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Title: Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and History

Editor: Paige W. Christiansen
Frank Edward Kottlowski

Release date: October 24, 2017 [eBook #55800]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF
NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY, ROCKS, AND HISTORY ***

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside)
COVER: Redondo Peak, from Jemez Canyon

Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past Series:
No. 1—Santa Fe, New Mexico
No. 2—Taos—Red River—Eagle Nest, New Mexico, Circle Drive
No. 3—Roswell—Capitan—Ruidoso and Bottomless Lakes State Park,
New Mexico
No. 4—Southern Zuni Mountains, New Mexico
No. 5—Silver City—Santa Rita—Hurley, New Mexico
No. 6—Trail Guide to Geology of the Upper Pecos, New Mexico
No. 7—High Plains Northeastern New Mexico, Raton—Capulin
Mountain—Clayton
No. 8—Mosaic of New Mexico’s Scenery, Rocks, and History
No. 9—Albuquerque—Its Mountains, Valleys, Water, and Volcanoes
No. 10—Southwestern New Mexico
No. 11—Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad
No. 12—The Story of Mining in New Mexico
No. 13—Española—Chama—Taos

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Robert W. Talbott)
Whitewater Canyon near Glenwood

SCENIC TRIPS TO THE GEOLOGIC PAST
NO. 8

Mosaic of New Mexico’s
Scenery, Rocks, and History
edited by
PAIGE W. CHRISTIANSEN
and
FRANK E. KOTTLOWSKI

NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES
1972

NEW MEXICO INSTITUTE OF MINING &
TECHNOLOGY
Kenneth W. Ford, President

NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES
Frank E. Kottlowski, Director
George S. Austin, Deputy Director

BOARD OF REGENTS
Ex Officio
Bruce King, Governor of New Mexico
Leonard DeLayo, Superintendent of Public Instruction

Appointed
Steve Torres, President, 1967-1985, Socorro
Dave Rice, Secretary-Treasurer, 1972-1983, Carlsbad

William G. Abbott, 1961-1985, Hobbs
Judy Floyd, 1977-1987, Las Cruces
Owen Lopez, 1977-1983, Santa Fe

BUREAU STAFF
Full Time

Marla D. Adkins, Assistant Editor
Orin J. Anderson, Geologist
Ruben Archuleta, Technician I
Robert A. Bieberman, Senior Petrol. Geologist
Steve Blodgett, Assistant Editor
Lynn A. Brandvold, Chemist
James Brannan, Drafter
Corale Brierley, Chemical Microbiologist
Ron Broadhead, Petroleum Geologist
Brenda R. Broadwell, Assoc. Lab Geoscientist
Jane A. Calvert, Assistant Editor
Frank Campbell, Coal Geologist
Richard Chamberlin, Economic Geologist
Charles E. Chapin, Senior Geologist
Jeanette Chavez, Admin. Secretary I
Richard R. Chavez, Assistant Head, Petroleum
Ruben A. Crespin, Laboratory Technician II
Lois M. Devlin, Director, Bus.-Pub. Office
Amelia Dondero, Metallurgist
Kathy C. Eden, Editorial Technician
Robert W. Eveleth, Mining Engineer
K. Babette Faris, X-ray Lab. Manager
Rousseau H. Flower, Sr. Emeritus Paleontologist
John W. Hawley, Senior Env. Geologist
Cindy Howell, Staff Secretary
Robert W. Kelley, Editor & Geologist
Arleen Lindsey, Staff Secretary
Mark Logsdon, Industrial Minerals Geologist
David W. Love, Environmental Geologist
Wess Mauldin, Driller

Virginia McLemore, Geologist
Lynne McNeil, Staff Secretary
Norma J. Meeks, Department Secretary
David Menzie, Geologist
Teresa Mueller, Drafter
Robert M. North, Mineralogist
Keith O’Brien, Hydrologist
JoAnne C. Osburn, Coal Geologist
Glenn R. Osburn, Volcanologist
Barbara R. Popp, Lab. Biotechnologist
Marshall A. Reiter, Senior Geophysicist
Jacques R. Renault, Senior Geologist
James M. Robertson, Mining Geologist
Gretchen H. Roybal, Coal Geologist
Amy Shacklett, Asst. Lab Biotechnologist
Jackie H. Smith, Laboratory Technician IV
William J. Stone, Hydrogeologist
Samuel Thompson III, Senior Petrol. Geologist
Judy M. Vaiza, Executive Secretary
Debra Vetterman, Drafter
Robert H. Weber, Senior Geologist
Betsy Wilson, Receptionist/Clerk Typist
Donald Wolberg, Vertebrate Paleontologist
Michael W. Wooldridge, Scientific Illustrator

Part Time

Christina L. Balk, Geologist
Howard B. Nickelson, Coal Geologist
Beverly Ohline, Acting Director, Info. Services
Thomas E. Zimmerman, Chief Security Officer

Graduate Students

Danny Bobrow
James T. Boyle
Gerry W. Clarkson
Mike Davidson

David R. Guilinger
Terry Jensen
Douglas L. Heath
Adrian Hunt
Ingrid Klich
Ione Lindley
Curtis Verpleough
John M. Wakefield
Mary Lynne Yates
John Young

Plus about 50 undergraduate assistants

Third edition, 4th printing

Published by Authority of State of New Mexico, NMSA 1953 Sec. 63-1-4

Printed by University of New Mexico Printing Plant, Albuquerque, April
1982

Available from New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources,
Socorro, NM 87801 $4.00

Contents
3 Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans, Paige W. Christiansen
16 The exotic plants of New Mexico, Ross Calvin
26 Dwellers in the hills and plains, Levon Lee
33 Rocks that shape the enchanting landscapes, Frank E. Kottlowski
54 Before Coronado, Robert H. Weber
64 Frontier forts of New Mexico, Robert A. Bieberman
75 Our National Heritage
75
New Mexico’s big share of the National Park System, H. V. Reeves, Jr.
93 Forest lands above the desert, Ruth Bush Jones
104 The State Also Preserves
104
New Mexico State Monuments, Museum of New Mexico Staff
107 New Mexico State Parks, The Editors
113 Angling in the desert’s waters, Fred A. Thompson
119 The Indians of New Mexico, Paige W. Christiansen
133 Reminders of the past, Paige W. Christiansen
145 Derricks and mines, George B. Griswold
154 Enchanting landscapes, Frank E. Kottlowski
165 Index

New Mexico

High-resolution Map

1

Preface
Previous Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past have emphasized scenic tours of
local areas in New Mexico. This book lays out a mosaic of facts and fancies
concerning the state’s landscapes, the rocks that underlie and make up the
landscapes, and the history of the people now living or who have lived amid
New Mexico’s exciting and varied scenery. We hope these short articles will
help you enjoy our state, whether you are a tourist driving through at seventy
miles an hour, a visitor with a little time to explore, or an old-timer who
remembers the cattle drives.

The idea for this publication grew out of a booklet, New Mexico Mosaic of
Science and History, that was written for the 1963 National Science Fair-
International held in Albuquerque. The National Science Fair booklet was
directed specifically to the Fair participants and emphasized their tours to
famous scientific installations in New Mexico, areas of scenic geologic
wonders, and points of historic and archeologic importance. The booklet had
only limited distribution; subsequent interest in this kind of publication
about New Mexico led to the preparation of this book.

Scenic Trips No. 8 is in two major parts. First, there are articles of general
statewide interest to acquaint visitor and resident alike with the Land of
Enchantment—its history, flora and fauna, geology, and scenic beauty.
Second, there are articles describing specific scenic, geologic, historic, and
recreational places to give a depth of understanding and a more intimate
view of New Mexico. The entire mosaic of New Mexico thus presented is a
permanent record to recall vistas of New Mexico’s enchanting land and
fascinating history.

Acknowledgments

Many people have contributed their time and talents to this co-operative
undertaking. We thank each of the authors of the articles; where their
affiliation is not given, they are staff members of the New Mexico Bureau of
Mines and Mineral Resources division of the New Mexico Institute of
Mining and Technology. Professor Christiansen is a member of the
Humanities Department of the Institute’s College division. This book would
have been incomplete without the co-operation of the New Mexico
Department of Game and Fish, the Museum of New Mexico, the New
Mexico Department of Development, the State Park Commission, the U.S.
Park Service, and the Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S. Department
of Agriculture. Our special appreciation goes to Dr. Ross Calvin for his
interpretative description of New Mexico’s unique flora.

Black and white photographs were contributed by Robert Bieberman, Roy
Foster, and Teri Ray of the Bureau of Mines staff and by the authors or 2
their agencies. Some of the drawings were made by David H.
Moneypenny. Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. Elliott S. Barker and the
Forest Service for their willing loan of color transparencies.

Among the numerous personnel of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and
Technology who aided in preparation of this book, appreciation is due Helen
Waxler, Lois Devlin, Lola White, Mary Ann Grandjean, and Sharon
Ballenger for typing of manuscripts and William Arnold, Robert Price, and
Raymond Molina for drafting maps and figures. Teri Ray deserves special
mention for her interest and editorial advice and for nursing the material
from rough manuscripts into printed pages.

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

The kind reception given our attempt to provide a brief but comprehensive
guide to New Mexico’s scenery, rocks, and history resulted in distribution of
5000 copies in two years, and led to this second edition. In this revision, we
have incorporated changes that have occurred during these two years,
especially the addition of State Parks, and Teri Ray has added an index to
make the book more usable. Each author has re-edited his article and made
changes where necessary. William Arnold added much material to the index

map; typing of the revision manuscript was carefully done by Lois Devlin.
Alfred Coulloudon and Wayne Bera supplied additional photographs. Teri
Ray initiated revision of the first edition, worked with authors, and guided
the manuscript from the authors to the final copy.

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

The first edition appeared in 1964, the second in 1967, and a reprint in 1968.
In the present edition front matter has been re-styled, printed matter has been
altered on the inside and outside of the covers, a footnote added to page 104,
and a less bulky paper used.

3

Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans
by Paige W. Christiansen

In the world of the twentieth century with its tumultuous ovation for each
discovery of science, with its language of non-Euclidian space, with new
heroes who leave the earth, not discover it—sometimes it is refreshing to
look back on other days, to see other heroes, and to seek romance and
excitement which was equally spectacular in times past. Yet there is a close
affinity and a spiritual link among the heroes of the past, the present, and the
future, and the reaction of their contemporaries to their feats of glory is not
so different. Heroes are those who seek the unknown, who risk life and
position to expand the frontiers of man’s universe and mind. But heroes can
only lead an age, never surpass it. History, then, is people and their catalyst,
ideas.

The history of New Mexico, like twentieth century science, is multi-
dimensional. Its complex cultural patterns fit with the intricate variety of its
geologic wonders and its flora and fauna. In reality, New Mexico is a part of
a broader concept, the Southwest. This vast region, which includes western
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, southern California, part of southern
Colorado, and southern Utah, has given rise to some of man’s greatest
achievements. Here prehistoric man rose above his animal heritage to take
control of these lands. Here, also, many millennia later, man achieved one of
his greatest scientific wonders, the successful release of atomic energy. The
story of the years between these events, so far separated in time, is a
wondrous tale.

INDIAN BEGINNINGS

Before the coming of the white man, this land belonged to nature’s children,
the Indian. Centuries before European nations came into existence, peoples
from Asia, crossing by the Bering waters, had discovered, explored, and
settled the American continents from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. They
mastered the plains, the northern forests, the jungles of Central and South
America, and the arid regions. In the deserts and mountains of the
Southwest, they conquered elements and terrain, first to survive and then
slowly to ascend the ladder of culture.

At first they were foragers, living on what nature provided. At the time of
Christ, several groups could be distinguished: In the Colorado River
drainage, south of the Grand Canyon, were the Yuman Foragers; in
southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico were the Mogollon
people; in the Four Corners area (where the states of Utah, Colorado,
Arizona, and New Mexico meet) and in the Rio Grande Valley of New 4
Mexico was a complex of cave sites that evidenced a forager type of
culture. But, as man always aspires to rise above his environment, the Indian
slowly and painfully learned to make tools, developed new techniques, and
finally made the great step upward; he domesticated plants. Agriculture,
based primarily on the growing of corn, came to the Four Corners before the
Christian era. Gradually, out of the primitive foragers, there developed
across the Southwest a complex pattern of agricultural societies; peaceful
farmers intent upon harvesting the utmost from a harsh land. In Arizona, the
Hohokam peoples created a culture based upon irrigation. In the valleys of
the upper Gila and Mimbres rivers of southwestern New Mexico, several
branches of the Mogollon culture grew and prospered. In the Four Corners
area and in the upper Rio Grande Valley, the Mesa Verde, the Gran Chaco,
and later the Rio Grande branches developed, at first in the cliffs of the high
country, then in open villages along the main tributaries of the Rio Grande.
That there were numerous and varied cultures is attested to by the ruins one
finds scattered throughout the Southwest. Along now dry arroyos, on buttes
overlooking rivers or dry river beds, among cliffs in the mountain fastnesses
and in caves wherever they appear, there are thousands of sites whose people
and history are lost in antiquity.

Prehistoric Indian cliff dwelling

And these people were builders. They lived in caves at first, then in crude pit
houses. Finally they moved above the ground and evolved building
techniques and styles of architecture that stood the ravages of time and still
serve the people of the Southwest. In the city of Santa Fe, the Palace of the
Governors was built upon the ruins of an Indian pueblo (village), the name
of which has disappeared even from tradition, and its massive walls of
puddled adobe, laid down before the art of making bricks was 5
introduced by the Spanish, may be seen under glass in some of the
rooms of the Palace at the present time. Perhaps most spectacular are the
great houses of Chaco Canyon, some of which must have sheltered from one
to two thousand people each, and which as achievements in building, both
from the standpoint of durability and graceful construction, rival the
structures of the historic valleys and plateaus of the ancient eastern world.

In addition to agriculture and building, the Indian of the Southwest achieved
great heights in artistic forms. The ceramics of the American Southwest
become increasingly important when compared with products of the Old
World. The Indians of America and the Southwest are a race of artists. Their

aesthetic culture towers above anything achieved by the white man, with the
general exception of ancient Greece and Renaissance Italy.

As impressive as his achievements in domesticating plants, in building
massive structures, and in developing symbolism and aesthetic values to
match his material advances, the Indian’s greatest heights were reached in
his philosophy on nature and life. He conceived himself to be, not master of
creation, but a single factor in the scheme of things. He shared with all
things—beasts, birds, rocks, trees, everything in nature—a life principle
which permeated all, a gift conferred by the mighty powers of earth and sky.
He observed orderly procession of natural phenomena and ordered his own
life in harmony therewith. His was no egocentric point of view which has
become so much a part of the philosophic base of the European mentality.
His natural philosophy entered into every facet of his life—his daily work,
his art, his ceramics, his religion. In short, this singularly fine outlook upon
the world helps to account for his success in conquering the diverse elements
of earth and sky which constantly threatened his very existence.

But this fine culture did not survive in the fullness of its bloom. What
eventually destroyed the vast and complicated agricultural system was not
the rigors of Mother Nature but a migration of new people into the flow of
Southwest history. Sometime after 1000 A.D., a nonfarming, nomadic,
warlike people entered the Southwest. The peaceful farmers, weakened by
drouth, were unable to cope with this new force. Gradually they fell back,
leaving behind their homes, their fields, their culture. By 1300, only a small
remnant remained, that located in the Rio Grande Valley of north-central
New Mexico. Across the rest of the Southwest the nomadic tribes,
technically called Athapascan from their linguistic affiliation but better
known by their modern name, Apache, had replaced the farming cultures.
The picturesque Indian pueblos we see today in the valleys of northern New
Mexico are the direct descendants of the great cultures that existed at Mesa
Verde, Gran Chaco, Frijoles, and other centers of cultural achievement.

The Indians of the Rio Grande Valley and the Apache who controlled most
of the Southwest managed an uneasy coexistence. The Pueblo Indians
remained basically farmers, holding fast to the cultural advances made by
their ancestors during the millennium preceding 1300. The Apache, for 6
the most part, remained nomadic predators, living off nature’s bounty,

or better still, raiding the pueblos for food. The Apache groups began to take
on names and traditional areas which they called their own. In northern New
Mexico were the Jicarilla Apache and in the southeast, the Lipan, the
Mescalero, and the Natage Apache. In northeastern Arizona were the Navajo
and in the drainage of the Gila River, the Chiricahua, the Gila, and other
groups of the Western Apache. Each of these groups made its mark upon the
face of the land.

SPANISH CONTRIBUTIONS

This was the situation in the Southwest when the sixteenth century opened,
but a new force was abroad which would grow and strengthen and leave a
deep imprint on New Mexico. Beginning on the wild islands of the
Caribbean and then fanning out into the heart of Mexico and the South
American continent, this new force spread across the face of America.
Europeans, more exactly, Spaniards, came bent upon conquest for its own
reward, for the glory of God, and for gold. These sturdy men from the
Iberian peninsula with weapons vastly superior to the Indians’, with the
horse which made them highly mobile and devastating in battle, and with
tactics and precision in warfare unknown among the Indians, were to sweep
without serious setback across the great cultures of Mexico and Central and
South America. By 1540, they were ready to take their next leap forward.

On the west coast of Mexico, at a place called Culiacan, a colorful host
gathered. In their ears rang the words of the legend of the Seven Cities of
Cibola, seven golden cities, a legend which had been popular in Spain for
many generations. Mexico City had produced wealth, and the Spanish were
ready to believe that other fabulous cities existed. One Spaniard had already
crossed part of North America and had heard from the Indians tales of the
rich cities. His name was Cabeza de Vaca, and the exuberance of his tales
fired the imagination of the Spaniards.

The soldiers and adventurers gathering in Mexico, commanded by Francisco
Vasquez de Coronado, were the first Europeans to organize an expedition to
the American Southwest. Leaving from Culiacan in 1540, they went up the
west coast of Mexico into modern Arizona, then east into New Mexico. The

seven golden cities turned out to be the pueblos around Zuni, New Mexico,
and not golden at all. The expedition, although discouraged, marched into
the Rio Grande Valley and visited most of the pueblos there. Still they failed
to find the treasure they sought. In a final desperate attempt, they explored
onto the Great Plains, eventually reaching central Kansas. Broken in spirit
and body, they struggled back to the Rio Grande Valley, and then retraced
their route to Mexico. In all, the expedition covered a two-year span. A
failure? Yes, in terms of wealth and treasure found. Yes, in terms of
conquest, for nothing had been conquered. No, in terms of human resources,
for the Indians Coronado met were to be the incentive that would bring the
Spaniard back to New Mexico. While the Spaniard did seek gold and 7
glory, he also burned with a missionary zeal and sought souls for his
deep-running religion, Roman Catholicism.

Mesa top pueblo

For fifty-five years after Coronado, interest in New Mexico and the
Southwest was spotty. Other things occupied the Spanish—primarily silver
discoveries in the central valleys of Mexico. But men did not forget New

Mexico and saw there an opportunity for missionary activity and
exploitation. Also, other nations of Europe were beginning to take an interest
in the North American continent, and New Mexico began to look attractive
to the Spanish as a frontier defensive outpost. The frontier line pushed ever
northward from central Mexico. By 1595, the Spanish were ready to push a
salient into New Mexico.

From among the mining communities of northern Mexico, a force of two
hundred colonists was assembled by Don Juan Oñate who had a contract to
colonize New Mexico. After countless delays due to politics and supply
shortages, the Oñate expedition left Chihuahua in 1598. The route went
north across the desert to the Rio Grande near El Paso del Norte (modern
Juarez), thence up the Rio Grande into New Mexico. On August 18, 1598,
they arrived at San Juan, and there founded the first capital of New Mexico,
San Juan de los Caballeros. These lands of the Southwest so long colored by
the Indian now received a new imprint, one that would alter the direction and
flow of culture and change it from the Indian to the Spanish Southwest.

From San Juan, and later (1610) from Santa Fe, Oñate, his men, and his
colonists brought New Mexico under the Spanish yoke. In co-operation with
the Franciscan Order, which had been assigned the task of converting 8
the Indian, Oñate supervised the building of missions and mission
churches at many of the pueblos of New Mexico. At the same time, Spanish
towns developed, the most important being the new capital at Santa Fe. By
1628, New Mexico was solidly in the hands of her new masters.

The period from 1628 to 1680 was one of internal conflict and isolation for
New Mexico. It lay far out on the frontier, alone and distant from its source
of supplies. It lacked many of the items necessary for frontier life,
particularly hardware and clothing. Its population was small, and in constant
fear of Indian uprising, and its officials were too weak to act with vigor.
Finally, there was a lack of genuine interest on the part of the central
authorities. All these problems led to internal conflicts between soldier and
colonist; between colonist and Indian; between colonist and official; and,
perhaps most bitter of all, between church and state. This latter conflict
would erupt time after time, openly, and with bitterness and denunciation
from both sides. Governors were excommunicated as heretics; Franciscans
were accused of all sorts of crimes and improper behavior. This, plus the

other conflicts, gave rise to growing disrespect by the Indians for their
European conquerors. The superiority of Christianity was questioned by the
Indians as they watched the attacks and counterattacks made by priest and
governor. The whole system of Spanish rule seemed a mockery. In 1680, the
Indians decided their way was best after all and rose in rebellion.

Led by Po-pé from Taos, the various pueblos banded together in a mighty
effort to remove the Spanish from traditional Indian lands. For the first time
the pueblos came together, united by a single purpose. There were two
exceptions; Isleta, just south of Albuquerque, and the Piro villages farther
south (Socorro) remained loyal to the Spanish. Up and down the Rio Grande
Valley, the Spaniards fell before the pent-up anger of the Indians. Survivors
gathered at Santa Fe, but their water supply was cut, and they were forced to
retreat south. At Isleta and later at the Piro villages, they received aid before
continuing south to El Paso del Norte. With them went their Indian allies
from Isleta and Socorro. It was a total defeat for the Spanish, and the Indian
again was master of New Mexico.

But not for long, for at El Paso there gathered a force dedicated to revenge
for their comrades who had died before the Indian onslaught. Ably led by
Diego de Vargas, this expedition moved into New Mexico in 1692. The
Indians, who had achieved such unity for the moment in 1680, were again
badly divided. De Vargas, instead of having to subdue an alliance, had only
to deal with one pueblo at a time. Very quickly New Mexico was returned to
a mission area and frontier military post. The Pueblo Indians became
permanently subjected to European domination. Their one and only attempt
at unity had, in the final analysis, failed.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, New Mexico was the heart
of the Spanish empire in the Southwest. Only in southwestern Arizona,
western Texas, and California did the Spanish hold any land other than in the
upper Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico. During these centuries, this valley
complex played out its dual role of mission area and military outpost. 9
Its only connection with the resources and ideas of the world was a long
hazardous road that stretched from Santa Fe to Chihuahua City and then
south to Mexico City. This was New Mexico’s Royal Road, and over it
moved everything needed by soldier, priest, and civilian. The trade was
dominated by the merchants of Chihuahua, and New Mexico suffered. The

tale of New Mexico during this period was one of poverty, hardship, and
warfare. And several vital forces moved across the land.

One of these forces had long been in the Southwest, but latent. The Spanish
adopted an Indian word meaning enemy to describe it—Apache! The
Spanish brought with them domesticated animals which quickly adapted to
conditions of the New World and became available to the Indian. Most
important was the horse, at least as far as the Apache was concerned. By the
early eighteenth century, the Apache, and other groups on the plains, had
adapted to the use of the horse. While dangerous as foot soldiers, the Apache
became vastly more dangerous as mounted warriors. Whereas they had been
satisfied with minor raids against the pueblos and the Spanish holdings prior
to 1700, they exploded on a wave of terrorism during the eighteenth century
which very nearly drove the Spanish from the frontier. Late in the century,
the conflict between the Apache and the Spanish became increasingly bitter.
The history of the Southwest became the history of incessant Indian
incursions and Spanish attempts to control the raiders. The missions declined
and in many instances gave way entirely to the presidio or fort. In New
Mexico the military came to dominate the missionary, and only through the
heroic efforts of the meager force at the Presidio of Santa Fe did the Spanish
manage to hold New Mexico from total collapse. A poor province became
poorer, population declined, both among the Spanish and Indian, and the
future looked dark indeed.

Far from New Mexico, other forces were stirring which would have a
profound effect on the province and the Southwest. Spain and the Spanish
empire were in trouble. Spain had failed to develop the supply capability to
keep her colonies alive and was forced to spend her wealth in other areas of
Europe. After two and a half centuries, the cumbersome and inefficient
colonial administrative machinery was breaking down. While Spain’s star
was descending, other European nations were on the move. England, France,
Holland, and Russia were contesting with Spain for control of the New
World. England and France were digging in on the east coast of North
America; Holland was penetrating the islands of the Caribbean, and Russia
was pushing down the Pacific Coast from Alaska. The weakness of Spain
and the failure of her colonial government, plus help from Napoleon by way
of his invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 1808, brought about the collapse
of the Spanish empire. In America, patriots, inspired by the earlier success of

the American Revolution and afire with the ideas of the French Revolution,
struck out at the remnants of Spanish rule. By 1825, all the Spanish colonies
but the islands of the Caribbean were free and independent nations. New
Mexico and the Southwest became part of the Mexican state.

Almost immediately, Mexico, without leaders, without a political 10
heritage to lead it to stability, and torn by power struggles large and
small, was plunged into a period of political anarchy and civil war which
would last for half a century. The problems and dangers of a far-flung
frontier were lost in the din of conflict, and New Mexico became a forgotten
province. Its claims as a mission area were so weak as to be almost
nonexistent. It was no longer needed as a military outpost, for the danger to
Mexico was not external, but internal. Its reasons for being were forgotten,
at least for the moment, and New Mexico had to survive on her own
initiative. But for one very important fact, the Spanish salient into the
Southwest might have collapsed under the weight of poverty and Indian
attacks. That fact was the opening of the Santa Fe Trail in 1821, a trail which
linked the Spanish world with the Anglo-Saxon world then pushing its
frontiers out from Missouri. This trail, so rich in lore and adventure, so much
a part of the history of both the American west and the Spanish north, was
the door through which passed the characters for the final act in the history
of the Southwest.

Before the final act, however, it is vital and necessary to set down the
contribution of two hundred fifty years of Spanish occupation and rule. The
coming of the Spaniard to the Southwest began a mixture of white and red
races which resulted in a new mixed race. The first generation of those who
came up from Mexico were Caucasians; their descendants were usually not.
They came seeking wealth and security, but there was neither wealth nor
security in New Mexico, and they remained poor, very poor. The society that
evolved was to be based upon farming and stock raising, and its organization
was to be feudal in nature. There would be no education; hence, there could
be no intellectual advance. The world began to go ahead of the people of
New Mexico. Only in the house of the rico was there any sign of the wealth
and grandeur of Spain; everywhere else was poverty. Farming was left in the
hands of the Indian, while the Spaniard chose to be a man on horseback, a
cattleman, an aristocrat. In the final analysis, Spanish New Mexico would
not develop as democratic and agricultural, but aristocratic and feudal. The

hacienda was a part of old Spain in exile. The rico tried vainly to hold to his
idea of chivalry and to a decorum suitable to his position. But what chance
was there in the face of the increasing poverty, the constant danger to life
and property, and time that did not move? While individual courage of the
upper class remained, discipline and industry died. When the American army
marched into the Southwest, the sons of the conquistadores could offer no
armed resistance. Perhaps the most amazing thing about the society of the
ricos in New Mexico was that it failed to contribute any lasting monument. It
left no art, no music, no great highways, no adequate governmental system.

But many elements of Spanish culture were to persist, and these arose from
the collective consciousness of the people of New Mexico. Around the great
haciendas were small villages with their artisans and workers. It was among
these people that the heritage of Spain clung to this land. Many of 11
these towns yet remain and are not much different from those of two
hundred years ago. To a large degree, their Spanish culture seems hidden and
undiscovered, but the people, their loves and hates, pleasures and hopes,
beliefs and fears, are governed by tradition, a tradition that finds its roots
deep in the soil of Spain.

Old mission church at Isleta Pueblo

Today, when we look at the cultural scene in New Mexico, we can see direct
evidence of Spanish occupation. The language of half the people in the state
is Spanish, in some areas still the Spanish of the sixteenth century. Roman
Catholicism, of which the Spanish were the most Catholic, dominates the
religious scene. The Spanish heritage in political attitudes, in building and
architecture, and in the legal tradition of the state is apparent. New Mexico,
of all the states in the United States, is the only one that can claim a truly
Spanish heritage.

ANGLO-AMERICAN VIGOR

While Spain lost its empire and New Mexico and the Southwest sank into
poverty and decay, yet another force was on the march, a force that welled
up in an Anglo-American people clinging to the Atlantic Coast of North
America. As these people developed a nation, they also discovered a sense of

destiny which turned their faces to the west and their footsteps toward the
sunset. With them moved their culture. At first, it was a trickle, a few traders
bent on profit, crossing the plains on the Santa Fe Trail. Then the trickle
became a flood. For New Mexico, these men came as saviors. The Missouri
traders broke the Chihuahua monopoly and goods from all parts of the 12
world began to flow into New Mexico, resulting in higher standards of
living. These Yankee traders, sensing a good thing, also penetrated the
markets of Mexico, using New Mexico’s Royal Road to gain entrance.

Again there was conflict, not Spanish and Indian, but Latin and Anglo-
American. Mexico owned the lands of the Southwest and intended to keep
them. But this American, with his gaze glued on western skies, refused to
turn aside, and he strode on, grinding the feeble efforts of Mexican
resistance into the desert sands. The Mexican War in 1846, suddenly
transferred ownership of Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and
California from Mexico to the United States. This was nearly half the
territory of Mexico. New Mexico, with her already complex cultural pattern,
was subjected to still another influence.

The history of the American occupation of the Southwest is as complex and
diverse as its predecessors. Its ingredients include cattle, mining, railroads,
agriculture, science, and the Indian. All these, and others, combined to give
an Anglo-American slant to the Southwest. The Indian culture did not
disappear, nor did the Spanish, but rather a new stratum was cast that was to
complete the mosaic.

When the American arrived in New Mexico, he found a poor, backward area,
hungry for trade and outside contacts. He found the Indians of the Southwest
in open rebellion against the white men. The Navajo and other Apache
groups, the Comanche, and some of the Pueblos were the primary offenders.
This was to be the main problem occupying the time and energy of the
American settler and soldier for forty years after 1846. Until the Indian
situation was stabilized, there would be little economic and social
development.

The method evolved for containing the vicious raids against friendly Indian,
Spanish, and American communities was a series of forts placed at strategic
passes or trails surrounding the traditional lands of the Apache. The Indian

strongholds were located primarily in the mountainous regions of
southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. The line of forts
stretched along the Rio Grande south of Socorro to the vicinity of Las
Cruces, and west along the southern edge of the mountain escarpment into
Arizona. Then the defense complex ran north across the desert to an
irregular line running east from Flagstaff through Gallup and back to the Rio
Grande. These forts were well garrisoned and provisioned and began to carry
the fight to the Indian. Early success was halted by the conflict generated by
the American Civil War.

The center of the Civil War in the west was in New Mexico. There was
conflict, argument, and some small degree of fighting in other western states
and territories as settlers from the north or south struggled to carry this
territory or that state into the Union or the Confederacy. These were,
however, local matters and as much political as military. In New Mexico,
there was a war and there were battles, battles which deserve to be a part of
the general Civil War story but that are usually forgotten in the smoke and
roar of eastern cannon.

Two major battles were fought in New Mexico, the first a Confederate 13
victory, the second a Union victory which saved New Mexico, and the
west, for the Union. The aim of the Confederate forces was to capture, intact
if possible, the forts in New Mexico and Arizona with their great store of
military provisions, provisions badly needed by the Confederate army. Also,
there was a feeling among southern leaders that success in New Mexico
might also lead to success in California, badly split on the question of
secession, and in Colorado, rich in silver and gold. An army recruited in
Texas and commanded by General Henry Sibley was sent to accomplish
Confederate aims.

This army entered New Mexico along the traditional route, moving up the
Rio Grande from El Paso. It quickly subdued the forts and Union troops in
southern New Mexico and continued up-river. On February 21, 1862, it met
a Union army commanded by Colonel E. R. S. Canby at Valverde, a small
community about twenty miles south of Socorro, New Mexico. Kit Carson,
New Mexico’s famous trapper and scout, commanded the New Mexico
Volunteers, a part of the Union force. Canby’s troops were beaten and
dispersed at the Battle of Val Verde, leaving the upper Rio Grande Valley

virtually without defense. Within a few weeks, the Texans had taken
Albuquerque and Santa Fe. But one stronghold in New Mexico remained in
the hands of the Union forces. Fort Union, northeast of Las Vegas, New
Mexico, became the focal point of action by both north and south. Sibley,
marching from Santa Fe, knew success depended on the fall of Fort Union.
The Union forces, equally aware of the importance of the fort, hurriedly
reinforced it with a number of volunteers from Colorado.

Within Fort Union, a crisis developed over differing opinions on strategy.
The fort commander wanted to keep the garrison at full strength and fight
the Confederates from within the fort. The Colorado Volunteers wanted to go
out and meet the enemy. The latter won and a Union force moved into the
passes of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains to meet the Confederates in a
fateful battle that would decide control of the west. It was fought at Glorieta
Pass on March 28, 1862. Despite the fact that the two armies met on this
field, the contest was not decided there. Early on the morning of March 28, a
force of 400 Colorado Volunteers, commanded by Colonel John M.
Chivington, began a flanking action in hopes of hitting the Confederate rear.
This group moved out of the Pass into the mountains, and by a very difficult
route moved back toward the Pass behind the Confederate force. On a ridge
overlooking Apache Canyon, they saw below them the entire Confederate
supply train and cavalry horse herd. In a lightning hit-and-run attack, the
supply train and horses were destroyed. When word of this reached Sibley at
Glorieta Pass, there was little for him to do but to retire from the field. The
Confederate force never recovered from this disaster and gradually retreated
to Santa Fe, then back down the Rio Grande into Texas.

With the end of the Civil War, New Mexico and the Southwest returned, not
to peace, but to war, war against the Apache. It took twenty years for the
American with all his modern weapons and tactics to bring the Apache 14
under control. For the Apache, it ended on September 3, 1886, when
Geronimo and his few ragged followers surrendered to General Miles in
Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. Under the weight of steel and increasing numbers
of white men, the Apache was doomed. Though civilization would swallow
the Apache, as it has always succeeded against the barbarian, the Apache
made a spectacular defense of his lands and his way of life against both
Spaniard and American. He made himself master of the desert, and only the
gods of science succeeded in overcoming him and his desert gods.

INDUSTRIAL BOOM

With the Indian situation settled, New Mexico underwent a boom in two
important areas, mining and cattle raising. These industries, so much a part
of the history of the American West, did and still play an important role in
the well-being of the Southwest. Mining camps sprang up along the
mountain fringes as new discoveries of silver and gold came to light. Around
Socorro and Magdalena, in the Mogollon Mountains, at Hillsboro and
Kingston in the Black Range, and hundreds of other places in New Mexico
and the Southwest, men hungry for quick wealth swarmed over the hills and
mountains and built their roaring camps. While miners were tapping the
subsurface wealth, cattlemen were staking out their claims to the grasslands,
both on the eastern plains and in the high mountain meadows. Cattle empires
grew to staggering proportions, sometimes erupting into violent conflict over
grazing and water rights, such as the Lincoln County War made famous by
the participation of Billy the Kid.

Feature of the Old West

The character of the Southwest still bears the stamp of the miner and 15
the cattleman. Although the cattle and grazing industry has declined, as

has the traditional mining camp, the past importance of these activities has
had a tremendous impact upon the character of Southwest folklore, law, and
music and on the thought of the people.

Other influences affected New Mexico as a result of the American
occupation, things inherent in the American culture. Ribbons of steel across
a continent, buildings of steel and stone, business and commerce,
technology, common law, the English language, the Protestant religion, and,
above all, the American-brought driving desire to dominate, to win.
Certainly the American had to adapt his culture to the desert lands, but he
did it in his own way, not in the way of the Indian or Spaniard. So Anglo-
American culture became superimposed upon a Spanish culture that was
superimposed upon an Indian culture.

Disinherited, that is the word that best describes contemporary New Mexico
culture. A stronger race came and took away the inheritance of the Indian,
though there did result a blood mixture. Only in superficial matters did the
Spanish adopt any of the Indian ways. The Spanish, too, succumbed to a
stronger people and have been denied the privilege commonly accorded to
conquered peoples, that of mixing their blood with that of the conquerors.
One finds today in New Mexico three distinct people—Indian, Spanish, and
Anglo-American—as sharply contrasted as the strands in a Navajo blanket.
There is pure red alongside white, and only rarely do the colors blend into
pinks or grays. This is why we must say that New Mexico is a mosaic, not a
synthesis, of many elements, clearly defined.

Across the span of time, great men, people, and ideas have molded New
Mexico and Southwest history. Indian, Spanish, American—vital forces that
are today working toward a genuinely unique culture in New Mexico. The
modern world may well give to the Southwest the idea or catalyst that will
blend these elements into a single force. Science, techniques, ideas are things
of the present and are for the present to assess and synthesize. The Indian
gods of air, earth, and sky and the white man’s gods of morality and science
do not differ a great deal in their aspirations for their chosen people, and
perhaps they will decree a splendid and unique synthesis from the cultural
mosaic. Through understanding comes knowledge; from knowledge,
creation.

16

The Exotic Plants of New Mexico
by Ross Calvin

The problem of discussing plant life becomes complicated, for some of those
arriving in New Mexico may be compound microscope botanists, some
collectors, others pathologists, still others geneticists. Some will be chemists
or mathematicians, some others untrained in the ways of growing things and
mainly interested in seeing while they tour. But one thing is fairly certain—
most visitors will come from a distance, so it may be useful to invite them to
observe what they can readily see on the way hither, which will be a
relatively painless method of amassing some information.

Yet the method of arrival itself suggests choices, options, and exercises in
probability. Do visitors come in covered wagons, or in jet planes; by bus,
car, train, or some other way? The most convenient way, doubtless, is by
plane traveling six hundred miles an hour at a height of some thirty thousand
feet; but the most rewarding way is by saddle or on foot as the early
collectors came.

Since one cannot know his own country well if he knows no other, a visitor
from the east arriving at an altitude of five miles will probably be more
conscious than others of drastic changes in the landscape when he first looks
down on New Mexico. Instead of the universal green of the east, he will note
the earth as an unaccustomed tawny, reddish brown expanse, and this will be
its common color through most months of the year. He will note the absence
of rivers, but the presence of mountains which generally ring the horizon. He
will wonder, after traversing the border counties at the western edge of the
Great Plains, at the infrequency of plowlands, and will promptly conclude
that New Mexico is one vast, bare desert—an impression that will be
corrected rapidly when he visits the dark National Forests where the slim,
crowded spruces and firs tower skyward.

The visitor from El Paso, as the Chihuahua desert (the name is fairly
deserved) slides backward underneath him, will be amazed at the serpentine
stripe of vivid verdure below, all completely leveled, and all marked off by
geometrical lines and tightly bordered by pale hills where the vegetation is
reduced to tiny dots not tall enough to cast a shadow. Still proceeding north,
he will presently be above a ninety-mile stretch where the vegetation is so
skimpy and the river so closely boxed in by desolate hills that Spanish
explorers bestowed on it the sinister name Jornada del Muerto—Dead
Man’s Journey, which is self-explanatory.

But on the other hand, a visitor descending into New Mexico from the
northland in wintertime above this same Rio Grande will traverse a
featureless jumble of peaks on which the black coniferous forest no longer
shows as black at all but, snow-encased, gleams as white as the naked 17
snowfields themselves. And he will find incredible the immense range
of climate spanned in a flight only an hour long.

The jet traveler approaching from the west beholds the greatest, most
spectacular panorama of all, the true wasteland of the desert, with vast
blocks uplifted from out of earth’s crust, plateaus dissected by giant empty
canyons whose walls are seared to utter nudity by ages of the most intense
sunshine on our continent. Here the architecture of nature is all designed on
a gigantic scale, and the climate exhibits influences of a mighty ocean, of
towering mountain chains, and the range of wandering planetary winds
which created the desert. From the altitude of a cruising jet, the distances,
the speed, the color, and the light are indescribably exhilarating.

Since the traveler arriving from any direction can see for identification only
a few species, it will suffice to point out only two of the harbingers of
eastern New Mexico, both of which are dominant on that area of the Great
Plains: the blue grama grass, which in fall and winter bears the graceful
sickle-shaped head, and the small Yucca glauca which cannot be mistaken
for anything else.

Along the northern line, the visitor should look for the somber, almost black,
forest of spruce and fir with its white patches of aspen on the 10,000-foot
slopes. Descending farther southward, even a casual observer will note that
these species give way first to the yellow pines, then to the junipers

(“cedars”) and dwarf pines or piñons. The visitor arriving from the south
will find most conspicuous of all the olive-green creosote bush in its
summer-winter foliage, next, the omnipresent mesquite (Prosopis), then the
various Opuntia cacti (chollas and prickly pears), and the yuccas.

As he comes in from Arizona, the splendid saguaros will beckon him toward
the gateway of New Mexico, but they will nowhere enter it themselves. The
vase-shaped body of the ocotillo consisting of unbranching, ten-foot wands
should be recognized at a glance, as likewise should the various yuccas and
agaves. And in early springtime, a low tree with a rounded mass of golden
bloom will joyously proclaim its identity as a paloverde.

The desert plants thus enumerated can be recognized along various stretches
of U.S. 66 as one holds his speed at a conservative ninety or, even better, at a
conservative sixty.

The amateur scientist will need to do some homework before he learns much
systematic botany or plant physiology. It takes considerable study to
comprehend the slow, age-long process which has resulted in the evolution
of all this grotesque vegetation: the interaction of extreme aridity, high
temperature, low humidity, high evaporation, infrequent precipitation, the
hostility of numerous chemical solutions, and the natural rapacity of the
animal population. Each plant must have an adaptation of its own, from the
tiny winter annual, which must race through its course from a tender rosette
to ripened seed before the searing sunshine arrives, on up through the series
to the stoic saguaro, which seems able to scorn nature’s enmity.

A final warning to the air traveler. He should be sure before deplaning 18
that he has observed a bajada. It is a must. Bajada is one name,
outwash slope is another, alluvial fan is still another. The stewardess should
inquire of each student, and if his answer is “no,” she should reply, “Then
you’ve just flunked the course.” A bajada is the most characteristic single
feature of all in the sloping, stony topography of the desert—and remember
that the surface of the desert is regularly sloping and stony. The Spanish
word itself means only a down slope, but it has come to have a semitechnical
sense—a fan-shaped apron of rocky debris at the foot of a mountain where it
has settled out of the summer torrents and there keeps accumulating in
successive floods. As the mass builds up, the bigger fragments drop out

closest to the parent crag, then the small ones, finally the coarse gravel, and
lowest of all on the slope the fine sand. Thus the fragments are graduated in
size, in distance traveled, and in the nature of soil resulting. As the fan
increases in size and laps up higher and higher on the mountain’s flank, the
geologists often describe the result by saying that the mountain “is burying
itself under its own debris.” From the air, the lines of drainage will be seen
to have assumed the form of a tree with its trunk downward, its branches
high in air. But the most interesting aspect of a bajada is the nice proportion
which nature works out between the plant species and their location on the
curve.

