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Title: A Practical Handbook on the Distillation of Alcohol from Farm
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Author: F. B. Wright

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PRACTICAL
HANDBOOK ON THE DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL FROM FARM
PRODUCTS ***

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK
ON THE

DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL
FROM

FARM PRODUCTS

INCLUDING
The Processes of Malting; Mashing and Mascerating; Fermenting and
Distilling Alcohol from Grain, Beets, Potatoes, Molasses, etc., with Chapters
on Alcoholometry and the

DE-NATURING OF ALCOHOL

FOR USE IN
Farm Engines, Automobiles, Launch Motors, and in Heating and Lighting;
with a Synopsis of the New Free Alcohol Law and its Amendment and the
Government Regulations.

BY F. B. WRIGHT.

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED

NEW YORK
SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 Liberty Street

LONDON
E. & F. N. SPON, Limited, 57 Haymarket, S.W.
1907

Copyright, 1906,
By SPON & CHAMBERLAIN.

Copyright, 1907,
By SPON & CHAMBERLAIN.

McIlroy & Emmet, Printers, 22 Thames St., New York, U. S. A.

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
Since the passage of the “Free Alcohol Act” there has been a constantly
increasing demand for information as to the manufacture of industrial
alcohol. This, with the favorable reception accorded to the first edition of
this book has lead the publishers to bring out a second edition.
The entire volume has been carefully revised and not only has the original
text been amplified but new chapters have been added explaining the most
modern and approved methods and appliances both as used in Europe and in
this country. Another valuable feature of the present volume is the collection
of U. S. de-naturing formulas covering the special denaturants necessitated
by the various arts and by the Government requirements. The chapters on
modern distilling apparatus rectifiers and modern plants have been very
carefully prepared in order to give the reader a clear idea of the various types
of apparatus in use to-day and of their general place in a distillery system.
The value of the book has been further increased by numerous additional
illustrations.
It would be impossible in the compass of one small volume to describe all
the practical details of alcohol manufacture particularly as these details vary
with every distillery, but it has been the aim of the author to give sufficient
information to enable every reader to understand the theory and general
practice of the art, leading him from the simple methods and apparatus used
until the last ten years to the more complicated stills and processes which
have been lately devised.
Inasmuch as the manufacture of industrial alcohol has been most highly
perfected in France and Germany, use has been made of the best European
authorities and in particular the author begs to acknowledge his indebtedness
to Sa Majeste L’Alcohol by L. Beaudry de Saunier. The publishers’ and
author’s acknowledgements are also due to the Vulcan Copper Works
Company of Cincinnati, Ohio, and to the Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing
Company, Buffalo, New York, for their kindness in allowing illustrations to
be given of modern American distilling apparatus.
F. B. Wright.

New York, Aug. 1, 1907.

PREFACE.
To the majority of persons Alcohol connotes liquor. That it is used to some
extent in the arts, that it is a fuel, is also common knowledge, but Alcohol as
a source of power, as a substitute for gasoline, petroleum, and kindred
hydrocarbons was hardly known to the generality of Americans until the
passage of the “De-naturing Act” by the last Congress.
Then Alcohol leaped at once into fame,—not merely as the humble
servant of the pocket lamp, nor as the Demon Rum, but as a substitute for all
the various forms of cheap hydrocarbon fuels, and as a new farm product, a
new means for turning the farmer’s grain, fruit, potatoes, etc., into that
greatest of all Powers, Money.
That Alcohol was capable of this work was no new discovery
accomplished by the fiat of Congress, but the Act of June 7, 1906, freed de-
natured Alcohol from the disability it had previously labored under,—
namely, the high internal revenue tax, and so cheapened its cost that it could
be economically used for purposes in the arts and manufactures which the
former tax forbade.
This Act then opens the door of a new market to the farmer and the
manufacturer, and it is in answer to the increased desire for information as to
the source of Alcohol and its preparation that this book has been written. The
processes described are thoroughly reliable and are such as have the
approval of experience.
As was stated above, Alcohol is not a natural product, but is formed by the
decomposition of sugar or glucose through fermentation. This leaves
Alcohol mixed with water, and these in turn are separated by distillation.
The literature treating of the distillation of Alcohol from farm products is
very scant. But due credit is here given to the following foreign works which
have been referred to: Spon’s Encyclopædia of the Industrial Arts, which
also contains an article on Wood Alcohol, Mr. Bayley’s excellent
Pocketbook for Chemists, and Mr. Noel Deerr’s fine work on Sugar and
Sugar Cane.
New York

Oct. 31, 1906

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
I.

Alcohol, Its Various Forms and Sources.
Its chemical structure. How produced. Boiling points.
Alcohol and water. Alcohol, where found. Produced
from decomposition of vegetables. Sources. Principal
alcohols. 1
CHAPTER
II.

The Preparation of Mashes, and Fermentation.
A synopsis of steps. Mashing starchy materials.
Gelatinizing apparatus and processes. Saccharifying.
Cooling the mash. Fermentation. Yeast and its
preparation. Varieties of fermentation:—Alcoholic,
acetous, lactic and viscous. Fermenting periods.
Fermenting apparatus and rooms. Strengthening
alcoholic liquors. 8
CHAPTER
III.

Distilling Apparatus.
The simple still. Adams still. Concentrating stills.
Compound distillation. Dorn’s still. Continuous
distillation. The Cellier-Blumenthal still. Coffey’s
still. Current stills. Regulating distillery fire. 33
CHAPTER
IV.[viii]

Modern Distilling Apparatus.
The principles of modern compound stills. Vapor traps
and their construction. Steam regulation. Feed
regulation. American apparatus. The Guillaume
inclined column still. 66
CHAPTER
V.

Rectification.
General principles of “ractionation.” Old form of
rectifying still. Simple fractionating apparatus.
“Vulcan” rectifier. Barbet’s twin column rectifier.
Guillaume’s “Agricultural” rectifying apparatus.
Rectifying by filtration. 82
CHAPTER
VI.

Malting.
The best barley to use. Washing. Steeping. Germinating.
The “wet couch.” The “floors.” “Long malt.” Drying.
Grinding and crushing. 103
CHAPTER
VII.

Alcohol from Potatoes.
Washing. Gelatinizing and saccharifying. Low pressure
steaming, and apparatus therefor. Crushing the
potatoes. High pressure steaming and apparatus. The
vacuum cooker. The Henze steamer. Isolation of
starch without steam. English methods.
Saccharifying the starch. 110
CHAPTER
VIII.[ix]

Alcohol from Grain, Corn, Wheat, Rice, and Other Cereals.
Relative yields of various cereals. Choice of grain.
Proportions of starch, etc., in various grains.
Grinding. Steeping. Preparatory mashing.
Saccharifying. Treatment of grain under high
pressure. Softening grain by acid. 126
CHAPTER
IX.

Alcohol from Beets.
Beet cultivation. Composition. Soil and manures. Sowing.
Harvesting. Storing. Production of alcohol from
beets. Cleaning and rasping. Extraction by pressure.
Extraction by maceration and diffusion. The
diffusion battery. Fermentation. Direct distillation of
roots. 140
CHAPTER
X.

Alcohol from Molasses and Sugar Cane.
The necessary qualities in molasses. Beet sugar. Molasses
mixing and diluting. Neutralizing the wash. Pitching
temperature. Distilling. Fermenting raw sugar. Cane
sugar molasses. “Dunder.” Clarifying. Fermenting.
Various processes. 163
CHAPTER
XI.

Alcoholometry.
Hydrometers in general. Proof spirit. Syke’s hydrometer.
Gay-Lussac’s hydrometer. Tralles alcoholometer.
Hydrometric methods. Estimation of alcohol. Field’s
alcoholometer. Grisler’s method and apparatus.
Estimating sugar in mash. Determination of alcoholic
fruits. Physical tests. Chemical tests. The
Permanganate of Potash test. Results by Barbet. 174
CHAPTER
XII.

Distilling Plants, Their General Arrangement and Equipment.
Simple apparatus. Elaborate plants. Steam stills. The
fermenting room. Ventilation. Fermenting vats.
Preparatory vats. Arrangement of grain distillery. A
small beet distillery. Large beet distilling plant.
Transporting beets. Potato distillery. Molasses
distillery. Fermenting house for molasses.
Transportation of molasses to distillery. Coal
consumption. 189
CHAPTER
XIII.

De-natured Alcohol, and De-naturing Formulæ.
Uses of alcohol. De-natured spirit:—Its use in Germany,
France and England. The “Denaturing Act.” The uses
of de-natured alcohol. Methods and Formulæ for de-
naturing. De-natured alcohol in the industrial world. 211
CHAPTER
XIV.

De-naturing Regulations in the United States.
The Free Alcohol Act of 1906, and proposed changes
therein. The Amendment of 1907. Internal Revenue
Regulations. 224
Index. 261

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

No. Page.
1 Vacuum mash cooker 10
2 Henze steamer 12
3 Mash cooler, air system 15
4 Mash cooler, water system 17
5 Yeasting and fermenting apparatus 22
6 A simple still 34
7 Simple direct-heated still 35
8 Simple still, with rectifier 37
9 Adam’s still 39
10 Corty’s simplified distilling apparatus 41
11 Double still 42
12 Dorn’s compound still 43
13 Compound still 46
14 Compound direct-fire still 47
15 Cellier-Blumenthal still 49
16 Details of rectifier column 50
17 Details of condenser and mash heater 52
18 Coffey’s rectifying still 55
19,
Rotary current still
20 59, 60
21 Indicator for regulating the distilling fire 61
22 Diagrammatic view of column still and accessory to face
apparatus 64
23 Distilling plate 64
24,
Barbet traps
25 68
26 Steam regulator 70

27 Gauge glass for regulator 72
28 Continuous distilling apparatus with external tubular
condenser 72
29 Detail of chamber, continuous still 73
30,
Details of perforated plate A
31 75, 76
32 Continuous distilling apparatus with goose separator 76
33 Section of Gillaume’s inclined column still 78
34 Gillaume’s inclined column still 79
35 Rectifying still 88
36 Section of rectifying still 89
37 Fractional distilling apparatus 91
38 Rectifying apparatus with external tubular condenser 94
39 Twin column Barbet rectifier 95
40 Gillaume’s rectifier and inclined still 97
41 Steaming vat for potatoes 112
42 Bottom of steaming vat 113
43 Steam generator 114
44 Potato steamer and crusher 116
45 Bohn’s steamer and crusher 118
46 Stack for storing beets 148
47 Storage cellar for beets 149
48 Beet and potato rasp 152
49 Dujardin’s roll press 155
50 Defusion battery 158
51 Mixing vat 165
52 Syke’s hydrometer 176
53 Field’s alcoholometer 182
54 Geisler’s apparatus 184
55 Continuous grain alcohol distillery—Barbet’s system 198
56 Grain distillery, capacity 2500 bushels per day 198
57 Small beet distillery 200

58 Large beet distillery 202
59 Molasses distillery, capacity 2500 gallons per day 206
60 Molasses fermenting house 207

CHAPTER I.
Alcohol, its Various Forms and Sources.

Alcohol. (Fr., alcool; Ger., alkohol.) Formula, C2H6O.
Pure alcohol is a liquid substance, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, in the following proportions:

C 52.17
H 13.04
O 34.79
100.00

It is the most important member of an important series of organic
compounds, all of which resemble each other closely, and possess many
analogous properties. They are classed by the chemist under the generic title
of “Alcohols.”
Alcohol does not occur in nature; it is the product of the decomposition of
sugar, or, more properly, of glucose, which, under the influence of certain
organic, nitrogenous substances, called ferments is split up into alcohol and
carbonic anhydride. The latter is evolved in the form of gas, alcohol
remaining behind mixed with water, from which it is separated by
distillation. The necessary purification is effected in a variety of ways.
Table I.—The Boiling Points of Alcoholic Liquors of Different
Strengths, and the Proportions of Alcohol in the Vapors Given Off.

Proportion Temperature Proportion Proportion Temperature Proportion
of alcohol of the of alcohol of alcohol of the of alcohol
in the boiling in the in the boiling in the
boiling liquid. condensed boiling liquid. condensed

liquid vapor liquid vapor
in 100 vols. in 100 vols. in 100 vols. in 100 vols.
92 171.0 F. 93 20 189.5 F. 71
90 171.5 F. 92 18 191.6 F. 68
85 172.0 F. 91.5 15 194.0 F. 66
80 172.7 F. 90.5 12 196.1 F. 61
75 173.6 F. 90 10 198.5 F. 55
70 175.0 F. 89 7 200.6 F. 50
65 176.0 F. 87 5 203.0 F. 42
50 178.1 F. 85 3 205.1 F. 36
40 180.5 F. 82 2 207.5 F. 28
35 182.6 F. 80 1 209.9 F. 13
30 185.0 F. 78 0 212.0 F. 0
25 187.1 F. 76

Pure, absolute alcohol is a colorless, mobile, very volatile liquid, having a
hot, burning taste, and a pungent and somewhat agreeable odor. It is very
inflammable, burning in the air with a bluish-yellow flame, evolving much
heat, leaving no residue, and forming vapors of carbonic anhydride and
water. Its specific gravity at 0° C (32° F.) is .8095, and at 15.5° C. (60° F.)
.794; that of its vapor is 1.613. It boils at 78.4° C. (173° F.). The boiling
point of its aqueous mixtures are raised in proportion to the quantity of water
present. Mixtures of alcohol and water when boiled give off at first a vapor
rich in alcohol, and containing but little aqueous vapor; if the ebullition be
continued a point is ultimately reached when all the alcohol has been driven
off and nothing but pure water remains. Thus, by repeated distillations
alcohol may be obtained from its mixtures with water in an almost
anhydrous state.
Absolute alcohol has a strong affinity for water. It absorbes moisture from
the air rapidly, and thereby becomes gradually weaker; it should therefore be
kept in tightly-stoppered bottles. When brought into contact with animal
tissues, it deprives them of the water necessary for their constitution, and
acts in this way as an energetic poison. Considerable heat is disengaged
when alcohol and water are brought together; if, however, ice be substituted
for water, heat is absorbed, owing to the immediate and rapid conversion of

the ice into the liquid state. When one part of snow is mixed with two parts
of alcohol, a temperature as low as 5.8° F. below zero is reached.
When alcohol and water are mixed together the resulting liquid occupies,
after agitation, a less volume than the sum of the two original liquids. This
contraction is greatest when the mixture is made in the proportion of 52.3
volumes of alcohol and 47.7 volumes of water, the result being, instead of
100 volumes, 96.35. A careful examination of the liquid when it is being
agitated reveals a vast number of minute air-bubbles, which are discharged
from every point of the mixture. This is due to the fact that gases which are
held in solution by the alcohol and water separately are less soluble when the
two are brought together; and the contraction described above is the natural
result of the disengagement of such dissolved gases. The following table
represents the contraction undergone by different mixtures of absolute
alcohol and water.
Table II.—100 Volumes of Mixture at 59° F.

Alcohol. Contraction Alcohol. Contraction Alcohol. Contraction
100 0.00 65 3.61 30 2.72
95 1.18 60 3.73 25 2.24
90 1.94 55 3.77 20 1.72
85 2.47 50 3.74 15 1.20
80 2.87 45 3.64 10 0.72
75 3.19 40 3.44 5 0.31
70 3.44 35 3.14

Alcohol is termed “absolute” when it has been deprived of every trace of
water, and when its composition is exactly expressed by its chemical
formula. To obtain it in this state it must be subjected to a series of delicate
operations in the laboratory, which it would be impossible to perform on an
industrial scale. In commerce it is known only in a state of greater or less
dilution.
Alcohol possesses the power of dissolving a large number of substances
insoluble in water and acids, such as many inorganic salts, phosphorus,
sulphur, iodine, resins, essential oils, fats, coloring matters, etc. It

precipitates albumen, gelatine, starch, gum, and other substances from their
solutions. These properties render it an invaluable agent in the hands of the
chemist.
Alcohol is found in, and may be obtained from, all substances—vegetable
or other—which contain sugar. As stated above, it does not exist in these in
the natural state, but is the product of the decomposition by fermentation of
the saccharine principle contained therein; this decomposition yields the
spirit in a very dilute state, but it is readily separated from the water with
which it is mixed by processes of distillation, which will subsequently be
described. The amount of alcohol which may be obtained from the different
unfermented substances which yield it varies considerably, depending
entirely upon the quantity of sugar which they contain.
Alcohol is produced either from raw materials containing starch, as
potatoes, corn, barley, etc., or raw materials containing sugar, as grapes,
beets, sugar-cane, etc.
The following are some of the most important sources from which alcohol
is obtained: Grapes, apricots, cherries, peaches, currents, gooseberries,
raspberries, strawberries, figs, plums, bananas, and many tropical fruits,
artichokes, potatoes, carrots, turnips, beet-root, sweet corn, rice and other
grains. Sugar-cane refuse, sorgum, molasses, wood, paper, and by a new
French process from acetylene. On a large scale alcohol is usually obtained
from sugar beets, molasses or the starch contained in potatoes, corn and
other grains. The starch is converted into maltose by mixing with an infusion
of malt. The maltose is then fermented by yeast. Sulphuric acid may be used
to convert even woody fibre, paper, linen, etc., into glucose, which may in
turn be converted into alcohol.
Table III.—Principal Alcohols.

Chemical Name. Source. Formula. Boiling Point °F.
1Methyl Alcohol Distillation of Wood CH3OH 150.8
2Ethyl “ Fermentation of sugar C2H5OH 172.4
3Propyl “ “ “ grapes C3H7OH 206.6
4Butyl “ “ “ beets C4H9OH 242.6
5Amyl “ “ “ potatoes C5H11OH 278.6

6Caproyl “ “ “ grapes C6H13OH 314.6
7Aenanthyl “ Distillation castor oil with C7H15OH 347.0
potatoes
8Capryl “ Essential oil hog weed C8H17OH 375.8
9Nonyl “ Nonane from petroleum C9H19OH
10Rutyl “ Oil of Rue C10H21OH
11 Cytyl “ Spermaceti C16H33OH
12Ceryl “ Chinese wax C26H53OH
13Melisyl “ Bees’ wax C30H61OH

Among a variety of other substances which have been and are still used
for the production of alcohol in smaller quantities, are roots of many kinds,
such as those of asphodel, madder, etc. Seeds and nuts have been made to
yield it. It will thus be seen that the sources of this substance are practically
innumerable; anything, in fact, which contains or can be converted into
sugar is what is termed “alcoholisable.”
Alcohol has become a substance of such prime necessity in the arts and
manufactures, and in one form or another enter so largely into the
composition of the common beverages consumed by all classes of people
that its manufacture must, of necessity, rank among the most important
industries of this and other lands.
Of the alcohols given in the above table only two concern the ordinary
distiller, or producer of alcohol for general use in the arts. Methyl alcohol,
the ordinary “wood alcohol,” or wood naphtha, and Ethyl alcohol, which is
produced by the fermentation of sugar and may therefore be made from
anything which contains sugar.
Ethyl alcohol forms the subject of this treatise. Aside from its chemical
use in the arts as a source of energy and as a fuel, alcohol will likely soon
compete with petroleum, gasoline, kerosene, etc., under the Act of Congress
freeing the “de-naturized” spirit from the Internal Revenue tax. This act and
the de-naturing process are covered in the last chapters of this book.

CHAPTER II.
Alcohol, its Various Forms and Sources.The Preparation of
Mashes, and Fermentation.

Alcohol may be produced either from, (1) farinacious materials, such as
potatoes or grains, (2), from sacchariferous substances such as grapes, sugar
beets, sugar cane, or the molasses produced in sugar manufacture.
THE PREPARATION OF STARCHY MATERIALS.
Saccharification. Preparatory Mashing. With starchy materials it is first
necessary to convert the starch into a sugar from which alcohol can be
produced by the process of fermentation. This is called saccharification.
Gelatinizing. The first step in this process is gelatinizing the starch;—that
is, forming it into a paste by heating it with water, or into a liquid mass by
steaming it under high pressure. The liquid or semi-liquid mass is then run
into a preparatory mash vat and cooled.
Saccharifying. The disintegrated raw materials or gelatinized starch in the
preparatory mash vat is now to be “saccharified” or converted into sugar.
This is effected by allowing malt to act on the starch. This malt contains a
certain chemical “ferment” or enzyme, called “diastase” (“I separate”).
This is able under proper conditions to break up the gelatinized starch into
simpler substances—the dextrins—and later into a fermentable sugar called
maltose.
Fermentation.—The maltose or sugar in the “mash” is now to be
converted into alcohol. This is accomplished by fermentation, a process of
decomposition which converts the sugar into carbonic acid and alcohol.
Fermentation is started by yeast, a fungus growth, which in the course of its
life history produces a matter called zymose which chemically acts on the
sugar to split it up into carbonic acid gas and alcohol.
Yeast may be either “wild” or cultivated. If the mash is left to stand under
proper condition the wild yeast spores in the air, will soon settle in the mash
and begin to multiply. This method of fermentation is bad because other

organisms than yeast will also be developed,—organisms antagonistic to
proper fermentation. As a consequence, pure or cultivated yeast is alone
used.
This yeast is cultivated from a mother bed in a special yeast mash and
when ripened is mixed with the mash in the fermenting vat. At a temperature
between 50° F. and 86° F. the yeast induces fermentation, converting the
sugar of the mash into carbon dioxid which escapes, and alcohol which
remains in the decomposed mash, or “beer” as it is termed in the United
States.
It now remains to separate the alcohol from the water of the beer with
which it is mixed. This is accomplished by distillation and rectification, as
will be fully described in the chapters following.
PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM SACCHARIFEROUS
SUBSTANCES.
Substances such as grape juice, fruit juice, sugar beets, cane sugar and
molasses already contain fermentable sugar. Saccharification is therefore not
needed and juices or liquids from these matters are either directly fermented
as in the case of sugar cane, or—as in the case of sugar beets—the sugar in
juice is transferred by yeast into a fermentable sugar.
MASHING STARCHY MATERIALS.
We will now consider in more detail the preparation of mashes from
starch-containing substances.
Gelatinizing Apparatus. These comprise either ordinary vats, into which
steam at low pressure is admitted (see Fig. 44), cookers and stirrers such as
shown in Fig. 1 and 45 or the Henze steamer (Fig. 2.)

Fig. 1.—Vacuum Mash Cooker.
An example of a cooking and mashing apparatus and its connections is
shown in Fig. 1. This is the vacuum cooker put on the market by the Vulcan
Copper Works Company, of Cincinnati, Ohio. This consists of a cylindrical
steel vessel the interior of which is fitted with stirrer arms attached to a shaft
making about sixty revolutions per minute. The steam enters the vessel at the
bottom by means of pipes conducting it from a manifold, or header, in the
same manner as is shown in the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 45. Attached to
each pipe at its point of entrance is a check valve to spray the steam through
the mash. A thermometer for registering the temperature and a water gauge
are placed in the manifold. The grain enters the cooker from the grain hopper
by way of a spout. The cylinder has been previously supplied with hot water
and during the mixing of the meal with the hot water the mass is constantly

stirred. The malt is mixed with water in the small grain tub which is
provided with a stirrer. The malt mash is admitted into the cooker and the
mass thoroughly mixed by the arms. After the mashing, the product passes
off to the drop tub and from thence to the mash coolers where it is cooled to
the proper temperature for fermentation. The gearing for agitating the malt
mash and the grain or potato mash is evident from the drawing.
The pressure steamers used in mashing are shown in Fig. 2. They
comprise a cylindrical vessel preferably conical or partly conical, provided
with steam entrance pipes, air valves and a manhole. At the bottom of the
cone forming the lower end of the steamer is a grating located in an exit pipe
provided with a valve. One of the steam entrance pipes is so located that the
steam is forced in at the top of the cylinder while the other allows steam to
enter at the bottom of the cylinder. The device is provided with a pressure
gauge and an air cock.

Fig. 2.—Henze Steamer.
In use the body of the apparatus is partly filled with water and the material
to be treated. This is acted upon by a steam pressure of two atmospheres,
which is later increased to three, steam entering by the lowermost pipe,
passing up through the water and potatoes thoroughly agitating the same and
passing away by the steam gauge. After standing at the last pressure for ten
or fifteen minutes the lower steam inlet is closed; the upper inlet and the
blow-out valve are opened. The steam is then increased to its highest point
or about four atmospheres and the lower valve is opened. The disintegrated
material is forced out by the steam through the grating at the bottom of the
cone. This comminutes it and pulps it before it passes into the preparatory
mash tub. Blowing out requires about 40 to 50 minutes. Steaming and
blowing out together cover a space of two hours. The pressure of the steam
before blowing out should be such that the steam is constantly being blown
off through the safety valve. Thus the mass in the steamer is agitated and the
material entirely disintegrated and gelatinized.
Process. Into these apparatuses the potatoes and corn or grain first ground
into mash, or even corn or grain unground, if the pressure is high enough,
are disintegrated and cooked by steam under high pressure. During this
process the starch becomes partially dissolved and partially gelatinized,
which occurs when a pressure of some 65 pounds has been attained, with a
temperature of about 300° F.
Saccharifying. It is now necessary to saccharify the gelatinized mass.
This is accomplished by adding to it a certain amount of malt, whereby
maltose or sugar is formed through the action of the diastase. The amount of
maltose so created is in proportion to the amount of malt used, the length of
time it is acting, the dilution of the mash, and the existence of a proper
temperature. The temperature best fitted for this action lies above 122° F.,
but in order to entirely dissolve the starch a temperature of 145° F. should be
used. In addition, at this higher temperature, the bacteria inimical to
fermentation are destroyed. A higher temperature than 145° F. should not be
allowed, except in extraordinary cases as it injures the effectiveness of the
diastase.
Apparatus. The mixture of the malt with the mash may either take place
in the heater and cooker itself (see Fig. 2) or in a preparatory mash vat.

In the first instance, the malt is allowed to enter the cooking cylinder
when the temperature of the mash is about 145° F. The mash is stirred until
thoroughly mixed when the product is drawn into a receptacle called a drop
tub and later reduced to a proper fermenting temperature.
When the Henze type of steamer is used, the pulped mass (see Page 121)
is blown into a preparatory mash vat, at the proper temperature. It is left to
stand at this temperature for a period varying from twenty minutes to an
hour and a half.
Cooling the Mash. Saccharification takes place at a temperature above
122° F., but the proper fermenting temperature is only about 63° F. to 68° F.,
and hence some means must be adopted for cooling the hot mash to this
temperature and for so cooling it in a relatively short time.

Fig. 3.—Mash Cooler, Air System.
Cooling may be accomplished by submitting the mash to currents of air;
to contact with cold water coils or by the use of ice. One of the simplest
coolers of the first class is shown in Fig. 3.
This consists of a shallow panlike tank A having means for introducing
and drawing off the mash. Rotating in the center of the tank is a vertical
shaft C carrying radiating stirrer arms B. Braces M extend to the middle of
these arms and the arms carry a number of blades or paddles b, which extend
down into the mash. Above the arms, mounted loosely on the same shaft, but
rotating in the opposite direction, are fans H supported by arms J which

create air currents over the agitated mash. These fans move at a much faster
rate than the stirrers B.
A simple form of driving gear is shown. The main shaft C is rotated by a
large bevel gear D, meshing with a small pinion E on the end of a driving
shaft F, which is driven by a belt. This shaft also carries a bevel gear L,
which meshes with a bevel gear K mounted on a sleeve. This sleeve
surrounds and rotates freely on the central shaft C, being supported at its
lower end in ball bearings m m, mounted on the shaft. This combination
gives opposite rotation to the faces and stirrer arms and at different speeds.
The driving mechanism can be of course varied.
Another simple method of air cooling would be to let the mash run down a
series of enclosed steps or chutes, the casing being kept cool by an air blast.
Mashes may be even cooled by mere stirring by paddles, but this takes a
long time and much labor.
The preparatory mash vats used to-day are almost all provided with
stirrers formed of hollow blades capable of a rapid stirring movement
through the mash. Through the hollow blades cold water is forced. Mash
vats of this kind should have the following qualities. They should be
strongly built, particularly as regards the stirrers so as to be used with thick
mashes. They should thoroughly and uniformly stir and mix the mash and
they should be capable of cooling the mash within an hour, and should be so
constructed as to be easily cleaned.
By using coils of pipe which may be inserted or withdrawn from the mash
tub, and through which cold water is forced, the mash may be effectively
cooled, but the best plan for quick cooling is to bring a comparatively thin
layer of the mash in contact with the coils. This may be conveniently done
by using a system of comparatively large water pipes enclosing small pipes
for the passage of the mash.

Fig. 4.—Mash Cooler, Water System.
This should be arranged in a stand like the coils of a radiator with an
incline from the inlet end of the top pipe to the outlet end of the lowermost
pipe. As stated, the small pipe carries the mash, the large pipe the water.
Preferably the mash flows downward while the water is forced upward in
a contrary direction by means of a pump or a high level reservoir. The
cooled mash should flow into the fermenting tank at a temperature of about
68° F.
There are many varieties of mash cooling apparatuses on the market of
more or less complication suited to the needs of large and expensive plants.
The form of cooler best to be used depends upon the circumstances of
each case and whether thick or thin mashes are to be distilled. The cooler
should, however, be capable of thorough cleansing so that no portion of one
mashing be carried to another.
Fermentation is an obscure and seemingly spontaneous change or
decomposition which takes place in most vegetable and animal substances
when exposed at ordinary temperatures to air and moisture. While
fermentation broadly covers decay or putrifaction, yet it is limited in
ordinary use to the process for producing alcoholic liquors from
sacchariferous mashes.

Fermentation is brought about by certain bodies called ferments—these
are either organized, as vegetable ferments such as yeast, or unorganized as
diastase—the enzyme of germinated malt. The last is used to convert starch
into maltose, the first is used to convert maltose into fermentable sugar. The
organized ferments are either to be found floating freely in the air under the
name of wild yeast or are artificially produced. If a solution of pure sugar be
allowed to stand so that it can be acted on by the organisms in the air, it will
remain unaltered for a long time, but finally mold will appear upon it and it
will become sour and dark-colored. If, however, a suitable ferment is added
to it, such as yeast, it rapidly passes into a state of active fermentation by
which the sugar is split up into alcohol and carbon dioxid, the process
continuing from 48 hours to several weeks according to the temperature, the
amount of sugar present, and the nature and quantity of the ferment.
Fermentation cannot occur at a temperature much below 40° F., nor above
140° F. The limits of practical temperature, however, are 41° to 86° F.
Brewer’s yeast is chiefly employed in spirit manufacture.
The most striking phenomena of fermentation are the turbidity of the
liquid, the rising of gas bubbles to the surface, and the increase in
temperature, the disappearance of the sugar, the appearance of alcohol and
the clearing of the liquid. At the end a slight scum is formed on the top of the
liquid and a light colored deposit at the bottom. This deposit consists of
yeast which is capable of exciting the vinous fermentation in other solutions
of sugar. The lower the temperature the slower the process, while at a
temperature above 86° F. the vinous fermentation is liable to pass into other
forms of fermentation to be hereafter considered.
There are many theories of fermentation, of which the two most important
are those of Pasteur and Buchner. The first teaches that fermentation is
caused purely by the organic life of the yeast plant and is not a mere
chemical action, whereas the second view most largely held to-day is that
fermentation is a purely chemical change due to certain unorganized
substances called “enzymes” present in the yeast.
The theory need not detain us. It is sufficient that the yeast plant in some
manner acts to decompose the saccharified mash into alcohol and carbonic
acid gas.
Yeast is a fungus, a mono-cellular organism, which under proper
conditions propogates itself to an enormous extent. There are many races or
varieties of yeast each having its peculiar method of growth.

For our purposes we may divide the yeast races into two classes, wild
yeast and cultivated yeast. Originally any of the yeast races were supposed
to be good enough to effect fermentation but to-day every effort is made to
procure and use only those races which have the greatest power to
decompose sugar. It was for this reason that the old distiller kept portions of
his yeast over from one fermentation to the next. This was yeast whose
action they understood and whose abilities were proven. This yeast so kept
was open, however, to the chance of contamination and yeast to-day is as
carefully selected and bred as is a strain of horses, or dogs, or plants.
After getting a portion of selected pure yeast for breeding purposes, it may
be sowed, that is, propagated very carefully in a yeast mash, in sterilizing
apparatus, where all chance of contamination by bacteria or wild yeast is
avoided. From this bed of mother yeast, or start yeast, the yeast for the
successive yeast mashes is taken.
The preparation of the various varieties of yeast mashes is too lengthy to
be set forth except in special treatises on the subject, but the ordinary method
of yeasting is as follows, reference being made to Fig. 5, which shows the
apparatus used in the yeasting and fermenting departments of a distillery, as
installed by the Vulcan Copper Works, of Cincinnati. The yeast tubs are
shown to the left of the illustration. They are each provided with cooling
coils and stirrers.
The yeast mash we will assume is composed of equal parts of barley malt
and rye meal. Hot water at 166° F. is first put into the mash tub. The rake or
stirrers are then rotated and the meal run in slowly. The stirring is continued
for twenty minutes after the meal is all in, during which the mash has
become saccharified.
The mash is then allowed to stand for about twenty hours, and to grow
sour by lactic fermentation. The lactic acid so produced protects the mother
yeast from infection by suppressing wild yeast and bacteria. During this
period great care is taken to prevent the temperature of the mash falling
below 95° F. and consequent butyric and acetous fermentation following.
After it has so stood the sour mash is cooled by circulating water in the coils
and stirring until it is reduced to from 59° to 68° F. depending on whether
the mash is thin or thick. Start yeast during the cooling of the mash when at
above 86° F. is added and stirred in. For the next twelve hours the yeast
ferments and when a temperature of 84° F. has been attained the mash is

cooled to 65° F. at which temperature it is maintained until allowed to enter
the fermenting tubs through the pipe leading thereto from the yeast tub.
There are four principal kinds of fermentation: alcoholic, acetous, lactic
and viscous.
Alcoholic Fermentation. This may be briefly described as follows: The
mash in the fermenting vat having been brought to the proper temperature,
the ferment is thrown in, and the whole is well stirred together.
This is known as pitching.

Fig. 5.—Yeasting and Fermenting Apparatus.
The proper pitching temperature varies with the method of fermentation
adopted, the length of the fermenting period, the materials of the mash, its
thickness or attenuation. It must always be remembered that there is a great
increase in the temperature of the “beer” during fermentation and that the
temperature at its highest should never under any circumstances, become
greater than 86° F. and with thick mashes that even a less heat is desirable.
Therefore the pitching temperature should be such that the inevitable rise
due to fermentation shall not carry the temperature to or beyond the
maximum point desired for the particular mash being treated. It is to
accurately control the pitching temperature and the fermenting temperature
that the fermenting tanks are provided with cooling appliances.

In about three hours’ time, the commencement of the fermentation is
announced by small bubbles of gas which appear on the surface of the vat,
and collect around the edges. As these increase in number, the whole
contents are gradually thrown into a state of motion, resembling violent
ebullition, by the tumultuous disengagement of carbonic anhydride. The
liquor rises in temperature and becomes covered with froth. At this point, the
vat must be covered tightly, the excess of gas finding an exit through holes
in the lid; care must now be taken to prevent the temperature from rising too
high, and also to prevent the action from becoming too energetic, thereby
causing the contents of the vat to overflow. In about twenty-four hours the
action begins to subside, and the temperature falls to that of the surrounding
atmosphere. An hour or two later, the process is complete; the bubbles
disappear, and the liquor, which now possesses the characteristic odor and
taste of alcohol, settles out perfectly clear. The whole operation, as here
described, usually occupies from forty-eight to seventy-two hours. The
duration of the process is influenced, of course, by many circumstances,
chiefly by bulk of the liquor, its richness in sugar, the quality of the ferment,
and the temperature.
Acetous Fermentation. This perplexing occurrence cannot be too
carefully guarded against. It results when the fermenting liquor is exposed to
the air. When this is the case, the liquor absorbs a portion of the oxygen,
which unites with the alcohol, thus converting it into acetic acid as rapidly as
it is formed. When acetous fermentation begins, the liquor becomes turbid,
and a long, stringy substance appears, which after a time settles down to the
bottom of the vat. It is then found that all the alcohol has been decomposed,
and that an equivalent quantity of acetous acid remains instead. It has been
discovered that the presence of a ferment and a temperature of 68° to 95° F.
are indispensable to acetous fermentation, as well as contact with the
atmosphere. Hence, in order to prevent its occurrence, it is necessary not
only to exclude the air, but also to guard against too high a temperature and
the use of too much ferment. The latter invariably tends to excite acetous
fermentation. It should also be remarked that it is well to cleanse the vats
and utensils carefully with lime water before using, in order to neutralize any
acid which they may contain; for the least trace of acid in the vat has a
tendency to accelerate the conversion of alcohol into vinegar. A variety of
other circumstances are favorable to acetification, such as the use of a

stagnant or impure water, and the foul odors which arise from the vats;
stormy weather or thunder will also engender it.
Lactic Fermentation. Under the influence of lactic fermentation, sugar
and starch are converted into lactic acid. When it has once begun, it develops
rapidly, and soon decomposes a large quantity of glucose; but as it can
proceed only in a neutral liquor, the presence of the acid itself speedily
checks its own formation. Then, however, another ferment is liable to act
upon the lactic acid already formed, converting it into butyric acid, which is
easily recognized by its odor of rank butter. Carbonic anhydride and
hydrogen are evolved by this reaction. The latter gas acts powerfully upon
glucose, converting it into a species of gum called mannite, so that lactic
fermentation—in itself an intolerable nuisance—becomes the source of a
new and equally objectionable waste of sugar. It can be avoided only by
keeping the vats thoroughly clean; they should be washed with water
acidulated with five per cent of sulphuric acid. An altered ferment, or the use
of too small a quantity, will tend to bring it about.
The best preventives are thorough cleanliness, and the use of good, fresh
yeast in the correct proportion.
Viscous Fermentation. This is usually the result of allowing the vats to
stand too long before fermentation begins. It is characterized by the
formation of viscous or mucilaginous matters, which render the liquor
turbid, and by the evolution of carbonic anhydride and hydrogen gases the
latter acting as in the case of lactic fermentation and converting the glucose
into mannite. Viscous fermentation may generally be attributed to the too
feeble action of the ferment. It occurs principally in the fermentation of
white wines, beer, and beet-juice, or of other liquors containing much
nitrogenous matter. It may be avoided by the same precautions as are
indicated for the prevention of lactic fermentation.
Periods of Fermentation. The operation of fermentation may be
conveniently divided into three equal periods.
The first or pre-fermentation period is that when the yeast mixed into the
mash is growing; the temperature should then be kept at about 63 to 68° F.
during which time the yeast is propagated. The growth of the yeast is
manifested by the development of carbonic acid gas and by a slight motion
of the mash. When alcohol is produced to an extent of say five per cent. the
growth of the yeast stops.

The second period of chief fermentation then begins. Carbonic acid is
freely developed and the sugar is converted into alcohol. The temperature at
this time should not exceed 81.5° F. The second period of fermentation
continues about 12 hours, when the last period commences.
During the third period or after fermentation there is a lessening of the
formation of carbonic acid and a lowering of the temperature. In this stage
the mash is kept at a temperature of 77° to 81° F.
In order to conveniently regulate the temperature of the mash the vat may
be provided with a copper worm at the bottom thereof, through which cold
water is forced. This, however, need only be used for thick mashes. There
are also various kinds of movable coolers used for this purpose.
There are a number of different forms which fermentation may take. The
insoluble constituents of the mash in the process of fermentation are forced
to the surface, and form what may be termed a cover. If the carbonic acid gas
bubbles seldom break this cover it indicates that the conversion of the sugar
into alcohol and carbonic acid is proceeding very slowly and imperfectly. If,
however, the cover is swirling and seething, and particularly if the cover is
rising and falling with every now and then a discharge of gas, it is an
indication that the conversion is properly proceeding. Foaming of the mash
is to be prevented, as the froth or foam flows over the mash tank and
considerable loss is sustained. It may be prevented by pouring a little hot
lard into the vat, or petroleum, provided its odor will not interfere with the
use of the alcohol when distilled.
Water is added in small quantities near the termination of the second
period of fermentation. This dilutes the alcohol, in the mash and lessens its
percentage, and thus the further growth of the yeast is permitted.
After fermentation the mash takes either the form of a thick diluted pulp
or of a thin liquor. Again the reader is reminded that the mash after
fermentation contains alcohol mixed with water—and that the next step in
the process—distillation is necessary merely to separate the alcohol from the
water.
There is always some loss in the process of fermentation; in other words,
the actual production is below the theoretical amount due. Theoretically one
pound of starch should yield 11.45 fluid ounces of alcohol. With a good
result 88.3 per cent. of this theoretical yield is obtained; with an average
result of 80.2 per cent. and with a bad result only about 72.6 per cent. or less.

