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Title: The Unexploited West

Author: Ernest J. Chambers

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
UNEXPLOITED WEST ***

THE

UNEXPLOITED WEST
A COMPILATION
of all of the authentic information available
at the present time as to the
Natural Resources of the Unexploited Regions
of
NORTHERN CANADA
By
Major ERNEST J. CHAMBERS, Corps of Guides
Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod

Published under the direction of
F. C. C. LYNCH
Superintendent of the Railway Lands Branch
Department of the Interior
Hon. W. J. ROCHE, Minister

OTTAWA
Printed by J. de L. TACHE, Printer to the King’s Most
Excellent Majesty
1914

Department of the Interior,
Ottawa, September 19, 1913.
Honourable W. J. Roche,
Minister of the Interior,

Ottawa.
Sir,—I have the honour to transmit herewith the manuscript
of a compilation of all available information on the Unexploited
West by Major Ernest J. Chambers, Gentleman Usher of the
Black Rod. This work, which was undertaken by Major Chambers
under instructions from this Department, is drawn from all known
sources. The information contained herein covers the whole of the
unexploited portions of Canada, west of Hudson bay, and it is
intended to fill a growing demand for complete information
regarding this territory.
I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
F. C. C. Lynch,
Superintendent of Railway Lands.

PREFACE.

The stream of immigration steadily flowing westward in ever-increasing
volume is rapidly exhausting the reserves of vacant land in that part of the
Canadian west which used to be known, to the detriment of the territory
farther to the north, as “The Fertile Belt.”
Already settlement has overflowed the northern frontier of the “belt of
supposed limited fertility” and many thousands of acres of agricultural land
have been surveyed by the Dominion Government immediately north of the
North Saskatchewan and in the Peace river valley, and the surveys are being
rapidly extended to keep up with the pressure of advancing settlement.
While the trend of immigration is turning northward, the eyes of the
capitalist are attracted in the same direction. Information concerning the
resources of the country once ignored is now sought for. Facts about the
climate, the soil, the timber, the rivers, the lakes, the minerals, the fish, the
game obtained at the risk of life and limb by fur trader, explorer,
missionary, geologist and sportsman, even those facts regarded not so long
ago as merely interesting, have now a practical value.

The once prevalent notion that the whole of the immense territory north
of the North Saskatchewan was a sterile, frost-bound waste destined for all
time to remain a wilderness, is now largely a thing of the past, and the
opportunities which the latent resources of the silent places of the
unexploited northwest afford to the enterprising and adventurous at the
present moment challenge the attention of the world.
With interest powerfully attracted to the more easterly sections of the
country under review by the recent extensions northward of the limits of the
prosperous provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, and with easy means of
communication with the larger divisions farther west assured, thanks to the
progress of the construction of railways northward to Port Nelson on
Hudson bay and to McMurray in the Athabaska country, it certainly looks
as though the long neglected Northland were coming to its own at last.
By connecting with the three thousand miles of almost uninterrupted
steamboat communication on Athabaska, Peace, Slave and Mackenzie
rivers, and Athabaska and Great Slave lakes, the railway being pushed into
the Athabaska country will place the whole of Mackenzie basin within easy
reach of the prospector, the explorer, the sportsman and the tourist. The line
being constructed to Hudson bay, as soon as steamboat connection is
established therewith, will lay the very heart of that alluring El Dorado
which we call the Barren Lands, with its herds of musk-oxen and caribou
and its mineral wealth, open to the prospector and the sportsman, for, via
Chesterfield inlet, Baker lake and the Thelon, there is a splendid,
uninterrupted waterway from Hudson bay for a distance of five hundred and
fifty miles into the interior.
The exceptional attractions which the Northland holds out to the
sportsman are certain to contribute largely towards the discovery and
development of the natural resources of the country. A couple of years ago
Mr. W. T. Robson, General Advertising Agent of the Canadian Pacific
Railway, submitted to a convention of railway men a thoughtful paper on
the value of the tourist sportsman as a means of publicity for undeveloped
country, in which he pointed out that the cultured business men who find
their greatest pleasure, relaxation and physical benefit from trips into the
wilds, are quick to discern the commercial value of water powers, timber
and minerals, and he related a number of instances where hunting trips had
resulted either in the discovery of unexpected natural resources or in large
investments in the country visited.

The object of the present publication is to present, with some degree of
systematic arrangement, all of the authentic information available at the
moment as to the natural resources of the less-known and unexploited
portions of northern Canada lying west of Hudson bay and James bay and
east of the main range of Rocky mountains.
This general definition of area brings within the scope of this volume
the whole of that portion of the old provisional district of Keewatin recently
divided by act of parliament between the provinces of Ontario and
Manitoba, those portions of the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta
north of the unsettled and unsurveyed territory, the basin of Mackenzie
river, and that immense country north of the new provincial lines extending
from Mackenzie basin to Hudson bay, which has apparently, undeservedly,
come to be known as “Barren Lands” or “Barren Grounds.”
In these immense regions there are wide areas of which we in this year
of grace 1912 know as little as was known of Bow river valley in 1812, and
that was nothing. On the other hand considerable is known in a general way
about certain portions of every one of the great districts which form this
vast territory, or, to be quite exact, considerable has been written about
them. The subject matter has been so widely distributed that no one could
be expected to be familiar with it all.
Practically the first authoritative data as to the natural resources of
Canada’s unexploited northland was contained in the published evidence of
a British parliamentary committee which sat in 1749 to enquire into the
resources of the country administered by the Hudson’s Bay Company. With
this as a nucleus, a considerable amount of information on the subject has
gradually accumulated. The journals of officials of the big fur-trading
companies have contributed to this fund of information and so have the
writings of missionaries, the reports of British, Canadian and United States
official government explorers, the narratives of sportsmen and adventurous
travellers, and the patrol records of that inimitable and ubiquitous body the
Royal Northwest Mounted Police. A very wide range of information
regarding the various sections of these territories, too, has been placed on
record as a result of several Canadian parliamentary investigations.
Some idea of the large amount of literature relating to the great
northland which has accumulated, can be obtained from the fact that in the
preparation of the present book nearly three hundred publications have been
consulted, necessitating an amount of reading which was not anticipated

when the task was undertaken. Much of this reading was absolutely
unproductive, a considerable portion of the books written by men who have
lived in or travelled through the country being merely narratives of travel
and adventure, containing no direct information of any value as to natural
resources.
For various obvious reasons many books written by scientific and
observant men who have visited the still new west are of little value in
throwing light upon the questions of the natural resources of the country.
One of these reasons is referred to by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, who states
in the introduction to his narrative:—“I could not stop to dig into the earth,
over whose surface I was compelled to pass with rapid steps; nor could I
turn aside to collect the plants which nature might have scattered in the
way, when my thoughts were anxiously employed in making provision for
the day that was passing over me.” The distances to be travelled in the far
Northland are generally so great that the slender stores of supplies carried
by the explorer and traveller do not permit of time being devoted to
thorough investigation by the way. Again, much of the travelling in the
unsettled north has been done in winter, when the surface of the ground was
covered with snow, making an examination of the soil and rocks
impossible.
Nevertheless, the literature relating to the new Canadian northwest is so
voluminous that it contains, scattered throughout it, an aggregate amount of
practical information regarding the resources of even the more remote
sections of the country that, as assembled within the two covers of a single
volume, will probably astonish most readers.
The present volume, according to the instructions the undersigned
received from the Department of the Interior, is purely and simply a
compilation. Care has been taken to avoid the temptation to try and produce
a work of original literary merit, and in the following pages it will be found
that the compiler has introduced only as much original writing as is
necessary to introduce intelligibly the various quotations, or to establish the
connections between them, his aim being to present all the data available in
the original text, or as near to it as the exigencies of compilation and space
would permit.
With the object of properly introducing some of the chief authorities
quoted and of placing the reader, from the beginning, au fait with the
circumstances under which the principal information regarding the

resources of the country was obtained, the presentation of the data has been
prefaced by a brief historical chapter.
At the end of the book a list of the written authorities from which
quotations are made will be found.
It will be observed that, to avoid confusion, the vast region under
review has been divided into five distinct territorial units, and that the
matter relating to each unit is in turn divided into four sections, relating
respectively to the resources in the way of arable land, timber, minerals, and
fish and game. The compiler found that this system of classification was
satisfactory in his two previous volumes of a somewhat similar type,
“Canada’s Fertile Northland,” and “The Great Mackenzie Basin,” and a
continuation of the system will facilitate reference between the present
volume and those which were its forerunners and its inspiration.
Perhaps I might be permitted here a word of personal explanation. I
have had only a slight acquaintance with any part of this great waiting
Northland, having campaigned a little over its southern margin between
North Saskatchewan and Beaver rivers, in Fort Pitt district, during the
operations against Big Bear’s Indians in 1885; but what I saw of the country
then, with its park-like groves of fine trees, its valleys covered with
luxuriant grasses, its sylvan lakes teeming with fish, and every prospect a
gem of nature’s own perfect landscape gardening, made such an impression
on my mind that I have ever since felt a personal interest not only in that
particular section but in the vast regions beyond which have not the charm
of the soft and lovely scenery of Loon lake and Beaver river. Having this
feeling towards the country I have followed as a hobby the literature
relating to it, and it has been naturally a pleasure to contribute my mite in
helping it along towards its ultimate destiny.
The idea of the present volume was not mine but that of the late Mr.
Robert E. Young, D.L.S., Superintendent of Railway Lands and Chief
Geographer, the most enthusiastic believer in the Northland who ever lived,
probably, and whose untimely death was a grievous loss to the country. If
this book possesses any merits it is due altogether to his original suggestion,
to his wide knowledge and to his enthusiastic and kindly co-operation.
ERNEST J. CHAMBERS.
The Senate, Ottawa.
May 11, 1912.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

historical.

“The Fertile Belt.”—Influence of a Catchy Expression.—Northern
Canada Still a Terra Incognita.—The Hudson’s Bay Company.—
Early Explorations.—Kelsey, Hearne, Mackenzie, Franklin, Back,
Simpson and Dease.—The More Recent Explorers, Official and
Unofficial.—Parliamentary Investigations. 1

CHAPTER II.

the keewatin area.—Agriculture and Arable Land.

Early Agricultural Experiments and Their Success.—Evidence Before
the Parliamentary Committee of 1749.—Testimony of Official
Explorers and Residents.—Many Areas Fit for Agriculture
Described.—Wild Fruits Grow in Profusion.—Successful
Gardens.—Much Country Capable of Improvement by Drainage.
—Climate Inland Warmer Than Farther East.—Natural Hay
Meadows.—The Clay Belt. 30

CHAPTER III.

the keewatin area.—Tree Growth and Timber Resources.

Considerable Areas of Good Timber.—The Range of the More 64
Important Trees.—The Banskian Pine.—Forests of Trees in Many
Places that Would Make Good Logs, and Much Pulp Wood.—
Occasional Beautiful Forests of Aspen Poplar.—Magnificent

Coniferous Forest Northwest of Lake Winnipeg.—Water Power on
the Nelson.—Destruction Wrought by Forest Fires.—Ample
Supply of Timber For Fuel.

CHAPTER IV.

the keewatin area.—Economic Minerals.

The Rocks in Many Cases Highly Magnetic.—Norite Rock Similar to
That at Sudbury About Trout Lake.—Peat in the District North of
Lake Winnipeg.—A Large District Underlain By Keewatin and
Huronian Rocks “Has Large Possibilities.”—Gypsum.—Building
Granites.—Quartz Veins on Grassy River Below Reed Lake.—A
Possibility of Nickel Occurring. 81

CHAPTER V.

the keewatin area.—Game, Fur-bearing Animals and Fish.

Flocks of Wild Fowl That Obscure the Sky.—Six Species of Seal in
Hudson Bay.—Stocked with Animals of Various Kinds.—White
Fish Abound in Most of the Lakes and Streams.—Saw Eleven
Moose in One Day.—The Commercial Value of the Sturgeon
Fisheries.—Future Summer Playgrounds.—Barren Lands Caribou
at Churchill. 88

CHAPTER VI.

northern saskatchewan.—Agriculture and Arable Land.

An Early Scientific Explorer’s Enthusiastic Description of Part of the 95
Country.—“Capable of Any Extent of Cultivation.”—An Old
Hudson’s Bay Company Official Who Considered it “A Splendid
Country to Settle in.”—Mr. Crean Reports That “It is No

Experiment” to Raise Wheat in North Saskatchewan.—Missionary
Farmers and Their Accomplishments.—Capable of Supporting “A
Dense, Thriving Population.”—“A Splendid Ranching
Country.”—Heaviest Rains Just When They Are Needed.

CHAPTER VII.

northern saskatchewan.—Tree Growth and Timber Resources.

A Rare Bit of Sylvan Beauty.—Ash-Leaved Maples Successfully
Grown From Seed.—Notes By the Way on Available Water
Powers.—Much Country Covered with Small Timber Not
Generally of Commercial Value.—Some Areas of Good Timber
Which Will be Invaluable To the Settlers. 117

CHAPTER VIII.

northern saskatchewan.—Economic Minerals.

Large Amount of Iron Ore In the Northeastern Corner of The Region,
On The North Eastern Side of Lake Athabaska.—Indications
Favourable For the Discovery of Coal.—Nickel and Traces of
Cobalt on Reindeer Lake.—Medicinal Waters.—Bituminous
Springs and Pit Coal on Cree River.—Tar Sands Near Buffalo
Lake. 124

CHAPTER IX.

northern saskatchewan.—Game, Fur-bearing Animals and Fish.

“So Fine a Country For The Chase That It May Be Regarded As An 127
Extensive Preserve.”—The Wood Buffalo Used To Roam Over It,
But Do Not Now.—Moose and Caribou Plentiful.—The Indians
Kill The Moose For Their Hides.—Fish of Various Kinds in

Abundance.—Sturgeon That Weigh A Hundred Pounds.—One
Indian Killed Eighteen Moose During One Season.

CHAPTER X.

northern alberta.—Agriculture and Arable Land in the Eastern Section of
“Athabaska Country.”

A Section of The West Where Officials of the Hudson’s Bay
Company Were Directed to Cultivate Gardens.—Some Points
Where Wheat has been Grown, Including the Sample Which Took
First Prize at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition.—Crude
Indian Gardens at Cowpar Lake.—Livestock Grazing Out in
December and January. 131

CHAPTER XI.

northern alberta.—Agriculture and Arable Land in the Western Section
or “Peace River Region.”

Where Wheat Has Been Grown with Remarkable Success for Many
Years.—Scientific Explorers Early Recognized This as a Wheat
Growing Country.—A Head of Cabbage Fifty-three and a Half
Inches in Circumference.—Livestock Live Out of Doors in Winter.
—According to a Church of England Missionary, Peace River
Enjoys the Finest Climate in the World. 143

CHAPTER XII.

northern alberta.—Tree Growth and Timber Resources.

An Abundance of Timber in the Vicinity of Chipewyan.—Much of 175
the Country Has Been Swept By Fires.—Most of the Timber is
Along the Rivers.—Millions of Cords of Pulp Wood.—Spruce and

Black Bark Poplar the Principal Varieties.—The Water Power
Possibilities Described as Tremendous.

CHAPTER XIII.

northern alberta.—Economic Minerals.

Travellers, Explorers and Prospectors Describe the Country as a
Veritable Store House of Mineral Wealth.—Gold Found in the
Bars in Peace River.—Indications of Plentiful Supply of Iron.—
Lignite Found in Abundance.—Historic Deposits of Salt.—The
Famous Athabaska Tar Sands.—Their Commercial Value.—
Indications of Petroleum.—Boring Experiments.—Natural Gas
Under a Wide Area.—Travellers Use Natural Gas Jets to Boil their
Camp Kettles. 180

CHAPTER XIV.

northern alberta.—Game, Fur-bearing Animals and Fish.

The Land of the Wood Buffalo.—Where the Last Remnants of
American Bison Living in a Wild State Roam.—A Splendid
Moose Country.—The Home of Numerous Fur-bearing Animals.
—The Prolific Fisheries of Lake Athabaska and Other Waters. 195

CHAPTER XV.

mackenzie river region.—Topography, Agriculture and Arable Land.

Mackenzie River a King of Northern Waters.—Over Three Thousand 208
Miles of Water Way.—Domestic Cattle Have Succeeded.—Barley
Always Ripens at Fort Simpson.—Potatoes and Other Vegetables
have for Many Years Been Grown at Fort Good Hope, a few Miles
from the Arctic Circle.—Wheat and Barley Grown at Liard for

Many Years.—Interesting Comparison With the Russian Province
of Tobolsk.—A Large Town as Far North as Fort Wrigley.—Why
Better Results in Grain Growing May Be Expected in the Future.

CHAPTER XVI.

mackenzie river region.—Tree Growth and Timber Resources.

Forests About Great Slave Lake and Slave River.—Remarkable
Extension of Forest Growth Northward Down the Mackenzie.—
Wide Distribution of the Economically Important Canoe Birch.—
Magnificent Forests of Spruce and Big Cottonwood Trees in Liard
Valley.—Useful Birch and Large Spruce Grow Within the Arctic
Circle.—Trees that are Centuries Old.—Northern Tree Growth
May Be Hastened by Drainage. 261

CHAPTER XVII.

mackenzie river region.—Economic Minerals.

The Territory Has Never Been Thoroughly Examined for Minerals.—
Tar Springs on the North Shore of Great Slave Lake.—The
Devonian Rocks Throughout Mackenzie Valley are Nearly
Everywhere More or Less Petroliferous.—Lignite Discovered in
Many Places, Also Gypsum.—Large Deposits of Excellent Salt.—
Indications of Gold and Copper.—Indians Report Finding Mica. 281

CHAPTER XVIII.

mackenzie river region.—Game, Fur-bearing Animals and Fish.

Over Forty Moose Killed in One Season Near Fort Simpson.— 288
Caribou of Both Woodland and Barren Lands Varieties Plentiful.
—Pass Great Slave lake in Countless Numbers.—Mountain Sheep

Plentiful in the Mountainous Districts.—Incredible Numbers of
Geese, Swan and Ducks in Season.—Inexhaustible Supplies of
Fish.—The Speckled Trout, Lake Trout, Grayling, Herring,
Inconnu, etc.

CHAPTER XIX.

barren lands or “arctic prairie.”—Topography, Soil, Climate and Flora.

Explorers Declare The Term Barren Lands a Misnomer.—Some
Notes about the Chief Rivers and Known Lakes.—An Inland
Waterway for Steamers Via Chesterfield Inlet a Distance of Five
Hundred and Fifty Miles Into the Interior.—The Progression of
The Seasons.—The Country Similar to the Tundra of Siberia.—A
Limited Amount of Agriculture May Be Possible in Places.—
Natural Prairies in the Valley of the Thelon. 303

CHAPTER XX.

barren lands or “arctic prairie.”—Tree Growth and Timber Resources.

Phenomenal Extensions of Tree Growth Within Barren Lands Along
the Valley of Thelon River.—Black Spruce, Larch, White Spruce,
Banksian Pine and Birch.—Valuable Timber Along the Thelon,
About the East End of Great Slave Lake and Between Great Bear
Lake and Coppermine River. 317

CHAPTER XXI.

barren lands or “arctic prairie.”—Economic Minerals.

Deposits of Native Copper in the Far North.—Several Areas West of 324
Hudson Bay Contain Rocks Similar to Those at Sudbury.—Belts
of Huronian Rocks that are Expected by Geologists to be

Eventually of Great Economic Importance.—Vast Probable
Mineral Bearing Country in the Interior Which Can Now be
Reached Via Chesterfield Inlet.—Iron, Gold and Silver in Small
Quantities North of Lake Athabaska.—Free Gold in Melville
Peninsula.—Lignite and Soft Coal Along the Arctic Coast.

CHAPTER XXII.

barren lands or “arctic prairie.”—Game, Fur-bearing Animals and Fish.

Where Millions of Caribou Roam at Large.—Actual Value of These
Immense Herds Very Great.—Can They Become Domesticated or
Replaced by the Lapland Reindeer?—The Home of the Musk-Ox
and Many Fur-bearing Animals.—The Polar Bear.—Where the
Wild Geese Nest.—Lakes, Rivers and Sea Coasts Teeming With
Fish.—The Arctic Salmon, Trout, White Fish and Grayling. 342

BIBLIOGRAPHY 362

INDEX 370

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

“Wheat field at Stanley, Churchill river”
“Oat field at Ile à la Crosse”
“Winter travel—Dinner time”
“Portage near Long Spruce rapids, Nelson river”
“Farm at Mount Nebo on Green lake trail, 65 miles from Prince Albert”
“Prairie Land on lower Nelson river”
“Portaging canoe at Long Spruce rapids, Nelson river”
“Portage on Moose river”
“Typical country on Hudson Bay Railway Survey”
“Log jam on Limestone river”
“Moose crossing Limestone river”
“Haying near Green lake”
“Flowers at Ile à la Crosse”
“Potatoes at Anglican Mission, Lac la Ronge”
“Oat field at Anglican Mission, Lac la Ronge”
“Oat field at La Plonge”
“Potatoes at Buffalo river”
“Green lake settlement”
“Oat field at Meadow lake”
“Prairie along Clearwater river”
“Landscape in Clearwater valley”
“S. S. Grahame at McMurray”
“Indian camp near Fort Smith”
“Indian Family arriving at McMurray for Treaty”
“Flour Mill at Fort Vermilion”
“View on Halfway river”

“Sheridan Lawrence’s Farm at Fort Vermilion”
“Vegetable Garden 15 miles west of Fort St. John”
“View of Pouce Coupé prairie”
“Saw Mill near Fort Smith”
“The 23rd Base Line between Townships 88 and 89, Range 14, West of the
6th Meridian”
“Oil Well at McKay, Athabaska river”
“Royal Northwest Mounted Police Barracks at Smith Landing”
“Looking Across Slave river from Fort Smith”
“Roman Catholic Mission at Chipewyan”
“A Typical ‘Husky’ dog”
“An Eskimo Boy at Arctic Red river”
“Oat field at Fort Simpson”
“Potatoes at Fort Simpson”
“Mission Garden at Fort Providence”
“View on Peel river”
“Eskimos in Kyaks on Arctic Red river”
“Staff and Pupils, Church of England Mission, Hay river”
“Slave river near Fort Smith”
“Spruce Timber on Peel river inside the Arctic Circle”
“Anglican Church, School and Rectory at Fort Simpson”
“Roman Catholic Mission at Fort Resolution”
“A Fur Shipment of One Season from Mackenzie basin, estimated value
over two million, five hundred thousand dollars”
“The ‘Conny’ or ‘Inconnu’ ”
“The Midnight Sun”
“Some of the Difficulties of Northern Transportation:—Crossing a Swamp”

p g p
“A Survivor of Sir John Richardson’s Arctic Expedition wearing the Arctic
Medal given him for that Expedition”
“An Indian Dance Lodge”

DOMINION of CANADA

CHAPTER I.

HISTORICAL.

“The Fertile Belt.”—Influence of a Catchy Expression.—Northern Canada still a Terra
Incognita.—The Hudson’s Bay Company.—Early Explorations.—Kelsey, Hearne,
Mackenzie, Franklin, Back, Simpson and Dease.—The More Recent Explorers, Official
and Unofficial.—Parliamentary Investigations.

When in 1867 the four principal British provinces in the eastern portion
of North America were confederated under the British North America Act
and became the original Dominion of Canada, the vast regions of the west
vaguely known under several designations such as the “Hudson’s Bay
Territory,” the “Northwest Territory” and “Rupert’s Land,” and extending
from the United States boundary to Arctic sea, and from the western frontier
of Ontario, James bay and Hudson bay to Rocky mountains, remained
under the rule of the Hudson’s Bay Company.
The Fathers of Confederation had in view, however, a union of all the
British possessions on the continent, and one of the measures passed at the
first session of the first parliament of the new Dominion provided for the
opening of negotiations for the union of the Hudson bay territory with the
confederated provinces. Thanks largely to the diplomatic offices of the
British government, the rights of the Hudson’s Bay Company were
eventually bought out by Canada, and this vast territory, estimated at
upwards of two million three hundred thousand square miles, was
transferred to the Dominion of Canada in the year 1867.
The cash consideration obtained by the company from the Dominion for
the relinquishment of its rights and titles was the sum of three hundred
thousand pounds sterling; but there was also a provision for the retention by
the Company of blocks of land adjoining each of its stations; and the right
was allowed the company for fifty years, from 1870, to “claim in any
township or district within the fertile belt in which land is set out for
settlement, grants of land not exceeding one-twentieth part of the land so set
out.”
For the purpose of the agreement the “Fertile Belt” was described
therein as being bounded as follows:—“On the south by the United States
boundary; on the west by Rocky mountains; on the north by the northern
branch of the Saskatchewan; on the east by Lake Winnipeg, Lake of the
Woods, and the waters connecting them.”

