence of turnips,
potatoes, carrots, or other hard substances, becoming lodged in the
œsophagus, or gullet.

These obstructions can sometimes be removed by careful manipulations with
the hand; but, where this can not be accomplished, the flexible probang
should be employed. This is a long India-rubber tube, with a whalebone
stillet running through it, so as to stiffen it when in use. This instrument is
passed down the animal's throat, and the offending substance is thus pushed
down into the stomach.

OPEN JOINTS.

Opening of the joint generally results from accidents, from puncturing with
sharp substances, from kicks, blows, etc. These injuries cause considerable
nervous irritation in the system, and sometimes cause lock-jaw and death.
Treatment.—Close up the wound as speedily as possible. The firing-iron will
sometimes answer the purpose very well. The author depends more upon the
application of collodion—as recommended in his work upon "The Horse and
His Diseases" for the same trouble—than upon any other remedy. It requires
care in its application, in order to make it adhere firmly. Shoemakers'-wax,
melted and applied, answers a very good purpose.

PARTURITION.

In natural labor—as has been suggested in a former part of this work—the
aid of man is rarely required in bringing away the calf. But it not
infrequently happens that, from malformation or wrong presentation, our
assistance is required in order to deliver the animal.
The brute force, which has been far too often heretofore resorted to, should
no longer be tolerated, since the lives of many valuable animals have been
sacrificed by such treatment. Very often, by gentle manipulation with the
greased hand, the womb can be so dilated as to afford a comparatively easy
exit for the fœtus.

If, however, the calf is presented wrong, it must be pushed back and placed
in its proper position, if possible. In natural labor, the fore-legs, with the
head lying between them, are presented; in which position—unless
deformity, either in the pelvis of the cow, or in the fœtus, exists—the calf is
passed with little difficulty, and without assistance. It sometimes happens
that the head of the fœtus is turned backward. When this happens, the
attendant should at once strip himself to the waist, bathe his arms, and hands
with a little sweet-oil, or lard, and introduce them into the vagina, placing a
cord around both fore-feet, and then, pushing them back, search for the head,
which is to be brought forward to its proper position. The feet are next to be
brought up with it. No force should be used, except when the cow herself
makes the effort to expel the calf; otherwise, more harm than good may be
done.
A case of this kind recently occurred in the author's practice, being the third
within a year. The subject was a cow belonging to William Hance, Esq., of
Bordentown, New Jersey. After she had been in labor for some twenty hours,
he was called upon to see her. Upon inquiry, he found that several persons
had been trying, without success, to relieve her. She was very much
prostrated, and would, doubtless, have died within two or three hours, had no
relief been afforded. The legs of the fœtus protruded as far as the knees; the
head was turned backward, and with the body, pressed firmly into the
vagina, so that it was impossible to return it, or to bring the head forward.
The operation of embryotomy was, therefore, at once performed, by cutting
away the right shoulder, which enabled the operator, with the aid of his
appropriate hooks, to bring the head forward, when the calf came away
without further trouble,—the whole operation not requiring fifteen minutes.
The uterus was then washed out, and the animal placed in as comfortable a
position as possible, and a stimulating draught given, composed of two
ounces of nitric ether, one ounce of tincture of opium, and a half pint of
water. This was followed with a few doses of Fleming's tincture of aconite,
ten drops in a little water, every few hours. In a few days the animal had
entirely recovered.
Occasionally, the head comes first, or the head and one leg. In such cases, a
cord should be slipped around the jaw and leg, and these then pushed back,
so as to allow the other leg to be brought up. When this cannot be done, the
fœtus can, in most cases, be removed in the original position.

Breech, side, back, and other presentations sometimes occur; in all of which
instances, the fœtus must be turned in such a position that it can be brought
away with as little trouble as possible. When this cannot be accomplished,
the only resort is embryotomy, or cutting up of the fœtus, which operation
can only be safely performed by the qualified veterinary surgeon.
Since writing the above, another case has occurred in the author's practice.
The cow—belonging to Samuel Barton, Esq., near Bordentown, New Jersey
—had been in labor some eighteen hours; upon an examination of the
animal, the calf was found to be very much deformed, presenting backwards,
—one of the hind-legs having been pulled off by the person or persons
assisting her previous to the author's arrival. Finding it impossible to deliver
her in the usual way, embryotomy was in this instance employed. By this
means, after taking out the intestines, lungs, etc., of the fœtus, and cutting
away its hind-quarters, the fore-parts were brought away. The head presented
a singular appearance; the under jaw was so twisted as to bring the front
teeth on the side of the face; the spinal column or back-bone, was turned
twice around, resembling a spiral string; the front legs were over the back;
the ribs were much contorted; the hind-parts were as much deformed; and,
taken altogether, the deformity was the most singular which has been
brought under the author's observation.
Free Martins.—It has long been supposed by stockbreeders, that if a cow
produce twins, one of which is a male and the other a female, the female is
incapable of producing young, but that the male may be a useful animal for
breeding purposes. Many instances have occurred when the twin sister of a
bull has never shown the least desire for the male.
This indifference to sexual commerce arises, doubtless, from the animal's
being but imperfectly developed in the organs of generation. This fact has
been established by the investigations of Mr. John Hunter, who had three of
these animals slaughtered for anatomical examination. The result is thus
reported: "The external parts were rather smaller than is customary in the
cow. The vagina passed on, as in the cow, to the opening of the urethra, and
then it began to contract into a small canal, which passed on into the division
of the uterus into the two horns; each horn passed along the edge of the
broad ligament laterally toward the ovaria.

"At the termination of these horns were placed both the ovaries and the
testicles. Both were nearly of the same size, which was about as large as a
small nutmeg. To the ovaria, I could not find any Fallopian tube.
"To the testicles were vasa deferentia, but they were imperfect. The left one
did not come near the testicle; the right one only came close to it, but did not
terminate in the body called the epididymis. They were both pervious and
opened into the vagina, near the opening of the urethra.
"On the posterior surface of the bladder, or between the uterus and the
bladder, were the two bags, called vesiculæ seminales in the male, but much
smaller than they are in the bull. The ducts opened along with the vasa
deferentia. This animal, then, had a mixture of all the parts, but all of them
were imperfect."
Well-authenticated cases have, however, occurred where the female has
bred, and the offspring proved to be good milkers. There are several
instances on record of cows' giving birth to three, four, and even five calves
at a time. There were on exhibition, in 1862, at Bordentown, New Jersey,
three free martins, two sisters and a brother, which were beautiful animals.
These were from a cow belonging to Mr. Joab Mershon, residing on Biles
Island, situated in the Delaware River, a short distance above Bordentown.
They were calved November 1st, 1858, and were therefore nearly four years
of age. They had never shown the least desire for copulation. Their
aggregate weight was 4300 pounds.
We extract the following from the London Veterinarian, for 1854:—"A cow,
belonging to Mr. John Marshall, of Repton, on Wednesday last, gave birth to
five, live healthy calves, all of which are, at the time I write, alive and
vigorous, and have every appearance of continuing so. They are all nearly of
a size, and are larger and stronger than could be supposed. Four of them are
bull-calves.
"The dam is by no means a large one, is eleven years old, of a mongrel
breed, and has never produced more than one offspring at any previous
gestation. I saw her two days after she had calved, at which time she was
ruminating, and did not manifest any unusual symptoms of exhaustion. I
may mention that the first four calves presented naturally; the fifth was a
breech-presentation."

Cleansing.—The placenta, or after-birth, by which the fœtus is nourished
while in embryo, should be removed soon after calving. Generally, it will
come away without any assistance. This is what is called "cleansing after
calving." When, however, it remains for some time, its function having been
performed, it becomes a foreign body, exciting uterine contractions, and
therefore injurious. The sooner, then, it is removed, the better for the animal
as well as the owner. To accomplish this, the hand should be introduced, and,
by pulling gently in various directions, it will soon yield and come away.
Should it be allowed to remain, it rapidly decomposes, producing a low,
feverish condition of the system, which greatly interferes with the general
health of the animal.
Inversion of the Uterus.—The uterus is sometimes turned inside out after
calving. This is, generally, the result of debility, or severe labor. The uterus
should be replaced as carefully as possible with the hands, care being taken
that no dirt, straw, or other foreign substance adheres to it. Should it again be
expelled, it would be advisable to quiet the system by the use of an
anæsthetic, as chloroform, or—which is much safer—chloric ether. As soon
as the animal is under the influence of this, the uterus may be again replaced.
The hind-quarters should be raised as high as possible, in order to favor its
retention. The animal should have a little gruel and a bottle of porter given to
her every five or six hours, and the vulva should be bathed frequently with
cold water.

PHRENITIS.

Inflammation of the brain is one of those dreadful diseases to which all
animals are liable. It is known to the farmer as frenzy, mad staggers, etc.
The active symptoms are preceded by stupor; the animal stubbornly stands
in one position; the eyes are full, red, and fiery; respiration rapid; delirium
soon succeeds; the animal, bellowing, dashes wildly about, and seems bent
on mischief, rushing madly at every object which comes in its way.
The causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather, a plethoric
condition of the system, and too stimulating food. Prof. Gamgee, of the

Edinburgh Veterinary College, relates a case resulting from the presence
within the external meatus of a mass of concrete cerumen, or wax, which
induced inflammation of the ear, extending to the brain.
Treatment.—As this is attended with considerable risk, unless it is taken
prior to the frenzied stage, bleeding almost to fainting should be resorted to,
and followed by a brisk purge. Take one ounce of Barbadoes aloes, and ten
to fifteen drops of Croton-oil; mix the aloes with one pint of water and the
oil, using the mixture as a drench. One pound of Epsom-salts will answer the
purpose very well, in cases where the aloes and oil cannot be readily
obtained. Application of bags of broken ice to the head, is very beneficial.
Spirits of turpentine, or mustard, together with spirits of hartshorn and water
should be well rubbed in along the spine, from the neck to the tail.

PLEURISY.

This is an inflammation of the pleura, or the serous membrane which lines
the cavity of the chest, and which is deflected over the lungs. Inflammation
of this membrane rarely occurs in a pure form, but is more generally
associated with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs. If this disease is not
attended to at an early period, its usual termination is in hydrothorax, or
dropsy of the chest. The same causes which produce inflammation of the
lungs, of the bronchia, and of the other respiratory organs, produce also
pleurisy.
Symptoms.—The respiration is quick, short, and painful; pressure between
the ribs produces much pain; a low, short, painful cough is present; the
respiratory murmur is much diminished,—in fact, it is scarcely audible. This
condition is rapidly followed by effusion, which may be detected from the
dullness of the sounds, on applying the ear to the lower part of the lungs.
The febrile symptoms disappear; the animal for a few days appears to
improve, but soon becomes weak, languid, and often exhausted from the
slightest exertion.
Treatment.—The same treatment in the early stage is enjoined as in
inflammatory pneumonia, which the reader will consult—counter-irritation

and purgatives. Bleeding never should be resorted to. When effusion takes
place, it is necessary to puncture the sides with a trochar, and draw away the
fluid, giving internally one of the following purges three times a day: rosin,
eight ounces; saltpetre, two ounces, mix, and divide into eight powders.
Half-drachm doses of the iodide of potash, dissolved in water, to be given
three times daily, will be found useful in this disease.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

This disease, as its name implies, is an inflammatory condition of the lungs
and the pleura, or the enveloping membrane of the lungs and the lining
membrane of the chest. It is sometimes called contagious, infectious, and
epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia,—contagious or infectious, from its supposed
property of transmission from the diseased to the healthy animal.

TAKING AN OBSERVATION.
A contagious character the author is not ready to assign to it,—contagious,
as he understands it, being strictly applicable to those diseases which
depend upon actual contact with the poison that it may be communicated
from one animal to another. This does not necessarily imply the actual
touching of the animals themselves; for it may be communicated from the
poison left in the trough, or other places where the diseased animal has been
brought in contact with some object, as is often the case in glanders in the
horse; the matter discharged from the nose, and left upon the manger,
readily communicating that disease to healthy animals coming in contact
with it. Contagious diseases, therefore, travel very slowly, starting, as they
do, at one point, and gradually spreading over a large district, or section of
country.
This disease is, however, regarded by the author as infectious; by which
term is meant that it is capable of being communicated from the diseased to
the healthy animal through the medium of the air, which has become
contaminated by the exhalations of poisonous matter. The ability to
inoculate other animals in this way is necessarily confined to a limited
space, sometimes not extending more than a few yards. Infectious diseases,

accordingly, spread with more rapidity than contagious ones, and are,
consequently, more to be dreaded; since we can avoid the one with
comparatively little trouble, while the other often steals upon us when we
regard ourselves as beyond its influence, carrying death and destruction in
its course.
The term by which this disease is known, is a misnomer. Pleuro-pneumonia
proper is neither a contagious, nor an infectious disease; hence, the denial
of medical men that this so-called pleuro-pneumonia is a contagious, or
infectious disease, has been the means of unnecessarily exposing many
animals to its poisonous influence.
In the Recuéil de Médécine Vétérinaire, for 1833, will be found a very
interesting description of this fatal malady. The author, M. Lecoy, Assistant
Professor at the Veterinary School of Lyons, France, says: "There are few
districts in the arrondissement of Avesnes where more cattle are fattened
than in that of Soire-le-Chateau. The farmers being unable to obtain a
sufficient supply of cattle in the district, are obliged to purchase the greater
part of them from other provinces; and they procure a great number for
grazing from Franche Comté. The cattle of this country are very handsome;
their forms are compact; they fatten rapidly; and they are a kind of cattle
from which the grazer would derive most advantage, were it not that certain
diseases absorb, by the loss of some of the animals, the profits of the rest of
the herd. Amongst the diseases which most frequently attack the cattle
which are brought from the North, there is one very prevalent in some
years, and which is the more to be dreaded as it is generally incurable; and
the slaughter of the animal, before he is perceptibly wasted, is the only
means by which the farmer can avoid losing the whole value of the beast.
"This disease is chronic pleuro-pneumonia. The symptoms are scarcely
recognizable at first, and often the beast is ill for a long time without its
being perceived. He fattens well, and when he is slaughtered the owner is
astonished to find scarcely half of the lungs capable of discharging the
function of respiration. When, however, the ox has not sufficient strength of
constitution to resist the ravages of disease, the first symptom which is
observed is diminution, or irregularity of appetite. Soon afterwards, a
frequent, dry cough is heard, which becomes feeble and painful as the
disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portion of the spine (loins) grows