Fermenting Apparatus. It remains now to describe briefly the vessels or
vats employed in the processes of fermentation. They are made of oak or
cypress, firmly bound together with iron bands, and they should be
somewhat deeper than wide, and slightly conical, so as to present as small a
surface as possible to the action of the air. Their dimensions vary, of course,
with the nature and quantity of the liquor to be fermented. Circular vats are
preferable to square ones, as being better adapted to retain the heat of their
contents. The lid should close securely, and a portion of it should be made to
open without uncovering the whole. For the purpose of heating or cooling
the contents when necessary, it is of great advantage to have a copper coil at
the bottom of the vat, connected with two pipes, one supplying steam and
the other cold water.
Iron vats have also been used, having a jacketed space around them, into
which hot or cold water may be introduced. As wooden vats are porous and
hence uncleanly they have to be constantly scrubbed and disinfected. It is
advisable to cover the interior with linseed oil, varnish or with a shellac
varnish. The diameter of the coil varies according to the size of the vat.
The room in which the vats are placed should be made as free from
draughts as possible by dispensing with superfluous doors and windows; it
should not be too high and should be enclosed by thick walls in order to
keep in the heat. As uniformity of temperature is highly desirable, a
thermometer should be kept in the room, and there should be stoves for
supplying heat in case it be required. The temperature should be kept
between 64° F. and 68° F.
Every precaution must be taken to ensure the most absolute cleanliness;
the floors should be swept or washed with water daily, and the vats, as
pointed out above, must be cleaned out as soon as the contents are removed.
For washing the vats, lime-water should be used when the fermentation has
been too energetic or has shown a tendency to become acid; water acidulated
with sulphuric acid is used when the action has been feeble and the
fermented liquor contains a small quantity of undecomposed sugar. Care
must be taken to get rid of carbonic anhydride formed during the operation.
Buckets of lime-water are sometimes placed about the room for the purpose
of absorbing this gas; but the best way of getting rid of it is to have a number
of holes, three or four inches square, in the floor, through which the gas
escapes by reason of its weight. The dangerous action of this gas and its

effects upon animal life when unmixed with air are too well know to
necessitate any further enforcement of these precautions.
The beer obtained by mashing and fermenting consist essentially of
volatile substances, such as water, alcohol, essential oils and a little acetic
acid, and of non-volatile substances, such as cellulose, dextrine, unaltered
sugar and starch, mineral matters, lactic acid, etc.
The volatile constituents of the liquor possess widely different degrees of
volatility; the alcohol has the lowest boiling point, water the next, then acetic
acid, and last the essential oils. It will thus be seen that the separation of the
volatile and non-volatile constituents by evaporation and condensation of the
vapors given off is very easily effected, and that also by the same process,
which is termed distillation, the volatile substances may be separated from
one another. As the acetic acid and essential oils are present only in very
small quantities, they will not require much consideration.
The aim of distillation is to separate as completely as possible the alcohol
from the water which dilutes it. Table I shows the amount of alcohol
contained in the vapors given off from alcoholic liquids of different strength,
and also their boiling points.
A glance at this table shows to what an extent an alcoholic liquor may be
strengthened by distillation, and how the quantity of spirit in the distillate
increases in proportion as that contained in the original liquor diminishes. It
will also be seen that successive distillations of spirituous liquors will
ultimately yield a spirit of very high strength.
As an example, suppose that a liquid containing five per cent, of alcohol is
to be distilled. Its vapor condensed gives a distillate containing 42 per cent.
of alcohol which, if re-distilled, affords another containing 82 per cent. This,
subjected again to distillation, yields alcohol of over 90 per cent. in strength.
Thus three successive distillations have strengthened the liquor from five per
cent. to 90 per cent.
It will thus be clear that the richness in alcohol of the vapors given off
from boiling alcoholic liquids is not a constant quantity, but that it
necessarily diminishes as the ebullition is continued. For example a liquor
containing seven per cent. of alcohol yields, on boiling a vapor containing 50
per cent. The first portion of the distillate will, therefore, be of this strength.
But as the vapor is proportionally richer in alcohol, the boiling liquor must
become gradually weaker, and, in consequence, must yield weaker vapors.

Thus, when the proportion of alcohol in the boiling liquid has sunk to five
per cent., the vapors condensed at that time will contain only 40 per cent.; at
two per cent. of alcohol in the liquor, the vapors yield only 28 per cent., and
at one per cent., they will be found when condensed to contain only 13 per
cent. From this it will be understood that if the distillation be stopped at any
given point before the complete volatilization of all the alcohol the distillate
obtained will be considerably stronger than if the process had been carried
on to the end. Moreover, another advantage derived from checking the
process before the end, and keeping the last portions of the distillate separate
from the rest, besides that of obtaining a stronger spirit, is that a much purer
one is obtained also. The volatile, essential oils, mentioned above, are
soluble only in strong alcohol, and insoluble in its aqueous solutions. They
distill also at a much higher temperature than alcohol, and so are found only
among the last products of the distillation, which results from raising the
temperature of the boiling liquid. This system of checking the distillation
and removing the products at different points is frequently employed in the
practice of rectification.

CHAPTER III.
Distilling Apparatus.

The Apparatus employed in the process of distillation is called a still,
and is of almost infinite variety. A still may be any vessel which will hold
and permit fermentated “wash” or “beer” to be boiled therein, and which
will collect the vapors arising from the surface of the boiling liquid and
transmit them to a condenser. The still may be either heated by the direct
application of fire, or the liquid in the still raised to the boiling point by the
injection of steam. The steam or vapor rising from the boiling liquid must be
cooled and condensed. This is done by leading it into tubes surrounded by
cold water or the “cold mash.”
The very simplest form of still is shown in Fig. 6, and consists of two
essential parts, the still, or boiler A, made of tinned copper, the condenser C
which may be made of metal or wood and the worm B made of a coil of
tinned copper pipe.
The liquor is boiled in A and the vapors pass off into the worm B, which is
surrounded by the cold water of the condenser, the distillate being drawn off
at f.
The heated vapors passing through the worm B will soon heat up the
water in C thereby retarding perfect condensation. To prevent this, a cold
water supply pipe may be connected to the bottom of C making a connection
at the top of C for an over flow of the warmed up water. By this means the
lowest part of the worm will be kept sufficiently cool to make a rapid
condensation of the vapors.

Fig. 6.—A Simple Still.
The boiler A can be made in two parts; the upper part fitting into the lower
part snugly at d. The pipe from the upper part fitting the worm snugly at e.
This will enable the operator to thoroughly cleanse the boiler before putting
in a new lot of liquor. The joints at e and d should be luted with dough
formed by mixing the flour with a small portion of salt and moistening with
water. This is thoroughly packed at the junctions of the parts to prevent the
escape of steam or vapor.
Fig. 7 shows such a Still as manufactured by the Geo. L. Squier Mfg. Co.,
Buffalo, N. Y.

Fig. 7.—Simple Direct-Heated Still.
In an apparatus of this kind, the vapors of alcohol and water are
condensed together. But if instead of filling the condenser C with cold water,
it is kept at a temperature of 176° F. the greater part of the water-vapor will
be condensed while the alcohol, which boils at 172.4° F. passes through the
coil uncondensed. If therefore the water be condensed and collected
separately in this manner, and the alcoholic vapors be conducted into another
cooler kept at temperature below 172.4° F., the alcohol will be obtained in a
much higher state of concentration than it would be by a process of simple
distillation.
Supposing, again, that vapors containing but a small quantity of alcohol
are brought into contact with an alcoholic liquid of lower temperature than
the vapors themselves, and in very small quantity, the vapor of water will be
partly condensed, so that the remainder will be richer in alcohol than it was
previously. But the water, in condensing, converts into vapor a portion of the
spirit contained in the liquid interposed, so that the uncondensed vapors
passing away are still further enriched by this means. Here, then, are the
results obtained; the alcoholic vapors are strengthened, firstly, by the
removal of a portion of the water wherewith they were mixed; and then by

the admixture with them of the vaporized spirit placed in the condenser. By
the employment of some such method as this, a very satisfactory yield of
spirit may be obtained, both with regard to quality, as it is extremely
concentrated, and to the cost of production, since the simple condensation of
the water is made use of to convert the spirit into vapor without the necessity
of having recourse to fuel. The construction of every variety of distilling
apparatus now in use is based upon the above principles.
A sectional view of another simple form of still is shown in Fig. 8; V is a
wooden vat having a tight fitting cover a, through the center of which a hole
has been cut. The wide end of a goose neck of copper pipe g is securely
fitted over this aperture, the smaller end of this pipe passes through the cover
of the retort R extending nearly to the bottom; f is the steam supply pipe
from boiler; M the rectifier consisting of a cylindrical copper vessel
containing a number of small vertical pipes surrounded by a cold water
jacket; o the inlet for the cold water which circulates around these small
pipes, discharging at n; the pipes in M have a common connection to a pipe
p, which connects the rectifier with coil in cooler C; s is a pipe to the
receptacle for receiving the distillate; u cold water supply pipe to cooler, and
W discharge for warmed-up water, k discharge for refuse wash in vat V.
Fig. 7 shows such a Still as manufactured by the Geo. L. Squier Mfg. Co.,
Buffalo, N. Y.

Fig. 8.—Simple Still, with Rectifier.
The operation is as follows: The vat V is nearly filled with fermented
mash and retort R with weak distillate from a previous operation. Steam is
then turned into the pipe f discharging near the bottom of the vat V and
working up through the mash. This heats up the mash and the vapors escape
up g over into R where they warm up the weak distillate. The vapors thus
enriched rise into M, where a good percentage of the water vapor is distilled,
that is, condensed by the cold water surrounding the small pipes. The vapor
then passes over through p into the coil, where it is liquified and from
whence it passes by pipe s into the receiver. The cold water for cooling both
M and C can be turned on as soon as the apparatus has become thoroughly
heated up.
The stills in use to-day in many parts of the South for the production of
whiskey are quite as simple as those above described, and some for the
making of “moonshine” liquor are more so.

The first distilling apparatus for the production of strong alcohol on an
industrial scale was invented by Edward Adam, in the year 1801. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 9, in which A is a still to contain the liquor
placed over a suitable heater. The vapors were conducted by a tube into the
egg-shaped vessel B, the tube reaching nearly to the bottom; they then
passed out by another tube into a second egg C; then, in some cases, into a
third, not shown in the figure, and finally into the worm D, and through a
cock at G into the receiver. The liquor condensed in the first egg is stronger
than that in the still, while that found in the second and third is stronger than
either. The spirit which is condensed at the bottom of the worm is of a very
high degree of strength. At the bottom of each of the eggs, there is a tube
connected with the still, by which the concentrated liquors may be run back
into A for redistillation after the refuse liquor from the first distill has been
run off.

Fig. 9.—Adam’s Still.
In the tube is a stop-cock a, by regulating which, enough liquor could be
kept in the eggs to cover the lower ends of the entrance pipes, so that the
alcoholic vapors were not only deprived of water by the cooling which they
underwent in passing through the eggs, but were also mixed with fresh spirit

obtained from the vaporization of the liquid remaining in the bottom of the
eggs, in the manner already described.
Adam’s arrangement fulfilled, therefore, the two conditions necessary for
the production of strong spirit inexpensively; but unfortunately it had also
serious defects. The temperature of the egg could not be maintained at a
constant standard, and the bubbling of the vapors through the liquor inside
created too high a pressure. It was, however, a source of great profit to its
inventor for a long period, although it gave rise to many imitations and
improvements.
The operation of distilling is often carried on in the apparatus represented
in Fig. 22. It is termed the Patent Simplified Distilling Apparatus; it was
originally invented by Corty, but it has since undergone much improvement.
A is the body of the still, into which the wash is put; B the head of the still; c
c c three copper plates fitted in the upper part of the three boxes; these are
kept cool by a supply of water from the pipe E, which is distributed on the
top of the boxes by means of the pipes G G G. The least pure portion of the
ascending vapors is condensed as it reaches the lowest plate, and falls back,
and the next portion as it reaches the second plate, while the purest and
lightest vapors pass over the goose-neck, and are condensed in the worm.
The temperature of the plates is regulated by altering the flow of water by
means of the cock F. For the purpose of cleaning the apparatus, a jet of
steam or water may be introduced at a. A regulator is affixed at the screw-
joint H, at the lower end of the worm, which addition is considered an
important part of the improvement. The part of the apparatus marked I
becomes filled soon after the operation has commenced; the end of the other
pipe K is immersed in water in the vessel L. The advantage claimed for this
apparatus is that the condensation proceeds in a partial vacuum, and that
there is therefore a great saving in fuel. One of these stills, having a capacity
of 400 gallons, is said to work off four or five charges during a day of 12
hours, furnishing a spirit 35 per cent. over-proof.

Fig. 10.—Corty’s Simplified Distilling Apparatus.
Fig. 11 represents a double still which was at one time largely employed
in the colonies. It is simply an addition of the common still A to the patent
still B. From time to time the contents of B are run off into A, those of A
being drawn off as dunder, the spirit from A passing over into B. Both stills
are heated by the same fire; and it is said that much fine spirit can be
obtained by their use at the expense of a very inconsiderable amount of fuel.

Fig. 11.—Double Still.
Compound Distillation. Where stills of the form shown in Figs. 6 and 8
are used the alcohol obtained is weak. Hence it is necessary that the distillate
be again itself distilled, the operation being repeated a number of times. In
the better class of still, however, compound distillation is performed the
mash is heated by the hot vapors rising from the still and the vapors are
condensed and run back into the still greatly enriched.

Fig. 12.—Dorn’s Compound Still.
The principle of compound distillation is well shown in Dorn’s apparatus,
Fig. 12. This consists of a still or boiler A having a large dome-shaped head,
on the interior faces of which the alcoholic vapors will condense. Thus only
enriched vapors will pass up through goose-neck B to the mash heater D. C
is a worm the end of which passes out to a compartment E through an
inclined partition F. From the compartment E a pipe e leads into the still A.
An agitator H is used for stirring the mash, so that it may be uniformly
heated. A pipe d provided with a cock allows the mash to be drawn off into
the still A. From the highest point of the compartment E a pipe M leads to
condensing coil K in a tub J of cold water, having a draw-off cock I.
At the exit end of the condensing worm K the tube is bent in a U form as
at L, one arm of which has a curved open-ended continuation n, through
which the air in the worm is expelled. The other arm opens into an inverted
jar l containing a hydrometer, for indicating the strength of the spirit. The
spirits pass off through m into a receiver.
In operation the mash is admitted into the heater D through G until the
heating tank is nearly filled. A certain amount of mash is then allowed to run
into the still A through the pipe d. The cock in d is closed and the fire
lighted.

The vapors from the still are condensed in worm C and the condensed
liquid drops down into compartment E. Any vapor passing through B and C
so highly heated as to be uncondensed in coils C passes through the layer of
liquid in compartment E, collects in the highest portion of the compartment
and passes through pipe M to coil K where it is entirely liquefied. If the
liquid in E rises beyond a certain level it passes through pipe e back to the
still. Any vapors which may collect in the upper part of D pass into the small
bent pipe opening into the first coil of worm C. Water for rinsing the heater
D may be drawn through cock s from the tub J and warm water for rinsing
the still, through pipe d from the heater.
Another form of compound still is shown in Fig. 13. In this the still S is
divided into an upper and lower compartment by a concavo-convex partition
d, having at its crown an upwardly extending tube t from which projects side
tubes p. A pipe P opens above and extends from tube t. C is the mash heater
and condenser. Connected to the head of the still is a pipe T through which
the vapors pass to a condensing coil f formed on the wall of the heater C. At
its bottom the coil f extends out of the heater, through the water tub W and
out to receiver as at F. In the heat of this heater is a valve V whereby any
vapors which may arise from the heated mash are conducted by pipe U to T.
The heater C is filled through funnel Y and the mash is admitted to the still
through pipe b having cock a. The pipe P extends to the upper part of the
water tub W and then downward to the bottom, where it again enters the still.
An opening in the partition d is controlled by a valve G which allows
liquid in the upper compartment of the still to flow into the lower. Spent
mash may be drawn off through c and the height of the water in tub W be
regulated by pipe Z.

Fig. 13.—Compound Still.
The operation of this still is similar to Dorn’s still. Mash is put into C and
a quantity of it is let into the upper compartment of the still and into the
lower compartment by valve G. This valve is closed and the fire started. The
vapors pass upward through t. If they are quite highly vaporized they pass
onward up P, are condensed in their passage through the cool water tub and
return as liquid to the upper compartment where they are further heated.
The liquid in the upper compartment is thus constantly enriched and the
vapor therefrom passes out through pipe T into condensing coils f where it is
condensed into spirit and passes off by F.

Fig. 14.—Compound Direct Fire Still.
The funnel tube Y acts also as a means of warning the attendant as to the
condition of the mash. If it is too high in level and the pressure of vapor in
the heater C too great, liquid will be forced out of Y; if on the contrary, the
mash sinks below the level of the pipe then vapor will escape and the heater
needs refilling.
Fig. 14 shows a simple form of compound direct fire still as manufactured
by the Geo. L. Squier Mfg. Co., of Buffalo, N. Y.
Cellier-Blumenthal carrying this principle further devised an apparatus
which has become the basis of all subsequent improvements; indeed, every
successive invention has differed from this arrangement merely in detail, the

general principles being in every case the same. The chief defect in the
simple stills was that they were intermittent that is required the operations to
be suspended when they were recharged, while that of Cellier-Blumenthal is
continuous; that is to say, the liquid for distillation is introduced at one end
of the arrangement, and the alcoholic products are received continuously,
and of a constant degree of concentration, at the other. The saving of time
and fuel resulting from the use of his still is enormous. In the case of the
simple stills, the fuel consumed amounted to a weight nearly three times that
of the spirit yielded by it; whereas, the Cellier-Blumenthal apparatus reduces
the amount to one-quarter of the weight of alcohol produced. Fig. 15 shows
the whole arrangement, and Figs. 16 to 17 represent different parts of it in
detail.

Fig. 15.—Cellier-Blumenthal Still.
In Fig. 15 A is a boiler, placed over a brick furnace; B is the still, placed
beside it, on a slightly higher level and heated by the furnace flue which
passes underneath it. A pipe e conducts the steam from the boiler to the
bottom of the still. By another pipe d, which is furnished with a stop cock
and which reaches to the bottom of the still A, the alcoholic liquors in the
still may be run from it into the boiler; by turning the valve the spent liquor
may be run out at a. The glass tubes b and f show the height of liquid in the
two vessels. K is the valve for filling the boiler and c the safety valve.

Fig. 16.—Details of Rectifier Column.
The still is surmounted by a column C, shown in section in Fig. 16. This
column contains an enriching arrangement whereby the liquid flowing down
into the still B is brought into intimate contact with the steam rising from the

still. The liquid meets with obstacles in falling and falls downward in a
shower, which thus presents multiplied obstacles to the ascent of the vapor.
The liquid is thus heated almost to the boiling point before it falls into the
still B. The construction for effecting this is shown at C, Fig. 16 and consists
of an enclosed series of nine sets of circular copper saucer-shaped capsules,
placed one above the other, and secured to three metallic rods passing
through the series so that they can be all removed as one piece. These
capsules are of different diameters, the larger ones which are, nearly the
diameter of the column, are placed with the rounded side downwards, and
are pierced with small holes; the smaller ones are turned bottom upwards, a
stream of the liquid to be distilled flows down the pipe h from E, into the top
capsule of C and then percolating through the small holes, falls into the
smaller capsule beneath, and from the rim of this upon the one next below,
and so throughout the whole of the series until it reaches the bottom and falls
into the still B. The vapors rise up into the column from the still and meeting
the stream of liquid convert it partially into vapor which passes out at the top
of C considerably enriched, into the column D.
Fig. 16 shows a sectional view of the column D, the “rectifying column”
as it is called. It contains six vessels, placed one above the other, in an
inverted position, so as to form seals. These are so disposed that the vapors
must pass through a thin layer of liquor in each vessel. Some of the vapor is
thus condensed and the condensed liquid flows back into column C, the
uncondensed vapor considerably enriched passing up the pipe J, into the coil
S in the condenser E, Fig. 17, which is filled with the “wash” to be distilled.

Fig. 17.—Details of Condenser and Mash Heater.
Entering by the pipe t, Fig. 15, the undistilled liquid or “wash” is
distributed over a perforated plate y y, and falls in drops into the condenser
E, where it is heated by contact with the coil S containing the heated vapors.
The condenser is divided into two compartments by a diaphragm X which is
pierced with holes at its lower extremity; through these holes the wash flows
into the second compartment, and passes out at the top, where it runs
through the pipe h, into the top of the column C.
The vapors are made to traverse the coil S, which is kept at an average
temperature of 122° F., in the right hand compartment, and somewhat higher
in the other. They pass first through J into the hottest part of the coil, and
there give up much of the water with which they are mixed, and the process
of concentration continues as they pass through the coil. Each spiral is
connected at the bottom with a vertical pipe by which the condensed liquors
are run off; these are conducted into the retrograding pipe p p. Those which
are condensed in the hottest part of the coil, and are consequently the
weakest, are led by the pipe L into the third vessel in the column D, Fig. 16,

while the stronger or more vaporized portions pass through L′ into the fifth
vessel. Stop-cocks at m, n, o regulate the flow of the liquid into these
vessels, and consequently also the strength of the spirit obtained.
Lastly, as the highly concentrated vapors leave the coil S at R, they are
condensed in the vessel F, which contains another coil. This is kept cool by a
stream of liquid flowing from the reservoir H into the smaller cistern G from
which a continuous and regular flow is kept up through the tap v into a
funnel N and thence into condenser F. It ultimately flows into condenser E
through pipe t, there being no other outlet. The finished products run out by
pipe x into suitable receivers.
It will be seen that the condenser E has two functions. First it condenses
the alcoholic vapors before transmitting them to the final condenser F,
rejecting and sending back those vapors which are not highly enough
vaporized. Second it heats the wash intended for distilling by appropriating
the heat of the vapors to be condensed. Thus two birds are killed with one
stone. It will be noticed that the same result is accomplished in the columns
C and D. This is the principle of all modern stills.
Another form of still which is very analogous to that last described is
Coffey’s apparatus, shown in Fig. 18, and is the immediate prototype of the
stills used to-day in all but the simplest plants.

Fig. 18.—Coffey’s Rectifying Still.

It consists of two columns, C the analyser, and H the rectifier, placed side
by side and above a chamber containing a steam pipe b from a boiler A. This
chamber is divided into two compartments by a horizontal partition a
pierced with small holes and furnished with four safety valves e e e e. The
column C is divided into twelve small compartments, by means of horizontal
partitions of copper, also pierced with holes and each provided with two
little valves f. The spirituous vapors passing up this column are led by a pipe
i to the bottom of the second column or rectifier. This column is also divided
into compartments in precisely the same way, except that there are fifteen of
them, the ten lowest being separated by the partitions, which are pierced
with holes. The remaining five partitions are not perforated, but have a wide
opening as at w, for the passage of the vapors, and form a condenser for the
finished spirit. Between each of these partitions passes one bend of a long
zig-zag pipe m, beginning at the top of the column, winding downwards to
the bottom, and finally passing upwards again to the top of the other column,
so as to discharge its contents into the highest compartment. The apparatus
works in the following way: The pump Q is set in motion, and the zig-zag
pipe m then fills with the wash or fermented liquor until it runs over at n into
the highest compartment of column C. The pump is then stopped, and steam
is introduced through b, passing up through the two bottom chambers and
the short pipe F into the analyzing column, finally reaching the bottom of the
other column by means of the pipe i. Here it surrounds the coil pipe m
containing the wash, so that the latter becomes rapidly heated.
When several bends of the pipe have become heated, the pump is again set
to work, and the hot wash is driven rapidly through the coil and into the
analyzer at n. Here it takes the course indicated by the arrows, running down
from chamber to chamber through the tubes h until it reaches the bottom;
none of the liquor finds its way through the perforations in the various
partitions, owing to the pressure of the ascending steam.
As the liquid cannot pass through the holes in the partitions it can only
pass downward through the drop-pipe tubes h. By this means the mash is
spread in a thin stratum over each partition to the depth of the seal g and is
fully exposed to the steam forcing its way up through the holes, the alcohol
it contains being thus volatilized at every step.
In its course downwards the wash is met by the steam passing up through
the perforations, and the whole of the spirit which it contains is thus
converted into vapor. As soon as the chamber B is nearly full of the spent

wash, its contents are run off into the lower compartment by opening a valve
in the pipe V. By means of the cock E, they are finally discharged from the
apparatus. This process is continued until all the wash has been pumped
through.
The course taken by the steam will be readily understood by a glance at
the figure. When it has passed through each of the chambers of the analyzer,
the mixed vapors of water and spirit pass through the pipe i into the
rectifying column. Ascending again, they heat the coiled pipe m, and are
partially deprived of aqueous vapors by condensation. Being thus gradually
concentrated, by the time they reach the opening at w they consist of nearly
pure spirit, and are then condensed by the cool liquid in the pipe, fall upon
the partition and are carried away by the pipe y to a refrigerator W. Any
uncondensed gases pass out by the pipe R to the same refrigerator, where
they are deprived of any alcohol they may contain. The weak liquor
condensed in the different compartments of the rectifier descends in the
same manner as the wash descends in the other column; as it always contains
a little spirit, it is conveyed by means of the pipe S to the vessel L in order to
be pumped once more through the apparatus.
The condensed spirit gathered over the plates v passes out through the
pipe y to the condensing worm T. If any vapors escape the condensing plates
they pass into R and are condensed in the worm T also. From worm T the
spirit flows into a suitable receiver Z.
Before the process of distillation commences, it is usual, especially when
the common Scotch stills are employed, to add about one lb. of soap to the
contents of the still for every 100 gallons of wash. This is done in order to
prevent the liquid from boiling over, which object is effected in the
following way: The fermented wash always contains small quantities of
acetic acid; this acts upon the soap, liberating an oily compound which floats
upon the surface. The bubbles of gas as they rise from the body of the liquid
are broken by this layer of oil, and hence the violence of the ebullition is
considerably checked. Butter is sometimes employed for the same purpose.

Fig. 19.—Rotary Current Still.
Figs. 19 and 20 show a diagrammatic section and a plan of a still used for
thick mashes which are liable to burn. This comprises a circular chamber B
supported over suitable heating means, having on its bottom a series of
concentric partitions b which divide the bottom of the chamber into shallow
channels for the mash. Running diametrically through the chamber is a
partition.

Fig. 20.—Rotary Current Still.
The mash passes from a tank as A by a passage a to an opening on one
side of the central portion and into the outside channel b. The current of
liquid passes along the outer channel until it is deflected by the central
partition into the next interior channel b and so on until it arrives at the
center when it passes through the central partition into the other half of the
chamber. Here it passes around back and forth and gradually outward to the
outermost channel from which it passes off through an adjustable gate in
outlet c. By adjusting this gate, and a gate or cock in inlet passage a, the
passage and consequent depth of the liquid in the channels may be regulated.
The vapor rising from the mash is carried over to a condenser through pipe
D. In order to keep the mash from burning a chain g is rotarily reciprocated
along the channels by means of the bar G, the gear E and the crank shaft e.
Various modifications of this construction have been devised. The advantage
of the still lies in submitting the mash in a thin current to the action of the
heat, and the consequent rapid vaporization.

Every
distillation
consists of two
operations: The
conversion of
liquid into vapor,
and the
reconversion of
the vapor into
liquid. Hence
perfect
equilibrium
should be
established
between the
vaporizing heat
and the
condensing cold.
The quantity of
vapor must not be
greater or less
than can be
condensed. If fire
is too violent the
vapors will pass
out of the worm
uncondensed. If
the fire is too low
the pressure of
the vapor is not
great enough to
prevent the
entrance of air,
Fig. 21.—Indicator for Regulating the Distilling Fire. which obstructs
distillation. As a
means of indicating the proper regulation of the fire, the simple little device
shown in Fig. 21 may be used.

This consists of a tube of copper or glass having a ball B eight inches in
diameter. The upper end E of the tube is attached to the condensing worm.
The lower end of the tube is bent in U-shape; the length of the two bends
from b to outlet is four feet. The ball has a capacity slightly greater than the
two legs of the bend.
Normally the liquid in the two legs will stand at a level. If, however, the
fire is too brisk the vapor will enter the tube and drive out the liquor at d, and
thus the level in the leg C will be less than in the leg D. If, however, the fire
is low, the pressure of vapor in the worm will decrease and the pressure of
the outside air will force down the liquid in leg D and up leg C into the ball.
A more perfected device but operating on the same principle is shown in
Fig. 26.
It is obviously impossible to present in the small compass of this book a
description of all the varieties of stills used, but these which have been
described illustrate the principles on which all stills are constructed and were
chosen for their simplicity of construction and clearness of their operation.
The principle of their operation is exactly the same as the more modern
forms now to be described.

CHAPTER IV.
Modern Distilling Apparatus.

In the previous chapter we have given a description of small, simple stills,
such as were used until late years, and which are yet used in many localities
where distilling is carried on on a small scale. We will now describe the
principle features of more complicated and elaborate apparatus.
All modern distilling apparatus for the production of a high grade of
alcohol is based upon the principle set forth in the description of the Coffey
still; that is, upon using a distilling column and a concentrating column,
wherein the “wash” or mash fermented as described, passes over a series of
plates or other obstructions in contact with an ascending column of heated
vapor. This heated vapor extracts the alcohol from the wash, or from the low
wines of the concentrator, and is continually strengthened during its journey
until it passes off to a condenser as a vapor very rich in alcohol. The
converse of this is true with the wash, which in its downward course is
gradually deprived of its alcohol until it finally passes off at the bottom of
the column.

Fig. 22.—Diagramatic View of Column Still and Accessory Apparatus.

Fig. 22 is illustrative of the general form and arrangement of such a
column and its adjuncts; the details, however, will vary with each make of
still. In this the “column” consists of a casing really continuous but divided
into two portions—the distilling portion A and the rectifying portion B. The
operation is alike, however, in principle in both portions.

Fig. 23.—Distilling Plate.
The wash by means of a suitable pump is forced into an overhead tank or
concentrator G where it is warmed by the hot vapors as will be later
described. It passes around the interior of the concentrator in a coil c and

then passes off by a pipe a to the uppermost plate of the distilling portion A
of the column.
The plates, as before explained on page 55, are each formed with a
dropping tube O (see Fig. 23), which extends above the plate to an extent
slightly less than the desired thickness of the layer of liquid on each plate,
and with perforations each having an upwardly projecting rim, and each
covered with a cap A. This rim and cap form a trap. The ascending vapors
pass up through the perforations, down between the rim and the edge of the
cap and thus out through the layer of wash contained on the cap. The wash
remains constantly level with the top of the tube O, the excess running off
through the tube O to the compartment or plate beneath.
To return to Fig. 22, the wash by the pipe a enters the distilling portion of
the column at the uppermost plate thereof and, as described above, drops
down from plate to plate. A steam pipe S enters the bottom compartment of
the distilling portion of the column and the steam as it rises through the little
traps, bubbles out through the layer of wash and in each compartment
enriches itself with alcohol. Thus the rising column of vapor is constantly
becoming richer and the downward current of wash constantly weaker until
at last it passes away as spent wash at the very bottom of the column by the
pipe D.
The hot vapors, as before described, pass upward and enter the rectifying
portion of the column B. This consists of a series of compartments having
perforated bottoms and dropping tubes. The vapor passes upward through
these perforations of the plates,—the condensed portion of it dropping back
again on to the lower plates or on to the distilling plates to be again
vaporized and concentrated and the more highly vaporized portion passing
out at the top of the column through the pipe E to the concentrator G.
The concentrator consists of a tank containing water within which is
supported a vessel F having double walls. The interior of this vessel is
likewise filled with water. Between the double walls and surrounding the
coiled pipe c passes the vapors from pipe E.
At the bottom of the vessel F is a compartment f connected by a pipe F′
with the upper compartment of the rectifying column. The less highly heated
vapors will be condensed by the passage through the double walls of the
vessel and the condensation will collect in the compartment f, and from there

pass off by pipe F′ back to the rectifying column, to be again vaporized and
strengthened by the descent from plate to plate of B.
The rich and highly vaporized vapors which have passed the test of this
preliminary concentration, pass out of the compartment f by a pipe M. Here
again the water surrounding the pipe tends to condense all but the most
highly charged vapor and send it back to compartment f but the vapor which
succeeds in passing over through pipe G is carried downward to a condenser
H where it is finally condensed and drawn off as at g. It is necessary that the
rate of mash feed be regulated so that neither too much mash shall be
pumped into the mash heater G, or too little, and the pipe leading from the
pump to the heater is therefore provided with a tap and an indicating dial.
In these modern stills the following are particularly important points to be
especially brought to the consideration of the distiller.
It cannot be too strongly impressed that effectiveness of the distilling
column depends on the plates dividing it,—that is, upon the horizontality of
the plates and the form of the traps or perforations. If the plates are not
horizontal the wash is not maintained at a uniform level across the entire
extent of the plate and hence some of the ascending vapor will pass out
without contacting with the wash through uncovered traps, while others of
the traps will be so deeply submerged in wash that the vapor cannot bubble
through.
Again the caps should be so made as to divide the vapor into fine streams
and bring it into contact with each part of the wash. Plates simply perforated
and uncapped give excellent results for they molecularize the vapor
ascending through the liquid contained on the plates, but they require a
constant pressure of vapor, and any variations of pressure tends to discharge
them. In addition these perforations gradually enlarge by the action of acids
in the wash or clog up, and the apparatus soon works badly.
Good forms of capped traps are those shown in Figs. 24, 25 devised by
Barbet. These are provided with an interior upwardly projecting rim.
Extending over the rim and down around it is a copper cap having its margin
slitted.
The wash carried on the plate circulates about the caps and the alcoholic
vapors bubble out through the slits and up through the wash, the vapor thus
being finely divided and coming into intimate contact with each portion of
the wash and thus more thoroughly depriving it of its alcohol.

Fig. 24.—Barbet Trap. Fig. 25.—Barbet Trap.
Besides this there is another advantage resident in these caps, namely, that
distillation may be stopped for several hours and then re-started without
trouble for the reason that the wash has been retained on the plates, whereas
were the plates simply perforated the wash would ooze through and the
plates have to be recharged. This form of plate may be easily repaired and
does not necessitate the removal or replacement of the plate itself. The caps
alone need be removed.
For thick washes, which tends to obstruct the slits of the cap, Barbet has
devised the cap shown at the right in Fig. 25. This cap extends down to the
plate itself, and has very narrow slits in its periphery. With such a cap as
shown in Fig. 24, the bran, sediments, etc., would tend to settle upon the top
of the cap, enter beneath it and through the slits. The cone-shape of the top
of this cap prevents the deposit of dregs thereon and the very narrow slits
oppose the entrance of bran or sediment.
While, for the sake of clearness, an old form of concentrator, G, has been
shown, the concentrator, preheater for the wash, and condensers, to-day, are
usually composed of bundles of tubes through which the vapors pass
surrounded by water or the cool wash. These should be of bronze or copper
and made without solder. The tubes should be capable of being taken out for
cleaning or repairing.
In many distilling apparatuses the distilling column and the rectifying
column are in two parts, one beside the other. This overcomes the objection
of having a very high column and also prevents the low wines, i.e., the weak
alcoholic liquor after its first concentration, from passing into the wash as it
would do with the continuous column.

Fig. 26.—Steam Regulator.
In order that the amount of steam entering the column may be regulated,
the column is usually provided with a steam regulator (Fig. 26); whose
principle of operation may be easily under stood by referring to Fig. 22. It
comprises an upper and a lower chamber Z Z′ connected by a central tube K
which projects down nearly to the bottom of the lower chamber. A pipe W
communicates with the steam chamber R of the column and enters the
chamber Z above the level of the water contained therein. In the upper
chamber Z′, is a float X, connected to the differential lever T of a steam valve
T′ which controls the inlet of steam passing through pipe S to the steam chest
R. The principle of operation is very simple. When the pressure in the steam
chest R becomes too great, steam in the pipe W and chamber Z forces the
water therein up in tube K, thus lifting the float X and closing the steam
entrance valve T′. When the pressure of steam is low, the level of the liquid
in Z rises and liquid in Z′ runs into Z, the float X falls opening valve T′ and
allowing a greater flow of steam.

Fig. 27.—Gauge Glass for Regulatur.
As it is often desirable to change the pressure of steam in the column at
various points in the operation, the best regulators are usually provided with
means to that end.
In order to measure the output of the still, there is attached thereto a gauge
glass (J in Fig. 22), a diagram of which is shown in Fig. 27. This consists of
a jar A connected at its lower end at b by an annular passage B to a chamber
E from which proceed the taps F. Centrally through the passage B passes a
tube c connected at its lower end to the pipe C leading from the condenser.
The tube C c projects upward into the jar A and is open at its upper end.

Fig. 28.—Continuous Distilling Apparatus, with External Tubular
Condenser.
Now the opening b is of a certain size and it is obvious that it will carry
off a certain amount of liquid when running full or the amount allowed to
flow out by the exit tap F. If now, more than that quantity of alcohol is
produced, the alcohol will rise in the jar A until the rate of inflow and
outflow is equal. If, however, the still is producing less than that quantity
then the level of liquid in A will gradually drop. Hence, by observing the
level of the liquid in A and its constancy or variation in level, it is possible to
tell precisely how much alcohol is running per hour and if the rate is steady.
The jar A is provided with a cap G whereby an alcoholometer may be
inserted into tube c for the purpose of testing the strength of the liquor. The
taps F are for the purpose of collecting the first runnings, the pure alcohol
and the last runnings or “feints.”

Fig. 29.—Detail of Chamber, Continuous Still.
These principles are also embodied in the apparatus designed by the
Vulcan Copper Works Co., of Cincinnati, and illustrated in Fig. 28. The
apparatus comprises the still, a wash heater and a condenser. The still is
composed of a series of chambers from 12 to 24, the internal construction of
which is shown in Fig. 29. Each chamber consists of a peculiarly perforated
plate A, a drop pipe B, a seal C, into which the drop pipe from the plate
above projects, and a central standard D.

Returning now to Fig. 28, at the bottom of the column is a manifold E,
with pipes F and G whereby either exhaust or live steam may be admitted. H
designates the discharge or slop valve, controlled by a float I whereby a
constant level of slop or spent wash is kept in the bottom chamber.
To the right of the column is seen the slop tester J and hydrometer L,
whereby the spent wash may be tested to see if the spirit is being properly
extracted. The steam pressure is indicated by means of a float N contained
within a vessel M, a tally weight moving against a scale K, showing the
pressure of steam entering through pipe O and acting against water
contained in vessel M. Each chamber is provided with a manhole plate P,
and a try-cock Q, whereby the operation of each chamber may be tested. R is
a gage glass to show the level of the slop in the bottom chamber.
At the top of the column are three rectifying chambers fitted with boiling
pipes and traps T, which distribute the ascending vapor and boil out the low
wines returned from the wash-heater or fore-warmer.
The heater consists of a shell enclosing a series of tubes extending into an
upper and lower chamber. The wash or “beer,” is pumped into the lower
chamber of the heater, and passes upward through the tubes to the upper
chamber from which is it carried by a pipe to the plate A next below the
rectifying plates.