The Term “Fertile Belt.”

There is some uncertainty as to the origin of the term “Fertile Belt”,
thus arbitrarily defined in the historical agreement with the Hudson’s Bay
Company; but this much is certain:—the term came into general use after
the publication of the reports of the official exploratory expeditions of
Captain John Palliser of the British Army, of S. J. Dawson, C.E., and
Professor Henry Y. Hind of Trinity College, Toronto. Captain Palliser was
commissioned by the British government to explore “that portion of British
North America which lies between the northern watershed and the frontier
of the United States, and between Red river and Rocky mountains and to
endeavour to find a practicable route through them.” The Dawson-Hind
expeditions (there were two) were under the auspices of the government of
United Canada (Upper and Lower Canada) and were for the purpose of
inquiring into the resources of Red river colony and the Assiniboine and
Saskatchewan countries. The British expedition extended over parts of four
years—1857, 1858, 1859 and 1860, while the Canadian ones covered two
years—1857 and 1858.
In the preface to his report, published in 1860, Professor Hind wrote:
—“The establishment of a new colony in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, and
the discovery of a Fertile Belt of country extending from the Lake of the
Woods to Rocky mountains, give to this part of British America a more than
passing interest.” In another place Professor Hind wrote:—“North of the
great American desert there is a broad slip of Fertile Country, rich in
water, wood, and pasturage, drained by the North Saskatchewan, and a
continuation of the fertile prairies of Red and Assiniboine rivers. It is a
physical reality of the highest importance to the interests of British North
America that this continuous Belt can be settled and cultivated from a few
miles west of Lake of the Woods to the passes of Rocky mountains, and any
line of communication, whether by waggon road or railroad, passing
through it, will eventually enjoy the great advantage of being fed by an
agricultural population from one extremity to the other.”

Wheat field at Stanley, Churchill river.

The terms “Fertile Belt,” “Fertile Strip” and “Fertile Land” appear many
times in Captain Palliser’s report, published in 1863, the first of these
expressions being used no less than three times in one paragraph of the
report.
The influence of a “catchy expression” in attracting the world’s
attention is wonderful. Whatever the origin of the term “Fertile Belt” in this
connection, its emphatic application by these independent official reports to
the particular strip of territory between the United States boundary line and
Saskatchewan river had immediate and lasting effects.
It arrested public attention in England and in Canada. That which had
often been asserted by independent travellers, and more often stoutly denied
by those whose sole interests were centred in the fur trade[1], had been found
by scientific explorers of unquestioned veracity to be an actual fact. As
Captain Palliser put it in his report:—“The whole of the region of country

would be valuable not only for agriculturists but also for mixed purposes. I
have seen not only excellent wheat, but also Indian corn (which will not
succeed in England or Ireland) ripening on Mr. Pratt’s farm at the
Qu’Appelle lakes in 1857.” Professor Hind, in his report, quoted interviews
with enthusiastic settlers, who, on their prairie farms in Assiniboine valley,
had for years been successfully raising prime wheat at a yield of thirty to
forty bushels to the acre, “corn, barley, oats, flax, hemp, hops, turnips,
tobacco and anything you wish.” He showed that similar conditions of soil
and climate extended far to the westward, and, quite naturally, he wrote of
this area as the “Fertile Belt.”

The Older Influences.

The Right Honourable Edward Ellice, one of the oldest governors of
Hudson’s Bay Company, asked, when being examined before the British
Parliamentary Committee of 1857, what probability there was of a
settlement being made within the southern territories of the company,
replied:—“None, in the lifetime of the youngest man now alive.” (“The
Great Company”, p. 480).
Sir George Simpson, who was for forty years governor of the Hudson
Bay territories and had visited every portion of them, was examined before
the select committee of the British House of Commons appointed in 1857 at
the instance of Mr. Labouchere, on the eve of the expiration of the license
for exclusive Indian trade issued to the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1838, to
investigate the state of the British possessions administered by the
Company. Sir George, being asked his opinion as to the general fitness of
Rupert’s Land for colonization, replied:—“I do not think that any part of the
Hudson Bay territories is well adapted for settlement; the crops are very
uncertain.”
By officially establishing the existence of this rich, arable area in the
southern part of the territories governed by the Hudson’s Bay Company,
and by associating it with such an apt designation, the Palliser and Hind
expeditions brought strong popular support to those who in Britain and
Canada were at that particular period actively working to secure the
introduction of Canadian jurisdiction over the whole of the western part of
British North America, and materially contributed to the success of the

protracted negotiations which resulted in the ultimate surrender of its rights
of government, etc., by the Hudson’s Bay Company. If any other proof was
required to establish in the popular mind the attractiveness of the “Fertile
Belt” as a desirable section for settlement, it was furnished by the written
agreement under which the country was handed over to the Dominion of
Canada, the term “Fertile Belt” therein receiving the stamp of the highest
official recognition, and by the Hudson’s Bay Company, famous as a
shrewdly managed corporation, stipulating that the grants of land to be
made them were to be located within the area so designated.

Settlement of “The Fertile Belt.”

The term “Fertile Area” proved a very loadstone to the settler and the
capitalist. Ever since the settlement of the troubles which accompanied the
transfer of the great northwest to the Dominion of Canada there has been a
stream of immigration flowing into the country, and up to the past few years
the Fertile Belt has been the settler’s Mecca and El Dorado.
In the summer of 1874 the region west of the original province of
Manitoba was ‘opened up’ by the Northwest Mounted Police as far as
Macleod in the south, and Edmonton in the north. In 1885 the completion of
the Canadian Pacific Railway main line gave western Canada direct
communication with the eastern provinces, and a fair chance to develop her
natural resources, particularly in the Fertile Belt, through which the line was
constructed.
In 1870 the population of the whole region east of Rocky mountains
over which the Great Company had so recently relinquished its rule as Lord
Proprietor amounted to but a few hundred; at the present time (census of
1911) it amounts to no less than one million, three hundred and forty-eight
thousand, one hundred and seventy two. And with the exception of the
partially settled areas in Beaver, Athabaska and Peace districts, and a few
small, isolated posts on Hudson bay and along Mackenzie river, the whole
of this population is located within the “Fertile Belt” as defined in the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s agreement of 1869. This is not to be wondered at
considering the undoubted natural attractiveness of the zone, its rapidly
developed advantages in the way of railway communication, and the benefit
it derived from being originally introduced to the world as a future paradise

of agricultural enterprise under such an apt and alluring designation as “The
Fertile Belt.”
But while the united energies of the capitalist, the railroad builder and
the agriculturist have been devoted to the exploration of the Fertile Belt, the
much larger area of virgin country extending from the northern limits of the
strip in question to Arctic sea and lying between Hudson bay and Rocky
mountains has been neglected.
This (not including the Yukon), the most northern section of the vast
western region formerly ruled by the big fur-trading company, comprises no
less than one and one-half million square miles of country, or considerably
more than the combined territory (on March 1, 1912) of the provinces of
Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and
Manitoba. Its very vastness, coupled with its remoteness from the great
centres of population, has tended to keep it, as far as the world at large is
concerned, comparatively

A Terra Incognita.

The word “comparatively” is used advisedly, for while it is true that the
greater part of the unexploited northland is unexplored and unknown, we
have in one way or another obtained considerable useful information about
it. Now and again word has come from some missionary station or trading
post somewhere up in the far north, hundreds of miles beyond the northern
limits of the “Fertile Belt,” of root crops, barley, oats, and even wheat being
raised during a long succession of years with phenomenal success.
Explorers returned from the great north have related how they were regaled
upon potatoes and other vegetables grown a few miles from Arctic Circle. A
sample of wheat grown at Fort Vermilion in north latitude 58·4°, three
hundred and fifty miles north of Edmonton, was awarded First Prize at the
Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876, in competition with the
whole world. Geological explorers have reported vast deposits of coal and
other minerals underlying immense areas in the far north. Adventurous
travellers, back from the least promising regions of Canada’s great
northland have disclosed the existence of timber areas and of game and fish
preserves of fabulous richness.

And this great northern country long ago had its champions who
challenged the attention of the world by predicting for sections of it, at
least, an agricultural and industrial future. Mr. Malcolm McLeod, formerly
of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and, as a son of the North, jealous of its
reputation, stirred up the thought that in the glamour attached to the original
exploitation of the “Fertile Belt” the natural resources of the vaster country
to the north would be overlooked, and in the preface of his book, published
in 1872, on Sir George Simpson’s canoe voyage from Hudson bay to the
Pacific in 1828, wrote:—“The object of the present brochure, at this
juncture, is to direct attention—by an account of a canoe voyage through
the region—to the fact that beyond that belt of supposed limited fertility,
which is implied in the term “Fertile Belt,” there is, in our north west, an
area, continuous in every direction and easily accessible to its utmost limits,
containing over three hundred millions of acres of wheat and pasture lands,
with forests of finest timber, and the largest known coal and bitumen, and
also probably the richest gold areas in the world—a land teeming with
animal and vegetable life, extending to the very Arctic Circle, and owing its
wealth in that respect to exceptional causes. I refer to that area—comprised
entirely of Silurian and Devonian systems—watered by the great
Athabaska, Peace and Mackenzie rivers, with their countless affluents.”
The very year of Confederation the attention of the reading public of the
world was forcibly drawn to the latent natural wealth of the northland. The
writer of an article published in the Westminster Review of July, 1876,
(“The Last Monopoly”) pointed out that “nature marching from east to
west, showered her bounties on the land of the United States until she
reached the Mississippi, but there she turned aside to favour British
territory. To the north the good land of the western states is prolonged
beyond the forty-ninth parallel, where it enters British territory as the
Fertile Zone. The fertile zone curves towards the north as it proceeds
westward, so that the western extremity of the belt is several degrees of
latitude higher than the eastern, the curves apparently corresponding pretty
closely with certain isothermal lines. The forest zone extends to latitude 61°
on Hudson bay. Coal crops out at intervals in seams of ten or twelve feet
thick from the Mackenzie in the far north to the Saskatchewan. Ironstone
has been discovered in the Athabaska. Sulphur abounds on Peace and
Smoky rivers. Salt is plentiful near Great Slave lake; plumbago and mineral

pitch on Lake Athabaska; copper, native and in the form of malachite, on
Coppermine river.”

The Northland’s First Champions.

To find the first champions of the great Northland as a prospective
theatre of enterprise and development, and to trace the history of the
exploration of the region from the beginning, it is necessary to go back
many years, to a date, in fact, only two years more recent than the founding
of Quebec by Samuel de Champlain.
Henry Hudson, the great English sea captain, was engaged in the search
for a northwest passage, when on August 3, 1610, he rounded the
northwestern shoulder of Labrador and entered the bay which he thus
discovered and which now bears his name. The exploration of this great
inland sea was begun, not for the sake of gaining a knowledge of the
country surrounding it, nor for the development of its resources, but in the
delusive hope of finding a passage through it to the western ocean. In 1612,
Captain (afterwards Sir) Thomas Button, commissioned to search for
Hudson and to look for a northern passage, entered the bay with two ships,
and, holding on his westward course, encountered land at about 60° 40′
north latitude. Being a Welshman, he called the land “New Wales,” a name
which afterwards gave place to “New North Wales” for the northern part,
and “New South Wales” for the southern; but all three designations, as
applied to the Hudson bay coast, are now only of historic interest. Button
wintered at Port Nelson, which he so named in memory of a shipmaster
who, with many of the sailors, died there. When the ice broke up he went
northwards past Cape Churchill and landed at a place about 60° north which
he called “Hubbart’s Hope.”
The southern coast of Hudson bay, east from Port Nelson (York
Factory), was visited and explored by Captains Luke Foxe of London and
Thomas James of Bristol in 1631, and again visited by James in 1632.
These two navigators met off the coast near the mouth of Winisk river on
August 29-30, 1631. Each had given a name to the country to the
southwest. Foxe called it “New Yorkshire” and James “The South
Principality of Wales,” probably on account of the previous name “New
Wales” given by Button in 1612 to the land southwest of Port Nelson. These

two navigators sailed together to the eastward, to the entrance to James bay,
and there separated, Foxe to go north and James to the southward, to winter.
Foxe called the bay he had left “Wolstenholme’s Ultimum Vale.” James,
after rounding the cape, determined its latitude (55° 5′) and called it
“Henrietta Maria Cape,” after the Queen, and also after his own ship.

Oat field at Ile à La Crosse.

In 1668 Captain Gillam entered Hudson bay with a pioneer fur-trading
expedition under the patronage of some influential Londoners, at the head
of whom was Prince Rupert, Duke of Cumberland, Count Palatine of the
Rhine and cousin of Charles II, King of England. Thus was inaugurated the
regime of the Hudson’s Bay Company, but the Royal charter to Prince
Rupert and his associates, constituting them “The Governor and Company
of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson’s Bay”, was not granted
until 1670.[2]

“The Hudson’s Bay Company.”

The company was organized to prosecute the fur trade, and not for
colonizing purposes. The few explorations into and from the company’s
first posts on the bay were made solely in the interests of the fur trade.
When in 1683 Governor Sargeant was urged to send men to penetrate into
the country, the object was distinctly stated to be “to draw down the Indians
by fair and gentle means to trade with us.” This was the burden of many
letters of instruction sent out to Hudson bay in those days, but the response
was not very promising. The company’s servants were not easily induced to
imperil their lives, particularly as they complained of lack of
encouragement. In 1688 Governor George Geyer, who himself, in 1773,
had volunteered to do some exploring, was instructed to send the boy Henry
Kelsey to Churchill river for an exploring trip “because we are informed he
is a very active lad, delighting much in the Indians’ company and being
never better pleased than when he is travelling amongst them.” Thus began
the adventurous career of one who may be regarded as the pioneer explorer
of the region under review.[3] In 1690 Kelsey “cheerfully undertook a
journey up into the country of the Assiniboine Poets, with the Captain of
that Nation.” The following year he accompanied the Indians on a journey
he computed at four hundred or five hundred miles, penetrating as far as the
buffalo and grizzly bear countries. A diary of this trip was published, but it
contained no references to the natural resources of the country. There
followed a period of some activity in the matter of exploration by sea, the
discovery of a northwest passage being aimed at. Between 1719 and 1737
the Hudson’s Bay Company alone fitted out nine vessels to participate in
this discovery, but these voyages added nothing to the scanty knowledge
then available as to the resources of the territory ruled over by the company.
Soon after the Hudson’s Bay Company obtained its monopolistic
charter, antagonism to it arose in England, and this hostility steadily
developed, the legality of the charter being flatly challenged. One of the
bitterest opponents of the company was Mr. Arthur Dobbs, a gentleman of
means and scientific attainment, intensely interested in the subject of the
northwest passage, who became embittered because he considered the
Hudson’s Bay Company had not furthered the exploration projects as he
thought they should have done. In 1744 he published a volume on the
countries adjoining Hudson bay, in which he arraigned the company for
keeping the country back. He declared that the company would not allow
their servants to make any improvements at the posts except it be to plant

turnip gardens. He proceeded:—“There might be comfortable settlements
made in most places, and very tolerable, even in the worst and coldest parts
of that continent, which are the northeast and northwest sides of the bay;
but in the southern and western sides of the bay, there might be made as
comfortable settlements as any in Sweden, Livonia or the south side of the
Baltic, and farther into the country, southwest, the climate is as good as the
southern part of Poland and north part of Germany and Holland.”

An Early Parliamentary Inquiry.

In 1748, ten years before the capitulation of Montreal to General
Amherst, a motion was passed in the House of Commons “to enquire into
the state and condition of the countries adjoining Hudson bay and the trade
carried on there, and to consider how those countries may be settled and
improved, and the trade and fisheries there extended and increased, and also
to enquire into the rights the Company of Adventurers trading into
Hudson’s bay pretend to have by charter to the property of lands and
exclusive trade to those countries.” The result was an investigation, which
produced a considerable amount of evidence throwing the first official light
upon the natural resources of Canada’s great northland.
Up to this time the territory about Hudson bay had been commonly
supposed “to be a mere waste and howling wilderness, wherein half-
famished beasts of prey wage eternal war with a sparse population of half-
starved savages; where the drought is more than Saharan, the cold more
than Arctic, and that woe would betide the mad and unfortunate individual
who might be so far diverted from the path of prudence as to endeavour to
settle in those parts.”[4]
Evidence heard before the committee revealed the fact that intelligent
men who have lived in the country several years considered that it
possessed decided attractions as a field of settlement, and held that nothing
but the policy of the fur-trading company kept settlement back.[5]
Some of the evidence as to the resources of the country and as to the
conditions of the very slim white population is still edifying. The attack
upon the legality of the company’s charter, however, came to nothing, and
the revelations made as to the suitability of the country for settlement had
no practical result, which is scarcely to be wondered at considering the

conditions prevailing in both Europe and America—conditions which in the
course of a few years were to result in momentous changes in the map of
this continent.
No additional data as to the resources and geography of the great
northland were produced until the years 1770 and 1771 when

Hearne Made His Historical Trip

of discovery. Many of the witnesses examined during the enquiry of 1748-
49 had spoken of the statements of Indians regarding the rich copper mines
existing on a great river many miles to the northwest of Churchill. The
Indians who visited that post in 1768 so impressed the governor, Mr. Moses
Norton, with their version of the richness of the copper deposits along the
river they called the Neetha-San-San-Dazey (the “far-off metal river”), that
being in London the following season he induced the Company to send out
an exploratory expedition. The man selected for the command was Samuel
Hearne,[6] a capable and experienced mariner, then serving as mate on the
Company’s brig “Charlotte.” Hitherto all of the exploratory expeditions
from Hudson bay towards the northwest had been in search of the northwest
passage, and by sea, but now it was decided to undertake exploration by
land.[7] Hearne really made three trips, two of which were unsuccessful. The
first failed because of the lack of provisions, and the second because Hearne
was plundered by his Indian companions and broke his sextant. On these
trips he attempted to penetrate to the northwestward through the so-called
Barren Grounds or Barren Lands, but on the third venture, leaving in
December, 1770, he kept more to the westward and, being in the wooded
country, was able to provide himself with provisions and to travel with
much less discomfort. As he was accompanied by a number of Indian
families as bearers and hunters, his progress was necessarily slow and
indirect, on account of the difficulty of crossing lakes and large rivers, and
of providing food for so large a party. His general line of travel was at first
a little north of west to Clowey lake, which was reached May 3, 1771, and
thence a little west of north to the eastward of Great Slave lake, probably
passing Artillery lake (his Catt lake?) and Clinton-Colden and Aylmer lakes
(his Thoy-noy-kyed lake?) to the stream since called Coppermine river,
which was reached probably near Sandstone rapid.[8]

During the eighteen years or so following Hearne’s discovery of
Coppermine river, considerable knowledge was acquired as to the resources
of the more southern portions of the still unexploited north country by the
activities of the Canadian fur traders, including the Northwest Company, in
North Saskatchewan, Clearwater, Athabaska and Peace river regions,[9] and
the resultant extension southward of the trading operations of the Hudson’s
Bay Company.

Mackenzie’s Trips of Exploration

including the discovery of the great river of the north which still bears his
name, were notable events in the history of the north country; momentous
events, in fact, in view of the knowledge first obtained through them of the
vast natural resources of the great Mackenzie basin.

Winter travel—Dinner time.

Mackenzie set out on his first voyage from Chipewyan, at the head of
Lake Athabaska (a Northwest Company’s post), June 3, 1789, and
proceeded in canoes via Slave river, Great Slave lake, and Mackenzie river

as far as Whale island in the estuary of that stream. On July 16, he started
on the return trip by the same route, and reached Chipewyan on September
12. On his second trip, in 1792, Mackenzie proceeded from Chipewyan to
the summit of the Rockies via Lake Athabaska, Peace river, and its
affluents, making his way to the Pacific through the passes of the
mountains, and down the streams on the western slope as best he could.
David Thomson, an energetic but little known traveller, made a track
survey in 1799 of Lesser Slave river, and of the Athabaska from the mouth
of the Pembina to Clearwater forks. In 1803 he filled in the gaps between
the forks and Athabaska lake, and in 1810 ascended the river and crossed
the Rockies by Athabaska pass.

Sir John Franklin.

With the first journey of Lieutenant (afterwards Captain Sir) John
Franklin, R.N., in 1820, began a series of explorations which extended over
a period of about thirty years, in connection with which the study of the
natural history and geography of the far north country was carried on more
systematically than had hitherto been possible. Franklin was fully equipped
by the British Government for scientific work, and was accompanied by
Doctor John Richardson, Lieutenant George Back and Lieutenant Robt.
Hood—men of acknowledged skill and ability. The expedition left York
Factory on September 9, 1819, and, travelling by way of Oxford House and
Norway House, arrived on October 22 at Cumberland House where they
went into winter quarters. In order to arrange in advance for the further
progress of the expedition, Franklin, accompanied by Back, left
Cumberland House on January 18, 1820, and, travelling by way of Carleton
House, Ile à la Crosse and Methye portage, arrived at Chipewyan on March
26. Finally the party again set out on August 2, 1820, from old Fort
Providence, on the north side of Great Slave lake, to ascend Yellowknife
river, and on August 20 he reached Winter lake, near which he established
his winter quarters. Here wooden houses, dignified with the name of Fort
Enterprise, were erected. In June the following year the party descended
Coppermine river, covering a distance of three hundred and thirty miles to
the sea, and paddled along the coast eastwards, exploring the coast as far
eastward as longitude 109° 25′ west and latitude 68° 19′ north, thus

exploring Bathurst inlet and Coronation gulf. The story of the dreadful
hardships endured by the party on the return trip, one-half of the whole
number, including Lieutenant Hood, dying of starvation and exposure,
forms one of the most ghastly chapters in the history of Canadian
exploration, and its publication did much to deepen the popular impression
that the whole of the great northland was a hopelessly inhospitable region.
As a matter of fact the disasters which overtook this expedition were due to
its commissariat being inadequately outfitted. The Admiralty, who planned
the expedition, knew practically nothing about the conditions of travel in
the regions that they proposed having explored, and depended for aid upon
the Hudson’s Bay Company. That corporation did its best, but was unable to
extend to Franklin any official aid after he left Great Slave lake or to supply
him with proper provisions. The bitter fight between the two big fur-trading
companies had reached a climax; every officer of the Hudson’s Bay
Company was needed in the Company’s service, and supplies at the frontier
posts were at the lowest ebb. So the expedition plunged into the unexplored
wilderness without enough food and inadequately supplied with
ammunition.
In spite of the disasters attending the return of this expedition, the
British Government, determined upon completing the exploration of the
Arctic coast line of the continent, satisfied itself that the route overland was
the best for the explorers to follow, and Franklin, having been successful on
this first trip in surveying a long stretch of coast to the east of Coppermine
river, was appointed to the command of the second expedition to explore
the coast to the west of that river. The exploring party spent the winter of
1825-26

At Fort Franklin

at the west end of Great Bear lake, and on June 22, 1826, set out in boats
along Bear river and Mackenzie river for the coast. The principal members
were Captain John Franklin, Lieutenant George Back (second in command);
Doctor John Richardson, surgeon and naturalist; Thomas Drummond,
assistant naturalist; E. N. Kendall and P. W. Dease, a chief trader of the
Hudson’s Bay Company, who was afterwards associated with Thomas
Simpson in explorations west of the Mackenzie and east of the Coppermine.