tender; the animal flinches when the part is pressed upon, and utters a
peculiar groan, or grunt, which the graziers regard as decisive of the
malady.
"Quickly after this, the movements of the flanks become irregular and
accelerated, and the act of respiration is accompanied by a kind of
balancing motion of the whole body. The sides of the chest become as
tender as the loins, or more so; for the animal immediately throws himself
down, if pressed upon with any force. The elbows become, in many
subjects, more and more separated from the sides of the chest. The pulse is
smaller than natural, and not considerably increased. The muzzle is hot and
dry, alternately. The animal lies down as in a healthy state, but rumination is
partially or entirely suspended. The fæces are harder than they should be;
the urine is of its natural color and quantity; the mouth is often dry; and the
horns and ears retain their natural temperature.
"This first stage of the disease sometimes continues during a month, or
more, and then, if the animal is to recover, or at least, apparently so, the
symptoms gradually disappear. First of all, the appetite returns, and the
beast begins to acquire a little flesh. The proprietor should then make haste
and get rid of him; for it is very rare that the malady, however it may be
palliated for a while, does not reappear with greater intensity than before.
"In most cases, the disease continues to pursue its course toward its
termination without any remission,—every symptom gradually increasing
in intensity. The respiration becomes more painful; the head is more
extended; the eyes are brilliant; every expiration is accompanied with a
grunt, and by a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips; the cough
becomes smaller, more suppressed, and more painful; the tongue protrudes
from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is abundantly discharged; the breath
becomes offensive; a purulent fluid of a bloody color escapes from the
nostrils; diarrhœa, profuse and fetid, succeeds to the constipation; the
animal becomes rapidly weaker; he is a complete skeleton, and at length he
dies.
"Examination after death discloses slight traces of inflammation in the
intestines, discoloration of the liver, and a hard, dry substance contained in
the manyplus. The lungs adhere to the sides and to the diaphragm by

numerous bands, evidently old and very firm. The substance of the lungs
often presents a reddish-gray hepatization throughout almost its whole
extent. At other times, there are tubercles in almost every state of hardness,
and in that of suppuration. The portion of the lungs that is not hepatized is
red, and gorged with blood. Besides the old adhesions, there are numerous
ones of recent date. The pleura is not much reddened, but by its thickness in
some points, its adhesion in others, and the effusion of a serous fluid, it
proves how much and how long it has participated in the inflammatory
action. The trachea and the bronchia are slightly red, and the right side of
the head is gorged with blood.
"In a subject in which, during life, I could scarcely feel the beating of the
heart, I found the whole of the left lobe of the lungs adhering to the sides,
and completely hepatized. In another, that had presented no sign of disease
of the chest, and that for some days before his death vomited the little
fodder which he could take, the whole of that portion of the œsophagus that
passed through the chest was surrounded with dense false membranes, of a
yellowish hue, ranging from light to dark, and being in some parts more
than an inch in thickness, and adhering closely to the muscular membrane
of the tube, without allowing any trace to be perceived of that portion of the
mediastinal pleura on which this unnatural covering was fixed and
developed.
"The cattle purchased in Franche Comté are brought to Avesnes at two
periods of the year—in autumn and in the spring. Those which are brought
in autumn are much more subject to the disease than those which have
arrived in the spring; and it almost always happens that the years in which it
shows itself most generally are those in which the weather was most
unfavorable while the cattle were on the road. The journey is performed by
two different routes,—through Lorraine and through Champagne,—and the
disease frequently appears in cattle that have arrived by one of these routes.
The manner in which the beasts are treated, on their arrival, may contribute
not a little to the development of the malady. These animals, which have
been driven long distances in bad weather, and frequently half starved,
arrived famished, and therefore the more fatigued, and some of them lame.
Calculating on their ravenous appetite, the graziers, instead of giving them
wholesome food, make them consume the worst that the farm contains,—
musty and mouldy fodder; and it is usually by the cough, which the eating

of such food necessarily produces, that the disease is discovered and first
developed.
"Is chronic pleuro-pneumonia contagious? The farmers believe that it is,
and I am partly of their opinion. When an animal falls sick in the pasture,
the others, after his removal, go and smell at the grass where he has lain,
and which he has covered with his saliva, and, after that, new cases succeed
to the first. It is true that this fact is not conclusive, since the disease also
appears in a great number of animals that have been widely separated from
each other. But I have myself seen three cases in which the cattle of the
country, perfectly well before, have fallen ill, and died with the same
symptoms, excepting that they have been more acute, after they have been
kept with cattle affected with this disease. This circumstance inclines me to
think that the disease is contagious; or, at least, that, in the progress of it,
the breath infects the cow-house in which there are other animals already
predisposed to the same disease. I am induced to believe that most of the
serious internal diseases are communicated in this manner, and particularly
those which affect the organs of respiration, when the animals are shut up in
close, low, and badly-ventilated cow-houses." [Rec. de Méd. Vét. Mai,
1833.]
No malady can be more terrible and ruinous than this among dairy-stock;
and its spread all over the country, together with its continuance with
scarcely any abatement, must be attributed to the combination of various
causes. The chief are: first, the very contagious or infectious nature of the
disorder; second, inattention on the part of Government to the importation
and subsequent sale of diseased animals; and, third, the recklessness of
purchasers of dairy or feeding cattle.
This disease may be defined as an acute inflammation of the organs of the
chest, with the development of a peculiar and characteristic poison, which is
the active element of infection or contagion. It is a disease peculiar to the
cattle tribe, notwithstanding occasional assertions regarding observations of
the disease among horses, sheep, and other animals,—which pretended
observations have not been well attested.
The infectious, or contagious nature of this virulent malady is incontestibly
substantiated by an overwhelming amount of evidence, which cannot be

adduced at full length here, but which may be classified under the following
heads: first, the constant spreading of the disease from countries in which it
rages to others which, previously to the importation of diseased animals,
had been perfectly free from it. This may be proved in the case of England,
into which country it was carried in 1842, by affected animals from
Holland. Twelve months after, it spread from England to Scotland, by
means of some cattle sold at All-Hallow Fair, and it was only twelve
months afterward that cattle imported as far north as Inverness took the
disease there. Lately, a cow taken from England to Australia was observed
to be diseased upon landing, and the evil results were limited to her owner's
stock, who gave the alarm, and ensured an effectual remedy against a wider
spread. Besides, the recent importation of pleuro-pneumonia into the United
States from Holland appears to have awakened our agricultural press
generally, and to have convinced them of the stubborn fact that our cattle
have been decimated by a fearfully infectious, through probably
preventable, plague. A letter from this country to an English author says:
"Its (pleuro-pneumonia's) contagious character seems to be settled beyond a
doubt, though some of the V.S. practitioners deny it, which is almost as
reasonable as it would be to deny any other well-authenticated historic fact.
Every case of the disease is traceable to one of two sources; either to Mr.
Chenery's stock in Belmont (near Boston, Massachusetts), into which the
disease was introduced by his importation of four Dutch cows from
Holland, which arrived here the 23d of last May; or else to one of the three
calves which he sold to a farmer in North Brookfield, Massachusetts, last
June."
2dly. Apart from the importation into countries, we have this certain proof
—to which special attention was drawn several years ago—that cattle-
dealers' farms, and public markets, constitute the busy centres of infection.
Most anxious and careful inquiries have established the proposition that in
breeding-districts, where the proprietors of extensive dairies—as in
Dumfries, Scotland, and other places—abstain from buying, except from
their neighbors, who have never had diseases of the lungs amongst their
stock, pleuro-pneumonia has not been seen. There is a wide district in the
Vicinity of Abington, England, and in the parish of Crawford, which has not
been visited by this plague, with the exception of two farms, into which
market-cattle had been imported and thus brought the disease.

3dly. In 1854 appeared a Report of the Researches on Pleuro-Pneumonia, by
a scientific commission, instituted by the Minister of Agriculture in France.
This very able pamphlet was edited by Prof. Bouley, of Alfort, France. The
members of the commission belonged to the most eminent veterinarians and
agriculturists in France. Magendie was President; Regnal, Secretary;
besides Rayer, the renowned comparative pathologist; Yvart, the Inspector-
General of the Imperial Veterinary Schools; Renault, Inspector of the
Imperial Veterinary Schools; Delafond, Director of Alfort College; Bouley,
Lassaigne, Baudemont, Doyére, Manny de Morny, and a few others
representing the public. If such a commission were occasionally appointed
in this country for similar purposes, how much light would be thrown on
subjects of paramount importance to the agricultural community!
Conclusions arrived at by the commission are too important to be
overlooked in this connection. The reader must peruse the Report itself, if
he needs to satisfy himself as to the care taken in conducting the
investigations: but the foregoing names sufficiently attest the indisputable
nature of the facts alluded to.
In instituting its experiments, the commission had in view the solving of the
following questions:—
1stly. Is the epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle susceptible of being
transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation?
2dly. In the event of such contagion's existing, would all the animals
become affected, or what proportion would resist the disease?
3dly. Amongst the animals attacked by the disease, how many recover, and
under what circumstances? How many succumb?
4thly. Are there any animals of the ox species decidedly free from any
susceptibility of being affected from the contagion of pleuro-pneumonia?
5thly. Do the animals, which have been once affected by a mild form of the
disease, enjoy immunity from subsequent attacks?
6thly. Do the animals, which have once been affected by the disease in its
active form, enjoy such immunity?

To determine these questions, the commission submitted at different times
to the influence of cohabitation with diseased animals forty-six perfectly
healthy ones, chosen from districts in which they had never been exposed to
a similar influence.
Of these forty-six animals, twenty were experimented on at Pomeraye, two
at Charentonneau, thirteen at Alfort, and eleven, in the fourth experiment, at
Charentonneau.
Of this number, twenty-one animals resisted the disease when first
submitted to the influence of cohabitation, ten suffered slightly, and fifteen
took the disease. Of the fifteen affected, four died, and eleven recovered.
Consequently, the animals which apparently escaped the disease at the first
trial amounted to 45.65 per cent., and those affected to 21.73 per cent. Of
these, 23.91 per cent. recovered, and 8.69 per cent. died. But the external
appearances in some instances proved deceptive, and six of the eleven
animals of the last experiment, which were regarded as having escaped free,
were found, on being destroyed, to bear distinct evidence of having been
affected. This, therefore, modifies the foregoing calculations, and the
numbers should stand thus:—

15 enjoy immunity, or 32.61 per cent.
10 indisposed, " 21.73 "
17 animals cured, " 36.95 "
4 dead, " 8.98 "

Of the forty-two animals which were exposed in the first experiments at
Pomeraye and Charentonneau, and which escaped either without becoming
affected, or recovering, eighteen were submitted to a second trial; and of
these eighteen animals, five had, in the first experiment, suffered from the
disease and had recovered; five had now become affected; and four had
been indisposed. The four animals submitted to the influence of contagion a
third time, had been affected on the occasion of the first trial. None of the
eighteen animals contracted the disease during these renewed exposures to
the influence of contagion.
From the results of these experiments, the commission drew the following
conclusions:—

1stly. The epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia is susceptible of being transmitted
from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation.
2dly. All the animals exposed do not take the disease; some suffer slightly,
and others not at all.
3dly. Of the affected animals, some recover and others die.
4thly. The animals, whether slightly or severely affected, possess an
immunity against subsequent attacks.
These are the general conclusions which the commission deemed
themselves authorized to draw from their experiments. The absolute
proportion of animals which become affected, or which escape the disease,
or of those which die and which recover, as a general rule, cannot be
deduced from the foregoing experiments, which, for such a purpose, are too
limited. The commission simply state the numbers resulting from their
experiments. From these it transpires that forty five of the animals became
severely affected with pleuro-pneumonia, and twenty-one per cent. took the
disease slightly, making the whole sixty-six per cent. which were more or
less severely attacked. Thirty-four per cent. remained free from any malady.
The proportion of animals which re-acquired their wonted appearance of
health amounted to eighty-three per cent., whereas seventeen per cent. died.
Many minor points might be insisted on, but it is sufficient here to say, that
the most careful analysis of all facts has proved to practical veterinarians, as
well as to experienced agriculturists, and must prove to all who will calmly
and dispassionately consider the point, that pleuro-pneumonia is pre-
eminently an infectious, or contagious disease.

THE TWINS.
Symptoms.—From the time that an animal is exposed to the contagion to the
first manifestation of symptoms, a certain period elapses. This is the period
of incubation. It varies from a fortnight to forty days, or even several
months. The first signs, proving that the animal has been seized, can
scarcely be detected by any but a professional man; though, if a proprietor
of cattle were extremely careful, and had pains-taking individuals about his
stock, he would invariably notice a slight shiver as ushering in the disorder,
which for several days, even after the shivering fit, would limit itself to
slight interference in breathing, readily detected on auscultation. Perhaps a
cough might be noticed, and that the appetite and milk-secretion
diminished. The animal becomes costive, and the shivering fits recur. The
cough becomes more constant and oppressive; the pulse full and frequent,
usually numbering about eighty per minute at first, and rising to upwards of
one hundred. The temperature of the body rises, and all the symptoms of
acute fever set in. A moan, or grunt, in the early part of the disease indicates
a dangerous attack, and the alae nasi (cartilages of the nose) rise
spasmodically at each inspiration; the air rushes through the inflamed
windpipe and bronchial tubes, so as to produce a loud, coarse respiratory
murmur; and the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles indicates the
difficulty the animal also experiences in the act of expiration. Pressure over

the intercostal (between the ribs) spaces, and pressing on the spine, induce
the pain so characteristic of pleurisy, and a deep moan not infrequently
follows such an experiment. The eyes are bloodshot, mouth clammy, skin
dry and tightly bound to the subcutaneous textures, and the urine is scanty
and high-colored.
Upon auscultation, the characteristic dry, sonorous râle of ordinary
bronchitis may be detected along the windpipe, and in the bronchial tubes.
A loud sound of this description is, not infrequently, detected at the anterior
part of either side of the chest; whilst the respiratory murmur is entirely
lost, posteriorly, from consolidation of the lungs. A decided leathery,
frictional sound is detected over a considerable portion of the thoracic
surface. As the disease advances, and gangrene, with the production of
cavities in the lungs, ensues, loud, cavernous râles are heard, which are
more or less circumscribed, occasionally attended by a decided metallic
noise. When one lobe of the lungs is alone affected, the morbid sounds are
confined to one side, and on the healthy side the respiratory murmur is
uniformly louder all over.
By carefully auscultating diseased cows from day to day, interesting
changes can be discovered during the animal's lifetime. Frequently, the
abnormal sounds indicate progressive destruction; but, at other times,
portions of the lungs that have been totally impervious to air, become the
seat of sibilant râles, and gradually, a healthy respiratory murmur proves
that, by absorption of the materials which have been plugging the tissues of
the lungs, resolution is fast advancing. Some very remarkable cases of this
description have been encountered in practice.
Unfortunately, we often find a rapid destruction of the tissues of the lungs,
and speedy dissolution. In other instances, the general symptoms of hectic,
or consumption, attend lingering cases, in which the temperature of the
body becomes low, and the animal has a dainty appetite, or refuses all
nourishment. It has a discharge from the eyes, and a fetid, sanious discharge
from the nose. Not infrequently, it coughs up disorganized lung-tissue and
putrid pus. Great prostration, and, indeed, typhus symptoms, set in. There is
a fetid diarrhœa, and the animal sinks in the most emaciated state, often
dying from suffocation, in consequence of the complete destruction of the
respiratory structures.