Fig. 30.—Detail of Perforated Plate A.
The vapor from the column passes into the middle compartment of the
heater and surrounds the beer tubes. The vapors give their heat to the beer
and are thus cooled, the low wines being condensed and flowing back onto
the uppermost rectifying plate, while the highly vaporized portions pass out
to the condenser. This is of the same general construction as the heater, the
vapor being cooled and condensed to liquid by the tubes through which a
constant current of cool water is passed. This enters at U and passes out at V.
These tubular condensers are particularly good as they may be easily
cleaned. From the condenser the spirit passes to a discharge box W. A
portion of the flow passes into a test tube X, provided with a hydrometer. A
trap Y and an air pipe Z provide means for the escape of gas.

Fig. 31.—Detail of Perforated Plate A.
As before stated, the form of perforations in the plates of a column
through which the vapor pass upward through the beer or wash is
particularly important. The steam must be thoroughly diffused through the
beer, or else particles of mash are carried up, accumulate around the
perforations, baking there and clogging them up. The clogging and eventual
stoppage of the perforations prevent the agitation of the mash carried on the
plate, and a layer of mash accumulates and bakes on the head, or plate,
above. Thus the operating capacity of the still is reduced and a larger
quantity and greater pressure of steam is necessary with consequent waste of
fuel.

Fig. 32.—Continuous Distilling Apparatus with Goose Separator.

It is necessary then that the form of perforation or trap through which the
vapor ascends should be such that agitation of the beer shall be enforced in
its movement across the plate, and that the steam shall be thoroughly
diffused through the beer. In the Vulcan still above referred to, these results
are accomplished by forming each perforation with a tongue, as shown in the
fragmentary view of a plate, Figs. 30 and 31, the tongues of all the holes
being directed towards the periphery of the plate. It is claimed that by this
construction the steam is diverted forward and injected into the beer,
throwing the beer into vigorous motion, completely diffusing the steam and
accelerating the motion of the beer from the seal C to the drop pipe B.
Fig. 32 illustrates another form of distilling apparatus manufactured by the
same company, which is practically the same as the apparatus previously
described except that it is provided with a “goose-necked” separator,
interposed between the wash-heater and the enclosure. This consists of a
series of convoluted tubes contained in a tank of cold water. The vapor from
the heater passes into these convolutions. The heavier vapors are condensed
therein and returned to the heater from which they descend into the column
while the more volatilized vapors pass over into the final condenser. The U-
bends at the bottoms of each convolution act like so many low wine
chambers in the still shown in Fig. 9 the highly heated vapor continually
bubbling through the condensed vapor in the U bend and there becoming
greatly enriched and concentrated.
This apparatus, it is claimed, is applicable to the distillation of grain,
molasses or cane juice and will yield 170 or 180 per cent., or the equivalent
to 85–90 G. L. or 34–36 Cartier.

Fig. 33.—Section of Gillaume’s Inclined Column Still.
A distinctly modern type of still, though akin to the still shown in Figs. 19
and 20, is the inclined column of Gillaume, shown in section in Fig. 33 and
in full view in Fig. 34. Gillaume in devising this form of apparatus had
particularly in mind the distillation of thick washes, and the necessity of
compelling a circulation of the wash.

Fig. 34.—Gillaume’s Inclined Column Still.
The bottom of the inclined column A is divided by lateral extending,
upwardly projecting plates or partitions a forming a continuous channel
through which the wash passes from side to side and from top to bottom and
then out through a regulator. The upper plate of the column has downwardly
projecting partitions b which with the partitions a form a series of traps. The
steam enters at the bottom of the column into a reservoir, and in order to
pass upward is forced beneath each partition b and through the washer
contained in the channels of the bottom. When it reaches the upper end of
the column it has passed through a continuous series of wash-filled
compartments containing a constantly moving current of wash.
The vapors from the top of the column pass off to the wash heater or to a
concentrator.
In Fig. 34 is shown a form of Gillaume still designed to distill all sorts of
liquids whether thin or thick. The wash is supplied from an overhead tank to
a regulating tank K from which a pipe k leads to a regulating tap m. The
wash re-ascends into the wash heater B and when heated descends by pipe F
into the uppermost compartments of the column A. The vapor passes to the
condenser B, by a pipe H, and the spent wash is discharged by a siphon C. In
addition to the parts above referred to, a designates entrance of wash into
heater, b exhaust test tube, d steam entrance tap G alcohol test glass, G′
exhaust test glass, o valve for regulating strength of spirit, O steam regulator,
p water entrance tap, r exit tap, and D the spent wash extractor.
The Gillaume apparatus is particularly valuable for the production of
industrial or agricultural alcohol. It is claimed that it is easily understood and
operated even by unskilled labor, while it produces a large proportion of
alcohol of a high strength.
A view of a complete apparatus on a large scale is shown in the Fig. 40 in
the chapter on rectification.

CHAPTER V.
Rectification.

The product of the distillation of alcoholic liquors, which is termed low
wine, does not usually contain alcohol in sufficient quantity to admit of its
being employed for direct consumption. Besides this it always contains
substances which have the property of distilling over with the spirit,
although their boiling points, when in the pure state, are much higher than
that of alcohol. These are all classed under the generic title of fusel-oil;
owing to their very disagreeable taste and smell, their presence in spirit is
extremely objectionable. In order to remove them, the rough products of
distillation are submitted to a further process of concentration and
purification. Besides fusel-oil, they contain other substances, such as
aldehyde, various ethers, etc., the boiling points of which are lower than that
of alcohol; these must also be removed, as they impart to the spirit a fiery
taste. The whole process is termed rectification, and is carried on in a
distillatory apparatus.
As before stated, the wash as discharged into the still consists of alcohol
mixed with water and a variety of impurities from which the alcohol must be
separated. In order that the process may be better understood we will assume
that a mixture of pure alcohol and water is to be operated on in place of the
wash as above referred to. Distillation in this case is intended to deprive the
water of its alcohol, the operation theoretically leaving water in one chamber
and alcohol in another. This is accomplished by reason of the differences in
the boiling points of water and alcohol. The alcohol vaporizes at a lower
degree (173° F.) than water (212° F.) Thus the liquid at the end of the
operation has been divided into two parts or fractions.
This, however, is not a clean division for the reason that while in the
beginning the vapors contain a large quantity of the more volatile alcohol, at
the end they will contain a large portion of the less volatile water. The whole
of the alcohol will be separated in this manner, but it will still be mixed with
some water and in order to again divide the alcohol from the water the first

distillate would have to be redistilled until at last the water is reduced to a
minimum or entirely eliminated, if possible.
But as it requires less heat to vaporize alcohol than water, so it also
requires more cold to condense alcoholic-vapor than water-vapor. If then we
pass the mixed vapors into a condensing chamber cooled to a certain
temperature low enough to condense water-vapor but not the alcohol-vapor,
then the water-vapor will fall down as water while the alcohol-vapor being
uncondensed passes on to another chamber where its temperature falls to a
point where it in turn condenses into liquid.
In intermittent distillation, as by the simple still, the vapors of mixed
alcohol and water at first contain a great deal of alcohol and a little water,
then more water and less alcohol, and then a great deal of water and hardly
any alcohol. It may be asked: “Why not take only the runnings rich in
alcohol and leave the others?” The answer to this is that if this be done then
all the alcohol is not extracted from the wash and there is just that much loss.
The solution of the problem is to get all the alcohol out mixed with the water
that is inevitably with it and then redistill this result thus getting out (sifting
away) some of the water, and again distill this result, and so on until only
pure alcohol is left. This, however, is a very troublesome business and has
been abandoned as a means of removing impurities such as water, the ethers,
and fusel oil except by makers of whiskey, brandy and other beverage spirits,
in favor of continuous distillation and continuous rectification.
It will be seen from what has gone before that there are two means of
separating alcohol and water; one by an initial difference in heating and by a
further difference in cooling or condensing.
It is on this foundation that the whole art of fractional distillation or
rectification rests. While we have for illustration been considering a mixture
of pure alcohol and water, the wash or liquid formed by the fermentation of
grain, etc., contains a variety of ingredients of different boiling points, some
more volatile than alcohol, some less. The fermented wash consists first of
non-volatile or only slightly volatile matters, such as salts, proteins, glycerin,
lactic acid, yeast, etc., and second, volatile bodies such as alcohol, water,
various ethers, etc., fusel oils and acetic acid.
When wash is distilled in the ordinary simple or pot still, the first part to
come over consists of the very volatile matters,—more volatile than alcohol
even,—that is, the ethers mixed with some alcohol. This is known as the

fore-shot or first runnings, and is collected separately. When the spirit
coming over possesses no objectionable odor, the second stage has begun.
This running would be of the alcohol proper, getting weaker and weaker,
however, as the running continues and this would be caught separately as
long as it is of sufficient strength. At last would come the weak spirit
containing much fusel oil. It is to be understood, however, that there is no
defined line between these divisions. They graduate one into the other. The
first and last runnings in the old practice were mixed together and distilled
with the next charge. When a strong spirit was required, rectification would
be repeated several times. It is customary, however, with the improved
modern apparatus, to produce at the outset spirit containing but little fusel oil
and at least 80 per cent of alcohol. This is then purified and concentrated in
the above manner and afterwards reduced with water to the required
strength.
Another cause of the offensive flavor of the products of distillation is the
presence of various acids, which exist in all fermented liquors; they are
chiefly tartaric, malic, acetic, and lactic acids. The excessive action of heat
upon liquors which have been distilled by an open fire has also a particularly
objectionable influence upon the flavor of the products.

Fig. 35.—Rectifying Still.
The first operation in the process of rectification is to neutralize the
above-mentioned acids; this is effected by means of milk of lime, which is
added to the liquor in quantity depending upon its acidity; the point at which
the neutralization is complete is determined by the use of litmus paper. In the
subsequent process of distillation, the determination of the exact moments at
which to begin and to cease collecting the pure spirit is very difficult to
indicate. It must be regulated by the nature of the spirits; some may be pure
20 or 30 minutes after they have attained the desired strength; and some only
run pure an hour, or even more, after this point. The product should be tasted
frequently, after being diluted with water, or a few drops may be poured into
the palm of the hand, and after striking the hands together, it will be known
by the odor whether the spirit be of good quality or not; these two means
may be applied simultaneously.
The process of rectification may be carried on in the apparatus shown in
Figs. 35 and 36. A is a still which contains the spirit to be rectified; it should
be four-fifths full. The condenser E and the cooler G are filled with water.
After closing the cocks L and I, the contents of the still are heated by steam,
which is introduced at first slowly. The vapors of spirit given off pass, by
tubes b, above each plate a, of the series in column B, and escape through C
and D into the condenser E, where they are condensed on reaching the lentils
d d′, and return in a liquid state through pipe f and connections g g′ to the
upper plates of the column B. In these return pipes the liquid is volatilized,
and constantly recharged with alcohol to be again condensed, until the water
in the condenser is hot enough to permit the lighter alcoholic vapors to pass
into the coil c c c, without being reduced to the liquid state. When this is the
case, the vapors pass through F into the cooler G, where they undergo
complete condensation. Great care must be taken that the heat is not so great
as to permit any of the vapors to pass over uncondensed or to flow away in a
hot state; and also to keep up a constant supply of water in the cooler
without producing too low a temperature; the alcoholic products should run
out just cold. The highly volatile constituents of the spirit come over first,
that which follows becoming gradually purer until it consists of well-
flavored alcohol; after this comes a product containing the essential oils. The
more impure products are kept apart from the rest and re-distilled with the
next charge. Some hours generally elapse before alcohol begins to flow from
the cooler. The purest alcohol is obtained while its strength is kept between

92° and 96° Baume, and the operation is complete when the liquid flowing
through the vessel marks not more than 3° or 4° Baume; it is better, however,
to stop the still when the backing or “faints” indicate 10°, because the
product after this point contains much fusel-oil, and is not worth collecting.

Fig. 36.—Section of Rectifying Still.
In order to cleanse the apparatus—which should be performed after each
working—the still A is emptied of water by opening the cock Q. The
contents of the condenser are then emptied in like manner by opening the
cock J, through which they flow upon the plates in the column B, and wash
out essential oils which remain in them. These two cocks are then closed,
and the door U in the still head is removed. The water in the cooler G is then
run by means of pipe into the still A, so as partially to cover the steam-coil in

the latter. After again securing the door U, a strong heat is applied, and the
water in the still is well boiled, the steam evolved thoroughly cleansing all
the different parts of the apparatus; this is continued for 15 or 20 minutes,
when the heat is withdrawn and the still left to cool gradually.
In the intermittent rectifying still above described the impure products are
distilled with the next charge. In the apparatus as perfected and used in large
distilleries or rectification plants, the division of the several products
composing the phlegm or raw spirit is made at one time and continuously on
the principle now to be described.
It was stated in the beginning of this chapter that the various impurities in
alcohol, the ethers, the water and the fusel oils, have each their own
vaporizing point and each their own condensing point. As this is so, they
may be separated from each other and from the alcohol on the same
principle as we have seen that water is separated from the mixture of pure
alcohol and water; that is, by fractionation, as it is termed, or by “sifting out”
one body from another.

Fig. 37.—Fractional Distilling Apparatus.
Thus in fractional distillation, each condenser or retort in the apparatus
shown in Fig. 37, above acts as a sieve or trap, letting pass the most volatile
substances but retaining those of a less degree of volatility. By passing the
mixed vapor together through a good condensing medium the temperature of
which is lower than the boiling point of the less volatile, but not so low as

the boiling point of the more volatile the vapors of the less volatile liquid
will be condensed, while the more volatile will retain their gaseous form.
Thus by having a number of condensing mediums each one slightly lower in
temperature than the other, the various vapors with their various points of
volatilization will be successively condensed, allowing the passage of the
more volatile vapors over to the condenser beyond.
If we had mixed gravel and sand and desired to separate the gravel into
assorted sizes and get the sand by itself, we would pass the mass through a
series of sieves of gradually smaller mesh. The first sieve of course would
catch all the largest pebbles, the next in size would let all the second sized
gravel through, and so on until the final sieve would have separated the
coarse sand from the fine. In this figure of illustration, the coarse pebbles
may be taken to represent the water and the fusel oils which are mixed and
partly tend to rise with the alcohol, and the alcohol may be represented as
the gravel larger than the sand, and the fine sand as the etheric vapors. If this
gravel were forced upwardly through a series of sieves gradually growing
finer, it would be analogous figuratively to the upward passage of the vapors
through a distilling column composed of plates or chambers; the water and
fusel oils would be retained in the lower portion of the column and
continually sent back there; the alcohol would pass into the upper chambers
of the column and the ethers or fore-shots would pass out from the very fine
sieve at the top of the column.
The vertical chambers above each plate of the rectifying column are to-
day used as the separate eliminating chambers referred to above. It has been
found in practice that as before stated, each plate of a column contained
upon it liquid of a certain temperature and above it vapors of a certain degree
of vaporization. That is, in a continuous column fed regularly by
condensation from above and supplied with a constant flow of phlegm, each
plate carries upon it a liquid of constant composition relative to the boiling
point of the fluid on that plate. As many extractions may thus be made from
the various plates as there are different liquids to be isolated. Thus by
tapping different portions of the column, vapors of different degrees of
vaporization are found and may be carried off and the phlegm be thus
fractionated. In the case of one column the first runnings or fore-shot would
be found in the upper portion of the column to which they would have risen
by reason of their degree of volatility. The last runnings or oils, aldehydes,
etc., would be found in the lower portion of the column still mixed with the

spirit, while upon the plates of the middle portion of the column would be
found the vapor of the alcohol freed from the fusel oils and from the,ethers.
It is understood, of course, throughout this description that the liquid
being treated is not wash but phlegm; that is, the raw spirit containing the
fusel oils, ethers, water and alcohol.
Fig. 38 represents a simple rectifying apparatus designed for small or
medium sized plants, and manufactured by the Vulcan Copper Works Co., of
Cincinnati. The still is upright, with a chambered column above it, of the
usual type. The chambers are fitted with a vapor boiling pipe and cap and a
drop pipe, and each is provided with cocks whereby it may be drained for
cleansing. Above the column is a separator, comprising a casing containing a
series of tubes. The vapor from the column circulates around the tubes
through which passes a current of cool water. The condenser is of the same
construction as the separator and is provided with a gage glass and a draw-
off cock. The operation is the same as in other simple rectifiers; part of the
vapor from the column is condensed in the separator and passes back on to
the upper plates, while the more highly vaporized portions pass over into the
condenser.

Fig. 38.—Rectifying Apparatus with External Tubular Condenser.
The diameter of the still is large relatively to its depth so as to yield an
economical and at the same time highly effective distribution of heat through
the charge. This also affords an extended boiling area from which the vapor
rises evenly and regularly, thus ensuring conditions peculiarly conducive to
produce the best fractionating. The floor space required for this still and
others of the same character built by this company is very compact and
excessive weight on the top floor of the building is dispensed with.
We have shown in Figs. 39 and 40 two forms of rectifying apparatus, one
a twin column Barbet rectifier and the other a rectifier of the Gillaume type
combined with inclined column still.
In the twin column apparatus, Fig. 39, the first column or clarifier A
receives the raw phlegm and accomplishes the elimination of ethers. The
clarified phlegm passes then to the second column where the alcohol is
separated from the last runnings or fusel oil. In other words, the phlegm or
impure raw alcohol is only raised to such a temperature in the first column as
to drive off the very volatile constituents such as the ethers. These therefore
pass off at the top of the first column into the condenser C, the
retrogradation or condensed alcohol being returned to A, while the boiling
phlegm taken from the middle of the column and still containing the
aldehydes, oils, etc., is conducted by a pipe E to the second column B
wherein the last runnings or amylic oils, etc., are separated from the purified
spirits.

Fig. 39.—Twin Column Barbet Rectifier.

The vapors in this column are carried to the condensers D and F and from
there to a refrigerator G. The fusel oils are extracted from the plates slightly
below the center of the column and are carried to an oil concentrating
apparatus H.
In the most complete forms of apparatus used to-day, there is a variation
of this construction. The first runnings, middle runnings and the last
runnings are each led off from the main column to separate coolers,
condensers, etc., and the purified result from each of these columns is in turn
led to a trunk rectifier common to all where the product is redistilled and
entirely freed from impurities. This gives a very high grade of alcohol by a
process practically continuous. At the same time the impurities are not
returned to the first or main column to contaminate the vapors therein and
add to the amount of fusel oils contained on the lower plates. In construction
of this character there is a very large saving in the cost of the fuel and the
result is much better in every way.

Fig. 40.—Gillaume’s Rectifier and Inclined Still.
Fig. 40.—Guillaume’s Direct Distillation-Rectification Apparatus for
“Agricultural” Distillations.
A Distilling Column.
a Tank for Wash to be Distilled.
b Cold Water Tank.
C Rectification Column.
D Final Purification Column.
I Wash Heater.
K Condenser.
K′ Refrigerator of Ethers.
O Refrigerator for high-grade Alcohol and the First Runnings.
Q Refrigerator for the Products of the Last Runnings.
R Spent Wash Extractor.
r Siphon Carrying off Spent Wash.
S Steam Regulator.
s Tap and Pipe for Carrying Wash to Distilling Column.
U Water Regulator.
u Taps for the Extraction of Intermediate Impurities.
V Receiver Accumulator.
v Tap for the Extraction of the Last Runnings.
X Test Glass for the High-Grade Alcohol.
Y Test Glass for First Runnings.
Y′ Test Glass for Last Runnings.
Z Test Glass for Determining Degree of Exhaustion of Spent Wash.
In this apparatus the still proper is of the form heretofore described on
page 78. The liquid to be distilled enters at the top of the inclined column A
and descends to the base thereof. The alcoholic vapor rises through the
column and passes off from the head thereof into the rectifying column. At
the head of the column A it has a strength of about 40° to 50° F. The column
C is supported upon an accumulating reservoir V which acts to regulate the
flow of the phlegm through the rectifying column and prevents too great an

exhaustion of the plates of the column. It acts as a reservoir to contain any
excess of phlegm or to supply an additional amount of phlegm to the plates
when they have become nearly exhausted.
The oils or products of the last running accumulate at the base of the
column, and are carried off to their special refrigerator Q. The alcoholic
vapors concentrate while rising in the column and quickly attain a strength
of 92° or 94° F. At a height within the column corresponding to the plates
whereon alcohol of that strength is to be found, there are provided three taps
u whereby the middle runnings or medium grade of alcohol may be drawn
off, which have a maximum concentration of 92° and 94° F. Above these
middle plates the alcohol vapors are completely separated from the products
of the “tail” that is the aldehydes, amylic oils, etc., and at the upper portion
of the column there is found the condenser K which separates the products of
the head; that is the first runnings from the alcohol which has passed over
with such products to the condenser. The alcohol so separated is completely
rectified in the column of final purification D and the finished alcohol is
cooled in the refrigerator O below the column of final condensation. In this
apparatus the gauge glasses which regulate the exit of the various alcohols
and mixtures are controlled by taps having verniers or scales whereby they
may be very carefully adjusted, to regulate the relative proportion of the
various products. This apparatus is able to produce about 75 or 80 per cent.
of first-class alcohol, 10 to 15 per cent. of middle class alcohol, and 5 per
cent. of ethers and 5 per cent. of fusel oils, the alcohol produced being about
96° Cartier.
The alcohol is thus obtained in one single operation and with, it is
asserted, only a very small loss in rectification. The apparatus is claimed to
be so simple that it may be operated even by unskilled farm labor. It is also
claimed that purification by chemical treatment or filtration is unnecessary
with the Guillaume apparatus. It may be stated, however, that the Guillaume
system has many opponents.
The capacity of the rectifying apparatus has a good deal of influence upon
both the quantity and the quality of the spirit obtained. Besides being much
more difficult to manage, a small apparatus will not yield so large a
proportion of spirit as a more capacious one, nor will its products be of
equally good flavor. The proportion of alcohol which may be obtained from
a successful rectification is very variable; it depends upon the nature of the
spirit rectified, the method of extracting the sugar, and the manner of

conducting the distillation; it will also be in inverse proportion to the
quantity of fusel-oil contained in the raw spirit. The average loss of pure
alcohol during the process of rectification is generally estimated at about
five per cent.
In addition to the rectifying as above described, alcohol may be further
purified by filtration through charcoal, by chemical means or by electrolysis.
The last two methods have not so far been successful. The chemicals used
merely act to disguise the disagreeable taste or smell of the spirit and do not
really purify. They but substitute one impurity for another. The agents used
are many—sulphuric and nitrate acids, soaps, oils and fats soda, lime and
potash have each and all been tried, but with no permanent success. As
agents for disguising the taste of new and raw spirits, alcoholic extracts of
fruits have also been used.
Purification and aging by electricity has been tried many times and in
many different forms, but so far has not been commercially practicable.
Filtration still remains the best and simplest adjunct to the rectifier. In
small plants, a filter bed several feet in thickness of bone black or
beachwood or charcoal is used, laid upon a foundation of gravel in a filtering
tank. In the larger plants a series of these vats is used, the charcoal being
used in lumps varying from ¼ to ½ inch in diameter. Two different views of
the purification by charcoal are held—one that the charcoal purifies by
chemical means, the other that it is purely a physical filtration agent. After
filtration the charcoal must be steamed to recover the spirits retained therein
and should be heated to a red heat every now and then to cleanse and
regenerate it.

CHAPTER VI.
Malting.

Wheat, oats, rye, potatoes, and other amalyceous or starchy materials
contain starch insoluble in water and to render it soluble, and to change the
starch to maltose they must be mashed with a certain small proportion of
malt,—or grain in which germination has been artificially induced and then
interrupted at a certain stage. This increases the diastase contained in the
grain so germinated, and this diastase is able to transform starch into soluble
form. Hence, malted grain gives lightness and liquidity to the wash, and
prevents the starch falling to the bottom of the mash tub or “back,” and also
prevents the starch falling to the bottom of the still and consequent burning.
While all varieties of grain including rice are suitable for the preparation
of malt, barley is preferred to all others, and is most commonly used.
The best barley for malting is that having the following characteristics; a
thin skin; a mealy interior; grains of a uniform size; of the greatest weight;
which has been stored for three months. Barley on harvesting has but slight
germinating power. The reason for the uniformity in the grains lies in
necessity of a uniform steeping of the grain so that the period of germination
shall be the same for the whole mass.
Like all materials for distillation, the barley should be thoroughly cleaned
of impurities—not only dust, seeds and weeds, but fungi and bacteria.
This may be partly accomplished in the ordinary fanning mills, usual on
farms, but a better machine would be a “tumbling box” of wire mesh. This is
inclined, so that grain put in the upper end, will pass downward to the lower,
being thrown about as the box or cylinder is rotated. The dust, seeds, etc.,
fall through the meshes of the wire as do the smaller grains. After this
cleaning, the barley should be thoroughly washed. This may be either done
in the steeping vat itself—and the water afterwards drawn off—or in special
machines. If the barley be allowed to soak in water for a day or two, the later
washing will completely cleanse it. This preliminary cleaning is most
important as impurities reduce the germinating power of the grain, as well as
introduce bacteria inimical to fermentation.

Washing in some instances is done by forcing compressed air into the
steeping tub, thus violently agitating and swirling the water therein, and
washing away the impurities. Another method is by passing the steeped
grains along a trough supplied with moving water, the trough being provided
with rotary agitators. Any fairly ingenious mechanic could devise a capable
cleansing machine. Care being taken that it shall not injure the grains.
After cleansing, the barley should be steeped. For this purpose tanks of
metal or cement are to be preferred to wood. All vats should be kept
thoroughly cleaned by frequent scrubbing with lime water.
The barley placed therein should at all times be entirely covered with
fresh water to a depth of a few inches, and for the first few hours the grains
should be carefully stirred in order that no grain should escape wetting. At
the end of that time the still floating grains should be removed.
In 36 or 48 hours the grain will usually be sufficiently steeped,—but this
varies with weather conditions. The warmer the water the quicker the
steeping, and in winter proper steeping may not be accomplished before four
or five days.
A simple test is to rub the grain strongly between the hands, If it is entirely
crushed, and no solid matter is left it has been steeped sufficiently. Barley
should be capable of compression lengthwise and the hull should become
easily detached. It should be easily bitten, and not crack under the teeth. In
order to prevent fermentation in summer, it is well to renew the water a few
times during steeping. Over steeping is worse than under steeping.
After the barley is in proper condition the vat or tank is opened and the
water drained away. The draining should be complete, and therefore the
grain should be left to drain about 12 hours.
Germinating. The grain is now taken to the malting floor. In practice it is
well to locate the steeping vat above the malting floor, so that the steeped
grain may be run down on to the floor without inconvenience.
It is best to first spread the grains out on the floor to a depth of a few
inches in order that it may somewhat dry out. This is not necessary when it
has not been steeped to a great extent.
After 10 or 12 hours of drying, the grain is placed in a heap until warm to
the touch, which may occur in from 12 to 24 hours. It is then disposed in a
layer from eight inches to 20 inches thick. This is called the “wet couch.”

The lower the temperature the thicker the couch should be. It should be
turned every six or eight hours in this stage.
The heat so germinated after 25 or 30 hours produces at the end of each
grain a small white rootlet. The grain in the middle of the layer is the first to
sprout, as it is the warmest, hence the couched grain should be frequently
turned so as to give all the grains a uniform heat, and a uniform germination.
At this period the grains beneath the surface are dampish to the touch.
The height of the couch is now successively lessened to layers of from six
to two inches called “floors,” the height of each floor of course depending on
the temperature, as before.
It is to be understood that the growing grain requires both dampness and
air, hence the “floor” should not be thinned so rapidly as to deprive it of
moisture, and the barley should be turned at least twice a day to give each
grain a proper aeration. During this period the small white rootlets or
radicals should be white and shiny. If they begin to fade, it is a sign that they
lack water and the grain should be sprinkled. Germination usually requires
from a week to ten days, or sometimes two weeks, depending on the
previous steeping, the quality of the grain and the temperature. When the
fibers or rootlets of the grain are about equal to the length of the grain,
germination is complete.
It used to be considered that malt was in its best condition in eight or ten
days. To-day, however, “long malt” is used,—requiring a germinating period
of twenty days, being frequently moistened and turned during this time, and
the temperature being kept at 65° F. This malt is very strong in diastase.
The effect of germination is to produce a change particularly favorable to
mashing. The barley becomes sweetish, the gluten is partially destroyed and
what is left is soluble. Thus the fecula or starch is set at liberty and free to be
acted on by the yeast used in fermenting.
March is the best month in which to malt; and while the malt is best used
immediately, it can not be kept in its green state and must be therefore dried
for future use.
Drying. This is accomplished either in the air of a warm, dry room in hot
weather, or by means of a drying kiln. In the first process the malt is spread
in a thin layer and frequently turned. In the second the grain is spread out in
a layer from eight inches to a foot thick on the grain floor of the kiln.

Beneath the grain floor a fire is maintained. In the beginning the
temperature of the drying floor should be about 85° F., but this is increased
gradually to about 104° F. until most of the moisture has been removed. The
heat is then raised to from 120° F. to 130° F., thus completely drying the
grain.
The germinated green or dried barley is called malt. It is of good quality
when the grain is round and flowery; when it crumbles easily and when its
taste is sweetish and agreeable. Pale malt or that which has been hardly
altered from its original color is the best for distillation.
Before the malt can be used it should be screened so as to remove the
rootlets.
Two hundred and twenty lbs. of barley should yield from 275 to 350 lbs.
of green malt, about 200 lbs. of air dried malt, and from 175 to 190 lbs. of
kiln dried malt.
In large plants malting is now so carried on that the steeping germination
and drying are all accomplished in one vessel or container, by one
continuous operation. This vessel is commonly in the form of a drum of
sheet iron, revolving at a very slow speed. Moist air is introduced and the
carbonic acid laden air withdrawn. After germination the malt is dried by
passing in dry air at the proper temperature.
As these systems are only adopted to large distilleries, using expensive
machinery, further reference to them is not considered necessary in this
volume.
Previous to use the malt must be finely ground or crushed either before or
after mixing with the materials to be mashed. It is not necessary or advisable
that the malt be reduced to flour. The use of malt with other materials in
order to form a fermentible mash, will be considered in the chapters on
specific mashes.

CHAPTER VII.
Alcohol from Potatoes.

In certain countries, as for instance Germany and France, potatoes form
the greatest source of alcohol, particularly for industrial purposes. With the
possible exception of corn and beets they will probably be most used in
America.
The best potatoes for distilling are those which are most farinaceous when
boiled. In other words, those which are “mealy” and most appetizing. These
give the largest yield of alcohol per bushel. The best season of the year in
which to use potatoes is from October to March, when they germinate.
The potatoes should be kept in dry cellars, and at even temperatures,
warm enough to prevent freezing and yet not so warm that they will rot or
sprout. Diseased potatoes may however be used, if they have not been
attacked by dry rot, though they are not so easily worked. Frosted potatoes
may be also used, but they must not have been completely frozen.
Before being steamed, the potatoes should be washed, either by hand or
by a machine, care being taken to remove all stones, clods of earth, and other
foreign substances which might impede the subsequent operations.
There are three main methods of saccharifying the fecula or starch of the
potato. The first and most important by reducing the tubers to a pulp, and
malting the entire mass. The second and third, by rasping the potatoes and so
separating the fecula or starch grains from the mass, and then making a thin
liquor or wash containing this fecula.
Originally, in the first process, the washed potatoes were submitted to the
action of boiling water, but later cooking by steam at a temperature of 212°
F. was used, as being much more convenient to handle and more effective in
action. The object of steaming is to break the coating and reduce the contents
thereof to a pasty condition, wherein the starch is more effectively acted on
by the malt and yeast. Ordinary steaming does not, however, render the pulp
sufficiently pasty; some of the starch remains undissolved and is lost, hence
in the modern practice, steam is turned into the steaming vat under a
pressure of three or four atmosphere (45 to 60 lbs. to the square inch).

High pressure steaming will be later described but the simple and older
method of mashing and apparatus therefor, used prior to 1870, was as
follows:
Fig. 41 shows a section of a steaming vat. This consists of a conical
wooden tub H provided at its top with a suitable cover O having a trap or
door P for putting in the potatoes. This as shown, consists of a hinged lid,
having a button p or other fastening means. This lid and cover should be of
course steam tight, and it would be better to have it clamped down by a
screw clamp than held by a button.
Somewhat above the bottom of the vat, a steam inlet pipe I enters,
connected at its other end by a coupling i with a suitable steam generator
(see Fig. 43), Preferably the outlet of this pipe is screened by a perforated
plate M so that it may not be clogged by the pulp. It is also best that a filling
piece be placed at the junction of the bottom with the sides in order that
there be no sharp corner from which the pulp may not be easily cleaned out.

Fig. 41.—Steaming Vat for Potatoes.
The bottom of the vat may either have a discharge door at the side as in
Fig. 44 or at the bottom, as in Fig. 41.
An under side view of the latter construction is shown in Fig. 42. The
bottom of the vat is made in two parts or doors J K. These are held closed by
a transverse bar L inserted at its end into a stirrup l′ and supported at its other
end by a button l, or other means.

Fig. 42.—Bottom of Steaming Vat.
While various forms of steam generators may be used, Fig. 43 shows a
simple construction well adapted to the needs of a small distillery. D
designates the brick work of a furnace, and A the boiler. This is so set that an
annular space E surrounds the sides of the boiler, through which the products
of combustion must pass.
The head of the boiler is connected by a pipe B and collar b to the steam
inlet pipe I of the steaming vat, heretofore described, as by the collars b i.
A filling tube C enters the boiler and projects nearly to the bottom, and the
water outlet-pipe F with cock f leads off from the upper water line. The tube
C forms also a safety valve, for if the steam pressure becomes too great in
the boiler and connected vat, it will force water up and out through the tube.
If, however, the water falls below the level of the lower end of the tube,
steam will issue and warn the attendant that water is too low. It would be
best however, to provide a steam gauge, whereby the pressure of steam in
the boiler and vat could be accurately indicated.

Fig. 43.—Steam Generator.
It is to be noted that when steamed the potatoes will swell and occupy
more space and that the steam vat should therefore not be much more than
two-thirds filled with potatoes.

With the steaming vat above shown, the potatoes are delivered mixed with
a considerable quantity of water, but a better plan is to have a perforated
false bottom to the tub, whereby the condensed water may be carried away,
the steamed potatoes remaining behind.
Two hours of steaming should reduce the potatoes to proper condition,
which may be tested by introducing a pointed iron rod through a suitable
aperture, normally kept closed. If the rod passes freely inward, the potatoes
are done and may be discharged into the crusher, shown in Fig. 44. In this
Fig. the steaming vat A is shown mounted above the crusher. A pipe B with
cock b leads to the steam generator. The steamed potatoes are shoveled out
through the door a, which is usually held closed by means of the clamps or
buttons a′ a″.
The crusher consists of a hopper C whose bottom fits closely against two
adjacent smooth faced rolls H I of iron. These are driven by gears D E. The
shafts of these gears have cranks d d whereby it may be operated. These
gears are unequal so that the rolls shall move at different speeds, and thus
one will have a grinding action against the face of the other. A counter
weighted scraper e bears against the face of the roll.
The crushed potato pulp passes between the rolls and into a bin beneath,
having adjustable walls made of boards F, sliding in suitable guides f, from
which the pulp may be shoveled into the mashing tank or “back.” The
crusher might, however, be arranged to deliver immediately into the mashing
tank, if the latter is provided with means for stirring the delivered pulp.

Fig. 44.—Potato Steamer and Crusher.
The pulp or paste thus made is now placed in a vat, holding about 650 to
850 gals., in which the saccharification takes place. About 2200 lbs. of the
crushed potatoes and 155 lbs of broken malt are introduced, and immediately
afterwards water is run in at a temperature of about 97° F. to 104° F., the
contents being well stirred with a fork meanwhile. The vat is then carefully
closed for half an hour, after which boiling water is added until the
temperature reaches 140° F., when the whole is left for three or four hours.
The process of fermentation is conducted in the same vat. Alternate doses of
cold and boiling water are run in upon the mixture, until the quantity is made
up to 700 or 775 gallons, according to the size of the vat, and so as finally to
bring the temperature to 75° F. or 79° F. Five and a half to six gallons of
liquid brewer’s yeast are then added, and fermentation speedily sets in. This
process complete, the fermented pulp is distilled in the apparatus devised by
Cellier-Blumenthal (see Fig. 15) for distilling materials of a pasty nature; the
product has a very unpleasant odor and taste.
The process above described is the old method of pulping the potatoes by
using steam. Under the modern method, however, and with modern
apparatus, in preparing potatoes for distillation in large quantities, the
steaming of the material is accomplished at one time and under a high steam
pressure. The apparatus is also used for the preparation of corn, potatoes and
other starch-containing substances.
There are many apparatuses which have been devised for the purpose, but
the principle on which they work is practically the same in all cases. They
comprise a closed tank, fitted with stirrers, agitators, or other means for
mixing and comminuting the contents, means for admitting steam under
pressure, means for cooling the mixture to the proper mashing temperatures,
and means for forcing the steamed material out of the tank.

Fig. 45.—Bohn’s Steamer and Crusher.
The Steamer. One of the earliest forms of steamer was that of
Hallefreund devised in 1871, and adapted for working on a large scale. A
modified form of the apparatus known as Bohn’s steamer and masher is
illustrated in Fig. 45. This comprises a steaming cylinder A, having a
securely closed opening D for the introduction of the potatoes. Centrally
through the cylinder passes a hollow shaft B, which is rotated by the power
pulley K. Hollow arms b project radially from the shaft B. These act as
mixers of the mash and as coolers. The shaft B at one end is connected to a
cold water supply pipe M as by a coupling C, the supply pipe being provided
with a cock. E designates a discharge opening for the mash. A pipe F
provides for the entrance of steam into the cylinder. G is a pipe through
which malt is put in to be mixed with the pulp. L is a steam gauge and J a
safety valve. H designates a water pipe. For the relation of the steamer to
other apparatus, see Fig. 1.
In operation the potatoes are placed in the cylinder A and submitted to the
action of steam at about 46 lbs. to the square inch, and at a temperature of
from 266° F. to 275° F.