At the delta of the Mackenzie the party separated, one detachment under
Doctor Richardson turning to the east and completing a survey of the coast
as far as the mouth of the Coppermine. In the meantime Franklin and Back
explored the Arctic coast to the westward of the Mackenzie for three
hundred and seventy-four miles, passing beyond the northernmost spur of
Rocky mountains and returned to Fort Franklin, reaching there September
21. Franklin remained there until February, 1827, when, leaving Back to
follow him in the spring, he left for Cumberland House, where he joined
Richardson on June 18, 1827.[10]
Some time before this expedition set forth, the crisis which had
developed in the rivalry between the Hudson’s Bay Company and the
Northwest Company[11] had resulted in the union of the two companies
under the name of the former and the reorganized company, when called
upon by the Admiralty for assistance, was in a better position than the
original one had ever been to assist in the work of exploration.
Consequently Franklin’s second expedition was properly provisioned and
attended by experienced and reliable men. As a result it was unaccompanied
by any of the tragic occurrences which marked the former trip.
Meanwhile explorations were being prosecuted by sea among the Arctic
islands and channels to the far north, and some of the expeditions were
indirectly to contribute to the world’s knowledge of the northern part of the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s continental territory. Captain John Ross left
England in the “Victory” in 1829 and with his ship’s company was
compelled to abandon the vessel in the ice in Regent inlet. They spent
altogether four winters within the Arctic circle and were finally picked up in
their boats in Lancaster sound by a whaler. The prolonged absence of this
party caused great anxiety in England, and in 1833 a search expedition was
organized at the cost of the Hudson’s Bay Company and Captain Ross’s
friends with government assistance. At the head of the searching party was
Captain (afterwards Sir) George Back, R.N., who had instructions to
descend Thlew-ece-cho-dezeth or Great Fish river to the coast, exploring
the river and adjacent country, as far as possible, as he proceeded. Some
months after he had started, Back was notified of the return of the Ross
expedition, but was ordered to proceed with his trip for exploratory
purposes. Captain Back built as his winter quarters

Old Fort Reliance

on a beautiful spot at the north east extremity of Great Slave lake. His
explorations extended over parts of Great Slave, Artillery, Clinton-Colden
and Aylmer lakes as well as the whole of Great Fish river, and from the
Indians Back obtained some interesting information regarding the adjacent
country.
Captain Back, in 1834, descended Great Fish river, since called Backs
river, to its mouth. He also surveyed the coasts of its estuary as far as Cape
Britannia on the one side and Point Richardson on the other, leaving but a
small space of coast line unexamined between his northern extreme and the
limits of earlier explorations. The return journey began on August 16. Back
reached the mouth of Great Fish river August 21, the head of it on
September 17, and Fort Reliance on September 27.
The next journey of exploration in this region was that of Thomas
Simpson and Peter Warren Dease,[12] officers of the Hudson’s Bay
Company. While the object of their expedition was to complete the survey
of the Arctic coast so nearly completed by Franklin, Richardson and Back,
they made some notes on the natural resources of the far northern country.
Simpson left Fort Garry, the site of the present city of Winnipeg, on
December 1, 1836, and, travelling on snowshoes, arrived at Chipewyan on
June 1, and, descending Slave and Mackenzie rivers, explored the Arctic
coast westward to Point Barrow. They then returned to the Mackenzie,
ascended it and Great Bear river, and, crossing Great Bear lake, built a post
near the mouth of Dease river, naming it Fort Confidence, and there spent
the winter of 1837-38. They left here June 6, 1838, and, after ascending
Dease river as far as was practicable, portaged to the Coppermine. They
then descended that river to the sea and explored the coast to the eastward
as far as Point Turnagain, the farthest point reached by Franklin in 1821.
Being unable to proceed farther, they returned to Fort Confidence, where
they arrived on September 14, and again wintered there.
An expedition which was to mark the beginning of a most notable
epoch in the explorations of the Arctic regions sailed from England, in
1845. Sir John Franklin, with two ships, the Erebus and the Terror, with
crews numbering one hundred and twenty-nine persons, left England on
May 26, to complete the survey of the north coast of America and to
accomplish the northwest passage. The Erebus and the Terror were last seen

by a whaling captain July 26, 1845, moored to an iceberg, waiting for an
opening in the ice to cross to Lancaster sound.
As time passed without any word of the missing expedition being
received, the interest and sympathy of the world were powerfully aroused,
and not only England, but France and the United States also despatched

Search Expeditions

to the Arctic. From northwest Canada some historical expeditions made
their way overland. In all thirty-five ships and five overland expeditions
were engaged in this search. The entire northern coast line of America and
the shores of the Arctic[13] were explored with minute care, and much
scientific knowledge of value relating to magnetism, meteorology, the tides,
geology, botany and zoology was accumulated. Several of the sea
expeditions and all of the overland expeditions contributed to our store of
knowledge as to the resources of far northern Canada.
For the purposes of this volume the most important of these expeditions,
because the most productive of data regarding the natural resources of the
region under review, was that dispatched overland from Athabaska district
via Mackenzie river in 1848 and 1849. From the rapids of Slave river,
Doctor John Richardson and Doctor Rae (both subsequently knighted)
pushed on with all possible speed, leaving the heavier boats to follow with
the winter supplies, and skirted the Arctic coast eastward to the mouth of
the Coppermine river. Thence they travelled overland to the mouth of the
Dease river on Great Bear lake. Near this point, on the site of Fort
Confidence, established by Dease and Simpson, Rae, whose detachment
had ascended Great Bear river and crossed Great Bear lake for this purpose,
had erected houses, and here the entire party passed the winter of 1848-49.
As early in the spring of 1849 as the season allowed, the party divided on
Arctic sea, and Richardson returned to England, while Rae made an attempt
to reach Wollaston land. Failing in this, he returned to Fort Confidence, and
ascended the Mackenzie to Fort Simpson. In the summer of 1854, under the
auspices of the Hudson’s Bay Company, Rae made a journey of exploration
along the southern coasts of Wollaston and Victoria lands, still searching for
the Franklin expedition. In 1853, when no trace of Franklin could be found
elsewhere, Rae again turned his steps in the direction of Gulf of Boothia.

First he sought a short cut to the south of Backs river by Chesterfield inlet
and Quoich river, which he ascended in a boat for two and a half degrees of
latitude (up to 66° north), but finding the river full of rapids and
impracticable for his purpose, he returned and hastened north to Repulse
bay.
The reports of these expeditions contain several references to the natural
resources of the country, but they are not so valuable as would have been
the case had time been less a consideration, or had the investigation of
mineral deposits and other natural wealth of the country been the chief
objective.
Some information as to the resources of the north country was obtained
by the British Parliamentary Committee of 1857 already referred to (See p.
3), but most of the evidence had reference to the southern part of Hudson’s
Bay Company’s territory now comprised within the settled parts of the
provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta.

Canadian Parliamentary Investigations.

April 12, 1870, the Senate of Canada appointed a select committee on
the subject of Rupert’s land, Red river and the Northwest territory, with a
view to collecting information respecting the condition, climate, soil,
population, resources and natural products of the country, its trade,
institutions, and capabilities and the means of access thereto, with power to
send for persons and papers. The committee reported on April 25, 1870.
This report with the report of the evidence was printed, in extenso, as an
appendix to the Journals of the Senate (33 Victoria). None of the witnesses
examined before the committee had ever been in the district north of the
North Saskatchewan. One, Joseph Monkman, explained that he had been up
the South Saskatchewan as far as Moose lake, and up the north branch of
the same river as far as Carlton. He testified that although the country along
the Saskatchewan looked promising from an agricultural standpoint, there
were “no farms along the river.” Most of the witnesses were asked if they
had any information as to the “far northwest,” and all who had heard
anything definite regarding that region testified that their information was
favourable.

Since the transfer of the northwest from the Hudson’s Bay Company to
the Dominion Government, a vast amount of reliable information regarding
the great northland has been obtained by Canadian Government explorers,
generally engineers reconnoitring in advance of railway construction,
members of the staff of the Geological Survey of Canada, or expeditions
despatched to various defined areas by the Department of the Interior for
the express purpose of investigating their natural resources and determining
their suitability for agricultural or industrial developments. More or less
extensive trips through sections of the great northland by adventurous
sportsmen and naturalists have also contributed considerably to our
knowledge of the country.
A very brief account of some of the more productive of these
expeditions, with special reference to the routes followed, is necessary to
enable the reader to appreciate intelligently the references to the
information obtained to be made in the succeeding chapters.

Scientific Investigation of the Country.

In 1872, Professor John Macoun was sent from Edmonton by Mr. (now
Sir) Sandford Fleming, who was then exploring for the Canadian Pacific
Railway, to explore Peace river and see if there were a pass there. Professor
Macoun’s report attracted much attention to this district.
Professor Macoun had then already spent ten years study, theoretical
and practical, of botany, natural history and physical geography. In the year
1875 he was appointed botanist to the expedition which, under the
leadership of the Director of the Geological Survey, explored Peace river
and Rocky mountains. Two years later he was asked by the Dominion
Government to write a report on the Northwest territories and availed
himself of all reliable information regarding the country. The summers of
1879-80-81 were spent by Professor Macoun in traversing the least known
parts and investigating the fauna, flora, meteorology and physical
phenomena of the country.
During the years 1878-79 Doctor G. M. Dawson, of the Geological
Survey, in conjunction with a Canadian Pacific Railway survey party, made
an examination of the region between the mouth of Skeena river on the
Pacific coast and Edmonton, including Pine river pass and its approaches,

Smoky river and the fertile country north and south of Peace river. The vast
extent of country covered left but little time for details, and caused the
expedition to assume the character of a rapid reconnaissance survey.
In 1873, Charles Horetzky, C.E., was commissioned by Mr. Sandford
Fleming to make a reconnaissance survey through Peace river country and
Peace river pass to assist the government in reaching a decision as to the
route of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Mr. Horetzky, who was
accompanied by Doctor Macoun, botanist, proceeded via Edmonton, Lesser
Slave lake, the confluence of Smoky and Peace rivers, Dunvegan,
McLeod’s lake, etc. Besides his official report, Mr. Horetzky wrote a
popular account of this trip under the title “Canada on the Pacific,” which
contained much interesting information as to Peace river district.
In 1875, Doctor Selwyn, Director of the Geological Survey, mapped and
reported upon the upper part of Peace river, as far down as the mouth of
Smoky river, and in the same year Professor John Macoun, who
accompanied him in the capacity of botanist, proceeded down the river to
Lake Athabaska, and returned east by the Athabaska-Clearwater route,
while Doctor Selwyn reascended Peace river, and returned by British
Columbia.
Doctor Robert Bell, F.G.S., F.R.S.C., etc., in a period of active service
in the Geological Survey extending over more than forty years, contributed
very largely to our knowledge of Northern Canada. He was medical officer,
naturalist and geologist on the “Neptune,” the “Alert” and the “Diana”
expeditions to Hudson bay, and his reports of those voyages, as well as of
his overland trips, are very valuable. Three of his exploratory trips, two in
the eastern division, the other in the western part of the country under
review, are especially interesting. In 1878 he made a track-survey and a
geological examination of the boat-route from Lake Winnipeg to Hudson
bay by way of Oxford and Knee lakes, and the rivers thence to York
Factory. He also made topographical and geological surveys of the lower
part of Nelson river, and of the upper part of the same stream, from Lake
Winnipeg nearly to Split lake, leaving unfinished the central part. Between
1878 and 1891 he explored Nelson river, the lower part of Grass river, and
parts of Churchill and Little Churchill rivers. In 1879, Doctor Bell, assisted
by Mr. Cochrane, completed his survey of Nelson river and Churchill river
basins; the country covered in that region included altogether Gull lake,
Grass river, Sipiwesk lake, Jackfish river, Knee lake, God’s lake, Island

lake, Split lake and the coast of Hudson bay for a few miles on either side
of Churchill. These explorations practically re-opened a section of country
which must have been familiar to those engaged in transportation via the
old route between Hudson bay, Red river and Saskatchewan river districts.
Before reaching Norway House, although diligent enquiry was made by
Doctor Bell, no reliable information could be obtained of the Churchill, or
the central part of the Nelson, or the country lying between these two
streams. And even at Norway House very little was known on the subject.
This arose from the fact that both these rivers had long before been
abandoned as “voyaging” routes by the Hudson’s Bay Company, and also
that no Indians lived at or near the parts to be examined.
In 1882, a track survey and geological examination of Athabaska river
below the mouth of Lac La Biche river, was made by Doctor Bell.
In 1886, Doctor Bell conducted an exploration of portions of
Attawapiskat and Albany rivers, and of the country between Lonely lake
(Lac Seul) and James bay. Doctor Bell reached the Albany from Wabigoon
via Lake Minnietakie, and crossed the watershed to the Attawapiskat from
the highest of the chain of lakes on the Eabamet, which flows into the
Albany about ninety miles in a straight line below the outlet of Lake St.
Joseph. The Attawapiskat was followed to James bay.
A micrometer survey of the lower part of both Peace and Athabaska
rivers was made by William Ogilvie, D.L.S., in 1884, and in 1888, Mr.
Ogilvie, having completed some surveys in the Yukon, arrived at Fort
McPherson via Peel river to make

An Exploration of Mackenzie river,

Great Slave lake and river, and Lake Athabaska. Mr. Ogilvie ascended this
great waterway and prepared a report which is still much consulted. In 1891
Mr. Ogilvie, under the direction of the Surveyor-General, again made an
exploratory survey in the same region. Mr. Ogilvie’s instructions were to
make a thorough exploration of the region drained by Peace river and its
tributaries, between the boundary of British Columbia and Rocky
mountains and to collect any information that might be of value relating to
that region. As it was desirable that he should, if practicable, connect the
end of his micrometer survey of Mackenzie river made in 1888 with that

made on Great Slave river in the same year, which he was then unable to
accomplish on account of high water, Mr. Ogilvie took with him the
necessary instruments, but he found it impossible to complete this work.
This time, he descended the great northwestern waterway from Athabaska
to Fort Simpson, and, ascending the Liard and “East Branch” or Nelson
river, as it has since been officially called, reached Port Nelson on
September 15, ascending Nelson and Sikanni Chief rivers and portaging
through the woods to St. John on Peace river. Another interesting report was
the result of this really hazardous trip.
In 1886, Mr. A. P. Low of the Geological Survey, accompanied by Mr. J.
M. Macoun, crossed Lake Winnipeg from Red river to Berens river and
ascended the latter to a portage to the head waters of Severn river, making
an exploration of the country from Lake Winnipeg to Hudson bay.
In 1887, Mr. R. G. McConnell, B.A., of the Geological Survey,
descended to Mackenzie river from the Yukon via Liard river, and during
that year and the following one explored a considerable part of Mackenzie
basin including Slave river, Salt river, Hay river, part of the western end of
Great Slave lake, etc. The result was embodied in a most interesting official
report (Part D. Annual Report, Vol. IV., 1888-89, Geological Survey of
Canada.) The country between Peace and Athabaska rivers north of Lesser
Slave lake, comprising an area of about forty-four thousand square miles,
remained entirely unknown until Mr. McConnell’s exploration was
undertaken.
In the years 1888, 1889, 1890 and 1891, Mr. McConnell effected a most
important exploration of the unexplored country between Peace river and
Athabaska river and in the basin of the Athabaska. He investigated as
thoroughly as he could the phenomena of the so-called tar-sand deposits
and the

Oil Springs of Athabaska region,

about which the few hunters, traders and travellers who had hitherto
penetrated so far had brought back such astonishing tales. His report,
printed in the annual report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1890-91
(New Series, Vol. V, Part I), excited much interest at the time throughout the

scientific world, and is still regarded as the standard authority on the
subject.
In the summer of 1889, a well-known English sportsman set out upon a
trip to Great Slave lake district with the object of making some
explorations. This was Mr. Warburton Pike, and his book “The Barren
Ground of Northern Canada”, describing his trip, gives a great deal of
interesting information about that part of the “Barren Lands” just north of
Great Slave lake and the region about the headwaters of Backs river. Mr.
Pike, who combined the qualities of a good writer, a trained explorer and a
keen sportsman, proceeded during the summer of 1889 via Great Slave lake
and the canoe-portage route by Francois, de Mort, Nez Croche, du Rocher,
Camsell, Mackay and de Gras lakes to the headwaters of Coppermine river.
He spent the winter in camp just south of Mackay lake and at Fort
Resolution, and the following summer proceeded via Great Slave lake, and
a chain of lakes to the east of those he had traversed on his canoe-portage
route the previous season, to Aylmer lake. Thence he proceeded down
Backs river to Beechey lake, south of Bathurst inlet. He came out via
Clinton-Colden and Artillery lakes, and from Athabaska district made a trip
up Peace river.
Mr. J. Burr Tyrrell, of the Geological Survey, explored the country
bordering on the east shore of Lake Winnipeg in 1890 and 1891.
In 1892, Mr. Tyrrell, assisted by Mr. D. B. Dowling, made an
exploration of the country between Athabaska and Churchill rivers and
north of the latter waterway. The routes covered included a course from
Prince Albert northward through Cree lake and down Beaver river to
Churchill river, and north across the country by Cree lake to Black river,
thence through Wollaston lake and up through Geikie and Foster rivers to
the Churchill. In 1893 and 1894 Mr. Tyrrell conducted two important
exploration parties. In 1893 the route taken was via Chipewyan, Lake
Athabaska, Fond du Lac, Black lake, Chipman lake, Selwyn lake, Daly
lake, Dubawnt river and lake, Aberdeen, Schultz and Baker lakes,
Chesterfield inlet, Churchill, York Factory, Norway House and West
Selkirk. In 1894 the route followed was via Cumberland House, Sturgeon-
weir river, Churchill river, Reindeer river and lake, Cochrane river, Kasba
lake, Kasba river, Ennadai lake, Kazan river, Kathkyed lake, Kazan river
again, Ferguson lake and river to Hudson bay. Mr. Tyrrell and party came
out via Split lake, Norway House and Selkirk.

The Vast Wilderness,

through which the lines of exploration upon these occasions passed, lies for
the most part north of latitude 59°, and extends from the coast to Hudson
bay, westward to Lake Athabaska, comprising an area of not less than two
hundred thousand square miles. The work of the party embraced a survey of
the north shore of Lake Athabaska, Chipman, Cochrane, Telzoa or
Dubawnt, Thlewiaza, Kazan and Ferguson rivers, in whole or in part,
Chesterfield inlet, and the shore of Hudson bay from Chesterfield inlet to
Churchill, as well as a line overland in winter, from Churchill to York
Factory, and another from Churchill to Split lake.

Portage near Long Spruce rapids, Nelson river.

The distance travelled in 1893 was three thousand two hundred miles,
one thousand six hundred and fifty of which had not been previously
surveyed or reported on in any way. The whole distance of six hundred
miles from Churchill to Lake Winnipeg was covered on snowshoes. During
the trip of the following year Mr. Tyrrell travelled two thousand nine
hundred miles, one thousand seven hundred and fifty by canoe and seven
hundred and twenty-five on snowshoes, most of this distance being through
unexplored country.

Jas. W. Tyrrell, C.E., D.L.S., who formed part of this expedition,
subsequently published a popular account of the trip of three thousand two
hundred miles in a book entitled “Across the Sub-Arctics of Canada.”
During the summer of 1896 Mr. Tyrrell, travelling by canoe, made a
survey of the northeastern portion of the old district of Saskatchewan and
the adjacent parts of the then district of Keewatin, since annexed to
Manitoba, the territory covered comprising an area of rather more than
twenty-five thousand square miles, lying between north latitude 50° 40′ and
56°, and west longitude 97° 20′ and 122° 30′.
James Macintosh Bell, F.R.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada,
made a geological reconnaissance of the north arm of Great Slave lake in
1899, wintered at Fort Resolution, and in 1900, accompanied by Mr.
Charles Camsell, travelled to Great Bear lake, made a geological
exploration of its northern shores, and returned by a chain of lakes to the
north arm of Great Slave lake, proceeding to Edmonton the same winter.
In the summer of 1899, Mr. D. B. Dowling of the Geological Survey
explored the upper part of Burntwood river from Three Point lake to its
head near Reed lake, Kississing river, from the north end of Athapapuskow
lake to its mouth on Churchill river, and the Churchill from above Sisipuk
lake to the end of the long arm running from Nelson lake. During the
summer of 1893 Mr. Dowling conducted an exploration in that part of
southern Keewatin just to the east of the then eastern boundary of
Manitoba, and north of the then northern boundary of Ontario. The area
covered, now forming part of the province of Ontario, extends from English
river and Lac Seul northwards to Berens river, the eastern branch of which
forms approximately the northern limit of the area. To the east the
exploration included the heads of streams flowing eastward to Cat lake, and
on the west White river, a southern branch of Berens river, with the western
end of Red lake, confines its extent in that direction.
In 1900, J. W. Tyrrell, C.E., D.L.S., who had been assistant to his
brother in 1893, conducted an important exploration of the country between
Great Slave lake and Chesterfield inlet on Hudson bay. In all, one thousand
seven hundred and twenty-nine miles of survey were accomplished, and in
the performance of this four thousand six hundred miles were travelled

With Sleds and Canoes.

Mr. Tyrrell proceeded via Resolution, Great Slave lake, old Fort
Reliance, Lockhart river, Pike’s portage, Artillery lake, Clinton-Colden
lake, Smart lake, Sifton lake, Hanbury river and Thelon river to a point near
the confluence of Dubawnt river. Hence a portion of the party under the
direction of C. C. Fairchild, C.E., was despatched to survey Aberdeen,
Schultz and Baker lakes, while Mr. Tyrrell returned up the Thelon to devote
his attention to the upper part of the river and the divide between the upper
Thelon and Artillery lake, traversing, unattended, the one hundred and sixty
miles between a small branch of the Thelon and Artillery lake. The party
was reunited at Artillery lake, and returned to civilization via Resolution,
Chipewyan and Edmonton.
In 1898, Mr. David T. Hanbury tried to reach the unexplored tract
between Chesterfield inlet and Great Slave lake via the Norway-House—
York-Factory—Churchill route. Finding that he arrived too late at the latter
place, he decided to spend the summer on the Hudson bay coast and make
preparations for an early start the following year. In 1899, he made an
interesting trip from Churchill to Great Slave lake via Chesterfield inlet,
Thelon and Ark-i-linik rivers, Clinton-Colden and Artillery lakes, and
Lockhart river. As he was the first white man to explore Ark-i-linik or
Thelon river, its most western affluent has since been called Hanbury river.
In 1901, Mr. Hanbury travelled from Edmonton to Depot island in the
northern part of Hudson bay, via Fort Resolution, Great Slave lake, Artillery
lake, Hanbury, Thelon and Dubawnt rivers, Baker lake, Chesterfield inlet
and Marble island. He spent most of the winter in an Esquimaux camp near
Baker lake, and in February started on an adventurous trip back to
civilization via Aberdeen lake and Thelon river, thence overland to
Buchanan river, down that stream to Backs river, thence to the coast,
westward along the coast to the mouth of the Coppermine, up the
Coppermine to Kendall river, via Dismal lake, Dease river, Great Bear lake
and Great Bear river to Fort Norman. Mr. Hanbury gives an interesting
account of these trips in his book “Sport and Travel in the Northland of
Canada.”
The United States Biological Survey, in the early spring of 1901,
determined to send Mr. Edward A. Preble, Assistant of the Survey and one
of its trained field naturalists, to obtain representative collections of the
mammals, birds and plants of the great interior region west of Hudson bay
drained mainly by the Mackenzie and described in the reports of the Survey

as the most neglected large area in North America. As it was evident that
only part of the region could be examined satisfactorily in a single season, it
was determined to make first a reconnaissance of the region about
Athabaska and Great Slave lakes. The route followed by Mr. Preble’s party
was via Great Slave lake, including the north arm, to Fort Rae; the chain of
lakes and rivers by way of Lake St. Croix to MacTavish bay; Great Bear
lake and Great Bear river to the Mackenzie. It had been the intention of Mr.
Preble, who was accompanied by his brother and Mr. James MacKinley,
formerly of the Hudson’s Bay Company, to cross by one of the Indian
routes to the upper Coppermine and to descend that stream, but various
circumstances rendered this impossible and he was obliged to take the
shorter and more westerly route.
In the spring of 1903, the results of his work in 1901 having been
elaborated but not published, Mr. Preble was sent to complete his
investigations in the Mackenzie region. This was especially desirable, since
on the previous trip he had penetrated only as far as Great Slave lake. Upon
his second trip the survey was carried from Great Bear lake to the Arctic
coast line. The result of these trips was embodied in a very complete and
altogether admirable report—“North American Fauna, No. 27.”—published
by the United States Biological Survey in 1908.
In 1905, Mr. Alfred H. Harrison, one of that large class of adventurous
Englishmen who love to penetrate into the less known and totally unknown
portions of the world for the very love of sport and perilous adventure,
made a trip of exploration down Slave and Mackenzie rivers, and remained
for nearly two years in the country

About the Delta of Mackenzie river

and Herschell island, and returned home in 1907 by the same route. Mr.
Harrison, before he made this trip, had considerable knowledge of the
Northland, for he had made a trip as far as Great Slave lake in 1902. Mr.
Harrison is, moreover, the son of a former officer of the Hudson’s Bay
Company, who in 1852 was stationed at the company’s post at Fort Good
Hope. Mr. Harrison, upon his return to England, wrote a book which he
entitled “In Search of a Polar Continent” which contains a large amount of
interesting information regarding the Mackenzie country.