FROM SAGEBRUSH TO SPRUCE TREES

The traveler who has viewed the Southwestern panorama of nature from its
sagebrush to its spruce trees has indeed seen most of it. The spruce which
grows wild only well up on the higher mountains is familiar to everybody
because it has become a favorite in formal planting everywhere. But the
sages—who knows them? To the tenderfoot, almost any gray plant is “sage.”
To my friends the cowmen, sage means commonly saltbush. To my friends
the foresters, sage means an artemisia. But there are romantics to whom
“purple sage” is Apache plume, which is a member of the wild rose family.

Some popular education would seem to be desirable. And this applies, too, to
the cacti, for there is more misinformation about them than anything else
that grows, runs, or creeps—except rattlesnakes. The clever people who
design travel folders and pictorial maps almost always put saguaros in New
Mexico. But saguaros do not grow in New Mexico. That is final! And the
yucca is not a cactus. That also is final. Nor yet the ocotillo—that defiant,
splendid denizen of the desert which flaunts the scarlet torch of flowers. The
question that is always on the surface as one writes of plant life in the
Southwest is, “Who wants to know?” The picnicker wants to know the
names—and nothing much besides—of the wild flowers. My friend the
cowman already has the names; that is, the common ones. If I chance to
mention blue grama grass, he gently corrects me, “black grama.” Then if I
mention black grama, he says, “no, white grama.” But at least he is
concerned about something more important than nonscientific names. He

wants to know if the plant is something that a lean old cow can eat, 19
whether it stays green in winter, and if it will hold the soil in place. The
tourist who pilots car and passengers some six hundred miles between
breakfast and bedtime asks only what he was looking at. The rest of us who
go into the mountains often enough to be impressed by the layer-cake
succession of plants on their slopes can, with the aid of some reading, amass
a store of knowledge where others amass only mileage. On a tour, it is
mileage or knowledge. One has to choose.

Actually, our New Mexico desert is not dominated by sage. That honor is
held by the creosote bush, called by some of the old-timers greasewood,
Covillea glutinosa, by some of the scientists—along with five other
synonyms. Like the mesquite with which it shares the same general habitat
but does not intermix, it occupies an immense spread of territory, roughly
from Texas to California. Since no livestock will eat it and the ground it
occupies is equally useless for agriculture because of aridity and stoniness,
creosote is a veritable coyote for survival. The traveler descending from Taos
to Santa Fe need not look for it. The sage of that locality, which gives the
landscape its singularly mournful aspect, is a true sage. With good reason the
cowboys call it black sage.

In 1846, Lieutenant Emory, as he rode southward with the Army of the West,
first encountered the creosote as he approached Socorro. The northward
extension of the plant is at the same point today, and the range of mesquite
extends only a few miles farther north. These two remarkable plants are the
main markers of the Lower Sonoran Zone. In the same arid, stony, broken
country, the traveler will find an abundance of cacti, and these plants are
usually supposed to be the most tenacious of all tenacious growing things.
Actually, in southwestern Arizona and neighboring parts of California there
are whole areas where the aridity is too severe for cacti, but for our state—
let it stand. Everybody, of course, has noted the grotesque shape of the
plants, but not everybody has noted that the shape was chosen with a canny
intelligence. A globe exposes less surface (that is, the vulnerable area for
evaporation) than any other solid of equal volume. And a cylinder is second
best. Another thing—cacti being succulents are filled with a watery sap or
juice which quickly coagulates after a wound and stops the waste of
moisture. Furthermore, the plant’s aggressive root system is arranged so as

to capture the grounds scanty moisture most quickly and completely after
rains.

Cacti of more than sixty species occur within our state, but more than nine
tenths of the plants seen along the highway—unless they are brought
together for a garden collection—can be grouped into one genus, the
Opuntia. The family likeness is shown not by the shape or general
appearance but by the fact that all are jointed. Both the cane cactus (also
called cholla and elkhorn) and the pancaked prickly pear, unlike the big
barrel cactus and the numerous small species which resemble it in shape,
have joints and may therefore be rightly called opuntias. The “pancakes,” it
may be remarked, are not leaves but divisions of the stem. A cactus gets
along without leaves. So a good rough-and-ready test is this: if it has 20
leaves, it is not a cactus—which eliminates ocotillo, yucca, agave,
sotol, and so on.

The barrel cactus is sure to be seen growing beside service stations in the
southern part of the state. Its name as well as its size identifies it. The
flowers and the large lemon-shaped fruits are worth a glance. If they do not
occur on the south side of the plant, it has been transplanted and turned. The
evidence is as trustworthy as the presence of moss on the north side of a tree
in the forest.

The barrel cacti, the opuntias, acacias, the ocotillos, along with the creosote
and mesquite already mentioned, have a way of growing along together in
what is called a plant society. These all belong in the bottom layer of the
cake called the Lower Sonoran Zone, which is best seen on the Rio Grande
mesas near El Paso.

The layer next above it comprises the foothill country of the Upper Sonoran
Zone, which includes most of the state of New Mexico. Some of its common
markers are juniper, piñon, oak of various species including live oak,
mountain mahogany, mescal, yucca, beargrass, and the famous blue grama
grass. It is exhibited all along the Continental Divide in the southwest part of
the state but nowhere so well as in the Fort Bayard Reservation. There a
tract, protected for three generations from woodcutting, fires, and intensive
grazing, offers a large-scale picture of the lovely land that once was New
Mexico. There the character and amount of vegetation astounds the visitor

who is familiar with only the close-picked, parched aspect of the landscape
that generally borders the main highways. When seen from the air, the very
color of the grass-mantled earth is many shades lighter than that of the bare
overgrazed ranges a few miles to the south. And the difference can be seen
by anybody.

The foothills are dotted, not covered, with juniper and piñon. The dwarfed,
rounded little junipers (properly enough called cedars) leave the traveler
unprepared to believe that they will anywhere become respectable forest
trees. Yet in the Burro Mountains, the alligator-bark species, finest of them
all, reaches a diameter of five feet and an age of about 1000 years. The wood
has an extraordinary fragrance, and its smoke tells the neighbors for blocks
around that you are warming yourself at the fireplace. Another notable thing
about the wood is its resistance to decay in the earth. I have removed pieces
of it from subterranean ruins of the Mimbres culture which, according to the
best archaeological opinion, are some eight hundred years old.

The yuccas deserve a story by themselves. One small, unimpressive species
greets you on the meadows at the foot of Raton Pass; others have to be
searched out along high limestone ridges where the foothills are deciding to
become mountains. The one chosen for our state flower is the tall yucca
(Yucca elata), a superb species best seen along the Continental Divide near
Silver City. The genus reaches its greatest size in the grotesque Joshua tree,
which never fails to attract the eye on the Mohave desert in California.

The century plant has a name that always gets attention. But let us be 21
sure we mean the same thing. Rightly, it means the mescal, the favorite
food of the Mescalero Apaches. Besides these two names, it is called also
maguey and, no doubt, Spanish dagger along with various other spine-tipped
plants. All of which clinches the argument for a name which for all users is a
certain designation for one object and only one. It is not just because
botanists like to appear learned that they call this plant Agave parryi. That
title is as descriptive as middle C for one key on the piano, and in the same
way international.

Yucca plants

Everyone inquires about the century plant’s life expectancy. An insurance
man might make an inference from the name. The plant is a big compact
cluster or rosette of rigid, upward-pointing, spadelike leaves, each four or
five inches in width and each tipped with a vicious, stout thorn. Year after
year the plant just sits there by a boulder, unnoticed. I question whether
anything alive on the desert has a better life expectancy. As far as my
observations go, it has no diseases. It is invincible to drouth. Freezing does
not harm it, and fire cannot burn it—although a yucca even when green will
flame up like a torch. No hungry old cow can crop it, and no rodent gnaws it,

at least not enough to do harm. And since the Indians have gone on
reservations, no human uses it. So it stays there.

In fact, nothing less than a caterpillar can leave a dent on it—not, of course,
the caterpillar that eats young tomato plants, but the Caterpillar that pulls
heavy road machinery. The plant just does not die before maturity, it would
seem. A remarkable organism, indeed! But after many, many years,
depending on the amount of moisture it receives, it makes up its mind to
flower. In one tremendous effort, it shoots up a twelve-foot flower stalk at
the rate of several inches a day. The blossoming is a final, dramatic,
beautiful gesture, for by the time the flowers have withered, the great
tenacious plant has turned to a ghastly purple and is dead.

On the high slopes where the last yuccas end and only a few junipers remain
in the race for survival, the yellow pines come in to mark off what is called
the Transition Zone. The pines need no description, no printed promotion.
The traveler, any traveler, can appreciate them although he might not be
stirred to the slightest interest by the lovely yuccas. Since the beginning of
time, the pines, fragrant, cheerful, companionable, have been man’s best
friend. Among the ponderosa pines takes place most of the hunting, most of
the camping, much of the picnicking. There is no danger that the 22
tourist will overlook the pine belt and the pines for they are probably
the most numerous tree in New Mexico.

Piñon needles

Above them, the classifications are less clearly defined and ecologists are
less inclined to agree on zonation. The Canadian Zone, if we settle on that
name, occurs only in small areas on the map, and most of them north of
Santa Fe. These are high ridges and island peaks that tower high enough to
tempt the Engelmann spruces. Yet some of these islands occur as far south as
the Mogollon Mountains and thus bring Canadian Zone scenes almost to the
Mexican border. For hardy ecologists who want to explore high ridges and
horns of bare stone which rise as clean as a hound’s tooth clear up into the
Arctic-alpine Zone, it is necessary to enter Colorado.

Engelmann spruce forests may be associated with the 10,000-foot level. The
blue spruce is very similar, perhaps only a subspecies, but it comes in a little
lower. The Engelmann makes a dense forest hardly allowing invaders, but
the blue is more tolerant, less austere. It loves the water and is the natural
companion of chill, cascading trout streams. Though fond of shadow, it
seems to grow equally well where the narrow canyons widen and admit the

sunshine upon the tiny meadows of lush grass, cranesbill, velvety red
cinquefoils, lupines, and yellow columbines. And when one of these
miniature openings is fringed with spruces whose pointed tips rise sharp
against a curtain of azure with its white cumulus clouds, there you have the
loveliest vista in the mountains.

OUR VISIBLE IMPACT ON THE PLANT LIFE

Though nature lovers usually find the life zones more fascinating than any
other aspect of plants in the mountains, there is one other much more
important. It is the misuse, injury, and destruction of native plant life.
Because scientists are generally alert to the conservation of what is useful
and beautiful in natural resources, I venture to bring up the matter here. 23

A useful case history is provided by Silver City, New Mexico. It was
founded in the early seventies as a silver camp, which would fairly guarantee
a certain amount of reckless haste and rowdy carelessness. Point two was its
location on a foothill watershed only twenty-seven square miles in area.
Point three was an extreme concentration of livestock near the town. Point
four was the fact that the annual rainfall was crowded mainly into July,
August, and a part of September.

Mines are naturally users of timber. Obviously, shafts and tunnels have to be
timbered. More than that, little smelters nestled back among the hills were
also hungry for wood. And since coal was expensive and hard to get, most of
the adobe cottages were heated many years by juniper, oak, and piñon
firewood. All these matters were naturally, if not actually, inevitable under
the circumstances.

The massive ore wagons and freight wagons had to be drawn by four- to ten-
horse teams—and the horses kept on eating. Then because it was also a
ranching country, each cowboy had to keep a remuda of saddle horses—and
they ate too. Also, the few cows that provided milk for the children grazed
hungrily over the stony slopes. Most of all, the range cattle, which had no
provender at all except that which the competitive, half-starved steers could
provide for themselves, overgrazed every square foot of pasturage down to

the bare soil. The government’s open-range policy made overgrazing
inevitable because no ranchman could protect his pasturage since it was all
unfenced. The cow that got there first got the grass. That passed as land
management, which proves that some statesmen then were about as wise as
some of the Wizards of Washington now. But the advent of fences caused the
cutting of millions of fence posts where none should have been cut.

Elk

When the grass went, its roots went, and when its roots went, there was
nothing to hold the soil, and then it, too, started to go. And go it did. A 24
deep hole formed in Main Street, as it is still called on the Silver City
town plat. The best explanation I can find of that hole is that earth was taken
out of it to form adobe bricks for the walls of houses and corrals (that clay
did make good adobe!). Meanwhile, the woodhaulers’ wagons had greedily
carted away the trees from each little canyon, while the narrow steel tires cut
deep ruts which formed two deep gullies at the first heavy rain. Then the
parallel gullies proceeded to wash out deeper and create a middle ridge or
high center on which axles got stuck. Since there was nobody responsible for
making a new road, there was no choice except to move over and form
another track and use it until in turn it became unusable. (By this simple kind
of destruction, the old Santa Fe Trail, it is said, reached a width of a hundred
feet.)

But the water descending the slope kept increasing its destructive velocity as
the denuded ground approached the bareness of a tin roof. Villagers
observed that the hole in their Main Street was becoming a waterfall after
each rain, and that the ruin was passing into a big-time operation. The town
built a dam to restrain the floods. It washed out in the first one. Soon Main
Street followed it down the drain, which by this time was already a hideous
gash in the earth many miles long and twenty feet deep. Then the water
began on a really different scale of destruction. One furious flood washed
away the cabin in which Billy the Kid’s mother lived. More than that, it
washed away the wall of Judge Newcomb’s house and abducted his
Steinway from the second floor. A few yards from the spot, an old
photograph taken in 1891 shows a woodhauler’s ox team lying in the street
there. It gives no hint at that time of the famous Big Ditch—the only name
that Main Street, Silver City has had now for the last forty years.

By 1927, after many other attempts had been made to tame the floods a steel
bridge about one hundred feet long and thirty feet above the floor of the
“canyon” was swung into place. In 1935-1936, the Soil Conservation
Service went to work in earnest, made the watershed a demonstration area,
and spent a third of a million dollars there in a short time.

In the New Mexico Magazine for August 1934, the really incredible story of
the Big Ditch is exactly documented with old photographs and newspaper
clippings. After a friendship of many years with old-time miners and
ranchers at Silver City, I would not point an accusing finger at one of them. I
appeal, however, for a greater vigilance over plant life and soils nowadays
from everybody. In such protected areas as the Fort Bayard Reservation, the
U.S. National Forest enclosures, and the frontier cemeteries, the imagination
can visualize a New Mexico that is far different from what is here today—a
close-picked, hard-used land where unwise woodcutting has continued
through much of the last three centuries and where the thin ranges have been
required to support in the last century alone perhaps more than one hundred
million cows, sheep, and horses. The magnitude of the cause accounts for
the magnitude of the effect.

A good many years ago, I wrote as the concluding paragraph to Sky
Determines what seemed to some exaggerated praise for my adopted

homeland. There is now less and less cavil from any readers. I believed 25
the words true in 1934, and I stand my ground now.

Perhaps nowhere in the world is the natural setting nobler than in New
Mexico—more beautiful with spacious desert, sky, mountain; more varied
in rich, energizing climate, more dramatic in its human procession, more
mellow with age-old charm. Endowed with sunshine that stimulates, and
winter chill that toughens; with silence and majestic desert color that offer
a spiritual companionship, it has enough. Here, if anywhere is air, earth,
sky fit to constitute a gracious homeland, not alone for those who study
and create, but as well for those who play, for those who sit still to brood
and dream.

Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin

This large ruin in Bandelier National Monument lies along the
banks of El Rito de los Frijoles. Narrow-leaf cottonwoods line the

stream, and shrubs of the Upper Sonoran Zone cover the hillside
slopes.

26

Dwellers in the Hills and Plains
[1]
by Levon Lee

The vast sweep of New Mexico’s 77 million acres, which ranges all the way
from the Alpine tundra of the tallest mountains down to the heat of the lower
Sonoran desert, offers a home and sanctuary for many kinds of wild life.

Some of these animals are considered game animals; others may be pests,
since they prey upon or destroy what mankind regards as its own. The
coyote which takes a sheep from the small herder is wicked indeed in the
eyes of the sheepman. Predatoriness on all living things by other things has
gone on since time began and will continue—mankind being not the least
predator.

A good definition is that composed by the late Judge C. M. Botts who
defined a predator as “a critter that takes another critter that I want.”

New Mexico’s immense topographic and geologic differences make for a
very wide range of habitats preferred by the various species. The elk and
deer, being highly adaptable, may be found from the Alpine tundra of the
higher mountains clear out into the creosote desert. Deer occur in four
separate subspecies: the Rocky Mountain and the desert mule deer, the
western whitetail, and the Sonoran fantail deer, which is also a whitetail.
These animals may be found all the way from the dense coniferous forests of
the north with perpetual gloom and cold to the sun-scorched granite
mountains such as the Florida and the Organ mountains of southern New
Mexico; from great towering granite spires to the folded blocks of limestone
such as comprise the Big Hatchets, the Guadalupe, and the San Andres
mountains.

The javelina, or little wild pig, lives along the watercourses in the south west
part of the state. Its thin spiky hair gives it little or no protection against
cold, and only in the balmier parts of New Mexico does it feel at home.

The desert bighorn sheep, as distinguished from his cousin the Rocky
Mountain bighorn, goes around on a sun-scorched, ocotillo-covered
limestone-rubble slope in the full glare of the sun and lies down to take his
afternoon siesta. The Rocky Mountain bighorn, on the other hand, with his
preference for cooler climates does not shun even the dense spruce timber at
the very top of the Sandia Mountains as the hideout for his afternoon rest.

This adaptability by New Mexico’s species to the tremendous differences in
altitude, rainfall, and temperature makes them all the more valuable as a
resource for the pleasure and enjoyment of everyone.

27

(Photo courtesy of Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
Pack train on a wilderness trail

The most popular big game animals in New Mexico are the mule deer 28
in either of the two subspecies. Every fall, beginning in late October
and extending ordinarily through December, more than 100,000 hunters take
to the woods for their 50-50 chance of bringing home the sought-after mule
deer. A hunter may shoot his mule deer at the Alpine tundra timber line, out
in the blazing heat of the creosote desert, or among the rock crags of some of
the southern desert mountains. He will find his quarry a worthy opponent.
Shy, wild, and with terrific eyesight and hearing, these animals provide a
true challenge.

Elk and antelope, as well as bighorn sheep, are hunted by special licenses
only, since their numbers do not warrant a general open season. These
special licenses are much sought after and are ordinarily made available by
application and a public drawing in the fall. The javelina, confined to our
southwestern counties, is also hunted by special license. It is noteworthy that
although New Mexico had protected them for many years, the javelina did
not increase its numbers. As a matter of fact, the natural losses applied
against any game species are going to be in effect no matter whether hunting
is permitted or not, the hunting being merely subtracted from what would be
lost to nature anyhow.

Our state mammal, the black bear, is found throughout the wooded areas of
the state and occasionally wanders out into the plains or down into the desert
mountains of the south. Bears are hunted avidly in the fall by sportsmen with
dog packs before the regular big game seasons begin, when the use of dogs
is prohibited. They are again hunted during the big game seasons by anyone
bearing the proper license, but no packs of dogs are allowed. This is to
prohibit the possibility of dogs being used to pursue elk, deer, or wild turkey,
an illegal act in New Mexico.

New Mexico is fortunate in having a tremendous diversity of both upland
game and waterfowl, and big game and small game for her people.
Importantly, the game resources are spread out through every county in the
state.

The state’s richness of bird life is varied and extensive. New Mexico ranks
among the first five in the total number of birds found within its boundaries.
More than 400 species of birds live within the state. These range all the way
from the tiny mites of the bird kingdom, the hummingbirds, weighing less
than an ounce, to the great white whistling swan, weighing up to 25 pounds,
or the Merriam turkey, which may weigh close to 30. Of the six species of
quail found in the United States, New Mexico has four and may possess the
fifth, since the mountain quail of the western coast have been introduced into
this state and still occur on the west slopes of the Sacramento Mountains
near Tularosa. Five species of doves found throughout the state from the
highest coniferous forest down into the scorching heat of the creosote desert
are the Inca dove, ground dove, mourning dove, white-winged dove, and the
bandtail pigeon, all of them close relatives. Of these, only two, the mourning
dove and the white-winged dove, are commonly hunted as game species.

An unexplained and precipitous decline struck the bandtail pigeon 29
about ten or twelve years ago, from which it apparently has never
recovered. Although hunting was undoubtedly part of the pressure exercised
against these birds, it in no way accounted for their sudden and dramatic
decline in numbers. This decline may gradually be reversed, since more and
more of these birds are being seen. It is well known that animals with a high
reproductive capacity can endure much heavier losses to their population
than can those with low or very limited reproduction, such as the bandtail,
which normally lays only a single egg. The mourning dove, on the other
hand, lays two eggs at a time and may raise as many as five or more broods
in one year. Take this one step further with the scaled or Gambel quail,
which may lay up to 12 or 15 eggs, and it can readily be seen that the
population of bandtail pigeons can never endure the losses that the much
more prolific mourning dove and quail can. The same might be said by
comparison of elk and deer. Elk do not bear their first young until their third
year, and then the cow may not bear young but alternate years until her
seventh or eighth year; by that time she has begun to decline in vigor; in her
total life she may not produce more than four or five calves. The mule deer,
on the other hand, start bearing at the age of two, with their first birth
normally single; from then on, twins are usual for the rest of the doe’s life.
Thus, deer have a considerably greater reproductive potential than do elk or
bighorn sheep, which have one young at a time.

The fleet-footed antelope of the open rolling plains is another example of
fairly high reproductive capacity, since they breed earlier than do deer and
normally bear twins. Antelope are confined to the more open country where
their prodigious running ability and marvelous eyesight stand in good stead
in protecting them against their natural enemies.

The wild turkey, classified by law in New Mexico as big game, is found
throughout the mountainous areas of the state, not excepting some of the
desert ranges. New Mexico is one of two states fortunate enough to possess
three of the five forms of the wild turkey known to the United States: the
Merriam turkey, found in the higher elevations of the mountainous areas,
usually the ponderosa forest; the Rio Grande turkey, confined to the
watercourses of the eastern plains; and the fairly rare Mexican turkey, found
in the Animas and Peloncillo mountains of extreme southwestern New
Mexico. In Hildalgo County these mountains are actually largely Mexican in
both flora and fauna. Some of the rarest, most beautiful birds of North
America are also found in this area and nowhere else in the United States
with the exception of southeastern Arizona.

Our most abundant game bird, the mourning dove, is found in every county
of the state and nests from the coniferous forests of the north and the higher
mountains of the south clear out into the plains where there is not a tree in
sight for miles. Doves are extremely adaptable and very prolific. They
provide the finest kind of sport shooting and are avidly sought, particularly
by shotgun enthusiasts of the eastern and southern parts of the state.

Scaled quail are found throughout New Mexico, being absent only in 30
elevations above 7000 feet. Even there, they periodically occur but are
ordinarily driven back by winter snow. Gambel quail are found throughout
the river courses of the Rio Grande Valley, the San Juan Valley, and the
southwestern watercourses. The Mearns’ quail is found in the southern half
of the state in the higher mountain elevations, whereas the bob-white quail
occupies the grassy rolling sandhills of the eastern counties where it is
commonly found together with scaled quail.

Quail hunting is one of the most popular sports in New Mexico and many
thousands of hunters can hardly wait from one season to the next. New

Mexico is in the heart of the scaled quail country and provides some of the
finest shooting to be had anywhere.

Migratory waterfowl, while not considered abundant, are not uncommon in
this state, known more for its aridity than for its rivers and lakes. The two
main fly ways are the Rio Grande Valley and the Pecos Valley, with the
Pecos Valley being somewhat ahead in total numbers.

Ducks commonly found in New Mexico in abundance are teal, both green-
winged and blue-winged as well as the lesser-known cinnamon teal,
mallards, widgeon, pintails, gadwall, scaups, canvasbacks, redheads, and
other species.

In addition, New Mexico plays winter home to many thousands of the lesser
sandhill crane which is confined to the river valleys and open plains of the
eastern part of the state, particularly the southeastern counties. A smaller
population of the greater sandhill crane is found in the Rio Grande Valley
and near Columbus. Flocks of the small Richardson’s goose are found in the
northeastern counties, in particular, and along river courses throughout the
state. The small snow goose is likewise confined mostly to major river
courses. The larger Canada geese are found particularly in the middle Rio
Grande Valley where extensive development has been made by both state
and federal agencies to encourage the use and the presence of bands of
geese.

New Mexico is unique in that it was the first state in many years to be able
to open a hunting season on the lesser sandhill crane. This bird is
comparatively abundant, the total population probably being in excess of
200,000, with the vast majority of these birds wintering in west Texas, New
Mexico, and Mexico. They occasionally cause heavy depredation to grain
crops in the southeastern part of the state, and hunting has been partly
justified on the basis that the large wintering flocks might be broken up and
depredation spread over a larger area for less individual effect. These birds
are tall, wild, and shy. They are hard to hunt, even more so than geese, and
although strenuous efforts have been made, not too many of them are
bagged.

One should not overlook the tremendous opportunity for sport hunting of
unprotected species, such as the various rabbits, the mountain lions and
bobcats, and coyotes.

The wolf is now very rare in New Mexico. Only occasionally do wolves
come out of Mexico into the southwestern counties, usually in Hidalgo,
Luna, and Doña Ana. Wolves are large, effective predators and are
incompatible with the cattle-raising industry. Since they have a 31
fondness for beef, the hand of the cattleman is raised against them.

The mountain lion prefers his natural prey of deer, mule deer being the
principal victims. The bobcat preys on deer and on many of the small wild
animals, rabbits in particular. These predators, when run and hunted with a
pack of dogs, provide a fascinating sport which is growing in popularity.

The use of calls to attract animals to a “victim” has become widespread. The
calls imitate the distressed cry of rabbits and other creatures which to the
predator means a meal close at hand. Everything from mountain lions to red-
tailed hawks have been hunted by this procedure, and it can be very
successful in bagging quarry. This type of hunting has value in that it can be
enjoyed at any time of the year throughout the state and with a minimum of
time and effort.

Hunting is a conservation practice that, wisely administered, results in
wholesome out-of-door recreation and brings many tons of high protein food
of highest quality to the table. Nature nowhere in her economy locks up a
resource and throws away the key—we should be no less wise.

Long gone are the buffalo which once roamed the High Plains of eastern
New Mexico. Exotic animals, imported and stocked along the rugged canyon
of the Canadian River above Conchas Reservoir, are the Barbary sheep with
their magnificent coiled horns. Beavers dam some of the mountain streams,
badgers and skunks can be seen from the highways, and amid the forests are
squirrels and porcupines, while high on rock slopes, the Rocky Mountain
woodchuck and the gray rock cony dash from ledge to ledge. The white-
tailed ptarmigan also haunts these high crags, and lower down the mountain,
bluebirds nest. Hawks, eagles, magpies, jays, ravens, orioles, wrens,

sparrows, warblers, finches, and many other birds of endless variety soar
over canyon, forest, and sand-dune desert.

Most notable of all is the crested roadrunner, the chapparal cock or paisano
of Mexico and the state bird. In between racing with horsemen or
automobiles, the slender roadrunner cocks his head, strikes swiftly and
victoriously, then swallows his victim, which can be a small rattlesnake,
whole.

Snakes there are aplenty. Mostly, they are nonpoisonous, such as the garter
snake, glass snake, puff adder, ring-necked snake, the coachwhip, the
Mexican blacksnake, and the large western bullsnake. The small but very
venomous coral snake is rare, but common among rocks and near streams
are the large western diamondback rattlesnake, the prairie rattlers, and the
less common green or blacktailed rattlesnake. Every sun-warmed rock has
its scampering lizard, and nearby are horned toads, dry-land terrapins,
tortoises, tarantulas, centipedes, vinegarroons, scorpions, and spiders. Of
these latter desert animals, only the black widow spider is poisonous.

Contrast in the influence of environments is shown by the animals that
inhabit the “malpais,” the recent flows of black, rough-surfaced lava,
compared with similar animals found among the white gypsum dunes of
White Sands. Black or darkly colored subspecies of mice, plains wood rats,
kangaroo rats, and rock squirrels live on the black lava, whereas white 32
or pale counterparts of these animals live among the white gypsum
dunes.

Sketch of roadrunner, New Mexico state bird

The dwellers in the hills and plains of New Mexico are as varied as the hills
and plains; they add their color and movement to the scenes of the Land of
Enchantment.

33

Rocks That Shape the Enchanting Landscape
by Frank E. Kottlowski

“As old as the hills.” How much more ancient can anything be? Yet New
Mexico’s hills, its enchanting landscapes, were built in but the most recent
“minute” of geologic time. Merely one geologic era ago, marine waters
covered the state, and storm-tossed waves ruled where now the hot sun beats
down on dry sands and cacti a mile above sea level.

What determined the Land of Enchantment’s landscapes? Shaping these land
forms are the rocks of the earth’s crust, the structure of those rocks, and the
endless battle between the rocks and the atmosphere. A story spelled out in
stone, the geologic history. The rocks determine.

Eons ago, it began; one billion, two billion, or perhaps even more billions of
years ago. A history whose beginnings have been lost owing to destruction
of its earliest records. A history, written in the rocks, that is divided into four
general parts (fig. 1). The oldest rocks, more than 600 m.y. (million years)
old, almost devoid of traces of life, are the Precambrian rocks. The Paleozoic
rocks, 230 to 600 m.y. old, are marked by ancient (paleo-) life. This was the
Period of Invertebrates, animals without backbones. Mesozoic rocks, 70 to
230 m.y. old, formed in the Era of Dinosaurs and contain types of life that
are intermediate (meso-) between the ancient and modern animals. And
rocks of the Cenozoic Era, 70 m.y. ago to the present, make up the latest
(ceno-, recent) chapter of the earth’s history.

Events of the Cenozoic Era have had the greatest influence on New
Mexico’s landscapes. So let us begin the story at the dawn of the Cenozoic,
and return to the earlier geologic chapters later.

CENOZOIC ERA

The mountains, the plains, the rivers, and the lakes all are transitory features
of the landscape, created during the recent part of the Cenozoic Era, and all
doomed to destruction in the near future, geologically speaking. Even so,
some of the plains and mountains may predate man’s evolution onto the
earth scene.

Gone were the late Mesozoic seas; never again during our lifetime nor the
lifetime of many future generations will marine waters roll over New
Mexico, and sea-spawned creatures rule. For the first two thirds of the
Cenozoic, the Paleogene Period (25 to 70 m.y. ago), New Mexico suffered
from the dying effects of the great Laramide upheaval of the earth’s crust.
Large areas were exposed to the harsh erosion of stream and wind. The
landscape looked as parts of southwestern New Mexico do today—tall
rugged mountain ranges scattered in isolated patches amid wide gravelly
plains. But the climate was more humid, and while no large through rivers
are known, local great swamps and lakes lay on the plains in debris-trapping
lowlands.

34

Figure 1. Table of geologic time

Scale of geologic time in
millions of years
Era Rocks Dominant life
Geologic age
70 CENOZOIC
Neogene
Pleistocene Bandelier volcanic ash, basalts, Man
sand dunes, river gravels,
glacial & lake beds.
1 my
Pliocene Volcanic rocks of Mt. Taylor, Mammals
early Valle Grande & Gila
region; Santa Fe, Gila, and
Ogallala Fms.
11 my
Miocene
25 my
Paleogene
Oligocene Datil, Espinaso, and other
volcanic rocks.
40 my
Eocene Baca, Animas, Nacimiento, San
Jose, Raton, Poison Canyon,
Galisteo El Rito, Blanco Basin,
& Cub Mountain Fms.
60 my
Paleocene
160 MESOZOIC
Cretaceous Upper sandstone, shale, & coal. Dinosaurs
Mesaverde, Pierre, & Niobrara,
Dakota Ss. and Mancos Sh.

Volcanic rocks, limestone,
sandstone, and conglomerate.
135 my
Jurassic Morrison Fm., Summerville
Fm., Zuni Ss., Todilto Ls. &
gypsum, Entrada Ss.
180 my
Triassic Wingate Ss., Dockum Fm.,
Chinle Fm., Santa Rosa Ss.,
Moenkopi Fm.
370 PALEOZOIC
Permian Rustler Dolomite; redbeds Amphibians
Castile gypsum, Salado Salt.
Artesia Grp.—Capitan reef
San Andres Ls.—Goat Seep
reef
Glorieta Sandstone
Yeso Fm.—Bone Spring Fm.
Abo Redbeds—Hueco Ls.
280 my
Pennsylvanian Mostly limestone; beds of shale
& sandstone; lenses of gypsum,
salt, and coal.
310 my
Mississippian Helms & Paradise Fms. Fish
Rancheria Ls.
Lake Valley & Escabrosa Lss.
Arroyo Penasco & Tererro Fms.
345 my
Devonian Percha Shale, Ouray Ls.
northern dol., ss, and sh.
erosion
400 my
Silurian Fusselman Dolomite

erosion
425 my
Ordovician Montoya Dolomite Invertebrates
El Paso Limestone
Bliss
500 my
Cambrian Sandstone
erosion
1500+
PRECAMBRIAN quartzite, gneiss, rhyolite, Simple
andesite, granite, pegmatite, primitive
schist, greenstone. forms
35

Figure 2. New Mexico during Paleogene time

Scenery in north-central New Mexico (fig. 2) may have been similar to
today’s, with mountains in the same general areas as the present-day Sangre
de Cristo, Nacimiento, San Juan, and Brazos ranges. Coarse-grained gravels
were stacked up at the edges of the mountains, but out in the adjoining

lowlands, floodplain sands and varicolored lake-bed clays settled. Three low
areas were “basins” of deposition where thick masses of sediments
accumulated—the Raton and Poison Canyon formations in the Raton Basin
near Raton, the Animas, Nacimiento, and San Jose formations in the San
Juan Basin north and northwest of Cuba, seen along N.M. Highway 44, 36
with thinner deposits of the El Rito and Blanco Basin formations to the
northeast of Cuba, and the Galisteo Formation in the Galisteo Basin south
and southwest of Santa Fe. Volcanic rocks, the Espinaso beds, overlie the
Galisteo but are not much younger in age. Reddish rocks of the Galisteo
Formation crop out along U.S. Highway 85 at La Bajada Hill about twenty
miles southwest of Santa Fe. The Sandia Mountains’ area appears to have
been a lowland.

Silicified wood, chiefly of pines but with some oak and poplar, is abundant
in the Galisteo Formation. Large logs, up to 6 feet in diameter and 135 feet
long, have been found. In the great swamps of the Raton Basin, where the
climate was much like that of Georgia today, tall reeds, water lilies, fig trees,
palm trees, magnolias, and sycamores grew in profusion, and contributed to
the thick coal beds now mined there. The early ages of the Cenozoic saw the
spectacular rise of the mammals to dominance over reptiles on land;
numerous remains of the early mammals are found in the Nacimiento and
San Jose formations, including the famous Puerco and Torrejon faunas—as
well as many clams, snails, fish, turtles, crocodiles, snakes, and birds.

Southeastern New Mexico appears to have been relatively level with only
local hills and vast regions of featureless, stagnant but high plains where
erosion slowly ate downward, deposition was slight, and most of the detritus
was carried eastward far beyond the state’s borders. The redbeds of the Baca
Formation were laid down on the north flank of low mountains that extended
intermittently from somewhere near Quemado toward Socorro. Some
ancient hills near present-day Sierra Blanca shed rock fragments that
accumulated near Capitan as the varicolored Cub Mountain Formation.
Deeply eroded uplands northwest of Elephant Butte Reservoir supplied
gravels and sands that mingled with andesitic volcanic debris as the upper
part of the McRae Formation in central Sierra County. Many of the
weathered greenish and purplish volcanic rocks in southwestern New
Mexico were extruded at this time, and beneath the surface these molten
magmas (hot liquefied rocks) cut into older rocks. Vapors and hot solutions

from the magmas are believed to have emplaced some of New Mexico’s vast
ore deposits during this time.

The last phase of the Paleogene Period, about 25 to 40 m.y. ago, was an
earth-shaking time in New Mexico—and the first explosion of an atomic
bomb in 1945 on the Jornada del Muerto between Socorro and Carrizozo
was a relatively low-energy-yield event compared with the late Paleogene
earth movements. Almost the entire southwestern quarter of the state literally
exploded, with volcanic eruptions on a grand scale. These lava flows, rock
breccias, ashes, pumice, and associated intrusives (molten rocks that did not
make it to the surface) form the Datil-Mogollon plateau—at least 100 miles
in diameter—as part of the Datil Formation, which locally is miles thick, and
made up the main mass of many other ranges near the Mexican border.
Sierra Blanca (12,003 feet altitude) northeast of Alamogordo is a huge,
isolated volcanic mass of late Paleogene age.

37

Figure 3. East-west cross section of Rio Grande graben near Santa Fe

This widespread volcanic activity continued into the Neogene Period which
began about 25 m.y. ago. Rhyolites, pumice, and perlite in the southwest, as
well as in other parts of the state, covered wide areas. Mount Taylor,
towering up to 11,389 feet near Grants and visible on the western skyline
from Albuquerque, is a Neogene volcanic pile, as are parts of the Sangre de
Cristo range northeast of Taos. Shiprock and Cabezon Peak, landmarks in
northwestern New Mexico, are volcanic necks—the eroded cores of ancient
volcanoes.

Valle Grande caldera makes up the center of the Jemez Mountains west of
Los Alamos and is a late Neogene volcanic mass with the central crater
sixteen miles in diameter—one of the world’s largest calderas. Bandelier
National Monument headquarters is within a canyon carved from Valle
Grande’s ashes. Volcanic ash scattered over the western parts of Texas,
Oklahoma, and Kansas was blown from this volcano. Capulin Mountain,
east of Raton, is a huge recent cinder cone and is surrounded by numerous
basaltic lava flows that cap the High Plains from Raton eastward to Clayton.
The very fresh black basalt flows near Carrizozo and in the valley of Rio San
Jose near Grants are probably less than 1000 years old. Numerous mesas
along the Rio Grande Valley from the Colorado line to El Paso are capped by
black basalt flows of late Neogene age.

Many of the present-day mountains were uplifted in early Neogene time,
following the climax of the great volcanic eruptions. This uplifting, in many
instances, took place along one side of huge mountain masses, forming tilted
fault blocks like the Sandia, Manzano, San Andres, and Sacramento
mountains. Rock beds in the Sandia Mountains, for example, dip to the east,
but were uplifted along a west-bounding fault zone—a huge break in the
earth’s crust—as much as four miles! This was an earth-shaking event!
However, the uplifting took place slowly, and indeed is continuing today as
the Albuquerque area, along with the Rio Grande Valley southward to
Socorro, is one of the most active earthquake areas in the state.

Concurrent with uplift, other blocks of the earth’s crust sank, forming graben
basins which were flooded with rock debris from the adjoining uplifts. A
tremendous irregular graben, now followed by the Rio Grande, cut north-
south across the state. Geologists label it the Rio Grande structural
depression (fig. 3). Mountains on the east are the Sangre de Cristo, 38
Sandia, Manzano, Los Pinos, Fra Cristobal, and Caballo ranges; those
to the west include the Brazos, Jemez, Ladron, Socorro, Magdalena, and San
Mateo mountains. Within this complex graben, and around the bordering
ranges, the colorful sandstones and siltstones of the Santa Fe Group were
deposited—these red, yellow, orange, and cream rocks are eroded in many
places, such as near Santa Fe, to “badlands” characteristic of the landscapes
along the Rio Grande Valley from Espanola southward to El Paso. Much
brightly tinted silicified wood is found in these beds, and literally freight-car

loads of mammalian remains have been shipped to museums from outcrops
near Espanola.

In the basins amid the mountains of southwestern New Mexico, similar
sands and gravels of the Gila Conglomerate filled low areas. East of the
mountains of central New Mexico that form a north-south chain of ranges
from Raton to Carlsbad, thin gravels of the Ogallala Formation were dumped
onto the western edges of the High Plains. They now cap the plains as well
as make picturesque bluffs east of the Pecos River and southeast of
Tucumcari—the “caprock” of that area. In northwestern New Mexico,
isolated mesas are topped by the Chuska and Bidahochi formations; similar
sands, silts, and clays washed from adjoining highlands.

The final episodes of landscape formation occurred during the Pleistocene
Epoch, the recent glacial period. Mountain valley glaciers occupied some of
the higher parts of the state, as far southward as Sierra Blanca; large lakes
filled many of the closed basins, such as those near Estancia and south of
Lordsburg; the Carrizozo and Grants basalt flows were extruded; the final
tremendous explosions of Valle Grande spread volcanic ash over large
regions; sands, gravels, and clays were eroded and deposited by streams and
in lakes; and sand dunes were heaped up in many areas. The glistening white
gypsum dunes (fig. 4) of White Sands National Monument, built up into 50-
foot-high mounds windward of gypsiferous Lake Lucero, are spectacular
products of the wind.

The Rio Grande, in its present valley, probably is only as old as mid-
Pleistocene, born during late uplift of its headwater mountains, the San Juan
and Sangre de Cristo ranges in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico
—initiated by floods of meltwaters from waning mountain glaciers. Some of
the lower terraces (benches) along the Rio Grande are very young, being
dated by radiocarbon methods at 2600 b.p. (before present). Until shackled
by Elephant Butte Dam in 1916, and smaller dams up and down the valley,
the Rio Grande switched its course with every large springtime flood. Even
with these man-made controls, the Rio carves new channels during floods
and covers flooded fields with silt as the high waters recede.

PRECAMBRIAN ERA

The highest points in New Mexico are in the north-central region. Here,
along the backbone of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, tower Wheeler Peak
(13,160 feet above sea level), northeast of Taos, and South Truchas Peak
(13,102 feet), northeast of Santa Fe. Snow lingers on these lofty spires 39
all year around except during an especially hot August. Highest peaks
—they must be capped by the youngest rocks. But no, the quartzites and
gneisses, hard rocks made up of quartz and feldspar, that hold up these
pinnacles against the attack of water and ice are among the oldest rocks
known in the Southwest—perhaps as much as two billion years old. These
Precambrian rocks lay deep beneath the earth’s surface from early Paleozoic
time (500 m.y. ago?) until early Neogene time, then were uplifted along
great breaks in the earth’s crust, uplifted slowly and intermittently during the
span of time from about 20 m.y. ago to perhaps 1 m.y. ago.

Figure 4. Gypsum dunes of White Sands

How did these ancient rocks form? What did New Mexico look like during
the dawn of geologic history? The record in stone is fragmentary. But about
two billion or so years back, thick masses of quartz sandstone were laid
down in north-central New Mexico, as well as vast lenses of mud, and some
beds of feldspar-rich sandstone. Volcanic activity was intense; huge flows of
rhyolite and andesite were poured out over most of the state, and these in
turn, along with the muddy and sandy sediments, were intruded by enormous
masses of hot granite. Mile-high mountains were formed, and during the
stretch of this early geologic time, called the Precambrian Era, the high
peaks were eroded by rain, wind, and sun until some were worn down to
featureless plains sloping toward the ancient ancestral oceans.

40

Figure 5. Staurolite twin crystals in mica schist

These Precambrian rocks now make up the cores of such mountain ranges as
the Sandias east of Albuquerque, the Sangre de Cristo range near Santa Fe,
the Pedernal Hills south of Clines Corners, the Burro Mountains southwest
of Silver City, the Brazos Range east of Tierra Amarilla, the Zuni Mountains
southwest of Grants, and the San Andres Mountains west of White Sands. As
seen in Tijeras Canyon east of Albuquerque, the bulk of the ancient rocks are
gray to pinkish granite and granite gneiss, speckled by crystals of biotite,
microcline, orthoclase, and quartz. Quartzites (hardened sandstones),
greenstone, and foliated mica schists (fig. 5) are the older rocks that were
intruded by granitic magmas about 1350 million years ago—as indicated by
dating of radioactive isotopes, K-Ar and Rb-Sr. Locally, pegmatite dikes, a
late-cooling, large-crystal stage of the granites, crisscross the granite and
contain excellent crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica, as well as less

common minerals. The famous Harding pegmatite near Dixon, about forty
miles north of Santa Fe, contains beryl, columbite-tantalite, lepidolite mica,
spodumene, and other rare minerals. Some of these crystals are ten feet in
length!