When disintegrated, the steam is blown off, and the potatoes crushed by
rotating the stirring shaft. As the pulp must be reduced from 275° F. to 149°
F., the mashing temperature, cold water is forced into the stirrer which chills
the blades and quickly cools the mass.
In the vacuum mash cooker shown in Fig. 1, the steaming cylinder is
partly filled with hot water at 140° F. to 150° F. The potatoes to be mashed
are fed into the cylinder whole. The steamer is then closed and steam
admitted while the mash is stirred until a pressure of 65 pounds is reached,
when the dissolution of the starch is complete. The steam is then exhausted
and the temperature reduced to 212° F. To reduce this temperature to the
proper saccharifying point of 145° F., the hot air is exhausted.
Barley malt meal in the proportion of 6 to 10 per cent. is used. This has
been previously mixed with cold water in the small grain masher. The malt is
admitted to the cylinder and thoroughly mixed with the potato, when the
mixture is withdrawn into a drop tub, where it is still further stirred. It is then
cooled as described on page 15 and then fermented.
While the crushed potatoes are being cooled and stirred, a mixture of
green malt with water is prepared in an adjacent vat, and when the pulp in
the cylinder has been reduced to 149° F. the malt mixture is introduced into
the cylinder through the pipe G, and thoroughly mixed with the crushed
potatoes. The mass is now left to saccharify; the stirrer being operated at
intervals throughout this period. This machine might be readily modified so
that the steam should enter through the stirrers, by tubes attached to the
arms, then the steam may be shut off and cold water sent into the arms
themselves to cool the mash.
A variety of steamer used in various forms and modifications in all the
larger distilleries, is known as the Henze steamer, Fig. 2. In this, there are no
stirrers. The cylinder is conical, and has steam pipes leading to the interior.
At the end of its cone-shaped bottom it terminates in a blow-off tube, having
in it a grate formed of sharp-edged bars. In operation, steam is introduced at
a pressure of one to two atmospheres until the potatoes are cooked. More
steam is then suddenly admitted at high pressure and the softened potatoes
forced through the grating at the bottom and into the mashing apparatus in a
finely divided state.
In steaming under pressure it is best that the safety valve be so regulated
that the steam will constantly blow off as this action keeps the potatoes in

motion and facilitates disintegration. Care should also be taken to see that
everything about the apparatus is in good condition, as in working under the
high pressures used in the last apparatus there is liability of explosion. Rust
should be particularly guarded against.
With this apparatus a preparatory mash vat is used into which the contents
of the steamers are blown out, malt and water to form milk having been
previously let into the mash vat. Blowing out is accomplished in 45 or 50
minutes at 130° F. and about one-sixth of the charge in the steamer is
retained in the steamer. The mash in the vat is stirred and cooled and the
remainder of the mash blown in raising the temperature to 145° F. when the
mash is left to stand from half an hour to an hour. With heavy mashes, rich in
sugar, even higher temperatures than 145° F. can be used for saccharifying.
The processes of crushing and saccharifying, above referred to, which are
almost entirely used to-day, require steam. The following methods provide
for the isolation of the fecula or starch, without steam and the production of
a wash of a more watery consistency, therefore easier to handle in ordinary
stills, and with less liability to burn.
Two operations are necessary by this method: First, rasping, or reducing
the potatoes to a finely crushed and pulpy condition by means of a machine
described in the chapter on Beet Mashing; and second, the separation of the
fecula.
To this latter end the potato pulp is placed on a sieve, having side walls
and net work of horse-hair, which is placed over a suitable tub. Water is run
gradually through the pulp and sieve, while the pulp is rubbed up by hand.
When the water comes through clear, then all the fecula of the pulp has been
washed out, and the refuse left in the sieve can be thrown aside or used as a
food for cattle.
For a mashing tub of say about 32 bushels capacity, the fecula from
about 800 lbs. of potatoes is used. This is deposited in the mash tub with
sufficient cold water to form a fairly clear paste. About twice as much water
as fecula will bring the paste to proper consistency. This mixture should be
constantly stirred as otherwise the fecula will sink to the bottom. About 40
gallons of boiling water are then added gradually. The mixture has at first a
milky appearance, but at the last becomes entirely clear.
This liquid is mashed with about 45 lbs. of malted barley or Indian corn,
ground into coarse flour. In ten minutes the mixture will be completely

fluidified. It is then left to subside for three or four hours when it will have
acquired a sweetish taste and be what is termed as “sweet mash.” The fluid
is then further diluted by the addition of sufficient water to give about 290
gallons of wash. Two or three pints of good yeast will bring this mixture to a
ferment.
A less laborious method of accomplishing the same result is that at one
time used in English distilleries. In this a double bottom tub is used,
something like that shown in Fig. 41, the upper bottom of which is
perforated, and raised above the solid lower bottom. A draw-off cock opens
out from the space between the two bottoms.
Assuming that the tub is of 220 gallons capacity, then from 2 to 20 lbs. of
chaff are spread over the perforated bottom and pulp from 800 lbs. of raw
potatoes placed on that. This is thoroughly drained for half an hour, through
the draw-off cock. The pulp is then stirred while from 90 to 100 gallons of
boiling water are added gradually. The mass then thickens into a paste. The
paste is mashed with about 65 lbs. of well steeped malt, and the liquid left to
subside for three or four hours. It is then drained off through the perforated
bottom into a fermenting back or tub. For this amount of material the back
should be of about 300 gallons capacity.
The leavings left in the preparatory tub still contain considerable starch,
and after they are well drained they should be mixed with from 50 to 55
gallons of boiling water. The mixture is then agitated and drained off into the
fermenting back. The sediment left is again sprinkled with water, this time
cold, which is drained off into the back. This completely exhausts the husks
left on the upper bottom. By this process 200 lbs. of potatoes should produce
something over 12½ gallons of spirit.
The objection to the last method described is that the spirit so obtained is
unpleasant to taste and smell, but this would probably not be an objection for
industrial uses.
The only means of obtaining alcohol of good quality from potatoes is to
extract the starch separately and then convert it into sugar. This
saccharification of the starch may be accomplished by sulphuric acid or by
the action of diastase.
By the first of these methods the potatoes are disintegrated in such an
apparatus as the Bohn steamer described on page 118. A mixture is made of
one-third potatoes, two-thirds water, and onetenth part of sulphuric acid. The

mixture is steamed for six or eight hours under pressure. The mash is then
cooled and the acid neutralized by milk of lime. It is then fermented.
By the second and preferable method, dry or wet potato starch is used,
which is malted, and the saccharine solution fermented with yeast. The
proportions and method for a vat of say 800 gallons capacity are as follows:
Two hundred and sixty-five gallons of water are mixed with 1100 lbs. of
dry or 1650 lbs. of moist starch. This mixture is well agitated, and 450
gallons of boiling water run in, together with 165 lbs. of malt. The whole is
then stirred energetically and left to saccharify for three or four hours. The
saccharine solution thus formed must be brought to 6° or 7° Baume, at a
temperature of from 71° to 75° F. To this is then added 1⁄100 lbs. of dry yeast
for every 220 gallons of “must.” Fermentation is soon established and
usually occupies about 36 hours. After remaining at rest for 24 hours the
“must” is distilled. From each 220 lbs. of starch there should be a yield of
about nine gallons of alcohol, at 90° F.
The fermentation of the potato mash is carried on as described in Chapter
II. For the preparation of malt see Chapter Chapter VI.

CHAPTER VIII.
Alcohol from Grain—Corn, Wheat, Rice, and Other
Cereals.

The different cereals constitute a very important source of alcohol in all
countries, particularly of course for use in the manufacture of whiskey and
gin.
All cereals contain an abundance of starchy substance which under the
influence of diastase,—that is, malt,—is converted into fermentible sugar.
The quantity of sugar and hence the yield of alcohol differs widely. The
following table shows the results obtainable by good workmanship.
220 lbs. Wheat gives 7.0 gallons pure alcohol
“ “ Rye “ 6.16 “ “ “
“ “ Barley “ 5.5 “ “ “
“ “ Oats “ 4.8 “ “ “
“ “ Buckwheat “ 5.5 “ “ “
“ “ Corn (Indian) “ 5.5 “ “ “
“ “ Rice “ 7.7 “ “ “
In addition to these there are other raw materials containing starch which
are sometimes used, as millet (55 per cent starch), chestnuts (28 per cent.),
and horse chestnuts (40 per cent.). The last is very difficult to work however.
Rice, wheat, rye, barley and corn are more frequently employed than other
grains. Wheat gives a malt which is as rich in diastase as barley. Barley and
buckwheat are added to these in some proportions. Oats, owing to their high
price, are rarely used. Rice, of all the grain is the most productive to the
distillers, but on account of its value as a food is not much used for the
production of alcohol, unless damaged. Corn is the cereal most largely used
for the production of industrial alcohol.
Great care should be exercised in making choice of grain for fermentation
where the best results are desired. Wheat should be farinaceous, heavy and

dry. Barley should be free from chaff, quite fresh and in large uniform grains
of a bright color (see Malting, Chapter VI).
Rice should be dull white in color, slightly transparent, without odor, and
of a fresh, farinaceous taste.
The flour or farinaceous part of grain is composed of starch, gluten,
albumen, mucilage, and some sugar. The following table gives the
proportions of these substances in the commonest grains.
Under certain conditions the albumen or gluten in the grain has the power
of converting starch into saccharine matter. This is better effected by an acid
such as sulphuric acid, or by a diastase. This latter substance is a principle
developed during the germination of all cereals but especially of barley. It
has the property of reacting upon starchy matters, converting them first into
a gummy substance called dextrine, and then into glucose or grape sugar, see
Chapter II.
The action of diastase upon starch or flour made into a paste is
remarkable, 50 grains of diastase being sufficient to convert 220 lbs. (100
kilogrammes) of starch into glucose. The rapidity of this change depends on
the quantity of water employed, and the degree of heat adopted in the
operation.
TABLE IV.
Proportions of Starch, Gluten, Etc., in Principal Grains.

Dextrin, Inorganic
Gluten and
Glucose, Salts.
other Fatty
Grains. Starch. and Cellulose. (Silica,
Azotized Matter.
similar Phosphates,
Substances.
Substances. &c.)
Wheat
(average of
65.99 18.03 7.63 2.16 3.50 2.69
five
varieties)
Rye 65.65 13.50 12.00 2.15 4.10 2.60
Barley 65.43 13.96 10.00 2.76 4.75 3.10
Oats 60.59 14.39 9.25 5.50 7.06 3.25

Indian
67.55 12.50 4.00 8.80 5.90 1.25
Corn
Rice 89.15 7.05 1.00 0.80 1.10 0.90

Inasmuch as barley germinates very readily, and develops a larger
proportion of diastase than any other grain, except wheat, it is generally used
as a producer of diastase. Barley germinated according to proper methods is
called malt, and its preparation is fully described in Chapter VI.
There are many methods of preparing grain for fermentation, but all use at
least two of the following operations:—grinding, gelatinizing, steeping, or
steaming, mashing saccharifying.
Grinding. Where cookers or the Henze steamers are not used every form
of grain should be crushed or ground into a coarse flour. This is in order that
the starchy interior may be easily acted on by the diastase. If the grain is not
to be mixed with malt later it must be ground more finely so that it may be
thoroughly penetrated by the water. The grains should not be ground except
as required, as ground grain is liable to heating and consequent loss of
fermentability, and is also liable to become musty, in which condition it loses
much of its fermentability.
Steeping. This operation is best carried on in vats or tanks of iron or
cement, for the reason that wood absorbs impurities, which are
communicated to the grain, thus lessening its germinative power. Wooden
vats should be thoroughly scrubbed after use, and be kept continually
whitewashed. The steeping tub should hold about two-thirds more than the
amount of ground grain to be steeped.
Steeping is affected by pouring on to the crushed grain hot and cold water
in such quantity that after 10 minutes or so of brewing the mixture will have
a temperature of 75° to 95° F.
This warmth makes the water more penetrating. The water should not be
poured in all at once, but a little at a time, until the grain is covered to a
depth of three or four inches. Care should be taken not to let the temperature
get too high, not above 95° F., as a temperature above that point kills the
germinating power.
The mixture of crushed grain and water is now stirred for 10 minutes and
then left to subside for half an hour. It is then stirred again and the mixture

left to steep for 30 or 40 hours, depending on the temperature of the
atmosphere, the dryness of the grain, and the character of the water. In very
warm weather the water should be changed every few hours by running it off
through a hole in the bottom of the tub and running in fresh at the top. This
prevents fermentation setting in prematurely.
When the grain swells, and yields readily between the fingers it has been
sufficiently steeped, and the water is run off. This is an old method of
gelatinizing grain, but a better is by the use of cookers or high pressure
steamers as described for potatoes.
Mashing. This consists in mixing the coarse flour with malt and then by
means of certain operations and mechanisms bringing it to a condition most
favorable to fermentation through the action of yeast. The mixing of the raw
flour with barley or other malt effects the conversion of the starch of the
grain into maltose. The yeast afterwards converts this maltose into sugar.
Saccharifying. To effect the action of the diastase of the malt on the
grain, in the old methods, boiling water must be poured into the vat until the
temperature of the mass reaches about 140° to 168° F., the whole being well
stirred meanwhile; when this temperature has been reached, the vat is again
covered and left to stand for four hours, during which time the temperature
should, if possible, be maintained at 140° F., and on no account suffered to
fall below 122° F., in order to avoid the inevitable loss of alcohol consequent
upon the acidity always produced by so low a temperature. In cold weather
the heat should of course be considerably greater than in hot. It should be
also remarked that the greater the quantity of water employed, the more
complete will be the saccharification, and the shorter the time occupied by
the process.
Having undergone all the above processes, the wash is next drawn from
the mash tub into a cistern, and from this it is pumped into the coolers. When
the wash has acquired the correct temperature, viz., from 68° to 78° F.,
according to the bulk operated upon, it is run down again into the fermenting
vats situated on the floor beneath. Ten to twelve pints of liquid or 5½ to 6½
lbs. of dry brewer’s yeast are then added for every 220 lbs. of grain; the vat
is securely covered, and the contents are left to ferment. The process is
complete at the end of four or five days, and if conducted under favorable
conditions there should be a yield of about 61⁄6 gallons of pure alcohol to
every 220 lbs. of grain employed.

There are a number of different methods of mashing, having each its
advantages, and applicable to particular varieties of grain.
We will first consider the mashing of the steeped grain in general by one
of the older and simpler processes.
The grain to be mashed, which has been ground and steeped as before
described, is mixed with malt in the proportion of four to one, or even eight
to one. In addition, three or four pounds of chaff to every hundred or so
pounds of steeped grain should be used.
Mash. Water is then run into the mash tub in the proportion of about 600
gallons to each 60 bushels of grain. Its temperature should be between 120°
and 150° F. During the entrance of water, the mass is well stirred so as to
cause the whole of the grain to be thoroughly soaked and to prevent the
formation of lumps. It is best to add the grain to the water gradually and to
stir thoroughly.
To this mass about 400 gallons of boiling water is gradually added to keep
the temperature at about 145° F. During the addition of the boiling water the
mash should be continually stirred so that the action of the water shall be
uniform. This operation should last about two and one half hours. The vat
should be then covered and left to stand from three-quarters to one hour for
saccharification.
Another method of saccharifying is to turn boiling water gradually into
the mash tank until the mixture has acquired a temperature of from 140° to
180° F. The mass is thoroughly stirred and the tub is covered and left to
subside for from two to four hours, during which time the temperature
should not be allowed to fall below 120° F. A small tub needs more heat than
a larger tub, and more heat is required in winter than in summer.
A convenient method of regulating the temperature of the mash tank,
would be by a coil of pipes on the bottom. This would be connected by a
two-way cock to a steam boiler and to a source of cold water. Heat should
never be carried over 180° F., and the best temperature is from 145° to 165°
F.
The greatest effect of the diastase of the malt upon the gelatinized starch
is at 131° F. For ungelatinized starch this is not great enough, hence the
greater part of the mashing is carried on at the lower temperature and only
towards the end should the temperature be raised to the maximum 150° F.

Every distiller uses his own judgment as to the amount of the mashing
water used, its temperature, the length of time during which the mash rests,
and the length of time for saccharification.
Saccharification may be recognized by the following signs: The mash
loses its first white mealy look, and changes to dark brown. It also becomes
thin and easily stirred. The taste is sweet and its odor is like that of fresh
bread.
Corn and other grain may be mashed conveniently in such an apparatus as
that described on page 10, as used for potatoes the steam being introduced
under pressure.
The water is first placed in the steamer. Steam is introduced into the water
and it is brought to a boil. The corn is then introduced gradually, the steam
pressure increased to its maximum, and the mass blown out as described in
Chapter VII. Hellefreund’s apparatus (see page 118) may also be used with
ground corn.
The corn or grain not previously crushed or ground is introduced into a
steamer in the proportion of 200 lbs. of corn to 40 gallons of water. The
steamer should have about 100 gallons of steam space for this amount.
The mashes described above are thick, more or less troublesome to distil,
and only simple stills can be used. By the following method a clear
saccharine fluid or wort can be obtained.
A mash vat is used having a double bottom. The upper bottom is
perforated and between the two bottoms is a draw-off pipe and a pipe for the
inlet of water.
Upon the upper perforated bottom is first placed a layer of between two
and three pounds of chaff. Upon this is turned in a mixture of 400 lbs. corn
and malt in the proportions of 1/5 malt to 4⁄5 grain. Eighty-seven gallons of
water at a temperature of from 85° to 105° F. is then let in to the bottom,
while the mixture is thoroughly agitated for 10 minutes. It is then left to
subside for half an hour.
After this steeping process, the mass is again agitated while 175 gallons of
water at 190° F. are let into the tub while the mass is continually and
thoroughly stirred by mechanical stirrers. Brewing lasts for half an hour, and
the liquid is then left to stand for seven hours.

At the end of this period the grain is covered by clear liquid which is
drained off through the draw-off cock into the fermenting back.
To the contents left in the steeping tank 135 gallons of boiling water are
added as before and the liquid therefrom drawn into the fermenting back.
It usually requires three infusions to extract the whole of the saccharine
and fermentiscible matters contained in the grain. In some places, it is
customary to boil down the liquors from the three mashings until they have
acquired a specific gravity of about 1.05, the liquor from a fourth mashing
being used to bring the whole to the correct degree for fermentation, the
liquors from the third and fourth being boiled down to the same density and
then added to the rest. In a large Glasgow distillery, the charge for the mash
tubs is 29,120 lbs. of grain together with the proper proportion of malt. Two
mashings are employed, about 28,300 gallons of water being required; the
first mashing has a temperature of 140° F., and the second that of 176° F. In
Dublin the proportion of malt employed is only about one-eighth of the
entire charge. One mashing is employed, and the temperature of the water is
kept at about 143° F. The subsequent mashings are kept for the next day’s
brewing.
By this process the grain is entirely deprived of all fermentible substances
which have been carried away in a state of liquid sugar.
The whole operation of preparing and saccharifying grain is to-day carried
on in steamers, such as described on page 11, and cooking apparatus such as
shown in Fig. 1, or in the Henze high pressure steamers and preparatory
mash vats described in Chapter II.
In steaming grain without pressure, the finely crushed grain is poured
slowly into a vat previously nearly filled with water at a temperature of
about 140 degrees F. A little less than half a gallon of water is used for each
pound of grain. Care must be taken to stir the mass constantly to prevent
lumping. When all the corn is mixed in, steam is allowed to enter and the
temperature raised to about 200 degrees F. It should be left at this
temperature for an hour, or an hour and a half, when the temperature is
reduced to 140° F. when about 10 per cent. of crushed malt is added and the
temperature reduced to 68° F. by means of suitable cooling devices.
When steam cookers are used, the cylindrical boiler is first filled to the
proper degree with water at a temperature of 140° F. The meal is then let in
gradually being constantly stirred the while. The boiler is then closed and

steam gradually let in while the mass is stirred until a pressure of 60 pounds
and a temperature of 300° F. has been reached. The starch then becomes
entirely gelatinized, the pressure is relieved, and the temperature reduced to
212° F. and then rapidly brought to 145° F. The malt is added mixed with
cold water, at such a stage before the saccharifying temperature is reached
that the cold malt and water will bring it to 145° F. The malt is stirred and
mixed with the mash for five or ten minutes and the mixed mass let into a
drop tub when saccharification is completed. It is then cooled as described.
When the Henze steamers are used the grain may be treated in either the
whole grain or crushed, as the high pressure to which it is subjected and the
“blowing out” act to entirely disintegrate it. In this mode of operation, water
is first let into the steamer and brought to a boil by the admission of steam.
The grain is then slowly let into the apparatus. The water and grain should
fill the steamer about two thirds full. The steamer is left open and steam
circulated through the grain and water for about an hour, but without any
raising of pressure. This acts to thoroughly cook and soften the grain.
When sufficiently softened the steam escape cock in the upper part of the
steamer (see Fig. 2) is regulated to allow a partial flow of steam through it
and a greater flow of steam is admitted through the lower inlet. This keeps
the grain in constant ebullition under a pressure of 30 lbs. or so. After
another period of an hour the pressure in the steamer is raised to 60 lbs. at
which point it is kept for half an hour, when the maximum steam pressure is
applied, and the greater portion of the disintegrated mass blown out into a
preparatory mass tub, into which malt has been placed mixed with water.
The blowing out should be so performed that the temperature in the mass in
the tubs shall not exceed 130° F. The mass is stirred and cooled and then the
remainder of the mass in the steamer admitted to the tub which should bring
the temperature of the mass up to 145° F. It is kept at this temperature for a
period varying from half an hour to one and one-half hours and is then
cooled to the proper fermenting temperature.
Another method of softening corn so that its starch is easily acted upon by
the diastase of the malt is to steep it in a sulphurous acid solution at a
temperature of about 120° F. for from fifteen to twenty hours. The mass is
then diluted to form a semi-liquid pulp and heated to about 190° F. for an
hour or two during which the mass is constantly stirred. The malt is then
added, the mass is saccharified, cooled and then fermented.

Another method is to place mixed grain and hot water in a cooker of the
Bohn variety (Fig. 45). After half an hour of stirring and cooking under
ordinary pressure, the steam pressure is raised to 45 lbs. This is kept up for
from two to three hours when the grain is reduced to a paste. Concentrated
muriatic acid equal to 2½ per cent of the weight of grain is then forced in,
under steam pressure. In half an hour the grain will be entirely saccharified
and ready for fermenting.

CHAPTER IX.
Alcohol from Beets.

Cultivation. The beetroot (Beta vulgaris), indigenous to Europe, is
cultivated in France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Scandinavia, Austria,
Russia, and to a very small extent in England and New Zealand, and to a
very large extent in the United States and Canada. There are many varieties.
The most important to the sugar-maker is the white Silesian, sometimes
regarded as a distinct species (B. alba); it shows very little above ground,
and penetrates about 12 in.; it has a white flesh, the two chief forms being
distinguished by one having a rose-colored skin and purple-ribbed leaves,
the other a white skin and green leaves. Both are frequently grown together,
and exhibit no marked difference in sugar-yielding qualities.
Good sugar-beets possess the following broad characteristics: (1) Regular
pear-shaped form and smooth skin; long, tapering, carrot-like roots are
considered inferior; (2) white and firm flesh, delicate and uniform structure,
and clean sugary flavor; thick-skinned roots are spongy and watery; those
with large leaves are generally richer; (3) average weight 1½ to 2½ lbs.,
neither very large nor very small roots being profitable to the sugar-
manufacturer; as a rule, beets weighing more than 3½ lbs. are watery, and
poor in sugar; and roots weighing less than ¾ lb. are either unripe or too
woody, and in either case yield comparatively little sugar; the sp. gr. of the
expressed juice, usually 1.06 to 1.07, even reaching 1.078 in English-grown
roots, indicating over 14 per cent. of crystallizable sugar, is the best proof of
quality; juice poor in sugar has a density below 1.060; (4) in well-cultivated
soil, the roots grow entirely in the ground, and throw up leaves of moderate
size.
Composition of the Roots. Internally the root is built up of small cells,
each filled with a juice consisting of a watery solution of many bodies
besides sugar. These include several crystallized salts (mostly of which are
present in minute traces only), such as the phosphates, oxalates, malates, and
chlorides of potassium, sodium, and calcium, the salts of potash being by far
the most important; and several colloid bodies (albuminous [nitrogenous]

and pectinous compounds); as well as a substance which rapidly blackens on
exposure to the air. The greater part of the sugar in ripe beets is
crystallizable, and, when perfectly pure, is identical in composition and
properties with crystallized cane-sugar; but it is more difficult to refine this
sugar so as to free it from the potash salts, and commercial samples have not
nearly so great sweetening power as ordinary cane-sugar. Beets contain no
uncrystallizable sugar; the molasses produced in beet-sugar manufactories is
the result of changes which cannot be entirely avoided in extracting the
crystallizable sugar.
Soil. The best soil for beets contains a fair proportion of organic matter, is
neither too stiff nor too light, and crumbles down into a nice friable loam; it
must be capable of being cultivated to a depth of at least 16 in. The subsoil
should be thoroughly well drained, and rendered friable by autumn-
cultivation and free admission of air. A deep friable turnip-loam, containing
fair proportions of clay and lime, appears to be the most eligible land for
sugar-beets. Lime is a very desirable element. Well-worked clay-soils,
especially calcareous clays, are well adapted, if properly drained and of
sufficient depth. Peaty soils and moorlands are quite unsuitable, as well as
lands which are too dry, like the thin gravelly soils resting on siliceous
gravel sub-soils, or too wet and cold, like many of the thin soils above
impervious chalk marl.
Speaking generally, the best soils for sugar-beet are precisely those on
which other root-crops can be grown to perfection, that is, land which is
neither too heavy nor too light, which has a good depth, is readily penetrated
by the roots, and naturally contains lime, potash, clay, and sand, as well as
organic matter, is such proportions as in good friable clay-loams. An analysis
of the soil should be made previous to planting it with the sugar-beet, as the
salts presented in solution in the soil will pass into the juice, and greatly
interfere with the processes of sugar manufacture. Certain soils may be at
once indicated as unsuitable; they are clover-land, recent sheep-pastures,
forest-land grubbed during the preceding 15 years, the neighborhood of salt
works, volcanic and saline soils of all kinds. The beet requires a certain
supply of potash and soda salts in the soil, but if these are present in excess,
as in recent forest-land, the juice does not work well, nor give its proper
yield of sugar.
Manures. Sugar-beets should be grown with as little farmyard manure as
possible; when dung has to be used, as in the case of very poor soils, it

should be applied in autumn, or as early as possible during the winter
months. The effect of heavy dressings of animal nitrogenous matters or
ammoniacal salts, is to produce abundance of leaves, and big watery roots;
the latter are comparatively poor in sugar, and contain potash salts derived
from the animal matters, which greatly interfere with the extraction of sugar
in a crystallized state. Common salt, and saline manures in general, though
useful in moderate doses (224 lbs. to 336 lbs. per acre on light soils), should
be avoided on the majority of soils, for sugar-beets grown on soils highly
manured with common salt produce juice largely impregnated with salt,
which is dreaded by the manufacturer even more than albuminous
impurities, and nearly as much as excess of potash salts.
If the land is in good condition, containing sufficient available nitrogen to
meet the requirements of the crop, neither guano nor sulphate of ammonia
should be used. They largely increase the weight of the produce per acre; but
heavy crops are generally poor in sugar, and furnish a juice that presents
much difficulty to the manufacturer. If the land is very poor, and if farmyard
manure cannot be obtained and be applied in autumn, 336 to 448 lbs. of
Peruvian guano, or 224 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia, mixed with 224 lbs. of
superphosphate of lime, per acre, may be sown broadcast in autumn, and 224
lbs. more of superphosphate may be drilled in with the seed in spring.
Superphosphate of lime and bones are excellent for sugar-beets, and never
injure the quality of the crop, like the indiscriminate use of ammoniacal
manures. On light soils, in which potash is often deficient, the judicious use
of potash salts has been found serviceable, but only in conjunction with
superphosphate and phosphatic guanos.
Sowing. The best time for sowing beetroot is the beginning or middle of
April. If sown too early, the young plants may be partially injured by frost; if
later than the first week in May, the crop may require to be taken up in
autumn, before it has had time to get ripe. About 10 to 12 lbs. of seed is
required per acre. As regards the width between the plants, generally
speaking, the distance between the rows and from plant to plant should not
be less than 12 nor greater than 18 in. Should the young plants be caught by
a night’s frost, and suffer ever so little, it is best to plough them up at once
and re-sow, for they are certain to run to seed, and are then practically
useless for the manufacture of sugar. Sugar-beets require to be frequently
horse- and hand-hoed. As long as the young plants are not injured, the
application of the hoe from time to time is attended with great benefit to the

crop. It is advisable to gather up the soil round each plant, in order that the
head may be completely covered with soil. Champonnois’ researches point
to the advantage of planting in ridges, by which the supply of air to the roots
is greatly facilitated.
The conditions best calculated to ensure the roots possessing the
characters most desirable from a sugar-maker’s point of view are chiefly as
follows: (1) Not to sow on freshly-manured land; it is eminently preferable
not to manure for the beet crop, but to manure heavily for wheat in the
preceding year; (2) not to employ forcing manures, nor to apply manure
during growth; (3) to use seed from a variety rich in sugar; (4) to sow early,
in lines 16 in. apart, at most, the plants being 10 to 11 in. from each other;
there will then be 38,000 beets on an acre, weighing 21 to 28 ounces each, or
52,800 to 70,400 lbs. per acre; (5) to weed the fields as soon as the plants are
above ground, to thin out as early as possible, and to weed and hoe often, till
the soil is covered with the leaves of the plants; (6) never to remove the
leaves during growth; (7) finally, not to take up the roots, if it can be
avoided, before they are ripe, the period of which will depend upon the
season.
Good seed may be raised by the following means: The best roots, which
show least above ground, are taken up, replanted in good soil, and allowed to
run to seed. This seed is already good; but it may be further improved by
sowing it in a well-prepared plot possessing all the most favorable
conditions; the resulting plants are sorted, set out in autumn, put into a cellar,
and in the spring, before transplanting, those of the greatest density, and
which will give seeds of the best quality, are separated. These are
transplanted at 20 in. between the rows and 13 in. between the feet, which
are covered with about 1½ in. of earth. Finally they are watered with water
containing molasses and superphosphate of lime, as recommended by
Corenwinder.
Harvesting. Sugar-beets must be taken up before frost sets in. When the
leaves begin to turn yellow and flabby, they have arrived at maturity, and the
crop should be watched, that it may not get over-ripe. If the autumn is cold
and dry, the crop may be safely left in the ground for seven to ten days
longer than is needful, but should the autumn be mild and wet, if the roots
are left in the soil, they are apt to throw up fresh leaves, and nothing does so
much injury. In watching the ripening of the crop, a good plan is to test the
sp. gr. of the expressed juice. A root or two may be taken up at intervals, and

reduced to pulp on an ordinary hand-grater, the juice obtained by pressing
the pulp through calico, and the density observed by a hydrometer. As long
as the gravity of the juice continues to increase, the crop should be left in the
land. Good sugar-yielding juice has a sp. gr. of about 1.065, rising to about
1.070. Immature roots, cut across, rapidly change color on the exposed
surface, turning red, then brown, and finally almost black. If newly-cut slices
turn color on exposure, the ripening is not complete; but if they remain some
time unaltered, or turn only slightly reddish, they are sufficiently ripe to be
taken up. The crop should be harvested in fine, dry weather. In order that the
roots may part with as much moisture as possible, they are left exposed to
the air on the ground before being stacked, but not for longer than a few
days, and they need to be guarded against direct sunlight. Perhaps the best
plan is to cover them loosely with their tops in the field for a couple of days,
then trim them, and at once stack them.
Storing. For storing roots, especial care should be taken to prevent their
germinating and throwing out fresh tops, which is best done by selecting a
dry place for the storage ground. They may be piled in pyramidal stacks,
about six feet broad at base, and seven feet high. At first, the stacks should
be thinly covered with earth, that the moisture may readily evaporate;
subsequently, when frosty weather sets in, another layer of earth, not
exceeding one foot in thickness, may be added. This is essentially the
method generally adopted for storing potatoes and beets.

Fig. 46.—Stack for Storing Beets.
In continental Europe and Canada, extra precaution is necessitated by the
rigorous climate. In S. Russia, the plan shown in Fig. 46 is sometimes used.

The beets are disposed completely below the surface of the soil, in a trench
dug with sharply sloping sides. At about 15 in. from the bottom, is an
openwork floor of reeds, on which the beets are piled to within a few inches
of the level of the exterior soil. On the top, and following the apex of the
heap, is laid a triangular ridge-piece a, for the purpose of facilitating
evaporation. The whole is covered with a layer b of straw and fine earth, the
thickness of which is varied according to the indications of the thermometer
c placed in the center of the mass. Between the floor of the trench and the
openwork floor is a space d, communicating with two vertical channels
leading to the outer air, thus providing ventilation. The outlets of the
channels can be opened and closed at will. The Russians also often employ
regular cellars, as shown in Fig. 47. The structure consists of two stories,
covered with a bed of earth, each furnished with a floor of hurdles or open
planking, on which the beets are piled to the depth of about one yard. Lateral
passages facilitate ventilation, and openings in the roof permit the heated air
to escape. The cost of erecting these cellars is heavy, but there is great saving
of labor in storing the beets, as it suffices to simply pile them up on the
floors. Moreover, the arrangement permits the examination of the contents
beyond the indications of a thermometer; and enables any portion to be
removed, even during snowy weather.

Fig. 47.—Storage Cellar for Beets.
Alcohol from Beets. Beets contain 85 per cent. of water, and about 10 per
cent. of cane sugar, the remainder being woody fibre and albumen; cane
sugar not being in itself fermentible,—as is grape sugar,—it has to be

converted into “inverted sugar” by a ferment as yeast. Either the sugar beets
may be mashed or the molasses which remains from the manufacture of beet
sugar (as described in Chapter X). The conversion of the sugar into alcohol
is effected in several different ways, of which the following are the principal:
By rasping the roots and submitting them to pressure, and fermenting the
expressed juice.
By maceration with water and heat.
By direct distillation of the roots.
The first two methods are the best as by them the woody fibre of the plant
which is non-fermentible is separated from the fermentible juice. In both the
first and second processes the beets must first be entirely cleaned of adhering
dirt, trash and clods of earth, and then rasped, pulped or sliced by certain
machinery.
Cleaning. Care must be taken in this operation that the beets shall be
freed from small stones and adhering hard lumps of earth which would
otherwise get into the rasping machinery to the damage and stoppage of the
mechanism.
There are many forms of cleaners but all are alike in this,—that the beets
shall be subjected to the action of water while traveling through or over a
perforated casing. The simplest machine, and one easily constructed by any
carpenter, comprises an elongated cylinder formed of lathes or strips spaced
apart such distance as will allow dirt and stones to pass between them. This
is mounted on a central shaft and revolves in a tank of water. It should be
slightly inclined so that the potatoes or beets to be washed may feed
downward from the open upper end-disk or wheel, to the lower end where
they are thrown out. At the upper end is a hopper and at the lower, the end
disk has inwardly projecting lips, which as the cylinder revolves lifts the
beets up and tumbles them out on to an incline which carries them to the
rasping machine.
Another form of machine comprises a perforated cylinder of sheet iron,
revolving in a tank of water. A better form of cleaner than either of those
consists of an inclined trough in which a spiral feeding screw of sheet iron
rotates. The beets are fed into the trough at its lower end and are carried
upward, slowly, by the feeding screw. Above the trough is a water pipe
having a number of outlets by which water may fall on to the beets and into
the trough. The water rushing down the inclined trough carries with it all dirt

and stones, and by the time the beets have reached the upper end they are
entirely cleaned and ready for slicing or rasping.
For pressing out the juice, the beets are mashed into a pulp, while for
diffusion the beets are sliced.
Rasping. Fig. 48 shows one form of rasping machine. On a suitable
supporting frame is mounted a cylinder a having a diameter of about 24
inches. The cylinder is formed of alternate saw blades and wooden washers
holding them a slight distance apart. The saws or teeth are so set on the
cylinder as not to slice the beets but to shred them up into a fine pulp. The
cylinder rotates at a speed of 800 to 1000 revolutions a minute in front of an
inclined table, having a jigger whereby the beets are fed downward against
the toothed cylinder. The teeth carry the pulp downward and it falls into a
receptacle beneath.

Fig. 48.—Beet and Potato Rasp.
It is best to add to this pulp a small portion of sulphuric acid, say two-
tenths of one per cent. This prevents by-fermentations.
Pressing. The pulp obtained from the raspers has now to be expressed.
This is either done by platen presses or by roller presses. With platen presses

the first pressing may be done by screws, but the final pressing should be
accomplished by hydraulic presses.
For the hydraulic press, the pulp is placed in woolen sacks, containing 10
to 12 lbs., superposed in the press with their mouths doubled under, and
separated by iron plates; about 25 are collected, and the pile is put into a
screw-press, called a “preparatory” press, which extracts about 45 to 50 per
cent. of the juice. These pressed sacks are piled anew on the movable plate
of a powerful hydraulic press, which takes 50 at a charge. Each preparatory
press can supply four hydraulic presses, which are ranged around it, so that
of the four presses, there will be one charging, one commencing to press,
one in full pressure, and one discharging, at the same moment. Motion is
communicated to the four hydraulic presses by four pumps mounted on the
same bed, and tended by the same workman who directs the pressing. An
improvement upon the general form of hydraulic press is that devised by
Lalouette, which enables two workmen and one boy to work five presses.
These presses turn out about 34,200 lbs. per 24 hours in the first pressing,
and 68,400 lbs. in the second. Hydraulic presses are rapidly falling into
disuse in the beet-sugar industry, by reason of the superior merits of
continuous presses, and the extended adoption of the diffusion system.
Continuous presses for beet were suggested by the roller-mills used in the
cane-sugar industry. But the conditions in the two cases are widely different;
the begass of the cane is solid, and readily parts from the juice; whereas the
pulp and juice of the beet have a strong tendency to combine, and the roller-
surface must therefore be permeable only by the juice. In Poizot et Druelle’s
press, the pulp passes between two cylinders, carried by endless cloths. The
object is to unite the best features of the hydraulic press. To this end, a first
gentle pressing is produced against the first cylinder by the elasticity of the
principal cloth on which it is borne. Then, encountering a series of four little
rollers, performing the functions of the preparatory press, it is next seized
between the second and first cylinders, and deprived of the maximum
quantity of juice.

Fig. 49.—Dujardin’s Roll Press.

Dujardin’s roll press is shown in Fig. 49, which is a vertical section of the
machine, the side plate being removed. The pulp is forced upward through a
pipe C under high pressure. This has a regulating slide valve D. The rolls B
B revolve towards and nearly in contact with each other, and they are
perforated so that the expressed juice may run off through the rolls. These
perforations are conical in form with the apex of the cone outward. The
cylinders are also covered with a webbing of cloth or horse hair. Below the
rolls is block C′, which with the outer walls of the chamber, form diverging
passages which extend upward, as shown, on either side of the rolls and then
downward along the lower faces of the rolls to the point when they contact.
The pulp is compressed with great force against and between the rolls, the
juice is forced through the perforations and the residue passes upward and
outward under the presser bar E in the form of a ribbon which is guided
away by the trough F. The pressure of the bar E is regulated by screws and
the tighter said bar is pressed against the rolls the greater will be the pressure
of the pulp behind the bar and against the rolls, and the greater the juice
expressed.
The rolls revolve very slowly only about seven or eight times a minute but
the capacity of the machine is very great, it being capable of pressing the
pulp of from 85,000 to 175,000 lbs. of beets daily. The residue from the first
pressing should be submitted to a further pressing after being macerated with
spent wash. This residue may be fed to cattle. The utmost cleanliness is
essential to these processes; all the utensils employed should be washed
daily with lime-water to counteract acidity.
Extraction by Maceration and Diffusion. The object of this process is to
extract from the beets by means of water or spent liquor all the sugar which
they contain, without the aid of rasping or pressure. Spirit is thus produced at
considerably less expense, although it is not of so high a quality as that
yielded by the former process. The operation consists in slicing up the beets
in a specially constructed slicing machine, into slices of regular thickness,
and then allowing the slices to macerate in a series of vats at stated
temperatures. It is essential that the knives by which the roots are cut should
be so arranged that the roots are divided into slices having a width of 4⁄10 of
an inch and a thickness of 4⁄100 of an inch, and a variable length; the roots
are, of course, well washed before being placed in the hopper of the cutter.

When cut, the beets are covered with boiling water in a macerator of wood
or iron for one hour, the water should contain 4.4 of sulphuric acid to every
2200 lbs. of beets. After this, the water is drawn off into a second vat in
which are placed more beets, and allowed to macerate again for an hour.
This is repeated a third time in another vat, and the juice, which has now
acquired a density equal to that obtained by rasping, is run off into the
fermenting vat. When the first vat is empty it is immediately refilled with
boiling water and fresh beets; the juice from this operation is run into the
second vat, when the contents of that one are run into the third. To continue
the operation, the beets are completely exhausted by being macerated for an
hour with a third charge of boiling water (acidulated as in the former case).
The exhausted pulp is removed to make room for fresh slices; and the first
vat is then charged with juice which has already passed through the second
and third vats. After macerating the fresh beets for one hour, the charge is
ready for fermentation. In ordinary weather, the juice should now be at the
right heat for this process, viz., about 71.1° or 75.2° F., but in very cold
weather it may require some re-heating.
In Fig. 50 is shown a series of vats for the extraction of the sugar from
beets such as is termed a “diffusion battery.”