Post mortem appearances.—In acute cases, the cadaverous lesions chiefly
consist in abundant false membranes in the trachea, or windpipe, and
closure of the bronchial tubes by plastic lymph. The air-vesicles are
completely plugged by this material, and very interesting specimens may be
obtained by careful dissection, in the shape of casts of the bronchial tubes
and air-vesicles, clustered together like bunches of grapes. On slicing the
lungs in these cases, hepatization is observed, presenting a very peculiar
appearance, which is, in a great measure, due to the arrangement of the
lung-tissue in cattle. The pulmonary lobules are of a deep-red or brown
color, perfectly consolidated, and intersected or separated, one from the
other, by lighter streaks of yellowish-red lymph, occupying the interlobular,
areolar tissue. In the more chronic cases, the diseased lobes and lobules are
found partly separated from the more healthy structures.
This occurs from gangrene, and putrefactive changes, or in some instances,
from the ulcerative process, so constantly observed in the segregation of
dead from living tissues. Abscesses are not infrequently found in different
parts of the lungs. Sometimes circumscribed, at others connected with
bronchial tubes, and not infrequently communicating with the pleural
cavity. True empyema is not often seen; but, at all times, the adhesions
between the costal and visceral pleura are extensive, and there is much
effusion in the chest. In dressed carcasses of cows that have been
slaughtered from pleuro-pneumonia, even though the disease has not been
far advanced, it will be found that the butcher has carefully scraped the
serous membrane off the inner surface of the ribs, as it would otherwise be
impossible for him to give the pleura its healthy, smooth aspect, from the
firm manner in which the abundant false membranes adhere to it. The
diseased lungs sometimes attain inordinate weight. They have been known
to weigh as much as sixty pounds.
Treatment.—The veterinary profession is regarded by many who have
sustained heavy losses from pleuro-pneumonia, as deeply ignorant, because
its members cannot often cure the disease. Persons forget that there are
several epidemics which prove equally difficult to manage on the part of the
physician, such as cholera, yellow fever, etc. The poison in these
contagious, epizoötic diseases is so virulent that the animals may be
regarded as dead from the moment they are attacked. Its elimination from
the system is impossible, and medicine cannot support an animal through its

tardy, exhausting, and destructive process of clearing the system of so
potent a virus. All antiphlogistic means have failed, such as blood-letting
and the free use of evacuants. Derivatives, in the form of mustard-poultices,
or more active blisters, are attended with good results. Stimulants have
proved of the greatest service; and the late Prof. Tessona, of Turin, strongly
recommended, from the very onset of the disease, the administration of
strong doses of quinine. Maffei, of Ferrara, states that he has obtained great
benefit from the employment of ferruginous tonics and manganese in the
very acute stage of the malady, supported by alcoholic stimulants. Recently,
the advantages resulting from the use of sulphate of iron, both as a
preventive and curative, have been exhibited in France. It would appear that
the most valuable depurative method of treatment yet resorted to is by the
careful use of the Roman bath. Acting, like all other sudorifics in cases of
fever and blood diseases, it carries off by the skin much of the poison,
without unduly lowering the vital powers.
Prevention.—The rules laid down in Denmark, and indeed in many other
places, appear the most natural for the prevention of the disease. If they
could be carried out, the disease must necessarily be stopped; but there are
practical and insuperable difficulties in the way of enforcing them. Thus, a
Dr. Warneke says, prevention consists in "the avoidance of contagion; the
slaughter of infected beasts; the prohibition of keeping cattle by those
whose cattle have been slaughtered, for a space of ten weeks after the last
case occurring; the disinfection of stalls vacated by slaughtering; the
closing of infected places to all passing of cattle; especial attention to the
removal of the dung, and of the remains of the carcasses of slaughtered
beasts; and, finally, undeviating severity of the law against violators."
Dr. Williams, of Hasselt, suggested and carried out, in 1851, the inoculation
of the virus of pleuro-pneumonia, in order to induce a mild form of the
disease in healthy animals, and prevent their decimation by the severe
attacks due to contagion. He met with much encouragement, and perhaps
more opposition. Didot, Corvini, Ercolani, and many more accepted Dr.
Williams's facts as incontestable, and wrote, advocating his method of
checking the spread of so destructive a plague.
The first able memoir which contested all that has been said in favor of
inoculation, appeared in Turin, and was written by Dr. Riviglio, a

Piedmontese veterinary surgeon. This was supported by the views of many
others. Prof. Simonds wrote against the plan, and, in 1854, the French
commission, whose report has been before mentioned, confirmed, in part,
Riviglio's views, though, from the incompleteness of the experiments,
further trials were recommended.
Inoculation is performed as follows: A portion of diseased lung is chosen,
and a bistoury or needle made to pierce it so as to become charged with the
material consolidating the lung, and this is afterward plunged into any part,
but, more particularly, toward the point of the tail. If operated severely, and
higher up, great exudation occurs, which spreads upward, invades the
areolar tissue round the rectum and other pelvic organs, and death soon puts
an end to the animal's excruciating suffering. If the operation is properly
performed with lymph that is not putrid, and the incisions are not made too
deep, the results are limited to local exudation and swelling, general
symptoms of fever, and gradual recovery. The most common occurrence is
sloughing of the tail; and in London, at the present time, dairies are to be
seen in which all the cows have short-tail stumps.
Dr. Williams and others have gone too far in attempting to describe a
particular corpuscle as existing in the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia. All
animal poisons can be alone discovered from their effects. In structure and
chemical constitution, there is no difference, and often the most potent
poisons are simple fluids. The Belgian Commission, appointed to
investigate the nature and influence of inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia,
very justly expressed an opinion that Dr. Williams had not proved that a
specific product, distinguished by anatomical characters, and appreciable by
the microscope, existed in this disease.
The all-important question, "Is inoculation of service?" has to the
satisfaction of most been solved. The Belgian and French commissions, the
observations of Riviglio, Simond, Herring, and many others, prove that a
certain degree of preservative influence is derived by the process of
inoculation. It does not, however, arrest the progress of the disease. It
certainly diminishes to some extent—though often very slightly so—the
number of cases, and, particularly, of severe ones. This effect has been
ascribed to a derivative action, independent of any specific influence, and,
indeed, similar to that of introducing setons in the dewlap.

In London, some dairymen have considerable faith in inoculation, though
its effect is uncertain, and the manner of its working a mystery. The best
counsel, in the premises, which can be given to the keeper of dairy stock is,
to select his own animals from healthy herds, and strictly to avoid public
markets. In many instances, a faithful observance of these injunctions has
been sufficient to prevent the invasion of this terrible disease. [Gamgee.]
The existence of this disease in the United States was not generally known
until the year 1859, when Mr. Chenery, of Belmont, near Boston,
Massachusetts, imported several cows from Holland, which arrived in the
early part of the spring of that year. Some of the animals were sick when
they arrived, but the true nature of the disease was not at that time
suspected. Several of them were so bad that they were carried in trucks to
Mr. Chenery's barn. Some two months passed away before the character of
the disease was discovered.
Upon the facts becoming known, the citizens of Massachusetts became
panic-stricken, as the disease was rapidly spreading over that State. An
extra session of the Legislature was speedily convened, when a Joint
Special Committee was appointed, to adopt and carry out such measures as
in their judgment seemed necessary for the extirpation of this monster,
pleuro-pneumonia.
The Committee met in the Hall of the House of Representatives, Thursday,
May, 31, 1860, to receive evidence as to the contagious or infectious
character of the disease, in order to determine concerning the necessity of
legislative action.
Mr. Walker, one of the commissioners appointed by the Governor, made the
following statement: "The disease was introduced into North Brookfield
from Belmont. Mr. Curtis Stoddard, a young man of North Brookfield, went
down, the very last of June, last year, and purchased three calves of Mr.
Chenery, of Belmont. He brought these calves up in the cars to Brookfield.
On their way from the depôt to his house, about five miles, one of the
calves was observed to falter, and when he got to his house, it seemed to be
sick, and in two or three days exhibited very great illness; so much so, that
his father came along, and, thinking he could take better care of it, took the
calf home. He took it to his own barn, in which there were about forty head

of cattle; but it grew no better, and his son went up and brought it back
again to his own house. In about ten days after that, it died. His father, who
had had the calf nearly four days, in about a fortnight afterward observed
that one of his oxen was sick, and it grew worse very fast and died. Two
weeks after, a second also sickened, and died. Then a third was attacked and
died, the interval growing wider from the attack of one animal to that of
another, until he had lost eight oxen and cows. Young Stoddard lost no
animal by the infection,—that is, no one died on his hands. Prior to the
appointment of this Commission, about the first of November,—for reasons
independent of this disease, which I don't suppose he then knew the nature
of,—he sold off his stock. He sold off eleven heifers, or young animals, and
retained nine of the most valuable himself; which shows that he did not then
know any thing was the matter with them.
"These nine were four oxen, and five young cattle. The four he took to his
father's, three of the others to his uncle's, and the remaining two to his
father-in-law's; distributing them all among his friends,—which furnishes
another proof that he did not suppose he was doing any mischief. He
disposed of his herd in that way. From this auction, these eleven animals
went in different directions, and wherever they went, they scattered the
infection. Without a single failure the disease has followed those cattle; in
one case, more than two hundred cattle having been infected by one which
was sold at Curtis Stoddard's auction, when he was entirely ignorant of the
disease.
"When the commission was appointed, they went and examined his cattle,
and were satisfied that they were diseased,—at least, some of them. They
examined his father's herd, and found that they were very much diseased;
and when we came to kill Curtis Stoddard's cattle, seven of the nine head
were diseased. Two were not condemned, because the law says, 'Cattle not
appearing to be diseased, shall be appraised.' Nevertheless, it proved that
these animals were diseased; so that his whole herd was affected.
"In regard to Leonard Stoddard's cattle, he lost fourteen of his animals
before the commissioners went to his place. They took eighteen more, all of
which were diseased,—most of them very bad cases,—indeed, extreme
cases. That left eight heads, which were not condemned, because not
appearing to be diseased. Here I remark, that when this disease is under the

shoulder-blade, it cannot be detected by percussion. The physicians did not
say that the animal was not diseased, but that they did not see sufficient
evidence upon which to condemn. Such animals were to be paid for, upon
the ground of their not appearing to be diseased. Nevertheless, it is proper
to state that the remaining eight which were not condemned, were suspected
to be diseased, and we told Mr. Stoddard that we had the impression that
they were diseased, notwithstanding appearances. He said, 'There is a three-
year-old animal that has never faltered at all. She has never manifested the
slightest disease. If you will kill her, and she is diseased, I shall make up my
mind that I have not a well animal in my stalls.' We killed the animal, and
found her to be badly diseased.
"Thus, the first two herds were all infected by the disease; and in the last of
Curtis Stoddard's oxen which we killed, we found a cyst in the lungs of
each. One of these lungs is now in this building, never having been cut
open, and medical men can see the cyst which it contains. I have said in
what manner Mr. Curtis Stoddard's cattle spread the infection.
"In regard to Mr. Leonard Stoddard's: in the first place, he kept six or eight
oxen which he employed in teaming. He was drawing some lumber, and
stopped over night, with his oxen, at Mr. Needham's. Needham lost his
whole herd. He lost eight or ten of them, and the rest were in a terrible
condition. Seven or eight more were condemned, and his whole herd was
destroyed, in consequence of Mr. Stoddard's stopping with him over night.
Mr. Stoddard sold an animal to Mr. Woodis of New Braintree. He had
twenty-three fine cows. It ruined his herd utterly. Seven or eight animals
died before the commissioners got there. Mr. L. Stoddard also sold a yoke
of cattle to Mr. Olmstead, one of his neighbors, who had a very good herd.
They stayed only five days in his hands, when they passed over to Mr.
Doane. In these five days they had so infected his herd that it was one of the
most severe instances of disease that we have had. One third were
condemned, and another third were passed over as sound, whether they
were so, or not. They did not appear to be diseased. The cattle that were
passed from Mr. Stoddard through Mr. Olmstead to Mr. Doane, were loaned
by Mr. D. to go to a moving of a building from Oakham to New Braintree.
They were put in with twenty-two yoke of cattle, and employed a day and a
half. It has since been proved that the whole of these cattle took the
contagion. They belonged to eleven different herds, and of course, each of

these herds formed a focus from which the disease spread. Now, in these
two ways the disease has spread in different directions.
"But, when the commissioners first commenced, they had no idea that the
disease extended further than those herds in which there were animals sick.
Hence, their ideas and the ideas of those who petitioned for the law, did not
extend at all to so large a number of herds as have since been proved to be
diseased, because they only judged of those who manifested disease. As
soon as we began in that circle, we found a second circle of infection, and
another outside of that; and by that time it had branched off in various
directions to various towns. It assumed such proportions that it was very
evident that the commissioners had not the funds to perform the operations
required by the law. The law confines the commissioners to one operation,
—killing and burying. No discretionary power is given at all. The
commissioners became entirely dissatisfied with that condition of things,
because other measures besides merely killing and burying, are quite as
necessary and important. When they arrived at that point and discovered to
what extent the infection had spread, they stopped killing the herds, and I
believe there has not been a herd killed for twenty days.
"The policy was then changed to circumscribing the disease, by isolating
the herds just as fast as possible and as surely as possible. A man's herd has
been exposed. There is no other way than to go and examine it, and take the
diseased animals away. Then he knows the animals are diseased, and his
neighbors know it. That has been the business of the commissioners for the
last twenty days; and the facts that they have no discretionary power
whatever, and that they were entirely circumscribed in their means, and that
it was hard for the farmers to lose their stock and not be paid for it,—
induced them to petition the Governor, in connection with the Board of
Agriculture, for the calling of a session of the Legislature, to take measures
for the extinction of the disease."
In response to a question, "Whether any animals that had once been
affected, had afterward recovered?"—the same gentleman stated that
instances had occurred where cattle had been sick twice, and had,
apparently, fully recovered; they ruminated readily, and were gaining flesh.
Upon examination, however, they were pronounced diseased, and, when
killed, both lungs were found in a hopeless case, very badly diseased.