During the seasons of 1903, 1904 and 1905, Mr. William McInnes of
the Geological Survey made explorations in that portion of the southeastern
section of this region drained by Winisk river and by the upper branches of
Attawapiskat river. These explorations extended from 51° 10′ to 55° 10′
North latitude and from 86° to 90° West longitude. The result was
embodied in a report printed in 1909 and numbered 1080.
Messrs. Wm. McInnes and Owen O’Sullivan of the Geological Survey
were employed during the summer of 1906 to explore the region along the
proposed route of the railway between the Saskatchewan and Churchill. Mr.
McInnes explored the country between the Pas and Split lake; Mr.
O’Sullivan, the country between Split lake and Churchill. Their reports
were published in the summary report of the Geological Survey for 1906.
Mr. McInnes’s route ran from Lake Winnipeg via Nelson river to Split
lake and thence along Burntwood river and File river and lake to Reed lake,
across Wekusko lake to a point between Grass and Burntwood rivers, back
to Reed lake and thence along the Nelson. Mr. O’Sullivan’s route was from
Split lake via Assean lake, Outawi river and lake, Waskaiowaka lake, Little
Churchill river, Recluse lake, Great Churchill river, Deer lake and river, and
Great Churchill river again. The return trip was made via York Factory,
Hayes river and Fox river.
In 1906 and 1907, W. Thibaudeau, C.E., acting under the instruction of
Doctor Deville, Surveyor-General, made some explorations in Churchill
district and along the route of the proposed Hudson Bay Railway from
Churchill to The Pas on the Saskatchewan. On his trip over the route of the
railway Mr. Thibaudeau proceeded from Churchill in a straight line to near
Deer river. Crossing the river he followed a route between it and the
Churchill, recrossing the Deer at a point a little more than a hundred miles
from Churchill. Thence he travelled in a straight line to the Little Churchill,
and followed the course of that river to Waskaiowaka lake. Thence he
crossed to a point near Assean lake and continued his route via Split lake,
Pipe lake, Grass river, Landing lake, Sipiwesk lake, Grass river, and
Cormorant and Atikomeg lakes.
Mr. Joseph Keele of the Geological Survey of Canada made a
reconnaissance across Mackenzie mountains on Pelly, Ross and Gravel
rivers, in the mountain region lying between the Pelly and the lower reach
of Mackenzie river in 1907 and 1908.

During the summer of 1908, Inspector E. A. Pelletier, of the Royal
Northwest Mounted Police, with a corporal and two constables, patrolled
the country between

Great Slave lake and Hudson bay.

They left Fort Resolution on Great Slave lake on July 1 and travelled via
Pike portage, Artillery lake, Hanbury river and Thelon river, to Hudson bay
at Chesterfield inlet, where they arrived on August 31. No natives or guides
were employed from Great Slave lake to Hudson bay and this portion of the
journey was made without any mishap whatever.
Inspector Pelletier estimated the distances travelled on this patrol as
follows:—
Miles.
Fort Saskatchewan to Athabaska (teams) 90
Athabaska to McMurray (scow) 280
McMurray to Graham’s Landing (steamer) 290
Graham’s Landing to Fort Smith (teams) 12
Fort Smith to Fort Resolution (canoes) 180
Fort Resolution to Fort Reliance (canoes) 240
Pike portage route between Great Slave lake
and Artillery lake (portage and canoe) 25
Artillery lake to height of land (portage and canoe) 100
Height of land to Thelon river (portage and canoe) 170
Thelon river (canoe) 220
Beverly lake and river (canoe) 35
Aberdeen lake (canoe) 60
River between Aberdeen and Schultz lakes (canoe) 20
Schultz lake (canoe) 25
Schultz or Lower Thelon river (portage and canoe) 35
Baker lake (canoe) 60
River foot of Baker lake (canoe) 25
Chesterfield inlet, Hudson bay (canoe) 130
==
Total 1,997

Of the canoes used on this patrol, one was an eighteen foot length,
forty-two inch beam, the other eighteen and one-half foot length, forty-three
inch beam; both were eighteen inches deep, longitudinal strip cedar,
varnished, fitted with oars for hard pulling against strong winds on the
lakes. Inspector Pelletier had a good stock of paddles and fifty-five foot
lateen sails. Each canoe weighed one hundred and twenty pounds portaging
weight. The portage from Great Slave lake towards Artillery lake was found
to be about six miles from the site of Fort Reliance, of which historic
establishment a stone chimney alone remains standing.
Some interesting topographical information regarding the region
between Hudson bay and The Pas was obtained through the surveys made
under the direction of John Armstrong, C.E., for the Department of
Railways and Canals in 1908 and 1909, for the purpose of determining a
projected location for a railway to Hudson bay from The Pas, the nearest
point on the Saskatchewan then having railway connection. From The Pas
to a point north of Pipestone lake a single route was laid down; thence two
routes, one to Port Nelson, the other to Churchill, were surveyed. Mr.
Armstrong, in his report (Sessional Paper No. 20 d.—1910), makes some
interesting references to the natural resources of the district covered by the
surveys.
All the expeditions which have been thus briefly passed in review made
additions to the knowledge we possess of the natural resources of the great
unsettled Northwest, but it will be observed that the acquisition of
geographical knowledge only was the object for which most of these
expeditions were equipped and sent forward. The trained explorers of the
Geological Survey of Canada have given us a fair idea of the geological
features and natural resources generally along the more accessible lines of
travel, particularly in the southern and western parts of this vast unsettled
and unsurveyed region, but it is only within the last few years that
systematic surveys have been undertaken there to determine the adaptability
of certain areas to agricultural development and settlement.
In 1908, Frank J. P. Crean, C.E., of the Railway Lands Branch of the
Department of the Interior, was commissioned to explore and procure all
the information possible about that tract of country lying to the east of
Beaver river and Green lake,

Farm at Mount Nebo on Green lake trail, sixty-five miles from Prince Albert.

South of Churchill river,

and extending east to the old canoe route from Cumberland House via Frog
portage to Stanley Mission. Mr. Crean was instructed by Mr. R. E. Young,
Superintendent of the Railway Lands Branch, to pay particular attention to
obtaining information about the character of the country away from the
travelled routes, and to ascertain the value of the district to be traversed for
farming, lumbering and mining purposes.
Mr. Crean left Prince Albert August 20, 1908, and returned there
January 6, 1909. He proceeded by team to the south end of Green lake, and
after reaching that point travelled chiefly by canoe, making side trips
inland, where it seemed desirable to do so. After the ice formed he procured
dog trains to continue the exploration. On this trip Mr. Crean explored the
district bounded on the west by a line from Prince Albert to Stanley
mission; on the north by Churchill and Clearwater rivers; on the west by
Green lake, Beaver river, the western arm of Ile à la Crosse lake, Buffalo
lake, Methye river and Methye lake; and on the south by the surveyed
territory along the north bank of the Saskatchewan. Mr. Crean gave the

following statistics in his report:—“The gross area explored, and about
which some information has been collected, is approximately sixteen
million acres. The water covered area in this tract (area of lakes and rivers)
may be set down at approximately three million acres—the remaining land
area at thirteen million. I would estimate that an area of fully three million
five hundred thousand acres is suitable for settlement as soon as surveyed
and made accessible by roads, and an area of about eight million acres of
swamp or land probably too wet at present for successful cultivation could
be reclaimed at a moderate expenditure. All swamp will, however,
eventually repay the cost of reclamation. The above figures are, of course,
the result of an exploration extending over only a few months, and must be
considered to be only approximate. The distance travelled was about three
thousand miles, of which one thousand two hundred was made running
behind dog trains.”
In 1909, Mr. Crean was again sent out to carry on his exploration of the
country north of the surveyed area in Saskatchewan and Alberta and
extending west from the territory covered the previous year. He was
instructed to cover as much of the country west to the Athabaska and

North to the Clearwater

as time would permit. He left Prince Albert on June 17, 1909, completed his
season’s work at McMurray, and thence proceeded to Edmonton, reaching
there December 11, 1909. From Green lake, Mr. Crean travelled principally
by canoe, making numerous portages, some of considerable length. On
some occasions he hired horses and used them as a means of transportation.
The total area explored, or about which information was thus obtained, is
approximately twenty-one million acres. Mr. Crean reports:—“Of this tract,
not over two million acres is covered by water—lakes and rivers. A
conservative estimate of the land available for settlement in its present state,
when means of access are provided, would be about ten million acres. The
greater portion of the remaining area, say nine million acres, could be
drained, and, in my opinion, would well repay the expenditure. Throughout
the tract there is ample fall which would allow of drainage being
successfully carried out. A portion of the tract lies on the head waters of
Churchill river, and all the streams contain numerous rapids and falls. On

the west side of the height of land sloping towards the Athabaska and the
Clearwater there are also excellent facilities for drainage. This tract is well
supplied with timber, some of which may be suitable for export.”
Mr. Crean, during this exploratory trip, visited the country between
Green lake and Meadow lake, Birch lake and Loon lake to the westward;
Waterhen lake and Island lake; Canoe lake and Burnt lake; White Fish river
and lake, and Watchush lake; Gipsy lake, Gordon lake and McMurray;
Gregoire lake. Pembina river. Cowpar lake, Winefred lake, Ipiatik lake,
Heart lake and Lac La Biche, all to the westward of the area investigated in
1908.
Mr. Crean’s report of his exploration in the season of 1908 was printed
for public information, but owing to the great demand for copies the edition
was soon exhausted and it was decided therefore, to issue the two reports in
one new publication. The gross area covered by the two reports, and as to
which some information was gathered, might be stated at approximately
forty million acres.
Inspired with the wish to see for himself the country for the
administration of which he was responsible, the Hon. Frank Oliver, then
Minister of the Interior, in 1910 made the trip from Edmonton via
Athabaska, Athabaska river, Lake Athabaska, Slave river, Great Slave lake,
and Mackenzie river, to Fort McPherson, thence passing over to the Yukon
by trail to Lapierre’s House. Mr. Oliver left Edmonton June 2 and reached
Fort Yukon on July 14. From Athabaska to Grand rapids (one hundred and
sixty miles) and from McMurray to Chipewyan (two hundred miles) the
Minister and his private secretary made the trip alone in a Peterborough
canoe. The result of the Minister’s observations, as communicated to the
press, aroused considerable interest in the newest northwest throughout
Canada.
The reports of explorers and travellers as to the character and resources
of the great northwest have been supplemented by a considerable amount of
information received from Hudson’s Bay Company officials, and others
engaged in the fur trade, missionaries, prospectors and pioneer settlers.
Certain

Recent Parliamentary Inquiries

resulted in the placing upon record of some of the most instructive of this
class of information.
Much data of a most valuable character was obtained by two select
committees of the Senate which sat during the sessions of 1887 and 1888,
under the presidency of the late Honourable Senator Schultz, who was
mainly instrumental in having the said committees appointed. The reports
of these committees, with the evidence taken, were printed as appendices to
the Journals of the Senate (1st Session, 6th Parlt., 50 Victoria, and 2nd
Session, 6th Parlt., 51 Victoria).
During the parliamentary session of 1906-7, the Hon. Senator T. O.
Davis, of Prince Albert, was instrumental in having a select committee of
the Senate appointed to enquire as to the value of that portion of the
Dominion lying north of the Saskatchewan watershed and east of Rocky
mountains, comprising the northern parts of the provinces of Alberta and
Saskatchewan and Mackenzie territory, and the extent of navigable waters,
rivers, lakes, and sea-coast contained therein; also similarly to enquire and
report from time to time as to the value of the portions of the Dominion on
both sides of Hudson bay, including the territories of Keewatin and Ungava,
and the extent of navigable waters, rivers, lakes and sea-coast contained
therein. The committee, in accordance with the authority delegated to it,
sent for persons, papers and records bearing upon the subjects submitted for
its consideration, and examined a number of gentlemen possessing special
knowledge, through personal experience or otherwise, of the regions named
as the special subject of enquiry. The evidence thus obtained was, under
instructions from the Senate, edited, condensed and arranged by the
compiler of the present volume, and published, first in the journals of the
Senate (3rd Session, 10th Parliament), and subsequently in the book
published under the direction of the Department of the Interior, entitled
“Canada’s Fertile Northland.” It aroused much interest in the subject, not
only in Canada, but throughout the civilized world.
Taking advantage of this, the Minister of the Interior gave instructions
for the preparation of a summary or digest of the Schultz committee reports
of 1887 and 1888, at that time out of print, the work being entrusted to the
same compiler, under the direction of the late Mr. R. E. Young,
Superintendent of Railway Lands and Chief Geographer. The result was the
volume “The Great Mackenzie Basin”, the first edition of which was
published in 1908.

Altogether, from one source or another, during the three centuries which
have elapsed since the British flag first appeared in Hudson bay, a vast
amount of reliable information, covering many widely-separated districts of
the territory under review, has been obtained; but hitherto much of the
practical value of this useful data scattered through the pages of
publications of various descriptions has been lost for

Lack of Systematic Compilation.

In bringing all this information together and compressing it within the
limits of one volume, a difficulty presents itself in the tremendous extent of
country concerned.
In arranging the matter of this volume, with a view to enabling the
reader to follow more readily, the whole area under review has been divided
into certain arbitrary geographical sub-divisions. In a region so vast, the
differences of climate, soil and general physical character of the country in
the various districts are very considerable, and emphasize the necessity of
treating certain geographical sub-divisions separately.
A glance at the map is necessary to enable the reader to understand the
divisions of the country which it has been deemed advisable to make in
projecting this volume, to permit of the intelligent treatment of the subject.
The region designated “The Keewatin Area” comprises that part of what
was formerly the provisional district of Keewatin which lies east of the
province of Saskatchewan, south of the 60th parallel of north latitude, west
of James bay and southwest and west of Hudson bay. Its southern limits are
defined by the former (up to 1912) northern boundary of Manitoba and the
former (up to the same date) northwesterly boundary of Ontario.
During the first session of the 12th Parliament of Canada (1911-12) the
whole of this territory was annexed to the two provinces lying immediately
to the south of it, Ontario and Manitoba. The dividing line between the
portion of the former district of Keewatin annexed to the province of
Ontario, and that annexed to the province of Manitoba, is described in the
legislation extending the boundaries of the two provinces as a line from the
extreme north end of the eastern boundary of the province of Manitoba as it
existed at the time of the extension of boundaries, “thence continuing due
north along the same meridian to the intersection thereof with the centre of

the road allowance on the twelfth base line of the system of Dominion Land
Surveys; thence northeasterly in a right line to the most eastern point of
Island lake, as shown in approximate latitude 53° 30′ and longitude 93° 40′
on the railway map of the Dominion of Canada, published, on the scale of
thirty-five miles to one inch, in the year one thousand nine hundred and
eight, by the authority of the Minister of the Interior; thence northeasterly in
a right line to the point where the eighty-ninth meridian of west longitude
intersects the southern shore of Hudson bay; thence easterly and southerly
following the shore of the said bay to the point where the northerly
boundary of the province of Ontario as established under the said Act
intersects the shore of James bay.”
At the date of the final revision of these pages for the press, the division
of the territory was too recent to permit of effective separate treatment of
newest Ontario and newest Manitoba as separate territorial units, and any
attempt to effect such separate treatment, it was felt, would only result in
confusion.
The “Northern Saskatchewan Region” comprises the whole of the
province of Saskatchewan, north of the surveyed area.
The “Northern Alberta Region” comprises the whole of the province of
Alberta, north and east of the surveyed area.
The “Mackenzie River Region” includes all the territory in the great
Mackenzie basin, north of the province of Alberta, extending northward to
Beaufort sea, west to the boundary of Yukon territory, and eastward to the
basin of Coppermine river, that of Yellowknife river, a line in prolongation
of the latter stream across Great Slave lake and following the right bank of
Slave river to the northern boundary of Alberta.
The area comprised within the designation “The Barren Lands” includes
the immense territory extending eastwards from that last defined to Hudson
bay, and including the bare, treeless, but wrongly called “Barren Lands.”
With this brief and general outline of the various districts before him,
the reader will more readily follow the attempt to present in a systematic
and intelligible form all the data of practical value available regarding the
varied natural resources of this vast territory.

[1] At the Semple murder trials at York in October, 1818,
Sherwood, the Northwest Company’s counsel, ironically

described Red river valley (Manitoba) as the “land of
milk and honey, where nothing, not even a blade of corn,
will ripen.”
[2] “The nations of Europe had adopted the principle that
discovery gave title to the government by whose subjects
or by whose authority it was made, against all other
European governments, which title might be
consummated by possession.” (Chief Justice Marshall.)

[3] This was the same Henry Kelsey who showed
conspicuous bravery at the capture of Fort Nelson by the
French under d’Iberville in 1690, and who subsequently
became a Deputy Governor in the Hudson’s Bay service.
—(E. J. C.).
[4] “The Last Great Monopoly.”
[5] Joseph Robson, who had been employed as a stone
mason and engineer in the construction of Fort Prince of
Wales at Churchill between 1733 and 1748, and had been
up Nelson river for a distance of forty or fifty miles, was
one of the chief witnesses. Being asked as to the number
of British subjects in the Company’s settlements, he said
that the first year he was at York Fort there were 36
persons there, and at Churchill 44 or 45; that he never
saw any British subjects there, except the Company’s
servants, nor any other people desirous to “fix” there, or
that the Company had ever offered encouragement to
British subjects to “settle” there. He expressed the
opinion that some of the country about Hudson bay
might be settled and inhabited, if people would go up the
rivers till they found a better climate, and there erect
settlements. He declared that he did not doubt that he
himself could find three or four hundred British subjects,
who would willingly go there to live winter and summer,
and, he added, he would go for one. He added that
speaking from his own experience, the cold of the
Hudson bay winter might be endured without any
inconvenience, their clothing being adapted to the
climate. He had suffered more from cold in England, than
ever he did at Hudson bay. It was true that flesh will
freeze, but he never knew any person to lose his fingers
from frostbite at Churchill or York.
[6] In 1773 Hearne established Cumberland House as a
southern outpost of the Hudson’s Bay Company. It was
Hearne, the hero of this daring trip of exploration, who,
as governor of Prince of Wales fort (Churchill), in 1782,

ignominiously surrendered that stronghold to the French
squadron under La Pérouse, without firing a shot.
[7] Governor Morton’s instructions to Hearne set forth the
object of the expedition in detail. They included the
following:—
“The Indians who are now appointed your guides, are
to conduct you to the border of the Athapapuscow (Great
Slave lake) and Indians’ country, where Captain
Matonabbee (an Indian chief) is to meet you in the spring
of one thousand seven hundred and seventy, in order to
conduct you to a river represented by the Indians to
abound with copper ore, animals of the fur kind, etc., and
which is said to be so far to the northward that in the
middle of the summer the sun does not set, and is
supposed by the Indians to empty itself into some ocean.
This river, which is called by the Northern Indians
Neetha-San-San-Dazey, or Far Off Metal river, you are, if
possible, to trace to the mouth, and there determine the
latitude and longitude as near as you can; but more
particularly so if you find it navigable; and that a
settlement can be made there with any degree of safety,
or benefit to the Company.”
“Be careful to observe what mines are near the river;
what water there is at the river’s mouth; how far the
woods are from the sea-side; the course of the river; the
nature of the soil and the productions of it; and make any
other remarks that you may think will be either necessary
or satisfactory. And if the said river be likely to be of any
utility, take possession of it on behalf of the Hudson’s
Bay Company, by cutting your name on some of the
rocks, as also the date of the year, month, etc.”
[8] A synopsis of the account of Hearne’s journey was
published in pamphlet form in 1773 and re-published in
1778-80, the complete account being published in book
form in 1790. (Beckles Wilson.)

[9] The history of the Peace and Athabaska country
commences in 1778, when Peter Pond, subsequently a
partner in the Northwest Company, pushing
northwestward in search of new fur districts, reached the
Athabaska by way of Methye portage and Clearwater
river, and descending it, founded a fort known as “The
Old Establishment,” about thirty miles above its mouth.
In 1788 this post was abandoned, and a new one built on
the south side of Lake Athabaska, on what is now known
as “Old Fort Point.” Still later, this site was also deserted
and a better one selected on the north shore, near the
outlet of the lake. A general map of the Northwest was
published by Peter Pond in 1785.
Peter Pond’s venture proved extremely remunerative,
and he was followed by other traders who gradually
spread themselves over the then unknown country to the
north and west. (J. M. McConnell’s report.)
[10] In 1827 Franklin returned from the northwest via Lake
Winnipeg, the great lakes and Ottawa river. In passing
Ottawa, in August, he laid the cornerstone of the lowest
tier of locks on Rideau canal.
[11] The English Government, in 1821, after the union of the
Northwest Company with the Hudson’s Bay Company,
granted the reorganized company a license of exclusive
trade over the country to the west of the watershed of
Hudson bay, or Rupert’s Land. The license was renewed
in 1838.
[12] Dease was one of the Company’s chief factors; Simpson,
who was a cousin of Sir George Simpson, was an
accurate astronomical observer.
[13] In all, 21,500 miles of coast line of which 5,780 miles
were previously unknown, had been examined. (“Cruise
of the ‘Neptune’.”)

THE KEEWATIN AREA

CHAPTER II.

THE KEEWATIN AREA.

(Newest Ontario and Northern Manitoba.)

Agriculture and Arable Land.

Early Agricultural Experiments and Their Success.—Evidence before the Parliamentary
Committee of 1749.—Testimony of Official Explorers and Residents.—Many Areas Fit
For Agriculture Described.—Wild Fruits Grow in Profusion.—Successful Gardens.—
Much Country Capable of Improvement by Drainage.—Climate Inland Warmer Than
Further East.—Natural Hay Meadows.—The Clay Belt.

The region west of James bay and southwest of Hudson bay, being the
southern portion of the area known up to the time of the creation of the
provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan as the district of Keewatin, and
comprising the territory recently (1912) annexed to the provinces of Ontario
and Manitoba, was the first part of the still unexploited northwest with
which white men came into touch.
Some years elapsed between its discovery by Henry Hudson and Sir
Thomas Button in 1610 and 1612 and the establishment of the first posts
therein by the Hudson’s Bay Company at the mouths of Albany, Severn,
Nelson and Churchill rivers. These posts were established and have since
been maintained entirely for the purpose of the fur trade, and consequently
no settlements have sprung up around them, and there has been no
systematic attempt to exploit the agricultural possibilities of the adjacent
areas. Nevertheless, it was some of the older servants of the big fur
company who first drew attention to the fact that this region had
agricultural possibilities, and it was from the posts on the bay that the first
explorations of the interior were made. Of recent years, much information
as to the agricultural possibilities of this area has been obtained by
explorers of the Geological Survey of Canada, and through the explorations
attendant upon the surveys for the location of the Hudson Bay Railway,
which is projected to run in a northeasterly direction across this region from
The Pas to Port Nelson.
The main object of those who secured the appointment of a select
committee of the British House of Commons in 1749, to inquire into the
condition of the Hudson bay territory and the trade carried on there (See
page 8), was to secure the cancellation of the Company’s monopoly and to
throw the country open to settlement. With this object in view much

evidence was produced to show that the territory offered inducements to
colonists, and, as inscribed in the pages of the official report, this gives us
the earliest account of pioneer agriculture in this region, and an idea of the
possibilities of the country from the old timers’ points of view.
Mr. Richard White, one of the witnesses examined before the
committee, said that he went to Albany Fort in the year 1726, as clerk to the
Company, and remained there seven years, and that he had been ten years at
Churchill, which was the northernmost fort. He testified that “the Governor
at Albany had a garden in which peas, beans, turnips and salad grew as well
and plentiful as in England, but he never knew of seed raised in that country
to have been sown again. He saw a small quantity of barley growing near
Moose river in August, which is about two months before the cold weather,
which barley was in the ear, but not full, but as he has never been used to
tillage, he is a very indifferent judge in those matters.”
Mr. White stated that “he apprehended the countries adjoining to
Hudson bay might be settled and improved, and that in the southern parts,
oats, barley and peas would grow, but if persons were allowed to settle, he
did not apprehend they could at first subsist by the cultivation of lands only
he did not know why the Company did not grow their own corn, nor
whether any proposal had been made to them for that purpose, for he really
thought corn would grow there, which certainly would tend much to the
advantage of the Company, as well as to the security of persons residing
there. Their common provisions were fish and fowl, and they had no bread
but what came from England; that all grain kept there very well, except
peas; that in a general way they had two years’ provisions beforehand in
their forts, especially of bread.”
Being asked if the Indians could not cultivate corn for one-third of the
price it costs in Europe, this witness said—“The Indians are in general a
slothful people and cultivate no corn.”