Fig. 50.—Diffusion Battery.
The vessels, 1, 2, 3 and 4 are of wood or sheet iron. Each vessel has a
bottom sieve and a top sieve between which the beet slices are to be placed.
From the bottom of each vessel below the sieve a pipe D runs to the top of
the vessel next in order. From the bottom of the last vessel 4 of the series a
pipe C runs back to the top of the one first used. Pipes A and B are connected
to each vessel for the admission of water and spent wash respectively. A
discharge pipe E leads from each vessel to a collecting vat 5.
Maceration and diffusion is accomplished as follows: The sliced beets are
placed between the sieves in vessel 1 and water or spent wash at a
temperature of 185° F. is let in and the beets allowed to macerate for three-
quarters of an hour, meanwhile tub 2 is charged with sliced beets. The cock
or pipe D between the vessels is opened when the time, three quarters of an
hour, has elapsed; hot water or spent wash is admitted by pipes A or B to the
vessel 1, which forces the sugar solution therein into vessel 2. When the
required amount of fluid has been passed into 2 from 1, the inlet of water
into 1 is stopped, and the vessel heated to 185° F.
Vessel 3 is charged with beet slices and in three-quarters of an hour
vessels 1, 2 and 3 are connected and water or wash admitted into 1, which
forces the solution in 1 into 2 and that in 2 into 3 when it is again raised to
185° F.
The same operation is repeated as to vessel 4 and in three-quarters of an
hour all the vessels are connected, hot water or spent wash is admitted to 1
and the sugar solution drawn off from 4 into the vat.
The beets in tub 1 having now been exhausted, the fluid in that vessel is
drawn off and the exhausted beets thrown away. 1 is now recharged with
beets and the pipe between it and 4 opened. The former operation is repeated
except that now vessel 4 becomes 1, and 1 becomes 4. These successive
chargings and dischargings are continued; vessel 3 becomes 1 in its turn and
so on.
Fermentation. Before fermentation the juice procured as has been
described is brought to about 82° F.; at this temperature it is run off into the
fermenting vats. Here it is necessary, as before noted, to add to the juice a
small quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid, for the purpose of neutralizing
the alkaline salts which it contains, and of rendering it slightly acid in order
to hasten the process; this quantity must not exceed 5½ lbs. to every 1220

gallons of juice, or the establishment of fermentation would be hindered
instead of promoted. The addition of this acid tends also to prevent the
viscous fermentation to which the juice obtained by rasping and pressure is
so liable. Although the beet contains albumen, which is in itself a ferment, it
is necessary, in order to develop the process, to have recourse to artificial
means. A small quantity of brewer’s yeast—about 1¾ oz. per 22 gallons of
juice—is sufficient for this; the yeast must previously be mixed with a little
water. An external temperature of about 68° to 78° F. must be carefully
maintained. Fermentation lasts for from four to five hours.
The fermentation of acidulated beet-juice sets in speedily. The chief
obstacle to the process is the mass of thick scum which forms upon the
surface of the liquor. This difficulty is sometimes obviated by using several
vats and mixing the juice, while in full fermentation, with a fresh quantity.
Thus, when three vats are employed, one is set to ferment; at the end of four
or six hours, half its contents are run into the second vat and here mixed with
fresh juice. The process is arrested, but soon starts again in both vats
simultaneously; the first is now allowed to ferment completely, which is
effected with much less difficulty than would have been the case had the vat
not been divided. Meanwhile the second vat, as soon as the action is at its
height, is divided in the same manner, one-half its contents being run into the
third. When this method is employed, it is necessary to add a little yeast
from time to time when the action becomes sluggish.
Direct Distillation of the Roots. This process, commonly called
“Leplay’s method,” consists in fermenting the sugar in the slices themselves.
The operation is conducted in huge vats, holding as large a quantity of
matter as possible, in order that the fermentation may be established more
easily. They usually contain about 750 gallons, and a single charge consists
of 2200 lbs. of the sliced roots. The slices are placed in porous bags in the
vats, containing already about 440 gallons of water acidulated with a little
sulphuric acid; and they are kept submerged by means of a perforated cover,
which permits the passage of the liquor and of the carbonic acid evolved; the
temperature of the mixture should be maintained at about 77° or 80° F. A
little yeast is added, and fermentation speedily sets in; it is complete in about
24 hours or more, when the bags are taken out and replaced by fresh ones;
fermentation declares itself again almost immediately, and without any
addition of yeast. New bags may, indeed, be placed in the same liquor for
three or four successive fermentations without adding further yeast or juice.

The slices of beets charged with alcohol are now placed in a distilling
apparatus of a very simple nature. It consists of a cylindrical column of
wood or iron, fitted with a tight cover, which is connected with a coil or
worm, kept cool in a vessel of cold water. Inside this column are arranged a
row of perforated diaphragms or partitions. The space between the lowest
one and the bottom of the cylinder is kept empty to receive the condensed
water formed by the steam, which is blown into the bottom of the cylinder in
order to heat the contents. Vapors of alcohol are thus disengaged from the
undermost slices, and these vapors as they rise through the cylinder vaporize
the remaining alcohol, and finally pass out of the top at a considerable
strength and are condensed in the worm. When all the contents of the still
have been completely exhausted of spirit, the remainder consists of a cooked
pulp, which contains all the nutritive constituents of the beet except the
sugar.

CHAPTER X.
Alcohol from Molasses and Sugar Cane.

Another common source of alcohol is molasses. Molasses is the
uncrystallizable syrup which constitutes the residiuum of the manufacture
and refining of cane and beet sugar. It is a dense, viscous liquid, varying in
color from light yellow to almost black, according to the source from which
it is obtained; it tests usually about 40° by Baume’s hydrometer. The
molasses employed as a source of alcohol must be carefully chosen; the
lightest in color is the best, containing most uncrystallized sugar. The
manufacture is extensively carried on in France, where the molasses from
the beet sugar refineries is chiefly used on account of its low price, that
obtained from the cane sugar factories being considerably dearer. The latter
is, however, much to be preferred to the former variety as it contains more
sugar. Molasses from the beet sugar refineries yields a larger quantity and
better quality of spirit than that which comes from the factories. Molasses
contains about 50 per cent. of saccharine matter, 24 per cent. of other organic
matter, and about 10 per cent. of inorganic salts, chiefly of potash. It is thus a
substance rich in matters favorable to fermentation. When the density of
molasses has been lowered by dilution with water, fermentation sets in
rapidly, more especially if it has been previously rendered acid. As, however,
molasses from beet generally exhibits an alkaline reaction, it is found
necessary to acidify it after dilution; for this purpose sulphuric acid is
employed, in the proportion of about 4½ lbs. of the concentrated acid to 22
gallons of molasses, previously diluted with eight or ten volumes of water.
Three processes are thus employed in obtaining alcohol from molasses;
dilution, acidification, and fermentation. The latter is hastened by the
addition of a natural ferment, such as brewer’s yeast. It begins in about eight
or ten hours, and lasts upwards of 60.
About three gallons of Alcohol may be obtained from one hundred pounds
of molasses.
Beet Sugar Molasses. The first step in the process of rendering the
molasses fermentable is to mix the molasses with water, to a certain dilution,

in the proportion of two parts of water to one of molasses. This may be done
by hand, but preferably it is performed in a vat provided with stirring or
agitating mechanism, such as will effectually mix the water with the viscid
syrup, and whereby also the wash may be thoroughly agitated and aerated.
There are numerous forms of mixing vats, all working however, on the
principle shown in Fig. 51. In this, the vat A is provided with a central shaft
C carrying radial mixing blades E. This shaft is driven by bevel gears D, F.
As the rotation of these blades would merely tend to create a rotary current
of molasses and water, and not to mix them, some means should be used for
impeding and breaking up this current. To that end the cover is provided
with downwardly projecting rods I which create counter currents, and
thoroughly intermingle the two liquids. Another and even better form of
mixer consists of a tank into the lower portion of which enters a perforated
pipe of relatively large diameter. This is provided at the end with an air
entrance and a steam injector. The injected steam draws in air and the steam
and air are forced under pressure into the vat, thus diluting the contained
molasses, agitating it and thoroughly aerating it.

Fig. 51.—Mixing Vat.

The molasses as it comes from the sugar house may contain anywhere
from 30 to 45 per cent of sugar, and this should be diluted with water to a
concentration of 16 to 18 per cent of sugar.
The density of the wash after “setting up” is 1.060. It is to be noted that
though with improved apparatus a wash as concentrated at 12° or 15° Baume
may be worked; yet where simple apparatus is used six degrees or eight
degrees is better and much more favorable to rapid and complete
fermentation.
After setting up, one gallon of strong sulphuric acid and 10 lbs. of
sulphate of ammonia are added for each 1000 gallons of wash. This
neutralizes the alkaline carbonates in the beet juice which would otherwise
retard fermentation, and it assists the yeast to invert the cane sugar as
formerly described. The addition of ammonia is in order to give food to the
yeast and obtain a vigorous fermentation.
The yeast used for fermenting molasses is prepared either from malt or
grain and is used as concentrated as possible, and in the proportion of about
2 per cent.
The “pitching” temperature of a molasses wash varies with the
concentration of the wash, being higher for strongly concentrated solutions
than for weak ones. When the wash tests as high as 12° Baume, fermentation
begins at about 77° F. and is raised during fermentation to 85° or 90° F. A
temperature around 82° F. is best on the average as this is most conducive to
the growth of yeast.
Where the vats are large and the syrup considerably diluted the
temperature rises very quickly and must be moderated by passing a current
of cold water through a coil of pipe on the bottom of the vat.
In the making of molasses mashes it must be remembered that every
gallon of molasses will be diluted with about five gallons of water or other
fermented liquid matter, and therefore 50 gallons of molasses wash will
require a still capable of working up about 300 gallons. It is possible to
distill four or five charges during the day of 12 hours and hence a still of 60
gallons will be capable of distilling the beer or wash made with 50 gallons of
molasses. A still with a capacity of 100 gallons operating on wash having a
strength of one gallon of molasses to five of water, will produce about 10
gallons of proof spirit from each charge; thus a 100 gallon still will make
from 40 to 80 gallons of spirit in a day. With unskilled labor, however, it is

impossible to get this rate of production and the best that can be done will be
about four charges a day.
It may be suggested that in getting estimates on stills it is best to
accompany the request with a statement of the character of the mash
intended to be treated, the amount of raw materials intended to be used up,
the charging capacity required, number of gallons of mash desired to be
worked up every 12 hours.
Fermenting Raw Sugar. This is accomplished by dissolving the sugar in
hot water, then diluting it, and then adding a ferment,—fermentation being
aided by adding sulphuric acid to the diluted molasses, in the proportion of
one-half to one pound of acid to every hundred pounds of pure sugar used.
The wash is pitched with compressed yeast in the proportion of 2½ to 8
per cent of the weight of the sugar used. The pitching temperature is from
77° to 79° F., and the period of fermentation is 48 hours.
Cane Sugar Molasses. Besides the molasses of the French beet sugar
refineries, large quantities result from the manufacture of cane sugar in
Jamaica and the West Indies. This is entirely employed for the distillation of
rum. As the pure spirit of Jamaica is never made from sugar, but always
from molasses and skimmings, it is advisable to notice these two products,
and, together with them, the exhausted wash commonly called dunder.
The molasses proceeding from the West Indian cane sugar contains
crystallizable and uncrystallizable sugar, gluten, or albumen, and other
organic matters which have escaped separation during the process of
defecation and evaporation, together with saline matters and water. It
therefore contains in itself all the elements necessary for fermentation, i.e.,
sugar, water, and gluten, which latter substance, acting the part of a ferment,
speedily establishes the process under certain conditions. Skimmings
comprise the matters separated from the cane juice during the processes of
defecation and evaporation. The scum of the clarifiers, precipitators, and
evaporators, and the precipitates in both clarifiers and precipitators, together
with a proportion of cane sugar mixed with the various scums and
precipitates, and the “sweet-liquor” resulting from the washing of the
boiling-pans, etc., all become mixed together in the skimming-receiver and
are fermented under the name of “skimmings.” They also contain the
elements necessary for fermentation, and accordingly they very rapidly pass
into a state of fermentation when left to themselves; but, in consequence of

the glutinous matters being in excess of the sugar, this latter is speedily
decomposed, and the second, or acetous fermentation, commences very
frequently before the first is far advanced. Dunder is the fermented wash
after it has undergone distillation, by which it has been deprived of the
alcohol it contained. To be good, it should be light, clear, and slightly bitter;
it should be quite free from acidity, and is always best when fresh. As it is
discharged from the still, it runs into receivers placed on a lower level, from
which it is pumped up when cool into the upper receivers, where it clarifies,
and is then drawn down into the fermenting cisterns as required. Well-
clarified dunder will keep for six weeks without any injury. Good dunder
may be considered to be the liquor, or “wash,” as it is termed, deprived by
distillation of its alcohol, and much concentrated by the boiling it has been
subjected to; whereby the substances it contains, as gluten, gum, oils, etc.,
have become, from repeated boilings, so concentrated as to render the liquid
mass a highly aromatic compound. In this state it contains at least two of the
elements necessary for fermentation, so that, on the addition of the third,
viz., sugar, that process speedily commences.
The first operation is to clarify the mixture of molasses and skimmings
previous to fermenting it. This is performed in a leaden receiver holding
about 300 or 400 gallons. When the clarification is complete, the clear liquor
is run into the fermenting vat, and there mixed with 100 or 200 gallons of
water (hot, if possible), and well stirred. The mixture is then left to ferment.
The great object that the distiller has in view in conducting the fermentation
is to obtain the largest possible amount of spirit that the sugar employed will
yield, and to take care that the loss by evaporation or acetification is reduced
to a minimum. In order to ensure this, the following course should be
adopted. The room in which the process is carried on must be kept as cool as
it is possible in a tropical climate; say, 75° to 80° F.
Supposing that the fermenting vat has a capacity of 1000 gallons, the
proportions of the different liquors run in would be 200 gallons of well-
clarified skimmings, 50 gallons of molasses, and 100 gallons of clear
dunder; they should be well mixed together. Fermentation speedily sets in,
and 50 more gallons of molasses are then to be added, together with 200
gallons of water. When fermentation is thoroughly established, a further 400
gallons of dunder may be run in, and the whole well stirred up. Any scum
thrown up during the process is immediately skimmed off. The temperature
of the mass rises gradually until about 4° or 5° above that of the room itself.

Should it rise too high, the next vat must be set up with more dunder and less
water; if it keeps very low, and the action is sluggish, less must be used next
time. No fermenting principle besides the gluten contained in the wash is
required. The process usually occupies eight or ten days, but it may last
much longer. The liquid now becomes clear, and should be immediately
subjected to distillation to prevent acetous fermentation.
Sugar planters are accustomed to expect one gallon of proof rum for every
gallon of molasses employed. On the supposition that ordinary molasses
contains 65 parts of sugar, 32 parts of water, and three parts of organic
matter and salts, and that, by careful fermentation and distillation, 33 parts of
absolute alcohol may be obtained, we may then reckon upon 33 lbs. of spirit,
or about four gallons, which is a yield of about 5⅔ gallons of rum, 30 per
cent. over-proof, from 100 lbs. of such molasses.
The following process is described in Deerr’s work on “Sugar and Sugar
Cane.”
“In Mauritius a more complicated process is used; a barrel of about 50
gallons capacity is partly filled with molasses and water of density 1.10 and
allowed to spontaneously ferment; sometimes a handful of oats or rice is
placed in this preliminary fermentation. When attenuation is nearly complete
more molasses is added until the contents of the cask are again of density
1.10 and again allowed to ferment. This process is repeated a third time; the
contents of the barrel are then distributed between three or four tanks
holding each about 500 gallons of wash of density 1.10 and 12 hours after
fermentation has started here, one of these is used to pitch a tank of about
8,000 gallons capacity; a few gallons are left in the pitching tanks which are
again filled up with wash of density 1.10 and the process repeated until the
attenuations fall off, when a fresh start is made. This process is very similar
to what obtains in modern distilleries save that the initial fermentation is
adventitious.
“In Java and the East generally, a very different procedure is followed. In
the first place a material known as Java, or Chinese, yeast is prepared from
native formulæ; in Java, pieces of sugar cane are crushed along with certain
aromatic herbs, amongst which galanga and garlic are always present, and
the resulting extract made into a paste with rice meal; the paste is formed
into strips, allowed to dry in the sun and then macerated with water and
lemon juice; the pulpy mass obtained after standing for three days is
separated from the water and made into small balls, rolled in rice straw and

allowed to dry; these balls are known as Raggi or Java yeast. In the next step
rice is boiled and spread out in a layer on plantain leaves and sprinkled over
with Raggi, then packed in earthenware pots and left to stand for two days,
at the end of which period the rice is converted into a semi-liquid mass; this
material is termed Tapej and is used to excite fermentation in molasses wash.
The wash is set up at a density of 25° Balling and afterwards the process is
as usual. In this proceeding the starch in the rice is converted by means of
certain micro-organisms Chlamydomucor oryzae into sugar and then forms a
suitable habitat for the reproduction of yeasts which are probably present in
the Raggi but may find their way into the Tapej from other sources. About
100 lbs. of rice are used to pitch 1,000 gallons of wash.”

CHAPTER XI.
Alcoholometry.

Alcoholmetry is the name given to a variety of methods of determining
the quantity of absolute alcohol contained in spirituous liquors. It will
readily be seen that a quick and accurate method of making such
determinations is of the very utmost importance to those who are engaged in
the liquor traffic, since the value of spirit depends entirely upon the
percentage of alcohol which it contains. When alcoholic liquors consist of
simple mixtures of alcohol and water, the test is a simple one, the exact
percentage being readily deducible from the specific gravity of the liquor,
because to a definite specific gravity belongs a definite content of alcohol;
this is obtained either by means of the specific gravity bottle, or of
hydrometers of various kinds, specially constructed.
All hydrometers comprise essentially a graduated stem of uniform
diameter, a bulb forming a float and a counterpoise or ballast. The
hydrometers may either be provided with a scale indicated on the neck or
else with weights added to sink the hydrometer to a certain mark. The first
instruments are called hydrometers of “constant immersion,” the others, of
“variable immersion.”
At the latter end of the last century, a series of arduous experiments were
conducted by Sir C. Blagden, at the instance of the British government, with
a view to establishing a fixed proportion between the specific gravity of
spirituous liquors and the quantity of absolute alcohol contained in them.
The result of these experiments, after being carefully verified, led to the
construction of a series of tables, reference to which gives at once the
percentage of alcohol for any given number of degrees registered by the
hydrometer; these tables are invariably sold with the instrument. They are
also constructed to show the number of degrees over-or under-proof,
corresponding to the hydrometric degrees. Other tables are obtainable which
give the specific gravity corresponding to these numbers.
The measurement of the percentage of absolute alcohol in spirituous
liquors is almost invariably expressed in volume rather than weight, owing

to the fact that such liquors are always sold by volume. Nevertheless, the
tables referred to above show the percentage of spirit both by volume and
weight.

Fig. 52.—Syke’s Hydrometer.
In the United States the standard liquor, known as proof spirit, contains
92.3 per cent. by weight and 94.9 per cent. by volume, of absolute alcohol; it
has a specific gravity of .9186 at 60° F. A proof gallon contains by
measurement 100 parts of alcohol and 81.5 parts of water. The strength and
therefore the value of spirituous liquors is estimated according to the
quantity by volume of anhydrous spirit contained in the liquor with reference
to this standard. Thus the expression “20 per cent. overproof,” “20 per cent.
underproof,” means that the liquor contain 20 volumes of water for every
100 volumes over or under this fixed quantity, and that in order to reduce the
spirit to proof, 20 per cent. of water by volume, must be subtracted or added,
as the case may be. Any hydrometer constructed for the measurement of
liquids of less density than water may be employed. That known as “Syke’s”
is most commonly used for alcoholometric purposes. It is shown in Fig. 52
and consists of a spherical brass ball A, to which is fixed two stems; the
upper one B is also of brass, flat, and about 3½ in. in length; it is divided into
ten parts, each being subdivided into five, and the whole being numbered as
shown in the figure. The lower stem C is conical, and slightly more than an
inch long; it terminates in a weighted bulb D. A series of circular weights, of
the form shown in the figure, accompany the instrument; these are slipped
upon the top of the lower stem C, and allowed to slip down until they rest
upon the bulb D. The instrument is used in the following way: It is
submerged in the liquor to be tested until the whole of the upper stem is
under the surface, and an idea is thus gained of the weight that will be
required to partly submerge the stem. This weight is added, and the
hydrometer again placed in the liquor. The figure on the scale to which the
instrument has sunk when at rest is now observed, and added to the number
on the weight used, the sum giving, by reference to the tables, the percentage
by volume of absolute alcohol above or below the standard quantity.
In exact estimations, the temperature of the liquor tested must be carefully
registered, and the necessary corrections made. In Jones’s hydrometer, which
is an improvement upon Syke’s, a small spirit thermometer is attached to the
bulb, and by noting the temperature of the liquor at the time of the
experiment, and referring to the tables accompanying the instrument, the
strength is found at once without the need of calculation.
Dica’s hydrometer is very similar to Jones’s instrument above described.
It is of copper, has a stem fitted to receive brass poises, a thermometer, a

graduated scale, etc.
In Europe, Gay-Lussac’s hydrometer and tables are chiefly used for
alcoholometric testing. This instrument is precisely similar in construction to
those of Twaddle and Baume. On the scale, zero is obtained by placing it in
pure distilled water at 59° F., and the highest mark, or 100, by placing it in
pure alcohol at the same temperature, the intermediate space being divided
into 100 equal divisions, each representing one per cent. of absolute alcohol.
The correction for temperature, as in the above cases, is included in the
reference tables.
Another hydrometer, used in France for alcoholometric determinations, is
Cartier’s. In form it is precisely similar to Baume’s hydrometer. Zero is the
same in both instruments, but the point marked 30° in Cartier’s is marked
32° in Baume’s, the degrees of the latter being thus diminished in the
proportion of 15 or 16. Cartier’s hydrometer is only used for liquids lighter
than water.
The alcoholmeter of Tralles is the official instrument for testing alcoholic
liquors in the U. S. but the instrument which is most generally used both
here and abroad is that of Beaumé. There are two instruments bearing
Beaumé’s name, one for liquids lighter than water, the other for those which
are heavier. All hydrometers, alcoholmeters and saccharometers work on the
same principle, though they are each differently graduated for the particular
work to be done and the details of the measuring process are slightly
different. All these instruments are provided with tables whereby their
readings may be corrected and the specific gravity of the liquid determined.
The above hydrometric methods can be safely employed only when the
spirit tested contains a very small amount of solid matter, since, when such
matter is contained in the liquor in quantity, the density alone cannot
possibly afford a correct indication of its richness in alcohol. Many methods
have been proposed for the estimation of alcohol in liquor, containing
saccharine coloring and extractive matters, either in solution or suspension.
Undoubtedly the most accurate of these, though at the same time the most
tedious, is to subject the liquor to a process of distillation by which a mixture
of pure alcohol and water is obtained as the distillate. This mixture is
carefully tested with the hydrometer, and the percentage of alcohol in it
determined by reference to the tables as above described; from this quantity
and the volume of the original liquor employed the percentage by volume of
alcohol in that liquor is readily found. The condensing arrangement must be

kept perfectly cool, if possible in a refrigerator, as the alcohol in the distillate
is very liable to be lost by re-evaporation. When great accuracy is desired,
and time is at the operator’s disposal, the above method is preferable to all
others.
It is performed in the following manner: Three hundred parts of the liquor
to be examined are placed in a small still, or retort, and exactly one-third of
this quantity is distilled over. A graduated glass tube is used as the receiver,
in order that the correct volume may be drawn over without error. The
alcoholic richness of the distillate is then determined by any of the above
methods, and the result is divided by three, which gives at once the
percentage of alcohol in the original liquor. The strength at proof may be
calculated from this in the ordinary way.
If the liquor be acid, it must be neutralized with carbonate of soda before
being submitted to distillation. From eight to ten per cent. of common salt
must be added, in order to raise the boiling point, so that the whole of the
spirit may pass over before it has reached the required measure. In the case
of the stronger wines it is advisable to distil over 150 parts and divide by two
instead of three. If the liquor be stronger than 25 per cent. by volume of
alcohol, or above 52 to 54 per cent. under-proof, an equal volume of water
should be added to the liquid in the still, and a quantity distilled over equal
to that of the sample tested, when the alcoholic strength of the distillate
gives, without calculation, the correct strength required. If the liquor be
stronger than 48 to 50 per cent. under-proof, three times its volume of water
must be added, and the process must be continued until the volume of the
distillate is twice that of the sample originally taken. In each case the
proportionate quantity of common salt must be added.
For the estimation of alcohol in wines, liquors, etc., the following method
may be employed: A measuring flask is filled up to a mark on its neck with
the liquor under examination, which is then transferred to a retort; the flask
must be carefully rinsed out with distilled water, and the rinsings added to
the liquor in the retort. About two-thirds are then drawn over into the same
measuring flask, and made up to its previous bulk with distilled water, at the
same temperature as that of the sample before distillation. The strength is
then determined by means of Syke’s hydrometer, and this, if under-proof,
deducted from 100, gives the true percentage of proof-spirit in the wine.

Fig. 53.—Field’s Alcoholometer.
A quick, if not always very exact, method consists in determining the
point at which the liquor boils. The boiling point of absolute alcohol being
once determined, it is obvious that the more it is diluted with water the

nearer will the boiling point of the mixture approach that of water; moreover,
it has been proved that the presence of saccharine and other solid matters has
but an almost inappreciable effect upon this point. Field’s alcoholometer,
since improved by Ure, is based upon this principle. It is shown in Fig. 53,
and consists, roughly speaking, of a cylindrical vessel A, to contain the
spirit; this vessel is heated from beneath by a spirit lamp, which fits into the
case B. A delicate thermometer C, the bulb of which is introduced into the
spirit, is attached to a scale divided into 100 divisions, of which each
represents one degree over-or under-proof. This method is liable to several
small sources of error, but when a great many determinations have to be
made, and speed is an object rather than extreme accuracy, this instrument
becomes exceedingly useful. It does not answer well with spirits above
proof, because the variation in their boiling points are so slight as not to be
easily observed with accuracy. But for liquors under-proof, and especially
for wines, beer, and other fermented liquors, it gives results closely
approximating to those obtained by distillation, and quite accurate enough
for all ordinary purposes. Strong liquors should therefore be tested with
twice their bulk, and commercial spirits with an equal bulk, of water, the
result obtained being multiplied by two or three, as the case may be.
Another very expeditious, but somewhat rough, method was invented by
Geisler. It consists in measuring the tension of the vapor of the spirit, by
causing it to raise a column of mercury in a closed tube. The very simple
apparatus is shown in Fig. 54. A is a small glass bulb, fitted with a narrow
tube and stop-cock. This vessel is completely filled with the spirit, and is
then screwed upon a long, narrow tube B, bent at one end and containing
mercury. This tube is attached to a graduated scale showing the percentage
of absolute alcohol above or below proof. To make the test the cock is
opened, and the bulb, together with the lower part of the tube, is immersed in
boiling water, which gradually raises the spirit to its boiling-point. When this
is reached, the vapor forces the mercury up the tube, and, when stationary,
the degree on the scale to which it has ascended gives directly the percentage
of alcohol.

Fig. 54.—Geisler’s Apparatus.
Another method, which is not to be relied on for very weak liquors, but
which answers well for cordials, wines, and strong ales, is that known as
Brande’s method. The liquor is poured into a long, narrow glass tube,
graduated centesimally, until it is half-filled. About 12 or 15 per cent. of
subacetate of lead, or finely powdered litharge, is then added, and the whole
is shaken until all the color is destroyed. Powdered anhydrous carbonate of
potash is next added until it sinks undissolved in the tube, even after
prolonged agitation. The tube is then allowed to rest, when the alcohol is
observed to float upon the surface of the water in a well-defined layer. The
quantity read off on the scale of the tube and doubled, gives the percentage
by volume of alcohol in the original liquid. The whole operation may be
performed in about five minutes, and furnishes reliable approximative
results. In many cases it is necessary to add the lead salt for the purpose of
decolorizing the liquid.
For the investigation of the amount of sugar in, or the concentration of the
mash, or beer, a specially scaled hydrometer is used which is termed a
saccharometer. Sugar possesses a higher degree of specific gravity than
water, and hence it follows that the greater the amount of sugar in the mash
the higher will be the specific gravity. The less the hydrometer sinks into the
fluid the greater the amount of sugar present. Saccharometers are provided
with thermometers whereby the reading may be corrected to a standard
temperature, usually 59° F. The saccharometer is correct for solutions
containing sugar alone but it is only approximately correct for mash liquor
which contains a variety of other matters in variable quantities.
It is a prime necessity that the distiller should be able to determine if the
mash has been completely saccharified by the malt. For this purpose a
solution of iodine is used. Iodine gives to starch a blue color. If the starch
however, has been completely changed into sugar there will either be no
discoloration or the filtered mash liquid which is at first a yellowish red
becomes blue, then violet, and at last red.
Determination of the Purity of Alcohols. While the knowledge of the
amount of alcohol contained in a liquid is of great practical utility, this does
not give any idea of the impurities present.
An alcohol of 100 degrees or an absolute alcohol, may contain numerous
impurities which may greatly affect its quality. It is therefore necessary in

addition to analyze the purity of the alcohol.
In commercial practice there are certain simple processes which will give
a basis by which to determine the impurities left after distillation and
rectification. These processes are largely empirical. They are based on the
perception of the senses and are consequently of an entirely relative degree
of precision. Nevertheless, when made by a practical expert, the operation
may give very useful preliminary indications.
This test is made in a glass of special shape broad at the bottom and
narrowing at the top in order to concentrate the aroma of the product.
Ordinary brandies are tested undiluted. Commercial alcohols, of about 95
degrees must be diluted with water to a maximum of 30 degrees. Otherwise
the burning tang of the alcohol would preclude any delicacy of perception
and allow impurities to pass unnoticed.
The operation is begun by examination by sense of smell. The glass is half
filled with the liquid diluted with one half of pure water. The glass is
covered with one hand and shaken violently for a few seconds. Immediately
upon uncovering it, the quality of the alcoholic vapors may be ascertained by
their odor.
For the examination by sense of taste, the operator rinses his mouth for a
moment with the liquid itself. The taste of ethyl alcohol is fairly transient;—
it disappears quickly allowing the taste of the accompanying foreign matter
to be perceived almost immediately afterward. With a little practice this test
enables one to distinguish by their flavor the primal origin of alcohols and to
judge of their purity. Some professionals succeed by training in arriving at
high degree of skill in the art of tasting alcohol as it should be done.
In order to determine the purity of alcohol there are besides chemical tests
used by the trade. These tests, which consist in characterizing and measuring
separately the impurities which alcohol may contain, such as acids, ethers,
aldehydes, bases, etc., belong exclusively to analytical chemistry; they are
extremely delicate and complicated. We will not venture to touch upon them
here.
One of the simplest tests for purity is that of Barbet. This is based upon
the time taken to discolor a solution of permanganate of potash under the
action of the tested alcohol. It is not only very rapid but in general more
practical than other tests. It allows the aggregate of the impurities contained
in an alcohol to be ascertained in a single operation.

The permanganate solution used is very weak (0. gr. 200 of salt), and of a
violet-red color. The technique of the proceeding is as follows: 50 cubic
centimeters of the alcohol to be tested are placed in a glass vessel the
temperature of which is maintained at 64.40°F. 2 cubic centimeters of the
permanganate solution are abruptly added and the time noted to within a
second. Discoloration is awaited and as soon as it takes place the time is
again noted. The total discoloration of the permanganate is not very marked
and passes through intermediate stages; therefore it is preferable not to await
complete discoloration but to stop at a pale salmon tint, which tint may be
comparatively fixed by a sample of colored liquid (say a solution of fuchsine
and chromate of potash).
The comparative times of discoloration obtained by M. Barbet with
various commercial alcohols, are as follows:
Pure alcohol 43 min. 30 sec.
Extra fine alcohol 5 “ 30 “
Semi fine alcohol 5 “ 10 “
Medium flavor alcohol (first running) 5 “ 5 “
Mediocre alcohol 5 “ 11 “
Medium flavor alcohol (last running) 2 “ 12 “

CHAPTER XII.
Distilling Plants: Their General Arrangement and
Equipment.

When we look at the manufactories of to-day with their complicated
machinery, their extensive equipment, their great boilers, and engines and
their hundreds of employees, we are liable to forget that good work was
turned out by our ancestors, with equipment of extreme simplicity and that
to-day while there are, for instance, thousands of wood-working mills,
complete in every detail and covering under a multitude of roofs every
variety of complicated and perfected wood-working machinery, yet there are
many more thousands of small plants, comprising a portable boiler, fed with
refuse, a small engine and a few saws which are making money for the
owners and doing the work of the world.
The reader therefore, must be warned against any feeling of
discouragement because of the cost and complicated perfection of elaborate
distilling plants. Where the business is to be entered into on a large scale, to
take the products from a considerable section of country and turn them into
alcohol to compete in the great markets, the best of apparatus and equipment
is not too good, but the person contemplating the mere manufacture of
alcohol on a small scale, to serve only a small section, must remember that
distillation is really a very simple matter, for years practiced with a most
rudimentary apparatus and still so practiced in the country districts
particularly in the South.
This is well illustrated by the fact that an illicit distiller confined in one of
the North Carolina penitentiaries for transgressing the revenue laws, was
able while in durance, to continue his operations unknown to the prison
authorities, his plant consisting of a few buckets, and a still whose body was
a tin kettle, a few pieces of pipe and a worm which he had bent himself. This
example is not given as encouragement to illicit or “blockade” distilling but
merely to show vividly how simple the rudimentary apparatus really is.
The simplest regular plants, those of the South for instance, comprise a
building of rough lumber some thirty feet by twelve wide, with a wooden

floor on which the fermenting vats rest and an earthern floor immediately in
front of the still and furnace. This is to permit the fires being drawn when the
charge has been exhausted in the boiler. The still is of the fire-heated,
intermittent variety, such as described on page 35. It consists of a brick
furnace or oven, large enough to burn ordinary cord wood and supporting a
copper boiler of fifteen or twenty gallons capacity. On top of this is a copper
“head” with the usual goose neck, from which a copper pipe leads to a
closed and locked barrel containing raw spirits, this barrel acting on the
principle of the condensing chamber shown in the still in Fig. 8. From the
upper part of this barrel, which acts as a concentrator, the vapors pass to a
copper worm immersed in a tub of cold water. Here the vapors are
condensed and pass by a pipe to a small room, containing a locked receiving
tank. This room is kept locked and is under the immediate charge of the
Government officer in charge of the still, or, in the case of alcohol intended
for de-naturing, the alcohol would pass to a locked tank from whence it
would be taken and de-natured under the charge of the proper Government
officer.
The fermenting vats may be six or more in number so as to allow the
mash in each tank to be at a different stage of fermentation. A hand pump is
used for pumping the contents of any of the tanks into the boiler or the still.
A hand pump is also provided for supplying water to the vats and
condensers.
In connection with the distilling and fermenting building there are small
buildings for storing the grain, malt, etc., for the storage of the alcohol and
for the keeping of the various books, records, and stamps required by law.
Such plants as these are located adjacent to a good clear spring or even a
small brook, and preferably in a position convenient to the carriage of
materials and the transportation of the whiskey or other liquor produced.
The buildings are of the cheapest construction and arranged in the manner
which compels the least labor in filling the mash vats and turning the
contents into spirits. There are no special mash coolers, no complicated
stirrers. The “beer” as the fermented mash is called is stirred by a paddle in
the hands of a strong negro and the mash is mixed and fermented by rule of
thumb, without the use of any scientific appliances. Primitive, as it is,
however, those small plants in certain sections of the country make money
for their proprietors and serve a large number of customers. The spirits so

produced are low grade, fiery and rough in taste, but the point is that alcohol
may be and is so produced.
Between these simple beginnings and the elaborate plants of big
distilleries there is a wide range, so wide that it is impossible within the
limits of this book to go into detail. The makers of distilling apparatus
furnish all grades of stills and to those contemplating erecting a plant it is
suggested that their best course is to communicate with such manufacturers,
giving the circumstances of the case, the particular product to be worked and
the capacity desired. The object of this book is to give an understanding of
the processes of distillation and of this chapter to give a general idea of the
arrangement of a number of typical distilling plants, suitable for various
kinds of work.
That the simple, direct-heated pot still such as referred to above, used for
fifteen hundred years and over, is still used is largely due to the simplicity of
its construction and operation, but its capacity is small, and its operating
expense relatively heavy. It is still used for making liquors, but for industrial
purposes it has been entirely superceded by concentrating and rectifying
stills. A simple form of the latter is found in the still shown in Fig. 11 and in
the distilling apparatus of Adam (Fig. 9).
Originally all stills were heated by direct contact with fire. This was open
to a serious objection, namely, that the mash if thick was liable to be
scorched. Stirring devices were used by Pistorious but these required
constant attention. As a consequence, direct firing gave place to heating by
steam, by which not only was scorching of the wash avoided but much
greater certainty of operation was attained.
The steam may be used to simply heat the boiler, thus taking the place of
the direct heat of the fire, but it is far better in every way to admit the steam
directly to the mash as in the Coffey still, Fig. 18, and all modern stills. It is
possible to apply this principle to all compound stills, but the best results
with greatest economy of fuel are, of course, gotten from the plate or column
stills especially constructed for steam. In order to get the best results it is
necessary that the entry of steam be regulated so that there may be absolute
uniformity of flow. A convenient form of regulator is that invented by
Savalle, and described on page 70, hut there are a number of other forms on
the market each one having its special advantages.

It will be seen then that while the simple pot still, fire-heated, may be
used, the practical plant for the fermentation of industrial alcohol should
have a modern continuous still and rectifier and a boiler for generating the
necessary steam for it and for the operations of mashing and fermenting.

The Fermenting Room.
The fermenting room has three main requirements for successful
commercial distillation. It must allow a uniform temperature to be
maintained in the vats; it must have thorough ventilation without any
draftiness, and it must be absolutely clean. It should have also plenty of light
so that it may be thoroughly inspected. It is true that in the primitive plants
all these requisites were violated, but there is no reason for this. The first
cost is but little added to by building with these requisites in mind and it is
far more profitable in the long run; and it is only by the elimination of the
bacteria which are inimical to proper fermentation that the fermenting
operation can be performed with any certainty.
For the regulation of the temperature reliance may be had on stoves or
heaters, or on special mash heaters and coolers by which the temperature of
the mash in the tubs may itself be controlled without reference to the
temperature of the fermenting room. When, however, no special and
adequate-heating means is provided, the walls should be double with an air
space between and the doors and windows should either be also double or
limited in number.
To ensure good ventilation and plenty of space above the vats wherein to
work or install suitable vatting machinery, the walls should be at least twelve
feet in height. Outlet openings should be formed around the base of the room
leading to the outer air and closed by controllable shutters. These are to
allow the escape of the carbonic acid gas evolved during fermentation. These
should be most carefully constructed, however, to prevent drafts.
The walls and floor of the fermenting rooms should be so made that they
may be easily washed down and kept clean. Concrete floors are excellent for
this purpose and the walls also may be faced with concrete or cement
covered with a coating composed of a mixture of asphalt and coal tar. This
mixture may be also applied to plaster walls with good results.