Dr. George B. Loring, another of the commissioners, stated that eight
hundred and forty-two head of cattle had, at that time, been killed, and that,
from a careful estimate, there still remained one thousand head, which
should either be killed, or isolated for such a length of time as should
establish the fact that they had no disease about them. Twenty thousand
dollars and upwards had already been appraised as the value of the cattle
then killed.
As to disinfecting measures, the farmers who had lost cattle were requested
to whitewash their barns thoroughly, and some tons of a disinfecting
powder were purchased for the advantage of the persons who wished to use
it. An early application was advised, that the barns might be in readiness for
hay the then coming season.
The practice adopted by the commissioners was, to appraise the cattle
whenever a herd was found which had been exposed, and a surgeon was
appointed to pass judgment upon the number of diseased animals. After that
judgment, the remaining animals that were pronounced sound were killed
and passed to the credit of the owner, after an appraisement made by these
persons. The fair market-prices were paid, averaging about thirty-three
dollars a head. At the time of the meeting of the committee, some seventy
cattle had died of the disease.
An examination was made of some of the animals killed, and the following
facts obtained:—
Case 1.—This cow had been sick for nineteen days; was feeble, without
much appetite, with diarrhœa, cough, shortness of breathing, hair staring,
etc. Percussion dull over the whole of the left side of the chest; respiration
weak. Killed by authority. Several gallons of serum were found in the left
side of the chest; a thick, furzy deposit of lymph over all the pleura-
costalis. This lymph was an inch in thickness, resembling the velvety part
of tripe, and quite firm. There was a firm deposit of lymph in the whole left
lung, but more especially at its base, with strong adhesions to the
diaphragm and pleura-costalis near the spine. The lung was hard and brittle,
like liver, near its base. No pus. Right lung and right side of chest healthy.
Case 2.—This cow was taken very sick, January 30th. In fourteen days, she
began to get better. April 12th, she is gaining flesh, breathes well, hair

healthy, gives ten quarts of milk a day, and in all other respects bids fair for
a healthy animal hereafter, except a slight cough. Percussion dull over base
of the left lung, near the spine, and respiration feeble in the same regions.
Autopsy.—Left lung strongly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura; the
long adhesions well smoothed off; pleura-costalis shining and healthy.
Also, the surface of the lung, when there were no adhesions, sound and
right; all the lung white, and free for the entrance of air, except the base, in
which was a cyst containing a pint or two of pus. Loose in this pus was a
hard mass, as large as a two-quart measure, looking like marble; when cut
through its centre, it appeared like the brittle, hardened lining in case 1. It
appeared as though a piece of lung had been detached by suppuration and
enclosed in an air-tight cyst, by which decomposition was prevented. The
other lung and the chest were sound. It is to be inferred, as there were
adhesions, that there had been pleurisy and deposit of lymph and serum, as
in case 1, and that Nature had commenced the cure by absorbing the serum
from the chest, and the lymph from the free pleural surface, and smoothed
off every thing to a good working condition. The lump in the cyst was
brittle and irregular on its surface, as though it was dissolving in the pus.
No good reason can be given why Nature should not consummate the work
which she had so wisely begun.
Case 3.—This cow had been sick fourteen days; was coughing and
breathing badly; percussion dull over both chests and respiration feeble.
Killed.
Autopsy.—Both chests filled with water; deposits of lymph over all the
pleura-costalis, presenting the same velvety, furzy appearance as in Case 1.
Both lungs were hardened at the base, and the left throughout its whole
extent, and firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura, near the spine.
The right lung had nearly one-third of its substance in a condition for the
entrance of air; but this portion, even, was so compressed with the water,
that a few hours longer would have terminated the case fatally without State
aid. This case had not proceeded far enough for the formation of the cyst or
pus.
In Mr. Needham's herd, about twenty-eight days intervened between the
first and second case of disease, instead of about fourteen, as in Mr.

Olmstead's.
Case 4.—A nice heifer, in fair condition, eating well, only having a slight
cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung.
Autopsy.—Base of left lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura; lung
hardened. On cutting into base, found ulceration and a head of Timothy
grass, four or five inches long. Animal in every other way well.
Case 5.—This cow was taken, January 1st, with a cough, difficulty of
breathing, and the other symptoms of the disease, and continued sick till
March 1st. On taking her out, April 12th, to be slaughtered, she capered,
stuck up her tail, snuffed, and snorted, showing all the signs of feeling well
and vigorous.
Autopsy.—Right lung firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura, near
the spine. Base of lung hardened, containing a cyst with a large lump, of the
size of a two-quart measure, floating in pus; outside of the lump was of a
dirty yellow-white, irregular, brittle, and cheesy; the inside mottled, or
divided into irregular squares; red like muscle, and breaking under the
finger, like liver. Costal pleura smooth, shining; adhesions where there was
motion; card-like and polished; no serum; lung apparently performing its
functions well, except for a short distance above the air-tight cyst, where it
was still hardened. It would seem as though Nature was intending to
dissolve this lump, and carry it off by absorption. She knows how, and
would have done it, in the opinion of the writer, had she been allowed
sufficient time.
Case 6.—Was taken December 18th, and was very sick; in three weeks she
was well, except a cough, quite severe, and so continued till about the first
of March, when she coughed harder and grew worse till seven days before
she was killed, April 12th, when she brought forth a calf, and then
commenced improving again.
Autopsy.—Right lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura. At its base,
was a flabby, fluctuating cyst. In cutting into it, the lump was found to be
breaking up by decomposition, and scenting badly. Every thing else normal.
Was not the cyst broken through by some accident, thus letting in the air,
when she grew worse? Would she not, probably, have overcome this

disagreeable accident, and recovered, in spite of it? This cow's hair did not
look well, as did that of those in which the cyst was air-tight; but still she
was beginning to eat well again, and appeared in a tolerable way for
recovery.
Case 7.—This heifer had coughed slightly for six weeks, but the owner said
he thought no one going into his herd would notice that any thing was the
matter with her.

A RURAL SCENE.
Autopsy.—Slight adhesions of lung to diaphragm. Near these adhesions are
small cysts, of the size of a walnut, containing pus and cheesy matter; about
the cysts a little way the lung was hardened, say for half an inch. There
were several cysts, and they appeared as though the inflammation attacked
only the different lobes of the lungs, leaving others healthy between,—
Nature throwing out coagulable lymph around the diseased lobe, and
forming thereby an air-tight cyst, cutting around the diseased lobe by
suppuration, so that it could be carried off by absorption.

In the herd to which this animal belonged, nine days after the first cow died,
the second case occurred. First cow was sick five weeks. The time of
incubation could not have been over six weeks,—probably not over three
weeks. Of these cows, one improved in eight weeks, the other in three
weeks.
Case 8.—This cow had been sick three weeks. Killed.
Autopsy.—Large quantities of serum in left chest; lung adherent, and
hardened at base. On cutting into the hardened lung, one side of the lump
was found separated from the lung, with pus between the lines of
separation, and the forming coat of the cyst outside of the pus; the other
side of the lump was part and parcel of the hardened lung which had not yet
had time to commence separation. The costal pleura was covered with
organized lymph to the thickness of an inch, with the usual characteristics.
The right chest contained a small quantity of serum, and had several small,
hardened red spots in that lung, with some tender, weak adhesions; but most
of the right lung was healthy.
Case 9.—Sick four weeks. Killed.
Autopsy.—Right lung hardened at base; adherent to diaphragm and costal
pleura; lump separated on one side only. Cyst beginning to form, outside of
separation; pus between cyst and lump, but in a very small quantity.
These two cases settle the character of the lump, and the manner of the
formation of the cyst; the lump being lung and lymph, cut out by
suppuration,—the cyst being organized, smoothed off by suppuration,
friction, etc.
Case 10.—Killed. Hair looked badly; but the cow, it was said, ate, and
appeared well. This case, however, occurred in a herd, of which no reliable
information, in detail, could be procured.
Autopsy.—Base of lung hardened, adherent to diaphragm; containing a
cyst, in which was a lump, of the size of a quart measure, but little pus. This
lump had air-tubes running through it, which were not yet cut off by
suppuration; and in one place, the cyst was perforated by a bronchial tube,
letting in the external air to the lump, which was undergoing

disorganization, and swelling badly. When cut into, it did not present the
red, mottled, organized appearance of those cases with air-tight cysts.
Quite a number of other cases were examined, but these ten present all the
different phases. One or two cases are needed of an early stage of the
disease, to settle the point, whether, in all cases, the primary disease is lung
fever, and the pleurisy a continuation, merely, of the primary disease;
together with some six or eight cases, during five, six, seven, eight months
from attack, and so on till entire, final recovery. Some cases were sick
almost a year since, and are now apparently quite well; perhaps all the lump
and pus are not yet gone. Many practitioners think that no severe case will
ever recover, and some think that none ever get entirely well. Others,
however, can see no reason why, as a general rule, all single cases should
not recover, and all double cases die.
The disease was the most fatal in Mr. Chenery's (the original) herd,
although it was the best-fed and the warmest-stabled. He attributed the
fatality, in part, to a want of sufficient ventilation. The other herds, in which
all the fatal cases occurred in two hours, consisted, originally, one of forty-
eight head, of which thirteen died, or were killed, to prevent certain death;
of twenty-three head, of which seven died; of twenty-two head, of which
eight died; of twenty-two head, of which eight also died; and of twenty-one
head, of which four died. A little less than thirty per cent., therefore, of
these herds died.
This estimate excludes the calves. Most of the cows which had not calved
before being attacked, lost their calves prematurely. The probable time of
incubation, as deduced from those Massachusetts cases, is from two to three
weeks; of propagation, about the same time; the acute stage of the disease
lasting about three weeks.
The author's attention was first directed to this disease, upon its appearance
in Camden and Gloucester counties, New Jersey, in the year 1859, at about
the same time it made its advent in Massachusetts. The singularity of this
coincidence inclined him for the time to regard the disease as an epizoötic
—having its origin in some peculiar condition of the atmosphere—rather
than as a contagious, or infectious disease, which position was at that time
assumed by him.

This opinion was strengthened by the fact, that no case occurring in New
Jersey could be traced to a Massachusetts origin, in which State it was
claimed that the disease never had existed in this country previous to its
introduction there. It was, therefore, denied by the veterinary surgeons in
the Eastern States, that the disease in New Jersey was the true European
pleuro-pneumonia, but it was called by them the swill-milk disease of New
York City, and it was assigned an origin in the distillery cow-houses in
Brooklyn and Williamsburg.
In 1860 it found its way across the Delaware River into Philadelphia,
spreading very rapidly in all directions, particularly in the southern section
of the county, known as The Neck,—many of the dairymen losing from one
third to one half of their herds by its devastating influence. In order to save
themselves—in part, at least—from this heavy loss, many of them, upon the
first indications of the malady, sent their animals to the butcher, to be
slaughtered for beef. In 1861 the disease found its way into Delaware,
where its ravages were severely felt. So soon, however, as it became known
that the disease was infectious or contagious, an effort was made to trace it
to its starting-point; but, in consequence of the unwillingness of dairymen
to communicate the fact that their herds were affected with pleuro-
pneumonia, all efforts proved fruitless. In 1860 the disease found its way up
the Delaware to Riverton, a short distance above the city of Philadelphia. A
cattle-dealer, named Ward, turned some cattle into a lot, adjoining which
several others were grazing. The residents of this place are chiefly the
families of gentlemen doing business in the city, many of whom lost their
favorite animals from this destructive malady.
The first case occurring at this place, to which the author's attention was
called, was a cow belonging to Mr. D. Parrish, which had been exposed by
coming in contact with Ward's cattle, had sickened, and died. An anxiety
having been manifested to ascertain the cause of the death, the author made
an examination of the animal, which, upon dissection, proved the disease to
be a genuine case of the so-called pleuro-pneumonia. This examination was
made August 20th, 1860, at the time of the Massachusetts excitement. Two
cows, belonging to Mr. Rose, of the same place, had been exposed, and
both had taken the disease. His attention having been called to them, he
placed them under the author's treatment, and by the use of diffusible
stimulants and tonics, one of these animals recovered, while the other was

slaughtered for an examination, which revealed all the morbid conditions so
characteristic of this disease.
The next case was a cow belonging to Mr. G. H. Roach, of the same place,
which had been grazing in a lot adjoining that of Mr. Parrish. This cow was
killed in the presence of Charles Wood, V.S., of Boston, Mass., and Arthur
S. Copeman, of Utica, N. Y., who was one of a committee appointed by the
New York State Agricultural Society for the purpose of investigating the
disease. Both of these gentlemen having witnessed the disease in-all its
forms, as it appeared in Massachusetts, were the first to identify this case
with those in that State.
Upon opening the cow, the left lung was found to be completely
consolidated, and adhered to the left side, presenting the appearance usual
in such cases. As she was with calf, the lungs of the fœtus were examined,
disclosing a beautiful state of red hepatization.
The author's attention was next called to the herd of Mr. Lippincott, a
farmer in the neighborhood, who had lost several cattle by the disease; but
as he had been persuaded that treatment was useless, he abandoned the idea
of attempting to save his stock in that way. From Riverton it soon spread to
Burlington, some ten miles farther up the river, where it carried off large
numbers of valuable cattle, and it continued in existence in that
neighborhood for some time.
The disease was not then confined to these localities alone, but has spread
over a large extent of country,—and that, too, prior to its appearance in
Massachusetts, as will be shown by extracts from the following letters,
published in the Country Gentleman:—
"We have a disease among the cattle here, I will class it under these names,
—congestion of the lungs, terminating with consumption, or dropsy of the
chest. Now, I have treated two cases; one five years since, as congestion,—
and the first is still able to eat her allowance, and give a couple of pails of
milk a day,—and the other, quite recently. The great terror of this disease is,
that it is not taken in its first stages, which are the same in the cow as in the
man—a difficulty in breathing, which, if not speedily relieved, terminates in
consumption or dropsy. I have no doubt that consumption is contagious; but
is that a reason why every one taken with congestion should be killed to

check the spread of consumption? So I should reason, if I had pleuro-
pneumonia in my drove of cattle.
J. Baldwin.
"Newark, N. J., June 11, 1860."
"I notice that a good deal of alarm is felt in different parts of the country
about what is called the cattle-disease.
"From the diagnosis given in the papers, I have no doubt this is pleuro-
pneumonia, with which I had some acquaintance a few years ago. If it is the
same, my observation and experience may be of some service to those
suffering now.
"It was introduced into my stock, in the fall of 1853, by one of my own
cows, which, in the spring of that year, I had sent down to my brother in
Brooklyn, to be used during the summer for milk. She was kept entirely
isolated through out the summer, and in November was sent up by the boat.
There were no other cattle on the boat at the time, nor could I learn that she
had come in contact with any in passing through the streets on her way to
the boat; and she certainly did not, after leaving it, until she mingled with
her old companions, all of whom were then, and long afterward, perfectly
well. After she had been home about two weeks, we noticed that her
appetite failed, and her milk fell off: she seemed dull and stupid, stood with
her head down, and manifested a considerable degree of languor.
"Soon her breathing became somewhat hurried, and with a decided catch in
it; she ground her teeth; continued standing, or, if she lay down, it was only
to jump up again instantly. Her cough increased, and so, too, a purulent and,
bloody discharge from her nostrils and mouth. The excrement was fetid,
black, and hard.
"In this case, we twice administered half a pound of Epsom-salts, and
afterward, a bottle of castor-oil. Very little, but a temporary effect was
produced by these doses.
"The symptoms all increased in intensity; strength diminished; limbs drawn
together; belly tucked up, etc.; until the eight day, when she partly lay, and
partly fell down, and never rose again.