Soil Good and Climate Mild

Another of the witnesses examined before the committee, Mr. Matthew
Sergeant, stated that while in the Company’s service he had been twelve
miles up the country at York Factory, thirty miles up the river from Albany
Fort, and had travelled by land from Moose river to Albany Fort, one

hundred miles along the coast. The soil was good and produced good
turnips, the climate for four months in the year being mild.
The record of the evidence continues:—“The good soil is not quite two
feet deep, when you come to a stratum of loam and sand. In some places the
frost is never out of the ground, but you may dig through it. The turnips he
has eaten there are as good as ever he ate in England, but he does not know
whether seed raised there would produce the same. It is the general opinion
at York Factory that the soil is proper for wheat, barley, rye or oats. He has
seen very good peas and beans grow there, but he never saw any corn grow
there, except some wild oats; and that his mess-mate did sow some corn
there, which, though it grew a good height, never came to perfection; but, in
the opinion of the witness, oats would ripen at Albany, where he has seen a
cherry-tree bearing black cherries. He has seen the Indians bring down
currants, which, they said, grew in their country. They also brought down
sugar, which was very black, and made from the tree of which their paddles
are made; that the Indians informed the witness that there are large lakes
behind the factory; that the witness had been in a lake ten miles long,
without any fall going to it.

Prairie Land on lower Nelson river.

“It begins to thaw at Albany about April 8 or 10. There is a good soil
there for six or eight inches, which may be gained within about a fortnight
after the beginning of the thaw; that in two or three weeks more, as the
weather happens, it thaws to the depth of two feet, commonly by the
beginning of May. The frost sets in again about the beginning of October,
and when the witness was there, October 4, it came in very hard. The
witness believes there is time enough to grow wheat, for if summer grain
were sown early in the southernmost parts, he thinks there would be time
for it to ripen and to gather it in, but the frosts break sooner up in the
country and come in later. There are vast tracts of land fit for cultivation,
and the witness has seen very good lettuce, spinach, dewberries,
strawberries and black cherries. The Indians very rarely eat any bread, nor
do they live long enough in one place to raise corn, nor have they any yams
or potatoes, their provisions being fish and flesh, which they preserve by
drying it, not having the art of salting. In case they were interested in the
arts of tillage, he does not know whether they would stay in a place long
enough to raise corn, for though they love bread dearly they would rather
go hunting than cultivate land. The wild oats he mentioned before never
came to seed, being little better than a species of grass. Grass grows there
sufficient for the support of cattle, and they have made hay at Albany. If the
Company were to grow corn, they apprehend the French would come and
take it as they did their sheep in the last war, but they might protect their
corn from the Indians. Witness does not think it to the benefit of the
Company to grow corn, because they must have a house built at a distance
from the factories, and men to watch it, to prevent the home Indians from
stealing it. They must also have men to cultivate it, which would be very
expensive. The witness cannot determine whether it would not be more so
than having their corn from Europe, and he thinks the Company would sow
it, if it were for their advantage.”
Mr. John Hayter, another witness, said that he had been house carpenter
to the Company six years at Moose river, three years at Churchill, and six
months at Albany, and knew that no other trade was carried on there but that
of furs. He had seen good barley grow at Moose river, and helped the
person who grew it to dig his ground and sow it. It produced about the
quantity of half a bushel, which he saw rubbed out. The ear was large, and
yielded as well, in the opinion of the witness, as the barley sown on
common ground in England. Some of the seed was sown the next year, and

it grew again but the witness did not see the produce of it. The person who
grew this corn told him the reason why he discontinued sowing corn was
that the Governor hindered him. Witness further said that he had made hay
at Moose river.
Mr. Edward Thompson, who had been three years at Moose river in the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s service as surgeon, being required to give an
account of the commodities, soil and climate there, before the committee,
said that the chief commodities were the furs of the beaver, the marten, the
fox and the bear. He testified that he had seen better barley and oats grow at
Moose river than ever he saw in the Orkneys, but the quantity sown was but
very small. The seed would bear sowing again, but diminished in goodness.
There was suitable enough ground for this corn, but never any
encouragement given for sowing it, but quite the reverse, the Governor
absolutely forbidding it, for no other reason, as the witness apprehended,
but that if corn had been sown, a colony would soon have been erected
there, and he could not say whether that would be for the advantage of the
proprietors. The witness himself sowed about half a dozen corns of wheat,
for a trial, in October, which lay in the ground all winter covered with snow
and came to perfection in August. It was sown in a piece of good ground
near the foot of a tree, which was in some measure a fence to it. The witness
thought that beans, peas, barley and oats would grow there. He never tried it
anywhere but at Moose river, but apprehended that corn would grow in the
inland countries at a hundred miles distance, even as far north as Port
Nelson, for he had found the climate warmer the further one goes inland.
Enoch Alsop, who had been armourer to the Hudson’s Bay Company at
Moose river, informed the investigating Committee of 1749 that he had
sown barley and oats there, the same seed three years successively, and that
it grew very well. He sowed a handful or two of barley and oats at first,
mixed with dust and ashes, which produced two or three quarts or a gallon
of barley, and he thinks in the third year he had above half a bushel.
Governor Stanton then

Forbade Him To Sow Any More

but gave no reason for such prohibition.

Robert Griffin, another of the witnesses, stated that he had been
informed that the soil one hundred miles up the country would produce
corn. He had seen oats grow to perfection at Albany. He had also seen peas,
beans, turnips, salading (sic) and cabbage, and some few carrots. The beans
were generally blighted, but the turnips, peas and cabbage, were “in great
plenty and perfection.” They had fresh seed sent over every year. The land
was then cultivated for about a mile round Albany, being dug with spades
upon the breaking of the frost, which generally happened from April 20 to
27.
In his evidence, Mr. Joseph Robson, perhaps the principal witness,
explained that there was grass in abundance a yard high in the most
northern parts of Hudson bay region he had seen. He did not believe corn
would grow in the far north but grain would grow over large areas. He had
eaten peas and beans which had been grown at York Factory, in latitude 57°,
but he never knew any other corn tried there. The quantity of peas and
beans he spoke of was as much as six or eight people could eat, but there
were a thousand acres of ground in latitude 57°, which, if cultivated, would
produce the same, and there was a much larger tract to the southward. The
peas and beans grew by common cultivation, without any force, but the
produce was not so large as in England.
Being asked if it would not be a great advantage to the Company to
grow corn at York Factory or their other settlements, Mr. Robson said it
would doubtless be so, and it was reasonable to think they would do it, but
there were many things not done which would be of great advantage
besides that, and there must be some secret cause for it to which the witness
was a stranger. It had been demonstrated that the soil about Hudson bay
would bear roots, such as carrots, radishes and turnips. It also produced
coleworts, and all of these roots and greens grew in as great perfection as
they do in England; yet he did not think that there were two acres cultivated
at both the factories where he had resided.
Being asked how long the frost was out of the ground at York Factory,
Mr. Robson said it was hardly ever quite out of it, for he had dug three feet
and a half deep, and then found a shell of ice under which the ground was
all soft. The hole he dug was in low ground, about thirteen feet from high
water mark. He never had an opportunity to dig up in the country, but the
surface of the ground was free from the latter end of May to the latter end
of August, and in the summer they had

Eighteen Hours Sunlight at Churchill.

By the accounts of the people coming down, the frost breaks some months
sooner up in the country.
Mr. Robson said he had seen oxen and horses belonging to the
Company at Fort Prince of Wales (Churchill) which were brought from
England and fed with hay and corn, the hay being got there and made into
stacks.
Robson, who first went to Hudson bay in 1733, and finally left there in
1747, serving for some time as a mason, and later as “mason and surveyor,”
in the construction of Fort Prince of Wales at Churchill, published his book
“An Account of Six Years’ Residence in Hudson’s Bay” in 1752. In this
volume he mentions going out in the “Mary” frigate, and says, in writing of
Churchill:—“We had brought over in the ship a bull, four heifers, ten oxen
and a horse. There was an Orkney bull there before. Some of the heifers
afterwards calved, and I think with care they would have increased and
done well, though this place is in 59°, and the most northerly settlement in
the bay.”
On page forty-two of his book, Mr. Robson states:—“It is not to be
imagined that the most northerly settlements in the bay should have as good
a climate as the southerly settlement, there being so great a difference of
latitude, as from 59° to 51° 30′. I was no farther up Churchill river than
eight or nine miles but can say that the soil is very good, and that there are
gooseberries and black and red currants growing near the sea upon points
that appear almost barren. Those I have seen grow so low that the grass
covers them. The marshes and low grounds are full of good grass, and there
is a patch of ground near the fort on Eskimo point (near Churchill) which,
though exposed to the north and northeast winds, produces good radishes,
coleworts, turnips, small carrots, and lettuces, and other salading;
blackberries also grow upon the heath. Upon clearing away the snow in the
spring, we generally found the under part of it congested to ice, three or
four inches thick, lying hollow from the ground. Whether this was caused
by the snow melting and thawing downwards, and then congesting from the
coldness of the earth, and moistening the snow which was afterwards
congested again, I am not able to determine. I am inclined to believe the
latter, because the top of the snow was formed into a hard icy crust, and
within was heavy, though soft. However, beneath this arch of ice we found

green vegetables growing up an inch or two above the ground. Cattle here
would live and do well, if the same care were taken of them as is generally
taken in England. The horses I found among them had been kept several
years, and were constantly employed in drawing stones and other materials
for the use of the fort. And if they can subsist and be fit for service at
Churchill river in 59° they would surely subsist and increase also at the
bottom of the bay in 51° 30′, and in all the more southerly settlements.
“The soil at York Factory, which is in 75° 10′, is much better than at
Churchill river. Most kinds of garden stuff

Grow Here to Perfection,

especially peas and beans. I have seen a small pea growing without any
culture, and am of the opinion that barley would flourish here, and
consequently in much greater perfection at Moose and Albany rivers, which
are 51° 30′ and 52°. Gooseberries and red and black currants are found in
the woods, growing upon such bushes as in England. Up the river are very
good patches of grounds, and bottoms under banks, so defended from the
north and northwest winds that there is a fine thaw below when the top is
freezing; here whole families might secure a comfortable subsistence, if
they were as industrious as they are in their own country. Upon Hayes river,
fifteen miles from the factory, is such a bank as I have just mentioned, near
which I pitched my tent. After paling in some ground for a covey-warren,
and for oxen, sheep, goats, etc., I should expect by no more labor than
would be proper for my health to procure a desirable livelihood, not at all
doubting of my being able to raise peas and beans, barley, and probably
other kinds of grain.”
On page sixty-three, Mr. Robson expresses the opinion “that the lands
are capable of tillage, affording a good pasture for horses and cattle in the
summer, and good hay for their subsistence in the winter. At Churchill, the
most northerly factory, horses and cows have been kept in winter, though
greatly exposed to the frost and cold. All sorts of garden stuff flourish at the
factory, and where barley and oats have been sown, they come to
perfection. At Moose Factory at the bottom of the bay, sown wheat has
stood the winter frosts, and grown very well the following summer, though
the cold is greater and continues longer than within land; black cherries

planted here have also grown and borne fruit, as would other trees if
propagated.”
Reverting to the subject of climate, Mr. Robson states:—“I perceived
that the garden ground at York Factory and Churchill river thawed much
sooner and deeper in the space of one month than the waste that lies
contiguous to it, and the same is to be observed in England. By the heat
therefore which the earth here would acquire from a general and careful
cultivation, the frost might be so soon overcome that the people might
expect regular returns of seed-time and harvest.”

An Excellent Farming Country.

Ed. Umfreville, in his volume “Eleven Years in the Service of the
Hudson’s Bay Company and Four Years in the Canada Fur Trade”,
published in 1790, speaking of latitude 55°, says:—“The Hudson’s Bay
Company servants have tried Indian corn and barley by way of experiment
which came to perfection. Potatoes, carrots, radishes, onions, etc., have
been reared and found as good as those in Canada (Quebec). The natives
collect vast quantities of wild cherries and bring them to the fort.
Raspberries, strawberries, currants, cranberries, and an infinity of other
kinds of which I do not know the names, are to be found everywhere. The
grass grows to a great height which fattens our horses in a short time.
“The late Chief Factor Archibald, in his journal of Sir George Simpson’s
trip from York Factory to the Pacific in 1828, speaks of having had, on July
12, two days after leaving York, “a peep at the Rock, an old establishment
with its gardens.”
The Rev. John Semmens, who spent many years as a missionary in the
north country, went to live on the banks of Burntwood river, at Nelson
House, in the year 1874. He remained there two years, and for a number of
years thereafter paid occasional visits to the locality and made journeys
through the adjacent country. He writes:—“The most of my tripping was
between Norway House and Nelson House, though I have been as far north
as Indian lake, as far west as Nelson lake, and as far east as Split lake. The
information I have to offer, therefore, concerns the lower reaches of the
Burntwood after its junction with Rat river at Nelson House. Much of the
country specified is hilly, with frequent outcropping of granite rock, and

some large tracts of muskeg or swamp land, but there are found large areas
of open country, and valleys of tributary rivers, where the soil is rich and
deep and where grazing and stock raising could be very successfully carried
on. The sheltering forests, and the abundant water courses, the numerous
beaver dams, and the rich native grasses would indeed make this locality
ideal to sheep raisers and general ranchmen. The absence of anything like a
market has hitherto kept this country from being reported of, but if a
railway becomes an actual fact, Manitoba will add very much to her
available resources, when extension comes, and settlers will find that in
soil, in wood, in grasses, and in waters, this unknown land will afford
comfortable homes for thousands. It will be seen by the map that about one
hundred miles down the Nelson all the branches of that noble river unite in
one. From that point we are accustomed to strike across country to Landing
lake, Wintering lake, Pipestone lake and thence into Burntwood river. This
short cut has along its course many thousands of acres, such as I have
described, and for fishermen as well as ranchers must some day be a
paradise.
“The cold at Nelson House is no more intense than that of a winter in
northern Manitoba as at present constituted, but the frost sets in rather
sooner, and tarries rather longer than it does at the north end of Lake
Winnipeg. Roots and vegetables planted about May 24 do well and are
gathered about September 15. The presence of so much water so regulates
the temperature that there are few frosts either early or late to make growth
uncertain, yet, in my experience, wheat is not a sure crop. All depends on
the season. Oats and barley will do well any time.”—(J. A. J. McKenna’s
report on the Hudson Bay Route).

Split lake region.

The Reverend Doctor John McDougall, one of the pioneer missionaries
of the west, has thus expressed himself regarding the region to the south of
Split lake:—“The summer begins early, and the growth and vegetation are
almost of a tropical character. This is attributable to the longer hours of
sunshine that prevail, and to the proximity of streams of living waters
everywhere in the district, each of which is conducive to plant nourishment.
There is considerable rock throughout the section which indicates in the

near future a season of development for the mineral prospector but there are
also countless acres of good land which can be easily made to yield fruitful
returns to the farmer, as has been the case southward in Manitoba and
westward in Saskatchewan and Alberta. The soil is of clay sub-strata with
sandy loam on the surface, and, although wooded to a considerable extent,
is a far more enticing agricultural proposition than that which faced the
early settlers on the bush farms of Ontario and other eastern provinces fifty
years ago, and, with the advent of railways, a better market than the eastern
settler had would be always available. The district in which are situated
Norway House, Cross lake, Oxford House, Island lake, Nelson House and
Split lake, covers a wide area, and at each of these places garden vegetables
and grain for personal requirements have been successfully grown for a
term of years. Summer frosts are practically unknown and the germination
of vegetation, owing to the long hours of sunshine, is exceedingly rapid.”
(McKenna Report.)
Doctor Robert Bell, in the report of his exploratory trip from Lake
Winnipeg to Hudson bay in 1878 (See p. 17), states:—“Along the direct
overland route from Churchill to York Factory the timber is reported to be
generally small, and large prairie-like openings are said to occur, in which
the ground is dry and covered with grass or other herbage. I saw very good
potatoes and turnips growing in the gardens at Churchill. Previous to the
advent of Mr. and Mrs. Spencer, the cultivation of potatoes had not been
attempted, and the possibility of raising them at Churchill when suggested
by Mrs. Spencer was ridiculed by the oldest inhabitants. However, in spite
of predictions of certain failure, the ground was prepared, seed planted, and
a good crop was harvested. The experiment has been repeated successfully
for seven consecutive years, so that the question of the practicability of
cultivating potatoes on the shores of Hudson bay in this latitude has been
pretty well solved.
“Hay can be cut in abundance in the neighborhood of Churchill, and
cattle thrive well, yet the same ignorance or obstinacy, as the above referred
to, formerly prevented any attempt being made to breed stock on the spot,
so that every fresh animal required had to be brought from some other
place. Now, the small herd which is kept at the place is recruited by raising
the animals calved at the fort itself. The open grassy land near the sea is
practically of unlimited extent. Much of it is dry and undulating, affording

abundance of pasture for the cattle. The butter made by Mrs. Spencer could
hardly be excelled for quality and fineness in any country.”

Lake St. Joseph section.

In the report (Part G., Geol. Sur. Report, 1886) of his exploratory trip in
1886 (See p. 18), Doctor Robert Bell, speaking of the country in Lake St.
Joseph section, in the extreme southern side of the region under review,
writes:—“The climate, in the immediate vicinity of the lake at all events,
appears to be sufficiently good to admit of the growth of a variety of crops.
At Osnaburgh House, near the east end, where the soil is of a sandy nature,
the principal crop cultivated at present is potatoes, but early Indian corn,
peas, beans, and a variety of roots and other vegetables, to say nothing of a
profusion of flowers, were in a flourishing condition at the end of July. In
former years, when cattle were kept at the post, barley was said to have
been a regular crop. Hay grows very luxuriantly. I was creditably informed
that pumpkins and muskmelons had frequently ripened at this
establishment.”
Doctor Bell, before the Senate committee of 1887, testified:—“Potatoes
and all such vegetables would grow in Hudson bay district, but the
immediate influence of the sea is unfavourable for gardens. Gardens close
to the sea do not flourish as well as gardens inland. The frequent change
from heat to cold and the fogs from the sea prejudicially affect them, and
cause a sort of blight on vegetation close to the sea shore. But a few miles
inland vegetation is more rank, and you can grow potatoes and the ordinary
root crops. There are plenty of grasses there to keep cattle and sheep. There
are many kinds of grasses there, also sedges, wild peas or vetches and
lentils. They would make splendid feed for cattle.”
Mr. Fawcett (Annual Report, Dep. Interior, 1885, pt. II, p. 37), speaking
of his descent of the Wenassago to Lac Seul, says:—“In a few places I
noticed soil of vegetable mould and clay loam, which would be well suited
for the growth of grain and vegetables should the climatic conditions be
favourable. I also observed here that the best soil generally produced a
growth of poplar, and wherever it appeared large and thrifty, good soil
might be looked for, comparatively free from rock. On the rocky ridges, as
usual, scrubby pine was the prevailing timber, while the flats and muskegs

were invariably covered with spruce and tamarack. The good land noticed
seemed to be in belts three or four miles wide and extending north and
south for a considerable distance, as might be expected from the geological
formation, the depressions and elevations succeeding each other in very
regular order and much in the same direction.”
On Big Black river, which flows into the east side of Lake Winnipeg,
Mr. A. S. Cochrane, of the Geological Survey, who surveyed that stream in
1882, reports the soil as “excellent, being a light-gray friable clay. . . . . The
land up to Pelican portage is first class, but above this there is a low and
swampy country, which extends to ‘Rapids-close-together’. A border of
good land, on which some fair-sized timber grows, runs along both sides of
the river.”

Favourable lake and Severn lake.

Mr. Low, in the account of his trip in 1886, reports that along the shores
of Favourable lake (which is from two to five miles in width) “there are
considerable areas of good land, the best being on the peninsula and along
the southern part of the lake, where the underlying rocks are hornblende and
chloritic schists; the northern part is more barren, the soil resting upon
gneiss. The soil is a fine, rich sandy loam, quite suitable for growing good
crops, and summer frosts seem to be the only drawback to successful
agriculture. These are said to not occur at Trout lake, though situated further
to the northeastward. At the end of the peninsula the foundations of several
old houses were discovered, out of which trees twelve inches in diameter
were growing. These ruins evidently mark the site of some old Hudson’s
Bay Company or more probably North West Company trading post. . . . .
“There is much good land about Sandy lake. Indeed the greater part of
the land around these lakes would make good farms.”
A short distance above Severn lake, according to Mr. Low, there is a
considerable area of country “almost flat, with good timber and soil.”
Mr. Low describes Trout lake (east of Severn lake) as being forty miles
long by twenty miles wide. He states in his report that Mr. Tait, the officer
in charge of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post at that point, “says that good
crops of peas, potatoes and other roots are raised here yearly, and are very
rarely injured by summer frosts. This being the case, the country to the

westward, between Severn and Sandy lakes, which is more favourably
situated, having all the appearance of a better climate and a richer soil, must
undoubtedly be well suited for agriculture, and will at some future time
prove valuable land for settlement.”
Mr. Low reports the soil around Fort Severn as a heavy clay and very
swampy. Nothing but a few small turnips are with difficulty grown there.
On August 8, strawberries, then beginning to ripen, were picked by Mr.
Low on clearings around the post.
Mr. Low was examined at length before the Senate committee of 1907
(See p. 27), and stated in his evidence that the country between Norway
House and Hudson bay is not very elevated. The highest points in it are
probably somewhere in the neighbourhood of one thousand feet above sea
level. For about half the distance to Hudson bay it is practically a rolling
plain, and the rocks are ancient rocks of the Laurentian and Huronian ages.
Beyond that there was an ancient deposit of limestone and sandstone,
extending in a wide line around the northern part about half way across.
These are large limestones, and they are lying almost flat. The country for
about half way down from Norway House to Churchill slopes very gently
towards the bay, so that the grade is not more than eight or ten feet to the
mile, if it is that. The northeastern part is practically a plain.
There are considerable areas of low swampy lands. The surface going
down into Hudson bay after reaching the Wolstenholme country is fairly
swampy. The rivers have thrown up banks, and it is only at an occasional
place that a break through those banks occurred to let out the drainage. In
many places the river banks are from five to ten feet higher than the
surrounding country, and in consequence the land beyond is drowned more
or less, very often extending back for a distance as far as one can walk in a
day.
Mr. Low considered that probably half the country due east from
Norway House, say for one hundred miles, would be

Fit for Agriculture.

He would rank the agricultural possibilities there as fair.
Of course there are very few settlements in there now, and the only one
Mr. Low visited was a Hudson’s Bay post at Trout lake, and they were

growing peas and garden truck of all kinds, also potatoes and fairly decent
looking crops. They were not bothered very badly with summer frosts, as
Mr. Low could see from the crop of green peas. The climate seemed quite
favourable for hardy crops. The soil areas that are fit for agriculture are
fairly large; the rocky hills crop out only at intervals, and there is quite a
large area there that Mr. Low thought would be fit for future settlement.
The low flat plain, southeast of Nelson river, appeared to be largely
covered with muskeg and small spruce. He would suppose that there was
more muskeg and spruce land than hay areas. The subsoil is clay largely.
Down in the lower country near the bay there is a certain amount of sand on
top. There was a fair amount of vegetable growth. Mr. Low remarked that
he would not consider this low-lying area a good agricultural country at
present, but with some drainage he thought a great deal of that country
around James and Hudson bays is going to make a good agricultural
country.
With regard to that territory north of Lake Winnipeg and east of Norway
House and in the country southeast thereof, Mr. Low thought it would be a
somewhat rocky country, but probably not more than one-third would be of
that nature. Most of the land not rocky would be timber land. This would
run up to about the eighteenth degree or probably more.
Mr. Low, speaking as to the climate of the region west of Hudson bay,
explained that in the southern part, south of the Nelson, it is fairly good, he
thought, for settlement. The summer frosts are rare, and he thought with the
opening up of the country it would probably improve. He considered that
settlers in there would not have any more difficulty in summer than they
would in the settled part of the northwest. The summer is probably equal to
that of Saskatchewan. The length of the summer days is an advantage. They
get more sunlight during the summer than do the people of older Ontario or
other points farther south, and that is a distinct help to vegetation.