The fermenting vats, as before stated, are made of wood for small plants,
and of iron for larger plants, and are usually from three and a half to four and
a half feet in height. After the chief fermenting period, it is necessary that the
temperature of the mash be prevented from rising beyond 86° F. and to that
end movable cooling tubes, coils and stirrers are used. These consist of
parallel frames made up of tubes, preferably of copper, through which cold
water is passed and which are moved about in the vat, either vertically or
rotatively. There must be space above the vats, therefore, for the introduction
and removal of these cooling frames, and for the gearing whereby they are
driven.
As previously stated, mashes to-day are mostly prepared by steaming and
disintegrating in a mash cooker of the type shown in Figs. 1 and 41 or in
Henze steamers, from which the mash is blown into the preparatory mash
vat, where it is stirred and brought to the proper temperature for
fermentation. A convenient arrangement of mash cooker, coolers, pump and
vats is shown in Fig. 1. Where Henze steamers are used they are arranged in
batteries, the blow-off pipes being connected to the preparatory mash vats.
These are preferably provided with water cooled stirrers consisting of a
frame of straight and vertical tubes mounted on a tubular arm projecting
from a tubular shaft, and rotated in a horizontal plane within the closed mash
vats, by suitable gears. The rotation of the arm stirs and automatically mixes
the mash while cooling it. Another form of cooler is shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 4.
Whatever form of cooling apparatus is used, attention should be paid to
the ease with which the stirrers or tubes can be kept clean, and to the
strength of the apparatus, gears, etc. Concentrated or thick mashes require
that the stirrers be of massive construction, capable of being rapidly rotated
in the liquid.
In preparatory mash vats for use with concentrated mashes, means must
also be provided for clearing the mash. These mash cleaners and husk
removers usually form part of, or are attached to the vat itself and are driven
by gearing from the main shaft carrying power to the mashing room.
A good idea of the general arrangement and correlation of the various
apparatus of a plant may be gathered from the sectional view of a grain
distillery shown in Fig. 55. It will be seen from this that the mashing
apparatus, steamers and mixers are located on the several floors of one
building and in such relation to each other that the several operations of

saccharifying are carried on in a continuous movement of mash towards the
fermenting vats.

Fig. 55.—Continuous Grain Alcohol Distillery—Barbet’s System.
Adjoining the fermenting vat room is a section of the plant given up to the
manufacture of pure yeast and this and the fermenting rooms are level with
the ground, have solid walls whereby a uniform temperature is obtained, and
plenty of space for proper ventilation of the vats. A gallery traverses the
room about midway the height of the vats so that convenient access may be
had to them. The distilling room is high enough to allow for the setting of
the various columns, separators and condensers at their proper heights
relative to each other, and should be so arranged as to its several floors or
stages that access to the various pipes and apparatus may be easily had. The
steam generator for the column is located in an adjacent room.
In addition to this there should be a malt house for the preparation of malt,
located conveniently to the saccharifying building; an engine and boiler
room so placed that power may be conveniently transferred to the mixers,
stirrers and pumps and to generate steam for the Henze boilers; while
adjacent to the distilling building should be the storage tanks and de-naturing
department.

Fig. 56.—Grain Distillery. Capacity 2,500 Bushels per day.
Another arrangement of apparatus for a grain distillery with a capacity of
2500 bushels per day is illustrated in Fig. 56. This plant was erected by the
Vulcan Copper Works Co., and includes separate stills for gin, alcohol, and
rye whiskey, as well as a spirit rectifying column.
The milling and grain mixing departments, the yeast room and the
fermenting room are arranged on the several floors of one building, in the
basement of which is located the vacuum cooker and drop tub and coolers
described on page 11 from which the mash is pumped into the fermenting
tubs.
The second section of the building contains the distilling apparatus,
storage tanks, charcoal rectifiers and spirit rectifying apparatus, while the
third section of the building comprises the boiler house and engine room.

Fig. 57—Small Beet Distillery.
In Fig. 57 is shown a view of a small plant for the distillation of beets, the
figure giving a good idea of the arrangement of the diffusion battery in
relation to the still and rectifier. The juice from the diffusion battery is
pumped into the overhead tanks from which it descends into a dephlegmator
and from thence into the still, the vapors from the still passing into the
rectifier. The still is a direct, fire-heated still and adjacent to the still is a
water heater from which the water passes to the hot water reservoir located
above and to one side of the diffusion vats.
A large plant for the distillation of beets is shown in the Section Fig. 58.
The beets from the beet silos are carried to suitable washing machines, A,
see Chapter VII, in which they are thoroughly cleaned of dirt and gravel.
From the washers they are lifted by a conveyor B to a distributor C by which
they are conveyed to the cutters or slicers. These consist of horizontal
apertured plates revolving at a high speed, and carry knives which plane off
slices from the beets. These drop through the apertures of the plate and are
conveyed to the diffusion batteries, as by a movable chute D oscillated with
a jigging motion through suitable gearing.

The diffusers F should be arranged so that small trucks may be driven
beneath them to receive the spent slices and carry them to the spent beet
silos. U indicates a gauging tank into which the juice runs from the diffusers.
From thence it passes to coolers (not seen) and thence to the fermentation
tanks G. R indicates a small engine for driving the beet slicers and S a
battery of pumps whereby the wash may be forced up into the reservoir I
from which the wash descends into the still K. H and J are reservoirs for hot
and cold water respectively.

Fig. 58.—Large Beet Distillery.
From the distilling column K the phlegm or raw spirit passes to the
phlegm tank L from which it is drawn as desired into the rectifying column
M, thence into the coolers and condensers and thence into the alcohol tanks
N.
On the other side of the building as indicated by the chimney is the boiler
for generating the motive power for the plant and for supplying the steam
necessary for the distilling and rectifying columns and the hot water for the
diffusion batteries. The boiler should be very capacious and it would be well
to have two, one in reserve.
If possible, advantage should be taken of the natural slope of the ground
so that the trucks bringing beets from the silo to the washer and carrying the

spent beets away may roll downward by their own weight. The silos for the
spent beets should be excavated from the ground and the trucks be
constructed to tip their contents into these pits. The natural slope of the
bottom of these pits should drain away the water and means be provided
whereby carts can load with the spent beets to carry them away.
The spent liquors should flow off into ponds from which they may be
drawn away to fertilize land.
A very convenient method of carrying beets from the silos to the washing
machine is by means of a narrow canal of rapidly flowing water, flowing
between the silos and entering the washing machines. Beets pitched into this
stream are carried along by the current to the washers and at the same time
undergo a preliminary washing. By laying out a system of channels
throughout the beet yard the labor of handling is reduced to a minimum.
These channels may be covered by boards on which the beets may be piled.
These may be lifted and the beets thereon dumped into the stream.
A plant for the distillation of potatoes would be arranged very much after
the plan of the grain distillery heretofore described except that it would have
to be provided with apparatus for washing the potatoes and removing stones
and adhering clods of earth. These washers, as put on the market, comprise a
slotted rotating drum, which tumbles the potatoes about and loosens the dirt.
When they escape from the drum they enter a washing trough where they are
stirred about by revolving blades and acted upon by a swift current of water.
The trough should be about two feet long to properly wash the potatoes.
They are then lifted by an elevator to the mouth of the Henze pulpers (see
Fig. 2) or the vacuum cookers see Fig. 1).
It is of advantage that the washing apparatus be so located that the
potatoes as they are received may be shoveled into it immediately. The scale
for weighing the potatoes as they are brought in should be so located that the
manager may attend to the weighing without having to leave the distillery.
This and other like details may seem of small moment but it is care in such
details which conduces to the success of a plant. As before stated in
describing a beet distillery, advantage should be taken of the lay of the land
in laying out the plant so that the spent pulp may be easily disposed of, the
spent wash carried away, and the finished product conveniently handled.

Fig. 59.—Molasses Distillery. Capacity 2,500 gallons per day.
In Fig. 59, is shown a plant for distilling molasses, designed by the Vulcan
Copper Works, before referred to, and erected for the Rio Tamposo Sugar
Co., of Tamposo, S. L. P., Mexico.
The molasses as before explained at page 164 being too concentrated, is
first pumped into the steam mixing tank on the ground floor of the distilling
building. Here it is diluted and heated, mixed with sulphuric acid and
pumped into the long ranges of cooling pipes, located along the fermenting
room and built on the principle shown in Fig. 4. Here it is further diluted and
yeast is added. From the fermenting tubs the molasses beer is pumped into
the beer heater and thence into such a still as is shown in Fig. 32.
In addition to this the plant contains a rectifying apparatus for the high
wines produced by the beer still, comprising a spirit still, charged from a
high wine tank, a rectifying column, separator, and tubular condenser from
which the rectified spirit is carried to the storage tanks.

Fig. 60.—Molasses Fermenting House.
Cane sugar distilleries are practically arranged the same as the molasses
distillery above described. The cane is crushed between the rolls of cane
crushers on the receiving floor and is then strained to remove the “begasse.”
The clarified juice is then pumped up to the mixing tanks. In these the
molasses is mixed with spent wash from other fermentations or with water,
after which it is acidified and flows to the fermenting vats. The fermenting
house should be provided with means for forcing in filtered air and for
ventilating, as molasses wash is very sensitive to change in temperature and
very liable to become contaminated by injurious ferments. (See Fig. 60).
Above each vat should be a cooling coil capable of being lowered into the
vat and a water spraying pipe, whereby the mash may be diluted when
desired. From the vats, the wash is pumped to the distilling and rectifying
columns. In Jamaica the still shown in Fig. 37, is largely used, as also the
Coffey still, Fig. 18.
It is very often not profitable to distill spirit from molasses or sugar cane
directly at the sugar factories, there being no market on the spot and
transportation of the spirit in casks being very costly and difficult, not only
because of the lack of transporting means but because the tropical climate

tends to warp the empty casks. Transportation of the molasses in casks to a
distillery is likewise open to objections of cost and the action of the hot sun
in fermenting the molasses and bursting the cask.
Barbet has suggested a way out of the difficulty. This consists in boiling
the molasses in vacuo, and then running it into molds lined with sheets of
paper. These are set by dipping in cold water. When set the loaves wrapped
in their paper coverings are as easily handled as sugar loaves. There is no
dead weight nor any “empties” to be returned as in the case of casks. The
molasses is in a most concentrated form and this makes for economy in
freight. There is no risk of deterioration and the loaves may be stored in an
ordinary warehouse. This method allows the distillery to be located at
centers of transportation or at seaports, while the sugar factories are on the
plantation.
Care should be taken in selecting the site for a distillery that an abundance
of pure water may be supplied. The purer the water the better, and where
water is not pure, purifying apparatus should be provided. The coolness of
the water is a factor which must be taken into consideration. The greater
amount of water will be used for cooling, and it follows then that the cooler
the water the less of it will have to be used.
The horse-power of the engines used in driving the distilling apparatus
varies, of course, with the capacity of the still, the average being between 6
H.P. and 30 H.P., for plants having fermenting vats of capacities ranging
between two hundred and fifty, and twelve hundred gallons.
It must not be forgotten that the coal consumption of a plant depends upon
the economy of heating means in the distilling apparatus, the perfection with
which the heat of the vapors is used to heat the wash, the perfection of the
boiler grates and the method of firing. These latter matters should be obvious
to any distiller, but it is in economy in little things that the successful
operation of a plant resides.
Nothing is more surprising than the difference in the coal consumption of
different distilleries. Some use a third more than others. This is caused by
poor coal, by poor firing, by poor boilers, by hard water, or by poor distilling
equipment. With regard to the latter this word of advice may be given: The
greater the number of plates in the distilling column, the less the coal
consumed per gallon of alcohol produced. It must, however, be taken into
account that a large number of plates in a column means a column of

considerable height and that in turn means a correspondingly tall still house
and increased first cost. Hence it is more economical to use the best forms of
traps on the plates and fewer plates, and the best forms of these traps as
pointed out in Chapter III, are those wherein the largest quantity of vapor in
a finely divided state may come into contact with the greatest number of
liquid particles.
In conclusion it may be said that dirt, neglect, carelessness and a too great
desire for economy in first cost are all factors in lowering the economical
productiveness as well in a distillery as in other manufacturing plants.

CHAPTER XIII.
De-natured Alcohol and De-naturing Formulæ

The uses of alcohol are very numerous and varied, the principal being, of
course, for the production of all alcoholic liquors such as brandy, gin, rum,
whiskey, liquors, etc.; that distilled from grain is almost entirely consumed
in the manufacture of whiskey, gin, and British brandy. In the arts, strong
alcohol is employed by the perfumers and makers of essences for dissolving
essential oils, soaps, etc., and for extracting the odor of flowers and plants;
by the varnish-makers for dissolving resins; by photographers in the
preparation of collodion; by the pharmaceutists in the preparation of
tinctures and other valuable medicaments; by chemists in many analytical
operations, and in the manufacture of numerous preparations; by instrument
makers in the manufacture of delicate thermometers; by the anatomist and
naturalist as an antiseptic; and in medicine, both in a concentrated form
(rectified spirit), and diluted (proof spirit, brandy, etc.), as a stimulant, tonic,
or irritant, and for various applications as a remedy. It is largely consumed in
the manufacture of vinegar; and in the form of methylated spirit it is used in
lamps for producing heat. It has, in fact, been employed for a multitude of
purposes which it is almost impossible to enumerate.
The common form of alcohol known as “de-natured spirit” consists of
alcohol to which one tenth of its volume of wood alcohol, or other de-
naturizing agents has been added, for the purpose of rendering the mixture
undrinkable through its offensive odor and taste. Methylated spirit being
sold tax free, may be applied by chemical manufacturers, varnish makers,
and many others, to a variety of uses, to which, from its greater cost, duty-
paid spirit is commercially inapplicable. Its use, however, in the preparation
of tinctures, sweet spirits of nitre, etc., has been prohibited by law. It has
often been attempted to separate the wood spirit from the alcohol, and thus
to obtain pure alcohol from the mixture, but always unsuccessfully, as,
although the former boils at a lower temperature than the latter, when boiled
they both distil over together, owing probably to the difference of their vapor
densities.

It is Germany which has led the way in the manufacture and use of “de-
natured” alcohol or “spiritus,” as it is there known. Germany has no natural
gas or oil wells, and gasoline and kerosene are not produced there, hence the
necessity of using some other form of liquid fuel. This fuel—in many ways
better than any petroleum product—was found in alcohol. The sandy plains
of northern Germany, and indeed any agricultural district of that empire,
produce abundant crops of potatoes and beets.
From the first, alcohol can be so easily manufactured that the processes
are within the understanding and ability of any farmer. The second is used in
the manufacture of beet sugar,—one of the great German industries, and the
crude molasses, from a refuse product,—still contains from 40 to 50 per
cent. of sugar, from which alcohol can be made. Under these circumstances
and the great demand for liquid fuel for motor carriages and gas engines,
alcohol for “de-naturing” came rapidly to the front as one of the most
important of agricultural products, as one of the most valuable “crops”
which a farmer could raise. Potatoes are chiefly raised. The potatoes are
grown by the farmers and manufactured into alcohol in individual farm
distilleries and in cooperative distilleries.
While England and France were somewhat behind Germany in fostering
this industry—yet they both were far ahead of the United States in this
matter. De-natured alcohol could be readily gotten in these countries, for
industrial purposes, while the United States continued to charge a high
internal revenue tax on all but wood alcohol. This prevented the use of
alcohol in competition with gasoline or kerosene, and limited its use in arts
and manufactures.
On June 7, 1906, however, Congress passed the “De-naturing Act,” as it is
called, which provided in brief that alcohol, which had been mixed with a
certain proportion of de-naturing materials sufficient to prevent its use as a
beverage should not be taxed.
The passage of this Act was alcohol’s new day, and is destined to have a
wide influence upon the agricultural pursuits of the country.
In the matter of small engines and motors alone one estimate places the
farm use of these at three hundred thousand with an annual increase of one
hundred thousand. This means an economical displacing of horse and
muscle power in farm work almost beyond comprehension. If now the
farmer can make from surplus or cheaply grown crops the very alcohol

which is to furnish the cheaper fuel for his motors, he is placed in a still
more independent and commanding position in the industrial race.
As an illuminant the untaxed alcohol is bound to introduce some
interesting as well as novel conditions. The general estimate of the value of
alcohol for lighting gives it about double the power of kerosene, a gallon of
alcohol lasting as two gallons of the oil. In Germany, where the use of
alcohol in lamps is most fully developed, a mantle is used. Thus in a short
time it may be expected that an entirely new industry will spring up to meet
the demand for the illuminating lamps embodying the latest approved form
of mantle. The adapting of the gasoline motors of automobiles to alcohol
fuel will in itself create a vast new manufacturing undertaking. When this is
accomplished it is believed that we shall no more be troubled with the
malodorous gasoline “auto” and “cycle” burners on our public streets and
parkways.
De-natured alcohol is simply alcohol which has been so treated, as to spoil
it for use as a beverage or medicine, and prevent its use in any manner
except for industrial purposes.
De-naturing may be accomplished in many ways.
In England a mixture suitable for industrial purposes, but unfit for any
other use, is made by mixing 90 per cent. of ethyl alcohol (alcohol made
from grain, potatoes, beets, etc.), with 10 per cent. of methyl or “wood
alcohol.” Under the new law the proportion of wood alcohol is cut to five
per cent.
In Canada “methylated spirits,” as it is known, is composed of from 25
per cent. to 50 per cent. of wood alcohol mixed with ethyl alcohol. This
proportion of wood alcohol is far more than is required in any other country.
In Germany, the de-naturing law passed in 1887 was so framed as to
maintain the high revenue tax on alcohol intended for drinking, but to
exempt from taxation such as should be de-naturized and used for industrial
purposes. De-naturing is accomplished by mixing with the spirit a small
proportion of some foreign substance, which, while not injuring its
efficiency for technical uses, renders it unfit for consumption as a beverage.
The de-naturing substances employed depend upon the use to which the
alcohol is to be subsequently applied. They include pyridin, picolin, benzol,
toluol, and xylol, wood vinegar, and several other similar products. As a
result of this system Germany produced and used last year 100,000,000

gallons of de-natured spirits, as compared with 10,302,630 gallons used in
1886, the last year before the enactment of the present law.
The following are some of the other de-naturants used in Germany:
Camphor, oil of turpentine, sulphuric ether, animal oil, chloroform,
iodoform, ethyl bromide, benzine, castor oil, lye.
In France the standard mixture consists of:
150 liters of Ethyl alcohol,
15 liters of wood alcohol,
½ liter of heavy benzine,
1 gram. Malachite green.
An illustration of de-naturing on a large scale is given by the methods and
operations of a large London establishment. On the ground floor are four
large iron tanks holding about 2500 gallons each. On the next floor are casks
of spirit brought under seal from the bonded warehouse. On the third floor
are the wood alcohol tanks, and on the fourth floor cans of methylating
materials. On the fourth floor the covers to the wood alcohol tanks were
removed (these tank covers were flush with that floor) and the contents
gauged and tested. The quantity to be put into the tanks on the first floor was
run off through pipes connecting with the first-floor tanks and the upper
tanks relocked. Then going to the second floor, each cask of the grain spirit
was gauged and tested and the tank covers, which were flush with the floor,
were removed and the casks of the grain spirit were run into the tanks below.
The mixture was then stirred with long-handled wooden paddles and the
tank covers replaced, and the material was ready for sale free of tax. The
mixture was 10 per cent. wood alcohol and 90 per cent. ethyl alcohol made
from molasses, and was what is known as the ordinary methylating spirit
used for manufacturing purposes only and used under bond. The completely
de-natured spirit is made by adding to the foregoing three-eighths of one per
cent. of benzine.
This benzine prevents re-distillation.
In the United States there are at present two general formulas for de-
natured alcohol in use, either one of which may be used by any
manufacturer, who can use de-natured alcohol.
The first and most common one is made up as follows:

Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Methyl “ 10 “
Benzine ½ “
Where such a formula as this is required in an aqueous solution the
benzine is of course thrown out, giving the solution a milky appearance. In
this case the other general formula may be used.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Methyl “ 2 “
Pyridine Bases ½ “
In addition to these two general formulas for de-natured alcohol a number
of special formulas have been authorized to be used in the manufacture of
certain classes of goods. In order to buy these specially de-natured alcohols
it is necessary, of course, to obtain a permit first from your Collector of
Internal Revenue, a simple permit to use de-natured alcohol will not suffice.
Some of the special formulas are as follows:
For use in the manufacture of sulphonmethane.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Pyridin Bases 1 gallon.
Coal Tar Benzol 1 “
For use in the manufacture of transparent soap.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Methyl “ 5 “
Castor Oil 1 “
36° Be. Caustic Soda Solution ½ “
For the manufacture of shellac varnishes.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 parts by volume
Methyl “ 5 “ “ “
For the manufacture of smoking and chewing tobacco.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.

A mixture made as follows: 1 “
Aqueous Solution containing 40% Nicotine 12 gallons
Acid Yellow Dye 0.4 lb.
Tetrazo Brilliant Blue 12 B Conct. 0.4 lb.
Water to make 100 gallons.
For the manufacture of photo-engravings.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Sulphuric Ether 65 lbs.
Cadmium Iodide 3 “
Ammonium “ 3 “
For the manufacture of fulminate of mercury.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Methyl “ 3 “
Pyridine Bases ½ “
The next formula may be used for the following purposes:
In the manufacture of photographic dry plates.
In the manufacture of embalming fluid.
In the manufacture of heliotropin.
In the manufacture of resin of podophyllum and similar products.
In the manufacture of lacquers from soluble cotton.
In the manufacture of thermometer and barometer tubes.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Methyl “ 5 “
For use in the manufacture of photographic collodian.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Sulphuric Ether 10 lbs.
Cadmium Iodine 10 “
For use in the manufacture of pastes and varnishes from soluble cotton.

Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Methyl “ 2 “
Benzol 2 “
For use in the purification of rubber.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Acetone 10 “
Petroleum naptha 2 “
Petroleum naptha must have a specific gravity of not less than ˙ 650 nor
more than ˙720 at 60°F.
For use in the manufacture of watches.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Methyl “ 5 “
Cyanide of Potassium 1½ lbs.
1
Patened Blue B ⁄8 oz.

(Acid calcium, magnesium, or sodium salt of the disulpho-acids of meta-
oxytetraethyldiamidotri-phenyl-carbidrids.)
The methyl alcohol must have a specific gravity of not more than ˙810 at
60° F.
The de-naturing mixture is best prepared by dissolving the cyanide of
potassium in a small quantity of water, and then adding this solution to the
alcohol, with which the methyl alcohol, containing the dissolved color, has
been previously mixed.
For the manufacture of celluloid, pyralin and similar products.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 parts by volume
Methyl “ 5 “ “ “
Camphor 7 lbs.
Alternative special de-naturant for the manufacture of celluloid, pyralin
and similar products.
Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
Methyl “ 2 “

Benzol 2 “
The strongest alcohol of commerce in the United States is usually 95 per
cent. alcohol, and the price varies from $2.30 to $2.50 per gallon, showing
that the greater part of the cost is due to the revenue levied by the
government. The greater part of the 60,000,000 gallons of alcohol consumed
in the United States is used in the manufacture of whiskey and other
beverages. The revenue tax prevents the use of alcohol to any great extent in
the industries of the country. The bill passed by Congress in 1906, designed
to promote the use of untaxed alcohol in the arts and as fuel, took effect
January 1, 1907. The first effect of free alcohol would, it was said, supplant
the 12,000,000 gallons of wood alcohol which are used in the manufacture
of paint, varnishes, shellacs, and other purposes. Another use that is expected
of de-natured alcohol is in the manufacture of certain products, such as
dyestuffs and chemicals, which can not now be manufactured commercially
in this country because of the high cost of alcohol, and which are imported
largely from Europe. A very rapid development of the industry of
manufacturing chemicals as a result of free alcohol is looked for. In the
production of alcohol there is always formed as a by-product a certain
amount of fusel oil, which is very useful in manufacturing lacquers which
are used on metallic substances, fine hardware, gas fixtures, and similar
articles. The industries manufacturing these wares will undoubtedly receive
a great stimulus as a result of cheaper fusel oil caused by the increased
production of alcohol.
A Safe Fuel. The use of de-natured alcohol as a fuel has yet to be fully
developed. Although alcohol has only about half the heating power of
kerosene or gasoline, gallon for gallon, yet it has many valuable properties
which may enable it to compete successfully in spite of its lower fuel value.
In the first place it is very much safer. Alcohol has a tendency to simply heat
the surrounding vapors and produce currents of hot gases which are not
usually brought to high enough temperature to inflame articles at a distance.
It can be easily diluted with water, and when it is diluted to more than one-
half it ceases to be inflammable. Hence it may be readily extinguished; while
burning gasoline, by floating on the water, simply spreads its flame when
water is applied to it. Although alcohol has far less heating capacity than
gasoline, the best experts believe that it will develop a much higher
percentage of efficiency in motors than does gasoline. Since gasoline
represents only about two per cent. of the petroleum which is refined, its

supply is limited and its price must constantly rise in view of the enormous
demand made for it for automobiles and gasoline engines in general. This
will open a new opportunity for de-natured alcohol. Industrial alcohol is now
used in Germany in small portable lamps, which give it all the effects of a
mantel burner heated by gas. The expense for alcohol is only about two-
thirds as much per candle-power as is the cost of kerosene. Even at 25 or 30
cents a gallon, de-natured alcohol can successfully compete with kerosene as
a means of lighting.
Objection has been made to the use of alcohol in automobiles and other
internal-explosive engines, that it resulted in a corrosion of the metal. This is
vigorously denied by the advocate of alcohol fuel and the denial is backed
by proofs of the use of alcohol in German engines for a number of years
without any bad results.
A recent exhibition in Germany gave a good illustration of the broad field
in which de-natured alcohol may be used.
Here were shown alcohol engines of a large number of different makes,
alcohol boat motors as devised for the Russian navy, and motors for
threshing, grinding, wood-cutting, and other agricultural purposes.
The department of lighting apparatus included a large and varied display
of lamps, chandeliers, and street and corridor lights, in which alcohol vapor
is burned like gas in a hooded flame covered by a Welsbach mantle. Under
such conditions alcohol vapor burns with an incandescent flame which rivals
the arc light in brilliancy and requires to be shaded to adopt it to the
endurance of the human eye. There has been each year a great improvement
in the artistic models and finish of lamps and chandeliers for alcohol
lighting. At the beginning they were simple and of rather ordinary
appearance, but now they are up to the best standard of modern fixtures for
gas and electricity, with which alcohol lighting is now competing with
increasing success in that country.
Similarly attractive and interesting was the large display of alcohol
heating stoves, which, for warming corridors, sleeping rooms, and certain
other locations, are highly esteemed. They are made of japanned-iron plate
in decorative forms, with concave copper reflectors, are readily portable,
and, when provided with chimney connections for the escape of the gases of
combustion, furnish a clean, odorless, and convenient heating apparatus.

Cooking stoves of all sizes, forms, and capacities, from the complete
range, with baking and roasting ovens, broilers, etc., to the simple tea and
coffee lamp, were also displayed in endless variety.
Enough has been said to give an idea of the capabilities and values of this
new form of fuel,—at least, and as far as the United States is concerned.
With its advent not only will American genius perfect the machinery for
its use, but the American farmer is given a new market for his crops.
Distilleries, big and little, are likely to be set up all over the country, and
the time is not far distant when the farmer will be able to carry his corn to
his local distillery, and either return with the money in his pocket, or with
fuel for farm engines, machinery, and perchance his automobile.
When our government shall have become as far-sighted as the German
government in this matter, every farmer will be able to manufacture his own
de-natured spirits. The wisdom of the German system established by the law
of 1887 has long ceased to be a question of debate. For every reichsmark of
revenue sacrificed by exempting de-natured spirits from taxation the empire
and its people have profited ten-fold by the stimulus which has been thereby
given to agriculture and the industrial arts.

CHAPTER XIV.
The Free Alcohol Act of 1906, the Amendment of 1907 and
Internal Revenue Regulations.

Public—No. 201.
An Act for the withdrawal from bond, tax free, of domestic alcohol when
rendered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal uses by mixture with suitable
de-naturing materials.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That from and after January first,
nineteen hundred and seven, domestic alcohol of such degree of proof as
may be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, and approved
by the Secretary of the Treasury, may be withdrawn from bond without the
payment of internal-revenue tax, for use in the arts and industries, and for
fuel, light, and power, provided said alcohol shall have been mixed in the
presence and under the direction of an authorized Government officer, after
withdrawal from the distillery warehouse, With methyl alcohol or other de-
naturing material or materials, or admixture of the same, suitable to the use
for which the alcohol is withdrawn, but which destroys its character as a
beverage and renders it unfit for liquid medicinal purposes; such de-naturing
to be done upon the application of any registered distillery in de-naturing
bonded warehouses specially designated or set apart for de-naturing
purposes only, and under conditions prescribed by the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury.
The character and quantity of the said de-naturing material and the
conditions upon which said alcohol may be withdrawn free of tax shall be
prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who shall, with the
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, make all necessary regulations for
carrying into effect the provisions of this Act.
Distillers, manufacturers, dealers and all other persons furnishing,
handling or using alcohol withdrawn from bond under the provisions of this
Act shall keep such books and records, execute such bonds and render such

returns as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the
Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulation require. Such books and
records shall be open at all times to the inspection of any internal-revenue
officer or agent.
Sec. 2. That any person who withdraws alcohol free of tax under the
provisions of this Act and regulations made in pursuance thereof, and who
removes or conceals same, or is concerned in removing, deposting or
concealing same for the purpose of preventing the same from being de-
natured under governmental supervision, and any person who uses alcohol
withdrawn from bond under the provision of section one of this Act for
manufacturing any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation, or knowingly
sells any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation made in whole or in part
from such alcohol, or knowingly violates any of the provisions of this Act, or
who shall recover or attempt to recover by redistillation or by any other
process or means, any alcohol rendered unfit for beverage or liquid
medicinal purposes under the provisions of this Act, or who knowingly uses,
sells, conceals, or otherwise disposes of alcohol so recovered or redistilled,
shall on conviction of each offense be fined not more than five thousand
dollars, or be imprisoned not more than five years, or both, and shall, in
addition, forfeit to the United States all personal property used in connection
with his business, together with the buildings and lots or parcels of ground
constituting the premises on which said unlawful acts are performed or
permitted to be performed: Provided, That manufacturers employing
processes in which alcohol, used free of tax under the provisions of this Act,
is expressed or evaporated from the articles manufactured, shall be permitted
to recover such alcohol and to have such alcohol restored to a condition
suitable solely for reuse in manufacturing processes under such regulations
as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary
of the Treasury, shall prescribe.
Sec. 3. That for the employment of such additional force of chemists,
internal-revenue agents, inspectors, deputy collectors, clerks, laborers, and
other assistants as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval
of the Secretary of the Treasury, may deem proper and necessary to the
prompt and efficient operation and enforcement of this law, and for the
purchase of locks, seals, weighing beams, gauging instruments, and for all
necessary expenses incident to the proper execution of this law, the sum of
two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be

required, is hereby appropriated out of any money in the Treasury not
otherwise appropriated, said appropriation to be immediately available.
For a period of two years from and after the passage of this Act the force
authorized by this section of this Act shall be appointed by the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury, and without compliance with the conditions prescribed by the Act
entitled “An Act to regulate and improve the civil service,” approved
January sixteenth, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, and amendments
thereof and with such compensation as the Commissioner of Internal
Revenue may fix, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury.
Sec. 4. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall make full report to
Congress at its next session of all appointments made under the provisions of
this Act, and the compensation paid thereunder, and of all regulations
prescribed under the provisions hereof, and shall further report what, if any,
additional legislation is necessary, in his opinion, to fully safeguard the
revenue and to secure a proper enforcement of this Act.
Approved June 7, 1906.

DE-NATURING REGULATIONS
Under the Act of June 7, 1906

Under the Act quoted above, the Commissioner of Internal Revenue was
empowered to make regulations whereby the law might be carried into
effect.
In the first place it may be said that those who are permitted by this Act to
manufacture de-natured alcohol must be distillers; in other words, those who
have regularly licensed and registered distilleries. This does not mean that
the plant must be large or costly—as witness the numerous little “stills” to
be found throughout the South; but that the still, whatever its size, must be
under constant supervision, and regularly licensed to manufacture alcohol.
The requirements to this end can be had from the Commissioner of Internal
Revenue, Treasury Department, Washington.
Pursuant to the law regarding de-naturing, rules and regulations have been
drawn up of which the following is a synopsis with extracts where deemed
advisable.

De-naturing Bonded Warehouses.

“Sec. 2. The proprietor of any registered distillery may withdraw from his
distillery warehouse, free of tax, alcohol of not less than 180 degrees proof
or strength, to be de-natured in the manner hereinafter prescribed.
A distiller desiring to withdraw alcohol from bond for de-naturing
purposes under the provisions of this act shall, at his own expense, provide a
de-naturing bonded warehouse, to be situated on and constituting a part of
the distillery premises. It shall be separated from the distillery and the
distillery bonded warehouse and all other buildings, and no windows or
doors or other openings shall be permitted in the walls of the de-naturing
bonded warehouse leading into the distillery, the distillery bonded
warehouse or other room or building, except as hereinafter provided. It must
be constructed in the same manner as distillery bonded warehouses are now
constructed, with view to the safe and secure storage of the alcohol removed
thereto for de-naturing purposes and the de-naturing agents to be stored
therein. It must be approved by the Commission of Internal Revenue. It shall
be provided with closed mixing tanks of sufficient capacity. The capacity in
wine gallons of each tank must be ascertained and marked thereon in legible
letters, and each tank must be supplied with a graduated glass gauge
whereon the contents will be at all times correctly indicated. All openings
must be so arranged that they can be securely locked. Suitable office
accommodation for the officer on duty must be provided.
Sec. 3. The de-naturing bonded warehouse shall be used for de-naturing
alcohol, and for no other purpose, and nothing shall be stored or kept therein
except the alcohol to be de-natured, the materials used as de-naturants, the
de-natured product, and the weighing and gauging instruments and other
appliances necessary in the work of de-naturing, measuring, and gauging the
alcohol and de-naturing materials.
These bonded warehouses must be numbered serially in each collection
district, and the words “De-naturing bonded warehouse No.—, district of
—,“ must be in plain letters in a conspicuous place on the outside of the
building.
In case the distiller’s bond has been executed before the erection of such
warehouse the consent of the sureties to the establishment of the de-naturing
warehouse must be secured and entry duly signed made on the bond.“

De-naturing Material Room.

“Sec. 4. There shall be provided within the de-naturing bonded warehouse
a room to be designated as the de-naturing material room. This room is to be
used alone for the storage of de-naturing materials prior to the de-naturing
process. It must be perfectly secure, and must be so constructed as to render
it impossible for anyone to enter during the absence of the officer in charge
without the same being detected.
The ceiling, inside walls, and floor of said room must be constructed of
brick, stone, or tongue-and-groove planks. If there are windows in the room
the same must be secured by gratings or iron bars, and to each window must
be affixed solid shutters of wood or iron, constructed in such manner that
they may be securely barred and fastened on the inside. The door must be
substantial, and must be so constructed that it can be securely locked and
fastened.
Sec. 5. At least two sets of tanks or receptacles for storing de-naturing
material must be provided, and each set of tanks must be of sufficient
capacity in the aggregate to hold the de-naturing material which it is
estimated the distiller will use for thirty days. A set of tanks shall consist of
one or more tanks for storing methyl alcohol, and one or more tanks of
smaller capacity for storing other de-naturing materials. The capacity of each
tank must be ascertained and marked in legible figures on the outside.
The tanks must not be connected with each other, and must be so
constructed as to leave at least 18 inches of open space between the top of
the tank and ceiling, the bottom of the tank and the floor, and the sides of the
tank and walls of the de-naturing material room. Each tank shall be given a
number,and this number must be marked upon it. There shall be no opening
at the top except such as may be necessary for dumping the de-naturing
material into the tank and thoroughly plunging or mixing the same. Said
opening must be covered so that it may be locked. Likewise the faucet
through which the de-naturing material is drawn must be so arranged that it
can be locked. Each tank must be supplied with a graduated glass gauge
whereby the contents of the tank will always be shown.“

Custody of De-naturing Bonded Warehouse.

“Sec. 6. The de-naturing bonded warehouse shall be under the control of
the collector of the district and shall be in the joint custody of a storekeeper,
storekeeper-gauger, or other designated official and the distiller.
No one shall be permitted to enter the warehouse except in the presence of
said officer, and the warehouse and room shall be kept closed and the doors,
exterior and interior, securely locked except when some work incidental to
the process of de-naturing and storing material is being carried on. Standard
Sleight locks shall be used for locking the de-naturing bonded ware-house
and the de-naturing material room, and they shall be sealed in the same
manner and with the same kind of seals as distillery bonded warehouses and
cistern rooms are now sealed. Miller locks shall be used in securing the
faucets and openings of the mixing tanks and the de-naturing material tanks.
The officer in charge of the de-naturing bonded warehouse, material
room, and tanks shall carry the keys to same, and under no circumstances are
said keys to be intrusted to anyone except another officer who is duly
authorized to receive them.”

Application for Approval of De-naturing Bonded Warehouse.

“Sec. 7. Whenever a distiller wishes to commence the business of de-
naturing alcohol he must make written application to the collector of the
district in which the distillery is located for the approval of a de-naturing
bonded warehouse.
Such application must give the name or names of the person, firm, or
corporation operating the distillery, the number of the distillery, the location
of the same, the material of which the warehouse is constructed, the size of
same, width, length and height, the size of the de-naturing material room
therein, and the manner of its construction, the capacity in gallons of each
tank to be used for denaturing alcohol or for holding the de-naturing agents,
and the material of which said tanks are constructed.
Such application must be accompanied by a diagram correctly
representing the warehouse, the mixing tanks, de-naturing material room,
and de-naturing material tanks, with all openings and surroundings. It must
show the distillery and all the distillery bonded warehouses on the premises,
with dimensions of each.”

Sections 9 and 10 of the regulations deal with the examination and
approval of the de-naturing warehouse and plant by the Internal Revenue
officers.

De-naturing Warehouse Bond to be Given.

“Sec. 11. After receipt of notice of the approval of said warehouse the
distiller may withdraw from his distillery warehouse, free of tax, alcohol of
not less than 180 degrees proof or strength, and may de-nature same in said
de-naturing warehouse in the manner hereinafter indicated, provided he shall
first execute a bond in the form prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal
Revenue, with at least two sureties, Unless, under the authority contained in
an act approved August 13, 1894, a corporation, duly authorized by the
Attorney-General of the United States to become a surety on such bond,
shall be offered as a sole surety thereon. The bond shall be for a penal sum
of not less than double the tax on the alcohol it is estimated the distiller will
de-nature during a period of 30 days, and in no case is the distiller to
withdraw from bond for de-naturing purposes and have in his denaturing
warehouse in process of de-naturation a quantity of alcohol the tax upon
which is in excess of the penal sum of the bond.
Sec. 12. If at any time, it should develop that the de-naturing warehouse
bond is insufficient the distiller must give additional bond.
Sec. 13. The bond herein provided for must be executed before the
distiller can withdraw from distillery bonded warehouse, free of tax, alcohol
to be de-natured, and if he desires to continue in the business of de-naturing
alcohol, said bond must be renewed on the first day of May of each year or
before any alcohol is withdrawn from bond for de-naturing purposes. It must
be executed in duplicate in accordance with instructions printed thereon.
One copy is to be retained by the collector and one copy is to be transmitted
to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue.”

Conditions under which Alcohol is Withdrawn.

“Sec. 15. Not less than three hundred (300) wine gallons of alcohol can be
withdrawn at one time for de-naturing purposes.
When a distiller, who is a producer of alcohol of not less than 180 degrees
proof and who has given the de-naturing warehouse bond as aforesaid

desires to remove alcohol from the distillery bonded warehouse for the
purpose of de-naturing, he will himself, or by his duly authorized agent, file
with the collector of internal revenue of the district in which the distillery is
located, notice to that effect.”
Upon the receipt of this notice (the form for which is given in the
Regulations) the collector for the district will order a gauger to inspect the
alcohol so withdrawn, and to gauge the same, and to make report; and
directions are given to the official “storekeeper” to permit the transferral of
the spirits to the de-naturing warehouse.