PALEOZOIC ERA

There are some primitive types of plant and animal life known from
Precambrian rocks outside of New Mexico but the earliest beds that contain
abundant fossils are those of Cambrian age, 500 to 600 m.y. old. Cambrian
rocks in New Mexico are in the Bliss Sandstone, a reddish brown iron-rich
bed, 50 to 200 feet thick, that occurs only in the southern part of the state.
There it can be seen, for example, along the bold east-facing escarpment of
the San Andres Mountains or the west-facing cliffs of the Caballo
Mountains, as a dark band resting on the pinkish Precambrian granitic rocks.
It is a shallow-sea sand, deposited on the northeastern edge of the Cambrian
seas. Scattered amid the brown-stained quartz, red hematite, and green
glauconite are broken shells of trilobites and primitive brachiopods.
Northern New Mexico was a low, broad island during Cambrian time, a
source of some of the sands in the Bliss Sandstone.

During the Ordovician Period, 425 to 500 m.y. ago, upper sands of the 41
Bliss as well as overlying limestones and dolomites were deposited in
the shallow warm seas of southern New Mexico; these latter rocks are the El
Paso Limestone and Montoya Dolomite. The Ordovician seas teemed with
invertebrate life. Fifteen-foot-long cephalopods, as much as a foot in
diameter, ruled the shallow salt-water bottoms, munching on the abundant
trilobites and the moss animals, the bryozoans. Numerous brachiopods,
corals, snails, and clams also thrived, with many of the Ordovician
carbonate-rock beds literally being made up of these fossil remains. Near El
Paso, these limy fossiliferous beds are nearly 2000 feet thick, but they thin
northward to a knife edge in thickness near Mockingbird Gap at the north
end of the San Andres Mountains. Parts of northwestern New Mexico may
have been low islands exposed to the sun and erosion during Ordovician
time, but most of the state was probably within an extensive shallow ocean.

Later, erosion removed the Ordovician rocks from central and northern New
Mexico.

Silurian strata, the brown Fusselman Dolomite, deposited during the middle
of that period (400 to 425 m.y. ago), remain only in the southern and
southeastern parts of the state, thinning out northward from the 1000-foot-
thick bed near El Paso. The extent of these middle Silurian seas is not
known, but most of central and northern New Mexico was undergoing
erosion during late Silurian time. The northward thinning of the Fusselman
Dolomite is due chiefly to this erosion, evidenced by the knobby, ridged and
channeled top surface of the Fusselman. Brachiopods and corals are the most
abundant fossils in the Fusselman Dolomite; elsewhere, Silurian rocks are
known for the sea scorpions or eurypterids, which attained a length of nine
feet, and for the complete remains of primitive fishes.

During early and middle Devonian time (345 to 400 m.y. ago), most of New
Mexico was a lowland rotting beneath the sun. Fossiliferous Devonian rocks
are unknown in the north-central part of the state but occur beneath the
surface in the Four Corners region of northwestern New Mexico and the
adjoining states. These rocks are of late Devonian age and consist of lower
dolomite and sandstone, middle shale and dolomite, and the upper Ouray
Limestone.

In southern New Mexico, a uniform blanket of dark limy muds, called the
Percha Shale, was deposited during late Devonian time. This shale marks a
great change from the limestones of earlier ages. In part, it is of black muds
deposited in widespread or in local stagnant basins and in part calcareous
fossiliferous muds in which abundant invertebrate life was buried. The clay
and quartz silt that make up the rocks were a weathered residuum that had
accumulated, during the long period of late Silurian and early and middle
Devonian times, on the lowland of central and northern New Mexico.

Except in the stagnant basins, invertebrate life was prolific, brachiopods,
bryozoans, and corals being especially numerous. Fossil fish remnants,
chiefly teeth, are abundant in some of the sandy units, and outside of New
Mexico the earliest amphibians occur in upper Devonian rocks. The 42
oldest definitely known assemblage of land plants occurs in the
Devonian, and forests containing forty-foot-high trees spread over the

uplands. Such tree ferns, horsetail rushes, and lycopods (spiked-leafed trees)
may have grown in profusion on the swampy lowlands near Albuquerque’s
and Santa Fe’s present sites, far north of the muddy Devonian seas of
southern New Mexico.

Figure 6. Fossil specimens

Brachiopod
Marginifera.

Crinoid
stem fragment.

Crinoid
restoration of a crinoid.

Mississippian rocks (310 to 345 m.y. old) probably were deposited over
most of New Mexico. Subsequent erosion removed much of the
Mississippian beds in northern New Mexico. The remnants, less than 100
feet thick in most places, are of lower sandy and shaly beds overlain by
massive crinoidal limestones, the Arroyo Penasco Formation of the
Nacimiento and Sandia mountains and the Tererro Formation of the Sangre
de Cristo range east of Santa Fe.

In southern New Mexico, the Mississippian beds are thick and widespread,
being more than 1000 feet in thickness in the southwestern panhandle. There
the rock units are the Escabrosa Limestone of the southwest or the Lake
Valley Limestone of the south-central part of the state. These are massive
fossiliferous limestones precipitated in shallow extensive seas abounding
with invertebrate life. Huge gardens of the sea lilies, crinoids, spread over

the area, their remains mingled with those of lacy moss animals, the
bryozoans, and with brachiopods and corals. Locally, as in the region of the
Sacramento and San Andres mountains and Black Range, moundlike fossil
reefs, called bioherms, were built. Some of these bioherms in the
Sacramento Mountains are mounds of fossiliferous limestones 350 feet high
and several thousand feet in diameter. Beds on their flanks dip as much as 35
degrees and are made up of broken “fossil hash” calcite sands. One can stand
at the base of these huge limestone hills and almost hear the ancient waves
breaking against the reef and see the dying struggle of the brachiopod (fig. 6)
that left his shell in the reef-flank sands.

To the south, beginning near the present site of White Sands, dark cherty
limestones were laid down in stagnant waters, to become the Rancheria
Limestone. This black to reddish brown siliceous limestone is more than 300
feet thick near El Paso. There its thin beds break down into slabs that
resemble a jumbled woodpile.

Northern New Mexico was above sea level during late Mississippian 43
time; in some areas caves developed in the porous limestones, and in
other places the limestones were eroded to a residuum of chert and red clay.
The land must have looked like the karst areas of Indiana, Kentucky, and
Illinois today—with lost rivers flowing into sink holes, numerous caves, and
many underground rivers. Only the southernmost part of the state was awash
in the late Mississippian seas, and in these salt waters, rocks of the Helms
and Paradise formations settled. They are typical nearshore beds of
yellowish limy sandstone, green limy shales, and brown sandy oolitic
limestones. Plant fossils occur intermingled with marine animal remains; the
plant fragments were washed into the shallow seas from the land areas of the
central and northern parts of the state.

The Pennsylvanian Period (280 to 310 m.y. ago) was a time of change.
Previously, northern New Mexico had been an emergent lowland or barely
awash in shallow waters, while to the south shallow but extensive seas held
sway, the spawning ground of the vertebrates and invertebrates that evolved
between 310 and 600 m.y. B.C. But mountains were built during the
Pennsylvanian, and the whole pattern of land and sea was altered. The sun
rose on north-south aligned ranges interspersed with north-south-trending
seas (fig. 7). Somewhere north of Albuquerque a mighty range of mountains,

the Uncompahgre Range, arose to shed rock debris into adjoining ocean
basins. To the southeast, a lower but prominent range, the Pedernal
Mountains, stretched from the present-day Pedernal Hills southward to
somewhere near Ruidoso and Piñon. Rocks eroded from this landmass were
dumped westward into the Orogrande basin which occupied the region near
the present-day White Sands; there as much as 3000 feet of beds
accumulated—impure sandstones, dark shales, fragmental limestones, and
even some gypsum during the end phase of Pennsylvanian sedimentation.

Rocks filled the Delaware basin in southeastern New Mexico—limestones,
sandstones, and black shales that now produce oil and gas. In northwestern
New Mexico west of Grants and mostly west of the Zuni Mountains, a low
land area, the Zuni Islands, was the source of eroded residuum released into
an ocean channelway that ran north-northwest through central New Mexico
from El Paso to Farmington. And in the northeast, granite hills of the Sierra
Grande Arch stood above the shallow Pennsylvanian seas.

In the Four Corners region, broken rock from the Uncompahgre Range was
rushed westward into the Pennsylvanian-age Paradox Basin. Amid the clastic
limestones, black shale, gypsum, and salt of this basin are oil-bearing lenses.
Today, oil wells pump this black “gold” from the ancient rocks—wells
almost in the shadow of Shiprock’s famous spire.

The Pennsylvanian Period was a time of coal making on the greatest scale in
the earth’s history. Extensive swamps and marshes, the habitat of peat and
ultimately coal, were almost lacking in New Mexico. Thus, only thin
scattered lenses of coal occur in the Pennsylvanian beds of the state. The
lands of this period were covered by tree ferns, scale trees, horsetail 44
rushes, and primitive conifers. In the shallow seas, the dominant
invertebrates were fusulinids (fig. 8), small-shelled protozoans shaped like
grains of wheat. Abundant cockroaches, large dragonflies, and spiders
swarmed over the land.

Figure 7. New Mexico during Pennsylvanian time

Permian Rocks

The Permian Period (230 to 280 m.y. ago) dawned with renewed rising of
the highlands in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. Floods of red

sand and clay, washed from the rotting hills, wiped out the seas of northern
and central New Mexico, and intertongued southward with marine
limestones. These early Permian rocks are the Hueco Limestone near El
Paso, there 2200 feet thick, the Abo Redbeds near Albuquerque, and 45
the upper Sangre de Cristo Redbeds southeast of Santa Fe. Wherever
the redbeds crop out, their dark reddish brown hue, speckled and striped with
spots and streaks of green, enlivens the drab gray-and-brown landscape.
Some of the reddish coloring is from angular grains of red to orange
feldspar, but most is in thin brilliantly tinted skins of hematite that coat the
sand grains and saturate the clays. In northern and central New Mexico,
amphibians and other primitive vertebrate animals lived amid the red soils
and sands; their bones and imprints have been preserved on thin flat slabs of
sandstone that now decorate sidewalks and patios.

Figure 8. Fossil specimens

Bryozoan
Fenestrellina.

Fusulinid
Fusulina.

Coral
Lophophyllidium.

The early Permian seashore, where limy muds beyond the surf intermingled
with red sandy muds swept from the north, vacillated somewhere north of
Alamogordo with each sea-level change. Amid the breakers, and as
submarine banks in the shallow waters, reefs grew—moundlike masses of

shell debris and calcite mud trapped among frondlike calcareous algae. Near
Tularosa, these algal “bioherms” are sixty feet high and extend within broad
belts half a mile wide. In southeastern New Mexico, these buried “Abo”
reefs have yielded much oil.

By the middle of Permian time, the southern Colorado mountains had been
worn down to low hills that lay north of an extensive sea covering most of
New Mexico. From Santa Fe south to White Sands and southeastward
almost to Carlsbad, very shallow marine waters were alternately stifled by
pale-red sandy muds or evaporated by the sun. The results were alternating
beds of pale-red sandstone, gypsum, and silty dolomitic limestone, called the
Yeso Formation. Locally, as near Carrizozo, thick deposits of rock salt also
were precipitated, and the Yeso there is about 4000 feet thick. At this time,
the Delaware basin of southeastern New Mexico saw the beginning of its
most spectacular events, the building of the Capitan and Goat Seep reefs.
This basin—a huge oval south of Carlsbad and east of Carlsbad Caverns—
had been “deep” sea during most of Pennsylvanian time, but it was a more
distinct geographic feature during the Permian. While the pale-red sands,
gypsum, halite, and dolomitic limestones of the Yeso Formation were 46
laid down to the north and northwest, the Delaware basin was rimmed
by a low, broad bank of fossil-hash calcite sand, now called the Victorio
Peak Limestone. In the basin, in deep stagnant waters, black sandy limestone
and black shale of the Bone Spring Formation were deposited.

A sheet of white quartz sand filled the late Yeso seas; the resulting Glorieta
Sandstone, about 200 feet thick, prominently caps Glorieta Mesa. Its cliffs
are a familiar sight to travelers on the Santa Fe Railway at Glorieta Pass. The
Coconino Sandstone in the Grand Canyon area of Arizona is the western part
of the Glorieta. This “clean” sand—lacking intermixed mud—marks the
continued lowering of the southern Colorado uplands. Broad seas then
spread over all but northern New Mexico and a thick (600 to 1000 feet)
persistent marine unit, the San Andres Limestone, was laid down. Much oil
is produced in southeastern New Mexico from this dark-gray unit of
limestones and dolomites. The rich agricultural region stretching from
Roswell to Artesia depends on underground water gained from the San
Andres Limestone, water that falls as rain and snow on the Sacramento
Mountains, seeps underground into the cracks and caverns within the San
Andres, and flows eastward downslope to the Pecos Valley.

The delicate balance between land and sea swung upward at the end of San
Andres time as these late Permian seas retreated to southern New Mexico.
The deep Delaware basin was the only persistent marine body of water. It
was rimmed by magnificent towering barrier reefs, the Goat Seep and
Capitan reefs that now are host to Carlsbad Caverns. These reefs were
similar to the present-day Great Barrier Reef of Australia, except that the
Capitan and Goat Seep reefs surrounded an inland sea whereas the
Australian reef borders a continent. The Capitan reef is about 400 miles
long, and other than oceanward channels cut through to the south,
completely encircled the 10,000-square-mile Delaware basin. At its heyday,
the Capitan reef was barely awash, and teeming with life, in contrast to the
silent, stagnant deeps of the Delaware basin which were about 2000 feet
below sea level only a few miles away from the barrier reef. On the steep
slope into the basin, huge slump blocks of fossiliferous reef limestone slid,
mingling with fossil-hash sand. These “flank” beds dip steeply from the
massive reef core to interfinger with the black sandy limestones of the basin.

The Delaware basin was a marine feature throughout Late Paleozoic time; its
northwestern border is now marked by the southeast-trending front of the
Guadalupe Mountains southeast of Carlsbad; its north edge was east-
northeast of Carlsbad, and it extended southward into West Texas.

Shallow “shelf” seas reached irregularly and intermittently northward and
northwestward from the Capitan reef and mingled with low islands
throughout all but southeastern New Mexico. Landward, away from the
Delaware basin, the rocks change from massive, thick, light-gray limestones
of the reefs into thin units of thin-bedded dolomite, then abruptly into
alternating beds of gypsum and redbeds, the Artesia Group of rocks, and
finally, marking the distant shorelines, into thin units of red mudstone and
red sandstone, the Bernal Formation. Evaporation of sea water was 47
excessive, and average temperatures high; the climate varied from
semiarid in northwestern New Mexico to subtropical in the Delaware basin
area—a contrast and a similarity to today’s climate.

Figure 9. Castile gypsum sample

Latest Permian time saw the dramatic end of the Paleozoic Era. Most of New
Mexico was uplifted above sea level, with only the Delaware basin
remaining as a land-locked sea, much like the Caspian Sea today, but with
channels open periodically southward to the ocean. The rocks of this waning
part of the Permian are called the Ochoan Series; they show an abrupt and
striking change from the underlying Carlsbad reef limestones and associated
black basin-filling limestones up into the laminated gypsum-anhydrite of the
basal Ochoan rocks, the Castile formation. Normal marine conditions ended
almost instantaneously. Excess of evaporation lowered the water level of the
inland sea; the accumulated brine (concentrated salty sea water) killed the
life on and near the Capitan reef, and thick beds of anhydrite were
precipitated. The lowest beds of the Ochoan Series, the Castile Anhydrite,
and the overlying Salado Salt, mostly filled the deep depression that was the
Delaware basin; the upper beds, the Rustler Dolomite and Dewey Lake

Redbeds, lap over the edges of the basin and in places rest irregularly upon
the Capitan limestone.

These are unusual rocks. The Castile (about 1800 feet thick) is thinly
banded, with thicker bands (laminae, thin layers) of light-gray gypsum-
anhydrite alternating with thin laminae of dark-brown calcite (fig. 9). This
lamination is believed due to annual changes, the brown calcite being
precipitated during the summer and the gray anhydrite during the winter. On
the surface, the calcium sulfate mineral is gypsum, but at depths of 48
about 600 feet, these laminae are anhydrite. Addition of water to
anhydrite has changed it to gypsum wherever ground water penetrated the
laminae.

The Salado Salt, about 2000 feet thick, is almost entirely of rock salt (halite),
with important interbeds of potassium-rich minerals—red sylvite, gray
langbeinite, brownish bitter-tasting carnallite, and pale-red polyhalite. As all
these salts are highly soluble in water, the Salado Salt nowhere “crops out”
at the surface. East of Carlsbad, however, the potash-rich beds are mined
underground, and supply about ninety per cent of the United States’
production—used chiefly as fertilizer.

The arid period of Salado Salt evaporation changed slightly as the dolomites
and anhydrites of the Rustler Dolomite were laid down in the last drying
moments (geologically speaking) of the Permian. Then as the seas retreated
to the south, the fine-grained red sands and silts of the Dewey Lake Redbeds
were spread as a thin blanket over the low lands basking under the hot
Permian sun. This was a time of dying; whole races of vertebrate and
invertebrate animals were wiped out, to be known today only from their
fossil remains. As the dim unmarked episode of latest Permian time merged
into the Triassic, an inkling of coming life was recorded in the rocks. The
amphibians were more modern types, and they gave rise to the most striking
of early land animals, the reptiles. This was the beginning of the conquest of
the land by the reptiles, which culminated later in the dinosaurs, and was
aided by the retreat of shallow seas from the continents, a change survived
chiefly by the species adapted to living on land.

MESOZOIC ERA

The Mesozoic Era dawned in New Mexico on extensive plains, except for a
northwest-trending range in the extreme north-central part of the state.
During this, the early part of the Triassic Period (180 to 230 m.y. ago), sands
and muds eroded from New Mexico were carried westward to northeastern
Arizona where they now form the Moenkopi Formation, the brilliant reds
and purples of the Painted Desert region. Uplands arose in late Triassic time
in southwestern New Mexico. Along with mountains in south-central
Colorado, these highlands were torn apart by water and wind, and the
detritus was swept into sheets of brightly colored sand and shale. These beds
are thickest (about 2000 feet) along the New Mexico—Texas line east of
Roswell and in west-central New Mexico (near Grants) extending westward
into northeastern Arizona. The eastern Triassic rocks are the redbeds of the
Dockum Group with the lower Santa Rosa Sandstone and the upper Chinle
beds. The northwestern rocks are the Chinle Formation overlain by the
redbeds of the Wingate Sandstone.

The Chinle Formation is of special scenic interest as its beds contain the
silicified trees so well shown at Petrified Forest National Monument. These
varicolored rocks—red, purple, green, and gray—also decorate the Painted
Desert area, the wide valley of Rio San Jose east of Laguna, and flank
Interstate 40 (U.S. Highway 66) from the Texas line westward almost 49
to Clines Corners. As some beds are weathered “ash” beds, the
highlands were sites of volcanoes that spread their dust over much of the
Southwest. In contrast to the underlying marine Paleozoic rocks, these
Triassic beds were deposited on land by streams and in shallow lakes. Thus
the beasts that roamed New Mexico were amphibians—such as the thick-
skulled stegocephalians—and reptiles of the crocodilelike clan, the
phytosaurs. The silicified trees in the Chinle are mostly primitive pines;
some grew to heights of more than 100 feet and measure 7 feet in diameter.

New Mexico was featureless rolling prairie, with scattered low hills in the
northwest, during most of Jurassic time (135 to 180 m.y. ago). In the late
part of the period, the Sundance-Curtis sea and its shoreline lagoons spread
down from the north into northwestern New Mexico. Sand dunes on its
southeastern shores consolidated into the cross-bedded Entrada Sandstone;
its reddish brown cliffs rim the Rio San Jose Valley near Grants and Gallup.

In an extensive lagoon, or salt-water lake that covered most of northwestern
and north-central New Mexico, the gypsum and limestone of the Todilto
Formation were precipitated; this gypsum is the bed mined near Rosario
siding (seen between Albuquerque and Santa Fe) by the Kaiser Gypsum
Company, and near San Ysidro on White Mesa by the American Gypsum
Company. The Todilto salty basin was overwhelmed by reddish sands and
silts of the Summerville Formation, washed chiefly from the south, and by
the multicolored sands of the Zuni Sandstone (exposed at El Morro), and
then the stream and wind-blown sands and clays of the varicolored Morrison
Formation were laid down in northern New Mexico. Petrified wood and
bone fragments are abundant in the Morrison beds—along with uranium—
but no fossil finds in New Mexico equal those in the Morrison Formation of
Dinosaur National Park, Utah.

Much of North America, including southern New Mexico, was land during
the Jurassic. In the streams and lakes were many kinds of fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, snails, crustaceans, and water bugs; on dry land were hordes of
reptiles, small primitive mammals, and ants; in the air were flying reptiles,
the earliest known birds, moths, and butterflies. The earth was ruled by the
reptiles, with the dinosaurs dominant—some being the most ponderous land
animals of all earth history. Such were Stegosaurus and Brachiosaurus, the
latter 85 feet long and weighing 50 tons.

The Cretaceous Period (70 to 135 m.y. ago) was one of great contrast in New
Mexico. During Early Cretaceous time, most of the central and northern
parts of the state were low lands torn by erosion, while thick piles of
conglomerate, sandstone, and shale accumulated in depressions in the
southwestern corner. Huge volcanoes near Lordsburg added their hot ashes,
bombs, and flows to the sedimentary detritus, and thick fossiliferous
limestones were laid down in muddy and sandy waters of the sea—the
shoreline fluctuated over tens of miles in areas south of Lordsburg, Deming,
and El Paso. These Early Cretaceous beds total 20,000 feet in thickness in
some areas. In eastern and northeastern New Mexico, in contrast, thin 50
sheets of quartz sand were deposited by streams on the edge of a
shallow sea, and black muds in local lagoons.

Rock beds thousands of feet thick were laid down in northern and central
New Mexico during Late Cretaceous time, whereas most of the southern part

of the state was above sea level and was being eroded by tireless winds and
streams. The shorelines made parallel northwest-trending bands across the
state. These are now marked by beach sands, some of which are speckled by
black minerals, high in rare elements titanium, niobium, and zirconium.
Northwestern and central New Mexico was a battleground of the land and
sea, with the beaches advancing and retreating fifty or a hundred miles
during an instant of geologic time. Stream sands and coal beds lie landward
from the beach sands which, in turn, mingle seaward with black limy shales
that were flushed into the seas. The lowest of these rocks is the Dakota
Sandstone—famous as an artesian aquifer in the High Plains areas of states
to the northeast—Colorado, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, and
Montana. Above is the black Mancos Shale, which in turn is overlain by the
Mesaverde Group.

The transitions from coal swamps and stream sands to beach deposits and
then into marine black shales is characteristic of the Mesaverde in
northwestern and north-central New Mexico. To the northeast, beds of the
same age were laid down in an extensive muddy sea that stretched far to the
east; the Pierre Shale and Niobrara chalky limestone that underlie the plains
northeast of Las Vegas are typical. The cliff-forming sandstones and coal
beds near Gallup are part of the Mesaverde Group and rim the entire San
Juan Basin. Above are similar rocks such as the Kirtland Shale, Pictured
Cliffs Sandstone, and Fruitland Formation that underlie valleys cut in the
shales and cliffs carved from the sandstones in the northwest corner of New
Mexico near Farmington.

Toward the end of the Cretaceous, the Laramide “revolution” began, and
New Mexico along with most of North America emerged from beneath the
seas, to be high and dry to the present. The revolution, an extensive upheaval
of the earth’s crust, saw uplift of the San Juan Mountains area in
southwestern Colorado and large volcanoes spouting fire and ashes nearby.
Fragments of the eroded mountains and debris from these andesitic
volcanoes were flushed southward by streams and steam to settle as thick
piles of mud, sandstone, and conglomerate, the McDermott and Animas
formations in the San Juan Basin. The last moment of Cretaceous time, if we
could be so precise, was ushered out almost unnoticed—with mountains
rising to the north and the andesitic-quartz detritus being laid down to the
south in the upper beds of the Animas Formation.

Similarly, mountains arose during Late Cretaceous time in north-central New
Mexico and south-central Colorado, about on the site of the present-day
Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos, and shed erosional gravels and
muds into the Raton Basin area. Alluvial fan gravels and sands grade
eastward into dark muds and coals laid down in swamps and on floodplains.
These rocks now cap the rugged mesas seen northwest of the Santa Fe
Railway from Raton southward—the cliff-forming Trinidad Sandstone and
the dark siltstones, sandstones, black shales, and coal beds of the 51
Vermejo and Raton formations. The Kaiser Steel Corporation mine
near Koehler extracts coal from these beds. Again, the exact end of the
Cretaceous is marked only by some obscure boundary between beds, in that
area within the Raton Formation.

During the Cretaceous Period, the deciduous trees—such as the oak, maple,
poplar, and elm that dominate today’s flora—became common. The covered-
seed plants, the angiosperms, are the most notable of the Cretaceous plants,
but the development of the modern floras was an antecedent to the great
expansion of mammals and birds during the following Cenozoic Era.
Reptiles ruled the earth, led by the dinosaurs (fig. 10) and their distinctive
group, the horned large-skulled ceratopsians such as Triceratops. The small,
hairy, warm-blooded mammals were still insignificant creatures that ran
from their huge dinosaur lords, but they ate reptile eggs, and so excelled the
sluggish reptiles in mental and physical activity that they adapted swiftly to
the changing environments of the Laramide revolution—and became
dominant as the pea-brained reptiles were unable to stand the changes.

The shallow seas of the Cretaceous swarmed with invertebrate life;
foraminifers (unicellular protozoans) in uncountable billions make up large
parts of the chalky limestones. Mollusks, particularly clams like oysters and
the heavy ribbed Inoceramus, and complexly sutured cephalopods, the
ammonites, as well as the internal-shelled belemnoids (that look like cigars),
were most numerous among larger marine animals. Reef builders in
southwestern New Mexico were the peculiarly corallike clams, the rudistids.
Widespread warm humid climates seem to have prevailed throughout the
state during most of the Cretaceous.

LANDSCAPES AND MINERAL RESOURCES

Thus as the Cretaceous seas withdrew from New Mexico, the Cenozoic Era
dawned, and never again have marine waters shaped the landscapes. The
rocks, Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and their ancient
movements determine New Mexico’s spectacular landscapes. They tell tales
of the endless war between erosion and hard rock, show the deposition of
sediments, their uplift, and their eventual destruction. The result is striking
scenery—volcanic mountains, as Mount Taylor, Sierra Blanca, Valle Grande
—fresh lava flows near Carrizozo and Grants—volcanic necks like Shiprock
and Cabezon—White Sands, the work of the wind—El Morro, Enchanted
Mesa, Acoma, and badlands near Santa Fe, the result of weathering and
erosion—great fault-line escarpments of the Sandia, Manzano, San Andres,
and Sacramento mountains—the work of underground waters at Carlsbad
Caverns. And man adds his erosive powers—the huge open-pit copper mine
at Santa Rita and countless excavations for rock to build homes, to straighten
highways.

52

Figure 10. Make way for ’is lordship, the Dinosaur!

The sun can be harsh and hot, the rain sparse, the winter nights fierce 53
cold. But within the rocks are natural resources undreamed of by the
early Indians, almost untouched by the Spanish, and with potential beyond
vision for the future. Water, being scarce, is one of the more important
resources. With an average yearly precipitation of only fifteen inches, and
more than half of the state receiving less than that average, water is a
problem! Farming must depend upon irrigation, the water being drawn from
streams or “mined” from underground “pools” where it had been
accumulating for centuries.

Forests, game, and fish are lucrative resources somewhat unexpected in a
semiarid state; sheep and cattle—in this the stronghold of the cowboy,
famous in gunfighter lore—each total more than a million. New Mexico’s
1965 mineral production, valued at $781.9 million, ranked seventh among
the states. Principal commodities won from the rocks, in order of value, were
oil, potash, natural gas, uranium, copper, sand and gravel, zinc, coal, crushed
stone, and perlite. Sizeable quantities of barite, beryl, carbon dioxide,
cement, clays, gem stones, gold, gypsum, helium, iron ore, lead, limestone,
magnesium compounds, manganese, mica, molybdenum, pumice, salt,
silver, sulfur, and vanadium were also mined. The huge open-pit copper

mine at Santa Rita, the many uranium mines near Grants, the underground
potash mines near Carlsbad, and the thousands of oil and gas wells in the
northwestern and southeastern parts of the state are typical of man-made
landscape features attributable to mineral exploitation in New Mexico.
Numerous old mine dumps, rotting mine shafts, and spooky ghost towns are
reminders of past fortunes won and lost.

The rocks, the work of water, wind, and sun, and the not insignificant
upheavals by man have shaped New Mexico’s landscapes. Blended with its
blue skies, warm sun, and the products of three cultures—Indian, Spanish,
and American—the rocks and their movements have made the landscapes a
land of enchantment.

Earth wears a mantle rich with lore,
of storied fabric finely spun,
That tells of kingdoms come and gone,
of legions lost and battles won.
No seer no monarch can divine,
the cryptic writings; he alone,
Who humbly speaks the tongue of earth,
can find a story in a stone.

54

Before Coronado
by Robert H. Weber

The cultural heritage of New Mexico is a rich and colorful one, blending as
it does the three separate traditions of Indian, Spanish, and Anglo-American.
Of these, the lifeways of the Indian, ancient and modern, are of particular
interest to both the visitor and resident. These were the first inhabitants of
the New World, whose roots extend back in time many thousands of years
before the first European set foot here. People who had adapted themselves
to the varied and often harsh environments of desert, plain, valley, canyon,
and mountain; who witnessed the disappearance of the large mammals of the
Pleistocene Ice Age and concomitant changes in climate and vegetation; the
first prospectors and miners seeking flint, obsidian, turquoise, clay, salt, and
mineral pigments; early traders exchanging valued minerals and handicrafts
for shells of the coastal regions; hunters and farmers, architects and builders,
civic and religious leaders, philosophers and critics, skilled craftsmen and
artists, explorers and soldiers—all ancient counterparts of those who were to
follow.

In 1540, when the train of soldiers in the company of Coronado’s Spanish
Expedition entered the unknown lands later called New Mexico, four groups
of native Americans were established residents in the area. Along the arable
valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries, and in several outlying areas
were the adobe and stone apartment-house villages of the Pueblo Indians,
whose livelihood was based largely on agriculture. East of the mountains
were scattered bands of Plains Indians, Eastern Apaches, who were nomadic
hunters following the herds of buffalo that ranged across the vast grasslands
of the High Plains. Western Apaches were dispersed in small bands of
hunters and gatherers of wild foods through the mountainous country to the
west of the Rio Grande. A related group, the Navajo, augmented the

necessities of life gained by hunting and gathering with subordinate
agricultural crops in the Plateau region to the northwest.

Early contacts of the conquistadores were largely with the Pueblo Indians,
although they had limited knowledge of the Apaches and Navajos in
outlying districts. There was little to suggest to the Spanish invaders, except
for the ruins of long-abandoned Pueblo villages, that the fragmentary record
of thousands of years of human prehistory lay scattered in the dust beneath
their feet. Undoubtedly they would have dismissed as utter nonsense any
notion that men armed with stone-tipped spears had here slain elephants in a
marsh 12,000 years old that now lay buried beneath shifting sands of a desert
landscape. Indeed, it was not until the last quarter of the 1800’s that serious
attempts were made to decipher the prehistoric traces of the Pueblo Indians,
whereas concrete evidence that man had hunted long-extinct Pleistocene big
game in America was not discovered until less than forty years ago.

55

EARLY HUNTERS

The year 1926 was marked by the first of a series of important archeological
finds in New Mexico that were eventually to demonstrate that man had
occupied this area as much as 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. During this
period, Late Pleistocene ice sheets of continental glaciers still blanketed
parts of the northern tier of states in the vicinity of the Great Lakes, and
elephants (both mammoths and mastodons), horses, camels, giant bison,
tapirs, and ground sloths roamed the Southwest. Excavations begun in 1926
near the small town of Folsom, in northeastern New Mexico (fig. 1),
disclosed a number of fossil skeletons of a large form of extinct bison,
forerunners of the modern bison or buffalo. Among these bones were dart or
spear points of distinctive form and workmanship, characterized by broad,
shallow flutes or channels on each face (fig. 2). These artifacts, now known
as Folsom points, have since been recovered from a number of sites in New
Mexico and elsewhere in North America, commonly in association with the
remains of extinct bison. Evidently Folsom “Man” (whose skeletal remains
have not been discovered) was a nomadic hunter particularly dependent
upon the bison for his food supply, much as were the later Plains Indians of
historic time. Ages of from 10,000 to 11,000 years have been obtained from

charcoal and other organic remains at Folsom camp sites by the radiocarbon
method.

Succeeding years have seen an increasing number of valuable archeological
discoveries at camp and game-kill sites of Folsom Man and other Early
Hunters. Unquestionably, the most important of these sites is the Blackwater
Draw locality between Clovis and Portales in extreme eastern New Mexico,
where excavations for gravel disclosed a stratified sequence of sediments
that were deposited in an ancient pond and spring. Here, too, were the
characteristic Folsom points in association with the bones of fossil bison.
Below the Folsom layer, still older deposits contained the fossil bones of
mammoth, horse, camel, and bison associated with fluted spear points that
resembled those from Folsom but were generally larger and less skillfully
chipped and fluted. These points, now known as Clovis points, are so
commonly found beside the remains of mammoths in a number of sites in
the High Plains and the Southwest that their makers are believed to have
been adept at hunting these extinct elephants. Radiocarbon dates place
Clovis points in a time range of from 11,000 to 12,000 years ago.

In a layer above that containing Folsom points at Blackwater Draw, several
varieties of unfluted lanceolate points were found to be associated with the
bones of fossil bison. These points have been identified by various specific
names such as Plainview, Milnesand, Eden, and Scottsbluff from excavated
sites elsewhere in the High Plains region, and probably range in age from
8000 to 10,000 years. Although the giant bison still survived into this level
of stratigraphy and time, the elephant, camel, and horse of the Clovis level
had disappeared from the area.

56

Figure 1. Index map of New Mexico showing locations of significant
archeological sites, modern Indian pueblos, and Navajo, Ute, and Apache
reservations

Early Hunter Sites
1. Folsom State Monument
2. Sandia Cave

3. San Jon
4. Blackwater Draw
5. Manzano Cave
6. Lucy
7. Milnesand
8. Burnet Cave
Prehistoric Pueblo and Cliff-Dwelling Ruins
9. Aztec Ruins National Monument
10. Chaco Canyon National Monument
11. Puye Cliff Dwellings
12. Bandelier National Monument (Tyuonyi)
13. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
Historic Pueblo Ruins
14. Jemez State Monument
15. Pecos State Monument
16. Coronado State Monument (Kuaua)
17. Paako State Monument
18. Quarai State Monument
19. Abo State Monument
20. Gran Quivira National Monument
Modern Pueblos
21. Taos
22. San Lorenzo (Picurís)
23. San Juan
24. Santa Clara
25. San Ildefonso
26. Nambé
27. Tesuque
28. Cochiti
29. Santo Domingo
30. San Felipe
31. Sandia
32. Santa Ana
33. Zia
34. Jemez
35. Isleta
36. Laguna
37. Acoma

38. Zuni
39. Ojo Caliente
Navajo, Ute, and Apache Reservations
40. Navajo Indian Reservation
41. Ute Mountain Indian Reservation
42. Jicarilla Apache Indian Reservation
43. Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation

Modern pueblos
Historic pueblo ruins
Prehistoric pueblo and cliff-dwelling ruins
Early Hunter sites

Another important discovery was made in Sandia Cave northeast of 57
Albuquerque. Below cave deposits containing Folsom points was an
earlier type of point among the bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and other
large Pleistocene mammals. Now identified as Sandia points, these projectile
tips are distinguished by an asymmetric stemmed form with a shoulder on
one side. The age of the Sandia points has been a subject of some
controversy, but the latest available data from charcoal in Sandia Cave
indicates an age of nearly 12,000 years, which is within the accepted range
of the Clovis points.

Figure 2. Folsom point recovered from among rib bones of fossil bison at
Folsom, New Mexico (Photograph of plastic replica. Original point in
collection of Denver Museum of Natural History.)

Clovis, Sandia, and Folsom points, together with related stone implements,
are at many places enclosed in sediments deposited in or adjacent to ponds,
lakes, streams, and wet meadows. These environments indicate a former
cool and more humid climate in areas that are now semiarid. The food
requirements of many of the large herbivores that lived at this time also
suggest more abundant vegetation and surface water than prevails here
today. It is not unreasonable, then, to presume that climatic conditions
contributing to the advance of continental glaciers in the Great Lakes region,
and to valley glaciers in the Rocky Mountains, should have been 58
reflected in lower summer temperatures and higher rainfall in non-
glaciated areas. The ultimate extinction of the large Pleistocene mammals
and the similar time of disappearance of the hunters who preyed upon them
may both be related to the climatic changes that followed the end of the Ice
Age in America.

HUNTERS AND GATHERERS

Groups of people dependent upon a different way of life from that of the
Early Hunters are known to have occupied much of the present area of New
Mexico. Although there is some suggestion of overlap in time of these
people with the Early Hunters, they appear to have become prominent during
the several thousand warm, dry years following the end of the Pleistocene.
Adapted, as they were, to a fuller utilization of the resources of the area
through the hunting and trapping of smaller game and an emphasis on the
gathering of a wide variety of wild plant foods, these people ranged
extensively across the varied terrain of the state. Similar patterns of
subsistence and artifacts are known from the Great Basin region west of the
Rocky Mountains, where they have been categorized under the term Desert
Culture. Local manifestations of the Desert Culture in southeastern Arizona,
extending eastward into western and southern New Mexico, are identified as
the Cochise Culture. Other groups showing similarities with Archaic cultures

to the east penetrated the northeastern part of New Mexico at a time when
the area was still populated by Pleistocene bison.

Habitation sites of these gatherers are distributed in open situations and in
shelter caves. Such sites are commonly marked by milling stones that
characterize the preparation of wild foods (fig. 3), hearths, chopping and
scraping implements, and stemmed projectile points markedly different from
those used by the Early Hunters. These points were affixed to dart shafts that
were propelled with a spear thrower or atlatl, a device that preceded the bow
and arrow in America but is still used by Australian Aborigines.

Seasonal changes in the local availability of wild foods must have
necessitated a nomadic or seminomadic way of life. The development of
agricultural techniques in the later years before the beginning of the
Christian Era, however, probably contributed to the development of a
semisedentary existence that was eventually to lead to the village life of the
later periods. The exact time of introduction of the principal agricultural
crops, corn, squash, and beans, is unknown, but evidence from west-central
New Mexico indicates their use by the Cochise people by 2500 B.C.

PUEBLOAN FARMERS

Having acquired the techniques of deliberately planting and raising food
crops that could be stored against future needs, local populations of Hunters
and Gatherers became less dependent upon the gathering of wild foods 59
and began to construct clusters of more permanent dwellings near
cultivable land. Among the earliest recognized houses of this period are the
semisubterranean pit houses of the early Mogollon people in the San
Francisco River drainage of west-central New Mexico (fig. 4) and of the
Anasazi Basketmakers in the San Juan River drainage of northwestern New
Mexico. These cultural advances, together with the acquisition of techniques
for the manufacture of fired pottery, foreshadowed the development of the
Mogollon and Pueblo cultures at a time beginning perhaps as early as 300
B.C. for the Mogollon area and at least by 1 A.D. for the Anasazi area.

Figure 3. Milling stones of the type used by the Cochise People
Plant foods were ground in a shallow basin metate with the small one-hand
mano (hand stone). Socorro, New Mexico.

These two cultural groups, the Mogollon in southwestern and southern New
Mexico, whose roots extend back through the ancestral Cochise to before
6000 B.C., and the Anasazi in the Four Corners region of northwestern New
Mexico, probably developed independently during the early years. From
about 500 A.D., however, there is increasing evidence of trade relationships
and eventual fusion of traits. Other groups to the west, such as the Hohokam
of Arizona, were sources of cultural influence on the indigenous people of
New Mexico. In the Mogollon and San Juan Anasazi heartlands and in the

Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico, a pattern of village life with
elaboration of social and religious organization emerged from the relatively
simple cultures of the early years. Villages began to assume organized form,
dwellings were combined in rows of adobe and stone structures containing a
number of contiguous rooms, and subterranean ceremonial chambers or
kivas assumed larger and more specialized architectural distinctiveness from
the ancestral pit-house dwellings. In the Mogollon area, the characteristic
brownware pottery of the Mogollons was used side by side with 60
decorated black-on-white pottery of Anasazi origin. The bow and
arrow slowly replaced the less efficient atlatl and dart. The significance of
these early stages in the evolution of the Pueblo Culture in the San Juan and
upper Rio Grande areas is indicated by their designation as the
Developmental Pueblo period (Pueblo I and II).

(Photograph of museum diorama courtesy of the Chicago Natural History Museum)
Figure 4. Mogollon pit-house village of the period 200 B.C.

The climax of these developments occurred in the interval between 1050 and
1300 A.D. in the Classic or Great Pueblo period (Pueblo III). Among the most
impressive manifestations of this period are large stone-masonry apartment
houses, some rising to five stories in height and housing hundreds of people.
Dwellings of this type are highlights of several well-known tourist
attractions, among which are the cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde in
southwestern Colorado and the monumental ruins of Pueblo Bonito in Chaco
Canyon (fig. 5), both products of the ingenuity of the Anasazi Indians.

At the very apex of the cultural efflorescence of the Great Pueblo period,
some unknown circumstance or series of events caused abandonment of
most of the urban centers of the San Juan Anasazi and Mogollon areas. A
prolonged drouth is recorded by tree rings formed during the period from
1276 to 1299 A.D. Surely a drouth of this magnitude would have had 61
serious effects on people as dependent upon agriculture as were the
Pueblo Indians. There are some indications that alien and perhaps enemy
people were drifting into these areas at about this time, perhaps predecessors
of the modern Navajos and Apaches. The congested living conditions of
Pueblo villages undoubtedly contributed to unsanitary conditions and social
pressures that also may have contributed to shifts in population. Many of
these migrants moved into the homeland of the Rio Grande Anasazi in the
upper Rio Grande Valley, and to a lesser extent in the central Rio Grande
Valley. Some may have relocated at Zuni and other areas along the Little
Colorado River drainage extending westward into Arizona.

(Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service)
Figure 5. Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon National Monument
A multistory pueblo containing 800 rooms.

During the Great Pueblo period, another group showing characteristics of
both the Anasazi and of non-Puebloan people occupied an area on both sides
of the Continental Divide along the eastern margin of the San Juan Basin.
This cultural phase, known as the Largo-Gallina because of the distribution
of sites in the Largo and Gallina drainage basins, is represented by pit
houses, surface rooms, and towerlike structures with some similarities to the
dwellings of the Anasazi. The black-on-white pottery also suggests Puebloan
relationships, whereas the culinary vessels resemble those of the Navajo.