Portaging canoe at Long Spruce rapids, Nelson river.

In the summer of 1896, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell explored the country north of
the mouth of Saskatchewan river. As a result of the exploration he states in
his report:—“From Nelson river westward to longitude 100° 30′, and from
the north end of Lake Winnipeg northward to beyond latitude 56°, the
country is generally covered with a coating of stratified clay, varying in
thickness from a few feet up to fifty, sixty, or even one hundred feet. This
clay is of much the same character as that of Red river valley, having been,
like it, deposited in the bed of the old post-glacial lake that once occupied
the basin of Lake Winnipeg. The rivers have, as a rule, cut down through
this clay to the underlying rock, but away from the water-stretches rock
exposures are not of any frequent occurrence. The

Soil is Rich and Fertile,

and the country will doubtless produce in abundance all the hardier roots
and cereals grown in the province of Manitoba; and cattle, sheep, and
horses could be successfully raised. If the country were made accessible by
a railway passing through it to Hudson bay, it would certainly support a
considerable agricultural population.”

At page seven of his report (Part F. Geol. Sur. Rep., 1900, Vol. XII) Mr.
Tyrrell states:—“Much of the land is well adapted for agriculture. At
Norway House some fine barley had been sown and ripened in the garden,
and all the ordinary vegetables grown in Manitoba have been raised for
many years past. At Cross lake many of the Indians had good large gardens
of potatoes and other vegetables, and McLeod and Mclvor, two fur traders,
had excellent gardens in which were growing potatoes, turnips, carrots,
parsnips, radishes, cabbages, cauliflowers, onions, lettuce, beans, peas, etc.
At Nelson House in the extreme northern part of the district explored, many
of the Indians regularly grow potatoes, and both the fur traders and the
missionaries cultivate small patches of ground on which they raise abundant
crops of all the vegetables mentioned as growing at Cross lake. It is
probable that the hardier varieties of grain would also ripen here, but at
present there is no object in growing grain of any kind for it could not be
readily utilized.”
In a foot note, Mr. Tyrrell states “Wheat ripens well at Norway House
and Cross lake on the Nelson.”
On page eight of his report Mr. Tyrrell says:—“During the summer of
1896 no frost occurred until August 29. At Nelson House we were informed
that, during the preceding seven years at least, no frost that would injure
garden produce had occurred at an earlier date.”
At page thirty-four of his report Mr. Tyrrell states:—“Wuskwatim lake
is a very pretty sheet of slightly murky water, six or seven miles long and
three miles wide, surrounded by sloping clay-covered hills wooded with
white spruce and poplar. Its surface is varied by a few islands composed of
clay overlying a floor of gneiss. The two falls above mentioned, at and near
its outlet, would furnish a large amount of

Power for Driving Mills

or machinery of any kind, while a supply of timber for building and fuel
could be obtained from the surrounding country, and the soil would grow
any of the ordinary roots or more hardy cereals, so that it is not improbable
that before long when this fertile country is made accessible by the advent
of a railroad from the south, one of the most prosperous towns in the district
may grow up on the shore of this now secluded lake.

“Footprint lake, on the northern shore of which the Hudson’s Bay
Company have had a trading post for a number of years, and the Methodists
have a small church and mission house, has somewhat the shape of a rude
cross, seven miles long from east to west, and six miles from north to south.
The latitude of the trading post was found to be 55° 48′ 26′′ north. The lake
is surrounded by banks of light grey friable clay from thirty to forty feet
high, through which rise rounded hills of gneiss up to two hundred feet or
more in height. The clay extends over the lower portions of these hills, but
some of the higher summits appear to rise above it, possibly having risen
above the surface of Lake Agassiz where the surrounding clay was
deposited on its floor. When the lake was visited in August last both the
trader and the missionary had excellent gardens in which they were
successfully growing potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers, onions, radishes,
lettuce, peas, beans, turnips, carrots and other vegetables, and many of the
Indians had patches of potatoes sufficiently large to assist materially in the
support of their families throughout the winter.
“I enquired from the Indians who were living around the lake, how far
the fertile clay-covered country extended towards the north, and they told
me that it extended as far as Indian lake on Churchill river, north of which
the surface is either of sand or rock.”
Mr. Tyrrell reports that many of the smaller fruits grow on the clay-
covered country explored in great profusion. Among those that he reports as
especially abundant were raspberries, gooseberries, red and black currants,
strawberries, blueberries and headberries (Rubus Chameomorus).
Strawberries were growing “in great profusion” in the tract about
Muhigan rapids on Muhigan river.
The country above Wuskwatim lake, according to Mr. Tyrrell, “seems to
be a great clay plain, cut through by the sloping trough of the river, and
trenched by wide lateral gulleys. The surface is generally covered with
small poplar, with some spruce in the valleys, and there are no signs of
rocky hills, or of rock, except here and there at the water’s edge.”
Mr. Tyrrell reports that McLaughlin river, throughout its whole course
from the long narrow lake to its mouth, flows through a level, clay-covered
country, the rock merely rising here and there in knolls and ridges above the
general level.
Mr. Tyrrell, reporting (Summary Rep. Geol. Survey, 1890-91) on his
survey of the district about Lakes Winnipeg and Winnipegosis, mentions a

cliff at Limestone bay, in the extreme northwest of Lake Winnipeg, rising in
some places to a height of forty feet, composed at the bottom of a stiff, blue
alluvial clay, and at the top of a mossy peat, and further on in the report
proceeds to say:—“A deposit of clay similar to that on Mossy point extends
all along the east shore of Lake Winnipeg, and the waves washing against
the soft cliffs become charged with the mud from which the lake derives its
name. This clay is also of great economic interest, for instead of the east
shore of the lake being an uninhabitable rocky wilderness, as is generally
supposed, it is largely covered with

A Rich Blue Alluvial Soil,

and the area of rock surface is relatively small. Much of this land is covered
with forests of poplar and spruce, while on account of the retentive,
impervious nature of the clay soil much of it is also boggy and wet, but
when it is cleared and drained it will form rich agricultural land. At
Badthroat river, Mr. Wood, the local Inspector of Fisheries, had cleared a
beautiful farm out of the midst of the poplar forest, and he informs me that
he grows successfully all the crops ordinarily raised in Ontario. Mr. McKay,
the Indian Agent at Berens river, has also a clearing situated on the south
side of the river in the midst of what was a dense forest of small spruce. He
has under cultivation a nice garden, and this year the potatoes were not cut
down by frost till the middle of September.”
During his examination before the Senate committee of 1907, Mr.
Tyrrell described the whole stretch of country extending from Lake
Winnipeg and Split lake on the east to Churchill and Athabaska on the
west[14] as a “country essentially suited for agricultural purposes.” He could
not say what there was beyond the limits mentioned as he had not been
there. This was a forest belt. The eastern side of this tract would be Nelson
river. Not having been east of that river with the exception of twenty or
thirty miles, he could not speak of the country beyond. Mr. Tyrrell declared:
—“That belt of forest is for the most part excellent agricultural land.” As far
as the observations of Mr. Tyrrell went, he believed that that country, while
a little harder to settle up, and not so attractive to settlers who are going in
and looking for farms ready made and cleared for them and ready to put the
wheat in, would be as fine an agricultural tract of land as there is in the

Northwest. Everywhere in travelling through it, the evidence of rich
vegetation was abundant, and everywhere where gardens or any kind of
agriculture or horticulture had been attempted in this forest belt, it had been
eminently successful. It is a forest country, a spruce covered country, and
lies southwest of Hudson bay, west of Nelson river, north of Saskatchewan
river, and extends to Mackenzie and Athabaska rivers. It would be about
two hundred miles wide from north to south. Witness did not remember the
length of it. It is land similar to that of Ontario, and will grow practically
everything that will grow in that province, except possibly down in the
southern peninsula. The summer is warm. The winter does not count,
because things do not grow in winter. There is a good rainfall. A small part
of the district is park country, half wooded. It is a continuation northward of
the Saskatchewan country.
Mr. Tyrrell said he had seen growing in that country all the garden
products that they grow in Ontario—potatoes, carrots, turnips, cabbage,
cauliflowers and all the ordinary garden produce. He saw excellent potatoes
in the district around Nelson House. He could not say what time they were
planted, because he was not there. The Indians constantly, when hunting,
plant little patches of potatoes here and there in the spring and leave them
all summer and dig them up when they go back to their hunting grounds in
the fall, and use them for their winter supply. The witness had gone out and
dug a pail of beautiful potatoes on several occasions out of these little
Indian patches buried in the woods. They had never been hoed or cultivated
in any way. They were not looked after from the time they were planted in
the spring until they were dug in the fall. The potatoes seem to be able to
grow sufficiently to keep down the weeds. As a protection against wild
animals these potato patches are usually planted on islands. Witness had not
actually seen wheat, barley nor oats grown in that country. He has fairly
good evidence that they are grown there, but as far as he remembered he
had not seen any himself. He had been told and believed that they grow
there. There is no doubt whatever that the country described will support
quite a large population. North of Lake Winnipeg there is another
magnificent area of from five to ten thousand square miles of as fine
country as there is in Manitoba or anywhere else. When Mr. Tyrrell came
out of that district in 1896, after spending a summer there, and said there
was

A Rich Agricultural Country North of Lake Winnipeg

the Hudson’s Bay Company’s men and the people in the southern country
pooh-poohed the idea. They said they had been up at the head of the lake
and knew there was not a foot of good land there. But Mr. Tyrrell
emphatically declared that there is a magnificent stretch of country there,
which extends westward along the Churchill. These lands north of Lake
Winnipeg are clay lands, an extension of the same basin as the Manitoba
clays.
Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, in his evidence, pointed out that “the effect of the large
body of water in Hudson bay and James bay on the temperature, summer
and winter, of the surrounding country, was the equalizing of it very much,
making the summers colder and the winters milder. There is a foggy climate
around the bay. It is without much sunlight, so that it has not a chance to
dry. The mean temperature of the summer within one hundred miles of the
bay will not be so hot as it is back of that. The thermometer does not fall
very low in winter at Churchill. At the same time any person will find it
terribly cold on that coast, although the thermometer does not fall very low.
There are a great many different matters in connection with temperature and
climate that have to be taken into consideration. There is the amount of
moisture in the air; whether the barometer is standing low or high; there are
a great many of those things that have to be taken into consideration in any
question of frost or of climate that arises. You may have frost with a north
wind, while if that north wind were blowing up over a wooded country,
where all the leaves were giving out their vapour from the ground into the
air, you would not have a sign of frost.”
As to the climate of the great belt of arable land, that he had described
to the Senate committee of 1907, Mr. Tyrrell said that at Nelson House the
snow leaves the ground in May. There is little or no summer frost in that
wooded country. He understood gardening commences the end of May, and
the frost does not appear in the fall until about September 20. He had never
known the potato crop to be lost through summer frost.
Asked as to the isothermal line, Mr. Tyrrell remarked that the isothermal
is a line connecting points that have the same mean temperature for the year
round. It has nothing whatever to do with vegetation. Things do not grow in
the winter time. People have got to put the winter temperature absolutely
out of the question. The summer temperature is the only temperature that

counts for growth in the northern country where there is frost. In dealing
with that, you have to take into consideration as between two places in
different latitudes, the length of the day and the amount of sunlight, in order
to get at the summer temperatures. Of course the sunlight has a great effect
on the growth, and where the days have eighteen hours’ sun a plant will
grow faster than where the day has only fourteen hours.
Mr. Tyrrell submitted to the committee a memorandum from Mr. R. F.
Stupart, Superintendent of the Dominion Meteorological Service,
comparing the temperature conditions of the district between Lake
Winnipeg and Split lake in the several months, May to September, with
European countries, as follows: —
May—50°-40°, with north of Scotland and southern Norway.
June—56°-54°, with Scotland.
July—63°, with south of England.
August—57·5°-55°, with Scotland.
September—50°-45°, with northern Norway and Sweden.

Mr. D. B. Dowling, reporting (Part F. Annual Rep. Geol. Sur. Vol. VII)
on his 1893 explorations (See p. 19) states:—“The agricultural possibilities
of the valley of upper Berens river seem to be limited, and the areas suitable
for cultivation are only to be found in isolated patches. These are
principally in the neighbourhood of the larger lakes. The Indian reserves
have been located with this end in view as they seem to cover about the best
land seen. The soil is a light grey clay with a little vegetable mould, and the
gardens made by the Indians produce potatoes of fair quality, the only
vegetable grown. In the southern part of the district, better land is found and
in greater extent than in Berens river valley. On Lac Seul, at the mission
and trading post, there are

Several Very Good Gardens

in a flourishing condition, with all the ordinary vegetables growing very
satisfactorily. The Indians appear to care little for any gardening except a
very primitive attempt at raising potatoes. Land suitable for gardening was
seen at Mattawa, and indeed the best and largest extent for this purpose is to
be found between Lac Seul and Shallow lake.”
Mr. Dowling, writing of the northern branch of Berens river, states:
—“The land reserved for the Indians on the upper part of this branch of

Berens river, is a small tract situated on the north side of a long arm or
narrows, running to the eastward, from a lake to which the name
Pekangikum is given. The river enters at the eastern end of this area,
coming from Sturgeon lake by a short stretch of river half a mile in length,
in which there are two rapids. The Indian reserve appears fairly well
timbered—principally with Banksian pine of slender growth and some
spruce. The Indians have been able, in building their houses, to obtain
timber of suitable size for the walls and rafters, and spruce of a diameter of
fourteen inches is fairly plentiful. The shores of the lake are rocky, but
strips of country inland appear, on which there is probably a fair quality of
soil, though the surface is generally sandy. On one of the islands in the
larger part of the lake, soil of good quality (clay) was seen, on which the
Indians were growing potatoes. No doubt there is better land for this
purpose on the reserve they have selected, but as they make their summer
camp on a small island near the deeper part of the lake for the purpose of
fishing—by which they mainly subsist—they naturally utilize the nearest
land for their summer gardens.”
Mr. Dowling, writing in his report of the country north of Lake
Winnipeg and south of Burntwood river, says:—“As the area is situated so
far north of the boundary of Manitoba, it might be presumed that much of it
is unfitted for settlement, but it is discovered that over a large part there is
good soil, and

The Evidence of Several Gardens

at various posts shows that for all the ordinary vegetables and coarser grains
the climate is not too rigorous. Splendid gardens were found as far north as
Nelson House, which is in the northern part of the area here mapped. Proper
drainage is needed, however, to bring much of the surface into a condition
fit for agriculture. Along the river banks this is evident, for while the strip
bordering the streams produces a great variety of grasses, shrubs and trees,
a short distance back this is replaced by a swamp covered by moss and
stunted spruce. This is more noticeable in the western part of Nelson valley,
where the country is thickly covered by a coating of clay, and the surface is
so uniformly level that its gradual slope to the east is not sufficient to drain
it. The areas to which it would be possible to introduce a system of

drainage, would at first be restricted to a narrow margin along the streams.
The northwest corner of the district for present purposes may be classed as
without a sufficient soil for agriculture. This may roughly be outlined as
being composed of all the country lying to the west of a line from the outlet
of Burntwood lake to that of Reed lake, and north of the escarpment which
shows the northern limit of the Trenton limestone. In this the surface is
rolling and hilly, the rocky ridges having a scanty coating of boulder clay
and an occasional thicker deposit in the depressions. It will probably remain
the home of the hunter and the trapper.
“To the south the country, underlain by limestone, has many of the
characters of the northern part of old Manitoba. In the valley of the
Saskatchewan there are large areas of rich soil formed principally by the
river itself, which has brought down an enormous amount of silt from the
upper part of its valley. The western part of the valley of Nelson river is
covered by a thick lacustral deposit which reaches west to Burntwood lake
and east to the channel of Nelson river. In this area good soil is found in
almost every part and where drained would no doubt make fair farming
land.”
Mr. Wm. McInnes describes the country about Winisk and Attawapiskat
rivers, explored by him in 1903, 1904 and 1905, as consisting of three
areas, the first a limestone area, along the bay shore, the second a boulder
clay area, behind it, and the third in rear of it again, a high interior plateau.
As to the latter area, he says:—“Although, considered as a whole, the
central, elevated region cannot be spoken of as generally adapted for
agriculture, there occur basins covered by heavy deposits of stratified sand
and clay that seem to have been laid down in lakes held in between barriers
formed by the walls of the retreating glacier and ridges of drift. An
examination of some of these clays by Doctor Hoffman shows them to be
highly calcareous and somewhat siliceous, a composition that with the
admixture of the surface vegetable mould should produce an

Excellent Soil for General Agriculture.

The question of climate, which is, of course, of the utmost importance when
considering the agricultural possibilities of a district, will be referred to
more particularly in another place. It may be said here, however, that the

climatic conditions are, if somewhat adverse, not by any means prohibitory
to the general cultivation of suitably situated tracts.
“Muskeg, alternating with low ridges of gravel and boulders, covers
wide tracts. It was noticed that the surface drainage became more perfect in
that part of the region extending westerly towards Trout lake. . . . . . . . . .
“The tract referred to as the boulder clay area consists of a broad belt of
country, about one hundred and fifty-nine miles in width, lying between the
Archaean highlands and the edge of the limestones of the basin of Hudson
bay, overlapping the latter, however, so that the surface features of the two
are generally quite similar. Gently undulating, and with a slight slope
northerly and easterly, its general surface aspect is that of a great swamp,
sparsely covered with stunted and deformed trees, that reach a growth
approaching their normal only along the immediate banks of the rivers
where drainage is afforded by frequent short gullies into the trenches that
constitute the river valleys. The interior, to within a chain or two of the
river-banks, owing to the impervious character of the till,

Is Quite Undrained,

and consequently covered by a thick deposit of sphagnum moss from two
feet to ten feet deep, the surface layer still growing, and even the bottom
only bleached a little, but not at all oxidized. The short cool summer season,
and consequent low temperature of the water that saturates the moss, is
probably the principal reason for the absence of any of the visible effects of
decay. The rivers flowing through this region have no real valleys, that is to
say, they occupy trenches but little wider than the immediate channels in
which they flow, cut down through the stiff, tough till, which stands up in
nearly vertical walls that rise from the freshet mark on either side. At low
stages of the water a slanting beach, often paved with boulders, slopes
gradually from the foot of the bank to the edge of the diminished channel. A
more or less continuous layer of marine clay, rich in fossil shells, overlies
the boulder clay, ensuring, wherever it is present, a soil of good quality. The
absence of other than swamp vegetation must be ascribed, then, to the
almost total absence of drainage, and to the generally unfavorable climatic
conditions.

“In the matter of the actual cultivation of these northern areas we have
little to go upon. At the Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts at Fort Hope and
Osnaburgh potatoes have been grown and small gardens maintained from
the time of the establishment of the posts, and little difficulty has been
experienced in maturing the common garden vegetables of Ontario, though
occasionally the frosts of late summer have cut off all but the hardier kinds.
As the posts were located with a view to their favourable situation for the
purposes of the fur trade with the Indians, neither one is situated on ground
well suited for cultivation, and much better results might reasonably be
expected were trials made on more favorably situated tracts. An Indian
cultivating a small garden plot at the head of the Pineimuta branch of
Attawapiskat river succeeds in raising good crops of potatoes and turnips.”
As to this part of the country drained by Winisk and Attawapiskat rivers,
Mr. McInnes in his report says:—“The climate, as would be expected in
these latitudes, and in a wilderness country approximately a thousand feet
above sea-level, is somewhat severe. The summer temperature, though on
occasional days rising as high as 85° Fahr., averages very much lower, and
the nights are practically always cool. Frosty nights often continue into the
early summer, and recur again in the autumn before most grain-crops would
be ready for harvesting. Temperatures were taken with the thermometer
during two seasons, and these, averaged, gave the following results for the
months of July and August on lower Winisk river, and for July, August and
part of September on upper Winisk and upper Attawapiskat rivers:—
6 a.m. noon. 6 p.m.
Lower Winisk river 57° 69° 57°
Upper Winisk and Attawapiskat rivers 47.5° 61.6° 58°
“The only points in the region where any attempts at cultivation of the
land are made are the two Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts at Osnaburgh,
near the foot of Lake St. Joseph, and at Fort Hope, on Eabamet lake.
“At these posts small kitchen gardens and potato-fields are maintained
with some success, though neither place is favourably situated for the
purpose, the soil in both cases consisting of an almost pure sand. Timothy
and clover grow luxuriantly, and all the common

Garden Vegetables Thrive at Both Places.

Indian corn, however, is not sufficiently filled out for table use when caught
by the frost. Barley has been successfully grown at Osnaburgh, and the
potato crop, wherever a suitable tract of land has been utilized, has been
generally fairly good at both places.
“The first killing frost in 1903 occurred on the night of September 3,
and in 1904 on the night of August 30.”
Mr. McInnes (Geol. Survey Report for 1906, pp. 87 and following)
describes the region explored by him in that year as follows:—
“It is bounded by north latitude 53° 50′ and 56° 10′, and by west
longitude 99° 15′ and 101° 15′. Its general elevation above the sea is
between seven hundred and nine hundred feet. . . . . For purposes of general
description it may, in a broad way, be divided into three areas; the limestone
area embracing all the tract underlaid by the horizontal or gently
undulating, magnesian limestones or dolomites of northern Manitoba; the
Archaean area, a somewhat broken and rugged country extending from the
northern edge of the limestone escarpment northward and eastward until
covered by the lacustrine sediments of the third or clay area. The latter, a
gently rolling, clay-covered country, extends from the valley of Nelson
river on the east to a contour, westerly, where the general elevation of the
land is in the vicinity of nine hundred feet above the sea, or to
approximately west longitude 99° 30′. The northern edge of the clay basin
was not reached, but the Indians of Burntwood river region agree in saying
that Churchill river valley forms its most northerly extension. The last of
the three divisions is, generally, well suited for cultivation, but throughout
the first two the areas suitable for agriculture are of limited extent. No part
of the region is prairie though along some of the valleys, and here and there
on the uplands, are found extensive hay marshes, with only occasional
small clumps of willows, that, with drainage, would become virtually
prairie lands. . . . . Northwest of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post at Split
lake the country is generally low, swampy and intersected by a network of
small lakes; near Waskaiowaka lake, however, an extension northeasterly of
the clay land of lower Burntwood valley forms a comparatively dry ridge.”

A Garden in new Manitoba.

Speaking of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s trading post at Norway
House, Mr. McInnes said:—“The chief factor in charge of the district
cultivates a large garden, where, on June 10, peas, beans, beets and other
vegetables were well started. Wheat had been successfully grown here as
well as at Cross lake farther down the river, in latitude 54° 40′. There are
many tracts of land along the river suitable for cultivation, though for long
stretches the banks show only rounded surfaces of biotite gneiss, smooth
and glaciated. The cultivable areas are confined to tracts overlain by
lacustrine clays which alternate along the shores with glacial gravels and
the bare rock surfaces devoid of any soil cover.”

Mr. McInnes also reports:—“Below Cross lake no land is under
cultivation until Split lake is reached, just north of latitude 56°, where the
postmaster for the Hudson’s Bay Company raises potatoes and the
commoner garden vegetables.”

Mr. McInnes reports that, ascending Burntwood river a few miles above
Odei or Hart river, there is much land “apparently well adapted for
cultivation. The clay is entirely free from boulders, and mixed near the
surface with enough vegetable humus to produce a friable and seemingly
productive soil. The gentle slopes give good natural drainage, and the open
character of the forests makes it a country easily cleared. For the next
nineteen miles the river valley and neighboring country present the same
general aspect. Where the valleys of the main river and the Odei approach
one another they are separated only by a dividing ridge a little over a mile
across, and a hundred and fifty feet high. The ridge is clay covered to the
flat summit, where knolls of gneiss project. Beyond the valley of the Odei,
to the north, is a rolling forested country with hills clay-covered to the tops,
rising by gradual slopes to about a hundred feet above the intervening
valleys, that are themselves from twenty to fifty feet above the river level.
For the next twenty-eight miles the river, flowing in a rock-bound basin, has
the character of a long, narrow lake from half a mile to over a mile in width.
Covering the well-rounded ledges of gneiss that form the immediate shores
is the same thick mantle of clay forming

A Country of Very Attractive Appearance.