Spirits Transferred to be Marked.

“Upon receipt of the permit by the storekeeper the packages of distilled
spirits described in notice of intention to withdraw may be withdrawn from
distillery bonded warehouse without the payment of the tax, and may be
transferred to the de-naturing bonded warehouse on the distillery premises;
but before the removal of said spirits from the distillery bonded warehouse,
the gauger, in addition to marking, cutting, and branding the marks usually
required on withdrawal of spirits from warehouse, will legibly and durably
mark on the head of each package, in letters and figures not less than one-
half an inch in length, the number of proof gallons then ascertained, the date
of the collector’s permit, the object for which the spirits were withdrawn,
and his name, title, and district.
Such additional marks may be as follows:
Withdrawn under permit issued Jan’y. 10, 1907
For De-naturing Purposes
Proof gallons, 84
William Williams, U. S. Gauger,
5th Dist. Ky.”

Spirits Transferred to De-naturing Bonded Warehouse.

“Sec. 20. When the packages of spirits are marked and branded in the
manner above indicated they shall at once, in the presence and under the
supervision of the storekeeper, be transferred to the de-naturing bonded
warehouse.”

Record of Spirits Received in De-naturing Bonded
Warehouse.

“Sec. 21. The officer in charge of the de-naturing bonded warehouse shall
keep a record of the spirits received in said de-naturing bonded warehouse
from the distillery bonded warehouse and the spirits delivered to the distiller
for de-naturing purposes.
Upon the debit side of said record, in columns prepared for the purpose,
there shall be entered the date when any distilled spirits were received in de-
naturing bonded warehouse, the date of the collector’s permit, the date of
withdrawal from distillery bonded warehouse, the number of packages
received, the serial numbers of the packages, the serial numbers of the
distillery warehouse stamps, and the wine and proof gallons.
Upon the credit side of said record shall be entered the date when any
spirits were delivered to the distiller for de-naturing purposes, the date of the
collector’s permit for withdrawal, the date of withdrawal from distillery
bonded warehouse, the number of packages so delivered, the serial numbers
of the packages, the serial numbers of the distillery warehouse stamps, and
the wine and proof gallons.
Immediately upon the receipt of any distilled spirits in the de-naturing
bonded warehouse, and on the same day upon which they are received, the
officer must enter said spirits in said record.
Likewise, on the same date upon which any spirits are delivered to the
distiller for de-naturing purposes, said spirits must be entered on said record.
Sec. 22. A balance must be struck in the record described in above section
at the end of the month showing the number of packages and quantity in
wine and proof gallons of spirits on hand in packages on the first day of the
month, the number of packages and quantity in wine and proof gallons
received during the month, the number of packages and quantity in wine and
proof gallons delivered to the distiller during the month, and the balance on
hand in packages and wine and proof gallons at the close of the month.”
Sections 23 to 25 of the Rules relate to the duties of the Internal Revenue
officers in making reports and returns.

De-naturing Agents. Completely De-natured Alcohol.

“Sec. 26. Unless otherwise specially provided, the agents used for de-
naturing alcohol withdrawn from bond for de-naturing purposes shall consist
of methyl alcohol and benzine in the following proportions: To every 100
parts by volume of ethyl alcohol of the desired proof (not less than 180°)
there shall be added 10 parts by volume of approved methyl alcohol and
one-half of one part by volume of approved benzine; for example, to every
100 gallons of ethyl alcohol (of not less than 180 degrees proof) there shall
be added 10 gallons of approved methyl alcohol and one-half gallon of
approved benzine. Alcohol thus de-natured shall be classed as completely
de-natured alcohol.
Methyl alcohol and benzine intended for use as de-naturants must be
submitted for chemical test and must conform to the specifications which
shall be hereafter duly prescribed.”

De-naturants Deposited in Warehouse.

“Sec. 27. As the distiller’s business demands, he may bring into the de-
naturing bonded warehouse, in such receptacles as he may wish, any
authorized de-naturant. Such de-naturants shall at once be deposited in the
material room; thereafter they shall be in the custody and under the control
of the officer in charge of the warehouse. Before any de-naturant is used it
must be dumped into the appropriate tank and after the contents have been
thoroughly mixed, a sample of one pint taken therefrom. This sample must
be forwarded to the proper officer for analysis. The officer will then securely
close and seal the tank.
No part of the contents of the tank can be used until the sample has been
officially tested and approved, and report of such test made to the officer in
charge of the warehouse.
If the sample is approved the contents of the tank shall upon the receipt of
the report, become an approved de-naturant and the officer shall at once
remove the seals and place the tank under Government locks.
If the sample does not meet the requirements of the specifications, the
officer shall, upon the receipt of the report of non-approval, permit the
distiller, provided he desires, to treat or manipulate the proposed de-naturant
so as to render it a competent de-naturant. In such case another sample must
be submitted for approval. If the distiller does not desire to further treat the

de-naturant the officer shall require him immediately to remove the contents
of the tank from the premises.”

Record of De-naturants Received.

“Sec. 28. The officer shall keep a de-naturing material room record. This
record shall show all material entered into and removed from the de-naturing
material room.
There shall be proper columns on the debit side in which are to be entered
the date when any material is received, the name and residence of the person
from whom received, the kind of material, the quantity in wine gallons, and,
if methyl alcohol, in proof gallons, the date upon which the material was
dumped into the tank, the number of the tank, the date upon which sample
was forwarded, and the number of the sample, and the result of the official
test.
On the credit side of said record shall be entered in proper columns the
date upon which any material was removed from the de-naturing material
room for de-naturing purposes, the kind of material, the number of the tank
from which taken, the number of the sample representing the tank and sent
for official test, the number of wine gallons, and, if methyl alcohol, the
number of proof gallons.”

Monthly Returns of De-naturants Received.

“Sec. 29. A balance shall be struck in this record at the end of each month
whereby shall be shown the quantity of material of each kind on hand in the
de-naturing material room on the first day of the month, the quantity
received during the month, the quantity rejected and removed from the
premises during the month, and the quantity delivered to the distiller for de-
naturing purposes during the month, and the quantity on hand at the end of
the month.
The officer shall, at the end of each month, prepare in duplicate, sign, and
forward to the collector of internal revenue a report which shall be a
transcript of said record.”

Distiller to Keep Record of De-naturants.

“Sec. 30. The distiller shall also keep a record, in which he shall enter the
date upon which he deposits any material in the tanks of the de-naturing
material room, the name and address of the person from whom said material
was received, and the kind and quantity of the material so deposited; also he
shall enter in said record the date upon which he receives any material from
the de-naturing material room, the kind and quantity of such material so
received, and the disposition made of same.”

Notice of Intention to De-nature Spirits.

“Sec. 31. The distiller shall, before dumping any spirits or de-naturants
into the mixing tank, give notice to the officer in charge of the de-naturing
warehouse in proper form in duplicate, and enter in the proper place thereon
(in the case of distilled spirits) and in the proper column the number of the
packages, the serial numbers of same, the serial number of the warehouse
stamps, the contents in wine and proof gallons and the proof as shown by the
marks, the date of the withdrawal gauge, and by whom gauged.
In case of de-naturing agents he shall enter in the proper place and in the
proper columns the number of gallons, the kind of material, and the number
of the de-naturing material tank from which same is to be drawn.
The contents of the several packages of alcohol, as shown by the
withdrawal gauge, shall be accepted as the contents of said packages when
dumped for de-naturing purposes unless it should appear from a special
showing made by the distiller that there has been an accidental loss since
withdrawal from distillery bonded warehouse.
Upon receipt of this notice the officer in charge of the de-naturing
warehouse shall, in case of the packages of alcohol, inspect same carefully to
ascertain whether or not they are the packages described in the distiller’s
notice. He will then cut out that portion of the warehouse stamp upon which
is shown the serial number of the stamp, the name of the distiller, the proof
gallons, and the serial number of the package. These slips must be securely
fastened to the form whereon the gauging is reported and sent by the officer
with his return to the collector.”

Transfer of De-naturants to Mixing Tanks.

“Sec. 32. The distiller, unless pipes are used, as herein provided, shall
provide suitable gauged receptacles, metal drums being preferred, with
which to transfer the de-naturing agents from the material tanks to the
mixing tanks. These receptacles must be numbered serially and the number,
the capacity in gallons and fractions of a gallon, the name of the distiller, and
the number of the de-naturing bonded warehouse marked thereon in durable
letters and figures. They shall be used for transferring de-naturing material
from the material tanks to the mixing tanks and for no other purpose. The
distiller must also provide suitable approved sealed measures of smaller
capacity. The gauged receptacles are to be used where the quantity to be
transferred amounts to as much as the capacity of the smallest gauged
receptacle in the warehouse. The measures are to be used only when the
quantity of material to be transferred is less than the capacity of the smallest
gauged receptacle.
Sec. 33. The distiller may provide metal pipes connecting the material
tanks and the mixing tanks and the de-naturant may be transferred to the
mixing tanks through these pipes. Such pipes must be supplied with valves,
cocks, or faucets, other proper means of controlling the flow of the liquid,
and such valves, cocks, or faucets must be so arranged that they can be
securely locked, and the locks attached thereto must be kept fastened; the
keys to be retained by the officer in charge, except when the de-naturing
material is being transferred to the mixing tanks.
In the event pipes are used as above provided, the glass gauges affixed to
the material tanks must be so graduated that tenths of a gallon will be
indicated.
Before any material is transferred from a material tank to a mixing tank
the officer must note the contents of the material tank as indicated by the
glass gauge. He will then permit the de-naturant to flow into the mixing tank
until the exact quantity necessary to de-nature the alcohol, as provided by
the regulations, has been transferred. This he will ascertain by reading the
gauge on the material tank before the liquid has begun to flow and after the
flow has been stopped. He should verify the quantity transferred by reading
the gauge on the mixing tank before and after the transfer.
Sec. 34. The distiller must provide all scales, weighing beams, and other
appliances necessary for transferring the de-naturing materials gauging or
handling the alcohol, or testing any of the measures, receptacles or gauges

used in the warehouse, and also a sufficient number of competent employees
for the work.”

Contents of Mixing Tank to be Plunged.

“Sec. 35. The exact quantity of distilled spirits contained in the packages
covered by the distiller’s notice having been ascertained by the officer and
the spirits having been dumped into the mixing tank, and the quantities of
the several de-naturants prescribed by the regulations having been
ascertained by calculation and added as above provided to the alcohol in the
mixing tank to be thoroughly and completely plunged and mixed by the
distiller or his employees.”

Drawing Off and Gauging De-natured Product.

“Sec. 37. The distiller may from time to time as he wishes, in the presence
of the officer, draw off from the tank or tanks the de-natured product in
quantities of not less than 50 gallons at one time, and the same must at once
be gauged, stamped, and branded by the officer and removed from the
premises by the distiller.”

Kind and Capacity of Packages Used.

“Sec. 38. He may use packages of a capacity of not less than five gallons
or not more than one hundred and thirty-five (135) gallons, and each
package must be filled to its full capacity, such wantage being allowed as
may be necessary for expansion.
All packages used to contain completely de-natured alcohol must be
painted a light green, and in no case is a package of any other color to be
used.”

Alcohol to be Immediately De-natured.

“Sec. 39. No alcohol withdrawn from distillery warehouse for de-naturing
purposes shall be permitted to remain in the de-naturing bonded warehouse
until after the close of business on the second day after the said alcohol is

withdrawn, but all alcohol so withdrawn must be transferred, dumped, and
de-natured before the close of business on said second day.”

Application for Gauge of De-natured Alcohol.

“Sec. 40. When the process of de-naturing has been completed and the
distiller desires to have the de-natured alcohol drawn off into packages and
gauged, he shall prepare a request for such gauge on the proper form. The
request shall state as accurately as practicable the number of packages to be
drawn off and the number of wine and proof gallons contents thereof.
This notice shall be directed to the collector of internal revenue, but shall
be handed to the officer on duty at the de-naturing bonded warehouse.
Sec. 41. If the officer shall find upon examination of the proper record
that there should be on hand the quantity of de-natured alcohol covered by
said notice, he shall proceed to gauge and stamp the several packages of de-
natured alcohol in the manner herein prescribed, and shall make report
thereof on the proper form.
In no case will the officer gauge and stamp de-natured alcohol the total
quantity in wine gallons of which taken together with any remnant that may
be left in the de-naturing tank exceeds in wine gallons the sum of the
quantity of distilled spirits and de-naturants dumped on that day and any
remnant brought over from previous day.”

How De-natured Alcohol Shall be Gauged.

“Sec. 42. The gauging of de-natured alcohol shall, where it is practicable,
be by weight. The officer shall ascertain the tare by actually weighing each
package when empty. Then, after each package has been filled in his
presence, he shall ascertain the gross weight, and, by applying the tare, the
net weight.
He shall then ascertain the proof in the usual manner, and by applying the
proof to the wine gallons content the proof gallons shall be ascertained.
The regulations relating to the gauging of rectified spirits, so far as they
apply to apparent proof and apparent proof gallons, shall apply to de-natured
spirits. Where it is for any reason not practicable to gauge de-natured alcohol

by weight, using the tables that apply in the case of the gauging of distilled
spirits, the gauging shall be by rod.”
Sections 43 to 45 provide for the returns to be made by the Government
officials, and the proper marking of the packages containing de-natured
alcohol; and Sections 46 to 48 lay down the form of the Government stamps
and their use.
Section 49 places the mixing tank absolutely in the control of the
warehouse officer, and requires if he leaves the warehouse he must close and
lock the same.
Section 50 deals with records to be kept by warehouse officer.

De-natured Alcohol to be Removed from Warehouse.

“Sec. 51. Not later than the close of business on the day following that
upon which the work of drawing off and gauging the de-natured spirits is
completed, the distiller must remove said de-natured alcohol from the de-
naturing bonded warehouse. He may either remove the alcohol to a building
off the distillery premises, where he can dispose of it as the demands of the
trade require, or he may dispose of it in stamped packages direct to the trade
from the de-naturing bonded warehouse.”
Sections 52 and 53 relate to records to be kept by the distiller showing de-
natured alcohol received and disposed of by him, and the parties to whom
the same was sold or delivered. Sections 54 to 57 cover reports and records
to be made by officers and collector.
Part II of the Regulations relates to dealers in de-natured alcohol, and
manufacturers using the same.
“Sec. 58. Alcohol de-natured by use of methyl alcohol and benzine as
provided in section 26 of these regulations is to be classed as completely de-
natured alcohol. Alcohol de-natured in any other manner will be classed as
specially de-natured alcohol.”

De-natured Alcohol not to be Stored on Certain Premises,
and not to be Used for Certain Purposes.

“Sec. 59. Neither completely nor specially de-natured alcohol shall be
kept or stored on the premises of the following classes of persons, to wit:

dealers in wines, fermented liquors or distilled spirits, rectifiers of spirits,
manufacturers of and dealers in beverages of any kind, manufacturers of
liquid medicinal preparations, or distillers (except as to such de-natured
alcohol in stamped packages as is manufactured by themselves),
manufacturers of vinegar by the vaporizing process and the use of a still and
mash, wort, or wash, and persons who, in the course of business, have or
keep distilled spirits, wines, or malt liquors, or other beverages stored on
their premises. Provided, That druggists are exempt from the above
provisions.”

Can Not be Used in Manufacturing Beverages, etc.

“Sec. 60. Anyone using de-natured alcohol for the manufacture of any
beverage or liquid medicinal preparation, or who knowingly sells any
beverage or liquid medicinal preparation made in whole or in part from such
alcohol, becomes subject to the penalties prescribed in section 2 of the Act of
June 7, 1906.”
Under the language of this law it is held that de-natured alcohol can not be
used in the preparation of any article to be used as a component part in the
preparation of any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation.
A person, firm, or corporation desiring to sell de-natured alcohol, must
make application, in proper form, to the district collector on or before the
first of July each year, and if the provisions of the law have been violated the
permit may be withdrawn (Sections 61 to 65).
Sections 66 to 71 relate to the keeping of records by collector, and
wholesale and retail dealers.

Retail Dealers to Keep Record.

“Sec. 72. Retail dealers in de-natured alcohol shall keep a record, in which
they shall enter the date upon which they receive any package or packages of
de-natured alcohol, the person from whom received, the serial numbers of
the packages, the serial numbers of the de-natured alcohol stamps the wine
and proof gallons, and the date upon which packages are opened for retail.
The transcript for each month’s business as shown by this record must be
prepared, signed, and sworn to and forwarded to the collector of internal

revenue of the district in which the dealer is located before the 10th of the
following month. This transcript must be signed and sworn to by the dealer
himself or by his duly authorized agent.”

Labels to be Placed on Retail Packages.

“Sec. 73. Retail dealers in de-natured alcohol must provide themselves
with labels upon which the words “De-Natured Alcohol” have been printed
in plain, legible letters. The printing shall be red on white. A label of this
character must be affixed by the dealer to the container, whatever it may be,
in the case of each sale of de-natured alcohol made by him.”

Stamps to be Destroyed when Package is Empty.

“Sec. 74. As soon as the stamped packages of de-natured alcohol are
empty the dealer or manufacturer, as the case may be, must thoroughly
obliterate and completely destroy all marks, stamps, and brands on the
packages.
The stamps shall under no circumstances be re-used, and the packages
shall not be refilled until all the marks, stamps, and brands shall have been
removed and destroyed.”

Manufacturers Using Completely De-natured Alcohol to
Secure Permit.

“Sec. 75. Manufacturers desiring to use completely de-natured alcohol,
such as is put upon the market for sale generally, may use such alcohol in
their business subject to the following restrictions:
A manufacturer using less than an average of 50 gallons of de-natured
alcohol per month will not be required to secure permit from the collector or
to keep records or make returns showing the alcohol received and used.
Manufacturers who use as much as 50 gallons of completely de-natured
alcohol a month must procure such alcohol in stamped packages, and before
beginning business the manufacturer must make application to the collector
of the proper district for permit, in which application he will state the exact
location of his place of business, describing the lot or tract of land upon

which the plant is located, and must keep the alcohol in a locked room until
used.
“Sec. 79. As the agents adapted to and adopted for use in complete de-
naturation render the alcohol de-natured unfit for use in many industries in
which ethyl alcohol, withdrawn free of tax, can be profitably employed,
therefore in order to give full scope to the operation of the law, special de-
naturants will be authorized when absolutely necessary. Yet the strictest
surveillance must be exercised in the handling of alcohol incompletely or
specially de-natured.”

Formula for Special De-naturants to be Submitted to the
Commissioner.

“Sec. 80. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue will consider any
formula for special de-naturation that may be submitted by any manufacturer
in any art or industry and will determine (1) whether or not the manufacture
in which it is proposed to use the alcohol belongs to a class in which tax-free
alcohol withdrawn under the provisions of this act can be used. (2) whether
or not it is practicable to permit the use of the proposed de-naturant and at
the same time properly safeguard the revenue. But one special de-naturant
will be authorized for the same class of industries, unless it shall be shown
that there is good reason for additional special de-naturants.”
The Commissioner will announce from time to time the formulas of de-
naturants that will be permitted in the several classes of industries in which
tax-free alcohol can be used.
The specially or incompletely de-natured alcohol can only be used by
special permission, for which the manufacturer must apply, at the same time
giving full details as to business, plant, premises, the special de-naturants
desired to be used, and the reason therefor, etc. (Section 81).
Section 82 recites the necessary requirements as to storerooms, etc., and
Sections 83 to 87 relate to the form of application and the inspection of the
plant. Section 88 recites the form of bond necessary to be given by the
manufacturer, and Sections 89 to 104 relate to the general requirements as to
records, books, affidavits, etc.
Sections 105 and 106 rule that the alcohol must be used just as received,
and as called for in the permit, and that a manufacturer quitting business may

dispose of his specially de-natured alcohol to other manufacturers.

Provisions Applicable to Manufacturers Using Either
Specially or Generally De-Natured Alcohol.

“Sec. 107. Under no circumstances will de-naturers, manufacturers, or
dealers, or any other persons, in any manner treat either specially or
completely de-natured alcohol by adding anything to it or taking anything
from it until it is ready for the use for which it is to be employed. It must go
into manufacture or consumption in exactly the same condition that it was
when it left the de-naturer. Diluting completely de-natured alcohol will be
held to be such manipulation as is forbidden by law.
“Sec. 108. Manufacturers using either specially or completely de-natured
alcohol must store it in the storeroom set apart for that purpose, the place for
deposit named in the bond and application, and nowhere else. Likewise they
must deposit recovered alcohol in said storeroom as fast as it is recovered. It
will be held to be a breach of the bond and a violation of the law if any
alcohol of any kind, character, or description should be found stored at any
other place on the premises.”
The question of special de-naturants is one of great importance to the
manufacturer, and should be carefully studied. The distiller who succeeds on
a large scale will be he who is most expert in preparing alcohol specially de-
natured to suit the requirements of the various arts. Germany has done most
in this line, and the German practice should be carefully studied.
Parts IV and V of the Rules relate to that portion of the De-Naturing Act,
referred to in Section 2 thereof—the recovering, restoring and re-de-naturing
of alcohol used by manufacturers employing processes in which the formerly
de-natured spirits are? expressed, or evaporated. This not being within the
plan of this book, the rules relating thereto are not quoted.
Those desirous of acquiring full information as to the rules regulating the
operation of distilleries for the manufacture of alcohol and de-natured spirits
can procure the same by applying either to the collectors of Internal Revenue
for their respective districts or to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
Washington, D. C.

Proposed Changes in the De-Naturing Act.

The De-naturing Act as passed and the regulations thereunder are
undoubtedly too complicated in their character to remain very long in the
Statute Books. There has already arisen a cry for simpler regulations which
shall place the manufacture of de-natured alcohol on a plane with the
practice in Germany, France and other countries which have carried the
manufacture and use of alcohol, for industrial purposes to a very high plane.
Both in England and America the Excise and Internal Revenue regulations
have been of very troublesome character, and the production of spirits has
been so carefully guarded, watched and checked that the distiller aside from
the high tax he has had to pay has been greatly hampered. In Germany and
France, however, things are different. There the manufacture of Industrial
Alcohol from farm products has been encouraged and as a consequence the
regulations are of very much simpler character. In Germany the number of
agricultural or co-operative stills is very large and these stills are practically
free from the constant supervision of internal revenue officials.
Until the wash passes into the still there is practically no Governmental
supervision except as to the proper gauging of the vats and to the proper
sealing of all joints or pipes leading from the vats to the still. From that point
onward, however, to the final receiver every vessel is locked and sealed and
no access to the spirit can be obtained by the distiller. The quantity of spirit
distilled and its quality is ascertained by the Revenue Officer from this final
receiver and on this spirit so found is computed the vat tax and the distillery
tax which have to be paid by the distiller. There are none of the cumbersome
regulations regarding the warehouses, storehouses, storekeepers, etc., which
are found in our own revenue laws. To provide security against abstraction
of wash in the fermenting tanks, reliance is placed upon frequent but
uncertain visitations.
There is no question but that in the fulness of time our own laws and
regulations will be very much simplified for all industrial plants. An attempt
has been made to so simplify the laws by Act of Congress No. 230, approved
March 2, 1907 and taking effect on September 1, 1907, the text of which is
appended, and undoubtedly other acts will follow as the country becomes
more and more sensible of the benefits to be derived from free industrial
alcohol. The text of the act is as follows:
[Public—No. 230.]
An Act to amend an Act entitled “An Act for the withdrawal from bond tax free of domestic alcohol
when rendered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal uses by mixture with suitable denaturing

materials,” approved June seventh, nineteen hundred and six.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress Assembled, That notwithstanding anything
contained in the Act entitled “An Act for the withdrawal from bond tax free
of domestic alcohol when rendered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal
uses by mixture with suitable de-naturing materials,” approved June seventh,
nineteen hundred and six, domestic alcohol when suitably denatured may be
withdrawn from bond without the payment of internal-revenue tax and used
in the manufacture of ether and chloroform and other definite chemical
substances where said alcohol is changed into some other chemical
substance and does not appear in the finished product as alcohol: Provided,
That rum of not less than one hundred and fifty degrees proof, may be
withdrawn, for de-naturation only, in accordance with the provisions of said
Act of June seventh, nineteen hundred and six, and in accordance with the
provisions of this Act.
Sec. 2. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of
the Secretary of the Treasury, may authorize the establishment of central de-
naturing bonded warehouses, other than those at distilleries, to which alcohol
of the required proof may be transferred from distilleries or distillery bonded
warehouses without the payment of internal-revenue tax, and in which such
alcohol may be stored and de-natured. The establishment, operation, and
custody of such warehouses shall be under such regulations and upon the
execution of such bonds as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe.
Sec. 3. That alcohol of the required proof may be drawn off, for de-
naturation only, from receiving cisterns in the cistern room of any distillery
for transfer by pipes direct to any de-naturing bonded warehouse on the
distillery premises or to closed metal storage tanks situated in the distillery
bonded warehouse, or from such storage tanks to any denaturing bonded
warehouse on the distillery premises, and de-natured alcohol may also be
transported from the de-naturing bonded warehouse, in such manner and by
means of such packages, tanks or tank cars, and on the execution of such
bonds, and under such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe. And
further, alcohol to be de-natured may be withdrawn without the payment of
internal-revenue tax from the distillery bonded warehouse for shipment to
central de-naturing plants in such packages, tanks and tank cars, under such

regulations, and on the execution of such bonds as may be prescribed by the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury.
Sec. 4. That at distilleries producing alcohol from any substance what
ever, for de-naturation only, and having a daily spirit-producing capacity of
not exceeding one hundred proof gallons, the use of cisterns or tanks of such
size and construction as may be deemed expedient may be permitted in lieu
of distillery bonded warehouses, and the production, storage, the manner and
process of de-naturing on the distillery premises the alcohol produced, and
transportation of such alcohol, and the operation of such distilleries shall be
upon the execution of such bonds and under such regulations as the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury, may prescribe, and such distilleries may by such regulations be
exempted from such provisions of the existing laws relating to distilleries as
may be deemed expedient by said officials.
Sec. 5. That the provisions of this Act shall take effect on September first,
nineteen hundred and seven.
Approved, March 2, 1907.

INDEX.
Adam’s Still, 38
faults of, 39
operation of, 38
Air necessary to fermentation, 18
cooling for mashes, 15
Alcohol, absolute, 2
as fuel, 221
boiling point of, 2
points of mixture, 2
composition of, 1, 6
contraction in mixtures of, 4
de-natured, 143
determination of purity, 186, 188
estimation of, 179
estimating by Geisler’s method, 183
Brand’s method, 184
sugar in “Beer”, 185
ethyl, 7
methyl, 7
measuring in mixtures, 174, 179
by hydrometers, 176, 178
proof, 175
rectification of, 82, 92
relative amounts in different grains, 126
specific gravity of, 2, 174
strengthening, 31
under proof, 176
wood, 7
Alcoholometer, Cartier’s, 178
Field’s, 182
Tralle’s, 179

Alcoholometry, 174
Alcohols, principal, 6
boiling points of principal, 6
composition of principal, 6

Barbet’s still, 93
traps, 68
test for alcoholic purity, 187
Barley best for malting, 103
cleaning, 104
draining after steeping, 105
drying malt from, 108
effect of germination on, 107
germination of, 106
steeping, 105
test of sufficient steeping, 105
washing, 104
Beet-cleaners, 151
-juice, extraction of by maceration and diffusion, 157, 158
pulp, addition of sulphuric acid to, 153, 156, 160
presses, 154, 156
rasp, 152
Beets, alcohol from, 150
cellars for storing, 149
cultivation of, 140
characteristics of good, 140
cleaning, 151
composition of, 141
conditions for cultivating, 142, 144, 145
diffusion battery for, 158
direct distillation of, 161
distilling apparatus for, 162, 200, 201
distilling plant for, 199, 201
Beets, fermenting juice of, 160
harvesting, 146

how to tell when ripe, 147
hydraulic presses for, 153
macerating, 156, 159
manures for, 143
roll press for, 154
soil for growing, 142
sowing, 144, 146
stack for storing, 148
storing in winter, 149
scum forming during fermentation of, 160
transportation of, 203
Boiling over, to prevent in still, 58
points of alcoholic liquors, 2

Carbonic anhydride, to get rid of, 25
Cellar for beets, 149
Cellier-Blumenthal still, 48
Cleaning barley, 103
beets, 150
grain, 104
potatoes, 110, 204
apparatus for, 151
Coal consumption, 208
Coffey’s still, 54
Column distillery, 64, 66
rectifying, 51, 87, 94
Condenser, Cellier-Blumenthal’s, 48
Coffey’s still, 54
and mash heater, 41, 43, 46, 52, 64, 74
Concentration of alcohol by distillation, 31
Continuous distillation, 50
Cooling mashes by air, 15
by water, 17, 133, 196

Corn, mashing, (see Grain).
Couch, wet, 106
Covered fermentation, 27
Current still, 59

De-Naturants, formulas for, 211, 214, 216, 219, 254
prescribed in U. S., 211, 220
De-natured alcohol in Canada, 214
England, 214
France, 215
Germany, 211, 214
uses of, 210, 213, 217
in Germany, 217, 222
De-naturing in London establishment, 215
in U. S., Acts regulating, 212, 219, 225, 259
regulations, 229
with benzine, 216
Diastase, 14
proper temperature for action of, 14, 133
Distilling apparatus, 33, 63, 189
Adams’, 8
beet, 162
Cellier-Blumenthal’s, 48
Coffey’s, 54
continuous, 50, 68
current, 59
compound still, 46, 47
fire heated, 47
Corty’s, 40
double, 41
Dorn’s, 43
Gillaume’s, 78
simple, 38, 36, 190
with enricher, 37

Distilling column, 64, 73
plants, 189, 199, 205
Distillation, checking 32
compound, 42, 50
multiple to strengthen alcohol, 31
Dough, luting still with, 34
Dujardin’s roll press for beets, 154
Drying, barley, 108
kiln for, 108
Drying rooms, temperature of, 108
Dunder from molasses, 168

Flavor in alcohol, cause of bad, 86
Ferment, too much, 24
Fermentation in general, 9, 18, 27
alcoholic, 22, 23
acetous, 24
foaming, 27
heat necessary for, 19
lactic, 25
loss in, 28
phenomena of, 27
periods of, 26
under cover, 27
viscous, 25
Fermenting apparatus, 28, 194
room, 29, 194
vats, 28, 29, 195
Fire, regulating distilling, 61
Floors for malting barley, 106
“Fractionating”, 83
Fusel oil, (see Rectifying).

Geisler’s apparatus for estimating alcohol, 184
Gelatinizing apparatus, 10
Germinating barley, 106
Grain, alcohol from, 126
composition of, 128
cooling of mashed, 133
distillery for, 197
grinding, 129
infusion of, 131, 135
mashing in general, 130, 134
mashing, proportions of grain for, 134
under steam pressure, 137
mashes, cooling, 133
regulating temperature of, 133, 138
mash tub, 134
thin mash of, 134, 135
saccharifying, 131, 134
steeping, 129
sulphurous acid, 132
temperature of water, 129
sufficient steeping of, 130
Grains, relative quantities of alcohol from various, 126
Gauge glass, 71

Heat indicator for regulating, 61
necessary for fermentation, 19
Henze steamer, 11, 14
Hydraulic presses for beets, 153
Hydrometers, 176, 177

Indicator for regulating distillery fire, 61
Iodine Test, 185

Lactic fermentation, 25

Lime, neutralizing acid by milk of, 80
Loss of alcohol in fermentation, 28

Malt, 103
drying, 108
grinding dried, 109
kiln, 108
Malting barley, 103
cleaning barley for, 104
couch, 106
floors, 106
germinating barley for, 106
in large plants, 108
steeping barley for, 105
Mash cooling, 15, 16, 17
heating, 52, 74
tub, 122, 123, 124
Mashing in general, 8
grain, 30, 134
cleaning, 104
potatoes, 110, 125
starchy materials, 10
Molasses, alcohol from, 163
acidifying, 164
beet sugar, 164
cane sugar, 168
clarifying cane sugar, 170
composition of cane sugar, 168
dilution of, 167
dunder from cane sugar, 168
fermenting cane sugar, 170, 206
cane sugar in Mauritius, 172
cane sugar in Java, 172
mixing vats for water and, 164, 165
plant for distilling, 205

skimmings from cane sugar, 168
transportation of, 207
washes, setting up, 166
pitching temperature of, 166
Methylated spirits, 211, 212

Neutralizing Acids in rectifying, 86

Pitching the mash, 22
temperature, 22
Potato-alcohol use in Germany, 212
how to obtain good, 138
Potatoes, alcohol from, 110
best for distilling, 110
cleaning, 110, 204
crusher for, 116
crushing and steaming, 111, 117
extraction of starch from separately, 122
isolation of starch from, 122
keeping, 110
mashing, 110, 118, 125
plant for distilling, 204
rasp for pulping, 152
saccharifying by sulphuric acid, 124
starch from, 122
steaming, 111
under high pressure, 11, 118, 121
vat for, 112, 121
steamer and crusher for, 111, 117
vacuum cooker for, 11
“Proof spirit”, 175

Rectification, 82, 92
by filtration, 101
Rectifying apparatus, 87
Barbet’s, 94

Gillaume, 97, 99
intermittent, 90
Vulcan, 93
Regulating distillery fire, 61
Relative quantities of alcohol in grains, 126
Rice, (see Grains).

Saccharification, 8, 10, 14
by sulphuric acid, 138
complete, 185
of grain, signs of, 137
Saccharifying apparatus, 14
Specific gravity of alcohol, 2, 174
calculating, 174
Steam generator, 114
regulator, 69
Steamers, high pressure, 11, 12
Steaming under high pressure, 13
Steaming grain, 136
potatoes, 111
under pressure, 118, 121
vat, 112
Steeping barley, 105
grain, 129
sufficiently, 130
temperature, 130
Stills, (see Distilling Apparatus).
Sulphuric acid for saccharifying grain, 138
neutralizing, 86
Sykes’ hydrometer, 177

Testing Alcohol for purity, 187

Twin column rectifier, 95

Vacuum cooker, 10, 11
Vulcan rectifying still, 93
stills, 73, 77
traps, 75

Water for distilling, 208

Yeast, 20
brewers, 11
fermentation by, 9, 10

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94 pages, 42 illustrations, 12mo., cloth, $1.00.
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ELECTRIC LIGHTING for amateurs. The installation of electric light
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SMALL DYNAMOS AND MOTORS. How to make and use them. A
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ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS and TESTING.
How to Use the Voltmeter, Ammeter, Galvanometer, Potentiometer,
Ohmmeter, the Wheatstone Bridge, and the Standard Portable Testing Sets.
BY
NORMAN H. SCHNEIDER.
Author of “Care and Handling of Electric Plants,” “Induction Coils and
Coil Making,” “Circuits and Diagrams,” etc., etc.
The aim of the author has been to produce a complete and practical work
on this important subject.
First describing the various forms of Electrical Testing and Measuring
Instruments and their construction.
Secondly, their practical application to everyday work with numerous
examples worked out.
Thirdly, detailing the many tests of insulation resistance, current and
e.m.f. that can be made with a voltmeter.
Using only formulas in simple algebra and then explaining them in plain
language for the benefit of practical men lacking a knowledge of
mathematics.

During the past ten years the author has made hundreds of tests, which
has made him familiar with the subject from the practical standpoint. He
has also obtained valuable information and diagrams from the principal
manufacturers of Testing Instruments. The apparatus described is modern
and in universal use.
Most of the diagrams have been specially drawn for this book.
The work is divided into XI. chapters as follows:
Introduction; Chapters I. and II, The Galvanometer; III, Rheostats; IV,
The Voltmeter; V, The Wheatstone Bridge; VI, Forms of Portable Sets; VII,
Current Flow and e.m.f.; VIII, The Potentiometer; IX, Condensers; X,
Cable Testing; XI, Testing with Voltmeter.
230 pages, 105 illustrations and diagrams, 12mo., cloth, $1.00.

EVERYBODY’S BOOK ON ELECTRICITY.
PRACTICAL ELECTRICS.
A UNIVERSAL HANDY-BOOK
ON
EVERYDAY ELECTRICAL MATTERS.

FIFTH EDITION.

CONTENTS.
Alarms.—Doors and Windows; Cisterns, Low Water in Boilers; Time
Signals; Clocks. Batteries.—Making; Cells; Bichromate; Bunsen; Callan’s;
Copper-oxide; Cruikshank’s; Daniel’s; Granule carbon; Groves; Insulite;
Leclanché; Lime Chromate; Silver Chloride; Smee; Thermo-electric. Bells.
—Annunciator System; Double System; and Telephone; Making; Magnet
for; Bobbins or Coils; Trembling; Single Stroke; Continuous Ringing.
Connections. Carbons. Coils.—Induction; Primary; Secondary; Contact-
breakers; Resistance. Intensity Coils.—Reel; Primary; Secondary; Core;

Contact-breaker; Condenser; Pedestal; Commutator; Connections. Dynamo-
Electric Machines.—Relation of Speed to Power; Field-Magnets; Pole-
pieces; Field-magnet Coils; Armature Cores and Coils; Commutator
Collectors and Brushes; Relation of size to efficiency; Methods of exciting
Field-Magnets; Magneto-Dynamos; Separately excited Dynamos; Shunt
Dynamos; Organs of Dynamos as constructed in practice; Field-Magnets;
Armatures; Collectors; Brush Dynamo; Second Class; Alternate Currents;
Third Class. Fire Risks.—The Dynamo; Wires; Lamps; Danger to persons.
Measuring.—Non-Registering Instruments; Registering Instruments.
Microphones.—Construction, &c. Motors.—Application; for Railways.
Phonographs. Photophones. Storage.—Plates. Terminals.—Charging.
Telephones.—Forms; Circuits and Calls; Transmitter and Switch; Switch
for Simplex.
135 PAGES. 126 ILLUSTRATIONS. 8 VO.
Cloth, 75 Cents.

AN AMERICAN BOOK.
INDUCTION COILS and COIL MAKING.
Second edition thoroughly revised, greatly enlarged and brought up to latest
American Practice,

By H. S. NORRIE,
(NORMAN H. SCHNEIDER)
Considerable space in the new matter is given to the following: Medical
and bath coils, gas engine and spark coils, contact breakers, primary and
secondary batteries; electric gas lighting; new method of X-ray work, etc. A
complete chapter on up-to-date wireless telegraphy; a number of new tables
and 25 original illustrations. Great care has been given to the revision to
make this book the best American work on the subject. A very complete
index, contents, list of illustrations and contents of tables have been added.
Contents of Chapters.

1. Construction of coils; sizes of wire; winding; testing; insulation;
general remarks; medical and spark coils. 2. Contact breakers. 3. Insulation
and cements. 4. Construction of condensers. 5. Experiments. 6. Spectrum
analysis. 7. Currents in vacuo; air pumps. 8. Rotating effects. 9. Electric gas
lighting; in multiple; in series. 10. Primary batteries for coils; varieties;
open circuit cells; closed circuit cells; solutions. 11. Storage or secondary
batteries; construction; setting up; charging. 12. Tesla and Hertz effects. 13.
Roentgen Radiography. 14. Wireless telegraphy; arrangement of circuits of
coil and coherer for sending and receiving messages; coherers; translating
devices; air conductors; tables; contents; index.
XII + 270 Pages, 79 Illustrations, 5 × 6½ Inches.
Cloth. $1.00.

PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRICAL POWER.
(CONTINUOUS CURRENT.)
FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

BY

A. H. BATE, A.M.I.E.E.
The rapid progress that has been made of late years in the application of
electricity to industrial purposes, and particularly in the transmission of
power by means of the electric motor, has made it imperative for every
engineer who wishes to keep up to date to have some knowledge of the way
electrical currents are controlled and used for practical purposes. This work
is especially written for the practical engineer, mathematics being avoided.
Contents of Chapters.
1. The Electric Motor.
2. Magnetic Principles.