Beginning at about 1300 A.D. or shortly thereafter, a different cultural group
began to move westward from the Texas Panhandle into the plains of 62
northeastern New Mexico. These people of the Panhandle Aspect built
single-room structures and contiguous room pueblos resembling those in use

by the Anasazi of the Rio Grande and were skilled bison hunters, farmers,
and traders. This combination of traits suggests both Puebloan and eastern
traditions. Panhandle Aspect villages were abandoned suddenly not long
after 1400, perhaps as a result of the drouth recorded by tree rings for the
period from 1439 to 1454.

Following the shift in population of the Pueblo region, cultural changes
occurred that have led to the designation Regressive Pueblo period (Pueblo
IV) for the interval between 1300 and 1700 A.D. Noteworthy changes during
this period include a tendency toward enlargement of villages and the
creation of new styles of pottery, accompanied by some deterioration of the
artistic creativity of the Classic period. Major ruins of this period that are
readily accessible to the public include Puye Cliff Dwellings, Tyuonyi
Pueblo in Bandelier National Monument, and Pecos Pueblo in Pecos
National Monument.

At the time of Coronado’s entrada in 1540, there were from 60 to 70 Pueblo
villages in New Mexico, most of which contained fewer than 400
inhabitants. Four or five mutually unintelligible languages were spoken,
each with several dialects, making communication between Spanish and
Indian extremely difficult. Language barriers contributed to an inadequate
documentation of the Pueblo way of life during the early years of Spanish
contact, so that we must continue to depend upon the archeological record
during the first century of Spanish colonization of the area. The beginning of
the Historic Pueblo period (Pueblo V) accordingly is commonly set at 1700
A.D.

APACHES AND NAVAJOS

Little is known concerning the origin of these two related groups, who differ
markedly from the Pueblo Indians in language and cultural traits. Their
closest ties are with other Athapaskan-speaking tribes in northwestern
Canada, and available evidence indicates that they are comparative
newcomers to the Southwest. A correlation between the abandonment of
sections of the Pueblo region and pressures exerted by ancestral Apaches and
Navajos has been suggested, but definite proof of this is still lacking. Raids

against the eastern pueblos of the Galisteo Basin are reported to have
occurred in 1525. Coronado’s expedition encountered nomadic hunters in the
plains east of Pecos in 1541, observing that they followed the movements of
herds of bison or buffalo on whom they were highly dependent for food and
shelter, lived in portable tents of tanned buffalo hides supported by a
framework of poles, and used dogs as beasts of burden. Trade contacts with
the Rio Grande pueblos included exchange of hide “cloaks” for corn grown
by the Pueblo Indians.

Related groups in western and northwestern New Mexico are even more
poorly known, as there was still less contact between them and the Spanish
explorers. Evidently some agriculture was practiced as a supplement to 63
a subsistence based largely on hunting and gathering, a pattern of
livelihood reminiscent of that of the pre-Puebloan Cochise people.

The succeeding years of Spanish and American colonization of New Mexico
were to be highly influenced by the Apaches and Navajos, and also by
another group of Plains Indians, the Comanches. The events of this period,
however, are discussed in a separate article.

64

Frontier Forts of New Mexico
by Robert A. Bieberman

Following President Polk’s declaration of war against Mexico in May 1846,
a United States Army force was sent from Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas
Territory, against the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and California.
This army, known as “The Army of the West,” was led by Gen. Stephen W.
Kearny. Upon his arrival in Santa Fe in August 1846, General Kearny issued
a proclamation which informed the citizens that New Mexico was now a part
of the United States and that he and his army and the forces to follow would
protect them and their property. General Kearny remained in Santa Fe only
one month, but during that month he appointed a governor, judges, and other
officials, started construction of a fort in Santa Fe, and sent troops against
the Navajo Indians in fulfillment of his promise to protect the people.
Kearny and his “Army of the West” left Santa Fe in September 1846 to
conquer California, leaving behind a detachment of troops under the
command of Col. Alexander W. Doniphan. Thus began the role of the U.S.
Army, which was to continue for the next half century, in securing the
frontier in what we now know as the State of New Mexico.

History has shown that the troops stationed in New Mexico were called upon
to participate in the Mexican War and the Civil War and to protect the newly
established border between Mexico and New Mexico from violations from
both sides. However, the basic role of the military, the role which continued
for fifty years, was to protect the traveler, the farmer, the miner, and the
settler from Indian attack. Its task was made no less difficult by the
changing, unrealistic, discriminatory Indian policies which came out of
Washington during this period. When relative calm was established,
promises were forgotten and violence erupted anew.

The defense policy in New Mexico did not follow a set plan but gradually
evolved. Military posts were established at different places when the need
arose and were abandoned when the need diminished. A few of the posts
were occupied and used by the army throughout most of this period. Others
existed but a few months or years.

FORTS

Fort Union

Located twenty-seven miles northeast of Las Vegas, Fort Union became the
most important and most famous fort in the New Mexico Territory.
Established on the Santa Fe Trail in 1851, it served as supply depot for the
territory and as a base for troops engaged in the protection of traffic along
the Santa Fe Trail and of the settlements in the area from the depredations of
the Apaches, Utes, Comanches, and Kiowas. The site can be reached 65
by traveling eight miles of paved road which leaves U.S. Highway 85
one mile north of Watrous.

During its forty-year history, Fort Union occupied three different sites, all
within the same general area. The original fort was of log construction which
rapidly fell into disrepair. In August 1861, amid rumors of the possible
invasion of the territory by Confederate forces, construction was begun on a
new fort. This fort was of earthworks, in the form of an eight-pointed star. It
was here that the troops waited for the attack which never came. With the
passing of the Confederate threat, work was begun in 1863 on the third fort,
the remains of which are seen today.

Fort Union soon became the largest fort in the territory. It was constructed in
two sections, one for the garrison and one for the supply depot. The garrison
area consisted of four infantry and two cavalry barracks facing a row of nine
officers’ quarters across the parade ground. A sixty-bed hospital was
constructed. The depot area included five warehouses, mechanics corral,
transportation corral, and administration buildings. An arsenal was built
about one mile from the fort proper.

The buildings were constructed of adobe on stone foundations. The roofs
were flat and the walls were capped with brick copings in what has become
the territorial style of architecture.

(Photo courtesy of National Park Service)
Ruins of Fort Union

Fort Union was a community within itself and a lively social center. 66
Weary travelers on the Santa Fe Trail eagerly anticipated their arrival.
Few complaints were heard when soldiers were transferred to Fort Union,
for this was a popular assignment.

With the coming of the railroad and peace at last descending on the frontier
in the 1880’s, the need for the fort diminished. But it clung to life for a few

more years, mainly because of the fond memories which lived in the hearts
of the military leaders who had been stationed there. Finally, the end came
and Fort Union was abandoned in February 1891.

New life came to the fort in 1955 when it became a National Monument.
The ruins have been excavated and stabilized and a fine visitors’ center and
museum has been established. Fort Union has at last assumed its rightful
place as a shrine of history. Stand on the parade ground and survey the
majesty that was Fort Union, listen for the sounds, the bugle calls, the
barklike commands of close-order drill, the creak of wagons, and the thunder
of horses’ hooves. These are the sounds of Fort Union. They are still there if
one will only pause and listen.

Fort Marcy

Fort Marcy was established in 1846 at Santa Fe and was named for the then
Secretary of War, W. L. Marcy. The fort was located on a hill overlooking
the city some 1000 yards northeast of the plaza. A deep ditch or moat
surrounded the massive adobe walls of the fort and a blockhouse, within
musket range, protected the only entrance. At the time of Colonel Manfield’s
inspection trip in August 1853, the troops were quartered in public buildings
in Santa Fe, there being no quarters provided at the fort; however, it could be
occupied on a moment’s notice. The original Fort Marcy was abandoned in
1867 and a new one was constructed a short distance to the west. This new
site is now occupied by business and residential properties. The War
Department abandoned Fort Marcy in October 1894, the troops and
equipment being moved to Fort Sill, Oklahoma. The site was turned over to
the city of Santa Fe in 1897.

Fort Marcy played an important role during the military occupation of New
Mexico. It served as a base of operations against marauding Indians, was
captured and occupied for a short time by Confederate forces in 1862, served
as headquarters for the Ninth Military Department (changed to Department
of New Mexico in 1853) throughout most of this period, and was a center for
the social life of Santa Fe. Only low mounds of earth now mark the site of
Fort Marcy.

Fort Wingate

Fort Wingate, at the site known today, was established in 1868. It is located
on the site of a pre-existing fort at Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs) about twelve
miles east of Gallup and three miles south of U.S. Highway 66.

Fort Fauntleroy was established in August 1860 and was named for the 67
then Department Commander, Col. T. T. Fauntleroy. The name was
changed to Fort Lyon in September 1861 after Colonel Fauntleroy resigned
his commission and joined the Confederate forces. The fort was abandoned
in December 1861 as troops were concentrated at other posts to meet the
threat of invasion of the territory by Confederate forces from the south. With
the defeat of Confederate troops early in 1862, the military returned to the
Indian problem and established a post some sixty miles to the east on the Rio
de Gallo near San Rafael. This post was named Fort Wingate in honor of
Capt. Benjamin Wingate who died of wounds received during the battle with
the Confederate forces at Val Verde. The post proved to be too far from the
Navajo country for effective control and, in 1868, was abandoned and a new
Fort Wingate established at Ojo del Oso on the site occupied earlier by Fort
Fauntleroy.

The physical plant of the new Fort Wingate consisted of barracks, officers’
quarters, hospital, guard house, storehouse, employees’ quarters, corrals,
barns, and various repair and storage sheds, all bordering the traditional
rectangular parade ground. Some of these buildings are in use today.

In 1914, 4000 Mexican refugees lived in a tent city at Fort Wingate until
peace was restored after Pancho Villa’s revolution in Mexico. Following
World War I, it became an ordnance storage depot, and new administrative
and living quarters were built several miles west of the original fort
enclosure. This installation is known today as Fort Wingate Ordnance Depot,
and the long rows of concrete ammunition storage bunkers can be seen from
U.S. Highway 66. In 1925, the original fort enclosure was transferred to the
Department of the Interior for use as an Indian school. Today, the parade
ground is a playground and the barracks are dormitories for the children who
attend this school. The missile age came to Fort Wingate in 1963 when a
portion of the military reservation became the launching site for test rockets
which impact at the White Sands Missile Range 200 miles to the south.

Fort Wingate has seen many changes during its long and colorful history. It
served well during its first 100 years and continues to serve today.

Fort Craig

Fort Craig was established in the spring of 1854 on the abandonment of Fort
Conrad, nine miles north. It was named in honor of Col. L. S. Craig who was
killed by an army deserter on June 6, 1852. The remains of Fort Craig are
located on the west bank of the Rio Grande about thirty-four miles south of
Socorro and five miles, by dirt road, east of U.S. Highway 85. The fort was
established to afford protection against the many bands of Apaches that
roamed this part of the territory.

Fort Craig was well built and became one of the best-garrisoned military
posts in New Mexico. Built on the usual rectangular plan, the parade ground
was bordered on the northeast by two double officers’ quarters; on the
northwest by the guard house, prison room, and sallyport; on the southwest
by three soldiers’ barracks each in the form of a hollow square 68
enclosing a patio; and on the southeast by various workshops,
storerooms, stables, and corrals. The commanding officers’ quarters
occupied the west corner of the parade ground and the hospital the east
corner. Behind the commanding officers’ quarters there were three large
bombproof storerooms. The entire installation was enclosed within a high
wall, beyond which a ditch encircled the fort. Gun bastions projected from
the north and south corners.

Remnants of guard house, Fort Craig (built of basalt blocks)

Fort Craig was one of the most important military posts in New Mexico. Its
troops participated in many engagements with the Indian. In the fall of 1861,
troops from other posts were concentrated at Fort Craig to meet the
threatened invasion of Confederate forces from the south. In February 1862,
these troops were defeated by the Confederate invaders in the battle of Val
Verde which took place about four miles north of the fort. Upon the
withdrawal of Confederate forces from the territory later in 1862, the troops
at Fort Craig returned to the Indian problem. In March 1885, the fort was
relinquished by the army and the improvements sold. The last soldier left in
August 1885 after government property was removed and sent to Forts Bliss
and Stanton. The buildings were sold at public auction on April 30, 1894, to
the Valverde Land and Irrigation Company for $1070.50.

Fort Craig is now a ruin, but the outlines of most of the buildings can still be
seen. Portions of the plastered walls of the commanding officers’ quarters
remain, as do portions of the hospital and stone guard house. The wall and

ditch surrounding the fort, gun bastions, storehouses, and cemetery are 69
still much in evidence. Coal marks the blacksmith’s shop and broken
bottles the sutler’s store. Another frontier fort has passed into history.

Fort Stanton

Fort Stanton was established in May 1855 on the Rio Bonito at a site located
approximately four miles east of present-day Capitan and three miles south
of U.S. Highway 380. The fort was an attempt to control the Mescalero and
White Mountain Apaches and was named for Capt. H. W. Stanton who had
been killed by Apache Indians earlier that year. Many a soldier stationed at
Fort Stanton gave up his life to an Apache during the Indian wars.

Map of New Mexico showing location of frontier forts

The original fort was little more than a stockade, with few buildings 70
and little equipment. In August 1861, the government stores were
burned and the troops moved to Albuquerque in the face of the Confederate
invasion. Confederate troops occupied the site one month later but promptly

left after a few encounters with the Apache. The site was reoccupied by
Union troops October 1862 and, later, substantial buildings were erected,
most of which still stand.

With the passing of the frontier, Fort Stanton was abandoned as a military
post in August 1896, and in 1899, the installation passed to the U.S. Public
Health Service for use as a merchant marine hospital for the treatment of
tuberculosis. During World War II, a German prisoner of war camp was
established at the fort. In 1953, the hospital was closed by the federal
government because of the high cost of running the establishment. Fort
Stanton is now a state tuberculosis hospital operated by the New Mexico
Department of Public Welfare.

Col. Kit Carson used the fort as a base of operations while rounding up the
Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches in late 1862 and early 1863. In
1881, the famous outlaw, Billy the Kid, was confined in the building now
used as a dental clinic while on his way to the gallows in Lincoln, which
never claimed him. Gen. John J. Pershing, as a young lieutenant, was
stationed for a time at Fort Stanton.

Fort Selden

Fort Selden was established in 1865 and named for Capt. Henry R. Selden
(later colonel) who distinguished himself at the battle of Val Verde, February
21, 1862. The fort was beside the Rio Grande nine miles north of the
settlement of Doña Ana. The site is located along U.S. Highway 85 about
seventeen miles north of present-day Las Cruces.

Fort Selden was one of a chain of forts established to control the Apaches. It
was on the Butterfield Trail and provided protection for the government rope
ferry which crossed the Rio Grande at nearby Leasburg. The summit of Mt.
Robledo, across the river to the west, was used as a heliograph station,
flashing messages between Fort Selden and Fort Bliss at Franklin (El Paso,
Texas).

The buildings of the fort were one-story adobe structures with walls two feet
thick. The installation included barracks for enlisted men, two double

officers’ quarters, a ten-bed hospital, stone guard house, storehouses,
workshop, bake shop, corrals, and a magazine with stone walls three feet
thick. The fort was rectangular in ground plan, the buildings enclosing a
parade ground.

Fort Selden was abandoned in 1879 when the railroads began to draw travel
away from the overland trails. It was reoccupied in 1881 when the Apache
Chiefs Victorio, Nana, and later Geronimo were on the warpath. With the
passing of the Indian problem, Fort Selden was permanently abandoned in
1892. During World War I, the grounds of the fort were used for cavalry
maneuvers by units stationed at Fort Bliss.

A rather famous American once lived at Fort Selden. Gen. Douglas 71
MacArthur, as a child of four, moved with his family to the fort in
1884, following the assignment of his father, then an infantry captain, to that
post. The family remained at Fort Selden until late in 1886.

Now only crumbling adobe walls mark the site of Fort Selden, once a
welcome sight to travelers in southern New Mexico. The wind, rain, and sun
have taken their toll, aided in no small way by man himself. In 1963,
through the efforts of the Doña Ana Historical Society, Fort Selden was
made a State Monument by the New Mexico legislature. It is to be hoped
that the fort will now be protected from further weathering and vandalism so
that the remnants of this old outpost will stand for many years to come as a
monument to the men who once manned it.

Fort Cummings

Fort Cummings was established in October 1863 in what is now Luna
County, New Mexico. It was located at Cooke’s Spring, an important
watering stop on the Butterfield Trail, at the eastern edge of Cooke’s
Canyon. Prior to the establishment of Fort Cummings, the Apaches made
frequent and fatal attacks upon travelers as they passed through the four
miles of Cooke’s Canyon or stopped at the spring. Cooke’s Canyon was one
of the most dangerous stretches on the Butterfield Trail. The fort was named
for Maj. Joseph Cummings who was killed by Navajo Indians in August

1863. Its ruins can be reached by turning off State Highway 26 at Florida,
sixteen miles northeast of Deming, and traveling seven miles to the west.

Fort Cummings was the most elaborate and best-walled fort in New Mexico.
It covered an area 365 × 320 feet and was completely surrounded by a
twelve-foot-high adobe wall. The main entrance was topped by a guard
tower. Officers’ quarters occupied the west side of the parade ground, the
hospital the north side, and soldiers’ quarters the east side. The various
workshops, storerooms, offices, stables, and corrals extended along the south
side of the fort.

Abandoned in August 1873, Fort Cummings was reoccupied in 1880, and
then again abandoned in October 1886. Later it was used as a cattle corral by
the Carpenter-Stanley Cattle Company. The spring was walled and covered,
and the water piped to Florida.

Little remains of Fort Cummings today. A few weathered walls here and
there among the mesquite and creosote bushes mark the site. The spring still
flows, supplying water for the stock which now graze upon this “protector of
the trail.”

Fort Bayard

Fort Bayard, established in 1865 to protect the miners and settlers moving
into the area following the Civil War, allowed the orderly development of
what was to become New Mexico’s most important mineral-producing area.
Named for Capt. George D. Bayard who was wounded repeatedly during
Indian forays and who died of wounds received in the Battle of
Fredricksburg (Va.) during the Civil War, the fort was located about 72
five miles southeast of Pinos Altos and about midway between the
mining towns of Pinos Altos and Santa Rita. The site is about nine miles east
of present-day Silver City, just north of State Highway 90.

The original fort consisted of log and adobe buildings forming a square
around the parade ground. During its thirty-four year history as an army
post, many changes and additions were made to the fort, including the
building of two-storied officers’ quarters. In 1899, the line troops were

removed and the fort was officially designated as a U.S. Army General
Hospital to treat tubercular soldiers. In 1920, the hospital was turned over to
the Public Health Department; in 1922, to the U.S. Veterans Administration;
and again, in 1966, to the State Health Department as a facility for the care
of the aged and of tuberculosis cases. It can now accommodate more than
300 patients. The modern buildings are a far cry from the dirt-floored log
and adobe buildings of the original fort.

HISTORY

Pre-Civil War Period.

The period 1846 to 1861 was characterized by constant Indian warfare.
Treaties were made, then broken. Forts were established, then abandoned,
and new forts built as the military tried in vain to cope with the problem.
Punitive expeditions proved ineffective as the Indians separated into small
and predatory bands which overran the country.

Forts Union, Marcy, Fauntleroy, Craig, and Stanton were established during
this period. Additional forts, whose sites have returned to the desert, are Fort
Conrad (1851), on the Rio Grande about twenty-five miles south of Socorro;
Fort Thorn (1853), on the Rio Grande about five miles north of Hatch; Fort
Fillmore (1851), on the Rio Grande about seven miles south of Las Cruces;
Fort Webster (1852), on the Mimbres River about one and one-half miles
northwest of San Lorenzo; Fort McLane (1860), at Apache Tejo about four
miles south of Hurley; and Fort Floyd (1857), on the Gila River about two
miles south of Cliff.

Civil War Period.

The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 created a new problem on the frontier
in New Mexico. Confederate military leaders moved quickly to seize control
of the Southwest and California to cut off the supply of gold to the North
and divert it to the Confederacy. Confederate troops under Col. J. B. Baylor

occupied abandoned Fort Bliss at Franklin (El Paso), Texas on July 1, 1861.
Baylor began his move northward along the Rio Grande on July 23 and
quickly occupied Mesilla. Nearby Fort Fillmore was abandoned and the
Union forces retreated toward Fort Stanton, but they were soon captured by
Baylor’s troops. Upon the fall of Fort Fillmore, Fort Stanton was hastily
abandoned on August 2 and was taken over by the Confederates shortly
thereafter.

Gen. H. H. Sibley arrived at Fort Bliss in December 1861 to assume
command of the Confederate forces. Sibley’s troops moved northward along
the Rio Grande and were engaged in battle by Union troops from Fort 73
Craig, under Gen. E. R. S. Canby, as they attempted to bypass the well-
garrisoned post. The Battle of Val Verde took place four miles north of Fort
Craig on February 21, 1862. After a day of bloody fighting, Sibley emerged
the victor. He occupied Albuquerque on March 2, 1862, and Santa Fe on
March 23. The Confederate forces then moved toward Fort Union in an
attempt to gain complete control of the territory. On March 27 and 28, they
were met by Union forces sent out from Fort Union and were defeated in
battle near present-day Glorieta. Sibley then retreated to Fort Bliss.

The Confederate campaign in New Mexico, 1861-1862

While Sibley was thus engaged, another part of his army moved across what
is now southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona and occupied
Tucson (Arizona). Gen. J. H. Carleton and his California Column left 74
Los Angeles on April 13 and cleared this area of Confederate troops,

reaching the Rio Grande on August 7. Carleton reoccupied Fort Bliss, which
had been abandoned by the Confederate troops in their retreat.

Post-Civil War Period.

While the Union troops were preoccupied with the Confederates, the Indians
stepped up their raids and depredations. With the passing of the Confederate
threat, attention was once more focused on the Indian problem. A new plan
was formulated which called for the capturing of the Indians and confining
them to reservations. A reservation (Bosque Redondo) was established late
in 1862 near present-day Fort Sumner, New Mexico, to which were
eventually confined several thousand Navajos and Mescalero Apaches. This
resettlement was not a success since the Apaches ran off and the Navajos
suffered greatly from sickness and disease. A treaty was signed with the
Navajos in 1868, and they were allowed to return to their homes, no longer a
threat to the frontier. The Mescalero Apaches were finally settled on a
reservation in their own country south of Fort Stanton, and the Jicarillas on a
reservation west of Tierra Amarilla.

The Mimbreno, Mogollon, and Warm Springs Apaches of southwestern New
Mexico were more of a problem. In 1871, a reservation and Fort Tularosa
were established near present-day Aragon in western New Mexico. After a
futile attempt to keep the Indians there, they were moved in 1874 to a new
reservation and military post at Ojo Caliente, about forty miles northwest of
present-day Truth or Consequences. This, too, proved a failure and the
Apaches were moved to the San Carlos Reservation in what is now Arizona.
During these attempts to locate the Apaches on reservations, various
rebellious bands of Apaches led by Victorio, Nana, and Geronimo continued
on the warpath. Geronimo and his band surrendered in 1886 and were
imprisoned in Florida. After Geronimo’s surrender, relative peace descended
upon the frontier in New Mexico.

Established in the post-Civil War period were Forts Wingate (old and new),
Selden, Cummings, and Bayard, as well as Fort Lowell (1868), near Tierra
Amarilla; Fort Bascom (1863), on the Canadian River about eight miles
north of Tucumcari; Fort Sumner (1862), on the Pecos River about five
miles southeast of present-day Fort Sumner; Fort McRae (1863), on the Rio

Grande about ten miles northeast of Truth or Consequences; and Fort West
(1863), on the Gila River about two miles south of Cliff.

With the arrival of the railroad and cessation of hostilities with the Indians, a
new era was begun. One by one, the old forts were abandoned: their need
had passed. The colorful frontier forts of New Mexico are just a memory
now.

75

Our National Heritage
National Forests in the so-called “desert” state of New Mexico cover more
than 8.5 million acres, about 11 per cent of the state’s area. National
Monuments and Carlsbad Caverns National Park only extend over about 430
square miles but cover ten of New Mexico’s most scenic areas that are of
national geologic, archeologic, and historic interest. These are our national
heritage, set aside by the federal government for the perpetual equal use of
all Americans.

The forests cap the higher ranges of the state, except on windblown peaks
that extend above the timberline. They provide protection for the watersheds
that feed New Mexico’s rivers, supply about 125 million board feet of cut
timber each year, and yield forage for more than 150,000 cattle and sheep.
Picnic nooks and camp grounds are plentiful, fish abound in the rushing
mountain streams, and big game awaits the hunter throughout the forest
lands. The primitive virgin wilderness is preserved in its natural state,
accessible only by pack trip, in the Gila Wilderness area of the Diablo and
Mogollon mountains north of Silver City and the Pecos Wilderness area east
of Santa Fe in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains.

Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns is in the state’s only National Park. National
Monuments include the glistening gypsum dunes of White Sands, the
volcanic cone of Capulin Mountain, the prehistoric ruins of Chaco Canyon,
Aztec Ruins, Bandelier, and Gila Cliff Dwellings, the Spanish ruins at Gran
Quivira, Inscription Rock at El Morro, and the crumbling walls of old Fort
Union. In the near future, Valle Grande may be added to the National Park
System and will include Valle Caldera, one of the world’s largest volcanic
calderas, a mountainous jumble with cool streams, thick coniferous forests,
and lush high meadows.

NEW MEXICO’S BIG SHARE OF THE NATIONAL PARK
SYSTEM
[2]
by H. V. Reeves, Jr.

In contemplating the growth of cities and towns, the insatiable suburbs,
congested streets and highways, the acres of dump yards for discarded
automobiles, legions of billboards upstaging mountain ranges and seashores,
and the melancholy predictions of demographers who say that within thirty
years there will be twice as many of us, consider this: for New Mexico in
particular, the outlook is not utterly bleak.

Some ninety years ago, without anything approaching the present-day
horrible example before them, some farsighted, selfless, tireless individuals
began to work to set aside areas of outstanding scenic, scientific, and 76
historical interest so that they would not be engulfed by humanity.
Often against strong opposition, these benefactors succeeded in bringing
about legislation that bounded many such areas and defined laws to protect
them. The areas became national parks, monuments, and historic sites. And
in 1916, the National Park Service, an agency of the U.S. Department of the
Interior, was established to administer the units of the National Park System.

Today, other selfless individuals are contributing their time and effort to
bring additional areas into the National Park System before they are lost
forever. For example, Pecos ruins became a National Monument in late 1966
(see page 106).

Not every suggested area possesses the qualities that merit preservation,
qualities of national significance. Proposed areas receive careful study
before they are recommended for inclusion within the system—
recommended to the Congress by the Secretary of the Interior. The
Secretary’s recommendations are based on those received from the Advisory
Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments. This
board is composed of eleven private citizens, each of whom is competent in
one or more of the following fields: history, natural history, archeology,
architecture, conservation, and recreation.

Diverse in character, New Mexico’s ten units of the National Park System
are of geologic, scenic, archeological, and historical interest. A visit to each
unit will disclose the qualities that have been judged to be of national
significance.

Carlsbad Caverns National Park

Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns, in southeastern New Mexico, includes a
single underground chamber so expansive that its floor could accommodate
fourteen football fields and its ceiling could hold a 22-story building; other
chambers that contain countless cave formations of great variety of shape
and color; cool and naturally circulating fresh air; and a system of lighting
that reveals the beauty and spaciousness most effectively.

Since the temperature within the Caverns remains at about 56°F the year
round, warm clothing is needed. Comfortable shoes, too, for the four-hour,
three-mile complete tour, which starts at the natural entrance. Shorter trips,
the Big Room tours that start at the elevators in the visitor center, take in
only a part of the underground chambers. All tours are under leadership of
competent park guides who answer questions and explain the earth processes
that have resulted in the caverns and their amazing decorations.

From the natural entrance, the immense main corridor of the Caverns is
followed downward 829 feet for one and three-quarters miles. This brings
visitors to the most scenic rooms (the Green Lake Room, King’s Palace,
Queen’s Chamber, and Papoose Room), where the stalactites, stalagmites,
and helictites reach their peak in numbers, shapes, and delicate coloring. The
trail leads upward 80 feet from the Papoose Room to the lunchroom. Near
the lunchroom is the Big Room, the most majestic of the Caverns’ 77
chambers. The trail around its perimeter, one and a quarter miles long,
encompasses a floor space of fourteen acres.

Hall of Giants in Carlsbad Caverns National Park

Completing the circuit of the Big Room and returning to the lunchroom,
visitors may either walk or board an elevator and ride smoothly back to the
surface.

How were the Caverns formed? The story began about 240 million years
ago, during the Permian Period. At that time, the two limestone formations
in which the caverns occur—the Tansill Formation and Capitan Limestone—
were deposited as part of an organic reef complex at the edge of a warm
shallow sea.

During subsequent periods, other seas brought in sedimentary material that
covered the reef. About 60 million years ago, earth movements, which were
responsible for the uplift of the area, fractured the reef and permitted
surrounding ground water to enter along fracture lines and begin work in
fashioning the caverns. The water at first dissolved small crevices in the

limestone. As more water came in, the crevices enlarged to cavities, called
solution pockets. Then the walls, floors, and ceilings of the pockets
dissolved and collapsed, joining the pockets, while the solution process
continued, eventually forming the huge rooms seen today.

Beginning about 3 million years ago and into recent times, the uplift of the
local Guadalupe Mountains and changing climates lowered the water table.
Water that had been inside the caverns drained away and was replaced by air.
Most solution stopped, but large sections of partly dissolved walls and
ceilings collapsed under their own weight. Stability was finally 78
achieved, however, and probably no rock has fallen within the caverns
during the last several thousand years.

Even before the collapsing ended, another phase of cavern development had
begun. Rain water and snow melt slowly seeped into the caverns. Droplets of
water, each holding a minute quantity of dissolved limestone, appeared upon
the ceilings. Exposed to the air, the droplets evaporated and left their mineral
content as calcite and aragonite—crystalline forms of limestone. Over
centuries, this process of evaporation and deposition has built a myriad of
crystalline stalactites of all shapes and sizes. Water that dripped to the floor
evaporated and deposited the calcite and aragonite to build stalagmites.
When joined together, stalactites and stalagmites become columns, or pillars.
In the scenic rooms, conditions existed that brought about the creation of
helictites—twisted formations that seem to defy gravity in their growth.
Color in the cave formations, shades of brown, red, and yellow, result from
the presence of small amounts of iron oxide and other minerals.

Carlsbad Caverns National Park offers more than the caverns themselves.
Each evening from April to October, bats in incredible numbers spiral
upward out of the Caverns’ entrance and fly southward over the rim of the
escarpment to feed in the valleys of the Black and Pecos rivers. They return
just before dawn, diving swiftly and from high altitudes into the entrance.
Flying directly to the bat cave, they spend each day hanging head downward
in dense clusters from the walls and ceilings. The bat cave itself is not open
to visitors. A park naturalist explains the bat flight and discusses the bats in
detail in a talk given at the entrance to the Caverns each evening before the
flight begins.

The nature trail, a half mile loop that begins and ends near the entrance to
the Caverns, guides the visitor to many of the desert plants of the region. The
park is visited by more than half a million people each year, and yet the
delicate cave formations and the natural beauties remain unmarred.

White Sands National Monument

White Sands National Monument, fifteen miles southwest of Alamogordo, is
another area of great interest to the geologist and biologist. But its
strangeness, the graceful contours of its snow-white dunes, and the peculiar
adaptations of some of the plants and animals that live among its dunes are
appreciated as fully by the nonscientist. More than 370,000 visitors come to
marvel at the White Sands each year.

The Monument, some 230 square miles in extent, preserves the most
impressive part of the world’s largest gypsum desert. This is a glistening sea
of pure gypsum sand that the wind has drifted into huge dunes that are
almost bare of vegetation except along the fringes. Wavelike, the restive
dunes move slowly before the prevailing winds, covering and uncovering the
few plants that lie in their way. And wavelike, their surfaces trace the
vagaries of indecisive breezes in tiny parallel ripplelike ridges.

Because of the almost constant wind and resulting gradual advance of 79
the dunes, most of the plants that are able to establish themselves in the
open flats between the dunes eventually become buried. A few species,
however, are able to survive the irresistible march of the sand. Through rapid
growth and elongation of the stems, the struggling crowns remain on top of
the rising crests of the dunes. Plants with stems more than forty feet long
have been found. As the dunes continue forward under the pressure of the
wind, they leave the plants elevated on columns of compacted gypsum
bound by their adventitious roots.

Animals, too, have become adapted to their unusual surroundings. The small
creatures, lizards, mice, and others, are picked off easily by such predators as
foxes, coyotes, and hawks when they are conspicuous. Thus, through the
centuries, only the lighter-colored individuals have survived among the
dunes and, through many generations, have developed pale and elusive

animals that blend inconspicuously with their white surroundings. Pocket
mice are a good example of this. Among the white dunes, the pocket mice
are white; in the nearby red hills, they are a rusty color; and on the beds of
black lava a few miles north of the sand, the pocket mice are very dark.

A visitor to White Sands National Monument should stop at the visitor
center, where exhibits explain the geology of the duneland and others
describe the plants and animals that are able to live there.

But how and from where did this natural wonder come? The dunes of
gypsum lie in the Tularosa Basin, which stretches for more than 100 miles
between two north-south mountain ranges. All sides of the valley slope
gently inward, forming the basin, with Lake Lucero, its lowest point, at the
southwest end of the Monument. This valley was formed hundreds of
centuries ago, when a great section of the earth’s crust settled to form the
type of basin known geologically as a graben.

High above the basin floor, beds of gypsum are found to the north in the
mountain ranges flanking the valley. Similar gypsum beds lie far beneath the
floor of the basin. Thus, it was once a part of the high plateau, a great
blocklike section that slowly sank to form the basin at its present level.

Percolating water from seasonal rains and melting snow carries tons of
gypsum, in solution, from the highlands at the north end of the basin into
Lake Lucero. During much of the year, cloudless skies and warm dry winds
evaporate Lake Lucero, and it shrinks to a crystal-encrusted marsh.
Capillarity draws the gypsum-laden underground water to the surface; it, too,
evaporates, depositing its burden of gypsum throughout the extensive “alkali
flats.” The persistent southwest wind picks up the particles of gypsum and
whirls them away, adding them to the gleaming white dunes, the
accumulation of centuries.

The best ways to see the dunes are by car and by foot. Along the drive that
leads into the heart of the duneland are numbered posts that correspond to
numbered paragraphs in the Monument’s informational folder. These
paragraphs explain the features that are of particular significance. At pull-
outs along the drive, park the car and walk among the dunes.

80

Capulin Mountain National Monument

81

Capulin Mountain National Monument

Capulin Mountain National Monument, in the northeast part of the state, is
an area of geologic interest that presents still another aspect of the science of
the earth. It contains the cone of an extinct volcano, one of the most
symmetrical of the geologically recent cinder cones in the United States. Its
conical form rises more than 1000 feet above its base. The irregular rim is
about one mile in circumference, and the crater is about 415 feet in depth, as
measured from the highest part of the rim. Some 40,000 people a year visit
the Monument.

The mountain consists chiefly of loose cinders, ash, and other rock debris of
volcanic explosions. These materials were spewed out by a series of
successive eruptions, probably of considerable duration. The coarse
materials fell back around the vent, piling up to form the conical mound.

Dust and other fine materials were carried away by the wind. After the
eruptions, vegetation gained a foothold on the steep, unstable flanks of the
cone, so that in time the slopes became stabilized. Geological studies
indicate that the volcano probably was active about 7000 years ago.

Capulin Mountain is of special interest, partly because it represents the last
stages of a great period of volcanic activity that was widespread throughout
western North America. Evidences of this older and more intense activity
can be seen from the top of Capulin Mountain in the scores of other nearby
volcanic hills and peaks. The largest of these is the Sierra Grande, an extinct
volcano rising 4000 feet above the surrounding plain; it is ten miles to the
southeast. Northwest of Capulin are a number of mesas that are capped with
black lava, the largest of which are Barella, Raton, and Johnson. Fishers
Peak, south of Trinidad, Colorado, is on a similar mesa. The famous Spanish
Peaks, northwest of Trinidad, are a pair of extinct volcanoes.

In this great volcanic area, the lava erupted in a succession of flows. The
series of eruptions were separated by long periods of inactivity. During these
inactive times, erosion cut valleys and wore down parts of the old lava
sheets. This action formed new channels and lower terrain over which
succeeding lava flows spread. This process was repeated at least three times.
The oldest lavas, which have been exposed by erosion, are found on the tops
of the highest mesas. The last series of eruptions created Capulin Mountain;
they were ejections mostly of cinders and ash, with less lava flow than in the
preceding volcanic activity. These cinder-and-ash eruptions were so recent,
geologically, that some of the nearby, bare, steep-sided cinder cones appear
as if they had just cooled.

The National Park Service has constructed a road up the mountain to the rim
of the crater. And from the parking area at the rim, two trails lead to the most
interesting points on the mountain. One trail, self-guiding, makes the
complete one-mile circuit of the crater along the rim. A guide booklet, keyed
to numbered stakes that have been set at places along the trail, explains the
features of particular significance—both on the mountain and in the
distance. The other trail, less scenic, provides a rare opportunity to see a
volcanic mountain from the inside out, for it leads down to the bottom of the
crater.

82

View of Chaco Canyon National Monument

83

Chaco Canyon National Monument

Rich in areas of geological interest, New Mexico is equally rich in areas of
archeological interest. Four of these are preserved as units of the National
Park System.

Chaco Canyon National Monument, in the northwestern part of the state,
contains more than a dozen large prehistoric ruins and hundreds of smaller
archeological sites. These ruins are considered to be without equal north of
central Mexico. No other archeological area in the Southwest exhibits such a
high development of prehistoric Pueblo civilization. Most of the sites lie
within a strip of land about eight miles long and two miles wide, through
which Chaco Canyon runs. Although the Monument is relatively isolated, it
is open year around and is visited by about 22,000 people annually.

The most imposing and best known of the ruins is Pueblo Bonito. Built
between 800 and 900 years ago, this 4- and 5-story village covered more
than three acres and contained about 800 rooms and 32 kivas, or ceremonial
chambers. Archeologist Neil M. Judd, of the National Museum, who
conducted some of the late excavations, has said that Pueblo Bonito was the
largest apartment house built anywhere in the world prior to 1887,
estimating that at one time it housed 1200 people.

Earliest of the Chaco sites, small villages of crude pit houses were occupied
during 600 to 800 A.D. Archeologists, studying changes in masonry style,
pottery types, and other remains, have pieced together the development of
the culture of the inhabitants of Chaco Canyon over a period of six centuries.

After Chaco Canyon’s cultural high point was reached in the 1100’s, a
gradual decline set in. The population decreased, and in the 1200’s, the
region was abandoned. During this same century, other Pueblo centers
within the San Juan Basin were also deserted.

Various theories have been advanced to explain this exodus: soil erosion,
warlike enemies, poor facilities for urban sanitation, drought, and
intervillage warfare. One or a combination of these factors might have been
instrumental in bringing about the abandonment of the region.

Aztec Ruins National Monument

Aztec Ruins National Monument, at Aztec in the northwestern corner of the
state, was set aside to preserve an outstanding example of classical Pueblo
construction, one of the largest pre-Spanish villages in the Southwest. More
than 40,000 visitors come to the Monument each year.

Tree-ring dates indicate that most of the big central pueblo was rapidly
constructed during the period 1106 to 1121. At this time, the people of Aztec
were influenced by the cultural center to the south, Chaco Canyon. During
the last half of the 1100’s, after the decline of Chaco Canyon had 84
begun, the people of Aztec began to look toward the north, and by
1200, Mesa Verde ideas dominated the region. Aztec was abandoned by
about 1300, as was the rest of the general region.

Of particular interest at Aztec Ruins National Monument is the reconstructed
Great Kiva. The Pueblo Indians built separate rooms, now known as kivas,
for ceremonial purposes. During the period of Chaco influence, the people at
Aztec constructed a very large circular building, 48 feet in diameter, in their
plaza. Its features differ from those of the small kivas and establish it as a
Great Kiva, similar to those at Chaco. The Great Kivas represent the peak of
religious architecture among the Pueblos. The Great Kiva at Aztec was
completely restored in 1934 by Earl H. Morris, of the American Museum of
Natural History.

Bandelier National Monument

Bandelier National Monument, forty-six miles west of Santa Fe, preserves
the ruins of dwellings and other structures that were erected by Indians who
lived in the area until about 1550 A.D. Almost 100,000 people visit the
Monument each year.

When many of the ancient Pueblo Indian centers were abandoned in the late
thirteenth century, the people moved to locations where the water supply was
more constant. A favorable area was the upper Rio Grande Valley in what is
now New Mexico. One of the later flowerings of Pueblo culture occurred
here. The ruins within Bandelier are representative of this phase of Pueblo
development.

In Frijoles Canyon, the Indians chose the location of their homes well. The
creek that runs through the canyon flows all year. On the canyon floor and
mesa top there was land suitable to the cultivation of crops. And the canyon
walls of soft tuff (consolidated volcanic ash) could easily be hollowed out by
the Indians with their harder stone tools in fashioning storage rooms behind
dwellings built against the cliff.

Cliff ruins, or talus villages, extend along the base of the northern wall of the
canyon for about two miles. Other ruins are located on the floor of the
canyon. The houses of stone masonry were irregularly terraced, from one to
three stories in height. Some hollowed recesses at the base of the cliff also
were used for dwelling rooms.

Like the other pueblo dwellers, the Frijoles inhabitants were farmers, raising
the usual corn, beans, and squash. They used cotton cloth, which has been
found in the ruins and which suggests that they had the loom. Since the
growing season in the high Frijoles country is short, they probably obtained
their cotton by trade with Indians who lived farther south. They made
pottery decorated with glaze paint.

For a few centuries, the Indian farmers lived in the canyons, built villages,
honeycombed the cliffs with artificial caves, and tilled the soil. But with the
passing years, drought, soil-eroding floods, soil depletion, famine, and
possibly disease—singly or in combination—forced the canyon dwellers
again to seek new homes. Descendants of these Indians still live in nearby
modern pueblos along the Rio Grande.

85

Cliff houses in Frijoles Canyon, Bandelier National Monument

About ninety per cent of Bandelier National Monument is, and will remain, a
wilderness. The rugged and scenic back country is accessible by about sixty
miles of maintained trails, leading to such features as Alamo Canyon, the
Stone Lions, Painted Cave, the Pueblo ruins of San Miguel and Yapashi, and
White Rock Canyon of the Rio Grande.

Valle Grande

Another area has been considered as an addition to the National Park System
in New Mexico. A 1963 bill introduced in Congress would establish Valle
Grande-Bandelier National Park, about forty-six miles west of Santa Fe.
Valle Grande is part of the Valle Caldera, which is among the world’s largest
and has been the site of extensive studies of calderas (the collapsed summits
of volcanoes). Lessons learned there have been applied in recognizing and
investigating calderas in other places. Bandelier National Monument,
primarily of archeological significance, lies to the east of the canyon-cut rim
of the caldera. As written, the bill would have incorporated the Monument in
the proposed national park.