Rising gradually from the river level to heights of from twenty to fifty feet,
a flat or gently sloping plateau extends back from two to three miles to
another rise, where the general level is increased to about a hundred feet.
Recurring forest fires have not only denuded this section of its trees, but the
stumps have for the most part been burned away, so that it is now covered
only by an open growth of small white birch, poplar, willow and Banksian
pine, with an undergrowth of vetches, grasses and small shrubs. Just above
is Manasan falls where the river pitches over a ledge of gneiss with a
vertical descent of thirty feet.
“Above Manasan falls,” Mr. McInnes continues, “the river expands
again to form a long, narrow lake for the next ten miles of its upward
course. The same rolling clay plateau extends back from both shores of the
lake, rising gradually to an undulating, higher tract, perhaps one hundred
feet above the lake level. The forest growth is still very open, allowing a
good surface carpet of grasses, vetches and other vegetation. Diversified
here and there by small open tracts where the grass-covered surface is free
from trees, this country often presents quite a park-like aspect. Throughout
all the clay-covered region the absence of erratics is striking; for miles no
perched boulders nor transported materials of any kind; other than the
lacustrine sediments, are seen, and even the country rock is deeply hidden
under the heavy clay deposits that seem to be very homogeneous
throughout, not laid down in thin layers as in the case of many clays of
apparently similar origin in eastern Canada, but, if stratified at all, only in
very heavy beds that seldom show their bedding planes. For the next fifteen
miles to Wuskwatim lake, the river has a quicker descent and its course is
broken by several small rapids. The surrounding country is slightly higher,
rising in places about two hundred feet above the river, and more steeply
from its shores. From the south shore a clay-covered bench a quarter of a
mile wide rises to a comparatively steep slope to a height of one hundred
and thirty feet, and extends back for miles at about that level, with a gently
undulating surface, free from boulders or rock, excepting very rare
exposures. As a matter of fact, but one small knoll of the underlying rock
was actually seen, rising through the clay at a point about two miles back
from the river. The Indians report that this plateau-like country extends right
across to the valley of Grassy river with only gently swelling ridges and no
high hills.”

Mr. McInnes estimates the size of Wuskwatim lake as eight miles by
four, with a long bay extending to the west from its southern end. He states
that “on all sides of the lake are large tracts of

Nearly Level Clay Land

extending back for several miles at heights of from fifteen to fifty feet
above water level, and beyond that continuing at a level of a little over one
hundred feet. . . . . The grass-covered slopes that rise with very gentle
gradients from the shores of the lake, make this a country of most attractive
appearance and one that apparently would be well suited for cultivation.
The Indian inhabitants of this section cultivate with success small garden
patches of potatoes.”
Country of the same general character, Mr. McInnes states, extends for
thirty miles up the valley of the Burntwood above Wuskwatim lake.
On the shores of Footprint lake, in latitude 55° 45′, small fields of
potatoes planted by the Indians were looking remarkably well, the vines
being eleven inches in height and about ready to blossom when this locality
was visited by Mr. McInnes, July 10, 1906. Above the lake broad flats
extend back from the river on both sides, rising, from half a mile to a mile
back, to fifty feet above the river. The greater part of the flats and
practically all the high land has been burned over within twenty years, and
is clothed now with an open growth of small mixed timber; the land is free
from boulders and gravel and has a good carpet of native grasses, including
such good meadow forms as the blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis,
Calamagrostis hyperborea) and the wild rye (Elymus dasystachum). The
open character of the forest permits a somewhat luxuriant growth of these
grasses, mixed with vetches, strawberry vines, etc., and with currant,
gooseberry and other small shrubs and bushes.
“The land lying to the southward of the most southerly bend of the river
was found to rise with a comparatively steep slope to a height of sixty feet
above the river, and to extend back as a level clay-covered plain with about
five inches of clay-loam soil well mixed with vegetable matter gradually
merging downwards into pure clay. The plateau has a gently rolling surface,
the bottoms of the hollows, where small areas of muskeg often occur,
having a deviation forty feet lower than the slopes of the ridges, and the

highest land reaching not more than one hundred feet above the river. For
six miles back, the areas of muskeg that are not sphagnum swamps, but
rather grassy marshes, are comparatively insignificant in extent, the higher
land, wooded with Banksian pine, poplar and spruce and diversified by
many open grassy glades, largely preponderating. Beyond this, however, a
broad belt of wet, grassy marsh land extends southwesterly across to the
heads of brooks running into Grass river below Wekusko lake, and forms
practically the western limit of the clay-covered uplands, though in the river
valleys and along the flanks of their bordering hills the clay land extends
much farther west.
“Of the whole of this extensive plateau land, extending from the valley
of the Nelson river westward to near Burntwood and Wekusko lakes (west
longitude 90° 45′), northerly to beyond latitude 56°, and southerly to the
limestone escarpment, an area of

About Ten Thousand Square Miles,

it may be said to be characterized by a heavy clay soil entirely free from
boulders. Lacustrine clays, composed of the rock flour once held in
suspension by glacial streams and deposited by them as they reached the
quiet waters of a great lake, are essentially the soils of this region. There is
no distinct surface soil clearly separable from the clay subsoil; the one
merges gradually into the other, the clayey character of the soil being
strongly apparent at the very surface where merely the shallow cover of
decaying leaves and other vegetation is scraped away. Generally, for from
five inches to over a foot down, the clay is deep brown in colour from the
admixture of vegetable matter, and quite friable, and rootlets of even the
smaller surface vegetation reach down far below this level, though on the
tops of many of the ridges the light-buff coloured clay, without any
appreciable coloration from vegetable matter, comes quite to the surface.
The rolling character of the plateau generally provides fair drainage, but
over considerable areas in its central portion, far from the valleys of the
larger streams, there are large tracts that have not sufficient gradients for the
proper flow of the surface water, and which could be made available for
agricultural uses only by being artificially drained. The western limit of the
good country is about longitude 99° 45′.”

Portage on Moose river.

Mr. McInnes reports that the country lying to the south of Reed and
Wekusko lakes, and stretching to Saskatchewan valley, contains very few
tracts of land suitable for settlement. Practically only the river valleys, a
few tracts adjoining some of the lakes, and parts of some of the slopes
flanking the limestone ridges, can be considered as affording land suitable
for cultivation. The upland is generally almost bare of soil, flat-lying
limestones forming its actual surfaces, and the slopes, though covered to a
good depth by clay, are for the most part too bouldery for tillage. Limited
tracts occur here and there, suitable for individual holdings notably near
some of the principal lakes. Of the agricultural possibilities of the country
south of Reed and Wuskwatim lakes, Mr. McInnes writes:
—“Experimentally but little is known of its capabilities, though we have
instances here and there throughout the area, to beyond its northerly limit,
of the cultivation of all sorts of garden vegetables, including, at The Pas,

Tomatoes and Indian Corn.

On September 6 of this year (1906), Indian corn well headed out was seen
in Mr. Halcrow’s garden at the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post, the ears
large and full and quite fit for table use. The Indian, never a very
enthusiastic agriculturist, succeeds everywhere in getting good crops of
potatoes, and at the homestead of an old settler named George Cowan, on
Cormorant lake, an exceptionally good yield of very large potatoes was
being dug in September.”
Mr. McInnes, during his explorations in 1906, gave particular attention
to the question of climate, which he rightly considered of vital importance
in connection with this region. He kept a careful record of temperatures,
and from the time it was begun, on June 19, until the night of September 29,
when the thermometer fell to 26, there was no frost that affected even
tender vegetation. On the night of August 10 the temperature fell to the
freezing point, but did not get low enough to do damage, at least not in the
valley of Grassy river, though some of the potato vines on the summit of the
high ridge north of The Pas were slightly touched. Mr. McInnes said he was
convinced that the district is not at all too cold for general agricultural
operations. The longer daily duration of summer sunlight in these high
latitudes, he points out in his report, must be taken into consideration, and,
for purposes of comparison with more southerly localities, yearly averages
of temperature are of no value. A region lying in a higher latitude, though
showing a lower yearly average temperature, may, during the growing
months, owing to its longer hours of sunshine, have quite as good an
average as one farther south. Mr. McInnes’s record showed that during July
the temperature at 6 o’clock p.m. was equal to or higher than the noon
temperature on fifteen days; during August on nine days; during September
on eight days. The 6 p.m. averages for these months were lower than the
noon averages by only 1°, 1½° and 2° respectively. For the purpose of
comparison, Mr. McInnes procured from the Director of the Meteorological
Service at Toronto an abstract of the same summer’s temperatures at
Minnedosa, Stony Mountain, Hillview and Brandon, and, comparing them
with his record, he concluded that the country along the route of the
proposed railway to the bay

Is Conspicuously Warmer

than the same latitude four hundred miles further east.
Mr. McInnes, examined before the select committee of the Senate in
1907, declared that the whole region from Split lake to a line about forty
miles north of the Saskatchewan is a clay-covered country. After leaving
Split lake, ascending the river, this clay-covered country shows absolutely
no boulders and no gravel. Even the shores of the lakes, until you reach a
height of about eight hundred feet, show no gravel bars at all. There is
absolutely nothing to interfere with the cultivation of the soil there. It is a
country that has been burnt over. The witness assumed that Burntwood river
got its name that way. It has been subject to repeated burns. At the present
time it is covered by a very open forest. Grasses grow fairly luxuriantly.
There are two species of this, blue joint grass and a wild rye, that are the
prevailing grasses. He understood from Professor Macoun, though he was
not very familiar with the grasses himself, that these are very excellent
meadow grasses, and make excellent fodder. Mr. McInnes left Norway
House in the second week of June, and made the circuit and came out at
The Pas on September 6, so it was in June, July and August he was there.
He saw grass growing from eighteen inches to two feet high.
The witness computed the area of this country at about ten thousand
square miles. He did not mean to say, he explained, that all of that ten
thousand square miles is good land, but the basin characterized by this
deposit of clay has an area of about ten thousand square miles. It is bounded
on the north by Churchill river. The witness was at about the centre of the
basin. The Indians told him it extended north to the basin of Churchill river.
Beyond that, northwards, mud and gravel took the place of clay. Starting at
The Pas and proceeding towards Churchill, the witness first passed through
about one hundred and forty miles of country underlaid by the flat
limestone of northern Manitoba. He walked for miles over

Hills of Almost Bare Limestone

with hardly any soil. Beyond that—that is, about the contour he had spoken
of where this clay was deposited, there is about one hundred and seventy
miles to Split lake (Split lake is about two hundred and fifty miles from The

Pas), possibly in a straight line about as the railway is projected, that is
characterized by these clay deposits.
As to the flat country in Keewatin, beyond this clay area, it is a country
of a different character. The witness proceeded from the Albany one
hundred miles across country by the portage route to a large lake on
Agnooski river and then another one hundred miles across to Winisk lake,
and down Winisk river to the sea, and he crossed through the country
between Agnooski and Winisk by three different routes, perhaps forty or
fifty miles east and west from one route to the next, and the country is very
much the same character. It is a country that is very much denuded. The
country generally is characterized by hills of boulder and gravel and
intermediate valleys very largely muskeg. Except in the immediate valleys
of the larger rivers there is very little land that would be suitable for
agriculture. From one hundred and fifty miles inland down to the sea, the
country is of an entirely different character again; that is to say, it is country
that is originally overlain by from a very few feet at its edge to one hundred
feet or more, a very tough impervious boulder clay, which holds up the
water, and on which the drainage, up to the present time, is of a very
imperfect character. The present drainage of that area is comparatively
recent, and imperfect. An instance of its imperfection is seen in Winisk
river. There is a lake near the head of the Winisk from which the main river
flows, and from which the west branch flows north. They come together at
a point (following the main stream) two hundred and fifty miles below,
inclosing an island two hundred and fifty miles long. There are two other
islands of this character

Along Winisk River,

one eighty miles in length and the other about fifty.
The Winisk is a good large river. Mr. McInnes estimated the flow at
some twenty-five thousand cubic feet per second. It runs in size somewhere
between the Gatineau and the Ottawa, not quite so large as the Ottawa, but
larger than the Gatineau. Over the whole of the country in the last one
hundred and fifty miles down to Hudson bay, granting the proper climate
and proper drainage, this green clay would make an excellent soil. In fact it
is quite the same as the clay in the vicinity of Ottawa, practically clay of the

same soil, and is very impervious. There are little streams running into the
sides of the river, but they cut very sharp-walled trenches, as steep as
boulder clay will stand, and that means an angle of say sixty degrees, eighty
to ninety feet high. You get on top of these banks and you have a mossy
place, sometimes six feet of moss. It is never peat, never having turned into
peat. It is simply a green moss which is pressed into layers of a couple of
feet in thickness at the bottom of the six or ten feet, but never apparently
oxydized or never carbonized at all, practically unchanged. The growth is
going on still. It is merely the successive layers which are pressed down by
subsequent layers on top of them, so that in places the thickness is quite ten
feet. There are no grasses in that mossy district in the valley of the Winisk.
A river of that size in places has some shores, perhaps a quarter of a mile,
here and there, beyond the actual shore of the river, and it is grassy there.
That is, there are occasional bottom lands, but there is no extent of them.
Mr. McInnes did not think there is an agricultural country in that eastern
district. It is entirely different from the country of which he had been
previously speaking.
Upon Nelson river wheat has been grown successfully at Norway
House, and also at Cross lake. The Hudson’s Bay Company grow no grain
at any of their Keewatin posts nowadays. In the old days they grew it and
ground it in hand mills. Mr. McInnes saw potatoes that were grown about
fifty miles north of The Pas. “They were quite showy potatoes, great large
fellows like those you see exhibited in fairs—tremendously large, grown on
practically new land, and they had a very large crop of them.” There are no
settlers in Nelson district. The Indians, however, grow potatoes at several
points, even in the northern part of it, as far north as Nelson House, about
latitude 55° 50′. On July 11, when Mr. McInnes arrived at Nelson House,
the Indian potatoes had vines about eleven inches high, and were almost
ready to flower. When he got out on September 6 to the Saskatchewan, at
the Hudson’s Bay post there, at The Pas, Indian corn was very well headed
out, with very large fine ears quite ready for table use, and there was no
frost until September 29. He knew that because he stayed there until then.
With eighteen hours of the daylight, and no frost in the summer,
vegetation is rapid. In a country where you can ripen Indian corn you can
grow practically anything.
Mr. McInnes explained that he could not closely indicate the isothermal
line on the part of the country he had explored the previous year, but he

could say that the country averaged in the summer months from four to five
degrees higher temperature than the same latitude farther west. He thought
that

The Isothermal Line

which would go past the north end of the country he had been speaking of,
would come down as far as the north shore of Lake Superior, which would
be a very long distance south. He had records kept during all summer of the
temperatures through that western country, and he had a summary of the
record kept in the preceding summers. He was rather surprised at the
warmth of that western country in summer, and at the way heat kept up in
the evenings. He kept the thermometer readings morning, noon and six
o’clock in the evening, and found the six o’clock temperatures were almost
as warm as the noon temperatures. That country has a very long day in
summer. The day in those high latitudes is very much longer, and the
growing time proportionately longer. In June they have about eighteen
hours of daylight.
As to the district where he found the one hundred and seventy miles of
agricultural land he had described, he reached there only about the middle
of June. There was no frost in the balance of June or in July, and no frost in
August, excepting once, on, he thought, the 29th, when the thermometer
dropped just to freezing point. There was not enough frost to touch
vegetation at all in the valley of the river where he was. He noticed when he
got out to the Saskatchewan there was rather a high ridge on which there
were a lot of half-breed settlers. He got there on September 6, and noticed
on top of the hills where they had potatoes that they had been touched just
on the tops, but down in the villages the potatoes in the garden of the
Hudson’s Bay post had not been touched at all. He presumed that was the
frost on August 29.
Owen O’Sullivan, C.E., of the Geological Survey of Canada, was one of
the witnesses before the Senate committee of 1907. He explained that in
1904 he was engaged as assistant to Mr. Wilson in examining the west coast
of James bay. They went up the river Kapiskau for one hundred and fifty
miles and surveyed it, and found mostly swampy ground, right to about the
headwaters of the Kapiskau, longitude 86°. His impression was that the

whole coast from the southern extremity of James bay, at the mouth of the
Hurricane, up to Cape Henrietta Maria, for an average of one hundred miles
in depth, is mostly swampy ground. It is partly peat and wet spagnol (wet
moss). There is a bluff of small spruce isolated here and there.
In 1905 he was sent to survey the coast between York Factory and Cape
Henrietta Maria. The shore between these points was swampy as far inland
as he could walk in two or three days.
Mr. O’Sullivan testified that during the summer of 1906 he started from
Split lake, on the Nelson, and made for the headwaters of Little Churchill
river, going down the Little Churchill to the Big Churchill. The country
between Split lake and Big lake is mostly swampy. The country about Big
lake is a good loamy soil, with easy slopes surrounding the lakes. From Big
lake to the Big Churchill the country is rocky and swampy, with a good deal
of good loamy soil in places—a rich clay loam. The rock is mostly granite
and gneiss. It is very hard to find out whether the land is suitable for
agriculture on such an expedition. It is hard to know the extent of the soil,
but Mr. O’Sullivan thought

The Climate was Suitable for Agriculture.

There are lots of boulders all through the country, but it is possible to
cultivate what there is of the land. There are places where the land extends
to the size of a dozen townships, and then there would be three or four
times that much without having in it enough arable land to make a good-
sized township. In the vicinity of Churchill there is grass in the valleys of
very good quality. It occurs about half-way down the Little Churchill.
Good potatoes are raised at Split lake. Mr. O’Sullivan had obtained a
bag of potatoes grown there. They were rather small, but very palatable.
That was in June, and they were grown the previous year. Split lake from
the coast, by the Nelson, would be about one hundred and seventy-five
miles. He went down Nelson river and north to Churchill. The general
character of the country from James bay farther north is good,
agriculturally. The country from Split lake rises to Wabishkok about two
hundred feet. That is about thirty miles in a straight line. Besides potatoes,
he had seen turnips, cabbage and lettuce growing, and all appeared to be

very good. The potato vines in September were touched with frost rather
severely. The potatoes were taken up on August 23 and 25, 1906.
Mr. O’Sullivan stated that he had been up near the head of Lake
Winnipeg, where the river leaves the lake. There is good agricultural land
around there. He never had such good potatoes as at Cross lake. He did not
see them growing, but had them in June and also in September. The June
potatoes would be the previous crop, and the September ones possibly the
new crop. They do not grow any grain there; they have no cattle, and there
are no settlers in there. The Hudson’s Bay factor raised the potatoes. He had
just enough to keep his own family. He had them in three or four different
quarters. Mr. O’Sullivan saw lettuce and turnips growing at Churchill.
Mr. J. W. McLaggan, of Strathcona, Alberta, in 1907, made an
exploratory trip over a portion of the same country as Mr. McInnes, but
going farther west. He left Prince Albert on August 2 and reached The Pas
on August 15. On August 25 he crossed Clearwater lake. He describes the
country he passed through as low and swampy, and

Wild Berries of All Kinds

as plentiful. The land north of Cormorant lake he found to be of good clay
loam, and capable of being farmed successfully on a small scale after being
cleared. A garden of potatoes, turnips, carrots and cabbages looked well,
and on August 27

Showed No Evidence of Frost.

On upper Cowan river there are small hay meadows; the rest of the land
is poor and hard to clear. Approaching Reed lake the soil is a clay loam
which could be farmed if drained. The country about Herb lake and river is
rocky, with patches of fair land, suitable for raising vegetable and garden
produce. When the rapids of Grass river are passed the country becomes
low, but in places there is good soil of clay loam with sand, and towards
Setting lake there are good hay meadows. Although the country between
Setting and Paint lakes is very rough and rocky, there is some good land. To
the north of Paint lake there is a limited quantity of good land; about Methy
lake Mr. McLaggan considers the land of little value for farming. Between

Reed lake and Elbow lake there are some small spots of good land, but as a
general thing the country is rough, rocky and swampy. The country between
Elbow and Cranberry lakes is mainly muskeg. There are some patches of
good land towards the lower end of Cranberry lake. There are some small
hay meadows between Cranberry and Athapapuskow lakes, but the ground
is generally rocky with some muskeg. There are some stretches of fairly
good land along the lower part of Goose river but the country generally is
rough and rocky. The country about the upper end of Goose lake was found
to be boggy and of very little use.

Along Goose river, Below The Lake,

there is quite a tract of fairly good land, and there is another on the
Sturgeon, between the mouth of Goose river and Cumberland lake. The soil
is a clay loam mixed with a little sand. It is covered with brush and small
poplar and would be easy to clear.
Mr. McLaggan, after his trip, stated that the growing season seemed to
be satisfactory, “and where good land is found there should be no trouble to
raise good crops of all hardy grains and vegetables, but the greatest
drawback to farming would be the difficulty of making waggon roads from
place to place, as the country between the spots of good land is rough and
rocky.”
The climate seemed good to Mr. McLaggan. In the first week of
September the foliage was green; there was no sign of severe frost, and
butterflies, hornets and other insects were numerous and active. The first
frost noted was on August 31, “but not enough to damage wheat.” The
weather was fine in the morning and it rained in the afternoon. On
September 13 he noted that the weather was fine but cold, with a heavy
frost in the morning; that the leaves were falling, and that it began to look
like autumn. Considerable rain followed, which, on October 4, gave place
to snow, to be followed again by rain. The night of October 7 is noted as the
first really cold one of the season, but the morning brought rain. There was
snow again on October 8 with high wind and ice on the water along the
shore of Goose lake. It was “fine and warm” on October 11, and “clear and
cold” on October 13 when he reached The Pas on his return.

W. Thibaudeau, C.E., states in his report (See p. 23):—“At Churchill,
potatoes, turnips and other vegetables have been successfully raised at the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s fort. For many years cattle and horses have been
successfully kept and bred at the Hudson’s Bay post; excellent butter was
also made. Splendid pasture and hay meadows are found on both sides of
the river above the harbour for a known distance of thirty-five miles. At the
head of Button bay there is an area of two thousand acres upon which

Good Hay Can Be Cut,

which has been pronounced by Professor Macoun as affording excellent
forage. Wild black and red currants and gooseberries are found in great
quantities, and are equal, if not superior in flavour, to garden produce.
Barrels of black currants can be picked around Fort Prince of Wales.
Cranberries exist in great abundance everywhere. Other berries which are
indigenous to the climate abound.”
As to the region examined in his exploration trip from Churchill to The
Pas, Mr. Thibaudeau states:—
“About thirty-five per cent. of the country travelled through is marshy
and swampy; more or less hay is grown. Under marsh or swamps the soil is
generally clay. I have no doubt that when the swamps and marshes are
drained, and the moss is stripped, they will be susceptible to farming
operations between Churchill and The Pas, and at a later period, after the
northwest is settled, this land will become valuable.”
Mr. John Armstrong, in his report of the preliminary survey conducted
under his direction in 1908 and 1909 for the proposed railway to Hudson
bay, mentions that as the greater portion of the survey work was completed
during the winter months when the ground was frozen and covered with
snow, it was impossible to obtain much information on the subject of
agricultural land and minerals. He continues:—“It may be remarked here,
however, that although these lands may require more or less improvement
in the way of clearing and drainage, the fact that they are situated within a
few hours’ run of an ocean port may give to these lands a value not hitherto
thought of, and may cause a more rapid settlement than expected. At the
inland Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts all kinds of grain and vegetables
have been grown successfully for years. A study of the records of the

Meteorological Office indicates that the climate is quite as favourable for
farming operations as that of Prince Albert.”

Typical country on Hudson Bay Railway Survey.