3. Electrical Measurements.
4. The Dynamo.
5. Construction of Motor.
6. Governing of Motors.
7. Open and Closed Motors; rating.
8. Motor Starting Switches.
9. Speed Control of Shunt-wound Motors.
10. Series Motor Control.
11. Distribution System.
12. Installing and Connections.
13. Care of Dynamos and Motors.
14. Cost of Plant.
15. Examples of Electric Driving.
Horse-power absorbed by various machines, including general
engineering and shipyard machines; wood working and printing machinery
(arranged in 14 pages of tables).
XII + 204 pages, 63 illustrations, 12 mo. cloth. $2.00.

THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK.
TO THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF

ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

By NORMAN H. SCHNEIDER,
Chief Engineer, “White City,” Colingwood, Ohio.
EXTRACTS FROM PREFACE.
In revising the first edition of Power Plants the author decided to greatly
enlarge it in the hope that it will have a still greater success than the first

one. The section on theory is thoroughly revised. A complete chapter on
Standard Wiring including new tables and original diagrams added. The
National Fire Underwriters’ rules condensed and simple explanations given.
Direct and alternating current motors have been given a special chapter
and modern forms of starting rheostats described at length. The principles
of alternators have been considered also transformers and their applications.
Modern testing instruments and their use are given a separate chapter. New
matter has been added to storage batteries including charging of automobile
batteries, 10 new tables, and 137 new illustrations.
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.
1. The Electric Current; series and multiple connections; resistance of
circuits; general explanation of formulas.
2. Standard Wiring; wiring formulas and tables; wiring systems; cut-
outs; conduits; panel boxes; correct methods of wiring.
3. Direct and Alternating Current Generators; management in the
power house; windings; selection of generators.
4. Motors and Motor Starters; various forms of motors; controllers;
care of motors and their diseases; rules for installing.
5. Testing and Measuring Instruments; voltmeter testing and
connections; instruments used; switchboard instruments.
6. The Storage Battery; different kinds; switchboards for charging fixed
and movable batteries; management of battery.
7. The Incandescent Lamp; various methods of testing; life of lamps.
8. Engineering Notes; belts and pulleys h.p. of belts. Tables. Contents.
Index.
290 pages, 203 illustrations. 12mo., cloth, $1.50.
Full limp leather, $2.50.

Design of Dynamos

By

SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D. Sc., B. A., F. R. S.
EXTRACTS FROM PREFACE.
“The present work is purposely confined to continuous current
generators. The calculations and data being expressed in inch measures; but
the author has adopted throughout the decimal subdivision of the inch;
small lengths being in mils, and small areas of cross-section in sq. mils, or,
sometimes, also, in circular mils.”
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.
1. Dynamo Design as an Art.
2. Magnetic Data and Calculations. Causes of waste of Power.
Coefficients of Dispersion. Calculation of Dispersion. Determination of
exciting ampere-turns. Example of Calculation.
3. Copper Calculations. Weight of Copper Wire. Electrical resistance of
Copper, in cube, strip, rods, etc. Space-factors. Coil Windings; Ends;
Insulation; Ventilating; Heating.
4. Insulating Materials and Their Properties. A list of materials,
including “Armalac,” “Vitrite,” “Petrifite,” “Micanite,” “Vulcabeston,”
“Stabilite,” “Megohmite,” etc. With tables.
5. Armature Winding Schemes. Lap Windings, Ring Windings, Wave
Windings, Series Ring-Windings, Winding Formulæ. Number of circuits.
Equalizing connections. Colored plates.
6. Estimation of Losses, Heating and Pressure-drop. Copper Losses,
Iron Losses, Excitation Losses, Commutator Losses, Losses through
sparking. Friction and Windage Losses. Secondary Copper Losses.
7. The Design of Continuous Current Dynamos. Working Constants and
Trial Values; Flux-densities; Length of Air-gap; Number of Poles; Current
Densities; Number of Armature Conductors; Number of Commutator
Segments; Size of Armature (Steinmetz coefficient); Assignment of Losses
of Energy; Centrifugal Forces; Calculation of Binding Wires; Other
procedure in design. Criteria of a good design. Specific utilization of
material.

8. Examples of Dynamo Design.
1. Shunt-wound multipolar machine, with slotted drum armature. 2.
Over-compounded Multipolar traction generator, with slotted drum
armature, with general specifications, tables, dimensions and drawings,
fully described.
A number of examples of generators are given in each chapter, fully
worked out with rules, tables and data.
VIII. × 253 pages, 92 illustrations, 10 large folding plates and 4 Three-
color Plates, 8vo., cloth, $3.50.

Dynamo-Electric Machinery

VOL. I.—CONTINUOUS CURRENT.
BY
SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Sc., B.A., F.R.S.
7th Edition Revised and Greatly Enlarged.
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.
1. Introductory.
2. Historical Notes.
3. Physical Theory of Dynamo-Electric Machines.
4. Magnetic Principles; and the Magnetic Properties of Iron.
5. Forms of Field-Magnets
6. Magnetic Calculations as Applied to Dynamo Machines.
7. Copper Calculations; Coil Windings.
8. Insulating Materials and their Properties.
9. Actions and Reactions in the Armature.
10. Commutation; Conditions of Suppression of Sparking.

11. Elementary Theory of the Dynamo, Magneto and Separately Excited
Machines, Self-exciting Machines.
12. Characteristic Curves.
13. The Theory of Armature Winding.
14. Armature Construction.
15. Mechanical Points in Design and Construction.
16. Commutators, Brushes and Brush-Holders.
17. Losses, Heating and Pressure-Drop.
18. The Design of Continuous Current Dynamos.
19. Analysis of Dynamo Design.
20. Examples of Modern Dynamos (Lighting and Traction).
21. Dynamos for Electro-Metallurgy and Electro-Plating.
22. Arc-Lighting Dynamos and Rectifiers.
23. Special Types of Dynamos; Extra High Voltage Machines, Steam-
Turbine Machines, Extra Low Speed Machines, Exciters, Double-Current
Machines, Three-Wire Machines, Homopolar (Unipolar) Machines, Disk
Dynamos.
24. Motor-Generators and Boosters.
25. Continuous-Current Motors.
26. Regulators, Rheostats, Controllers and Starter.
27. Management and Testing of Dynamos.
Appendix, Wire Gauge Tables. Index.
996 pages, 573 illustrations, 4 colored plates, 32 large folding plates. 8vo.,
cloth. $7.50.‡

Alternating-Current Machinery

BEING VOL. II OF

Dynamo-Electric Machinery.

BY

SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Sc., B.A., F.R.S.
Owing to the enormous increase in the use of electrical machinery since
the publication of the sixth edition of Dynamo-Electric Machinery the
author has deemed it advisable to divide the work. Vol. I. is devoted to
Direct Current Machinery and this the second part. Vol. II. Alternating
Current Machinery. Amongst the many new features treated special
mention must be made of the number of fine colored plates of windings and
the many large folding scale drawings. These two volumes make the most
comprehensive and authoritative work on dynamo machinery. The work has
been so universally adopted that it has been found necessary to translate it
into French and German.
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.
1. Principles of Alternating Currents.
2. Periodic Functions.
3. Alternators.
4. Induced E.M.F. and Wave-Forms of Alternators.
5. Magnetic Leakage and Armature Reaction.
6. Winding Schemes for Alternators.
7. Design of Alternators. Compounding of Alternators.
8. Examples of Modern Alternators.
9. Steam Turbine Alternators.
10. Synchronous Motors, Motor Generators, Converters.
11. Parallel Running of Alternators.
12. Transformers.
13. Design of Transformers.
14. Induction Motors.
15. Design of Induction Motors.

16. Examples of Induction Motors.
17. Single-Phase Induction Motors.
18. Alternating-Current Commutator Motors.
Appendix. The Standardization of Voltages and Frequencies. Complete
Index.
XX + 848 pages, 546 illustrations, 15 colored plates and 24 large folding
plates. 8vo., cloth. $7.50‡.

Books for Steam Engineers.
DIAGRAM OF CORLISS ENGINE. A large engraving giving a
longitudinal section of the Corliss engine cylinder, showing relative
positions of the piston, steam valves, exhaust valves, and wrist plates when
cut-off takes place at ¼ stroke for each 15 degrees of the circle. With full
particulars. Reach-rods and rock shafts. The circle explained. Wrist-plates
and eccentrics. Explanation of figures, etc. Printed on heavy paper, size 13
in. × 19 in., 25c.
THE CORLISS ENGINE and its Management. A Practical Handbook
for young engineers and firemen, (3rd edition) by J. T. Henthorn. A good
little book, containing much useful and practical information. Illustrated,
cloth, $1.00.
THE FIREMAN’S GUIDE to the Care and Management of Boilers, by
Karl P. Dahlstrom, M.E., covering the following subjects: Firing and
Economy of Fuel; Feed and Water Line: Low Water and Priming: Steam
Pressure: Cleaning and Blowing Out; General Directions. A thoroughly
practical book. Cloth, 50c.
A B C OF THE STEAM ENGINE. With a description of the automatic
shaft governor, with six large scale drawings. A practical handbook for
firemen helpers and young engineers, giving a set of detail drawings all
numbered and lettered and with names and particulars of all parts of an up-
to-date American high speed stationary steam engine. Also a large drawing
and full description of the automatic shaft governor. With notes and

practical hints. This work will prove of great help to all young men who
wish to obtain their engineer’s license. Cloth, price 50c.
HOW TO RUN ENGINES AND BOILERS. By E. P. Watson, (for
many years a practical engineer, and a well-known writer in The Engineer.)
A first-rate book for beginners, firemen and helpers. Commencing from the
beginning, showing how to thoroughly overhaul a plant, foundations, lining
up machinery, setting valves, vacuum, eccentrics, connection, bearings,
fittings, cleaning boilers, water tube boilers, running a plant, and many
useful rules, hints and other practical information; many thousands already
sold. 160 pages, fully illustrated, cloth, $1.00.
AMMONIA REFRIGERATION. By I. I. Redwood. A practical work of
reference for engineers and others employed in the management of ice and
refrigerating machinery. A first-rate book, beginning from the bottom and
going carefully through the various processes, stage by stage, with many
tables and original illustrations. Cloth, $1.00.
MEYER SLIDE VALVE. Position diagram of cylinder with cutoff at
1/8, ¼, 3/8 and ½ stroke of piston with movable valves, on card 7½ in. ×
5½ in. Price, 25c.

AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK

ON

STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS,

FOR THE
USE OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

By

J. H. KINEALY.
Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Washington University.
Illustrated with Diagrams and Numerous Cuts, Showing American Types
and Details of Engines and Boilers.
This book is written solely as an elementary text-book for the use of
beginners and students in engineering, but more specially for the students in
the various universities and colleges in this country.
No attempt has been made to tell everything about any one particular
subject, but the author has endeavored to give the student an idea of
elementary thermodynamics, of the action of the steam in the cylinder of
the engine, of the motion of the steam valve, of the differences between the
various types of engines and boilers, of the generation of heat by
combustion, and the conversion of water into steam.
Care has been taken not to touch upon the design and proportion of the
various parts of engines and boilers for strength; as, in the opinion of the
writer, that should come after a general knowledge of the engine and boiler
has been obtained.
In the derivation of some of the formulæ in thermodynamics, it has been
necessary to use the calculus, but the use of all mathematics higher than
algebra and geometry has been avoided as much as possible.
An earnest endeavor has been made to present the subject in a clear and
concise manner, using as few words as possible and avoiding all padding.
Contents of Chapters.
Chapter I.—Thermodynamics; First Law of Thermodynamics; Work,
Power; Unit of Heat; Mechanical Equivalent; Application of Heat to
Bodies; Second Law of Thermodynamics; Specific Heat; Absolute
Temperature; Application of Heat to a Perfect Gas; Isothermal Expansion;
Adiabatic Expansion; Fusion; Vaporisation; Application of Heat to Water;
Superheated Steam. Chapter II.—Theoretical Heat Engine; Cycle;
Thermodynamic Efficiency; Perfect Gas Engine; Perfect Steam Engine;
Theoretical Diagram of the Real Engine; Clearance; Efficiency

The Slide Valve

SIMPLY EXPLAINED.

By W. J. TENNANT, Asso. M. Inst. Mech. E.

The work has been thoroughly revised and enlarged in accordance
with the present American Practice.

By J. H. KINEALY, D. E., M. Am. Soc. Mech. E.
The work is based upon notes and diagrams which were prepared by Mr.
Tennant in his lectures to his classes of working engineers and students
towards the obtainment of clear general notions upon the Slide Valve, its
design, varieties, adjustments and management. They have been revised and
considerably added to and in this form the authors believe they will be of
considerable value to all engineers and others interested in steam engines.
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.
I. The Simple Slide.
II. The Eccentric a Crank. Special Model to give Quantitative Results.
III. Advance of the Eccentric.
IV. Dead Centre. Order of Cranks. Cushioning and Lead.
Expansion—Inside and Outside Lap and Lead; Advance affected
V.
thereby. Compression.
VI. Double-ported and Piston Valves.
VII. The Effect of Alterations to Valve and Eccentric.
VIII. Note on Link Motions.
IX. Note on very early cut-off, and on Reversing Gears in general.
The illustrations aim to cover the different kinds of Slide Valves, and the
circular diagrams will prove a novel feature.
88 Pages. 41 Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $1.00

LUBRICANTS,
OILS AND GREASES.

TREATED THEORETICALLY AND GIVING PRACTICAL
INFORMATION REGARDING THEIR

COMPOSITION, USES AND MANUFACTURE.

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR MANUFACTURERS, ENGINEERS,
AND USERS IN GENERAL OF LUBRICANTS.

By ILTYD I. REDWOOD,
Associate Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Member
Society Chemical Industries (England); Author of ‘Theoretical and Practical
Ammonia Refrigeration,’ and a ‘Practical Treatise on Mineral Oils and
Their By-Products.’
CONTENTS.
Introduction.—Lubricants.
THEORETICAL.
Chapter I.—Mineral Oils: American and Russian; Hydrocarbons.
Chapter II.—Fatty Oils: Glycerides; Vegetable Oils; Fish Oils.
Chapter III.—Mineral Lubricants: Graphite; Plumbago.
Chapter IV.—Greases: Compounded; “Set” or Axle; “Boiled” or Cup.
Chapter V.—Tests of Oils: Mineral Oils. Tests of Oils: Fatty Oils
MANUFACTURE.
Chapter VI.—Mineral Oil Lubricants: Compounded Oils; De-bloomed
Oils.

Chapter VII.—Greases: Compounded Greases; “Set” or Axle Greases;
Boiled Greases; Engine Greases.
Appendix.—The Action of Oils on Various Metals. Index.
Tables: I.—Viscosity and Specific Gravity. II.—Atomic Weights. III.—
Origin, Tests, Etc. of Oils. IV.—Action of Oils on Metals.
List of Plates: I.—I. I. Redwood’s Improved Set Measuring Apparatus
II.—Section Grease Kettle. III.—Diagram of Action of Oils on Metals.
8vo. Cloth. $1.50.

Mechanical Draft.

BY

J. H. KINEALY, M. Am. Soc. M.E.

Past President American Society Heating and Ventilating
Engineers.
PREFACE.
In writing this book the author has assumed that those who will use it are
familiar with boilers and engine plants, and he has had in mind the
practicing engineer who is called upon to design power plants, and who
must therefore decide when it is best to use some form of mechanical draft.
The arrangement of the book is what the experience of the author in making
calculations for mechanical draft installations has shown him is probably
the best. And he has tried to arrange the tables in such a way and in such a
sequence that they may prove as useful to others as they have to him.
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.
1. General Discussion. Introduction; systems of mechanical draft;
chimneys v. mechanical draft; mechanical draft and economizers.

2. Forced Draft. Systems; closed fire-room system; closed ashpit
system; small fan required; usual pressure; forced draft and economisers;
advantages; disadvantages.
3. Induced Draft. Introduction; temperature of gases; advantages;
disadvantages.
4. Fuel and Air. Weight of coal to be burned; evaporation per lb. of coal;
effect of rate of evaporation; weight of air required; volume of air and
gases; volume of gases to handle; leakage; factor of safety.
5. Draft. Relation to rate of combustion; resistance of grate; resistance
due to economizer; draft required under different conditions.
6. Economizers. Effect of adding; ordinary proportion and cost; increase
of temperature of feed water.
7. Fans. Type and proportions of fan used; relation between revolution of
fan and draft; capacity of fan.
8. Proportioning the Parts. Diameter of fan wheel required; speed at
which the fan must run; power required to run the fan; size of engine
required; steam used by fan engine; choosing the fan for forced draft, for
induced draft without economizer, for induced draft with economizer;
location of the fan; breeching and up-take; inlet chamber; discharge
chimney; by-pass; water for bearings.
Appendix. Tables. Index. 156 pages. 13 plates. 16mo.
Cloth, $2.00.

THE AUTHORITY ON THIS SUBJECT.

CENTRIFUGAL FANS.

A THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON

Fans for Moving Air In Large Quantities

At Comparatively Low Pressures.

BY

J. H. KINEALY, M. Am. Soc. M.E.
Past-President American Society Heating and Ventilating Engineers.
The matter in this book was a series of articles written for the
Engineering Review. The favorable attention which they attracted lead the
author to believe that there was a real demand for a book treating in a
theoretical as well as a practical way on centrifugal fans. The articles have
been thoroughly revised, added to, and made as complete as possible.
Contents of Chapters.
1. Flow of Air; Volume of Air Flowing; Pressure Necessary for required
velocity.
2. Vortex; Vortex with Radial Flow.
3. Fans; First Type of Fans; Second or Guibal Type of Fans; Third Type
of Fans; Modern Type.
4. Fan Wheel; Vanes or Floats; Inlet; Width.
5. Capacity; Blast Area; Effect of Outlet on Capacity; Air per Revolution.
6. Pressure; Work.
7. Horse Power Required to Run a Fan; Engine Required to Run a Fan;
Motor Required to Run a Fan; Width of Belt.
8. Efficiency; Air per Horse Power.
9. Exhausters.
10. Housing; Dimensions of Housings; Shaft.
11. Cone Wheels.
12. Disk Fans; Number of Revolutions per Minute; Capacity of a Disk
Fan; Horse Power Required.
13. Choosing a Fan. Index.
Twenty-two tables have been prepared and they have been arranged in
the way, which the experience of the author in designing heating and

ventilating plants has shown to be the most convenient. The tables are full
and complete, all calculations having been very carefully checked, read and
revised. XIV. + 206 pages, 39 diagrams. Full limp leather pocketbook.
Round Corners, gilt edges. $5.00.‡

CHARTS FOR

Low Pressure Steam Heating

for the use of

ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, CONTRACTORS
AND STEAM FITTERS.

By J. H. KINEALY, M.E.
M. Am. Soc. M. E., M. Am. Soc. of H. and V. Eng’rs, &c., &c.
The author has long been in the habit of using charts to aid him in his
work. Knowing the value of them in saving time, simplifying work and
ensuring correct calculations he feels confident that they will be appreciated
by engineers, architects and contractors, for whose benefit they have been
compiled. Care has been taken to make the charts as clear and as easily
understood and, above all, as accurate as possible. They have been based
upon theoretical considerations, modified by what is considered to be good
practice in this country.
Chart 1.—This chart is for determining the number of square feet of
heating surface of a low pressure steam heating system, pressure not to
exceed 5 lbs. per square inch by the gauge, necessary to supply the heat lost
through the various kinds of wall surfaces of rooms. The chart is divided
into four parts. Chart 2.—For determining the diameters of the supply and
return pipes for a heating system. Chart 3.—For finding the number of

square feet of boiler heating surface and the number of square feet of grate
surface for a boiler that is to supply steam to a steam heating system. Chart
4.—For determining the area of the cross section of a square flue, or the
diameter of a round flue, leading from an indirect radiation heater to the
register in a room to be heated.
Full details are given for the use of these cards.
These four charts are printed on heavy white card-board and bound
together with cloth, size 13 in. by 9¼ in., $1.00‡.
These cards are securely packed for mail and sent to any part of the World
on receipt of price.

Gas Analyst’s Manual.

By JAQUES ABADY, M. Inst. Mech. E.

(Incorporating F. W. Hartley’s “Gas Analyst’s Manual” and “Gas
Measurement.)”
The numerous requests received by the Publishers for the late Mr. F. W.
Hartley’s “Gas Analyst’s Manual” and “Gas Measurement” form the
justification of the present work, which embodies practically the entire
contents of those two volumes. It has been found, however, that their scope
was too narrow to comply with modern requirements in various directions,
although ample at the time they were written, and so I have ventured to add
such extensions as appeared to be necessary in order to meet the demand
which exists for a comprehensive work on Gas Apparatus and its use.
This large work has been in course of preparation for the past three years
by Mr. Jaques Abady, and has been very carefully revised by other experts.
Many valuable tables of data have been included, a number of which
come from the private note books of the Author, being practically results

obtained by him during many years of work as Expert, Gas Engineer and
Gas-Works Materials Manufacturer.
CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS.
1. —Photometry (58 pages.)
2. —The table photometer and Photometer Room (38 pages.)
3. —Standard of Light (32 pages.)
—Calorimetry and Specific Gravity, with a note on Mond Gas (48
4.
pages.)
5. —The Referees’ Test for Sulphur and Ammonia in Gas (28 pages.)
6. —Coal Testing (22 pages.)
7. —Testing Enrichment and Purification Materials (33 pages.)
—Purity Tests for Gas in the Various Stages of its Manufacture (43
8.
pages.)
9. —Testing Bye-products (35 pages.)
10. —Technical Gas Analysis (63 pages.)
11. —Meter-Testing Apparatus (48 pages.)
12. —Meter and Governor Testing (34 pages.)
Appendix. Data, Tables, Formulæ, etc., (38 pages).
And very complete Contents, Index and List of Illustrations, and Tables,
&c. &c. XV+560 pages, 5½ × 8½ in., 93 illustrations and 9 folding plates.
Bound in Handsome Half Leather—$6.50‡

The Design and Construction

of

Oil Engines.

WITH FULL DIRECTIONS FOR
Erecting, Testing, Installing, Running and Repairing.

Including descriptions of American and English

KEROSENE OIL ENGINES.

By A. H. GOLDINGHAM, M.E.
Synopsis of Contents of Chapters:
1. Introductory; classification of oil engines; vaporizers; ignition and
spraying devices; different cycles of valve movements. 2. On design and
construction of oil engines; cylinders; crankshafts; connecting rods; piston
and piston rings; fly-wheels; air and exhaust cams, valves and valve boxes;
bearings; valve mechanism, gearing and levers; proportions of engine
frames; oil-tank and filter; oil supply pipes; different types of oil engines;
cylinders made in more than one piece; single cylinder and double cylinder
engines; crankpin dimensions; fitting parts; assembling of oil engine;
testing water jackets, joints, etc. 3. Testing for leaks, faults, power,
efficiency, combustion, compression; defects as shown by indicator;
diagrams for setting valves; how to correct faults; indicator fully described;
fuel consumption test, etc. 4. Cooling water tanks; capacity of tanks; source
of water supply; system of circulation; water pump; exhaust silencers; self
starters; utilization of waste heat of exhaust. 5. Oil engines driving dynamo;
installation of plant; direct and belt connected; belts; power for electric
lighting; loss of power. 6. Oil engines driving air compressors; direct
connected and geared; table of pressures; pumping outfits; oil engines
driving ice and refrigeration outfits. 7. Full instructions for running different
kinds of oil engines. 8. Hints on repairs; adjustment of crank-shaft and
connecting rod bearing; testing oil inlet valves and pump, fitting new spur
gears, etc. 9. General descriptions with illustrations of American and
English oil engines; methods of working; portable oil engines, etc., etc.
Index and tables.
XIII. + 196 pages, 7½ × 5½, 79 illustrations, cloth, $2.00

PRACTICAL HANDBOOK

on

GAS ENGINES.

With Instructions for Care and Working of the Same.

By G. LIECKFELD, C.E.

TRANSLATED WITH PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR BY

Geo. Richmond, M.E.

TO WHICH HAS BEEN ADDED FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE
RUNNING OF

OIL ENGINES.
CONTENTS.
Choosing and installing a gas engine. The construction of good gas
engines. Examination as to workmanship. As to running. As to economy.
Reliability and durability of gas engines. Cost of installing a gas engine.
Proper erection of a gas engine. Construction of the foundation.
Arrangement for gas pipes. Rubber bag. Locking devices. Exhaust pipes.
Air pipes. Setting up gas engines. Brakes and their use in ascertaining the
power of gas engines. Theory of the brake. The Brauer band brake.
Arrangement of a brake test. Explanation of the expressions “Brake Power”
and “Indicated Power.” Comparisons of the results of the brake test and the
indicated test. Quantity of work consumed by external friction of the
engine. Distribution of heat in a gas engine. Attendance on gas engines.

General remarks. Gas engine oil. Cylinder lubricators. Rules as to starting
and stopping a gas engine. The cleaning of a gas engine. General
observations and specific examination for defects. Different kinds of
defectives. The engine refuses to work. Non-starting of the engine. Too
much pressure on the gas. Water in the exhaust pot. Difficulty in starting the
engine. Clogged slide valve. Leaks in gas pipes. Unexpected stopping of
engine. Irregular running. Loss of power. Weak gas mixtures. Late ignition.
Cracks in air inlet. Back firing. Knocking and pounding inside of engine.
Dangers and precautionary measure in handling gas engines. Examination
of gas pipes. Precautions when:-Opening gas valves. Removing piston from
cylinder. Examining with light openings of gas engines. Dangers in starting.
Dangers in cleaning. Safeguards for fly-wheels. Danger of putting on belts.
Oil Engines. Gas engines with producer gas. Gasoline and oil engines. The
“Hornsby-Akroyd” oil engine. Failure to start. Examination of engine in
detail. Vaporizer valve box. Full detailed directions for the management of
Oil Engines. Concluding remarks. 120 pages, illustrated, 12mo. cloth.
$1.00

THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

and

FIRE PREVENTION.

A HANDBOOK FOR INSURANCE SURVEYORS, WORKS
MANAGERS, AND ALL INTERESTED IN FIRE RISKS AND
THEIR DIMINUTION

BY

HERBERT INGLE, F.I.C., F.C.S.

BY

HARRY INGLE, Ph.D., B.Sc.
TECHNOLOGICAL CHEMIST.
Contents of Chapters.
I. Definition of Fire, Old Theories as to its Nature, Modern Views of
Combustion—The Physical and Chemical Properties of the Atmosphere, the
Chief Properties of its Constituents—Some Conditions Affecting the
Combustion of Substances in Air, the Principle of the Miner’s Safety Lamp.
II. Explanation of Chemical Terms, Outline of the Atomic Theory. Brief
Explanations of the Use of Chemical Formulæ and Equations.
III. Methods of Preparations of Oxygen, Brin’s Oxygen Manufacture—
Heat Measurements, the Calorimeter, Calorific Power of Substances
Burning in Air.
IV. Coal Gas: Its Preparation, Purification and Composition—Properties
of Its Chief Constituents—Reciprocity of Combustion—Gaseous Diffusion
—Explosion of Gases—Dust Explosions.
V. Fuel: Chemical Composition of Wood, Charcoal, Peat, Lignite, Coal,
Coke, Petroleum, Coal Gas—Use of “Atmospheric Burners”—Producer
Gas—Water Gas—Dawson Gas.

CROSS SECTION PAPER.

Scale EIGHT to ONE Inch.
THE HANDY SKETCHING PAD.

Printed on one side, in blue ink, all the lines being of equal thickness
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inches, stiff board covers. Price, 25c. each; per dozen books, $2.50.

Scale EIGHT to ONE Inch.
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ink. Size of sheet, 17 × 22 inches. Per quire (24 sheets),

Scale TEN to ONE Inch.
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inch lines. Per quire (24 sheets),
The Electrician’s Sketching Book.
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stiff card board covers. Price, 25c. each; per dozen, $2.50.
The Electrician’s Plotting Pad.
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dozen, $2 50.
Any Books and Pads Assorted, per dozen, $2 50.
ANY QUANTITY MAILED TO ANY PART OF THE WORLD POST-
PAID ON RECEIPT OF PRICE.
This paper is Printed from plates. Try it and you will find it

GOOD, ACCURATE AND CHEAP.

SPON & CHAMBERLAIN,
NEW YORK, U. S. A.

25c. BOOKS.
MODEL BOILER MAKING. Contains full instructions for designing
and making model stationary, marine and locomotive boilers. Fully
illustrated with original working drawings.
METAL WORKING TOOLS AND THEIR USES. A Handbook for
Young Engineers and Apprentices. Shows how to use simple tools required
in metal working and model making. Illustrated.
SIMPLE MECHANICAL WORKING MODELS. How to make and
use them, including stationary engine locomotive, steamboat, waterwheel,
etc. With 34 illustrations.
MODEL STEAMER BUILDING. A practical handbook on the design
and construction of model steamer hulls, and fittings, with 39 scale
drawings.
MACHINERY FOR MODEL STEAMERS. On the design,
construction, fitting and erecting of engines and boilers for model steamers,
with 44 scale drawings.
THE SLIDE VALVE. Simply explained for working engineers. Fully
illustrated.
THE LOCOMOTIVE, simply explained. A first introduction to the
study of the locomotive engine, their designs, construction and erection,
with a short catechism, and 26 illustrations.
THE BEGINNER’S GUIDE TO THE LATHE. An elementary
instruction book on turning in wood and metal. By P. Marshall. 76 pages,

75 illustrations.
GAS AND OIL ENGINES. A practical handbook on, with instructions
for care and running. Illustrated.
STANDARD SCREW THREADS. A Guide to Standard Screw Threads
and Twist Drills. (Small sizes.) Illustrated.
STEAM TURBINES. How to design and build them. A practical
handbook for model makers. Contents of Chapters. 1. General
Consideration. 2. Pressure Developed by an Impinging Jet; Velocity and
Flow of Steam Through Orifices. 3. Method of Designing a Steam Turbine.
4. Complete Designs for DeLaval Steam Turbines; Method of Making
Vanes; Shrouding. 5. The Theory of Multiple Stage Turbines. Fully
illustrated with detail drawings and tables.
MECHANICAL DRAWING, simply explained. Use of instruments,
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reproduction, lettering, with 44 illustrations.
ACETYLENE GAS. How to make and use it. A practical handbook on
the uses of Acetylene Gas, suitable apparatus for its generation, hints and
fitting up, etc. 34 illustrations.
LETTERING FOR DRAWINGS. A System of Easy Lettering, by J. H.
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variety of very attractive alphabets suitable for engineering and
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PROJECTION DRAWING. Twelve plates on, by Oswald Gueth, M.E.,
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Pyramids. Sections, plate 5, Prisms and Pyramids; 6, Cones; 7, Spheres; 8,
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12, Prisms and Pyramids. Size, 8½ × 11 in., sewn, 75c.
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS. Simply explained. A textbook for
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ALGEBRA SELF-TAUGHT. By W. P. Higgs. 7th edition. The simplest
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Commencing from the very beginning, and advancing step by step, with
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The language used is so simple that a student can readily master algebra by
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EDUCATIONAL WOODWORK. By A. C. Horth. A complete manual
for teachers and organizers of woodworking classes. Contents of Chapters:
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Fittings and Furniture. 5. Discipline. 6. Organization and Method. 7. The
Instruction of the Physically and Mentally Deficient and Blind. 8. Object
Lessons. Fully illustrated with reproductions from photographs, drawings,
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WOODWORK JOINTS. How to make and where to use them;
including mortise and tenon joints, lap joints, dovetail joints, glue joints and
scarfing joints. With a chapter on circular woodwork, revised and enlarged
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THE BEGINNER’S GUIDE TO FRETWORK. Containing full
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VENEERING, MARQUETRY AND INLAY. A practical instruction
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79 pages, 37 illustrations. 25c.
SOFT WOODS AND COLONIAL TIMBERS. The selection and Uses
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HARD WOODS, ENGLISH AND FOREIGN. A practical description
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Wells, 79 pages, 19 illustrations, 25c.

Spons’
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and

A WORK THAT SHOULD BE IN YOUR
BOOKCASE.
The general method of treatment of each subject, is first the raw
materials worked upon, its characteristics, variations and
suitability; secondly, the tools used, the sharpening and use; thirdly,
devoted to typical examples of work to be done, materials, and how
to do similar work, etc.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
Mechanical Drawing, (13 pages.)
Mechanical Movements, (55 pages.)
Casting and Founding in Brass and Bronze, (30 pages.)
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Picture Frame Making, (4 pages.)
Painting, Graining and Marbling, (28 pages.)
Staining, (13 pages.) Gilding, (3 pages.)
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Plastering and White Washing, (9 pages.)
Lighting, (8 pages.)
Foundations and Masonry, (46 pages.)
Roofing, (14 pages.)
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Electric Bell and Bell Hanging, Gas Fitting, (8 pages.)
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First Series. Principal Contents.—Diamond Cutting, Laboratory
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SPONS’ ENCYCLOPÆDIA

OF THE

Industrial Arts, Manufactures

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EDITED BY

G. G. ANDRE, F.G.S., Asso.-M. Inst. C.E.

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Assisted by many prominent Manufacturers, Chemists and Scientists.
This encyclopedia is written by practical men for practical men.
Raw Materials form perhaps its most important feature and are dealt with
in a way never before attempted.
Manufacturers are discussed in detail from the manufacturing standpoint
by manufacturers of acknowledged reputation.
Special consideration is given to the utilization of waste, the prevention
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Technicalities are explained, and bibliographies (English, American,
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Over 2,000 pages and nearly 2,000 illustrations.
We are offering a Limited number of sets of a
SPECIAL THREE VOLUME EDITION HANDSOMELY BOUND IN
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Dubelle’s Famous Formulas.

KNOWN AS

Non Plus Ultra Soda Fountain Requisites of Modern Times.

By G. H. DUBELLE.

A practical Receipt Book for Druggists, Chemists, Confectioners
and Venders of Soda Water.
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
Introduction.—Notes on natural fruit juices and improved methods for
their preparation. Selecting the fruit. Washing and pressing the fruit.
Treating the juice. Natural fruit syrups and mode of preparation. Simple or
stock syrups.
FORMULAS.
Fruit Syrups.—Blackberry, black currant, black raspberry, catawba,
cherry, concord grape, cranberry, lime, peach, pineapple, plum, quince,
raspberry, red current, red orange, scuppernong grape, strawberry, wild
grape. New Improved Artificial Fruit Syrups.—Apple, apricot, banana,
bitter orange, blackberry, black currant, cherry, citron, curacoa, grape,
groseille, lemon, lime, mandarin, mulberry, nectarine, peach, pear,
pineapple, plum, quince, raspberry, red current, strawberry, sweet orange,
tangerine, vanilla. Fancy Soda Fountain Syrups.—Ambrosia, capillaire,
coca-kina, coca-vanilla, coca-vino, excelsior, imperial, kola-coca, kola-kina,
kola-vanilla, kola-vino, nectar, noyean, orgeat, sherbet, syrup of roses,
syrup of violets. Artificial Fruit Essences.—Apple, apricot, banana,
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cranberry, gooseberry, grape, lemon, lime fruit, melon, nectarine, orange,
peach, pear, pineapple, plum, quince, raspberry, red currant, strawberry.
Concentrated Fruit Phosphates.—Acid solution of phosphate, strawberry,
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Foreign and Domestic Wine Phosphates—9. Cream-Fruit Lactarts—28.
Soluble Flavoring Extracts and Essences—14. New Modern Punches—
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Phosphate Shakes. Hot Egg Phosphate Shakes. Wine Bitter Shakes—12.
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Cream Sodas—39. Non-Poisonous Colors. Foam Preparations.
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SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
omplete Breakfast Menus, with receipts, pages 1–27.
Complete Luncheon Menus, with receipts, pages 28–74.
Tea Menus, High Tea Menus, with receipts, pages 75–124.
Complete Dinner Menus, with receipts, pages 125–220.
Processes:—This chapter is illustrated with exact position of the cook’s
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trussing fish, joints, poultry, game, hares, rabbits, etc. Larding and icing,
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Receipts of separate dishes.
Stocks and soups of all kinds, broth, gravy, etc.
Fish.—To clean, general rules for cooking. Numerous receipts or boiling,
baking, stewing, frying fish of all kinds.

The preparation and making of gravies, stuffing, forcemeats, purees,
garnishes and sauces for all purposes, with many receipts.
Entrees.—Their preparation and serving, with receipts.
Joints.—Preparation, cooking and serving of, with many receipts.
Vegetables.—Preparation and cooking of plain and dressed vegetables of
all kinds and how to serve them.
Poultry and game.—Preparation, cooking and serving, with receipts.
Pastries, pudding and sweet dishes. Cakes, biscuits, bread.
Omelets.—With receipts for preparing, cooking and serving.
Ices, confectionery, syrups, jams, preserves and preserving, cordials,
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Model Engineers and their Work.—Illustrated interviews with
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Our Beginners’ Column.—A section devoted to elementary instruction
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Practical Letters from our Readers.—A correspondence column,
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Transcriber’s Notes:
The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have been
maintained.
Inconsistent hyphenation is as in the original if not marked as a misprint.
Missing punctuation in the advertisement at the end of the book has been added.
The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.

p. ix: Gay-Lassacs → Lussac’s
p. x: for molasses. Transportion → Transportation
p. xii: 30, 31, → 30, 31
p. 8: Mashes, and Fermentation → Fermentation.
p. 11: Company, of Cincinnati → Cincinnati,
p. 11: illustrated in Fig → Fig.
p. 15: stirrer arms B → B
p. 16: driving shaft F → F
p. 22: This is know → known
p. 26: of the yeast stops → stops.
p. 40: pipes G G G → G G G
p. 40: in the worm, → worm.
p. 57: as the chamber B → B
p. 64: Fig. 22.—Diagramatie → Diagramatic
p. 68: depriving it of its aclohol → alcohol
p. 72: Gauge Glass for Regulatar → Regulator
p. 73: runnings or “.feints.” → “feints.”
p. 73: Fig. 29 → 29.
p. 80: the column A → A.
p. 94: more highly varporized → vaporized
p. 107: being kept at 65°F → 65° F
p. 117: saccharification takes place → place.
p. 138: steam is admitted though → through
p. 145: is required per arce → acre
p. 149: which is varied accroding → according
p. 158: Fif. → Fig.
p. 185: starch a blue color, → color.
p. 186: may contain numerious → numerous
p. 186: processes are largely empirical → empirical.
p. 191: in the still in Fig. 8 → 8.
p. 192: money for their proprieters → proprietors
p. 195: constructed, however, to pervent → prevent
p. 195: After the chief feremnting → fermenting
p. 198: rectifying columns, refrigerators → refrigerators,
p. 198: Fig. 56 → 55
p. 206: Fig 59. → Fig. 59.
p. 218: 100 gallons → gallons.
p. 218: Ethyl Alcohol—100 gallons. → Ethyl Alcohol 100 gallons.
p. 219: 100 gallons → gallons.
p. 220: and similar products → products.
p. 221: on metallic susbtances → substances

p. 239: used for de-naturign → de-naturing
p. 246: employees for the work. → work”
p. 251: subject to the penalites → penalties
p. 256: de-natured spirits is → are
p. 259: tax free of domestic alchohol → alcohol
p. 272: Prof. Silvanus P. Thomson → Thompson
p. 275: thermostats, annnuciators → annunciators
p. 285: DIGRAM → DIAGRAM
p. 292: “Gas Analyst’s Manual → Manual”
p. 292: Mond Gas (48 pages) → (48 pages.)
p. 292: Tables, Formulae → Formulæ
p. 294: “Hornsby-Akroyd’ → “Hornsby-Akroyd”
p. 302: Blackberry, black current → currant
p. 302: orange, blackberry, black current → currant

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