"In a post-mortem examination, the lungs were gorged with black, fetid
blood; the substance of them thickened and pulpy. The pleura and
diaphragm also showed a good deal of disease and some adhesion. This
cow, on her arrival here, was put in her usual place in the stable, between
others. She remained there for two or three days after she was taken sick,
before we removed her to the hospital.
"In about three weeks from the time she died, one and then the other of
those standing on either side of her were attacked in the same way, and with
but two days between. This, certainly, looks very much like contagion; but
my attention had not before been called to this particular disease, and to
suppose inflammation or congestion of the lungs contagious was so
opposed to my preconceived notions, that I did not even then admit it; and
these animals were suffered to remain with the others until their own
comfort seemed to require the greater liberty of open pens.
"One of them was early and copiously bled twice, while Epsom-salts were
administered, both by the stomach and with the injective-pump. The other
we endeavored to keep nauseated with ipecacuanha, and the same time to
keep her bowels open by cathartic medicine. All proved to be of no avail.
They both died,—the one in ten, the other in thirteen days. Before these
died, however, others were taken sick. And thus, later, I had eight sick at
one time.
"The leading symptoms in all were the same, with minor differences; and
so, too, was the appearance after death, on examination.
"Of all that were taken sick (sixteen) but two recovered; and they were
among those we did the least for, after we had become discouraged about
trying to cure them. In all the last cases we made no effort at all, but to keep
them as comfortable as we could. In one case, the acute character of the
disease changed to chronic, and the animal lived six or eight weeks, until
the whole texture of the lungs had become destroyed. She had become
much emaciated, and finally died with the ordinary consumption.
"At the time the first case appeared, I had a herd of thirty-one animals, all
valuable Ayrshires, in fine condition and healthy. In all the first cases, I had
a veterinary surgeon of considerable celebrity and experience, and every

ordinary approved method of treatment was resorted to and persevered in.
The last cases—as before intimated—we only strove to make comfortable.
"After I had paid the third or fourth forfeit, I began to awake up to the idea
that the disease was, in a high degree, contagious, whether I would have it
so or not; and that my future security was in prevention, and not in remedy.
I therefore separated all the remaining animals; in no instance having more
than two together, and generally but one in a place.
"All were removed from the infected stalls, and put into quarantine. Isolated
cases continued to occur after this for some weeks, but the spread of the
disease was stayed; nor did a single case occur after this, which we did not
think we traced directly to previous contact.
"It is impossible to account for the first case of which I have spoken. But, as
the cow in that case was put into a sale-stable in New York while waiting
for the boat,—though there were no cattle then present,—yet I have
supposed it not unlikely that diseased animals had been there, and had left
the seeds of the disease.
"But, account for this case as we may,—and I have no doubt it is sometimes
spontaneous,—I feel convinced it is very highly contagious; and that the
only safety to a herd into which it has been introduced, is in complete
isolation,—and in this I feel as convinced that there is safety. My cattle
were not suffered to return to the barnyard or to any part of the cattle-barns,
except as invalids were sent to 'the hospital' to die, until late the next fall,
i.e., the fall of 1854. In the mean time, the hay and straw had all been
removed; the stables, stalls, cribs and all thoroughly scrubbed with ashes
and water, fumigated, and white washed with quicklime. I have had no case
since, and am persuaded I should have avoided most of those I had before,
if I had reasonably admitted the evidence of my senses in the second and
third cases.
E. P. Prentice.
Mount Hope, June 14th, 1860."
The author's experience with the disease, during the last year in New Jersey,
proves the efficacy of remedial agents when applied in the early stages of
the disease. Late in the spring of 1861, Mr. J. E. Hancock, of Burlington

County (residing near Columbus, N. J.), purchased some cattle in the
Philadelphia market, which, after they were driven home, he turned in with
his other stock. Soon after this purchase, one of the animals sickened and
died. This was in August; after which time Mr. H. lost eight cows,—having,
at the time of the death of the last animal, some five others sick with the
same disorder.
The author was called in, December 8th, 1861, and the five animals then
placed under his treatment. On the 12th of December, in the same year, one
of these cows, at his suggestion, was killed, which, upon the post-mortem
examination, beautifully illustrated the character of the disease. The right
lung was comparatively healthy; the left one completely hepatized, or
consolidated, and so enlarged as to fill up the left cavity of the chest to it's
utmost capacity. This lung weighed thirty pounds. There was no effusion in
the chest, but there was considerable adhesion of the pleura-costalis and
pleura-pulmonalis. All the other tissues appeared to be healthy.
To the remaining animals, was administered the following: aqua ammonia,
three drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, half an
ounce; mixed with one quart of water, and drenched three times a day. The
last thing at night was given a teaspoonful of phosphate of lime, mixed in a
little feed, or in gruel. Setons, or rowels, in the dewlap are also very
beneficial. Under this treatment they all did well.
Soon after the introduction of the disease into this herd, it found its way to
the herd of William Hancock, a brother of the former gentleman, who had
an adjoining farm. In this herd one cow died, and the disease was found by
the author developed in four more cows and two oxen, all of which—with a
single exception—did well under the above treatment. The disease
afterward showed itself in the herd of John Pope, half a mile distant, who
lost nine animals by it.
Thursday, December 19th, was selected for the purpose of making an
examination of the Hancock herds; but, after some ten or twelve animals
had been examined and all pronounced tainted with the disease, the owners
concluded to stop the investigation, expressing themselves dissatisfied with
the result, as not one of the animals examined had shown any symptoms of
disease. In order to convince them of the correctness of the diagnosis, a cow

was selected and destroyed, which the Hancocks believed to be in perfect
health. Upon opening the animal, several small patches of hepatized lung
were brought into view. Upon making a longitudinal section of the lump, as
both were involved, they presented a red, speckled appearance. All the other
tissues were healthy. The symptoms in these cases were quite different from
any which had been previously seen in an experience of three years with the
disease in and about Philadelphia, inasmuch as they were not preceded by
cough; in fact, cough did not appear in many of the animals at any time
during the progress of the disease. The animals looked, ate, and milked
well, previously to the development of the disease, so that the owners were
thrown completely off their guard by these deceptive symptoms of health.
Knowing the uncertain character of this disease, and wishing to stay its
ravages, a suggestion was made by the author as to the propriety of having
the entire herd killed for beef. This was done the more readily, as the sale of
the meat is legalized in Europe, it being regarded as uninjured, and
therefore wholesome meat. This suggestion was acted upon, and thus these
two farms were rid of this dreadful scourge at one blow.
Mr. A. Gaskill, of Mount Holly, N. J., purchased a cow from one of the
Hancocks, for his own family use, which was sent to Mr. Frank Lippincott's
to pasture and turned in with Mr. L.'s own herd. Soon after, this cow
sickened and died. This was soon followed by the loss of six of Mr. L.'s
own cattle,—three oxen, two cows, and one steer. From this herd, it was
communicated to the Widow Lippincott's, who occupied a neighboring
farm; as also to Mr. Cleavenger's, who lost four animals; and to Mr. Smith's,
who had, at one time, seven animals sick; and from Cleavenger's to
Noaknuts, who lost two cows. Some two or three cows, belonging to Mr.
Logan, in the same neighborhood, got upon the road and broke into Mr.
Lippincott's pasture, mixing with his herd. As soon as Mr. Logan was
informed of the fact, he isolated these cows by enclosing them in a pen at
some distance from his other cattle; but they managed to break out, and
mingled with his other stock. It could scarcely be expected that his herd
could escape the disease, considering the exposure to which they had been
subjected. The disease manifested itself in the herds of several other farmers
in the country, but space will not allow a more extended notice of the
subject.

The treatment which has been found most successful in this country is as
follows, all of which has been tested by the author upon various occasions:
In the acute, inflammatory stage of the disease, give ten drops of
Flemming's tincture of aconite in water, every four hours, until a change
takes place; follow this with aqua ammonia, three drachms; nitric ether, one
ounce; pulverized gentian-root, one half an ounce; water, one quart. Drench
three times a day, and give, late in the evening, a tablespoonful of
phosphate of lime, in a little feed, or drench with gruel. Put setons, or
rowels in the dewlap, so as to have a dependent opening.
This course has
been found
very
advantageous.
Or, the
following will
be found quite
satisfactory;
nitrate of
potash, two
drachms;
camphor, half a
drachm;
tartrate of
antimony, half
a drachm; mix,
and give in a
little gruel,
night and
morning. Or,
the following:
Glauber-salts,
four ounces;
water, one pint;
give twice a
day. A gill of
cold-drawn

TAKING IT EASILY. castor-oil,
added to the
above, would
be beneficial. Continue until the bowels are freely opened. The following
has also been found efficacious: sulphate of magnesia, eight ounces; nitrate
of potash and pulverized Jamaica ginger-root, of each one ounce. Repeat as
often as may be required. Apply externally the following ointment to the
sides; biniodide of mercury, four drachms; castor-oil, half an ounce; lard,
four ounces; mix for use.
Preventive measures.—1st. The complete isolation of all herds in which the
disease has made its appearance. 2d. Such animals as show symptoms of
the disease should be placed under proper treatment. 3d. In England, it is
recommended that animals recovering from the disease should be fattened
and slaughtered for beef, as they are not safe even after their apparent
recovery. 4th. All animals beyond medical treatment should be killed and
buried; recompense in part, at least, being made to the owners. 5th. No
animal, healthy or diseased, should be allowed to run at large upon the
public highway so long as the disease may exist in its neighborhood.
The united action of all those interested would soon rid the country of a
disease which has smitten all Europe.
The author takes this occasion to acknowledge the receipt of two very ably
written articles upon this subject, which, in consequence of their length and
the comparatively limited space allotted, he is reluctantly compelled to
omit. One is from the pen of R. McClure, V.S., and the other from Isaiah
Michener, V.S. For the benefit his readers, however, he desires to make a
single extract from the last-named communication, without being
considered as endorsing the opinion advanced therein:—
"I am inclined to favor the hypothesis that pleuro-pneumonia is produced
by animalculæ, and that these enter the lungs by myriads, and thereby set up
irritation and inflammation, which lead to all the phenomena and
pathological conditions which are to be found upon dissection. This is my
opinion of the cause of the malignant pleuro-pneumonia which has existed
in the United States for the last seven years."

After writing the foregoing, the author was informed that this disease had
made its appearance in Mr. Logan's herd, already mentioned as exposed. He
was called to visit the herd of Mr. G. Satterthwaite, who likewise lost two
cows, and had two cows and a calf sick at the time of sending for him.

PNEUMONIA.

There are two conditions of the lungs known as pneumonia,—one, the
inflammatory, and the other, the congestive stage. The former may follow
an attack of bronchitis, or it may have a spontaneous origin. The congestive
is generally the result of cold suddenly applied to an overheated animal,
causing a determination of blood to the lungs, which sometimes causes
death by suffocation.
Symptoms.—The disease is preceded by a shivering fit; dry skin; staring
coat; clammy mouth; short cough; Schneiderian membrane (of the nose)
very much reddened; respiration hurried or laborious. In the congestive
stage, upon applying the ear to the sides, no sound will be detected; While
in the inflammatory stage, a crackling or crepitating sound will be
distinctively heard.
Treatment.—In the congestive stage, plenty of pure air will be necessary.
Bleed freely; and give in drench one pound of Glauber-salts, with two
drachms of Jamaica ginger. Nothing more will be required by way of
treatment.
In the inflammatory stage, bleeding should seldom be resorted to, except
where the animal is in full condition. Apply the following blister to the
sides, well rubbed in: oil of turpentine, one ounce; croton-oil, twelve drops;
aqua ammonia, half an ounce; linseed-oil, four ounces; mix all together.
Give internally one pound of salts in drench, and follow with one of the
following powders every four hours: nitrate of potash, one ounce; tartrate of
antimony and pulverized digitalis leaves, of each, one drachm; mix all
together, and divide into eight powders. Or the following may be given with
equal advantage: nitrate of potash, one and a half ounces; nitrate of soda,

six ounces; mix, and divide into six powders; one to be given in wash or
gruel every six hours.

PROTRUSION OF THE BLADDER.

This sometimes occurs during the throes in difficult cases of parturition in
cows, and the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon is requisite to replace the
inverted bladder.

PUERPERAL FEVER.

This disease—milk fever, or dropping after calving—rarely occurs until the
animal has attained mature age. The first symptoms make their appearance
in from one to five or six days after parturition. It appears to be a total
suspension of nervous function, independent of inflammatory action, which
is suddenly developed, and, in favorable cases, as suddenly disappears. It is
called dropping after calving, from its following the parturient state.
Symptoms.—Tremor of hind legs; a staggering gait, which soon terminates
in loss of power in the hind limbs; pulse rises to sixty or eighty per minute;
milk diminishing in quantity as the disease progresses; the animal soon goes
down, and is unable to rise, moans piteously; eyes set in the head; general
stupor; and slow respiration.
Treatment.—This disease, though generally regarded as a febrile disorder,
will not yield to the general practice of taking blood, as a large majority of
the cases so treated die. The bowels must be opened, but the veins never.
Give Epsom-salts, one pound; Jamaica ginger, two ounces; dissolve in
warm water, one quart, and drench. The author usually gives with good
effect, some five or six hours after the salts, two ounces of nitric ether and
one ounce of tincture of opium, in half a pint of water. Rub well in, along
the back and loins, the following: strong mustard, three ounces; aqua
ammonia and water, each one and a half ounces. Some modifications in the
treatment of this disease, as well as of most others, will be necessary under

certain circumstances, which can only be determined by the veterinary
practitioner.

QUARTER EVIL.

In some sections of the country, this disease—known by the other names of
black quarter, and joint murrain—is quite common among young cattle, and
is generally fatal in its termination. There is little or no warning of its
approach. The first animals in a herd to be attacked are generally those in a
full, plethoric condition.
Symptoms.—The joints suddenly become swollen, and so painful as to
produce severe lameness, particularly in the hind parts. General irritative
fever exists in the system, attended with great tenderness of the loins; the
head is poked out; eyes red and bulging; the roots of the horns, as well as
the breath, are hot; the muzzle dry, and nostrils expanded; pulse rises to
seventy or eighty, full and hard; respiration is hurried; the animal is
constantly moaning, and appears to be unconscious of surrounding objects;
the swelling of the limbs extends to the shoulder and haunch; the animal
totters, falls and dies in from twelve to twenty-four hours.
Treatment.—Early bleeding is requisite here, to be followed by active
purgatives; after which, give one of the following powders every half hour:
nitrate of potassa, two ounces; tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis,
of each one and a half drachms; mix, and divide into eight powders. These
should not be renewed. Cold linseed tea should be freely given.