86

Part of Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument

87

Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument

Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, forty-seven miles north of Silver
City and at the edge of the Gila Wilderness Area, contains a series of ruins
that portray the development of the agricultural Indians who lived south of
the Mogollon Mountains. Specifically, the ruins represent a branch of the
generalized culture known as Mogollon. Although part of the road to the
Monument was paved in 1963, the last four-mile stretch is still primitive and
should not be attempted in an ordinary passenger car except during the
summer and in dry weather. In spite of the difficult road, more than 23,000
people visited the Monument during 1965. The last four miles of the road
have been recently paved.

The earliest ruin yet found within the Monument is a Mogollon pit house of
a type that was made about 500 A.D. It is roundish and, on the east side, has a
narrow ramplike entrance some two feet wide and ten feet long. The people
of this period did only a little farming (corn and beans), a little hunting, and
gathered much uncultivated plant food. They made a fairly good plain-
brown pottery and undoubtedly were skilled in a number of crafts whose
products have since disappeared. Such things as nets and snares, baskets, and
wooden tools last but a short time in open sites.

Other, later, pit house types may be seen in the Monument. Pit houses were
prevalent in the area until about 1000 A.D., when influences from the Anasazi
(Pueblo) Indians of the northern part of the Southwest began to affect the
Mogollon people.

Square houses, built above the ground, became the style; some were of
masonry, some of adobe construction, and some were built of wattle
(wooden rods and twigs). A new type of pottery was also introduced at about
the same time: white with black designs.

The principal ruins in the Monument are the cliff dwellings, which were
built during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They, too, reflect the
northern pueblo influence. About forty rooms, remarkably well preserved,
are fitted into a series of chambers, or caves, in a low cliff of Gila
Conglomerate. By about the beginning of the fifteenth century, the area was
abandoned by the farming Indians.

Gran Quivira National Monument

Significant chapters in the absorbing history of New Mexico were written at
three sites that have been made units of the National Park System.

Gran Quivira National Monument, near the center of the state southeast of
Mountainair, preserves the ruins of a frontier Spanish mission that had been
built, used, and abandoned by 1675. The Monument contains twenty-one
ruined house mounds of Indian pueblos and ruins of two mission churches. It
was the presence of the Indians at this location, of course, that attracted the
Franciscan missionaries.

88

A look at ruins of Gran Quivira

The earliest Indian pueblo in the Monument was founded about 1300 89
A.D.; by the 1600’s, the village, with several structures, had become the
largest in the region. It was conveniently located on the south side of a hill
near the cultivated fields in the surrounding lowlands. Water was a problem

then as now. The Indians solved this as best they could by digging shallow
wells at the base of the hill, about one mile west of the pueblo.

The first known specific reference to Gran Quivira was made in 1630 by
Fray Alonso de Benavides, a Franciscan missionary. He called the pueblo the
“Village of the Humanas,” and referred to the church there as having been
built by Father Francisco Letrado in 1629 and dedicated to San Isidro.
Humanas, now misnamed “Gran Quivira,” was later administered from the
mission of San Gregorio de Abo, some forty miles to the north. In 1659,
Father Diego de Santander was assigned to Humanas. Construction of the
mission buildings, which he rededicated to San Buenaventura, was
completed by him.

The Franciscans had a pronounced influence upon the Pueblo Indians. They
stimulated trade with Mexico and the pueblos farther north. They imported
wine grapes and cultivated them, and they introduced domesticated sheep,
goats, cattle, and horses.

Sometime between 1672 and 1675, the pueblo and mission at Humanas were
abandoned because of Apache raids, drought, and crop failures. The people
first moved to the Rio Grande near the present town of Socorro. A few
continued to El Paso del Norte, where, in 1680, they were joined by those
from Socorro, who had fled with the Spaniards from the Pueblo Revolt of
that year.

El Morro National Monument

El Morro National Monument, southwest of Grants near Ramah, was
established to preserve the famous Inscription Rock, register of Indians,
Spaniards, and westward-moving pioneers. About 22,000 people now visit
the Monument each year.

El Morro, or Inscription Rock, is a massive mesa point of sandstone. Rising
some 200 feet above the valley floor, it forms a striking landmark. From its
summit, rain and melted snow drain into a natural basin at the foot of the
cliff, creating a constant and dependable supply of water in a region where
water is scarce. The route from Acoma to the Zuni pueblos led directly past

the mesa. It was a regular camping place for Spanish conquistadores and,
later, for travelers from the east.

On the top of El Morro lie ruins of Indian pueblos, abandoned long before
the coming of the Spaniards. And carved in the sandstone are numerous
petroglyphs left by these ancient people, ancestors of the modern Zunis.
Perhaps it was the petroglyphs that prompted later travelers to record their
names and thoughts on the rock.

The first known historical mention of El Morro is found in the journal of
Diego Pérez de Luxán, chronicler of the Espejo Expedition of 1583. Luxán
stopped there for water on March 11 of that year.

90

Part of the pool and cliff at El Morro

The oldest dated inscription at El Morro was made in 1605 by don 91
Juan de Oñate, first governor of New Mexico. Returning from an
expedition to the mouth of the Colorado River, he camped at El Morro and
carved this inscription in Spanish: “Passed by here the Adelantado Don Juan
de Oñate from the discovery of the Sea of the South, the 16th of April of
1605.” The “Sea of the South” was the Gulf of California.

If don Diego de Vargas, the most famous Spanish governor of New Mexico,
seems boastful in the message he left at El Morro, who can blame him? His
words, in English, read, “Here was the General Don Diego de Vargas, who
conquered for our Holy Faith and for the Royal Crown all of New Mexico at
his own expense, year of 1692.” Twelve years earlier, the great Pueblo
Indian Revolt had driven the Spaniards from New Mexico. More than 400,
including 23 priests, had lost their lives, and the surviving Spaniards, some
1100, had fled to El Paso del Norte. De Vargas restored order, without
further bloodshed, in 1692.

After the occupation of Santa Fe by the army of Gen. Stephen W. Kearny in
August 1846, details of United States troops were dispatched to explore
various parts of New Mexico. Probably the first to visit El Morro was Lt. J.
H. Simpson, accompanied by the artist R. H. Kern, who copied some of the
early inscriptions in September 1849. Then the names of other soldiers,
traders, Indian agents, surveyors, emigrants who were traveling westward,
and settlers were added to the rock.

Since the establishment of the Monument by Presidential proclamation in
1906, inscribing on the face of the cliff has been prohibited. If the
Monument had not been established and the law not passed, this fascinating
part of the history of the Southwest would surely have been lost.

Fort Union National Monument

Fort Union National Monument, twenty-six miles northeast of Las Vegas
and on the route of the old Santa Fe Trail where the mountains meet the

plains, preserves the ruins of a famous frontier Army post. As a base of
operations for military and civilian ventures in New Mexico from 1851 to
1891, Fort Union helped to direct the course of events in the formative years
of the Southwest. More than 11,000 visitors come to the Monument each
year.

Five years after the conquest of New Mexico by the United States in the war
with Mexico, Col. E. V. Sumner moved some of his troops from Fort Marcy,
in Santa Fe, to the site of Fort Union and there began construction of log
buildings on the west side of Coyote Creek. This was the first Fort Union.

The first post took an active part in protecting settlers and traders from
Indian raids during the 1850’s. Mounted patrols of dragoons made many
expeditions into the mountains against the warring Apaches and Utes and out
onto the plains to pursue Comanche war parties.

Fort Union was also charged with supply and support of many outlying
military posts, such as Fort Defiance and Fort Craig. The Quartermaster
Depot at Fort Union in later years came to be the hub of all Army 92
supply services in the Southwest.

During the first three decades of its life, Fort Union saw the great Conestoga
wagons and prairie schooners of the Santa Fe Trail caravans pass in
increasing numbers. By the outbreak of the Civil War, enterprising traders
were hauling more than ten million dollars’ worth of goods from Missouri
each year. The fort provided escorts for caravans and when requested by
apprehensive company or postal officials, escorts for stage-coaches of the
Independence-Santa Fe Mail. Century-old tracks of the Santa Fe Trail can be
still seen near Fort Union.

The start of the Civil War in 1861 brought new activity to the fort.
Immediate invasion of New Mexico by Confederate forces from Texas was
expected. Gen. E. R. S. Canby, commanding Union troops in the territory,
began construction of an earthwork fortification in a defensive position
about a mile from the original fort. The ditches, parapets, and bomb-proofs
of this redoubt were completed late in 1861.

The Texas column was not slow in coming. By March 1862, these invaders
under Gen. Henry H. Sibley had defeated a Union force at Val Verde, had
frightened the defenders from Albuquerque and Santa Fe into inaction, and
were marching eastward across the mountains toward the final stronghold,
Fort Union. On March 10, the First Regiment of Colorado Volunteers, under
Col. J. P. Slough, arrived at Fort Union as reinforcements. And on March 22,
Colonel Slough led his 1342 men out of the fort to meet the advancing
Confederates. In a two-day battle fought in Apache Canyon and Glorieta
Pass, the Union forces defeated the Confederates, thus saving Fort Union for
the federal cause.

From 1863 to 1869, the garrisons at Fort Union were chiefly occupied in a
construction program that produced most of the adobe-walled buildings
whose ruins may now be seen. Fort Union then returned to its earlier mission
of a base for Indian fighting.

The usefulness of Fort Union was reduced with the final submission of the
Indians and with the arrival of the railhead at Las Vegas in 1879. The huge
fort was demoted to caretaker status in the 1880’s and was abandoned in
1891.

At each of these New Mexico units of the National Park System, as at other
units throughout the nation, trained personnel of the National Park Service—
archeologists, historians, naturalists, and park rangers—are on duty. Their
purpose is to make the visitor’s trip rewarding. This they do through
museum exhibits, guided walks and self-guiding trails, campfire talks, and
publications.

Here in New Mexico, then, escape the irritations that seem to go with
progress. Awaiting the traveler are unspoiled places where he can surround
himself with the quiet majesty of nature, walk the paths made by prehistoric
people, camp where the Spanish conquistadores camped, stroll among the
ruins of buildings erected by the men who helped to fashion the Southwest.

93

FOREST LANDS ABOVE THE DESERT

[3]
by Ruth Bush Jones

Today, as in earlier times, people of New Mexico look to their mountains
with a new and greater appreciation of their forest land heritage. Today, also,
people seek aesthetic values of peace, beauty, and serenity found in nature’s
solitudes, in addition to forest products for economic use. Basic to the
enjoyment of the high country are the forest treasures of clear, pure water ...
of wild game and birds ... of trees for shade and solitude, fuel, shelter, and
forest products ... of grass and browse for cattle, sheep, horses, and wildlife
... of magnificent grandeur and panoramic vistas. These basic treasures
coupled with understanding of the purposes and many benefits of the
National Forests bring true recreation to the visitor.

The high country of New Mexico, much of it in the National Forests, is
entrusted by law to the care and administration of the U.S. Forest Service, an
agency of the Department of Agriculture. These vast public properties
located in several sections of the state are administered as Carson, Santa Fe,
Cibola, Lincoln, Gila, Apache, and Coronado National Forests, the latter two
lying primarily in Arizona and being directed from there rather than from
New Mexico. Visitors to New Mexico traveling along main highways see the
high forest country outlining the horizon and often regard the lofty masses of
rugged rock as unapproachable and lacking in friendliness.

“Not so,” says the Forest Ranger. There are broad highways welcoming the
traveler into the high country where forest trees stretch to the sky. There are
cool invigorating streams sparkling clear and clean from mountain fastnesses
and developed campgrounds and picnic areas ready for use. Outdoor
recreation from simple relaxing and picnicking under a pine tree to the most
strenuous of wilderness backpacking or horseback riding, winter sports, and
skiing awaits the visitor. There is fishing in mountain streams and in big
open lakes or in precious, secluded mountain lakes. And for those who like
their surroundings interpreted for them, there are nature trails and/or forest
naturalists to explain local rock formations, vegetation, and the natural and
human history of the immediate country.

The Forest Ranger asks only that each visitor do his share in cleaning up a
camp or picnic site and being sure that camp fires, matches, and cigarettes

are thoroughly extinguished: “Keep Your National Forest Green and Clean!”

Carson National Forest

Located in north-central New Mexico, with headquarters at Taos, the Carson
National Forest nurtures and cradles the Rio Grande as it leaves its
birthplace in Colorado en route to the south. Carrying water from high
country snow melt, the Carson adds precious, clear water from its high 94
mountain streams and lakes to the Rio Grande in support of the
prosperous communities along its way. The Carson includes some of the
highest water-producing lands in the state and is the source of several
permanent streams and lakes.

Map of National Forests in New Mexico

Named in honor of Kit Carson, the noted scout, Carson National Forest
offers some of the most spectacular mountain scenery in the Southwest,
including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Red River Canyon, and Wheeler
Peak, which at 13,160 feet is the highest point in New Mexico. Part of the

famed Pecos Wilderness Area and the Wheeler Peak Wild Area are included
in this Forest and are available to those willing and able to hike, ride a horse,
or pack into the rugged mountain country. For the winter sports enthusiast,
the Red River Ski Area, Sipapu Winter Sports Area, and Taos Ski 95
Valley operate in part within the Carson National Forest and offer
some of the finest alpine skiing in the Southwest.

Good roads lead the visitor to Spanish and Indian villages where life and
culture are almost unchanged since the ancient and comparatively recent
days of settlement. Towns with singing-sounding names like Picurís, Taos
Pueblo, Las Trampas, Truchas, Santa Barbara, and Tres Ritos nestle along
forest streams and add charm and beauty to a scenic trip in the northern
Sangre de Cristo range (name given to the mountains by early Spanish
settlers, meaning Blood of Christ. The analogy relates to the reddish glow
that sometimes colors the mountains at sunset.). Radiating from Taos are
roads leading into the eastern half of the Forest, bringing the traveler into
fascinating and colorful country. Taos Canyon, Arroyo Hondo, Questa, and
the Red River country abound in old mining ghost towns, Indian ruins, and
legendary Spanish villages located in canyons and on mountain tops.

The high range rising between the Rio Grande and the Chama River to the
west is the major part of the western half of the Carson National Forest. Tres
Piedras, El Rito, La Madera, Canjilon, Lagunitas, and San Antonio are a few
of the picturesque communities here. Farther to the west is the Jicarilla
Division of the Carson, the high mountain country adjacent to the Jicarilla
Apache Reservation. Bisected by State Highway 17 between Farmington and
Chama, this section is a test of true pioneering skill for the traveler who is
willing to follow dim tracks of roads and trails to enjoy the Forest. However,
modern civilization is introduced by the 150 oil and gas wells in this area,
even though the country is rugged and broken.

Carson National Forest is a trout fisherman’s delight. For the hunter, Rocky
Mountain mule deer, elk, and antelope are found in all parts of the Forest.
Small game is plentiful, and rabbits provide many hours of hunting pleasure.
Beaver, muskrat, mink, weasel, marten, and skunk are the principal fur
bearers, and turkey, grouse, ducks, geese, quail, and doves make up the game
bird population. Predators include the mountain lion, bobcat, coyote, and
fox.

More than 40 developed camp and picnic grounds, most of which are
accessible year round, welcome the visitor. Among them, Echo Amphitheater
picnic ground on U.S. Highway 84, south of Canjilon, is a striking natural
echo chamber formed by centuries of wind and water erosion in the rugged
sandstone rock. “If you stand near the chamber, you only have to whisper,
and your words come back in a spooky echo.”

About five miles south on U.S. Highway 84 is the Ghost Ranch Museum,
with live native Southwestern animals and conservation exhibits, including a
living and growing display showing on-the-ground Forest Service Multiple
Use Management of the mythical Beaver National Forest, the “smallest
National Forest in the world.”

Ranger stations at Canjilon, El Rito, Gobernador, Penasco, Questa, Taos, and
Tres Piedras provide local information and recreation maps.

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Echo Amphitheater surrounds part of the trail to campground

Santa Fe National Forest

The Santa Fe National Forest, with headquarters in Santa Fe, lies directly
south of the Carson National Forest on both sides of the Rio Grande and is
the center of a region rich in natural resources as well as historic and
geologic interests. The two divisions of the Forest contain the high
mountains to the east and west in the central section of the state. The Pecos
Division to the east of the Rio Grande is the location of the major part of the
Pecos Wilderness Area, one of the earliest of such areas to be established.

The Pecos Division is so named because the Pecos River, which later joins
the Rio Grande in Texas, heads among its towering mountains in a beautiful

alpine basin sometimes called the Pecos Horseshoe. The Pecos River is one
of the state’s largest streams and supplies some of its most important
irrigation projects. This division of the Forest includes the southern part of
the Sangre de Cristo range and was first known as the Pecos River Forest
Reserve, established in 1892—the oldest National Forest in the Southwest.
The division abounds in clear, cold mountain lakes and streams. Truchas
Lakes, Pecos Baldy, Stewart Lake, Spirit Lake, and Lost Lake, as well as
many mountain streams, lure not only the fisherman but the hiker and
camper to their wilderness beauty.

Twenty-three developed campgrounds and picnic areas located in cool 97
glades are ready for the visitor along roads leading into the Forest from
Santa Fe, Pecos, Glorieta, Las Vegas, and other communities. Skiing and
winter sports are available at the Santa Fe Ski Basin northeast of Santa Fe;
the chair lift operates year around for those who wish merely to view the
spectacular scenery. The Pecos Division watersheds of the Santa Fe National
Forest, like the eastern section of the Carson, contribute generously to the
water flow of the Rio Grande.

Wild game, game birds, and fishing attract visitors at all times of the year,
while the golden hues of the aspen in the autumn tempt artists and
photographers to record on canvas and film nature’s fall colors. A trip just
before the winter snows to the aspen country of the Santa Fe National Forest
is a must. Ranger stations are located at Santa Fe, Las Vegas, and Pecos.

An Izaak Walton along the Pecos river

West of the Rio Grande are the Jemez Mountains, which form the Jemez
Division of the Santa Fe National Forest. The Jemez country is a favorite
area for fishermen and hunters. For the sturdy hiker and picnicker, there are
hundreds of fascinating points to visit and peaks to climb. Capulin Peak,
Dead Man’s Peak, Nacimiento Peak, and Cerro Pedernal are a few of the
exciting ones. The Jemez country contains the San Pedro Parks Wild 98
Area, northeast of Cuba where San Gregorio Lake is waiting for the
fisherman or hiker willing to walk or ride horseback. This section abounds in
unique geologic formations—Battleship Rock, Tent Rocks, Teakettle Rock,
to name a few.

Eighteen developed camping and picnicking areas welcome the visitor to the
Jemez Division. Youth groups also favor the Jemez for their summer
camping. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, YMCA, and others have
camps adjacent to the Santa Fe National Forest. Timber production, wildlife
habitat management, livestock grazing, and watershed protection are among
the activities of the Jemez Division, while visitors and travelers enjoy the
forest, the streams, and the unique scenery. Ranger stations are at Jemez
Springs, Cuba, Espanola, and Coyote.

Cibola National Forest

A mountain playground for people who live or visit near U.S. Highway 66 is
Cibola National Forest, with headquarters in Albuquerque. Embracing the
Sandias, Manzanos, and Gallinas Peak areas east of the Rio Grande in
central New Mexico, this Forest also includes most of the mountain ranges
in the west-central section of the state, the San Mateo Mountains, with
11,389-foot Mount Taylor, and the Datil, Magdalena, and Zuni ranges.

Outdoor recreation is the fastest growing use of the Cibola National Forest
and more than a million visits are made each year to this popular Forest. The
name is a Zuni Indian word, pronounced SEE-bo-lah, meaning buffalo.
Buffalo may have roamed the Cibola in years past, but today’s big game
animals making the Cibola their home are the Rocky Mountain bighorn
sheep, Rocky Mountain mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, antelope, and bear.
Game birds include turkey, grouse, quail, and dove; spring and fall
migrations of ducks and geese use the Cibola as a resting place. There are 18
campgrounds with 249 family units and 14 picnic grounds with 382 family
units scattered through the vast domain of the Cibola National Forest.

Sandia Crest in the Sandia Mountains east of Albuquerque is a goal for many
travelers. Here on this 10,678-foot mountain top, there is a breathtaking view
of the middle Rio Grande Valley and the Estancia Valley—a jet age view of
nearly 10,000 square miles. The visitor stands on rocks which in eons past
were under the sea, as indicated by fossils found on the peak. Recent
recreation developments have been made at the Sandia Ski Area where a
new 7450-foot double chair lift will carry 700 riders an hour on a 1650-foot
vertical rise to the restaurant and upper terminal on Sandia Crest. A tramway

ascends the west face of the Sandias to meet the Ski Area chair lift at the
Crest.

The fabled Manzano Mountains rising above the plains to the west of State
Highway 10 and south of U.S. Highway 66 are fast becoming a haven for the
camper, picnicker, or sightseer willing to follow secondary roads to find the
perfect spot to enjoy the forest. Capillo Peak, 9368 feet high, Mosca Peak,
Cerro Blanco, and Manzano Peak lure the mountain climber. Legends 99
surrounding the old Spanish communities of Tajique, Torreon, and
Manzano are exciting campfire stories after a day spent exploring the high
country.

West of the Rio Grande, the San Mateo Mountains north of Grants and the
Zuni Mountains forming the backbone of the Continental Divide southeast
of Gallup can be a new experience in outdoor recreation. McGaffey Lake
recreation area, not too far from the route of the conquistadore Juan de
Oñate, is a cool retreat after crossing the desert and lava flow.

West of Socorro on U.S. Highway 60, with Magdalena as headquarters, the
high Datil, Gallinas, and Magdalena mountains and another San Mateo range
rise above the San Agustin Plains, an ancient lake bed. Mt. Withington and
Mt. Baldy, 10,787 feet high, dominate the landscape. Good roads and
developed campgrounds are available. Hunting for wild game as well as for
unusual gem stones and geologic finds are favored activities in this western
section of the Cibola. District ranger stations are at Grants, Gallup,
Magdalena, Mountainair, and Tijeras.

Lincoln National Forest

Named for the great president, the Lincoln National Forest, with
headquarters at Alamogordo, has characteristics distinguishing it from all
other National Forests in the state. The high mountains and canyons of the
Sacramento, Guadalupe, Capitan, and White mountains, rising between the
Tularosa and Pecos basins, were the backdrop and often the prize of the
Indian and cattle wars. Stories and legends of early day happenings in the
Tularosa Basin, mining operations, battles between rival cattle ranchers,
large timber operations providing lumber, poles, mine props, and railroad

ties are warp and woof of the Lincoln country. This Forest includes the high
mountains north and south of the Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation.

During the last decade, the Lincoln National Forest gained new fame as the
birthplace of the world-renowned Smokey the Bear, symbol of forest fire
prevention. In the Capitan Mountains, travelers like to visit Smokey’s
birthplace near Capitan Pass, and in the community of Capitan on U.S.
Highway 380 is a log museum which features the activities of the bear cub
found near there during a disastrous fire.

For the outdoor enthusiast, the Forest offers superb beauty, graceful and
majestic snow-covered peaks, and the peace and serenity of a forest
sanctuary. Each year, thousands of visitors from the plains seek its cool
refuge from desert heat in summer and its readily accessible sports area in
the winter. Ten campgrounds with many picnicking and camping sites are
provided. Canyons, mountains, and streams in many instances feature
anglicized names—Big Dog Canyon, Mule Peak, Bug Scuffle Hill—though
the influence of the early Spanish settler still remains in names such as
Sacramento, Agua Chiquita, Ruidoso, and Rio Penasco.

Lincoln National Forest abounds in points of interest; Monjeau Lookout
overlooks the headwaters of the Bonito, Eagle, and Ruidoso creeks as 100
well as the tall slopes of Sierra Blanca to the southwest. Sierra Blanca,
12,003 feet high, is the most southerly mountain of that elevation in the
continental United States. Just north of the peak is the Sierra Blanca
Recreation Area, with one of the finest and best-equipped skiing facilities in
the country. The restaurant and gondola lift operate during summer months,
and from Lookout Mountain observation site, near the gondola’s upper
terminal, the traveler can view White Sands, the Malpais (lava flow), and the
28,000-acre White Mountain Wild Area.

Hunters find deer of three distinct types in this Forest—the Rocky Mountain
mule deer, the desert mule deer, and the Texas white-tailed deer—and, of
course, black bear from which family Smokey the Bear came. Game birds
like wild turkey, quail, and chukkar partridge challenge the hunter. Fishing
the Lincoln’s lakes and streams is a recurring delight to the angler. Aspens
and oaks flaunt their brilliant autumn coloring against the warm green of
pines and spruces, heralding the advent of winter snows and provoking

numerous aspencades for those who wish a share in this ever new pageant of
nature’s beauty.

Like all the National Forests, the Lincoln is managed for the production and
wise use of water, timber, and forage for livestock and wildlife and outdoor
recreation. District ranger stations are at Cloudcroft, Carlsbad, Mayhill,
Ruidoso, Sacramento, and Capitan.

“Anybody for a run?” at Sierra Blanca ski area

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Gila National Forest

The Gila National Forest, with headquarters in Silver City, is a big, wild,
wonderful country in the southwestern section of the state. It has been
scarcely affected by the hustle and bustle of modern living. Within its
boundaries are 2.7 million acres of public-owned forest and range land, with
almost a quarter of it devoted to wilderness and primitive areas. It includes
the famous Gila Wilderness, the first such area set aside in the United States
and the largest in the Southwest. Most of the Gila National Forest is north of
Silver City, though part of it lies in the high country between Silver City and
Lordsburg.

The Gila is an exciting and exhilarating place to explore, sightsee, hunt, fish,
and just enjoy. Indian ruins are evident almost everywhere, but the Gila Cliff
Dwellings National Monument, adjacent to the Gila Primitive Area, is the
best preserved. Ancient tree stumps and abandoned Indian ruins record the
history of man; old mine dumps contain ores and minerals not known nor
appreciated in the heyday of local mining; microscopic plants and forest
grasses which may hold the key to man’s future health abound; and the
traveler may experience great delight in finding a dried root or branch to add
to a native rock garden; the majestic peaks, deer and other wild game, and
cool, splashing waters of a mountain creek delight the camera hobbyist.

One of the most beautiful and spectacular box canyons in the Southwest is
on Whitewater Creek about four miles northeast of Glenwood. A catwalk
built against the rock walls of the canyon enables the traveler to thrill at the
unusual beauty and colors of the canyon and the cool depths of the trout
stream below (see Frontispiece).

Good roads lead into the Gila National Forest at Reserve and Alma from
U.S. Highway 260. An enjoyable loop trip which touches the Gila
Wilderness at Willow Creek can be taken on State Highway 78 from Alma.
Another beautiful trip is through the Black Range from the junction of State
Highway 180 and U.S. Highway 85 to Silver City. Approach to the Gila
from the north can be made through Beaverhead, Apache Creek, and
Reserve, where good roads lead into the Forest.

Fifteen developed recreation areas provide camping and picnicking for the
hiker, horseback rider, and motorist and are complete with fireplaces, tables,
and benches. Elk, deer, antelope, bear, javelina, and game birds are plentiful,

and fishing in the high mountain creeks is usually rewarded with a satisfying
catch.

District ranger stations are at Magdalena, Truth or Consequences, Reserve,
Glenwood, and Mimbres.

Apache and Coronado Forests

Although small parts of these forests lie in New Mexico, they belong to
forests in Arizona. Apache National Forest touches the northern edge of the
Gila and its attractions are much like those of the latter. The Coronado
National Forest, which is in the extreme southwest corner of New Mexico,
lies in an area of aridity and is difficult to reach from New Mexico. It is
surrounded by Sonoran desert, at least in its environment in this state.

102

Gila Hunters with Happy Thanksgiving (wild turkeys)

103

These far-flung public lands in New Mexico provide many resources besides
varied kinds of outdoor recreation: timber for industry, water for city and
farm, forage for livestock and wildlife. As long as our National Forests are
protected and developed—used but not abused—they will continue to yield
rich harvests, both tangible and intangible, forever.

Lake Roberts
This 70-acre lake thirty miles northeast of Silver City on State Highway 25
lies in the Gila National Forest.

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The State Also Preserves[4]
State Monuments have been established to preserve some of New Mexico’s
historic and archeologic sites of importance. These include the mission ruins
of Abo, Quarai, Pecos, and Jemez, the Palace of the Governors in Santa Fe,
pueblo ruins at Coronado State Monument, the old Lincoln County
Courthouse, the archeologic site at Folsom Man State Monument, the plaza
and nearby Mexican Colonial-style buildings in La Mesilla, and Fort Selden.
The history recorded at these sites dates from 10,000 B.C. of Clovis Man to
1878 of the cattlemen’s Lincoln County War.

State parks cover areas of scenic beauty, geologic wonders, and historic
interest. Reservoir lakes yielding necessary water, good fishing, swimming,
and boating include Conchas, Storrie, Bluewater, El Vado, Ute, Elephant
Butte, Caballo, Alamogordo, Clayton, Morphy, and Bottomless Lakes. The
latter are natural sink holes east of Roswell. Hyde Memorial Park and Santa
Fe River Park, near and in Santa Fe, provide scenic picnic spots, as do Rock
Hound State Park near Deming and Oasis State Park near Portales and
Clovis. Picnicking, fishing, and spectacular canyons attract the visitor at Rio
Grande Gorge Park west of Taos. Weird erosional figures carved from
volcanic layers distinguish City of Rocks State Park near Deming. Pancho
Villa State Park at Columbus and Kit Carson Memorial at Taos mark historic
sites. Valley of Fires State Park west of Carrizozo preserves the black
twisted lava of a relatively recent volcanic flow.

NEW MEXICO STATE MONUMENTS

by Museum of New Mexico Staff

The State of New Mexico, recognizing the depth and color of its own
history, has established a number of state monuments preserving important

historical or archeological sites. These are administered by the Museum of
New Mexico located in Santa Fe. Any mosaic of New Mexico would be
incomplete without including these important landmarks.

El Palacio, Palace of the Governors

The main facility of the Museum of New Mexico is El Palacio. The Palace
of the Governors, on the plaza in the heart of Santa Fe, is the oldest public
building in the United States. Built in 1610, it was the seat of Spanish
government in New Mexico until 1821, of the Mexican government until
1846, and the residence of the governors appointed by the President of the
United States until 1910, when it became a unit of the Museum of New
Mexico.

It presently contains exhibits relating to New Mexico’s past, ranging from
the Indians, who arrived after crossing the Bering Sea, to the Spanish, who
came seeking gold and glory on horseback, to the wagon trains from the
east, whose goal was the end of the Santa Fe Trail, which is directly in front
of El Palacio.

El Palacio was the capitol of New Mexico for 300 years and was the 105
seat of residence for more than one hundred of New Mexico’s
governors. During that time it was captured and held by the Indians from
1680 to 1692. The Army of the Confederacy captured it for a few days
during the Civil War, and one of its occupants, Territorial Governor Lew.
Wallace, wrote his famous novel, Ben Hur, within its walls.

There are other fascinating units connected with the Museum of New
Mexico in Santa Fe. Among these are the Fine Arts Museum, emphasizing
the art and artists of the great Southwest; the International Folk Art Museum;
and the Hall of Ethnology, devoted primarily to the peoples of the
Southwest.

Abo State Monument

Off U.S. Highway 60, nine miles west of Mountainair is Abo State
Monument.

The ruins of the ancient mission church of San Gregorio de Abo and its
pueblo, built of red sandstone, are in a broad, natural amphitheater rimmed
on the north and west by the blue Manzano Mountains, which contrast
strikingly with the reddish hues of the Abo sandstone. This is one of the
Saline Missions, so called because of the nearby salt deposits in the Estancia
Basin.

It was built during the seventeenth century by Indians under the supervision
of the Franciscans, led by the venerable Fray Francisco de Acevedo. The
inhabitants of Abo were very friendly to the Spaniards. They were forced to
abandon their pueblo about 1673 because of drought and the raids of the
Apaches and Comanches. They then moved south to El Paso del Norte
where they joined in founding Isleta del Sur.

The walls of the pueblo have disintegrated with time into low mounds which
lie adjacent to the mission. The ecclesiastical structures have been excavated
and repaired for permanent preservation.

Quarai State Monument

This monument is near Punta de Agua, eight miles north of Mountainair off
State Highway 10.

The ruins of the mission church of the Immaculate Conception at Quarai are
unsurpassed in grandeur of architecture or setting by any that survive from
the labors of the early Franciscans in New Mexico. Built of red sandstone
masonry about 1628, at the Pueblo of Quarai, it was abandoned along with
the pueblo about 1674, chiefly because of Apache depredations.

One of the most venerated of the Franciscan missionaries, Fray Geronimo de
la Llana, worked and died at Quarai, beloved by his Indian charges. His
remains now rest in a crypt in the wall of St. Francis Cathedral in Santa Fe.
The ruins have been excavated and repaired for permanent preservation.

106

Coronado State Monument

This pueblo ruin is on the west bank of the Rio Grande, one mile from the
town of Bernalillo, seventeen miles north of Albuquerque, and one mile off
U.S. Highway 85, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe.

The Pueblo of Kuaua was one of the several towns of the ancient Tiguex
province. At or near Kuaua, the Coronado expedition maintained
headquarters from about 1540 to 1542 A.D. During excavation of the ancient
pueblo, more than 1200 ground-floor rooms were found and five kivas, or
underground ceremonial chambers, were uncovered.

In one of the kivas was found a highly important group of ancient wall
paintings. This kiva has been reconstructed and the paintings restored.

The old walls of Kuaua have been rebuilt to a few feet in height so that the
structure can be seen. A museum has been erected on the site to exhibit the
material found during the excavation and to portray life in the Tiguex
province. The Coronado State Monument and Museum commemorates the
meeting, more than four hundred years ago, of the elements that influenced
the culture of New Mexico—the Indian and the conquistadore.

A curator-custodian is on duty at the Coronado Museum headquarters, which
is open all year.

Pecos State Monument

Off U.S. Highway 84-85, three miles south of Pecos, is this State
Monument. It became a National Monument during late 1966.

This mission, the Church of Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de Porciuncula at
Pecos, dates from the year 1617. It is fitting that this mission, which was one
of the first two, with Jemez, established by the Franciscans in New Mexico,
should bear the name “Our Lady of the Angels of Porciuncula,” for with his
own hands, St. Francis, founder of the Order, rebuilt the decaying chapel of

Our Lady of Angels at Assisi, which he called his Porciuncula or “Little
Inheritance,” and there established the headquarters of the Franciscan Order.

Pecos was well fortified because of its location on the eastern edge of the
pueblo area and its contact with the Plains Indians. It resisted the raids for
many years, but when a smallpox epidemic in 1838 reduced the population
to seventeen survivors, they moved to Jemez Pueblo, abandoning Pecos.

A part of the massive adobe walls of the ruined mission has been excavated
and repaired, as have some of the rubble masonry walls.

Jemez State Monument

This Monument is at Jemez Springs, sixty miles north of Albuquerque on
State Highway 4.

One of the finest early mission churches was established at Giusewa Pueblo.
Giusewa means “place of the boiling waters” in the language of the 107
Jemez Indians, and refers to the famous Jemez Hot Springs nearby.
The mission, with Pecos, was one of the two earliest in New Mexico. These
were founded one hundred and fifty-two years before the first California
missions.

The original settlement of the Giusewa Pueblo goes back hundreds of years
before Columbus’ discovery of America, as does the settlement of the other
pueblos, Quarai, Abo, and Pecos.

Guisewa Pueblo became extinct during the last quarter of the seventeenth
century, a result of the consolidation of several pueblos of the Jemez
province into fewer and larger towns. Only one town, the present Jemez
Pueblo, survives from that time. Excavation and repairs have been made in
the ruins of both the pueblo and the mission church.

La Mesilla State Monument

This colorful State Monument consists of the plaza in the village of Mesilla,
near Las Cruces, and the buildings nearby. The Monument preserves an
aspect of the Mexican Colonial culture and architecture which flourished
here in the early nineteenth century. The Gadsden Purchase of 1853 was
celebrated in the Mesilla Plaza and the famous desperado, Billy the Kid,
once stood trial here for his life. During the Civil War, Mesilla was briefly
the Confederate capitol of the Territory of Arizona.

Lincoln State Monument

Located in Lincoln, on U.S. Highway 380, and known as the Old Lincoln
County Courthouse, the first floor of this Monument was the mercantile
store of L. G. Murphy & Co. in the 1870’s, during the Lincoln County War.
The second floor was purchased in 1870 by the county for a court house.

It was from this building that Billy the Kid made his daring escape on April
28, 1881, after killing his two guards. A caretaker and a museum attendant
are on duty at all times. Mementos of the infamous Lincoln County cattle
war are featured.

Fort Selden State Monument

The crumbling adobe walls of Fort Selden lie about seventeen miles north of
Las Cruces just west of Interstate Highway 25. The history of this fort, given
in the article on Frontier Forts, was highlighted by the brief stay of General
Douglas MacArthur, who spent some of his childhood within the fort’s walls
and played in the adjoining green valley of the Rio Grande.

NEW MEXICO STATE PARKS

by The Editors

New Mexico is blessed with a wealth of natural resources and perhaps most
important is the abundance of sites with outstanding scenic and recreational

facilities. The contrasts apparent in the mosaic of New Mexico are 108
also seen in the pattern of its state parks. They range from desert
regions with sparse and exotic flora and fauna to the high mountain canyons
choked with Douglas fir and aspen where even in the summer evenings one
huddles close to the fire for warmth. And the mosaic shifts from waterless
areas amid geologic wonders to wide expanses of open water well stocked
with trout. The parks are administered by the New Mexico State Park and
Recreation Commission. Wherever possible, areas have been set aside for
the permanent enjoyment of the people of New Mexico and their visitors.

Bottomless Lakes State Park

Bottomless Lakes State Park, established in 1936, was one of the first of the
New Mexico state parks. It is surprising to find this treasure of great natural
beauty in an area so dominated by aridity. There are six small lakes in the
park, of which Lea Lake is the largest with about 15 acres of surface area.
The water of the lakes is crystal clear and varies in depth from 45 feet in the
shallow lakes to about 100 feet in the deeper ones. They were created as
“sink holes” when water dissolved large areas of underground gypsum,
resulting in cave-ins. The lakes now offer extensive recreational facilities for
the people of New Mexico and for tourists passing through or visiting the
area. Camping, swimming, and boating are available. Pecos “diamonds,”
small quartz crystals, can be found in the neighboring hills.

Conchas Lake State Park

Sketch of Bottomless Lake

Conchas Lake is one of the largest sustained bodies of water in New Mexico.
Conchas Dam, which holds the water of the Canadian River, forms the lake.
The main dam is 235 feet above the roadway and is 1250 feet in length. At
capacity it holds 600,000 acre-feet of water. The reservoir serves 109
many purposes: flood control, local irrigation, camping and boating
facilities, and fishing and water skiing.

The Canadian River has its origin on Raton Mesa and flows southward to
Conchas Dam, then turns abruptly eastward. On its way across the High
Plains, it cuts into some of the oldest rocks that can be seen on the western
edge of the plains, the Dockum Group of Late Triassic age. The best place to
view the earth-building processes of this region is where State Highway 120
crosses the gorge of the Canadian River between Wagon Mound and Roy.

Hyde Memorial State Park

Here, at an elevation of 9000 feet, among tall pines and aspens is one of the
most scenic of all New Mexico’s parks. High in the Sangre de Cristo
Mountains, eight miles northeast of Santa Fe, the park offers an excellent
example of the scenic beauty in New Mexico rarely seen by most travelers

passing through the state. Easily accessible from Santa Fe, Hyde Park gives
a few moments, or a few days, respite in the cool refreshment of a mountain
forest. Excellent picnic and camping facilities are available. For those who
want to penetrate the mountain vastness even farther, there are a number of
well-marked trails for hiking.

Navajo Lake State Park

Navajo Dam on the San Juan River lies twenty-five miles east of Aztec at an
elevation of 6200 feet in a region of spectacular scenic beauty. Camping,
picnicking, boating, fishing, and water skiing facilities are available, and a
lodge is under construction. This is expected to be one of the most important
sports and recreational centers in northwest New Mexico in coming years.

Pancho Villa State Park

Named for the famous Mexican bandit and revolutionary leader, the park is
located near Columbus, New Mexico, site of Villa’s most infamous raid. In
the dead of the night on March 10, 1916, Villa and his men entered the town
of Columbus and did their bloody work. When they left, seventeen local
people were dead, including eight soldiers and nine civilians. The Mexican
force suffered heavy casualties, perhaps as many as 125 killed. The town of
Columbus was badly damaged and has only recently begun to recover from
the blow. The expedition of General Pershing, then on duty along the
Mexican border, was organized to hunt down Villa and his men. Pershing
and a United States military unit spent three months inside Mexico, only to
return to the United States empty-handed. The park commemorates one of
the most interesting and tragic episodes in New Mexico history. Within the
park, one can see excellent examples of Sonoran desert flora. Picnic
facilities and camping sites are available.

110

El Vado Lake State Park

El Vado Dam is a part of the complex Rio Grande Conservancy District
flood and irrigation project. It holds the water of the Chama River, which
flows west, south, and then east into the Rio Grande. The country
surrounding El Vado Lake is beautiful and contains some of the finest trout
fishing streams in the state. At the lake itself there are camping facilities,
including trailer spaces (no hookups for water or electricity). The lake is at
an elevation of 7000 feet and is one of the important flood-control bodies of
water in New Mexico.

Bluewater State Park

Bluewater Lake, at an elevation of 7460 feet, is a spot of spectacular beauty.
Adjacent is a 160-acre wooded park. The area offers boating, fishing, and
swimming. The lake was formed by impounding the waters from the Zuni
Mountains’ watershed, and it fills three great depressions in high tablelands.
The dam, built across two lofty natural walls of solid rock, the San Andres
Limestone, holds a lake a mile wide and seven and a half miles long.
Bluewater Lake State Park was the first of New Mexico’s parks, so
designated in 1929.

Storrie Lake State Park

Storrie Lake State Park surrounds a small lake north of Las Vegas, New
Mexico. It lies on the west edge of the High Plains and is an excellent
recreation area. The lake is at an elevation of 6400 feet and has a limited
number of picnic and camping facilities. It is stocked with rainbow and
brown trout and crappies.

City of Rocks State Park

This is one of the most unusual of the state parks, and one of the finest for
picnicking and for camping. Located in the unusual rock formation known as
the Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff northwest of Deming, it is a source of
wonder to all visitors. Suddenly, in a seemingly flat, desert plain, one comes
upon these grotesque outcrops. In the coolness of the shade of these ancient

rocks one can survey vistas under an azure sky that are almost breathless.
This is the desert Southwest at its very best; not the harsh, unfriendly desert
of movies and fiction, but a lovely spot in which to enjoy to the fullest the
wonders of nature.

Kit Carson Memorial Park

This 20-acre plot of grass, flower beds, trees, and picnic tables lies on the
northeast edge of Taos and contains the graves of Kit Carson and Padre José
Martinez. Not far away is the Kit Carson House, a group of adobe buildings
surrounding a patio, that was Carson’s headquarters, office, and home from
1858 to 1866. This Indian fighter, trapper, hunter, and trader is most famous
for defeating the Navajos in Canyon de Chelly and marching 7000 of these
Indians across New Mexico to a reservation at Bosque Redondo near 111
Fort Sumner. However, during his eight years as Indian agent, Carson
worked continuously for the welfare of his charges.