RABIES.

Hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of a rabid dog, from which
bite no animal escapes. The effects produced by the wound made by the
teeth of such an animal, after the virus is once absorbed into the circulation
of the blood, are so poisonous that all treatment is useless. The proper
remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this absorption, or the case is

utterly hopeless. Among men, nine out of every ten bitten by rabid dogs
escape the terrible effects resulting from this dreadful disorder, without
resorting to any applications to prevent it. It is a well-established fact, that
men, when bitten by dogs, are generally wounded in some part protected by
their clothing, which guards them from the deleterious effects of the saliva
which covers the teeth, and which, at such times, is deadly poison. The
teeth, in passing through the clothing, are wiped clean, so that the virus is
not introduced into the blood; hence the comparatively few cases of rabies
occurring in man. When, however, the wound is made upon an exposed
surface, as the flesh of the hand, or of the face, this fatal disease is
developed in spite of every precaution, unless such precautions are
immediately taken. For this reason, cattle when bitten, do not escape the
disease.
Symptoms.—The animal separates itself from the rest of the herd, standing
in a kind of stupor, with the eyes half-closed; respiration natural; pulse
quickened; temperature of body and limbs natural; the slightest noise
agitates, causing the eyes to glare and exciting bellowing; the bark of a dog
produces the most violent effects; the animal foams at the mouth and
staggers as it walks; if water is offered, the muzzle is plunged into it, but the
victim cannot drink; in making the effort, the most fearful consequences are
produced. The animal now seeks to do mischief,—and the quicker it is then
destroyed, the better.
Treatment.—This must be applied quickly, or not at all. The moment an
animal is bitten, that moment the wound should be searched for, and when
found, should be freely opened with a knife, and lunar caustic, caustic
potash, or the permanganate of potash at once applied to all parts of the
wound, care being taken not to suffer a single scratch to escape. This, if
attended to in time, will save the animal.

RED WATER.

This disease derives its name from the color of the urine voided in it. It is
one of the most common complaints of horned cattle, and one of the most
troublesome to manage.

Symptoms.—Respiration hurried; rumination ceases; a high degree of fever
presented; the animal moans, arches the back, and strains in passing the
urine, which is tinged with blood, or presents the appearance of pure blood.
Prof. Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, says: "The cause is
almost invariably feeding on turnips that have grown on damp, ill-drained
land; and very often a change of diet stops the spread of this disease in the
byre. Other succulent food, grown under similar circumstances, may
produce the same symptoms, tending to disturb the digestive organs and the
blood-forming process.
"In the course of my investigations as to the cause of various cattle-
diseases, and of red water in particular. I have found that it is unknown on
well-drained farms and in dairies where turnips are used only in a moderate
degree. The lands of poor people furnish the roots most likely to induce this
disorder; and I can confirm the statement of the late Mr. Cumming, of
Elton, who, in his very interesting essay upon this subject, says, particularly
in reference to Aberdeenshire, that it is 'a disease essentially attacking the
poor man's cow; and to be seen and studied, requires a practice extending
into the less favorably situated parts of the country. On large farms, where
good stock is well kept, and in town dairies, where artificial food is used to
supplement the supply of turnips, it is seldom now seen.'
"Symptoms.—General derangement attracts the dairyman's attention, and,
upon observing the urine which the animal has voided, it is seen to be of a
red, or of a reddish brown, or claret color; sometimes transparent, at others
clear. The color increases in depth; other secretions are checked; the animal
becomes hide-bound, and the milk goes off. Appetite and rumination are
suspended; the pulse becomes extremely feeble and frequent, though—as in
all debilitating, or anæmic, disorders—the heart's action is loud and strong,
with a decided venous pulse, or apparent regurgitation, in the large veins of
the neck.
"In some cases, if even a small quantity of blood be withdrawn, the animal
drops in a fainting state. In red water, the visible mucous membranes are
blanched, and the extremities cold, indicating the languid state of the
blood's circulation and the poverty of the blood itself. Constipation is one of
the most obstinate complications; and many veterinary surgeons—aware
that, if the bowels can be acted on, the animal is cured—have employed

purgatives in quantities far too large, inducing at times even death.
Occasionally, diarrhœa is one of the first, and not of the unfavorable,
symptoms."
Treatment.—Give one pint of linseed-oil; clysters of soap and water should
be freely used; and give plenty of linseed-tea to drink. When the urine is
abundant, give one ounce of tincture of opium, with one drachm of
powdered aloes, three times, at intervals of six or eight hours.

RHEUMATISM.

This is a constitutional inflammatory affection of the joints, affecting the
fibrous tissue and serous, or synovial membrane. It is caused by exposure to
cold and wet; being quite common in low, marshy sections.
Symptoms.—Loss of appetite; upon forcing the animal to move, every joint
seems stiffened; nose dry; coat staring; constipation is also an attendant
symptom; the joints, one or more, become swollen and painful. This may be
regarded as a metastic, or shifting disease; first one part, and then another,
seems to be affected.
Treatment.—Mild purgatives should be used; one-half-ounce doses of
colchicum-root pulverized will be found useful; one-ounce balls of pine-tar
may also be given with advantage. As a local application, the author has
found nothing to equal kerosene oil, one pint, to two ounces of aqua
ammonia, well rubbed in, two or three times a day.

STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES.

This disease in cattle,—popularly styled Knot, or Gut-tie,—in consequence
of the peculiar arrangement of the abdominal viscera, is of very rare
occurrence. When, however, it does occur, the symptoms accompanying are
those of inflammation of the intestines.

No kind of treatment will be successful, and the poor brute must suffer until
death comes to its relief.

THRUSH IN THE MOUTH.

Aptha, or thrush in the mouth, is a vesicular disease of the mouth,
sometimes occurring as an epizoötic. It is often mistaken for blain,—
inflammation of the tongue, or black tongue,—and usually occurs in the
winter, or early in the spring. It appears in the form of vesicles, or pustules
all over the mouth, occasionally extending to the outside of the lips. These
pustules break, discharging a thin, sanious fluid, leaving minute ulcers in
their places.
This disease yields readily to treatment, when it is properly applied. Three
ounces of Epsom-salts, once a day for three or four days, should be given in
drench; wash the mouth well with a solution of alum, tincture of myrrh, or
vinegar and honey, and it will disappear in a few days.

TUMORS.

These enlargements so common in cattle, have been so admirably
described, in the Veterinarian for 1843, by John Ralph, V.S.,—who has been
so successful in the treatment of these morbid growths, that the benefit of
his experience is here given. He says: "Of all the accidental productions met
with among cattle, with the exception of wens, a certain kind of indurated
tumor, chiefly situated about the head and throat, has abounded most in my
practice.
"The affection often commences in one of the thyroid glands, which slowly
but gradually increases in size, feels firm when grasped, and evinces very
little tenderness. Generally the attendant is alarmed by a snoring or
wheezing noise emitted by the animal in respiration, before he is aware of
the existence of any tumefaction. This continues to increase, embracing in
its progress the adjacent cellular and muscular tissues, and frequently the

submaxillary and parotid glands. It becomes firmly attached to the skin
through which an opening is ultimately effected by the pressure of pus from
the centre of the tumor.
"The swelling often presents an irregular surface, and various centres of
maturation exist; but the evacuations only effect a partial and temporary
reduction of its bulk, in consequence of the continued extension of the
morbid growth and ulcerative process which often proceed towards the
pharynx, rendering respiration and deglutition still more difficult, until at
length the animal sinks from atrophy or phthisis pulmonalis.
"In the early part of my practice, having been frustrated in my attempts to
establish healthy action in these ulcers, and referring to the works that I had
on surgery for information, I concluded that they bore some resemblance to
cancer in the human being, and determined to attempt extirpation.
Subsequently, numerous cases have occurred in which I have successfully
carried that determination into effect. I have had some instances of failure,
which failure always arose from some portion of the morbid growth having
been left.
"In the first stage, I have reason to believe that the tumor may be dispersed
by the general and topical use of the iodurets. After the suppuration, I have
tried them in vain.
"As soon as the nature of the tumor is clearly developed, I generally attempt
its removal, and, when most prominent by the side of the larynx, I proceed
in the following manner:—Having cast the beast, turned the occiput toward
the ground, and bolstered it up with bundles of straw, I proceed to make an
incision through it, if the skin is free, parallel with, and over, and between
the trachea and sterno-maxillaris, extending it sufficiently forward into the
inter-maxillary spaces. If I find it firmly attached to the apex of the tumor, I
then enclose it in a curvilinear incision and proceed to detach the healthy
skin to beyond the verge of the tumor.
"Its edges being held by an assistant, the knife is directed downwards
through the subcutaneous parts, and all those that exhibit the slightest
change from healthy structure are removed.

"By tying any considerable blood-vessel before dividing it, and by using the
handle of the scalpel and the fingers in detaching the portion of the parotid
gland towards the ear the hemorrhage was always inconsiderable.
"The wound is then treated in the ordinary way; except that detergents and
even antiseptics are often needed to arouse healthy action, and the addition
of some preparation of iodine is often made to the digestive. In directing the
constitutional treatment, our chief aim must be to support the animal system
with plenty of gruel until rumination is restored.
"I need not note that the operation should be performed after the animal has
fasted some hours.
"As the success of the operation depends on an entire removal of the
diseased parts, and as the submaxillary and parotid glands, with important
branches of nerves and blood-vessels, are often enveloped therein, we must
not hesitate to remove the former, nor to divide the latter. It has occasionally
happened that a rupture has been made in the œsophagus, or pharynx,
during the operation. In that case, a portion of the gruel with which the
animal is drenched escapes for a few days; but I always found that the
wound healed by granulation, without any particular attention.
"The weight of these tumors varies from a few ounces to some pounds. One
that I removed from a two-year-old Galloway bullock, weighed six pounds
and a quarter. A considerable portion of the skin that covered it was excised
and included in the above weight. It comprehended one of the parotid
glands, and I had to divide the trunk of the carotid artery and jugular vein.
"This affection may be distinguished from parotiditis and other phlegmasiæ
by the action of constitutional disturbance, and heat, and tenderness, and by
the lingering progress it makes. I was once called to a bull laboring under
alarming dyspnœa that had gradually increased. No external enlargement
was perceptible; but on introducing my hand into the mouth, a large
polypus was found hanging from the velum palati into the pharynx, greatly
obstructing the elevation of the epiglottis and the passage of food. After
performing tracheotomy, to prevent suffocation, I passed a ligature around
its pedicle in the way suggested by the old anatomist, Cheselden.

"A section of one of these tumors mostly displays several abscesses, with
matter varying in consistency and often very fetid, enclosed in what seems
to me to be fibro-cartilaginous cysts, the exterior of which sometimes
gradually disappears in the surrounding more vascular abnormal growth.
Osseous matter (I judge from the grating of the scalpel upon it) occasionally
enters into the composition of the cysts.
"I have treated this affection in cattle of the Long-horned, Short-horned,
Galloway, and Highland breeds; and from the number of bulls in this class
of patients, have reason to conclude that they are more liable to it than the
female.
"About twelve months ago, I examined the head of a cow, on the right facial
region of which there existed an enormous tumor, extending from the eye to
the lips, and which I mistook during life for a periosteal enlargement. On
cutting into it, my mistake was evident. There was scarcely a trace of the
original bones beneath the mass; even those forming the nasal sinuses on
that side were replaced by a formation much resembling the cysts before
alluded to, and full of abscesses. The progress of the disease was decisively
marked in the inferior rim of the orbital cavity, where the osseous matter
was being removed, and the morbid structure deposited."

ULCERS ABOUT THE JOINTS.

Occasionally, the joints assume a tumefied appearance, generally ulcerating,
and causing painful wounds.
Treatment.—The application of one part of alum to two parts of prepared
chalk, powdered and sprinkled upon the parts, is usually all that is required.

WARBLES.

It has been a prevalent opinion among farmers, that warbles are so many
evidences of the good condition of their cattle. It must, however, be borne

in mind that the warbles are the larvæ of the œstrus bovis, which is said to
be the most beautiful variety of gad-fly. This fly, judging from the objects
of its attack, must be particularly choice in its selection of animals upon
which to deposit its eggs, as it rarely chooses those poor in flesh, or in an
unhealthy condition. From this circumstance, probably, has arisen the
opinion above-mentioned.

HOME AGAIN.
These warbles—or larvæ of the œstrus bovis—so nearly resemble bots in
the horse—or larvæ œstrus equi—that, were it not for their increased size,

they might readily be mistaken the one for the other. There is, however, one
other difference, and that is in the rings which encircle the body; those of
the former being perfectly smooth, while those of the latter are prickly, and
from one third to one half smaller.
The author was called, in the year 1856, to see the prize cow, Pet, belonging
to James Kelly, of Cleveland, Ohio, whose extraordinary yield of butter and
milk had been reported in the Ohio Farmer, a short time previous to his
visit. This animal was found by him in rather poor condition; the causes of
which he could only trace to the existence of these worms, comfortably
located, as they were, beneath the animal's hide, and forming small tumors
all along the spinal column, each being surrounded by a considerable
quantity of pus. A number of these were removed by means of a curved
bistoury and a pair of forceps, since which time—as he has been informed
—the animal has rapidly improved, regaining her former good condition.
Some may urge that this is an isolated case; but an examination of cattle for
themselves, will convince them to the contrary. It may be added, that two
other cows, belonging to the same gentleman, were also examined at the
same time,—one of them being in good condition, and the other, out of
condition. From the back of the latter several of these insects were
removed, since which time she also has much improved. The former was
entirely free from them. These cows were all kept in the same pasture,
received the same care, and were fed on the same food, and at the same
time; and as the removal of these larvæ has been productive of such
beneficial results, have we not a right to infer that these insects are
injurious?
If we go further and examine, in the spring of the year, all cattle which are
subject to them, instead of finding them in the fine condition which one
would naturally expect,—considering the abundance of fresh young grass
whose vigorous life they may incorporate into their own,—they are out of
condition, and out of spirits, with a laggard eye, a rough coat, and, in some
cases, a staggering gait, as though their strength had failed in consequence.
How shall such attacks be prevented? During the months of August and
September this gad-fly is busily engaged in depositing its eggs. Some are of
the opinion that they are placed on the hairs of the animal; others, that the

skin is perforated, and the egg deposited in the opening, which would
account for the apparent pain manifested by cattle at and after the time of
such deposit. Be this as it may, it is certain that the maggot works its way
into the muscular fibre of the back, and depends upon the animal's blood for
the nourishment which it receives.
The author has been informed, by persons in whom he ought to have
confidence, that the free use of the card, during the above-named months, is
a specific protection against the attacks of the œstrus bovis. He repeats this
information here, not without diffidence; since so large a majority of stock-
owners evince, by their lack of familiarity with the practical use of this
convenient and portable instrument, an utter disbelief in its reliability and
value.

WORMS.