Oasis State Park

One of the state’s newest parks, Oasis is seven miles northeast of Portales
along State Highway 467. This shady place of cottonwood trees amid sand
dunes has long been a favorite picnic spot. The sand dunes form an irregular
ridge separating Portales Valley to the south from Blackwater Draw to the
north. In Blackwater Draw have been found bones of ancient animals and
the weapons used by early man some 12,000 years ago. Portales Valley is the
sand-filled remnant of the early Pleistocene Brazos River Valley that once
drained eastward into Texas. About 800,000 years ago, the Pecos River to
the west “captured” the headwaters of this former Brazos River and left the
Portales Valley high and dry.

Valley of Fires State Park

This park, about five miles west of Carrizozo on U.S. Highway 380, features
picnic tables amid the Carrizozo lava flow, or malpais, one of the youngest
in the United States. The lava flowed out of Little Black Peak about 1000

years ago in a series of individual “rivers” of hot black basalt. The composite
flow is 44 miles long, 0.5 to 6 miles wide, and is made up of about 1 cubic
mile of basalt; it moved southward down the lowest part of the northern
Tularosa Basin.

Climb around on the lava and note the ropy nature of the surface (pahoehoe
of the Hawaiians), the many frozen gas bubbles in the rocks (vesicles), the
squeeze-ups where once-liquid lava protrudes through cracks in the
hardened crust, the pressure ridges where the hardened crust arched and
broke, and collapsed lava tunnels where the outer lava froze and the molten
interior ran out, leaving an open tube or cave.

Ute Lake State Park

Ute Dam, two miles southwest of Logan, provides a 4200-acre reservoir
along the Canadian River and Ute Creek stocked with rainbow trout, bass,
crappie, and catfish. Camping, picnicking, and boating facilities are
available along the valley walls, which are cut in the brown Santa Rosa
Sandstone and overlying maroon to green Chinle shales.

Santa Fe River State Park

Bordering the Santa Fe River in downtown Santa Fe, this city park merges
with the State Capitol grounds. It provides picnic tables and benches in the
shade of tall trees amid the picturesque ancient city.

Elephant Butte Lake State Park

The giant Elephant Butte Reservoir, impounded behind the dam five miles
east of Truth or Consequences, provides year-around fishing, boating, water
skiing, and camping. Built in brown to gray Cretaceous sandstone and shale,
the dam is overlooked by the brownish-black volcanic neck that is 112
Elephant Butte. Eastern shores are carved from the purplish and
maroon McRae layers. This is the main storage reservoir for the water that

irrigates the lush Rio Grande Valley to the south near Las Cruces and El
Paso.

Caballo Lake State Park

Caballo Reservoir, downstream from Elephant Butte, offers excellent
facilities for water sports, its bass and crappie fishing being notable. The
State Park is fourteen miles south of Truth or Consequences and six miles
north of the dam. The spectacular rugged front of the Caballo Mountains
looms to the east, with sharp canyons and ribbed cliffs along the valley walls
cut in the tan layers of the Santa Fe Formation.

Rio Grande Gorge State Park

From Velarde (twelve miles north of Espanola) for seventy miles northward
to the Colorado state line, the Rio Grande Gorge is carved 500 to 800 feet
into black basalt flows and tan Santa Fe Formation layers. Fishing is exciting
in the fast waters, although the northern part of the gorge is difficult to reach.
Foot and horseback trails lead to the bottom at the mouth of Red River west
of Questa where picnic units have been built.

Alamogordo Lake State Park

The dam of Alamogordo Reservoir blocks the Pecos River and Alamogordo
Creek northwest of Fort Sumner. Picnic, camp, and water sports facilities lie
along U.S. Highway 84 about sixteen miles northwest of Fort Sumner.
Juniper trees dot the low valley walls where the maroon to green shale and
sandstone of the Chinle Formation crop out.

Rock Hound State Park

Lying on the west flank of the Little Florida Mountains, Rock Hound State
Park, twelve miles southeast of Deming, offers camping and picnicking
facilities and many varieties of agate in the volcanic rocks. A few miles to

the south tower cliffs of the Florida Mountains, a landmark of southwestern
New Mexico and also happy hunting grounds for rock hounds.

Clayton Lake State Park

Serving the northeast corner of New Mexico, Clayton Lake State Park lies
twelve miles north of Clayton on State Highway 370, impounded by a dam
across Cieneguilla Creek. The stream bed cuts brown Dakota Sandstone, and
rolling grassy hills to the south overlie weathered basalt flows.

Morphy Lake State Park

Morphy Lake, backed up from a dam across Rito Morphy, lies three miles
west of Ledoux in southwestern Mora County and thirty-one miles north of
Las Vegas off State Highway 94. The 15-acre lake provides fine trout fishing
and picnicking amid stately ponderosa pines, with the canyon walls formed
by tier upon tier of Pennsylvanian limestones.

113

Angling in the Desert’s Waters
[5]
by Fred A. Thompson

Water in the great Southwest, of which the State of New Mexico is a part,
has made for a colorful and historical background. Water, perhaps more than
anything else, has molded the lives of all inhabitants of the area from the
pueblo and lodge of the early Indian to the civilization we know today. The
fish and wildlife resources as related to water have played an important part
in everyday living and economy.

From data gathered by archeologists there are indications that the early
Indian used fish as part of his diet. Fish bones are found in excavated ruins,
and fish pictures are occasionally found as petroglyphs and on pottery (fig.
1). Although the use of fish was limited, it was widespread throughout the
Southwest, not being confined to one Indian tribe or nation.

Figure 1. Bowl depicting fish, found in ruins of Mimbres Indians

The use of fish by the white settler was likewise restricted, but it 114
increased as time progressed and knowledge and equipment
improved. There is only limited reference to fish for either food or sport
fishing until after the middle of the nineteenth century. Early explorers made
records of fish in various waters of New Mexico and in most instances
described the new species.

Originally, the waters of the desert also could be described as fish deserts.
Only three recognized kinds of food fish, as we know them today, inhabited
the waters of this region. The trout was limited to the cutthroat species or
subspecies. These were found as one subspecies in the Rio Grande drainage
and the other subspecies in the Arkansas River drainage. The latter is

reduced in numbers but a few remnants remain in the headwaters. The
former is being artificially propagated and is being maintained successfully.
The trout found in the Gila River drainage, originally thought to be a
cutthroat, then a rainbow, has been recently described as a separate species.
These trout, like the Arkansas River fish, remain as remnants in the
headwaters. For the most part, the native trout have had a difficult time
surviving in recent years because of the change in water and land use; the
habitat has become exceedingly restricted.

Channel catfish were originally found in the Rio Grande drainage and
continue to maintain themselves satisfactorily. Water and land manipulation,
however, present a serious threat, even to this hardy fish.

There are records that the gulf eel once came up the Rio Grande during part
of its life cycle. This fish of the ocean has long since disappeared—the fate
of many migrating fish when confronted with man-made obstructions in the
watercourses.

Waterfowl were in great abundance once, in both the upper Rio Grande and
the Pecos River drainages. These birds utilized the vast marsh areas of the
valleys during spring and fall migrations. It is presumed that there was very
little nesting of waterfowl in the early years.

The mammals that live in or near the water, principally fur bearers, were in
abundance as long as water habitat was abundant and prior to unrestricted
trapping. With the exception of the beaver (since restocked and protected),
many of the fur bearers once numerous are now extremely limited in
numbers or approaching extinction. There is only an occasional sighting of
the otter which was once relatively plentiful.

Habitat for the various water mammals, birds, and fish is found in the
drainage systems. The major system is the Rio Grande that flows through the
center of the state; the Pecos River is its tributary. In this system are six of
the seven life zones and conditions of habitat suitable to almost any form of
water-dwelling life.

There is a noticeable habitat change due to several causes, such as ranching,
irrigation, urban development, and a general minor change in climatic

conditions. Many variations are in direct relation, such as improper grazing,
unscreened irrigation diversions, dams, and sewage disposal, to mention a
few. There is an indication of a long-term warming of the general 115
Southwest, and though this change is fractional, it does have a basic
effect on habitat.

The effect of habitat change can be noted in the life of the cutthroat trout.
Early records reveal that this trout, liking cool clear water, was once caught
in the Rio Grande in the lower part of the box canyon north of Peñablanca. It
was also caught near the town of Pecos. The fish can no longer survive in the
changed water conditions and is found now only in the headwaters. Even the
catfish has difficulty surviving in some sections of the rivers for lack of
water. In the lower Pecos, the catfish finds difficulty in reproducing because
of the high salt content of the river water.

As has already been noted, the fish that are recognized as game fish today
were in short supply a hundred years ago. It was not until the railroads
entered New Mexico that fish were imported to supplement the native
supply. In an unpublished report by the author, it was pointed out that almost
every kind of fish propagated in the United States has been imported and
stocked in waters of New Mexico. Of these, some have survived beyond
expectations and others have disappeared entirely.

When the railroads entered New Mexico, there were already requests for fish
in the hands of the United States Fish Commission. Fish were delivered in
especially designed fish-distribution cars and the consignee met the cars at
designated rail sidings. From the distribution cars, the fish were further
transported by wagons in water containers of various descriptions, usually
wooden barrels or watertight wooden boxes, to streams or lakes as assigned.
Because of the mode of travel at the time, the quantities of fish so stocked
were limited, but they did provide seed stock from which their population
could grow. Fish were packed on back and on horses into relatively
inaccessible areas. The procedures and techniques of fish transportation have
evolved to the present highly specialized equipment and methods of
operation.

It is interesting to note that the quantities of fish imported and planted
increased in relation to the improved transportation. The early records

indicate the numbers in the hundreds and in just a few locations; later
plantings increased both in numbers stocked and in waters stocked. The first
fish imported to supplement the native fish was the German carp. In fact,
this was the only fish imported for eight consecutive years, 1883-1890.
These early plantings were followed by catfish, German brown trout, brook
trout, yellow perch, largemouth black bass, crappie, rock bass, tench,
rainbow trout, strawberry bass, black spotted trout, bream, smallmouth bass,
salmon, white bass, and walleyed pike.

All the fish imported are classed as game fish except carp and tench (the
latter did not survive). The various species met their habitat requirements,
and although there were no survivals in some locations, they did acclimate in
others and have developed into a substantial fishery. Some species are
predominant while others, like the rock bass, are remnant and taken only
occasionally. The fish most sought now and predominant in the fishery are
rainbow (fig. 2) and brown trout, catfish, largemouth bass, crappie, and
walleyed pike.

116

Figure 2. Joy of the fisherman, rainbow trout

Management of the fishery has progressed with technical development.
When fish were planted in early years, very little thought was given about
the habitat except that it was water. There was little known of the

requirements of fish. As a result, fish were placed in waters only to perish.
To maintain a fish population now, all techniques available are employed
and fish are stocked where water and species are compatible.

Water in the desert is always at a premium for the inhabitants. The early
Indian cultures used water for irrigation, and there are still vestiges of canals
used by Indians to convey water to their crops. The use of water by the
Indians then had little or no effect on fish life, but as irrigation development
increased, a new habitat was formed. The once free-flowing rivers 117
became dry in places, and new waters were developed in the drainage
ditches in the Rio Grande Valley. The competition for water is very keen and
fish and wildlife uses come after domestic, commercial, and irrigation
purposes.

The water requirements are so great, in fact, that it has been necessary to
control water and its use by laws. The law of 1876 provided that water could
not be refused a traveler. Community ditch commissioners were established
by law in 1895. The basic laws governing water rights were established in
1907. These laws have been amended or added to as conditions dictate.
Conservancy districts were recognized by law in 1927, and underground
waters came under law in 1931. The Interstate Stream Commission was
created in 1935. At present, New Mexico water laws are considered some of
the best in the nation; however, it has been only recently that water for fish
and wildlife has been recognized as one of the beneficial uses.

Converse to the use of water to the detriment of fish and wildlife, there are
several areas in which water has been developed and impounded to the
benefit of the fishery. Although some impoundments were single-purpose
developments, they supply habitat in conservation pools or during years of
abundant water supply.

Figure 3. Find the elephant!—at Elephant Butte reservoir

Waters impounded by man but used as a fishery are Elephant Butte
Reservoir (fig. 3), 40,096 surface acres when full. It contains largemouth
black bass, crappie, walleyed pike, catfish, and sunfish. This lake has not
been full for many years; but like Alamogordo Reservoir (4650 surface
acres), Caballo Reservoir (11,532 surface acres), McMillan Reservoir 118
(2500 surface acres), Conchas Reservoir (16,640 surface acres), and
Avalon Reservoir (950 surface acres), it has produced excellent fishing.
These are large irrigation lakes and are all stocked generally with the same
species of fish.

The lakes built for irrigation but utilized for trout are usually much smaller.
The principal ones are Navajo Reservoir (15,600 surface acres) and El Vado
(3500 surface acres). There are also Miami Lake (190 surface acres) and
several others of small size.

In addition, several small lakes have been built or acquired for the primary
purpose of providing fishing. A few of these are Hopewell Lake (14 surface
acres), Lake Roberts (73 surface acres), and Charette Lakes (400 surface
acres). There are many more varying in size. The smaller lakes are primarily
for trout fishing, but a few in the southern part of the state do have species
usually found in warmer waters.

In the process of reservoir construction, waterfowl habitat and resting areas
are created. These new lakes, however, are a poor substitute for the natural
marshes and potholes originally frequented by ducks and geese. Water
mammals, likewise, find the artificial impoundments undesirable in
comparison, and the increased water has added very little to this resource.

Every water development has with it the appeal of recreation other than
fishing. Now a lake must have such facilities as picnic and camping areas,
launching ramps, good accessibility, boat rentals, and a concessionaire.
There is no single-purpose reservoir in respect to recreation.

Finally, it is concluded that the old adage, “fishing ain’t what it used to be,”
should no longer be true for New Mexico. The fishing water has been added
to greatly and the fish are managed better. The only problem is one of
increased human population. Where there was one fisherman fifty years ago,
there are a thousand now.

Truly, the water of the desert is used to the limit.

119

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
The past living today—San Miguel, early mission church still used daily
in Santa Fe

120

The Indians of New Mexico
by Paige W. Christiansen

People entering New Mexico today find Indian cultures and Indian villages
with traditions and ways of life that have changed little in many centuries. In
this respect, man in the twentieth century shares an experience in common
with Coronado, Oñate, and all the other conquistadores who visited New
Mexico so many generations ago. They, too, found the ancient Indian
cultures strangely magnetic and exciting. If we could but remove the asphalt
highways, the billboards, the telephone poles, and fences that seem always to
surround us, the Indian villages in many parts of the state would look very
much as they looked to the early Spanish explorers who were the first
Europeans to see them. To meet the Indians of New Mexico and to visit their
homes, if possible, is one of the greatest experiences available to residents
and visitors alike. Although words are inadequate to give the true flavor and
excitement of the Indian and his way of life, they are all we have to
introduce the various people who make up the Indian population of New
Mexico.

There are two main groups that should be known. First, the Pueblo Indians,
those who developed sedentary village life and who are the descendants of
the first Americans in New Mexico. Second, the “newcomers” to the state,
those who, for some reason or other, moved into the state to replace earlier
cultures. Let us, then, visit some of these people’s homes.

Acoma Pueblo

Acoma Indian Pueblo, the Sky City, is famous in both history and legend.
Built on the top of a lofty, almost inaccessible, redrock mesa some 357 feet
high, it is one of the most picturesque of all New Mexico Indian pueblos. No

other pueblo gives one such a clear sense of living in ancestral times. The
movements of the people up and down the steep trails, the untiring vistas,
and the ancient homesites are reminiscent of the life and times of the cliff
dwellers. Here the archeologists can search out the secrets of ancient life by
direct observation. Here, too, is brought forth in the fullness of its bloom an
Indian culture of outstanding achievement.

The Indians of Acoma participated in the great Pueblo Revolt of 1680. They
killed their priest, Fray Lucas Maldonado, in the first frenzy of the rebellion.
Because of their isolation and the inaccessibility of the village, they were
spared the vengeance of the Spaniards under de Vargas during the reconquest
in 1692. There was an attempt by the Spanish in 1696 to take Acoma, but
they succeeded only in destroying the crops and in capturing five Acoma
warriors. The Indians held out until July 6, 1699, when they submitted to the
Spanish governor of New Mexico, Governor Cubero. Thereafter, Acoma
became an integral part of the mission complex established in New Mexico
by the Spanish.

121

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Starr Jenkins)
Aspen Basin in Sangre de Cristo Mountains near Santa Fe

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside)
Tent Rocks in Jemez Mountains

Acoma is noted for its excellent pottery. The ware is fashioned from 122
clay of fine quality, is very well fired, and is carefully decorated in
typical Acoma designs. Here is an excellent example of Indian artistic
ability. Some weaving, such as belts and headbands, is engaged in and a few
baskets are produced, but Acoma is most famous for its pottery.

One of the landmarks at Acoma is the great church which brave Fray Juan
Ramirez toiled to create in the early seventeenth century. Surely there are
few memorials of the Spanish epoch in the Southwest that present such a
picture of dauntless faith in spiritual ideals as does this fortress church
silhouetted high against the sky above the bare-rock mesa. It measures 150
feet in length and has walls that are 60 feet high and 10 feet thick. Timbers
40 feet long and 14 inches through support the roof and make a handsome
ceiling. There are, of course, no seats and little decoration. And what a

location for so magnificent a spiritual center it is! From there one may lift
his eyes in rapt admiration of the splendid panorama of the great plain and
the encircling mountains, and thereby appreciate more fully the work of the
Deity.

The Acoma are agriculturists, cultivating their lands by irrigation; they raise
corn, wheat, melons, squashes, and hay. Now, however, most of the people
of Acoma do not live on their mesa which protected them for so many
centuries. The dangers of attack are no longer present, and the farmers find it
more advantageous to live closer to their irrigated plots. The result is that the
people of Acoma are now scattered throughout several villages. Their great
culture, their traditions, their fierce pride, and their deep reverence for their
spectacular history is visible in their faces and manners. Acoma, the Sky
City, remains the eternal city of New Mexico.

Cochiti Pueblo

The Indians of Cochiti Pueblo claim the famed cave dwellings and ruins of
the Rito de Frijoles (Bandelier National Monument) as their ancestral home.
Failure of timber and water resources plus the constant attack of the various
Apache Indian tribes over several centuries caused the residents of the Rito
de Frijoles to seek a better home. This probably occurred about 1200 A.D. In
1598, when Juan de Oñate, colonizer of New Mexico, arrived, the Indians of
Cochiti were living in their present village. For a short time following the
reconquest of New Mexico by de Vargas after the Pueblo Revolt, the people
of Cochiti lived in Cañada de Cochiti, which was in a better position for
defense against Spanish reconquest. In 1694, de Vargas took the canyon
village by storm, burned it, and forced the people to return to the older
village of Cochiti where they remain to this day.

The population of the village is slightly more than 300, and there has been
little growth in the past thirty years. Like the other New Mexico pueblos, the
main occupation is agriculture. Their ancient traditions are well 123
preserved, among them the well-known Rain Dance held during the
annual festival of San Buenaventura in July.

Located at the pueblo is the ancient and beautiful Spanish mission, San
Buenaventura de Cochiti, built in the early seventeenth century. To step into
this church is to return to the Spanish days of yore. There are no seats,
women kneel on one side, the men on the other, and the services are a
mixture of old world orthodoxy and new world Indian traditions. Cochiti
represents one of the finest examples of modern Pueblo Indian life.

Isleta Pueblo

Isleta Pueblo is the southernmost of the pueblos lying along the green and
lush Rio Grande Valley today. It stands on the same site it occupied when
Coronado came in 1540 and was a stopping place for every Spanish explorer
and traveler who passed through New Mexico. It did not take part in the
Pueblo Revolt of 1680, but rather joined the Spanish in the retreat to El Paso
del Norte (modern Juarez, Mexico). There they founded a new village just to
the south of modern El Paso which they called Isleta del Sur. The main
village of Isleta, in New Mexico, remained deserted until 1709 when it was
re-established by Fray Juan de la Peña.

Two different missions were built at Isleta Pueblo. The first, San Antonio de
Isleta, was constructed about 1629. The church was burned in 1680, and in
1681 was being used as a sheep corral. Between 1680 and the completion of
the reconquest, it was completely destroyed. The second mission, still
remaining at Isleta, called San Agustin de Isleta, was built in 1709 on the old
site.

Agriculture is the primary pursuit of the Indians of Isleta, although they do
considerable stock grazing. The population of Isleta is nearly 2000 persons.
The annual fiesta takes place in late August.

Jemez Pueblo

The Jemez Indians were first seen by Europeans in 1541 when they were
visited by Captain Francisco de Barrio-Nuevo, of Coronado’s expedition. He
counted seven villages, naming them Aguas Calientes because of the many
hot springs in the canyon of the Jemez River. The ancient pueblos are now

all in ruins, with one preserved as the Jemez State Monument. The present
pueblo, built on the mesa where the Jemez River leaves the mountains, was
constructed after the Pueblo Revolt. The Jemez people fled their older
villages during the reconquest and for a time lived with the Navajo, whom
they disliked but preferred to the Spanish.

There have been four notable missions among the Jemez Indians. The first,
San Diego de Jemez Mission, was built in the early seventeenth century. It
was one of the most successful of the New Mexico missions; reportedly,
more than 6000 converts were made among the Jemez Indians before 1622.
Because of the constant attacks of the Navajo, the traditional enemies of the
Jemez people, the ancient pueblos gradually declined and were finally
completely abandoned after Jemez participation in the Pueblo Revolt. 124
The ruins of this church, now the Jemez State Monument, are among
the most picturesque in all New Mexico. Its walls are three feet thick and
were put together with intricate care. In its time, it must have been a
beautiful building.

The second, San Juan de Los Jemez Mission, was built in 1617 at a village
located near the junction of the Guadalupe and Jemez rivers, six miles north
of the present pueblo. The ruins are faint but still visible. The mission was
abandoned in 1680.

The third mission had a very brief history. It was called San Jose de los
Jemez Mission and was located near San Juan de Los Jemez, of which it was
a visita. Like San Juan, San Jose was abandoned in 1680.

The present mission was founded early in the eighteenth century and is one
of the interesting things to visit at Jemez Pueblo. This old church is the
center of the annual festival held at Jemez on November 12.

Jemez is noted for its splendid presentation of the Buffalo Dance in the
winter and for its Corn Dances during the November festival.

Laguna Pueblo

Laguna Pueblo is the youngest and second largest of the pueblos in New
Mexico. Built in 1697, shortly after the reconquest by de Vargas, the name
was derived from a large lake which existed at one time just west of the
village. In addition to the main village, a number of small settlements have
developed where the terrain is suitable for agriculture, the main occupation
of the Lagunas. The most important of these villages are Paguate, Encinal,
Paraje, Mesita, Seama, and Casa Blanca. The Laguna Indians are of mixed
origin, composed of four linguistic stocks: Tano, Keres, Shoshone, and Zuni.

Rock-walled Santa Maria mission, Laguna Reservation

Although the occupation of the pueblo was traditionally agriculture, in 125
recent years a moderate revolution has been visible. The people of
Laguna are in the middle of one of the richest uranium mining areas in the
world, and many of them have been employed in mining activities. Also, the
pueblo lies on the main line of the Santa Fe Railway, allowing some
employment with the railroad. Laguna Pueblo is one of the most progressive
of all the Indian groups in New Mexico. It has a population well in excess of
3000.

Located at Laguna is the San Jose de Laguna mission, built in 1699. The
plaster on the building is native earth. Indian symbols are painted on the
ceiling of the chancel, and a large picture of St. Joseph done on elk skin
hangs on the reredos. The halos on the saints are triangular rather than
circular. The altar is covered with animal skins painted with Christian
symbols.

Nambé Pueblo

Nambé is one of the smallest of the pueblos but is located in an area noted
for its scenic beauty and climate. Its population is less than 200. It was not
always so small; during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the
population was greatly reduced by intertribal war and witchcraft executions.
The Nambé people played an active role in the pueblo rebellion of 1680,
murdering their priest and destroying their church.

The original church at Nambé was one of the first missions founded after the
establishment of the first European settlement of San Gabriel at San Juan in
1598. Destroyed in 1680, it was rebuilt in 1696. In 1729, the converts had
increased to such numbers that a new church was required. This church
remained in use until 1909 when, because of carelessness in keeping it in
repair, the roof collapsed during a storm. The annual Nambé fiesta is held in
early October.

Picurís Pueblo

Picurís is seldom visited by the tourist, for it lies in the mountains forty
miles north of Santa Fe and can only be reached over a gravel road. The
people of Picurís were among the most warlike of the normally peaceful
pueblo peoples. They participated actively in the pueblo rebellion in 1680,
killing their priest and all the Spaniards in the vicinity. They also participated
in the battle for Santa Fe which broke Spanish power in New Mexico until
1692. After the revolt, fear of the Spanish caused them to abandon their
village until they were induced to return in 1706. The population of Picurís
is very small, being slightly more than 100.

One of the few old missions left in New Mexico, the San Lorenzo de Picurís
church shows the strange mixture of Spanish and Indian traditions. Near the
door is a human skull covered with an old cloth, but unfortunately, its story
is lost to antiquity.

An interesting feature at Picurís is the unusual construction seen in some of
the buildings. Made of puddled adobe, they are the oldest still standing of
any pueblo in the Rio Grande Valley. The buildings were made by 126
pouring adobe mud into wall forms. This is the same kind of
construction that is found at Casa Grande, Arizona, one of the significant
prehistoric ruins in the United States.

Pojoaque Pueblo

Pojoaque, though still listed among the Indian villages of New Mexico, is no
longer populated by Indians. Two missions were established at Pojoaque in
the early Spanish days, the first shortly after 1600. This was destroyed in the
rebellion in 1680. Later, in 1706, a new church was constructed which is still
in use. The Indian population of Pojoaque was gradually reduced until, in
1900, the few remaining families abandoned the village. Since that time,
Spanish-American families have occupied the buildings. It is a picturesque
village seldom seen, for it is hidden from the passing tourist by a hill. Yet
some of the buildings in this ancient village date back to pre-Coronado times
and are a significant part of the romance of New Mexico.

Sandia Pueblo

Sandia Pueblo is a remnant of the Tiguex villages visited by Coronado in
1540. A mission was created at Sandia shortly after the colonization by
Oñate, and it was an important mission center until the Pueblo Revolt. After
the revolt, Sandia peoples scattered rather than again submit to Spanish
control. Many of them went to live with the Hopi and there founded the
village of Payupki on the middle mesa, the walls of which can still be found.
After 62 years, in 1742, a few families returned to the Rio Grande Valley to
found the modern pueblo. The old mission remains visible, although reduced

to a rubble of adobe. Sandia Pueblo remains a small village, containing less
than 150 people.

San Felipe Pueblo

San Felipe is one of the most conservative of the pueblos and has retained
much of its Indian heritage despite the impact of Spanish and American
influences. It has a close affinity with its neighbors, particularly Santo
Domingo only five miles distant. San Felipe was a well-established village
when the Spanish first arrived. Its people joined in heartily when the pueblo
uprising began in 1680 but abandoned their village during a Spanish
counteroffensive in 1681 (which failed). When reconquest was completed in
1692, the people returned to their village. Thereafter, they remained friendly
to the Spanish and suffered many attacks from the Navajo, who hated them
for this loyalty.

One of the finest remaining structures showing early Franciscan mission
architecture can be seen at the San Felipe church. The present church is not
the original mission, for three different churches were located at San Felipe
over the centuries. The first was built in 1605 and destroyed during the
Pueblo Revolt. The second was built in a new part of the village in 1694, but
shortly after 1700, the village was moved and a new church 127
constructed. The latter church is the one now in use at San Felipe. On
May 1, the nearly 1000 people of the pueblo celebrate their annual fiesta.

San Ildefonso Pueblo

San Ildefonso has gained fame throughout the world because of the
excellence of its pottery. The high quality and general acceptance of this
commodity has made the village prosperous. It boasts some of the most
famous Indian artists and artisans in the United States, among them Julian
and Maria Martinez, perhaps the best-known potters in the world.

San Ildefonso participated in the Pueblo Revolt but did not contest the
reconquest, at least not at first. In 1694, when de Vargas began to wage war
on the northern pueblos, San Ildefonso did take part. The people fortified

themselves on Black Mesa, a high, steep mesa of volcanic origin near the
pueblo. There they successfully withstood Spanish efforts to dislodge them.
Notwithstanding their initial success, they were ultimately conquered and
brought into the Spanish system. Today there are several hundred people
living in the village, and they are among the friendliest of the pueblo
peoples. San Ildefonso is easily accessible from Santa Fe.

The mission church dates back to the 1890’s, although earlier churches at the
pueblo played an important role in bringing Christianity to the Pueblo Indian
world. The older churches are long since gone.

San Juan Pueblo

San Juan Pueblo is best noted for its close association with the first Spanish
settlement in New Mexico in 1598. Oñate, colonizer of New Mexico,
selected a site for his first headquarters which was a part of the ancient
Pueblo of San Juan. The natives living in that part of the village willingly
gave up their homes to the Spaniards and were taken in by the remainder of
the people of San Juan. Oñate, in appreciation for this hospitality, bestowed
upon the pueblo the name San Juan de los Caballeros, a name which the
pueblo is still proud to bear.

Yet this same friendly people also contributed Po-pé, the great leader of the
Pueblo Revolt, to the history of New Mexico. While Po-pé shared with many
other pueblo leaders a hatred of the Spanish conqueror, he was the spiritual
force and the organizer of the rebellion that broke the control of the Spaniard
for twelve years and returned New Mexico to the Indian. This great rebellion
stands as one of the significant efforts in the history of the world of a people
to cast off the bonds of foreign control.

San Juan cannot claim a church dating back to the conquistadores, but it
does have one of the great landmark churches in the Southwest. In 1890, the
chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes was dedicated at San Juan. It was constructed
of red volcanic rock found west of the Rio Grande. This beautiful structure is
an architectural jewel set in desert surroundings.

128

The nearly 700 people of San Juan welcome visitors to their homes; their
undecorated burnished black pottery is particularly distinctive and popular.
The pueblo’s annual festival is held in June.

Santa Ana Pueblo

Santa Ana Pueblo lies along the banks of the Rio Jemez, which enters the
Rio Grande from the west. The pueblo was visited by Oñate and a mission
was built there about 1600, shortly after his visit. The people of Santa Ana
joined in the Pueblo Revolt, and since there was no priest serving their
church in 1680, they joined with the Indians of Santo Domingo and San
Felipe to massacre the padres at San Felipe. In 1687, during one of the
Spanish efforts to reconquer New Mexico, Santa Ana was destroyed and her
people fled. Later, at the urging of de Vargas, the modern pueblo was
established, along with the church now standing there. The population of
Santa Ana is nearly 400. Its annual festival takes place in August. It is often
difficult to find many of the people at the main pueblo for they spend most
of the growing season at El Ranchito, to the east in the Rio Grande Valley.

Santa Clara Pueblo

Santa Clara Pueblo is near the mouth of Santa Clara Creek, a year-round
stream flowing out of the Jemez Mountains into the Rio Grande. To the west
of the pueblo, on lands owned by Santa Clara, are the famous Puye Cliff
Dwellings ruins. The people of Santa Clara claim these natural cliff homes
as their ancestral dwelling places, a fact which has been substantiated by
archeologists. The Santa Clara Indians represent, then, an important living
Indian group in which one can observe institutions and traditions that can be
linked to traditions of the cultures that lived in the caves and abandoned
cities of Southwest antiquity.

Like most of the pueblo people, Santa Clara joined the Pueblo Revolt, but
this action did not seriously harm the pueblo. The real damage was done to
Santa Clara in the late eighteenth century when intertribal warfare over
witchcraft, plus the ravages of disease, took nearly 500 lives in the village.
The current population is about 500.

The church at Santa Clara is quite modern, having been constructed in the
twentieth century. The old church, built in 1760, was caught up in the
modernization craze that swept through the pueblo world in the early 1900’s.
Perhaps one of the most substantial and beautiful of all pueblo churches, the
old church collapsed during a storm in 1909 (the same storm that destroyed
the church at Nambé); it had been structurally weakened by the removal of
the roof for remodeling.

The village has excellent agricultural lands and supplements its income by
manufacturing an excellent and distinctive pure black pottery. Its annual
festival is in mid-August.

Santo Domingo Pueblo

Santo Domingo is one of the largest of the pueblos, having a population of
nearly 1500. It is also the most conservative in retention of its native 129
culture. This makes its dances and dress of particular interest to the
visitor to New Mexico. The present pueblo was established after the
reconquest in 1692. The Indians of Santo Domingo took a particularly active
part in the Pueblo Revolt, killing three padres resident at the pueblo. When
de Vargas moved to retake Santo Domingo, he found the people had
abandoned the village. They had constructed a village in the Jemez
Mountains to the west, and it was there that de Vargas defeated them. Even
then, the people of Santo Domingo did not give up the fight, and only after a
long series of defeats and serious loss of life did they surrender and again
return to the vicinity of their original village.

The church at Santo Domingo is not so old as many other pueblo edifices,
but its qualities remain among the most typical aspects of early New Mexico
mission architecture. In early August, during the great annual festival, the
Indians completely clean and whitewash the church. Two large horses are
painted on the front of the building by native artists. The dances during the
Santo Domingo festival are among the most colorful and authentic in New
Mexico.

Taos Pueblo

Taos represents the northernmost of the pueblos in New Mexico. It is also
one of the most scenic, lying at the foot of the Taos Mountains, a spur of the
mighty Sangre de Cristo range. It is a prosperous village of about 900
persons. There is no finer example of pueblo apartment architecture in New
Mexico. The main pueblo building rises five stories above the mesa. One
must be careful not to confuse the Spanish town, don Fernando de Taos, and
the old Indian farming center, Ranchos de Taos, with the pueblo, San
Geronimo de Taos. It is the latter that is Indian and is, therefore, by far the
oldest of the three.

The ruins of the old San Geronimo mission at Taos represent one of the most
historic and fateful in all the Southwest. It was there that two priests were
murdered in 1680 during the first days of the Pueblo Revolt. It was there that
Po-pé sowed the first seeds of that rebellion. Again in 1696, the Taos Indians
sought to free themselves from Spanish control by killing their priests and
other Spaniards in the vicinity. Again they were subdued. In 1847, when the
Americans annexed New Mexico, the Taos Indians tried once more to gain
their independence. Inflamed by Mexican citizens who refused to accept
American authority, they attacked the Americans at Fernando de Taos,
killing nine of them. Governor Charles Bent, builder of the famous Bent’s
Fort on the Santa Fe Trail, was among those killed. On February 3, 1847, the
American army in New Mexico laid siege to the village and the Indians
fortified themselves in the mission. It became the Alamo of the Taos people.
American artillery was brought to bear, and the walls of the ancient church
were battered down; the Indians fled, first to the village and then into the
mountains, leaving behind 150 dead and many wounded. They were finally
forced to surrender, and their leaders were hung. Those so hung remain
martyrs to this day. The ruins of the Taos mission, built three and a quarter
centuries ago, still can be seen. They are a stark landmark to the 130
stubborn independence of the people of Taos.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
Souvenir of the American army’s work in 1847: Taos Pueblo mission

The traditions and ceremonials of Taos are well preserved. Their arts and
crafts, however, have declined and are not of the high quality found in some
of the other pueblos. Their ceremonials are excellent and are noted for their
beauty and precision. The feast day of San Geronimo, September 30, is the
most important event of the year.

Tesuque Pueblo

Tesuque is a small village, perhaps numbering no more than 150 persons.
Even though it has always been small, it holds a major place in the history of
New Mexico. It was at Tesuque that the first blood was shed in the Pueblo
Revolt of 1680. On August 9, Cristobal de Herrera was murdered, and two
Tesuque Indians rushed to Santa Fe to warn the Spanish governor of the
impending rebellion. The Indian leaders, now aware that their plot was
known, moved the date of the revolt from August 13 to August 10. On 131
August 10, Father Pio, in charge of the Tesuque mission, went out
from Santa Fe to say Mass and also was murdered.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
Most-painted church in America?... Ranchos de Taos

Although its handicrafts are of poor quality, the Tesuque Indian ceremonials
are colorful and authentic. The people have retained much of their early

culture while living in proximity to the white man (Santa Fe is only nine
miles distant). The pueblo’s most important festival falls on November 12.

Zia Pueblo

The story of Zia is one of tragedy and difficult problems of existence.
Located on a basalt flow on the north bank of the Jemez River some fifteen
miles above its junction with the Rio Grande, Zia has poor land and a limited
supply of irrigation water. Agriculture is the main economic pursuit, but the
pueblo’s unfortunate location makes trading for part of its food supply
necessary.

Oñate reported Zia to be a large pueblo. However, it suffered greatly because
of its participation in the Pueblo Revolt. Some historians estimate that during
the reconquest, nearly 600 of the people of Zia were killed defending
themselves from the Spanish. Continued wars and pestilence reduced the
pueblo to a very few families. Over the past century, the group has again
showed signs of growth and now has a population of more than 300.

The church at Zia dates from 1692, and thus represents one of the fine 132
examples of ancient Franciscan architecture in New Mexico. The
annual festival, dedicated to Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, is celebrated
with an excellent Corn Dance on August 15.

Zuni Pueblo

Zuni has the distinction of being the first of the pueblos seen or visited by
Europeans. Seen from a distance by Fray Marcos de Niza in 1539, it was
reported as a rich and extensive city. Nearby were six other pueblos, and the
Spanish immediately associated the Zuni complex with an old Spanish
legend about seven golden cities, the Seven Cities of Cibola. The expedition
of Coronado was formed to explore and conquer the rich pueblos of New
Mexico. His first contact was at Zuni, then called Hawikuh. It was neither
golden nor rich.

Although Zuni was an important stopping place on the early trails to
Mexico, it managed to remain least influenced by European ideas. The
Spanish concentrated their efforts in the Rio Grande Valley and Zuni went its
own way most of the time. While there were missionary efforts from time to
time, by the nineteenth century, the stout resistance to such activity caused it
to cease. In recent years, sporadic missionary activity has been evident, but it
has not been notably successful.

The most famous of all New Mexico Indian ceremonial dances is held at
Zuni each year. The Shalako, which occurs in early December, is authentic
and spectacular. The dancers, carrying huge ceremonial figures on their
shoulders, must train and practice constantly during the entire year.

Zuni is the largest of the pueblos in New Mexico, with a population
numbering more than 5000 persons. The main occupation is agriculture. The
Zunis supplement their income by manufacturing silver inlay jewelry that
shows great creative skill and is beautiful to behold.

Other New Mexico Indians

In addition to the well-known Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, there are four
other areas of Indian lands. Three of these belong to peoples of Athapascan
origin, sometimes better known as Apache Indians. By name, they are the
Jicarilla Apache, the Mescalero Apache, and Navajo. The fourth group is the
Ute Indian.

The Apache tribes were relative newcomers to the Southwest. Their origin
was the plains area between the northern Rocky Mountains and Hudson Bay
in Canada. About 1000 A.D., a part of these northern Plains Indians began a
migration that ultimately brought them to New Mexico. Down the High
Plains across the western Dakotas, western Nebraska, Kansas, and finally to
western Texas and eastern New Mexico, these people came. At about the
latitude of Albuquerque, the migration split. Part of the group continued
south, across the Staked Plains, into southeastern New Mexico, west Texas,
and northern Coahuila and Chihuahua, Mexico. Here they divided into the
Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage Apache. Today, in south-central 133
New Mexico are the descendants of the Mescalero. The Mescalero

Apache reservation is crossed by U.S. Highway 70, a scenic drive through
pine forests. The tribe operates the Sierra Blanca ski area, one of the
southernmost ski areas in the United States. Its annual Crown Dance and
coming-of-age ceremonials are held July 1 to 4, followed by an Apache
rodeo. The Lipan and the Natage have virtually disappeared.

The second group of the migration discovered for the first time in their long
trek down the eastern fringes of the Rockies that the country opened up to
the west. They poured through the passes and entered the areas traditionally
controlled by pueblo farmers. Gradually, they took over these lands for
themselves, driving out the farmers. By the time the Spanish came on the
scene, most of the peaceful farmers had given way before the onslaught of
the warlike Athapascan savages. Only one group remained, the pueblos of
the central Rio Grande Valley. The migration that moved into the desert and
mountain lands divided into a number of groups which are known by
modern names: the Chiricahua, White Mountain, Western, and Jicarilla
Apache and the Navajo. The Jicarilla Apache reside mainly in north-central
New Mexico on reservation lands, and the Navajo reservation lies partly in
extreme northwestern New Mexico. Most of the Navajo land and all the
lands of the others are in Arizona.

The Ute Indians, driven from the plains by stronger tribes, settled in the
central Rocky Mountain area. There they raided the wealthy (at least in their
eyes) pueblos to the south. They fought sporadically against white
penetration but were finally subdued and placed on reservation lands in the
Four Corners area, part of which lies in New Mexico.

While the history of these peoples is fascinating and full of romance, there is
little besides scenery to be seen when visiting their reservations. The
populations are often scattered over many hundreds of square miles, and the
people have only rudimentary handicrafts. The exception is the Navajo, and
a trip to the Navajo reservation is worthwhile. These Indians have developed
techniques of weaving and silversmithing that contribute significant art
forms to Southwest handicrafts.

The outstanding Indian event of the year in New Mexico is the Inter-Tribal
Indian Ceremonial at Gallup, held during mid-August. Some thirty tribes

from the Southwest and Midwest meet to compete in arts, crafts, and
ceremonial dancing.

134

Reminders of the Past
by Paige W. Christiansen

When driving across New Mexico or when visiting some part of the state,
one should be aware of the wealth of history that is always close at hand.
Many people, when faced with what seems like endless miles of empty
country, fail to realize that the very emptiness is one of the charms of the
state. They also do not recognize that in the vast expanses of mountain and
desert, people of the ancient past or a recent past have lived and worked and
died. Sometimes the fruits of their labor are clear and evident and live on in
cities and towns. In many instances, however, the mountains and desert have
reclaimed their own and the works of man have succumbed. A mental
picture must be cast over the landscape on which great historical events took
place but which is almost empty of signs of man’s efforts. If travelers are
fortunate, there may still be some sign—a ghost town, a ruined ranch, some
old artifacts—to tell the story; if not, imagination must be given rein. The
search is the adventure, and to give aid in that search, the following might
suffice as a faint guiding light.

To simplify the descriptions of these reminders of the past, New Mexico is
divided into seven geographical regions which a traveler might well visit:

1. North from Santa Fe, including U.S. Highways 64, 285, and 84, and
connecting state highways.

2. The northeast, including U.S. 85 from Santa Fe to Raton, U.S. 66 east
from Albuquerque to the Texas line, U.S. 56 from Springer to the state
line, and connecting state highways.

3. The northwest, including U.S. 66 west from Albuquerque to the Arizona
line, U.S. 666 north from Gallup to Colorado, and State Highway 44 from
Bernalillo to Farmington.

4. East-central, including U.S. 60 east from Bernardo, U.S. 380 east from
San Antonio, U.S. 70 from the Mescalero Indian Reservation to the Texas
line, U.S. 285 from Clines Corners to Roswell, U.S. 54 from Three Rivers
to Santa Rosa, and connecting state highways.

5. West-central, including U.S. 60 west of Socorro, U.S. 180-260 and
State Highway 12 in Catron County, U.S. 85 from Los Lunas to Elephant
Butte, and connecting state highways.

6. Southeast, including U.S. 70 from Las Cruces to the Mescalero Indian
Reservation, U.S. 54 from El Paso to Three Rivers, U.S. 62 from Hobbs to
the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Roswell to the Texas line, and numerous
state roads.