Cattle are not so subject to worms proper as are the other domestic animals;
nor, when these parasites do exist, is any injurious effect apparent, except it
be in the case of young calves of a weakly constitution. Worms are most
commonly located in the small intestines, and cause there considerable
irritation, and consequently, general emaciation, or at least a tendency to it.
The cause, however, is easily removed by administering doses of sulphate
of iron, one-half drachm each, in molasses once or twice a day.

WORMS IN THE BRONCHIAL TUBES.

Inflammation of the bronchial tubes is often caused by worms of the
strongylus species. Upon examination after death, the bronchial passages
are completely blocked-up by these hangers-on.
Symptoms.—A rough, staring coat; hide-bound; painful cough; respiration
hurried, etc.

Treatment.—But little can be done by way of treatment in this disease. The
administration of small doses of spirits of turpentine has, in some instances,
proved successful.

SURGICAL OPERATIONS.

CASTRATION.

The period most commonly selected for this operation is between the first
and third months. The nearer it is to the expiration of the first month, the
less danger attends the operation.
Some persons prepare the animal by the administration of a dose of physic;
but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their
convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken that the
young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised was simple
enough:—a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as possible around the
scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off, the bag and its
contents soon became livid and dead, and were suffered to hang, by some
careless operators, until they dropped off, or they were cut off on the second
or third day.
It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the hand,
between the testicles and the belly, and to make an incision in one side of it,
near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering
of the testicle, and of sufficient length to admit of its escape. The testicle
immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its cord.
The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string
around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the
cord, half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, however,
who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating, considers
that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels and prevent

after-hemorrhage, and, therefore, saves a great deal of unnecessary torture
by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of
the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same way and the
operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it
will immediately retract, or be drawn back, into the scrotum, but not higher,
while the ends of the string hang out through the wound. In the course of
about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will speedily
heal. There will rarely be any occasion to make any application to the
scrotum, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue.
A few, whose practice cannot be justified, seize the testicle as soon as it
escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord and tear it out.
It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly contracts,
and very little bleeding follows; but if the cord breaks high up, and retracts
into the belly, considerable inflammation has occasionally ensued, and the
beast has been lost.
The application of torsion—or the twisting of the arteries by a pair of
forceps which will firmly grasp them—has, in a great degree, superseded
every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller
domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the
forceps, which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance; the
vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissue, the forceps are
turned around seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found
to be perfectly closed; a small knot will have formed on its extremity; it will
retract into the surrounding surface, and not a drop more of blood will flow
from it; the cord may then be divided, and the bleeding from any little
vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron, nor
of the wooden clamps, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in
the castration of the calf.
A new instrument was introduced in France, some few years since, for this
purpose, called the acraseur,—so constructed as to throw a chain over the
cord, which is wound up by means of a screw working upon the chain, and
at the same time the cord is twisted off. No bleeding follows this method of
operating.

This instrument is constructed upon the same principle as the acraseur for
use in the human family, for the removal of hemorrhoids, etc., the
dimensions of the two only varying.
The advantages resulting from the use of this instrument over all other
methods are, that the parts generally heal within a week,—the operation is
not so painful to the animal,—it is less troublesome to the operator,—also
to the owner of the animal,—and lastly, it is a safer and more scientific
operation. Its success in France soon gave it a reputation in England, and
recently it has been introduced by the author into this country, and with the
best results. Contractors, hearing of the success attending this new mode of
operating, have visited him from all parts of the country to witness its
performance, and not one has returned without leaving an order for this
instrument,—so well convinced have they been of its decided superiority
over all other methods.

TRACHEOTOMY.

In consequence of the formation of tumors about the throat in cattle, from
inflammation of the parotid gland, blain, etc., so characteristic of this
species of animals, it sometimes becomes necessary to perform this
operation in order to save their lives. It never fails to give instant relief.
After the animal has been properly secured,—which is done by an
assistant's holding the nose with one hand, and one of the horns with the
other,—the operator draws the skin tight over the windpipe with the thumb
and fingers of his left hand; then, with the scalpel in his right, cuts through
the skin, making an incision about three inches long, dissecting up the skin
on each side, which brings the trachea, or windpipe, in full view. He then
cuts out a piece of the cartilaginous rings, about two inches long and about
half an inch wide. This simple operation has saved the lives of very many
valuable animals. The wound readily heals, and seldom leaves any
perceptible blemish, if the work is properly performed.

SPAYING.

To secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk, cows are
sometimes spayed, or castrated. The milk of spayed cows is pretty uniform
in quality; and this quality will be, on an average, a little more than before
the operation was performed. In instances where the results of this
operation have been carefully noted,—and the operation is rarely resorted to
in this country, in comparison with the custom in France and other
continental countries,—the quality of the milk has been greatly improved,
the yield becoming regular for some years, and varying only in accordance
with the difference in the succulence of the food.
The proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks after calving, or at
the time when the largest quantity of milk is given. There seems to be some
advantages in spaying for milk and butter dairies, where attention is not
paid to the raising of stock. The cows are more quiet, never being liable to
returns of seasons of heat, which always more or less affect the milk, both
in quantity and quality. They give milk nearly uniform in these respects, for
several years, provided the food is uniformly succulent and nutritious. Their
milk is influenced like that of other cows, though to a less extent, by the
quality and quantity of food; so that in winter, unless the animal is properly
attended to, the yield will decrease somewhat, but will rise again as good
feed returns. This uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense advantage.
Besides, the cow, when old and inclined to dry up, takes on fat with greater
rapidity, and produces a juicy and tender beef, superior, at the same age, to
that of the ox.
The following method of performing this operation is sanctioned by the
practice of eminent veterinary surgeons in France:—
Having covered the eyes of the cow to be operated upon, she is placed
against a wall, provided with five rings firmly fastened and placed as
follows: the first corresponds to the top of the withers; the second, to the
lower anterior part of the breast; the third is placed a little distance from the
angle of the shoulder; the fourth is opposite to the anterior and superior part
of the lower region; and the fifth, which is behind, answers to the under-part

of the buttocks. A strong assistant is placed between the wall and the head
of the animal, who firmly holds the left horn in his left hand, and with his
right, the muzzle, which he elevates a little. This done, the end of a long and
strong-plaited cord is passed, through the ring which corresponds to the
lower part of the breast, and fastened; the free end of the cord is brought
along the left flank, and through the ring which is below and in front of the
withers. This is brought down along the breast behind the shoulder and the
angle of the fore-leg in order to pass it through the third ring; then it must
be passed around against the outer angle of the left hip, and fastened after
having been drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple bow-not.
The cow being thus firmly fixed to the wall, a cord is fastened by a slip-
noose around her hocks, to keep them together in such a manner that she
cannot kick the operator, the free end of the cord and the tail being held by
an assistant. The cow thus secured cannot, during the operation, move
forward, nor lie down, and the operator has all the ease desirable, and is
protected from accident.
The operator next—placed opposite to the animal's left flank, with his back
turned a little toward the head of the animal—cuts off the hair which covers
the hide in the middle of the flanks, at an equal distance between the back
and hip, for the space of thirteen or fourteen centimetres in circumference
(the French centimetre is rather more than thirty-nine one hundredths of an
inch); a convex bistoury is placed, opened, between his teeth, the edge out,
the joints to the left; then, with both hands, he seizes the hide in the middle
of the flank, and forms of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, running
lengthwise of the body. The assistant seizes with his right hand the right
side of this wrinkle; the operator takes the bistoury and cuts the wrinkle, at
one stroke, through the middle; the wrinkle having been suffered to go
down, a separation of the hide is presented, of sufficient length to admit the
introduction of the hand; the edges of the hide are separated with the thumb
and fore-finger of the left hand, and in like manner the abdominal muscles
are cut through, for the distance of a centimetre from the lower extremity of
the incision made in the hide,—the iliac slightly obliquely, and the lumbar
across; a puncture of the peritoneum, at the upper extremity of the wound,
is then made with the straight bistoury; the buttoned bistoury is then
introduced, and moved obliquely from above to the lower part, up to the
termination of the incision made in the abdominal muscles.

The flank being opened, the right hand is introduced into the abdomen, and
directed along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind the paunch,
and underneath the rectum, to the matrix; after the position of these viscera
is ascertained, the organs of reproduction, or ovaries, are searched for,
which are at the extremity of the matrix; when found, they are seized
between the thumb and fore-finger, detached completely from the ligaments
which keeps them in their place, and by a light pull, the cord and the
vessels, the uterine or Fallopian tube, are separated at their place of union
with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the thumb and fore-finger, which
present themselves at the point of touch, thus breaking the cord and
bringing away the ovary.
The hand is again introduced into the abdominal cavity, and the remaining
ovaries brought away in like manner. A suture is then placed of three or four
double threads, waxed at an equal distance, and at two centimetres, or a
little less, from the lips of the wound, passing it through the divided tissues;
a movement is made from the left hand with the piece of thread; having
reached that point, a fastening is made with a double knot, the seam placed
in the intervals of the thread from the right, and as the lips of the wound are
approached, a fastening is effected by a simple knot, with a bow, care being
taken not to close too tightly the lower part of the seam, in order to allow
the suppuration, which may be established in the wound, to escape. The
wound is then covered up with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three or
four threads passed through the stitches, and the operation is complete.
It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles before mentioned, one or
two of the arteries are severed. Should much blood escape, a ligature must
be applied before opening the peritoneal sac; since, if this precaution is
omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, which may occasion the most
serious consequences.
For the first eight days succeeding, the animal should have a light diet, and
a soothing, lukewarm draught; if the weather should be cold, cover with a
woollen covering. She must be prevented from licking the wound, and from
rubbing it against other bodies. The third day after the operation, bathe
morning and evening about the wound with water of mallows lukewarm, or
anoint it with a salve of hog's lard, and administer an emollient glyster
during three or four days.

Eight days after the operation, take away the bandage, the lint, the
fastenings, and the thread. The wound is at that time, as a general thing,
completely cicatrized. Should, however, some slight suppuration exist, a
slight pressure must be used above the part where it is located, so as to
cause the pus to leave, and if it continues more than five or six days,
emollients must be supplied by alcolized water, or chloridized, especially in
summer. The animal is then to be brought back gradually to her ordinary
nourishment.
In some cows, a swelling of the body is observable a short time after having
been spayed, attributable to the introduction of cold air into the abdomen
during the operation; but this derangement generally ceases within twenty-
four hours. Should the contrary occur, administer one or two sudorific
draughts, such as wine, warm cider, or a half-glass of brandy, in a quart of
warm water,—treatment which suffices in a short time to restore a healthy
state of the belly,—the animal at the same time being protected by two
coverings of wool.
The only precaution, in the way of management, to be observed as a
preparative for the operation is, that on the preceding evening not so
copious a meal should be given. The operation should also be performed in
the morning before the animal has fed, so that the operator may not find any
obstacle from the primary digestive organs, especially the paunch, which,
during its state of ordinary fullness, might prevent operating with facility.
The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up by able French
writers: First, rendering permanent the secretion of milk, and having a much
greater quantity within the given time of every year; second, the quality of
milk being improved; third, the uncertainty of, and the dangers incident to,
breeding being, to a great extent, avoided; fourth, the increased disposition
to fatten even when giving milk freely, or when, from excess of age or from
accidental circumstances, the secretion of milk is otherwise checked; fifth,
the very short time required to produce a marketable condition; and sixth,
the meat of spayed cattle being of a quality superior to that of ordinary
cattle.
This operation would seem to have originated in this country. The London
Veterinary Journal of 1834 contains the following, taken from the United

States Southern Agriculturist:—"Some years since, I passed a summer at
Natchez, and put up at a hotel there, kept by Mr. Thomas Winn. During the
time that I was there I noticed two remarkably fine cows, which were kept
constantly in the stable, the servant who had charge of the horses, feeding
them regularly three times a day with green guinea grass, cut with a sickle.
These cows had so often attracted my attention, on account of the great
beauty of their form, and deep red color, the large size of their bags, and the
high condition in which they were kept, that I was at length induced to ask
Mr. Winn to what breed of cattle they belonged, and his reasons for keeping
them constantly in the stable in preference to allowing them to run in the
pasture, where they could enjoy the benefit of air and exercise, and at the
same time crop their own food, and thereby save the labor and trouble of
feeding them? Mr. Winn, in reply to these inquiries, stated that the two
cows which I so much admired were of the common stock of the country,
and he believed, of Spanish origin; but they were both spayed cows, and
that they had given milk either two or three years. Considering this a
phenomenon (if not in nature at least in art), I made further inquiries of Mr.
Winn, who politely entered into a very interesting detail, communicating
facts which were as extraordinary as they were novel. Mr. Winn, by way of
preface, observed that he, in former years, had been in the habit of reading
English magazines, which contained accounts of the plowing-matches
which were annually held in some of the southern counties of England,
performed by cattle, and that he had noticed that the prizes were generally
adjudged to the plowman who worked with spayed heifers; and although
there was no connection between that subject and the facts which he should
state, it was, nevertheless, the cause that first directed his mind into the train
of thought and reasoning which finally induced him to make the
experiments, which resulted in the discovery of the facts which he detailed,
and which I will narrate as accurately as my memory will enable me to do
it, after the lapse of more than twenty years. Mr. Winn's frequent reflections
had (he said) led him to the belief "that if cows were spayed soon after
calving, and while in a full flow of milk, they would continue to give milk
for many years without intermission, or any diminution of quantity, except
what would be caused by a change from green to dry, or less succulent
food." To test this hypothesis, Mr. Winn caused a very good cow, then in
full milk, to be spayed. The operation was performed about one month after
the cow had produced her third calf; it was not attended with any severe

pain, or much or long continued fever. The cow was apparently well in a
few days, and very soon yielded her usual quantity of milk, and continued
to give freely for several years without any intermission or diminution in
quantity, except when the food was scarce and dry; but a full flow of milk
always came back upon the return of a full supply of green food. This cow
ran in the Mississippi low grounds or swamp near Natchez, got cast in deep
mire, and was found dead. Upon her death, Mr. Winn caused a second cow
to be spayed. The operation was entirely successful. The cow gave milk
constantly for several years, but in jumping a fence stuck a stake in her bag,
that inflicted a severe wound, which obliged Mr. Winn to kill her. Upon this
second loss, Mr. Winn had two other cows spayed, and, to prevent the
recurrence of injuries from similar causes with those which had occasioned
him the loss of the first two spayed cows, he resolved to keep them always
in the stable, or some safe enclosure, and to supply them regularly with
green food, which that climate throughout the greater part of, if not all, the
year enabled him to procure. The result, in regard to the last two spayed
cows, was, as in the case of the first two, entirely satisfactory, and fully
established, as Mr. Winn believed, the fact, that the spaying of cows, while
in full milk, will cause them to continue to give milk during the residue of
their lives, or until prevented by old age. When I saw the last two spayed
cows it was, I believe, during the third year that they had constantly given
milk after they were spayed. The character of Mr. Winn (now deceased) was
highly respectable, and the most entire confidence could be reposed in the
fidelity of his statements; and as regarded the facts which he communicated
in relation to the several cows which he had spayed, numerous persons with
whom I became acquainted, fully confirmed his statements."
In November 1861, the author was called to perform this operation upon the
short-horn Galloway cow, Josephine the Second, belonging to Henry
Ingersoll, Esq., of this city. This cow was born May 8th, 1860. The morning
was cold and cloudy. About ten o'clock the cow was cast, with the
assistance of R. McClure, V.S., after which she was placed under the
influence of chloric ether. He then made an incision, about five inches in
length, through the skin and walls of the abdomen, midway between the
pelvis bone and the last rib on the left side, passing in his right hand, cutting
away the ovaries from the Fallopian tubes with the thumbnail. The opening
on the side was then closed by means of the interrupted suture. The animal

recovered from the influence of the anæsthetic in about fifteen minutes,
when she was allowed to rise, and walk back to her stall.
Upon the morning of the second day succeeding the operation, the animal
was visited and found to be in good spirits, apparently suffering very little
pain or inconvenience from the operation, and the wound healing nicely.
Since that time, he has operated upon some twenty cows, all of which, with
a single exception, have thus far proved satisfactory.
Several of these cows are under the direction of a committee from the
Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture, whose duty it is to have a
daily record kept of each cow's yield of butter and milk, for one year from
the time of spaying. Their report will be perused by the agricultural
community with much interest.
The author's own experience will not justify him in speaking either in favor
of, or against, this operation; as sufficient time has not as yet elapsed to
satisfy him as to its relative advantages and disadvantages. He, however,
regards the operation as comparatively safe. The French estimate the loss at
about fifteen per cent., and the gain at thirty per cent. Of those upon which
he has operated, not a single animal died.

A LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE.

The medicines used in the treatment of the diseases of cattle, are essentially
the same as those in vogue for the diseases of the human being and the
horse,—the only difference being in their combination and the quantities
administered.
Absorbents.—Medicines which destroy acidities in the stomach and
bowels; such as chalk, magnesia, etc.
Alteratives.—Medicines which restore the healthy functions of secretion,
by gradually changing the morbid action in an impaired constitution. Those
in most common use are Æthiops mineral, antimony, rosin, sulphur, etc.,

which form the principal ingredients in all condition-powders, and are
chiefly useful in diseases of the skin, such as hide-bound, mange, surfeit,
etc.
Alterative Powder.—Sulphur pulverized, one pound; black antimony, one
half a pound; nitrate of potassa, four ounces; sulphate of iron, one half a
pound; linseed meal, one pound; mix well; dose, one half an ounce, night
and morning.
Antacids.—Agents which neutralize, by their chemical action, acids in the
stomach; as ammonia, carbonate of potassa, chalk, lime-water, magnesia,
and soda.
Anthelmintics.—Remedies used for the expulsion of worms from the
stomach and intestines. These may act chemically or by their cathartic
operation. The most reliable are Æthiops mineral, nux vomica, preparations
of mercury, wormwood, etc.
Anthelmintic Powders.—Nux vomica, in one half-drachm doses, two or
three times daily, to an ox or cow; for calves, the dose must be diminished,
according to age.
Antidotes.—Medicines which neutralize the effects of poisons by a
chemical union, forming an insoluble compound, or a mild, harmless one.
Alkaline solutions are antidotes for the mineral acids; as soap in solution, a
simple remedy, and always at hand. Lard, magnesia, and oil are antidotes
for poisoning by arsenic; albumen,—in the form of the white of an egg,—
milk, etc., for corrosive sublimate, and other mercurial preparations.
Antiseptics.—Medicines which prevent putridity in animal substances, and
arrest putrefaction, when already existing. These are used both externally
and internally. The chief specifics of this class are the acids, alcohol,
ammonia, asafœtida, camphor, charcoal, chloride of lime, cinchona, ether,
and opium.
Antispasmodics.—Medicines which exert their power in allaying inordinate
motions or spasms in the system, arising from various causes, such as
debility, worms, etc. Those most generally in use are ammonia, asafœtida,
camphor, cinchona, ether, lactacarium, mercury, and opium.

Antispasmodic draught.—Tincture of opium, one ounce; nitric ether, two
ounces; water, one-half pint. Mix for drench; if repeated, it should be
followed by a purgative, as soon as the spasms have subsided. Or, use the
following: sulphuric ether, one to two ounces; water, one-half pint Mix for
drench; repeat every hour, if necessary.
Aromatics.—Medicines possessing a grateful, spicy scent, and an
agreeable, pungent taste; as anise-seed, cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves,
ginger, etc. They are principally used in combination with purgatives,
stomachics, and tonics.
Astringents.—Medicines which serve to diminish excessive discharges, as
in diabetes, diarrhœa, etc. The principal agents of this class are the acids,
alum, chalk, lime-water, opium, and the sulphate of copper, lead, iron, or
zinc.
Astringent powder.—Opium, one drachm; prepared chalk, half an ounce;
Jamaica ginger, six drachms. Mix, and divide into four powders; one to be
given every hour, in a little flour gruel. Or, the following: opium, one
drachm; catechu, two drachms; prepared chalk, one ounce. Mix, and divide
into four powders; to be given as before.
Cardiacs.—Cordials—so termed, from their possessing warm and
stimulating properties—given to invigorate the system.
Cathartics.—Medicines—also known as purgatives—which cause free
evacuations of the bowels. The only purgatives used by the author in his
cattle practice, as a general rule, are aloes, cream of tartar, Epsom-salts, lard
and linseed-oil. These answer all the indications, where purgatives are
useful; indeed, no better purgative for cattle can be found than Epsom-salts,
combined with a carminative or aromatic drug, such as ginger.
Caustics.—Substances which burn or destroy parts, by combining with
them and causing their disorganization; used to destroy unhealthy action, or
morbid growths, such as foul ulcers, foul in the foot, warts, etc. The most
powerful remedial of this class is actual cauterization with a red-hot iron;
caustic potash, lunar caustic, nitrous and sulphuric acids, permanganate of
potash, etc., are also used.

Cordials.—Best brandy, three ounces; orange peel, one drachm; tepid
water, one pint. Mix all together, for one dose. Or, this for a single dose: ale,
one pint; Jamaica ginger, two drachms. Or, the following, also a single
dose: allspice, three drachms; ginger, one drachm; caraway seeds, two
drachms.
Demulcents.—Mucilaginous medicaments, which have the power of
diminishing the effects of stimulating substances upon the animal system.
Of this class, garden rue, or marsh-mallow, gum-arabic, and gum-tragacanth
are the most useful.
Detergents.—Agents which remove foulness from ulcers.
Detergent Powder.—Prepared chalk, two ounces; alum, one ounce. Mix;
to be sprinkled on the part, after washing with Castile-soap and water. This
powder is also an admirable application for foot-rot in sheep.
Diaphoretics.—Agents which increase the natural discharge through the
pores of the skin, and in some animals induce perspiration.
Digestives.—Medicines which promote suppuration.
Digestive Ointment.—Mix together equal portions of spirits of turpentine
and lard. Or, mix together with a gentle heat the following: Venetian
turpentine, one ounce; lard, one ounce; pulverized sulphate of copper, two
drachms. Or this, mixed: rosin, two ounces; spirits of turpentine, one ounce;
red precipitate, one-half an ounce; lard, two ounces.
Diuretics.—Medicines that stimulate the action of the kidneys, and
augment the secretion of urine. These are very useful in swellings of the
legs, or body. Take of nitrate of potash and rosin, each six drachms; mix,
and divide in three powders; one to be given daily. Or, the following: spirits
of turpentine, half an ounce; Castile-soap, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one
drachm; opium, one drachm. Mix: and divide in two balls; one to be given
each day.
Emollients.—Medicines which relax the lining tissues, allay irritation, and
soften the parts involved,—generally of a mucilaginous, or oily character.
Lard, linseed meal, and marsh-mallows are chiefly used.

Lithontriptics.—Medicines possessing the power of dissolving calculi, or
stones in the urinary passages; composed principally, according to the
researches of modern chemists, of lithic or uric acid. The preparation most
successfully employed by the author in such cases is muriatic acid, in doses
of from one to two drachms, in a pail of water, once or twice a day.
Narcotics.—Medicines that stupefy, and produce sleep. Belladonna,
camphor, hyoscyamus and opium, are among the narcotics in common use.
Nauseants.—Agents which cause loss of appetite, and produce the
sensation of vomiting, without affecting it. For this purpose, aloes, tartrate
of antimony, white hellebore, etc., are used.
Parturients.—Agents which act upon the uterus. In cases of difficult
parturition, or calving, resort is occasionally had to them. Ergot of rye is the
most powerful.
Refrigerants.—Cooling applications, which reduce the temperature of the
blood and body; as cold water, ether, lead-water, etc.
Rubefacients.—Medicines which gently irritate the skin, producing redness
on white surfaces. Of this class, are aqua ammonia, creosote, mustard,
turpentine, etc.
Sedatives.—Agents which depress the vital energies, without destroying
life; as aconite, digitalis, hellebore, hydrochloric acid, hyoscyamus, opium,
and tartrate of antimony.
Tonics.—Medicines which increase the action of the muscular system,
giving strength and vigor to the animal. These are among the most useful
remedies known to man, and are beneficial in all cases of debility, toning up
the stomach, and improving the appetite and condition of the animal.
Tonic Powder.—Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one
half an ounce; anise-seed, six drachms. Mix, and divide in eight powders;
one to be given night and morning.
Traumatics.—Medicines which excite the healing process of wounds; as
aloes, friar's balsam, myrrh, rosin, sulphate of copper or zinc, tar, etc.

Traumatic lotion.—Mix tincture of aloes, one ounce; tincture of myrrh,
two ounces. Or, melt together, tar, one ounce; rosin, two ounces; lard, four
ounces. Or, mix sulphate of zinc, one drachm; rain-water, one half pint. Or,
use the following, the celebrated friar's balsam; benzoin, in powder, four
ounces; balsam of Peru, two ounces; Socotrine aloes, one half ounce;
rectified spirits, one quart. Digest for ten or twelve days; then filter for use.

DOSES OF VARIOUS REMEDIES USED IN CATTLE
PRACTICE.

Aconite.—[Monk's hood; Wolf's bane.] An active poison. Used as a
sedative in tincture; ten to twenty drops in water.
Æthiops Mineral.—[Hydrargyri Sulphuretum.] One to two drachms.
Alcohol.—A stimulant; three to six ounces.
Allspice.—[Pimento berries.] Aromatic; two to four drachms.
Aloes.—Cathartic and tonic; tonic dose, one half to one drachm—cathartic,
one to two ounces.
Alum.—[Alumen.] Irritant, astringent, and sedative; two to four drachms.
Ammonia.—[Aqua ammonia; Liquor ammonia; Hartshorn.] Principally
used in combination with mustard, as an external irritant, and internally, as
a diffusible stimulant; two to six drachms. Of carbonate of ammonia, three
to six drachms.
Anise-seed.—[Fruit of the Pimpinella Anisum.] One to two drachms.
Antimony.—[Sulphate of Antimony.] Used in condition-powders; one to
three drachms. Muriate of antimony. [Oil, or butter, of antimony.] Caustic;
very good in foul in the foot. Tartarized antimony. [Tartar emetic.] One to
four drachms. The author, in the last instance, varies from the dose
prescribed by veterinary authors, never giving it in more than one-half-
drachm doses, believing its action thus more certain and satisfactory.

Asafœtida.—Stimulant; two to four drachms.
Axunge.—[Hog's Lard.] Ointment, principally; may be used as purgative in
doses of from one to one and a half pounds.
Balsam of Peru.—Stimulant, and tonic; two to four drachms.
Belladonna.—[Deadly Nightshade.] Narcotic, anti-spasmodic, and irritant
poison; one to two drachms.
Benzoin.—[Gum Benjamin.] Ointment; see Traumatics.
Calomel.—[Hydrargyri Chloridum.] One half to one drachm.
Camomile.—[Anthemis.] Stomachic, carminative, and tonic; one to two
ounces.
Camphor.—[Camphora Officinarum.] Narcotic and irritant; in small doses,
sedative and stimulant; one to four drachms.
Cantharides.—[Spanish Flies.] Internally, stimulant and diuretic; twenty to
thirty grains. Externally, vesicant; used in form of ointment, or tincture.
Caraway.—[Fruit of the Carum Carisi.] Used chiefly for flavoring
purposes.
Cardamoms.—[Fruit of the Elettaria Cardamomum.] Used to communicate
an agreeable flavor to other medicines.
Catechu.—[Acacia Catechu.] Astringent, and antiseptic; three to six
drachms.
Chalk.—[Carbonate of Lime; Calcis Carbonas.] Two to three ounces.
Charcoal.—[Carbo Ligni.] Antiseptic; one half to one ounce.
Cinchona.—[Peruvian Bark.] Astringent and tonic; one to two ounces.
Copper, Sulphate of.—[Blue Vitriol.] Tonic and astringent; two to four
drachms.
Creosote.—[Creosotum.] A sedative, anodyne, astringent, narcotic, and
irritant poison; fifteen to twenty drops.

Croton Oil.—[Crotonis Oleum.] Internally, as a cathartic, six to ten drops
in linseed-oil; externally, as a counter-irritant.
Digitalis.—[Fox Glove.] Sedative and diuretic; one to two scruples.
Epsom-Salts.—[Sulphate of magnesia.] Cathartic; one pound, combined
with ginger.
Ergot.—[Spurred rye.] Parturient; two to six drachms.
Ether.—Stimulant, narcotic, and anæsthetic; one to two ounces.
Gentian.—[Root of Gentiana lutea.] Stomachic and tonic; one to two
ounces.
Ginger.—[Zengiber officinale.] Stomachic, carminative, and slightly tonic;
one to two ounces.
Gum-arabic.—[Gummi Acaciæ.] Demulcent and emollient; one to two
ounces.
Gum-tragacanth. Same action and same doses as the former.
Hellebore.—[Helleborus.] Irritant poison, and sedative; twenty to thirty
grains.
Hyoscyamus.—[Henbane.] Narcotic, anodyne, and anti-spasmodic; ten to
twenty grains.
Iodine.—[Iodineum.] Internally, as a tonic; two to three scruples; also as a
tincture, and in ointments for reducing enlargements of the soft tissues.
Iron, Sulphate of.—[Ferri Sulphas; Green Vitriol, Coppera.] Irritant,
astringent, and tonic; two to four drachms.
Koosso. Anthelmintic; two to four drachms.
Lime, Chloride of.—Antiseptic; dose internally, one to two drachms.
Linseed oil.—Cathartic; one pint.
Lunar Caustic.—[Nitrate of Silver.] Used as a caustic.