7. Southwest, including U.S. 85 from Truth or Consequences to El 135
Paso, U.S. 180 north from Deming to the Catron county line, U.S.
70-80 west from Las Cruces to Arizona, and state roads.

North From Santa Fe

The country north of Santa Fe is the heart of Indian and Spanish New
Mexico. Here, if he looks beyond the narrow boundaries of the highway
right-of-way, the traveler can see Indian and Spanish villages which have not
changed significantly in two and a half centuries. Along the lush green of the
Rio Grande Valley or of its tributaries dashing out of the Sangre de Cristo
range to the east, these sleepy concentrations of people reveal cultural and
language patterns which smack of the conquistadores of the sixteenth
century or of the ancient cliff dwellers. It is a slow and easy world, perhaps
most representative of the “land of mañana.” In a region already worked for
centuries for what it can produce, there is no hurry. It will be there tomorrow
and forever. The people of this region are typically New Mexican. The hills
are dotted with piñon and juniper trees which give a greenish to black cast to
the land. This, too, is typically New Mexican.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
Cool drive on a summer day, Red River Canyon

There is one short trip that would be fruitful for him who wants to 136
know New Mexico, to feel the romance of Spanish culture, and to
seek adventure off the beaten track. Just north of Española, State Highway
76 strikes east from U.S. 64. Nowhere in the state can be found so much of
old world charm or spectacular scenic beauty. Heading east, the traveler
passes through Chimayó, a village famed throughout the world for its
weaving, though seldom visited, then on through Truchas and Las Trampas
to Penasco, heart of the Penitente country. The Penitentes were a religious
sect growing out of long isolation from the main threads of Roman
Catholicism. They gradually reverted to relatively primitive Christian

practices without guidance from main church centers but within the past few
years have returned to the Church. The many white crosses that can be seen
in the area attest to their former activity. From Penasco, the traveler can
return to U.S. 64 via State Highway 75.

The area northwest of Santa Fe, stretching some thirty or forty miles on the
southeast flanks of the Jemez Mountains, is the noted Pajarito Plateau, the
home of great numbers of Indian cultures, living and dead. Many of the
modern Indian pueblos will be found in this region. Also, some of the most
significant ancient Indian ruins are found here, such as the Frijoles Canyon
(Bandelier National Monument) and Puye Cliff Dwellings.

The entire area north of Santa Fe, then, is alive with history. In every village,
in every canyon, there is something that will add to the romance of Spanish-
Indian New Mexico. In our Southwest, the heritage handed down by these
two great cultures is held dear by the people. To the traveler will come a
greater appreciation and a greater understanding of New Mexico and the
Southwest if these are but understood.

Northeast New Mexico

The section designated as northeast New Mexico is an area of mountains and
plains, and its historical mosaic shows elements of both: the rugged Sandia
Mountains near Albuquerque and the southernmost parts of the extensive
Sangre de Cristo range, which thrusts north from U.S. Highway 85 far into
Colorado, and part of the famed buffalo plains. The area is drained by two
main river systems; the Canadian River flows east to join the Arkansas and
the Mississippi and the Pecos River flows south to join the Rio Grande.

Through this vast area ran one of Americas greatest highways, the Santa Fe
Trail. Beginning in Missouri communities, the Trail hurled itself into the
intricate patterns of the Great Plains with all of their dangers—Indians,
boredom, violent storms, treacherous rivers, and prairie grass fires. Then on
into the foothills of the mighty Rocky Mountains and the steep and
backbreaking approaches to Raton Pass in New Mexico. The new highway
across this pass (U.S. 85) and the nature of our vehicles have made this an
easy passage. But the traveler should pause at some high point, or perhaps

leave the main highway for a moment, and try to imagine crossing this
rugged land in Conestoga wagons. From Raton, the Santa Fe Trail 137
continued south to Las Vegas and thence into Santa Fe via Glorieta
Pass (current route of U.S. 85). Over this trail passed the goods of the world.
In part, these were intended for the people of New Mexico, but over other
trails they also found markets in Mexico and in California. For the curious
and adventurous, sections of the Santa Fe Trail can still be seen. Local
inquiry will elicit directions to remaining parts of the wide rutted Trail, scene
of so much of the American westward movement.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
How To see the Rio Grande Valley—from Sandia Crest

While passing through the mountains between Santa Fe and Las Vegas, the
traveler should be aware that a critical Civil War battle was waged in the

fastness of these passes. In 1862, Confederate forces, which came up the Rio
Grande from Texas and won a series of victories over Union troops, met a
combined force of Colorado Volunteers and New Mexico Union troops in a
decisive contest over the control of the American Southwest. The Union
troops were successful, preserving New Mexico and the West for the Union.

These, then, are some of the things to look for in this region of plains and
mountains. Picture buffalo by the tens of thousands pushing up the Canadian
River, or long lines of wagons winding their way along the Santa Fe Trail
carrying goods and people into new lands, or the Blue and the Gray locked
in deadly combat far from the thunder of the main Civil War battles. The
mosaic here is sharp and vividly different.

138

Northwest New Mexico

Northwest New Mexico is typified as ancient Indian country. While
seemingly a harsh land, it is only this to the uninitiated, to those who lock
their minds to beauties of history and lands unlike their own. The Indian
found this country good and productive. Some of the finest ruins of Indian
antiquity are in this region—Chaco Canyon and Aztec, both National
Monuments, and hundreds more that remain unnamed. The Indians of the
Four Corners area (named thus because New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, and
Arizona meet here, the only place in the United States where the lines of
four states intersect) created levels of culture unsurpassed in what is the
continental United States; only the Indians of Mexico and Peru claim a
higher culture. This is a land whose ancient people reached their great peak
at the same time as the later Romans, as Charlemagne in ancient Frankish
Europe, and as Mohammed and his successors in the Middle East.

But ancient Indians hold no monopoly on this vast region. Today many of
the Indians of New Mexico still find homes here. The Navajo Reservation
lies between Gallup and the Colorado line. Part of the Ute Reservation lies
along the northern edge of New Mexico, and the Jicarilla Reservation is in
the eastern part of this region. Many of the pueblo people are found between
Albuquerque and Santa Fe. At Gallup each year, the famed Indian

Ceremonials bring together peoples from many of the tribes in the United
States.

This region is also renowned as an oil and natural gas producer and is one of
the booming areas in New Mexico. But this is only one aspect of the mineral
riches of the northwest; the mines near Grants, between Albuquerque and
Gallup, produce tremendous quantities of uranium ores. The atomic energy
capability of the United States begins at Grants. And near Gallup and
Fruitland are huge open-pit coal mines.

The northwest is drained by the San Juan River, a tributary of the Colorado
River, and is therefore a part of the Pacific watershed. The Navajo Dam
project, just east of Farmington, is a part of this drainage pattern.

Thus the region is characterized by Indians old and new, ancient things
buried deep beneath the earth, and great beauty in pastel colors and subtle
contrasts—the mosaic of the land.

East-Central New Mexico

East-central New Mexico, like the northeast, is an area of plains and
mountains. Here the buffalo roamed, and in their place, cattle now utilize the
hardy and nutritious grasses of the High Plains. Mountains are the Manzano,
southeast of Albuquerque, and Sierra Blanca, near Carrizozo, as well as
numerous minor ranges. Also in this region is some harsh and desolate
country, seared by the southwestern sun and lacking in rainfall, but
supporting the exotic plants and wildlife typical of the Sonoran desert
regions.

While the desert regions may not be attractive to the eye, they should 139
be appreciated for their part in the historical mosaic. In the area east
of the Rio Grande is the northern half of the well-known White Sands
Missile Range, one of the significant test centers in the rocket and space age.
It was also in this arid region that the first atomic bomb was exploded
(southeast of Socorro).

The early use of this desert, however, emphasized its harshness. For
centuries, the Spanish suffered across this waterless waste on their way from
Chihuahua in Old Mexico to Santa Fe, for this was the Jornada del Muerto,
journey of death, the hardest and most dangerous part of the trip over the
Camino Real. The Camino Real was the lifeline of New Mexico from 1598
until the Santa Fe Trail was opened in 1821, and all visitors during that
period were obliged to cross this arid section. A modern rocket crosses in
mere seconds what took the Spaniards many days.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
Who says this is desert country?... Sierra Blanca from U.S. 70

In the Manzano Mountains, there are numerous Indian ruins which represent
the eastern fringes of the pueblo-building Indians of New Mexico. These
ruined villages have been given the name by historians of “cities that died of
fear,” fear of the vicious Apache and Comanche tribes. For centuries, these
brave village people tilled their crops and lived peacefully on the land. Then,
in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, the great 140
migrations of Plains Indians that pushed into the Southwest gradually
did their deadly work. One by one the villages succumbed, until by 1700 few
people remained, and these were ultimately killed or driven into the
sanctuary of the Rio Grande pueblos. It is awesome to stand mid the rubble
of one of those ancient cities and imagine the circumstances of its demise.

In the eastern part of this section was the heart of the High Plains cattle
empires. Here is a land that once belonged to the great cattle barons, a land
of free range, the home of the cowboy. Although it is fenced today, it is still
a land of cattle and is still very close to the early days of the cattleman.

Again, there is an intricate and varied mosaic. No simple land this, but a
complexity of plains, mountains, and desert, all of which color its history.
The Indians no longer inhabit their villages, the Spanish no longer struggle
along the Jornada del Muerto, and the free range of the cattle baron is gone,
but if the traveler sees it through its historical past, it will again come alive.

West-Central New Mexico

This section is a complex and colorful mass of landforms scattered helter-
skelter across the western part of the state. It stretches from the green Rio
Grande Valley, with its irrigated lands, quaint farms, and picturesque
agricultural villages, up the Valley’s steep western slopes to the rolling
grassland and mesas and alluvial fans, ending in precipitous and treacherous
canyons in the rugged mountains. Socorro Mountain, the Magdalenas, the
San Mateos, the Ladrones, and countless others seem always to ring the
horizon. Some of them are timbered and abound in cool, refreshing shade
and springs; some are harsh and dry. In the west, the famed San Agustin
Plains stretch to the sunset, a wide carpet fringed by black, timbered hills,
site of fabulous cattle drives of a bygone day. The complexity of the region’s
geology, scenery, and terrain is matched by an equally complex history.

The history is a mosaic of many hues, some harsh and stark like its dry
desert mountains, some inviting like the shade and coolness of its timbered
canyons and mountain springs. First were the many diverse and sometimes
hostile Indian cultures. There were peaceful pueblo peoples tilling their
lands, using the Rio Grande’s flowing water to produce abundance. Also,
prehistoric village dwellers struggled to create agricultural societies along
the banks of now-dry rivers in the western part of the region. And there were
the fearsome Apache Indians who founded their homes in the broken
mountain fastnesses and added their excitement and tragedy to the mosaic.
So, too, did the Spaniard make his mark and the Mexican who followed
close behind. The place names of the eastern part of the region are primarily
Spanish, although the Spanish found the area a difficult one in which to
maintain themselves. And then the American came to dominate this land,
adding realism and technology.

Finally, two major economic factors left a profound imprint: stock 141
raising and mining. The first began with the Spanish, was continued
by the Mexicans, and commercialized by the Americans. Everywhere are
signs of this heritage. Mining also played a dominant role, although of a
shorter duration. One can hardly lift his eyes to the hills without seeing signs
of the prospectors shovel or the miner’s work. One can hardly converse with
local citizens without discussing mines of the past or mines of the future.
Livestock and minerals, then, are woven through the historical pattern and
are never far from any part of the story.

Let the traveler be aware of several important facts when he passes through
this region. First, this is empty country, an area that has fewer people now
than it had eighty years ago. Its mines are mostly closed and the towns that
grew with the mines are ghosts. One of the most famous of these is the town
of Kelly, a short distance from the community of Magdalena. Another is
Mogollon, off U.S. Highway 180 in the southwestern part of this region.
Either of these will give to the viewer a vivid picture of the mining camps of
the nineteenth century.

To the average tourist crossing the San Agustin Plains, they seem desolate
and uninteresting. To the traveler with imagination and knowledge of the
history of this once great inland lake, the trip can be exciting. He pictures
this great basin full of water, forty-five miles long and fifteen miles wide,

and sees mountains covered with blue spruce surrounding the great lake. His
mental motion picture rolls on thousands of years, watching the water
evaporate and the forest of spruce die, to be replaced eventually by the piñon
and juniper now dotting the hills. Grass grew in the old lake bed, except in
the last areas to evaporate, for these had an alkali content too high for most
grasses. The traveler then watches the Indian enter the scene—not the pueblo
builder, except as a transient, for no water is available. The nomadic warrior
uses the pathway later. In 1774 and in 1776, he sees several important battles
between the Spanish and the Apaches fought on these Plains. Later, the
American cattleman dominates them, as he does today....

And so the mosaic grows—Indians, Spanish, Americans, cattle, and mines—
and the spectacular vistas and the vast emptiness add color and excitement
for the traveler who sees the past with the present.

Southeast New Mexico

Much of southeast New Mexico is an extension of the Great Plains, but it
has some rugged mountains and a severe desert in the middle of which lie
White Sands National Monument and the White Sands Missile Range.
Mountain ranges include the Sacramento east of Alamogordo and the
Guadalupe Mountains, in which are located Carlsbad Caverns.

The plains part of this region are devoted to cattle, potash, and oil. Like the
other plains regions of New Mexico, the heritage passed on from the great
cattle empires of bygone days is very strong and detectable in the people.
Since the early 1930’s, oil has come to play an increasingly important 142
part in the history of this section. This is especially true near Hobbs.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
Anyone for a hike?... in the Guadalupe Mountains

The desert region in the western part of this section has clearly defined
aspects of the old and the new. The southern part of the dread Jornado del
Muerto swept across this arid land and only returned to the river near
modern Hatch, or sometimes farther south, near modern Las Cruces,
according to the whim of the river. Here also lies the White Sands National
Monument, a desert spot of unusual beauty and interest. Near the 143
Monument, the White Sands Missile Range stands as an advanced
scientific test center for the most modern of vehicles, the rocket. Near
Alamogordo, another advanced space development and testing facility is
located at Holloman Air Force Base. So the desert is useful, and it is
beautiful, and it is full of tragic history.

This is also Indian land. East of Tularosa is the Mescalero Apache Indian
Reservation. In a way, this region has always belonged to the Apache, at
least since he migrated into New Mexico. The area contained no sedentary
groups and the Apache appropriated it as his own. His strongholds were in
the Guadalupe and Sacramento mountains. The forts along the Rio Grande,
like Forts Fillmore and Selden, were located to control the Mescalero and
other Apache groups. All that remains today are the Mescaleros.

There was little Spanish influence in this area except near El Paso and in the
Rio Grande Valley. The Spanish were more attracted to the upper Rio
Grande Valley because of the sedentary nature of the Indians of that region.
The southeast underwent its greatest development in the American period.

Again, sense the mosaic: These are not blends of land and history; they are
sharp and distinct, each with its own character. Search for the history and the
beauty, for they do not come automatically.

Southwest New Mexico

Finally, the southwest, another region of harsh desert and cool refreshing
mountains, part of New Mexico’s unusual contrast. The country south of
U.S. 70 is Sonoran desert, thinly populated and poorly watered. To the north
of the highway lies one of the most spectacular beauty spots in the
Southwest, the mountains and forests forming the headwaters of the Gila

River. The Gila River flows west across Arizona until it joins the Colorado
River which empties into the Gulf of California.

The Indians in this part of the state fall into two distinct categories: The
builders, known as the Mimbres culture, constructed homes in caves and
along the watercourses of the Gila and Mimbres rivers. They reached
extremely high levels of culture, and then they disappeared. The Apache
Indians, who entered this country at the same time as they did the rest of
New Mexico, were responsible for the end of the farmers and builders, at
least in part. The Apaches were predators and the farmers were peaceful,
unversed in the arts of war. Finally the Apache ruled supreme, and this
region became the most important single stronghold of the Indian. It was
here that Geronimo found sanctuary. But the Apaches, too, were forced to
surrender their claims and were placed on reservations outside this area.

Mining is and has been the main source of wealth. The great open-pit
operation of Kennecott Copper Company is at Santa Rita, east of Silver City.
This is one of the largest open-pit copper mines in North America. To look
into that huge man-made pit is a thrilling experience. This mine was first
opened in 1803 by the Spanish who needed copper badly as a 144
circulating currency in New Spain (Mexico). For a number of years,
the coins used for money in Mexico were from copper mined in
southwestern New Mexico.

Copper represents only a part of the mining activity in this region. Famous
mining districts in earlier days were at Kingston and Hillsboro, just east of
the Black Range on State Highway 90. These areas produced considerable
quantities of silver. There is some activity yet, but the boom has long since
passed them by, although they are interesting towns to visit. The trip from
U.S. 85 to Silver City via State Highway 90 is one of the most scenic routes
in the state.

In the region north of Silver City lies high mountain country, much of it
preserved as the Gila Wilderness Area. Here a person who wishes the
solitude of forest and mountain, the thrill of trout fishing in a clear cold
stream, and a wealth of wildlife can find his heart’s desire. In the heart of
this wilderness, the traveler might well find some of the ancient homes of the
Mimbres people. History and recreation blend into one.

These complete the mosaic. Everywhere one travels in New Mexico is
enchanting history, in the land and/or in the people. This has not been an
effort to acquaint anyone with the intricate detail of all the history of every
nook and cranny of this land, but these broad strokes made on the canvas
may help the traveler, transient or native, to enjoy himself. Let him accept
the challenge, stop to investigate, search out evidence of the history that is
there in the colorful and changing land itself, the Indian heritage, the Spanish
past, the cattleman’s range, the miner’s endless search—and become
enchanted.

145

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside)
Wheeler Peak near Taos—highest point in New Mexico, 13,160 feet above
sea level

(Courtesy Elliott S. Barker)
Ghost Ranch Mountain north of Abiquiu

146

Derricks and Mines
by George B. Griswold

New Mexico is a mineral-rich state. The gross production value of oil, gas,
and minerals was $671 million during 1963, making the state the sixth
ranking mineral producer in the nation. New Mexico ranks among other
states as follows: first in the production of potash, uranium, perlite, and
carbon dioxide; third in helium; fourth in copper; fifth in natural gas and
liquids; and seventh in petroleum. Important amounts of zinc, lead, gold,
silver, magnesium compounds, coal, gypsum, pumice, and salt are also
produced from deposits within New Mexico. The oil and gas industry holds
a dominant position in the state, accounting for almost two thirds of the
value of minerals produced.

OIL AND GAS

Most of New Mexico’s oil and gas are produced in the southeastern part,
south and east of Roswell. The bustling towns of Hobbs, Artesia, and
Lovington, as well as Roswell, are headquarters for the many oil companies
and the associated service and supply organizations operating in the area. Oil
and gas are produced from numerous reservoirs, called fields or pools, in
Paleozoic sediments ranging from Ordovician to Permian in age. From the
standpoint of production, the Eunice-Monument field (lying between these
two towns) is the largest, having produced more than 250 million barrels of
oil. Other important fields are Hobbs, Vacuum, Langlie Mattix, Denton, and
Jalmat. All these fields produce a considerable amount of gas associated
directly with the oil.

When driving an automobile through southeast New Mexico, a layman finds
it difficult to comprehend the immensity of the petroleum industry of that

region. This is due to the scattering of wells over a large area. Seldom are
wells spaced closer than one to every ten acres, even in the most productive
fields. There are, in fact, some 16,000 wells in this part of New Mexico,
ranging in depth from less than 1000 feet to 17,555 feet.

The other oil- and gas-producing area of the state is in the northwest, in the
San Juan Basin. Farmington serves as the base of operations for most of this
activity. In 1962, there were 7378 wells in the area, 1770 of which were
producing oil and gas and 5608 producing gas only. Most of the San Juan
Basin production is from Cretaceous sandstones, in contrast to the southeast
where the oil and gas are derived from Paleozoic sediments. The
development of the San Juan Basin production is relatively new; most of the
wells have been drilled since World War II. The petroleum industry can be
proud of the great help it has given to the development of this once-almost-
forgotten part of the state.

147

(Courtesy El Paso Natural Gas Co.)
There’s the way to refine oil! Look at those mesas, near Gallup

The methods of finding and producing oil and gas have come a long way
from the “boom town” days when wells were drilled for the most part on
pure hunches and hopes. The exploration and exploitation of petroleum are
now highly specialized technologies. All branches of the geologic and
geophysical sciences are brought into play to piece together a comprehensive
picture of all the factors which may have made a certain area favorable for
the accumulation of oil or gas. These factors include such things as the age,
thickness, and permeability of the sedimentary rocks, the structure, old
shorelines, and buried reefs. Once a target is selected, a drilling rig is moved
onto the location to prove or disprove the theory. This is the costly step of
finding oil. A single 10,000-foot hole may cost $350,000, and some
individual wells in New Mexico have cost more than $1 million to drill. If
the well is in a completely untested area, it is called a “wildcat.” Once a
discovery is made, then the land around the wildcat is explored by “offset”
wells until the complete extent of the new field is proved.

During 1962, 1666 wells were drilled to an average depth of 5153 feet. The
average drilling cost was $71,000 a well, representing a total investment of
almost $120 million in a single year! Most of these wells were of the
development (offset) type, but even then, 27 per cent were dry. During 1962,
295 true wildcats were drilled; of these, only 46 found oil or gas—about two
out of every thirteen.

The story of oil just begins with the discovery of a well. Various special
“completion” operations are applied to the oil-producing horizon so as to
increase the flow into the well. The most common techniques are either by
“acidizing,” pumping acid into the formation to increase flow by 148
enlarging the pores in the rock, or by “hydrafracing,” whereby actual
cracks are induced in the formation by pumping oil from the surface back
into the well under very high pressure. After the well is “completed,” it may
be a natural-flowing well if sufficient gas is associated with the oil. If
sufficient gas is not present, then the well is pumped.

In recent years, considerable success has been achieved in revitalizing old
fields where production had dropped below the point of economic operation.
These fields are reactivated by forcing either water or gas down selected
wells within the field, thereby forcing stagnated oil within the producing
zone toward the other wells. This technique is called secondary recovery.

Many fields will produce more oil under the secondary recovery program
than they did during their primary life.

Here’s a wildcat for you!

Once the oil is on the surface, it passes through separators to remove any
admixed gas from the oil. The gas is sent into pipelines while the oil is sent
to storage tanks called tank batteries. Periodically, the oil is drawn from the
tank batteries where it is transported by pipeline or rail to refineries. The
great bulk of the crude oil leaves New Mexico for refining via a major
pipeline network extending through Texas to both the Gulf and East coasts.
Some oil is refined in New Mexico, however. Oil refineries in Artesia,
Bloomfield, Ciniza, Farmington, and Monument have a combined capacity
to treat some 30,000 barrels (42 gallons a barrel) of crude oil a day. On the
other hand, practically all the natural gas is treated in New Mexico so as to
recover its liquid petroleum constituents before sending it out of the state by
pipeline.

MINING

The mining industry of New Mexico dates back to the days of Spanish rule.
Copper was mined from the Santa Rita mine as early as 1800 for shipment to
Mexico for use in coinage. Significant mining in New Mexico did not
commence, however, until the late 1800’s. There are three major centers
today: Carlsbad, potash; Silver City area, copper, zinc, and lead; and Grants,
uranium.

149

Question: where are the other oil pumps and tanks in the San Juan Basin?

The potash mining east of Carlsbad, a $75 million-a-year industry
employing more than 3600 persons, is the largest operation of its kind in the
world. Six mining companies are active in the area, and a seventh is
developing yet another mine. Potash is a word used to denote various
potassium compounds. The principal ore mineral at Carlsbad is sylvanite, a
mixture of potassium chloride and sodium chloride (common salt). The ore
[6]
contains the equivalent of 21 to 25 per cent potassium oxide (K₂O).
Another ore mineral, known as langbeinite, a double salt of potassium and
magnesium sulfate, is also mined.

The potash ores occur as horizontal beds sandwiched between thick salt and
anhydrite layers. These beds are the result of evaporation of large quantities
of salt waters during the latter part of the Permian period some 240 million
years ago. The potash-bearing horizons now are buried from 900 to 1800
feet below the surface. The discovery of potash in southeast New Mexico

was almost by accident. In 1925, the Snowden and McSweeny Company
drilled a wildcat oil test a few miles east of Carlsbad. The hole was dry, but
potash minerals were detected in the drill cuttings. The discovery generated
considerable interest because the United States was forced to import most of
its potash prior to this time. Further drilling proved the existence of
tremendous deposits of potassium salts in that area.

The potash mines are among the most highly mechanized of the 150
mineral industry. Access to the buried deposits is gained by vertical
shafts. Actual mining is now done to a large extent by continuous miners,
machines which bore or rip the potash ore from the face and load it into
shuttle cars in one continuous operation. The shuttle cars then transport the
ore to conveyor belts which move it to the shafts for hoisting. Working
conditions and safety are excellent and have led to high productivity from
these mines.

The potash ore is refined or processed by fractional crystallation or flotation.
These plants remove most of the unwanted sodium chloride and other
gangue minerals to produce high-quality potassium chloride or sulfate. After
processing, the potash salts are stored in giant bins to await shipment by rail
to the major agriculture areas of the United States. The Carlsbad mines
produce some 15 million tons of ore a year which, when refined, produces 4
million tons of marketable potassium salts having a K₂O equivalent of 2.5
million tons.

(Courtesy International Minerals & Chemical Corp.)
Crunch!... continuous mining machine at work

Uranium mining is the newest major industry in New Mexico. The boom
started in 1950 with the discovery of uranium ore west of Grants by a
Navajo sheep rancher named Paddy Martinez. This discovery started one of
the most extensive exploration and development campaigns in all mining
history. By 1957, the area had proved uranium reserves accounting for more
than half of the entire reserve of the nation. These discoveries will make this
country self-sufficient in this vital atomic energy metal for years to 151
come. Five mills were built that are capable of producing “yellow
cake” (almost pure uranium oxide) from uranium ores containing as little as
0.20 per cent U₃O₈. Four mills are located in the Grants area, ranging in
capacity from 1500 to 4000 tons a day. The fifth mill, rated at 500 tons a day,
is at Shiprock.

There are numerous mines, ranging from tiny two-man operations up to
great mines producing more than 1000 tons a day. The most prolific
producing area is the Ambrosia Lake District north of Grants; most of these
mines are underground. Probably the largest single uranium mine, however,
is the open-pit Jackpile-Paguate mine of the Anaconda Company on the
Laguna Indian Reservation some thirty miles east of Grants. The mine uses
electric shovels capable of loading eight cubic yards of ore at a time into
large diesel trucks.

Copper is produced from the Chino mine located at Santa Rita, about fifteen
miles east of Silver City. This mine, operated by Kennecott Copper
Corporation, is the showpiece of the New Mexico minerals industry. The
copper ore is low grade, containing only sixteen pounds a ton of the red
metal, but the deposit is immense, allowing the mining of 22,500 tons a day.
The Chino is by far the largest single mining operation in the state. A large
concentrator and smelter are located at Hurley, about ten miles southwest of
the pit.

The Chino pit is a spectacular sight for its scenic setting and its sheer size.
The deposit is located below the Kneeling Nun, a famous natural statue
formed by the erosion of a rhyolite flow which caps a high mesa. The pit
covers almost one square mile and is 800 feet deep. The mining is highly
mechanized. Large rotary drills make blast holes twelve inches in diameter
into which explosives are loaded. A single blast may break 100,000 tons of
rock. The ore is loaded with 8-cubic-yard shovels into large trucks carrying
from 25 to 65 tons each. The trucks transport the ore to an inclined skipway
on the west end of the pit. The skip then carries the ore up to the train level
where it is transferred into railroad cars for shipment to the mill. Waste rock,
too low-grade to justify sending to the mill, is transported to the very top of
the skip way, where it is trucked to the dumps. At Chino, much of the waste
rock contains some copper. The amount is small, but a part of it can be
recovered by leaching-percolating water down through the rock to dissolve
the copper. At the bottom of the dumps, the copper-rich water is collected
and sent through precipitating tanks containing scrap iron. The copper plates
out on the iron, forming metallic copper. The dump-leaching program alone
at Chino is a substantial enterprise.

The concentrator and smelter at Hurley is the facility which reduces the low-
grade ore into pure metal. The concentrator first crushes and grinds the ore,
then recovers the copper-bearing minerals (principally chalcocite and
chalcopyrite) by flotation. The concentrate of these copper sulfides is taken
to the smelter to make metallic copper.

North and west of the Chino mine are important deposits of zinc and lead.
Two underground mines are now active: the Hanover of the New Jersey Zinc
Company and the Kearney—Pewabic of American—Peru Mining Company.
Although dwarfed by the Chino mine, these are important producers.

152

(Courtesy The Anaconda Co.)
Man, dig this hole!... Jackpile open-pit uranium mine near Laguna

153

(Courtesy Kennecott Copper Corp.)
“Just scoop up copper ore, take it to the skipway....” up the side of the
Chino Mine at Santa Rita

Copper, potash, and uranium are not the only mining operations of New
Mexico. Perlite is recovered from deposits near No Agua in Taos County and
just north of Grants. Two new gypsum plants are now operating 154
northeast of Albuquerque, and a cement plant is located east of that
city. High-grade copper veins are worked south of Lordsburg. Coal mining is
being reactivated, with producing mines near Gallup, Fruitland, and Raton.
A new molybdenum mine is under development east of Questa. New
Mexico’s mineral industry is on a broad and firm base.

Mines and derricks are ever-present aspects of New Mexico’s landscapes;
they are seen by every citizen of the state and every tourist as he travels
across the plains, valleys, and mountains. The derricks and the mine
openings are merely surface features through which the vast wealth of the
underground is exploited, but they are a monetarily important part of New
Mexico’s scenery, rocks, and history.

155

Enchanting Landscapes
by Frank E. Kottlowski

The visitor and the native may be well acquainted with the more famous
scenic places in New Mexico. Most of these are National or State Parks or
Monuments—glistening dunes of White Sands, sandstone cliffs of El Morro,
canyons eroded in volcanic rocks of Bandelier, the recent volcano of Capulin
Mountain, multicolored sinkholes at Bottomless Lakes, grotesque carvings
of volcanic rocks at City of Rocks, and the black tongues of cooled lava in
the Valley of Fires State Park near Carrizozo.

Many of the lesser-known spectacular scenic areas are off the beaten path,
far from the seventy-mile-an-hour Interstate highways. Even a brief
description of all would fill a thick book. But near the most traveled routes
are numerous enchanting landscapes. The traveler from the midwest or east,
driving U.S. Highway 66 (Interstate 40) breaks over the edge of the
“caprock” a few miles east of the New Mexico—Texas line. Atop the
caprock is Llano Estacado, the Staked Plains, a level surface stretching along
the southeast edge of New Mexico eastward into Texas. As seen south of
Tucumcari near Ragland, east of Fort Sumner near Taiban, or east of
Roswell near Kenna and Caprock, the bluffs of the Llano Estacado are
topped by caprock, a cliff of white caliche-limestone as much as forty feet
thick in places. Below, on gentle to steep slopes reaching northward toward
Tucumcari or westward toward Fort Sumner and Roswell, are the
varicolored red, purple, green, and gray shales and sandstones of Triassic
age. Red Lake near Taiban on U.S. Highway 60-84 lies in the red muds of
these Triassic rocks.

South of Tucumcari, rising boldly from the red-earth lowlands draining to
the Canadian River, are Tucumcari Mountain and Mesa Redonda, and to the
northwest the long buff cliffs of Mesa Rica. The latter mesa lies north of

Interstate 40 as far west as Newkirk. Patches of the white caprock caliche-
limestone cap these eastern New Mexico sentinels, whereas in other
localities, the brown Dakota Sandstone tops the buttes and is underlain by
pink Jurassic sandstones, with the mesa bases made up of the Triassic
redbeds.

Near Santa Rosa, Interstate 40 dips down into the narrow green valley of Rio
Pecos. Roadcuts lining the steep hills into the city show the red and brown
sandstones and shales of the Triassic beds.

Driving westward from Santa Rosa, one crosses rolling hills near Clines
Corners, then dips gently down into the northern part of the Estancia Basin
near Moriarty. To the north on the horizon are the snow-capped peaks of the
Sangre de Cristo Mountains. From Moriarty, Interstate 40 pulls slowly
upward toward Edgewood into the eastern foothills of the Sandia Mountains,
the grassy plains giving way to juniper and piñon groves.

From the downgrade into Tijeras Canyon, State Highway 10 leads 156
north to San Antonito and the turnoff to Sandia Crest. The crest road
winds up canyon walls, on sloping limestone mesas, up through thick stands
of ponderosa pine, aspen, and, near the top, Engelmann spruce and corkbark
fir. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep may be seen off the road on the high
crags. From Sandia Crest, 10,678 feet above sea level, much of north-central
New Mexico is visible; Mount Taylor to the west, the Nacimiento and Jemez
mountains to the northwest, the mighty Sangre de Cristo Mountains to the
northeast, and countless ranges to the south and southwest. The city of
Albuquerque is spread out at the base of the Sandias, and the twisting north-
south channel of the Rio Grande stretches, glistening, as far left and right as
one can see.

From Tijeras, Interstate 40 plunges into Tijeras Canyon, slicing through
vertical roadcuts in Pennsylvanian limestones and shales, then through the
ancient Precambrian granite. At the canyons mouth, the road levels off on
the broad alluvial plain on which much of east Albuquerque is built,
although the “downtown” is really down, in the valley of the Rio Grande.

Westward, Interstate 40 rolls up out of the valley, crosses windswept plains
spotted with black volcanic cones, in and out of the shallow brown valley of

Rio Puerco, and then to the red-cliff-bordered valley of Rio San Jose. Cliffs
are of brown, buff, and light-gray Jurassic sandstones, with the valley carved
in Triassic redbeds. Near Laguna, on the north side of the valley, white
gypsum of the Todilto Formation crops out. Then through the pink Jurassic
cliffs the canyon winds, and near New Laguna, the highway is bordered by
the varicolored, uranium-bearing Morrison beds, which are overlain by
brown sandstones and black shales of Cretaceous age.

But as Interstate 40 approaches Grants, the dominant feature is black frozen
lava. The mesas surrounding Mount Taylor are capped by black basalt, built
up in many layers, each individual flows, and loose blocks tumble down on
the hillsides. Young basalt, twisted and wrinkled as if it were still hot, winds
along the valley; just east of Grants, a huge “field” of this recent basalt
stretches southward beyond the horizon. And above all looms Mount Taylor,
remnant of an ancient volcano, snow-capped in winter, towering 11,389 feet
above sea level.

At Casa Blanca, southeast of Mount Taylor, State Road 23 leads south to
Acoma Pueblo. Eleven miles to the southwest, Enchanted Mesa, Katsim as it
is called by the Acomas, towers 450 feet above the surrounding valley floor.
This sheer-cliffed rock is built by layers of (from the base to the top) pink
and white Entrada Sandstone, gray Todilto limestone, pink and green
Summerville beds, a massive cliff of light-tan Zuni Sandstone, and a cap of
yellow-brown Dakota Sandstone.

The top of Enchanted Mesa is inaccessible by normal means. Legend has it
that once the Acomas lived there, and there are Indian ruins up on the
isolated rim. A terrific rain and lightning storm, one summer day, sent huge
waterfalls down the sides of the mesa, tearing away large blocks of
sandstone, and destroyed the trail to the top, a series of narrow zigzag 157
ledges and toeholds in crevasses. Thus the Acoma Indians moved a
few miles to the southwest to Acoma, onto the top of another sheer cliff, a
rock fortress carved in Zuni Sandstone and capped by Dakota Sandstone.

Talk about wide open spaces ... around the Enchanted Mesa

Southwest of Grants, the forested Zuni Mountains rise, bordered on the north
by a valley cut in Triassic redbeds and on the east by the recent black basalt
flows. The hurrying traveler will follow Interstate 40 to Gallup around the
north edge of the Zuni dome, flanked on the north by the spectacular pink,
red, brown, and gray cliffs of Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstones. If one has
time, take the low road, State Highways 53 and 36, around the southern edge
of the Zunis. For almost twenty miles, passing through San Rafael, the paved
highway parallels the west edge of the Grants black basalt flow; then up over
low ridges and past black cinder cones toward El Morro. In the lava tunnels,
perpetual ice stays hidden from the sun; these can be visited at Ice Caves.

El Morro, Inscription Rock, with its towering cliffs of Zuni Sandstone,
overlooks peaceful green valleys; farther west, the red and brown sandstones
are carved into many mesas and buttes near Zuni Pueblo. Then northward to
Gallup, swinging around the west edge of the Zuni Mountains, the roller-

coaster highway, State 36, cuts through ponderosa pine country, bordered by
Cretaceous brown sandstones, black shales, and coal beds.

Northeast of Gallup eight miles is Kit Carson’s Cave, a gaping door on the
face of a massive cliff of Jurassic sandstone. A pool of cool water lies along
its floor. The three-and-a-half-mile drive north of Interstate 40 is 158
through a vast broken country of sandstone spires, pyramids, cliffs,
and ledges carved in the Jurassic rocks. Near Gallup, the drab coal-bearing
Cretaceous beds form the landscapes, but westward near the Arizona line,
erosion has cut down again to the brilliantly colored Jurassic rocks, and
Interstate 40 is escorted westward into the Grand Canyon State by cliffs of
white and pink sandstone.

Californians crossing New Mexico in the winter are likely to travel U.S.
Highway 70-80 (Interstate 10) eastward. New Mexico is entered just before
Steins Pass, which is channeled through the tan and green volcanic rocks of
the Peloncillo Mountains. Then down across the mud and salt marshes of
Alkali Flats lying in the Animas Valley and up onto the north edge of the
Pyramid Mountains into Lordsburg. Mine dumps dot the Pyramids, and the
ghost mining town of Shakespeare lies amid the purple volcanic rocks.

Eastward from Lordsburg for 118 miles are the Antelope Plains; plains,
plains, plains. Steers graze on the sparse grass, yucca clumps border the
highway, and here and there sand dunes flee before the restless winds.
Mountain ranges, like islands on the sea of grass, yucca, and creosote bush,
rise in the distance. West of Deming, the low Victorio Mountains lie south of
the highway, made up of dolomite, limestone, and andesite ridges. Southeast
of Deming are the lofty Florida Mountains, their northern toe crossed by
Interstate 10. Volcanic hills dot the landscape east of Las Cruces, Sierra de
las Uvas’ purple slopes to the north, and the Potrillo Mountains and Mount
Riley to the south. The latter are part of a spectacular volcanic field where
black cinder cones and basalt flows cover hundreds of square miles, and
craters such as Kilbourne Hole are sunk below the plains.

The descent into the Rio Grande Valley is awesome, especially if the late
afternoon sun is dancing on the spires and cliffs of the Organ Mountains to
the east. From across the brown plains, Interstate 10 winds down into the
green Mesilla Valley, a different world of cotton and alfalfa fields, pecan and

cottonwood groves, and red-tile-roofed Spanish homes. The view of the
Organ Mountains alone is worth the trip.

At Las Cruces, a city booming on cotton, rockets, and tourists, Interstate 10
turns south to parallel the east side of the Rio Grande Valley down to Texas
and El Paso. If one prefers a quiet scenic route, State Highway 28 winds its
way along the west side of the Valley amid fields and groves, through
peaceful villages, to end at the bridge over the Rio Grande on the edge of El
Paso. Here, to the south, is El Cristo Rey, a cone of massive andesite,
flanked by steeply tilted beds of limestone and shale, Early Cretaceous in
age, cut in two by the New Mexico-Mexico border. Atop the peak is a 29-
foot-high, 40-ton, limestone statue of Christ; a winding path leads upward
from the base for those strong enough of limb to make the climb. Beyond, to
the south, Ciudad Juarez lies, famous for its bordertown flavor, markets,
cathedrals, and bull rings.

The traveler to the east should stay on U.S. 62-180 from El Paso. This
highway cuts through the Hueco Mountains via Powwow Canyon, a gash
carved from Pennsylvanian and Permian limestones, crosses the 159
Diablo Plateau, rolls past the white patches of Salt Flat lakes, then
winds up to the summit of Guadalupe Pass between the Delaware Mountains
on the south and the towering Guadalupe Mountains on the north. Looking
north from the Pass, Guadalupe Peak, highest point in Texas, and El Capitan
are unforgettable sights, their steep lower slopes ribbed brown and green,
overshadowed by the 1000-foot limestone cliffs of the peaks. The limestone-
hewn Guadalupe Mountains parallel the highway in New Mexico and are
pitted with many caves, with Carlsbad Caverns the largest known in the
range. Eastward beyond the Pecos Valley stretches the Great Plains and
Texas.

A side trip, near Carlsbad, over black-topped and gravel roads leads from
Seven Rivers, up Rocky Arroyo on State Road 137, into the northern
foothills of the Guadalupe Mountains to Sitting Bull Falls. Here, cool spring
waters cascade over limestone ledges to join in green pools lying amid the
cottonwood groves of the canyon floor.

Lake McMillan, a reservoir along the Pecos River north of Carlsbad, and the
many potash mines east of Carlsbad are parts of the enchanting landscapes

of this southeastern corner. Northward, following the green cotton fields
bordering the Pecos River, U.S. Highway 285 leads through Artesia with its
oil refineries to modern booming Roswell, second city of the state. East of
Roswell, bordering the east side of the Pecos Valley, is Bottomless Lakes,
azure blue pools spotted in sink holes.

Eastward from Roswell, on either U.S. Highway 70 or 380, redbeds of
Permian and Triassic age lie half hidden by pinkish sands up to the edge of
the caprock; beyond are the fertile grazing and crop lands of the Llano
Estacado, with its queen cities of Clovis and Portales. Here, deep wells
pump underground waters to irrigate lush fields that produce peanuts,
tomatoes, sweet potatoes, melons, strawberries, cucumbers, and grapes. On
the plains beyond the reach of the wells, wheat, maize, and broomcorn are
grown. Southeastward, oil derricks dot the plains, surrounding Hobbs and
Lovington.

Westward from Roswell, U.S. Highways 70 and 380 run together up the
rolling limestone hills west of the Pecos Valley before plunging down
Picacho Hill into the narrow canyon of Rio Hondo. At Hondo they divide.
U.S. Highway 380 leads northwestward through Lincoln town, Billy the
Kid’s shooting grounds, into Capitan, over Indian Divide, and down into
sleepy Carrizozo—paralleled by the forested peaks of Capitan Mountains to
the north and overshadowed by mighty Sierra Blanca to the southwest. U.S.
Highway 70 runs up the green canyon of Rio Ruidoso, past Ruidoso Downs,
past State Highway 37 which leads to Ruidoso and the Sierra Blanca Ski
Area, up into the ponderosa pines, crossing the divide at Apache Summit,
then westward and downhill past Mescalero, paralleling Rio Tularosa.
Suddenly the canyon widens, and ahead is the dry Tularosa Basin with the
White Sands glistening in the far distance.

160

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)
Now this is what is meant by forest.... from Monjeau Lookout

From Tularosa to Alamogordo, U.S. Highway 70 is along the west edge of
the Sacramento Mountains wherein tier upon tier of dolomite and limestone
cliffs rise to the high peaks near Cloudcroft. Southwestward from
Alamogordo, the highway cuts diagonally across the Tularosa Basin, skirting
the southern edge of the White Sands, and passing through White Sands
Missile Range. Ahead lie the fabulous spires of the Organ Mountains; to the
right, the notched cliffs of the San Andres Mountains stretch northward to
rounded Salinas Peak and beyond the horizon. Steeply, the highway rises to
cross San Augustin Pass between the Organ and San Andres mountains, past
the village of Organ with its crumbling mining dumps, before plunging
downward onto the southern end of Jornada del Muerto, and finally, 161
on the east edge of Las Cruces, leaves the creosote bush plains to dip
into the green Mesilla Valley of the Rio Grande.

West of Carrizozo, U.S. 380 crosses the black basalt flows of Valley of Fires
State Park, curves over the Carrizozo dome and up the dip slopes of
Chupadera Mesa, crosses in red roadcuts the northern tip of Sierra Oscura,
then westward through sand dunes of the northern Jornada del Muerto. Coal
beds crop out at Cerro Colorado before the highway sweeps down into the
Rio Grande Valley to San Antonio.

U.S. Highway 60 enters the state from the east on the Staked Plains near
booming Clovis, crosses Rio Pecos Valley at Fort Sumner—near Billy the
Kid’s grave—goes straight as a beeline over the plains to Vaughn, then
crosses the low southern end of the Pedernal Hills where tan Permian
sandstones lie abruptly on Precambrian granite, quartzite, and schists. Near
Willard, the highway crosses the southern end of the Estancia Valley, with
the salt lakes of Laguna del Perro mere remnants of the huge Pleistocene
lake that once filled the Valley. West from Mountainair, Abo redbeds border
the highway; limestone walls of Gran Quivira lie to the south and the red
sandstone church ruins of Abo and Quarai are to the north. Through Abo
Pass between the Manzano and Los Pinos mountains the highway runs, then
down the long alluvial fan slopes to the Rio Grande Valley at Bernardo.
From Bernardo to Socorro, U.S. Highway 60 joins Interstate 25; westward
from Socorro, the road climbs out of the Valley onto Snake Ranch Flats,
parallels the snow-tipped Magdalena Mountains to Magdalena, then crosses
the north end of the grassy San Agustin Plains. Westward to Datil and

Quemado, the highway is always in sight of volcanic mountains, up and
down winding canyons, and across intermontane plains.

Still westward into Arizona along U.S. Highway 60 are Springerville,
fabulous Salt River Canyon, the mining cities of Globe, Miami, and
Superior, and booming Phoenix.

Into this west-central New Mexico country of volcanic peaks and grassy
plains comes U.S. Highway 180 from Deming northwestward. Along the
scenic, winding route are City of Rocks, the copper smelter at Hurley, Santa
Rita’s huge open-pit copper mine, famous Silver City, colorful canyons of
the Gila and San Francisco rivers, and, crossed by passes or bordering all
routes, the rugged rhyolite, andesite, and basalt ledges and cliffs.

From El Paso to Raton Pass, 515 miles, U.S. Highway 85 (Interstate 25)
crosses New Mexico from south to north, from Mexico to Colorado. As far
as La Bajada Hill, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe, the highway parallels
the Rio Grande. Northward from El Paso, past Las Cruces to Radium
Springs and old Fort Selden, the green Mesilla Valley borders the route; then
through Selden Canyon into the Hatch Valley near San Diego Mountain, and
along the west side of the bold cliffs of the Caballo Mountains, past Caballo
Reservoir to Truth or Consequences (old Hot Springs). Eastward lies
Elephant Butte Dam and reservoir; the road cuts across alluvial plains to the
west of the Rio Grande all the way to Albuquerque, with the mountains to
the west the San Mateo, Magdalena, Socorro, and Ladron and to the 162
east, the Fra Cristobal, Los Pinos, and Manzano.

Intersecting Interstate 40 at Albuquerque, the Pan-American Central
Highway, Interstate 25 crosses to the east side of the Rio Grande, the sheer
cliffs of the Sandia Mountains to the east and the distant dark green Jemez
Mountains to the northwest. Crossing Galisteo Creek northeast of Santo
Domingo Pueblo, Interstate 25 turns toward the northeast, climbs La Bajada
Hill, onto the green plains sloping from Santa Fe. Santa Fe, the ancient
capital city, is nestled on the edge of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains.
Southeastward and eastward, U.S. Highway 85 (to be Interstate 25 here)
rolls, skirting the southern end of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, wedged in
by the north-facing cliffs of Glorieta Mesa, through Glorieta Pass, where the
Confederates lost the battle for the Southwest, across the upper reaches of

Rio Pecos, and around to Las Vegas. Then in straight lines across the western
edges of the Great Plains where they lap up onto the Sangre de Cristo
ranges, through Wagon Mound and Springer to Raton. The climb up-canyon
to Raton Pass, through roadcuts of brown sandstone, shale, and coal, leads
into Colorado, with a view of much of southern Colorado from the Pass.

Many routes lead northward from ancient Santa Fe. U.S. Highway 285
crosses the high divide near Bishop’s Lodge, follows Rio Tesuque to
Pojoaque, crosses the Rio Grande near Espanola amid varicolored badlands
cut in the Santa Fe rocks, then heads northward on the black basalt plateau
toward Colorado. Black Mesa, a volcanic neck, lies south of Espanola,
overlooking the green Rio Grande Valley; atop this height, Pueblo Indians
once defied Spanish guns until they starved. Northward, near Tres Piedras,
the Ortega and Brazos ranges tower to the west, the perlite-rich hills of No
Agua lie to the northeast, and across the basalt plains cut by the Rio Grande,
the lofty, snow-capped Sangre de Cristo Mountains loom.

At Pojoaque, State Road 4 leads westward, across Otowi bridge of the Rio
Grande, then winds up into the canyon and mesa country bordering the
Jemez Mountains. Herein lie Bandelier and Los Alamos, one with ancient
abandoned pueblos, the other the atomic city. Farther west, the road crosses
the rim of an ancient volcano into Valle Grande, the crater of that volcano—
some 16 miles across. When this volcano spewed forth hot ashes about a
million years ago, the volcanic dust was wind-blown as far as Kansas and
Nebraska!

At Espanola, U.S. Highway 84 breaks away to the northwest to follow Rio
Chama in its canyon carved from redbeds near Abiquiu, past the interesting
museum at Ghost Ranch—where bones of Triassic dinosaurs are collected—
Echo Amphitheater, El Vado Lake, through Chama, and on up into the San
Juan Mountains country of southern Colorado.

Near Espanola, U.S. Highway 64 splits off to the northeast; this is the high
road of north-central New Mexico. Paralleling the canyon of the Rio Grande
to Pilar, the highway climbs up onto the Taos plateau to Taos, turns eastward
to cut through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains over Palo Flechado Pass,
down into the grassy Moreno Valley to Eagle Nest and Eagle Nest 163
Lake, then eastward again following the narrow canyon of the

Cimarron River to Cimarron and Raton. A loop trip northward from Eagle
Nest on State 38 goes through ghost town Elizabethtown, over Red River
Pass, and down the varicolored canyon of Red River to Questa, before
turning southward toward Taos.

(U.S. Park Service)
Subdivision living, pueblo style—at Aztec National Monument

And there is the northwest, the Four Corners region, land of Navajos and gas
wells, presided over by magnificent Shiprock. State Highway 44 leaves
Interstate 25 at Bernalillo, follows Rio Salado to San Ysidro, which nestles
at the south tip of the Nacimiento Mountains below White Mesa, thence
northwestward past Cabezon Peak and coaly La Ventana to Cuba in the

valley of Rio Puerco. Then, up and down, the winding highway cuts
transversely across the San Juan Basin, through pine groves at the
Continental Divide, past the side road to Chaco Canyon National Monument
at Blanco Trading Post, and among the multicolored Tertiary beds carved
into badlands. At Bloomfield, oil and gas wells lie all about, and the mesa-
and-canyon country gives way to the valley of the San Juan River. At Aztec,
State Road 44 joins U.S. Highway 550 in the narrow valley of the Animas
River—a clear cold stream sent rushing down from the icy lakes of the San
Juan Mountains to the north. Eastward a few miles lies Navajo Lake along
the San Juan River; northward, U. S. 550 winds up the Animas Valley 164
toward Durango, high Silverton, and Mesa Verde National Park. Aztec
Ruins National Monument is just to the northwest of Aztec.

Westward from Aztec, U.S. Highway 550 follows the Animas River to its
junction with the San Juan River, then past the huge Navajo coal mine, a
long open cut near Fruitland, to junction with U.S. Highway 666 at
Shiprock.

Shiprock! A buttressed needle, towering 1450 vertical feet above Navajo-
land, with walls of black igneous rock radiating from its feet like spokes on a
wheel. This dark-colored spire once filled the throat of a volcano. Where are
piles of rocks, hundreds of feet thick, that once surrounded it? Down the
river they went, down the San Juan to the Colorado River, and thence to the
ocean.

To the west, as a background, are the forested Carrizo, Lukachukai, and
Chuska mountains. Off to the east lies Hogback Mountain, an upturned ridge
of sedimentary rocks producing oil—the petroleum geologist’s favorite
haunt, an anticline.

Southward from Shiprock, U.S. 666 passes other volcanic necks such as
Bennett Peak and Ford Butte. North of Gallup, State Road 68 leads
westward to Window Rock (Arizona), the Indian Headquarters of the Navajo
Reservation. Near Gallup, coal beds of Late Cretaceous age crop out,
Gamerco once being a booming coal-mining town. Now huge dragline
shovels scoop out the coal from open pits to the northwest of Gallup. And at
Gallup, the Indian Capital, a loop drive around the San Juan Basin is
completed; Interstate 40, old U.S. Highway 66, goes eastward to

Albuquerque, St. Louis, and Chicago, and westward to Grand Canyon, Los
Angeles, and the blue Pacific.

Many other scenic places dot the Land of Enchantment; local hosts, rancher
or city dweller, know of these. Mountain meadows, rushing streams, rocky
peaks, desert valleys, badlands, grassy plains, thick forests, spectacular
chasms, needle rocks, and brilliant colors—they are all here in New Mexico.

Footnotes

[1]
New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

[2]
National Park Service.

[3]
Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

[4]
Information on monuments and parks developed since this publication was
first printed may be obtained from The New Mexico State Park and
Recreation Commission, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501.

[5]
New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

[6]
K₂O is the common unit used in pricing and assaying potassium salts.
However, the potash is sold as purified potassium chloride or sulfate.
Composition: Linotype Fairfield
Text—10/11
Index—8/9 (reduced to 6/7)
Display heads—18 pt. Bulmer italic
Presswork: 38″ Miehle Single Color Offset
29″ Harris Single Color Offset
Binding: Smyth sewn and glued
Paper: Text—70# white matte
Cover—12 pt. Kivar

165

Index

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W
X Y Z

A
Abiquiu, 145, 162
Abo, 104;
church, 161;
Pass, 161;
Pueblo, 107;
Redbeds, 44, 104, 161;
State Monument, 105
Acevedo, Fray Francisco de, 105
Acoma, 51;
Indian, 157;
Pueblo, 89, 120, 122, 156
agave, 17, 20, 21
agriculture, 4, 12, 19, 53, 54, 58, 61, 62, 122, 124, 125, 131, 132, 150
Agua Chiquita, 99
Aguas Calientes, 123
Alamo Canyon, 85
Alamogordo, 36, 45, 78, 99, 141, 143, 159, 160;
Creek, 112;
Lake State Park, 104, 112;
Reservoir, 112
Albuquerque, 8, 13, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44-45, 49, 57, 70, 73, 92, 98, 106, 132,
134, 136, 138, 154, 156, 161, 162, 164
alfalfa, 158
algae, 45
Alkali Flats, 158

alluvial fan, 18, 50, 140, 156, 161
Alma, 101
Alpine [Zone], 22, 26, 28
Ambrosia Lake District, 151
American Gypsum Company, 49
ammonites, 51
amphibians, 41, 45, 48, 49
Anasazi, 60, 61, 62;
Basketmakers, 59;
Indians, 60, 86
andesite, 39, 158, 161
anhydrite, 47, 48, 49
Animas
Formation, 35, 50
Mountains, 29
River, 163, 164
Valley, 158, 164
antelope, 28, 29, 95, 98, 101
Apache, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 54, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 89, 90, 105,
122, 132, 139, 140, 141, 143 (see also under tribal names);
Canyon, 13, 92;
Creek, 101;
National Forest, 101, 103;
plume, 18;
Reservation, map 56;
Summit, 159;
Tejo, 72
Aragon, 74
aragonite, 78
archeological sites, map 56
Arctic-alpine Zone, 22 (see also Alpine)
Arkansas River, 114, 136
Army of the West, 19, 64
Arroyo Hondo, 95
Arroyo Penasco Formation, 42
artemisia, 18
Artesia, 46, 146, 148, 159;
Group, 46

aspen, 17, 97, 100, 107, 109, illus. 121, 156
Athapascan, 5, 62, 132, 133
atlatl, 58, 60
Avalon Reservoir, 118
Aztec, 82, 109, 138, 163, 164;
Ruins National Monument, 75, 82, 84, illus. 163, 164

B
Baca Formation, 36
badger, 31
bajada, 18
Bandelier National Monument, illus. 25, 37, 62, 75, 84-85, illus. 85, 122,
136, 155, 162
bandtail pigeon (see doves)
barite, 53
Barella Mesa, 81
basalt, 37, 38, 111, 112, 131, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162
basin, 35, 41, 45, 49, 79, 89, 96, 141 (see also under proper names:
Delaware, Galisteo, Gallina, Great, Largo, Orogrande, Paradox, San
Juan, Tularosa)
bass, 111, 112, 115, 117
bats, 78
Battle of Val Verde, 13, 68, 70, 73, 92
Battleship Rock, 98
Baylor, Col. J. B., 72
beans, 58, 84, 86
bear, 28, 98, 100, 101;
state mammal, 28
beargrass, 20
beaver, 31, 95, 114
Beaverhead, 101
Beaver National Forest, 95
belemnoids, 51
Benavides, Fray Alonso de, 89
Ben Hur, 105
Bennett Peak, 164
Bent, Governor Charles, 129;
Bent’s Fort, 129

Bernal Formation, 47
Bernalillo, 106, 134, 163
Bernardo, 134, 161
beryl, 40, 53
Bidahochi Formation, 38
Big Dog Canyon, 99
Big Hatchet Mountains, 26
Billy the Kid, 14, 24, 70, 107, 159, 161
bioherm, 42, 45
biotite, 40
birds, 29-31, 36, 49, 51, 95, 98
Bishop’s Lodge, 162
bison, 55, 58, 62
black “gold,” 43
Black
Mesa, 127, 162
Range, 14, 42, 101, 144
River Valley, 78
Blackwater Draw, 55, 111
Blanco Basin Formation, 36
Blanco Trading Post, 163
Bliss Sandstone, 40, 41
Bloomfield, 148, 163
bluebird, 31
blue spruce, 22, 141
Bluewater Lake, 104, 110;
State Park, 110
bobcat, 30, 31, 95
Bone Spring Formation, 46
Bonito Creek, 99
Bosque Redondo, 74, 110
Bottomless Lakes, 104, illus. 108, 159;
State Park, 108, 155
Botts, Judge C. M., 26
brachiopods, 40, 41, 42, illus. 42
Brachiosaurus, 49
Brazos Mountains, 35, 38, 40, 162
Brazos River Valley, 111

bream, 115
broomcorn, 159
bryozoans, 41, 42, illus. 45
buffalo, 31, 54, 55, 62, 98, 136, 137, 138
Buffalo Dance, 124
Bug Scuffle Hill, 99
Burro Mountains, 20, 40
Butterfield Trail, 70, 71

C
Caballo
Lake State Park, 104, 112
Mountains, 38, 40, 112, 161
Reservoir, 112, 117, 161
Cabeza de Vaca, 6
Cabezon Peak, 37, 51, 163
cacti, 17, 18, 19, 20, 33
calcite, 42, 46, 47, 78
caldera, 37, 75, 85, 86
California Column, 73-74
camels, 55, 57
Cambrian, 40;
rocks, 40
Camino Real (see Royal Road)
Canadian River, 31, 74, 108, 109, 111, 136, 137, 155
Canadian Zone, 22
Canby, Col. E. R. S., 13, 73, 92
Canjilon, 95
Canyon de Chelly, 110
Capillo Peak, 98
Capitan, 36, 69, 99, 100, 159;
limestone, 47, 77;
Mountains, 99, 159;
Pass, 99;
Reef, 45, 46, 47
caprock, 38, 155, 159
Caprock [N. Mex.], 155
Capulín Mountain, 37, 75;

National Monument, illus. 80, 81-82, 155
Capulin Peak, 97
carbon dioxide, 53, 146
Carlsbad, 38, 45, 46, 48, 53, 148, 149, 150, 159;
reef limestones, 47
Carlsbad Caverns, 46, 51, 141, 159;
National Park, 75, 76-78, illus. 77
Carleton, Gen. J. H., 73, 74
carnallite, 48
carp, 115
Carrizo Mountains, 164
Carrizozo, 36, 37, 38, 45, 104, 111, 138, 155, 159, 161;
dome, 161
Carson, Kit, 13, 70, 94, 110 (see also under Kit)
Carson National Forest, 93-95, 96, 97
Casa Blanca, 156
Casa Grande [Ariz.], 126
Castile Anhydrite, 47;
gypsum sample, illus. 47
catfish, 111, 114, 115, 117
Catron County, 134, 135
cattle, 12, 14, 15, 23, 24, 31, 53, 75, 89, 93, 99, 140, 141
cedar, 20, 21
cement, 53, 154
Cenozoic Era, 33-38, 51;
rocks, 51
centipede, 31
century plant, 20
cephalopods, 41, 51
Cerro
Blanco, 98
Colorado, 161
Pedernal, 97
Chaco Canyon, 5, 60, 75, 82, 84, 138;
National Monument, 61, 82, illus. 83, 163
chalcocite, 151
chalcopyrite, 151
Chama, 95, 162;

River, 95, 110
Charette Lakes, 118
chert, 43
Chihuahua [Mexico], 7, 9, 11, 132, 139
Chihuahua desert, 16
Chimayó, 136
Chinle Formation, 48, 49, 111, 112
Chino mine, 151, illus. 153
Chiricahua Apache, 6, 133
Chivington, Col. John M., 13
chollas, 17, 19
Chupadera Mesa, 161
Chuska
Formation, 38
Mountains, 164
Cibola National Forest, 98-99
Cieneguilla Creek, 112
Cimarron, 163;
River, 163
Ciniza, 148
“cities that died of fear,” 139
City of Rocks State Park, 104, 110, 155, 161
Civil War, 12, 13, 64, 71, 72-74, 92, 105, 107, 137
clams, 36, 41, 51
clay, 35, 38, 41, 43, 44, 45, 49, 53, 54
Clayton, 37, 112;
Lake State Park, 104, 112
Cliff, 72, 74
Clines Corners, 40, 49, 134, 155 166
Cloudcroft, 100, 160
Clovis, 55, 104, 159, 161;
Man, 104;
points, 55, 57
coal, 23, 36, 43, 50, 51, 53, 69, 138, 146, 154, 157, 158, 161, 162, 164
Cochise Culture, 58, 59, 63
Cochiti, Cañada de, 122;
Pueblo, 122-123
Coconino Sandstone, 46

Colorado
River, 3, 90, 138, 143, 164
state line, 112
Volunteers, 13, 92, 137
columbite-tantalite, 40
Columbus [N. Mex.], 30, 104, 109
Comanche, 12, 63, 65, 90, 105, 139
Conchas
Dam, 104, 108, 109
Lake State Park, 108-109
Reservoir, 31, 118
Confederate, 12, 13, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 92, 105, 107, 137, 162;
campaign, map 73
conglomerate, 49, 50
conifers, 44
conquistadore, 10, 54, 89, 92, 99, 106, 120, 127, 135
Continental Divide, 20, 61, 99, 163
continuous miner, 150, illus. 150
cony, 31
Cooke’s Canyon; Spring, 71
copper, 51, 53, 143, 144, 146, 148, 151, 153, 154, 161
corals, 41, 42, illus. 45
corn, 4, 58, 62, 84, 86, 122
Corn Dance, 124, 132
Coronado (Francisco Vasquez de), 6, 7, 54, 62, 106, 120, 123, 126, 132
Coronado
National Forest, 101, 103
State Monument, 104, 106
cotton, 84, 158, 159
cottonwood, illus. 25, 158, 159
coyote, 19, 26, 30, 79, 95
Coyote [N. Mex.], 98
Coyote Creek, 90
crane, 30
crappies, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117
creosote bush, 17, 19, 20, 26, 28, 71, 158, 161
Cretaceous, 50, 112, 146, 156, 158, 164;
beds, 49, 158;

Period, 49, 51;
sandstone, 157;
seas, 51;
time, 49, 50
crinoid, 42, illus. 42
crocodiles, 36
Crown Dance, 133
Cuba [N. Mex.], 35, 36, 98, 163
Cub Mountain Formation, 36
cucumbers, 159
Culiacan [Mexico], 6
Culture
Archaic, 58;
Cochise, 58;
Desert, 58;
Pueblo, 59, 60

D
Dakota Sandstone, 50, 112, 155, 156, 157
Datil, 161;
Formation, 36;
Mountains, 98, 99
Datil-Mogollon plateau, 36
Dead Man’s Peak, 97
deer, 26, 28, 29, 31, 100, 101;
desert mule, 26, 100;
mule, 28, 29, 31;
Rocky Mountain mule, 26, 95, 98, 100;
Sonoran fantail, 26;
whitetail, 26, 98, 100
de la Llana, Fray Geronimo, 105
Delaware
basin, 43, 45, 46, 47
Mountains, 159
Deming, 49, 71, 104, 110, 112, 135, 158, 161
de Niza, Fray Marcos, 132
de Vargas, don Diego, 8, 90, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128, 129
Devonian, 42;

rocks, 41;
seas, 42;
time, 41
Dewey Lake Redbeds, 47, 48
Diablo
Mountains, 75
Plateau, 159
dinosaur, 48, 49, 51, illus. 52, 162
Dixon, 40
Dockum Group, 48, 109
dolomite, 41, 46, 48, 158, 159
Doña Ana, 70;
County, 30;
Historical Society, 71
Doniphan, Col. Alexander W., 64
doves, 28, 29, 95, 98
dragonflies, 44
ducks, 30, 95, 98, 118

E
eagle, 31
Eagle Creek, 99
Nest, 162, 163;
Lake, 163
Early Hunters, 55, 58
earthquake, 37
Echo Amphitheater, 95, illus. 96, 162
Edgewood, 155
eel, 114
El Capitan, 159
El Cristo Rey, 158
Elephant Butte, 112, 134;
Dam, 38, 111, 161;
Lake State Park, 104, 111, 112;
Reservoir, 36, 111, 117, illus. 117
elephants, 54, 55
Elizabethtown, 163
elk, illus. 23, 26, 28, 29, 95, 98, 101

elkhorn (cacti), 19
elm, 51
El Morro, 49, 51, 75, 89, 157;
National Monument, 89-90, illus. 91, 155
El Palacio [State Monument], 104-105
(see also Palace of the Governors)
El Paso [Tex.], 13, 16, 20, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 49, 70, 72, 112, 123, 134,
135, 143, 158, 161
El Paso del Norte, 7, 8, 89, 90, 105, 123
El Paso Limestone, 41
El Ranchito, 128
El Rito, 95;
de los Frijoles, illus. 25;
Formation, 36
El Vado Dam, 110
Lake, 104, 110, 118, 162;
State Park, 110
Reservoir, 118
Emory, Lieutenant, 19
Enchanted Mesa, 51, 156, illus. 157
Engelmann spruce, 22, 156
Entrada Sandstone, 49, 156
Escabrosa Limestone, 42
Espanola, 38, 98, 112, 136, 162
Espejo Expedition, 89
Espinaso beds, 36
Estancia, 38;
Basin, 98, 105, 155, 161
Eunice, 146
eurypterids, 41

F
Farmington, 43, 50, 95, 134, 138, 146, 148
feldspar, 39, 40, 45
ferns, 42, 43
fig trees, 36
finch, 31
fir, 16, 17;

corkbark, 156;
Douglas, 108
fish, 36, 41, 49, 53, 75, 101, 104, 113-118, illus. 113
Fishers Peak, 81
flint, 54
Florida Mountains, 26, 112, 158
Folsom, 55, 57;
Man, 55;
State Monument, 104;
points, 55, 57, illus. 57
foraminifers, 51
Ford Butte, 164
fort, 9, 12, 13, 64-74, map 69, 90, 92, 107, 143
Fort (see also individual listing)
Bascom, 74
Defiance [Ariz.], 90
Floyd, 72
Lowell, 74
Lyon, 67
McLane, 72
McRae, 74
Thorn, 72
Tularosa, 74
Webster, 72
West, 74
Fort Bayard, 71-72, 74;
Reservation, 20, 24
Fort Bliss [Texas], 68, 70, 72, 73, 74
Fort Conrad, 67, 72
Fort Craig, 67-69, illus. 68, 72, 73, 90
Fort Cummings, 71, 74
Fort Fauntleroy, 66-67, 72
Fort Fillmore, 72, 143
Fort Marcy, 66, 72, 90
Fort Selden, 70-71, 74, 104, 107, 143, 161;
State Monument, 104, 107
Fort Stanton, 68, 69-70, 72, 74
Fort Sumner, 74, 111, 112, 155, 161

Fort Union, 13, 64-66, illus. 65, 72, 73, 75, 92;
National Monument, 66, 90, 92
Fort Wingate, 66-67, 74;
Ordnance Depot, 67
fossil, 41, illus. 42, 43, illus. 45, 48, 49, 55, 98;
fish, 41;
hash, 42, 46;
reefs, 42
Four Corners, 3, 4, 41, 43, 59, 133, 138, 163
fox, 79, 95
Fra Cristobal Mountains, 38, 162
Franciscan, 8, 89, 105, 106, 126;
missionaries, 86, 89, 105;
Order, 7, 106
Franklin (see El Paso, Texas)
Frijoles Canyon, 5, 84, illus. 85, 136
Fruitland, 138, 154, 164;
Formation, 50
Fusselman Dolomite, 41
fusulinids, 44, illus. 45

G
Gadsden Purchase, 107
gas, 43, 53, 95, 138, 146-148, 163
Galisteo Basin, 36, 62
Creek, 162
Formation, 36
Gallina basin, 61
Gallinas Mountains, 99
Peak, 98
Gallup, 12, 49, 50, 66, 99, 133, 134, 138, 147, 154, 157, 158, 164
Gamerco, 164
geese, 30, 95, 98, 118
gem stones, 53
geologic history, 33-53
time table, 34, 39, 50
Geronimo, 14, 70, 74, 143
Ghost Ranch, 162;

Mountain, illus. 145;
Museum, 95
ghost towns, 53, 95, 141, 158, 163
Gila
Apache, 6
Cliff Dwellings (National Monument), 75, 86, illus. 87, 101
Conglomerate, 38, 86
National Forest, 101
River, 4, 6, 72, 74, 114, 143, 161
Wilderness (Area), 75, 86, 101, 144
Giusewa Pueblo, 106, 107
glacier, 38, 55, 57
glauconite, 40
Glenwood, 101
Glorieta, 73, 97;
Mesa, 46, 162;
Pass, 13, 46, 92, 137, 162;
Sandstone, 46
gneiss, 39, 40
goats, 89
Goat Seep Reef, 45, 46
Gobernador, 95
gold, 6, 7, 13, 14, 53, 72, 104, 146 167
graben, 37, 38, 79
grama grass, 17, 18, 20
Gran Chaco, 4, 5
granite, 39, 40, 43, 156, 161
Gran Quivira, 75, 161;
National Monument, 86, illus. 88, 89
Grants, 37, 38, 40, 43, 48, 49, 53, 89, 99, 138, 148, 150, 151, 153, 156, 157
grapes, 89, 159
gravel, 35, 36, 38, 50, 53
greasewood, 19
Great
Barrier Reef, 46, 141
Basin, 58
Kiva, 84
Lakes, 55, 57

Plains, 6, 16, 17, 136, 159, 162
greenstone, 40
grouse, 95, 98
Guadalupe
Mountains, 26, 46, 77, 99, 141, illus. 142, 143, 159
Pass, 159
Peak, 159
River, 124
Gulf of California, 90, 143
gypsum, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 53, 79, 146, 153, 156;
—anhydrite, 47;
dunes, 31, 32, 38, illus. 39, 75, 78

H
halite, 45, 48
Hall of Giants, illus. 77
Hanover mine, 151
Harding pegmatite, 40
Hatch, 72, 142;
Valley, 161
hawk, 31, 79
hay, 122
helictites, 76, 78
heliograph station, 70
helium, 53, 146
Helms Formation, 43
hematite, 40, 45
Herrera, Cristobal de, 130
Hidalgo County, 29, 30
High Plains, 31, 37, 38, 50, 54, 55, 109, 110, 133, 138, 140
Hillsboro, 14, 144
Hobbs, 134, 142, 146, 159
Hogback Mountain, 164
Hohokam people, 4, 59
Holloman Air Force Base, 143
Hondo, 159
Hopewell Lake, 118
horse, 6, 9, 13, 23, 55, 57, 89, 93, 115, 129

Hopi, 126
Hot Springs [N. Mex.] (see Truth or Consequences)
Hueco
Limestone, 44
Mountains, 158
hummingbirds, 28
Hunters and Gatherers, 58
Hurley, 72, 151, 161
Hyde Memorial State Park, 104, 109

I
Ice Caves, 157
Immaculate Conception (church), 105
Indian, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 21, 53, 54-63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 72, 74,
84, 86, 89, 90, 95, 99, 101, 104, 105, 106, 110, 113, 116, 120-133, 135,
136, 138, 140, 141, 143, 164;
Divide, 159;
pueblo, 4, 5, map 56, 86, 89, 120-133, 136;
reservations, map 56
Inscription Rock (see El Morro)
Interstate Highway
10: 158
25: 107, 161, 162, 163
40: 48, 155, 156, 157, 162, 164
Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial, 133, 138
iron, 53, 78
Isleta
del Sur, 105, 123
Pueblo, 8, 11, 123
San Agustin de, 123
San Antonio de, 123

J
Jackpile-Paguate mine, 151, illus. 152
javelina, 26, 28, 101
jay, 31
Jemez, 106;
Division, 97, 98;

Indians, 107;
Mission, 104,
San Diego de, 123,
San Jose de los, 124,
San Juan de Los, 124;
Mountains, 37, 38, 97, 121, 128, 129, 136, 156, 162;
Pueblo, 106, 123-124;
River, 123, 124, 128, 131;
Springs, 98, 106, 107;
State Monument, 106-107, 123, 124
Jicarilla
Apache, 6, 74, 132, 133
Division, 95
Indian Reservation, 95, 138
Johnson Mesa, 81
Jornada del Muerto, 16, 36, 139, 140, 142, 160-161
Joshua tree, 20
Juárez [Mexico], 7, 123, 158
juniper, 20, 21, 23, 135, 141, 155
Jurassic
rocks, 158
sandstones, 155, 156, 157
time, 49

K
Kaiser Gypsum Company, 49
Kaiser Steel Corporation, 51
kangaroo rats, 32
Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 64, 90
Kelly, 141
Kenna, 155
Kennecott Copper Company, 143, 151
Keres, 124
Kern, R. H., 90
Kilbourne Hole, 158
Kingston, 14, 144
Kiowas, 65
Kirtland Shale, 50

Kit Carson Memorial State Park, 104, 110
(see also under Carson)
Kit Carson’s Cave, 157
kiva, 59, 84, 106
Kneeling Nun, 151
Koehler, 51
Kuaua, 106

L
La Bajada Hill, 36, 161, 162
Ladron Mountains, 38, 140, 162
Laguna, 48, 152, 156;
del Perro, 161;
Indians, 124;
Mission, San Jose de, 125;
Santa Maria, illus. 124;
Pueblo, 124-125;
Reservation, 124, 151
Lagunitas, 95
Lakes and/or Reservoirs (see individual entries: Alamogordo, Avalon,
Bluewater, Bottomless, Caballo, Charette, Clayton, Conchas, Eagle
Nest, Elephant Butte, El Vado, Hopewell, Lea, Lost, Lucero, McGaffey,
McMillan, Miami, Morphy, Navajo, Red, Roberts, San Gregorio,
Stewart, Storrie, Truchas, Ute)
Lake Lucero, 38, 79
Lake Roberts, illus. 103, 118
Lake Valley Limestone, 42
La Madera, 95
La Mesilla State Monument, 104, 107
lanceolate points, 55
langbeinite, 48, 149
Laramide revolution, 33, 50
Largo basin, 61
Las Cruces, 12, 70, 72, 107, 112, 134, 135, 142, 158, 161
Las Trampas, 95, 136
Las Vegas [N. Mex.], 13, 50, 64, 90, 92, 97, 110, 112, 137, 162
lava, 31, 32, 36, 37, 51, 79, 81, 99, 100, 104, 111, 155, 156
La Ventana, 163

lead, 53, 146, 148, 151
Lea Lake, 108
Leasburg, 70
Ledoux [N. Mex.], 112
lepidolite mica, 40
Letrado, Father Francisco, 89
limestone, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 51, 53, 77, 78, 155, 156, 158, 159, 160,
161
Lincoln, 70, 107, 159;
County Courthouse, 104, 107;
County War, 14, 104, 107;
National Forest, 99-100;
State Monument, 107
Lipan Apache, 6, 132, 133
Little Black Peak, 111
Little Colorado River, 61
Little Florida Mountains, 112
livestock, 19, 23, 98, 100, 103, 141
lizard, 31, 79
Llano Estacado (see Staked Plains)
Logan, 111
Lookout Mountain, 100
Lordsburg, 38, 49, 101, 154, 158
Los Alamos, 37, 162
Los Lunas, 134
Los Pinos Mountains, 38, 162
Lost Lake, 96
Lovington, 146, 159
Lukachukai Mountains, 164
Luna County, 30, 71
Luxán, Diego Pérez de, 89

M
MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 70-71, 107
McDermott Formation, 50
McGaffey Lake, 99
McMillan Reservoir, 117, 159
McRae Formation, 36, 112

Magdalena, 14, 99, 101, 141, 161-162;
Mountains, 38, 98, 99, 140, 161
magma, 36, 40
magnesium compounds, 53, 146
magnolia trees, 36
magpie, 31
maguey, 21
maize, 159
Maldonado, Fray Lucas, 120
malpais, 31, 100, 111
mammals, 26-32, 36, 49, 51, 57, 58, 95, 98, 114;
prehistoric, 49, 51, 55
mammoth, 55, 57
manganese, 53
Mancos Shale, 50
mano, illus. 59
Manzano, 99;
Mountains, 37, 38, 51, 98, 105, 138, 139, 161, 162;
Peak, 98
maple, 51
marten, 95
Martinez, Julian and Maria, 127
Martinez, Paddy, 150
Martinez, Padre José, 110
mastodon, 55
Mayhill, 100
melons, 122, 159
Mesa
Redonda, 155
Rica, 155
Verde [Colo.], 4, 5, 60, 84;
National Park, 164
Mesaverde Group, 50
mescal, 20, 21
Mescalero, 159;
Apache, 6, 21, 69, 70, 74, 132;
Indian Reservation, 99, 133, 134, 143
Mesilla, 72, 107;

Valley, 158, 161
Mesozoic
Era, 48-51
rocks, 33, 51
seas, 33
mesquite, 17, 19, 20, 71
metate, illus. 59
Mexican, 140, 141; 168
Colonial, 104, 107;
War, 12, 64
Mexico, 6, 7, 10, 12, 30, 31, 64, 67, 89, 90, 132, 137, 138, 139, 144, 148,
158, 161;
City, 6, 9
Miami Lake, 118
mica, 40, 53;
schist, illus. 40
mice, 31, 79
microcline, 40
Miles, General, 14
Mimbreno Apache, 74
Mimbres, 101, 144;
culture, 20, 143;
River, 4, 72, 143
minerals, 40, 53, 146 ff.
mink, 95
mining, 12, 14, 15, 23, 53, 72, 95, 99, 101, 125, 141, 143, 144, 146, 148-
154, 160, 161
mission(s), 8, 9, 86, 89, 126;
churches, 8, illus. 11, 86, 105, 106, 107, illus. 119, 122, 123, 127;
ruins, 104
Mississippian
rocks, 42
seas, 43
time, 43
Mockingbird Gap, 41
Moenkopi Formation, 48
Mogollon, 141;
Apache, 74;

culture, 4, 59, 86;
Mountains, 14, 22, 75, 86;
people, 3, 59, 60, 86
mollusks, 51
molybdenum, 53, 154
Monjeau Lookout, 99, illus. 160
Montoya Dolomite, 41
Monument, 146, 148
Mora County, 112
Moreno Valley, 162
Moriarty, 155
Morphy Lake, 112;
State Park, 104, 112
Morrison Formation, 49
Mosca Peak, 98
Mountainair, 86, 99, 105, 161
mountain lion, 30, 31, 95
mountain mahogany, 20
mountains (see under proper name: Animas, Big Hatchet, Black Range,
Brazos, Burro, Caballo, Capitan, Carrizo, Chuska, Datil, Delaware,
Diablo, Florida, Fra Cristobal, Gallinas, Guadalupe, Hueco, Jemez,
Ladron, Little Florida, Los Pinos, Lukachukai, Magdalena, Manzano,
Mogollon, Nacimiento, Organ, Ortega, Pedernal Hills, Peloncillo,
Potrillo, Pyramid, Rocky, Sacramento, San Andres, Sandia, Sangre de
Cristo, San Juan, San Mateo, Taos, Victorio, Zuní)
Mount
Baldy, 99
Riley, 158
Robledo, 70
Taylor, 37, 51, 98, 156
Withington, 99
Mule Peak, 99
museum, 104, 105
muskrat, 95

N
Nacimiento
Formation, 35, 36

Mountains, 35, 42, 156, 163
Peak, 97
Nambé, 128;
mission, 125;
Pueblo, 125
Nana, 70, 74
Natage Apache, 6, 132, 133
National Forests, 16, 24, 75, 93-103, map 94 (see also under proper names:
Apache, Beaver, Carson, Cibola, Coronado, Gila, Lincoln, Santa Fe)
National Monuments, 75-92, 138, 155 (see also under proper names: Aztec
Ruins, Bandelier, Carlsbad Caverns (Park), Capulin Mountain, Chaco
Canyon, El Morro, Fort Union, Gila Cliff Dwellings, Gran Quivira,
Pecos, Valle Grande, White Sands)
National Park System, 75, 76, 82, 85, 86, 92;
Service, 76, 81
Navajo, 6, 12, 15, 54, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 71, 74, 110, 123, 126, 132, 133,
163, 164;
Dam, 109, 138;
Indian Reservation, map 56, 133, 138, 164;
Lake, 163;
State Park, 109;
Reservoir, 118
Neogene
Period, 37
time, 39
Newkirk, 155
New Mexico Department of Public Welfare, 70
New Mexico Volunteers, 13
niobium, 50
Niobrara limestone, 50
No Agua, 153, 162

O
oak, 20, 23, 36, 51, 100
Oasis State Park, 104, 111
obsidian, 54
Ochoan
rocks, 47

Series, 47
ocotillo, 17, 18, 20, 26
Ogallala Formation, 38
oil, 43, 45, 46, 53, 95, 138, 141, 146-148, 159, 163, 164;
fields, 146;
pumps, illus. 149;
refinery, illus. 147, 159;
secondary recovery, 148
Ojo Caliente, 74
Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs), 66, 67
Oñate (Don Juan), 7, 8, 90, 99, 120, 122, 126, 127, 128, 131
opuntia, 17, 19, 20
Ordovician, 146;
Period, 40;
rocks, 41;
seas, 41;
time, 41
Organ [N. Mex.], 160
Organ Mountains, 26, 158, 160
oriole, 31
Orogrande basin, 43
Ortega Mountains, 162
orthoclase, 40
Otowi bridge, 162
otter, 114
Ouray Limestone, 41
Our Lady of Lourdes (chapel), 127
oysters, 51

P
Painted Cave, 85
Painted Desert, 48
Pajarito Plateau, 136
Palace of the Governors, 4, 5, 104
(see also El Palacio)
Paleogene
Period, 33, 36
time, map 35

Paleozoic, 146;
Era, 40-48;
rocks, 33, 49, 51;
time, 39, 46
palm trees, 36
Palo Flechado Pass, 162
paloverde, 17
Pan-American Central Highway, 162
Pancho Villa, 67, 109;
State Park, 104, 109
Panhandle Aspect, 62
Paradise Formation, 43
Paradox Basin, 43
partridge, 100
peanuts, 159
pecan, 158
Pecos, 97, 106, 115;
Baldy, 96;
Basin, 99;
“diamonds,” 108;
Division, 96, 97;
Horseshoe, 96;
mission, 104, 107;
National Monument, 62, 76, 106;
Pueblo, 62, 107;
River, 38, 74, 96, illus. 97, 111, 112, 114, 136, 155, 159, 162,
Forest Reserve, 96;
State Monument, 106;
Valley, 30, 46, 78, 159, 161;
Wilderness (Area), 75, 94, 96
Pedernal Hills, 40, 43, 161
pegmatite, 40
Peloncillo Mountains, 29, 158
Peña, Fray Juan de la, 123
Peñablanca, 115
Penasco, 95, 136
Penitente, 136
Pennsylvanian

limestone, 112
Period, 43, 156, 159
time, map 44, 45
perch, 115
Percha Shale, 41
perlite, 37, 53, 146, 153, 162
Permian, 45, 48, 146, 159, 161;
Period, 44, 77, 149;
rocks, 44-48;
seas, 46;
time, 45, 47
Pershing, Gen. John J., 70, 109
Petrified Forest National Monument, 48
petrified wood, 49
petroglyphs, 89, 113
petroleum, 146, 147, 164
Phoenix [Ariz.], 161
phytosaur, 49
Picacho Hill, 159
Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, 50
Picurís, 95;
Pueblo, 125-126;
San Lorenzo de, 125
Pierre Shale, 50
pike, 115, 117
Pilar, 162
pine, 22, 36, 49, 93, 100, 109, 163;
dwarf, 17;
ponderosa, 17, 21, 29, 112, 156, 157, 159;
yellow, 17, 21
piñon, 17, 20, illus. 22, 23, 135, 141, 155
Piñon, 43
Pinos Altos, 72
Piro, 8
pit houses, 4, 59, illus. 60, 61, 82, 86
Plains Indians, 54, 55, 63, 106, 132, 140
Pleistocene, 54, 55, 57, 111, 161;
Epoch, 38;

Ice Age, 54, 58
Poison Canyon Formation, 35
Pojoaque, 162;
Pueblo, 126
polyhalite, 48
Po-pé, 8, 127, 129
poplar, 36, 51
Porciuncula, Church of ... de, 106
porcupine, 31
Portales, 55, 104, 111, 159;
Valley, 111
potash, 48, 53, 141, 146, 148, 149, 150, 153, 159
potatoes, 159
Potrillo Mountains, 158
pottery, 62, 82, 84, 86, 113, illus. 113, 122, 127, 128;
black-on-white, 60, 61;
brown, 86;
brownware, 59;
white with black, 86
Powwow Canyon, 158
Precambrian, 156, 161;
Era, 38-40;
rocks, 33, 39, 40, 51
Presidio of Santa Fe, 9
prickly pears, 17, 19
protozoans, 44, 51
ptarmigan, 31
Pueblo
Bonito, 60, illus. 61, 82
Indians, 5, 8, 12, 54, 61, 62, 84, 86, 89, 120 ff., 162
periods:
Classic (or Great), 60, 61, 62, 82
Developmental, 60
Historic, 62
prehistoric, 82
Regressive, 62
Revolt, 8, 89, 90, 120, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131
ruins, 104