During the summer of 1910, an inspection of the timber along the line
of the proposed Hudson Bay Railway from The Pas to Split lake was made
by J. R. Dickson, B.S.A., M.S.F., Assistant Inspector of Dominion Forest
Reserves, and his report was printed by the Forestry Branch of the
Department of the Interior, as a Special Bulletin (No. 17) in 1911. Mr.
Dickson’s exploration covered a distance of some two hundred and thirty-
five miles along the line of railway. The line of inspection followed was
along the waterways on the northwest side of

The Proposed Line of Railway,

from which men were sent in at intervals of a few miles in each direction so
as to locate the timber. On the return journey the waterway route to the
south of the line was taken and similar inspections made from it. The
special object was to locate and estimate the areas of commercially valuable
timber that could be made use of in the work of constructing the railways,

and as a result a good idea of the character and location of the timber along
the line has been obtained.
The route followed by the party was from The Pas to Moose lake,
thence by portage to Mitishto river, down that stream and via Setting, Paint,
Wintering, Landing and Sipiwesk lakes to Cross lake. From the last
mentioned lake the party crossed to Minago river, and via that stream,
Moose lake and the Saskatchewan returned to The Pas. The area covered
was estimated by Mr. Dickson at eight thousand square miles. In addition to
the information about the timber of this district given in this report there are
many facts as to the topography of the country and its natural resources.
Mr. Dickson’s party found that except for a varying percentage of rock
outcrop usually in the form of low ridges covered by stunted jackpines,
there is a great muskeg extending northeast along the whole course of
Mitishto river, and appearing in fact to blanket the entire watershed in the
region between Saskatchewan and Grass river systems.
Mr. Dickson’s exploring party, in passing from Setting lake to Cross
lake, by way of Paint, Wintering, Landing and Sipiwesk lakes, traversed
part of the so-called “clay-belt” which, according to Mr. Dickson’s report
“contains upon the whole from fifty per cent. to seventy-five per cent. of
arable land and probably has

A Good Agricultural Future.”

The report as to the rocks and soils of the area explored says:—“The
bedrock for one hundred miles northeast of The Pas is limestone—probably
largely dolomite—and it frequently obtrudes through the muskegs or
shallow soils which blanket it. These outcrops form low, narrow, flattened
ridges, rising just above the general level of the muskeg, and nearly always
running northeast and southwest. The line of contact between this limestone
area and the Laurentian granite (upon which it rests conformably) runs
northwest and southeast from a point ten miles east of Limestone bay on
Lake Winnipeg across the southwest end of Hill lake on Minago river to
Cameron falls on the Mitishto, thence passing in a westerly direction along
the south shores of Reed, Wekusko and Cranberry lakes. Along this line,
especially in the vicinity of Hill lake, there is a zone of deep clays of very
promising agricultural value. In the area of granite farther north, the whole

future, so far as agriculture or forestry is concerned, depends upon the
general depth of the boulder clay. From the mere fact that it is a drift
deposit, this depth constantly varies, but only a detailed soil survey of each
township could show where and how much. There are large areas of almost
pure rock outcrop and muskeg of little or no value even for timber
production. But in general, over the great clay belt, the soil, which is almost
uniformly

A Very Tenacious Boulder Clay

(nearly free of boulders, however), averages between four and twelve feet
in depth, quite deep enough, therefore, for cultivation. It must be
understood that no hard and fast boundary line can be laid down as showing
the confines of this clay belt. The change is often so gradual, and so many
as yet unknown factors enter—as, for instance, soil depth and possibilities
of drainage—that any estimate of the bounds, area and average arable
content of this belt can, with our present very limited knowledge, be given
only in general terms. I estimate the area of that portion included from north
to south between Wintering and Cross lakes, and from east to west between
Setting and Sipiwesk lakes at two thousand square miles.
“With regard to soil conditions, drainage is the great necessity
everywhere. To render the soil fertile for cropping, the heavy stiff boulder
clay must be opened up to the action of the air. Probably the use of a subsoil
plough might obviate the necessity for underdrainage over large areas. But
however secured, aëration is necessary to change the present cold, dead,
impervious soil to a warm, porous, friable one, full of bacterial life,
available plant food, and resulting fertility. The soil is exactly similar to that
around Cochrane in New Ontario, which yields such large returns under
right treatment.”
Mr. Dickson says in his report:—“The climate and the soil conditions
are the two basic factors which determine farming value. Where frequent or
recent fires have not resulted in the formation of purely ‘temporary’ or ‘fire
types’—as e.g., young jackpine on heavy clay—a study of the existing flora
answers many questions as to the climate and the soil. On well-drained
spots as far north as Split lake the flora is almost identical with that of
similar sites in Riding mountains of Manitoba, proving that during the

growing season these localities lie under one and the same isotherm, or
nearly so, And yet Riding mountains are nearly four hundred miles
southwest of Split lake. Two other factors which help vegetation in this
northern clay belt are the low absolute elevation—only five hundred to
seven hundred feet—and the large proportion of sunlight during the
growing season, because of the long day. No doubt also the large proportion
of the country covered by water has a tendency to prevent late spring and
early fall frosts. In the absence of weather records, it is impossible to say
whether the summer of 1910 was an average season or not, but certainly it
was favourable for farming operations. There were showers every week and
the growth of the native vegetation

Was Amazingly Rapid.

The total annual precipitation, including two or three feet of snow, would
appear to be about the same as for western Ontario, to wit, thirty to forty
inches. At Cross lake no damaging frosts occurred between June 8 and
September 11, an interval of ninety-three days. But as a ‘sixty-day’ oat or
barley in Ontario will mature in that region in forty-five or fifty days—a
general rule which applies as well to fruits, roots and vegetables—there
would appear to be no difficulty from a climatic standpoint in growing all
the hardier products of the temperate zone. The size and the quality of the
wild fruits between Setting and Split lakes were first-class. During the last
week of July we enjoyed ripe raspberries, gooseberries, black and red
currants, blueberries, saskatoons and strawberries (late ones). The first three
mentioned were especially fine—the bushes loaded down with fruit as large
and juicy as many tame varieties in Ontario. The average temperature of the
growing season is about 60° Fahrenheit. Certainly vegetables will grow to
perfection anywhere between Cross lake and Nelson House. At the former
we ate potatoes weighing a pound and a half each, dug on the last day of
August, and when we left on September 10 the corn and tomatoes were still
untouched by frost. I would respectfully point out the advisability of the
Dominion Government placing several small experimental stations at
suitable points within the limits of this clay belt to make careful test of its
seasonal variations and cropping possibilities. When the railway is
completed such information will be of the utmost value to intending

settlers. The winters are quite as enjoyable as in Manitoba—probably more
so. Mr. Clifford, one of the railway location engineers, who has spent two
years between The Pas and Split lake, assured me that he

Liked The Winter Season There

much better than the summer. Whereas in many parts of the continent the
summer of 1910 was a peculiarly dry one, in Keewatin it was just the
opposite. Rain fell frequently, and high winds, especially nor’easters from
Hudson bay, were almost constant and occasioned us some loss of time on
the larger lakes.”
Mr. William Beech, for many years back, and still, a resident of
Churchill, in a communication to the press in 1911, wrote:—“The opinion
generally entertained concerning the country around the bay and at
Churchill is that it is a barren waste, covered with ice and snow for the
greater part of the year, and devoid of any vegetation whatever. The opinion
is an erroneous one. At the head of the bay there is an area of from two
thousand to three thousand acres where in the summer months good hay can
be cut, and which Professor Macoun has pronounced as affording excellent
forage. There are many other places also where the same condition exists,
and where the country is covered with a rich thick growth of grass. It would
surprise you, wouldn’t it, if I should tell you that there are at least half a
dozen different species of wild fruit which flourish in great abundance in
the rocks and among the mosses throughout the country round the bay. Wild
black and red currants, gooseberries, cranberries, crowfoot berries, and
baked apple berries may be gathered by the bushel in season, and make the
very best of preserves, so that we don’t really have to depend on dried
apples up there as many of you imagine. As for vegetables, I have seen
radishes, lettuce, and turnips raised right at Churchill.
“Of course it is generally understood that the winter climate of the
country round the bay is usually very severe. The lowest temperature I have
experienced there, however, was 39° below zero on Nov. 29, 1906, with a
strong wind blowing from the bay, which intensified the cold. It is
exceedingly rare to have winds off the bay in the winter months. In winter
the wind is generally from the west and northwest, while in summer it is
generally from the east and northeast. I have always found the thermometer

lower one hundred and fifty miles inland. It can never be called dark in the
north, even in the depth of winter.”

[14] It will be observed that part of this evidence treats of
other districts than the one immediately under
consideration; but it cannot conveniently be eliminated
here without awkwardly dislocating Mr. Tyrrell’s
evidence.—(E. J. C.).

CHAPTER III.

THE KEEWATIN AREA.

(Newest Ontario and Northern Manitoba.)

Tree Growth and Timber Resources.

Considerable Areas of Good Timber.—The Range of the More Important Trees.—The
Banskian Pine.—Forests of Trees in Many Places that Would Make Good Logs, and Much
Pulp Wood.—Occasional Beautiful Forests of Aspen Poplar.—Magnificent Coniferous
Forest Northwest of Lake Winnipeg.—Water Power on the Nelson.—Destruction
Wrought by Forest Fires.—Ample Supply of Timber For Fuel.

There is considerable evidence showing that there are, in different
sections of the territory immediately west and south of Hudson bay,
considerable areas of useful timber.
Mr. Richard White, one of the witnesses examined before the Hudson
Bay Investigation Committee in 1749 (See p. 8), stated that he saw fir-trees
on the banks of Albany river thirty-five or forty feet long, and fourteen or
sixteen inches square at the bottom, and ten at the top, and here and there a
small stick of birch; that there were a great many other small pines; but he
did not know whether pitch or tar could be made from them, never having
seen a trial.
Rev. John Semmens (See p. 36) writes:—“There is a good deal of
timber in the valleys and on the islands and lakes of Burntwood river
course, though it is sprucy and inclined to be small. I have cut timber as
large as two feet in diameter at the butt and fifty feet in height, but this is
exceptional. From ten to fifteen inches near the ground is a better estimate
of the average size of the trees. The very name of this river suggests the
historic fact that the natives of the country deliberately and habitually set
the woods on fire, their object being to attract the deer which are known to
be fond of the sweet grass which springs from the ashes of a fire swept
surface. The result is that large tracts of country are denuded of their rich
first growth of trees, and young forests are just coming into the middle
stages of growth, while many of the hills stand bald and bare, giving silent
evidence of the severity of successive visitations of the devouring flame.
Yet the charred stumps and tangled roots here and there speak of a deep and
fertile soil, as well as of possibilities of growth which few have associated
with a so-called ‘frozen north.’ However, all the timber necessary for
railroad purposes and for the use of settlers in building or for commercial

cordwood can be found almost anywhere, the latter in illimitable
quantities.”
Doctor Robert Bell of the Geological Survey, in his report of his
explorations in the

Valleys of Nelson and Churchill rivers

in 1879, states:—“Spruce and tamarac timber are found growing near the
sea coast, in favorable situations as far as Seal river, beyond which their
northeastern limit curves inland. The spruce, although not growing as a
continuous forest quite as far north as Churchill, is still found of sufficient
size in the neighborhood of this post to be used for building houses, boats,
etc. The balsam poplar is rare and of small size at Churchill. White birch
which was found on the main river, eighteen miles above the forks, is said
to occur at about sixty or seventy miles west of the mouth of the river.”
Doctor Bell proceeds in his report to describe the range of the most
important trees over the area covered by his exploits as follows:—
“White Spruce—(the ‘Pine’ of Rupert’s Land),—This is the most
northern coniferous tree. On the east side of Hudson bay the last of it is
seen on the coast a short distance north of Richmond gulf. On the west side
it terminates about Seal river. Thence its limit runs northwesterly, and is
reported to cross Mackenzie river about two hundred miles below Peel
river.
“Tamarack,—(also called ‘Juniper’ and ‘Red Spruce’)—On the east side
of the bay it accompanies the spruce almost to the extreme limit. It is
abundant at York Factory. Along the lower part of Nelson river it is of fair
size, but on the Churchill it becomes small towards the sea. Its northern
limit runs northwestward to Mackenzie river which it is said to cross below
Peel river.
“Balsam Fir:—(also called ‘Single Spruce’ and ‘Silver Pine’)—
Abundant around the southern part of James bay and on good dry soil along
Albany river. Mr. Cochrane reports it as common around Island lake, but
scarcer on God’s lake. It is rare and of small size on Knee lake. In going
down Nelson river, it is scarce below Sea River falls, and the last tree which
I observed was at the outlet of Sipiwesk lake. On Grass river some good-
sized trees were seen as far north as Standing Rock rapid.

“Balsam Poplar:—(‘Rough-barked Poplar’, ‘Cotton Tree’, ‘Balm of
Gilead’, etc.)—On the west side of Hudson bay, this is the most northern
species of poplar. It is abundant around York Factory, and attains a fair size
along the lower part of Nelson river. In descending the Great Churchill it
becomes smaller and scarcer until the mouth of the river is reached, when it
is rare.
“Aspen:—(‘Trembling-leaved Poplar’)—This tree, which is so
abundant and of such a thrifty growth around the southern part of James bay
and on the border of the prairie regions of the Northwest territories, does
not extend as far north as York Factory. In ascending Nelson river it was not
met until within a few miles of lowest Limestone rapid. It extends
northward nearly to the junction of Little Churchill with Great Churchill
river.
“White Birch:—(‘Canoe Birch’)—This species terminates on Hayes
river, a few miles below Steel river. On the Nelson, the first tree was met
with at seven miles before coming to lowest Limestone rapid, or at seventy
from Point of Marsh. In descending the Little Churchill it disappeared about
midway between Recluse lakes and the mouth, and in ascending the Great
Churchill, it disappeared at eighteen miles above the forks. Along
Burntwood river and the upper part of the Nelson it is large enough for
building canoes, but becomes better for this purpose to the northwestward,
and it is said to be of very good quality around Lake Athabaska.”
Doctor Bell states in his 1886 report (See p. 18):—“The timber all

Around Lake St. Joseph

has suffered greatly from forest fires at many different times, from about a
century ago to the present year. Parts of the main shores and many of the
islands, especially in the neighborhood of the Grand Traverse, have escaped
the fires, and here full-sized timber may be seen. The second growth woods
are of all ages, from seedlings of a year ago, up to trees nearly as large as
those of the original forests. As elsewhere in these latitudes, where the old
forests of spruce, tamarack, balsam, white birch, etc., have been burnt, they
are succeeded by a growth of mixed aspens and white birch, with a
sprinkling of spruce, or else by one consisting entirely of Banksian pine. In
regard to relative abundance, the trees found around the lake may be

mentioned in the following order:—white and black spruce, tamarack,
aspen, white birch, Banksian pine, rough-barked poplar, balsam, white
cedar, pigeon cherry, rowan and black ash. The ground or mountain maple
(Acer spicatum), which is interesting as an indicator of climate, is common,
and it was traced for a long distance down the Albany. Of the above kinds
of timber, the white spruce and the tamarack are the most important
commercially. The cedar is confined chiefly to the immediate shores of the
lake, where it often forms a continuous but narrow border. About twenty
spruce logs, for sawing into boards, were lying at Osnaburgh House at the
time of our visit. They would average eighteen or twenty inches in diameter
at the butts, the largest being about two feet. The six largest showed the
following number of rings of growth:—one hundred and thirteen, ninety-
seven, one hundred and twenty-one, one hundred and sixteen, one hundred
and seven, and one hundred and twenty, or an average of one hundred and
twelve, these rings indicating, it is supposed, a corresponding number of
years. A new tamarack flag-staff, which was about to be erected, measured
about eighteen inches in diameter at the butt and showed two hundred and
forty-four rings of growth.”
Doctor Bell reports that on the dry ground along Boulder river the
timber consists of black spruce, tamarack, balsam, aspen and white birch,
but on the wet, level tracts, it was principally black spruce. All the rapids in
Boulder river were overhung by thick groves of good-sized white cedar, and
the same tree was met with in groups in some of the swamps at a distance
from the river.
Doctor Bell, reporting on the country around Lake Lansdowne, says:
—“Except where forest fires have run, large spruce and tamarack trees and
some cedars were observed on the islands and on the mainland near the
lake, and also along the river between it and Nolin island.”
Doctor Bell writes in his report that

Along The Attawapiskat,

“except where the timber has been destroyed by fire, there is a good growth
of spruce, tamarack, balsam, poplar and white birch, but it does not extend
far back, the country generally being open sphagnum swamps with small
scattered tamarack and black spruce trees.”

Doctor Bell, at one of his examinations before the Senate committee of
1887, produced as an exhibit a branch of the Banksian pine (Pinus
Banksiana), often called the jackpine and scrub pine. This is about the only
tree in North America which we can call strictly Canadian. Both its northern
and southern limits are practically in Canada. It extends thousands of miles
from the southeast in New Brunswick to the northwest, in a belt, throughout
the Dominion.
In height this tree grows one hundred feet and upwards. Doctor Bell had
seen them six feet in circumference. The largest trees that he had seen of
this species were on the upper waters of the southern branches of Albany
river. In general, trees attain their greatest perfection in the centre of their
geographical distribution. Sometimes they degenerate into brush, at the
outside edge of the territory in which they grow. As you go north, south,
east or west, they may become smaller and smaller until they die out, but
this is not the case with all kinds of trees.
The Banksian pine is not particularly valuable for lumber. It resembles
the red pine; it has a coarse, distinct grain and can be used for many
purposes. In England it would be used for the manufacture of fashionable
bedroom furniture.
It is something like the pine of Florida and Georgia, which has been
used for some years past in England in the manufacture of furniture. It
would

Become An Article of Commerce

if means of communication with the northern forests were provided. The
Banksian pine would make good ties, telegraph poles, and timber for
general purposes, besides fuel. In groves it grows very straight, but it is
more likely to be branchy than red pine. Doctor Bell had seen hundreds of
them in groves, affording logs of from twenty to twenty-two inches in
diameter—two or three logs to a tree. It grows very rapidly. He had seen it,
in his own experience, within fifteen years, growing to be useful trees;
whole tracts had been covered with good timber.
Asked while giving evidence before the Senate committee of 1887
whether the shores of James bay and Hudson bay are wooded, Doctor Bell
explained that on the west side to Seal river, a little beyond Churchill,

commercial timber could be obtained from all the rivers flowing in from the
south, and jackpine from some, and spruce and tamarack from all the rivers
of James bay. This would be all of merchantable size, not extraordinarily
large, but plenty of it. The spruce might be described as generally of a small
size, but making up in quantity in the number of logs that might be
obtained. The tamarack, though, is large.
In the course of his 1886 report (See p. 18) Mr. A. P. Low of the
Geological Survey states:—“The trees around Favourable lake consist of
white and black spruce, aspen and balsam poplar, white birch, balsam and
tamarack, many of which exceed eighteen inches in diameter.” On the
shores of Sandy lake Mr. Low saw many trees of white spruce, poplar, birch
and balsam exceeding eighteen inches in diameter. Between this lake and
Severn lake there is a considerable area supporting a growth of black and
white spruce, tamarack, poplar and birch, slightly smaller than those seen
around the lakes.
As Severn river descends towards Favourable lake “the surrounding
country gradually becomes smoother and the timber larger until within three
miles of the lake, when the stream passes through low, swampy land,
covered with thick, wet moss and a small growth of black spruce and
tamarack.”
Mr. Low reports the soil about Deer lake as being “very thin and the
timber correspondingly poor, except on a few low points where some white
spruce, balsam and poplar exceed fifteen inches in diameter.”
Mr. Low (at the time Director of the Geological Survey), in his evidence
before the Senate committee of 1907, as to the resources of the more
southern sections of Keewatin which he had explored, namely, between
Norway House and Hudson bay, stated that the forest, as in a great many
other parts of Canada, had been largely destroyed by fire, but around some
of the large lakes and on the islands and other places,

A Fair Growth of Timber

is found in that region, with white and black spruce, pine, aspen, poplar and
white birch of eighteen inches diameter. The trees are fairly clean, and a
great many of them would probably make two or three logs, so that what
remains of the timber there is fairly decent and good, except on the low

swampy land where the growth is confined to black spruce and tamarack of
no great size. Throughout the more southern region described by Mr. Low,
there is a good deal of wood that could be used in the manufacture of pulp.
All of the rivers in the region have waterpowers.
Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, in the report of his explorations in the southern part of
this region in 1896 (See p. 20), wrote:—“The surface is generally forested,
though most of the valuable timber has been destroyed by fire. On Grass,
Muhigan and Minago rivers, as well as on the shores and islands of some of
the lakes, there are still some forests of excellent white spruce, but on the
northern part of Burntwood river white spruce is rather scarce, and at
Nelson House timber for house logs has to be collected from scattered
groves and brought several miles up or down the brooks or across the lake.
Black spruce and canoe birch grow on the more level and imperfectly
drained tracts, and Banskian pine may be seen here and there on the drier
hillsides. Canoe birch grows to a good size beside the lakes and streams, but
aspen (Populus tremuloides) is the commonest deciduous tree, as it grows
on the drier uplands everywhere,

Occasionally Forming Beautiful Forests,

but more often, and especially towards the north, partly covering the surface
with scattered groves of small trees. Among the smaller trees or shrubs, the
rowan tree (Pyrus Americana) may be mentioned as growing freely and
having an abundant crop of berries along the face of the limestone
escarpment, especially around Wekusko and Reed lakes, and the wild
cherry (Prunus Virginiana) grows beside most of the lakes.
“The forests surrounding Reed lake are mostly of poplar, but there are
some good groves of fine large spruce up to twenty-five inches in
diameter.”
Mr. Tyrrell states that on the southeastern shore of Athapapuskow lake
“considerable areas are covered with large white spruce.” Almost all the
country surrounding Cranberry lakes has been swept by fire, but many of
the islands are still wooded with white spruce of fair size. At Wintering
lake, “the surrounding shores rise gently from the water, and are densely
wooded with a close forest of white spruce, growing on the rich clay soil.”

Mr. Tyrrell describes finding the site of an old fur station near Setting
lake “completely overgrown with large spruce trees, quite indistinguishable
from those of the surrounding forest.” He adds:—“In many other instances
the sites of the ancient fur-trading posts could be recognized as small,
usually rectangular, poplar-covered areas, in the midst of or on the border of
the adjoining forest.”
Mr. Tyrrell reports the banks of the south branch of Gunisao river,
which flows into the northeast side of Lake Winnipeg, as being “wooded
with beautiful tall white spruce, apparently forming

A Magnificent Coniferous Forest

but how far back from the river this forest extends was not determined.
There is certainly here a large quantity of valuable timber, much more than
was seen anywhere else in the country immediately east of Lake
Winnipeg.” Spruce up to twenty-four inches in diameter was noted.
In the report of his explorations in 1899 Mr. D. B. Dowling of the
Geological Survey states:—“In the southern part of the district, north of
Lake Winnipeg, spruce of both the white and black species is found of fair
diameter, but in going north the size materially decreases. Over the major
portion of the rocky country Banksian pine is the principal tree, which,
though not large enough in general for timber, might in the future be of use
for pulp wood.
“The hilly country to the south of Sisipuk lake and northwest of Loon
lake is not well timbered but the lower land between the two and on the
islands is fairly well covered by groves of small spruce.”
Mr. Dowling, in his report of 1901 on Ekwan district (See p. 21), states:
— “The timber along the coast gradually becomes smaller as we go
northward and the tree-line recedes from the shore, leaving it finally at the
Opinnagow so that the country behind that cape is more or less an open
plain. The shore, where the trees are at a distance from the beach, is
generally an even mud slope, covered above high tide with grass, followed
by a wide belt of stunted willows (gray) which look somewhat like the
sagebush of the western plains. Behind this, a few isolated spruces of small
stature appear before the tree line is reached. In sailing along this coast, it is

impossible to know which way to steer so as to run parallel with the land, as
nothing can be seen ahead by which to shape one’s course.”
As to the timber in the interior of Ekwan river district, Mr. Dowling
reports:—“Along the streams there is a narrow fringe of timber, but in
approaching the tree-limit this becomes very small. Back from the
immediate slopes of the rivers the surface is nearly level, and moss-covered,
with scattered groups of small spruce and tamarack. The greater part of the
interior is reported to be muskeg (open bog). A small collection of about
forty species of shore plants was made at the mouths of Ekwan and Albany
rivers.
“Mr. Dowling found the surface of the terrace of Ekwan river to be
covered with a thick coating of moss, and the timber on it is mostly small
spruce and tamarack. Some of the trees might be from six to eight inches in
diameter, but the average is much less. At the edges of the bank a fringe of
larger trees occasionally appears, but it does not extend far from the
stream.”

Red Lake river and Red Lake.

In his report of his 1893 explorations Mr. Dowling says the timber on
the banks of Red lake river “is mostly poplar of a fair size with a sprinkling
of birch and black spruce. The birch average twelve inches in diameter, but
only a few of the spruce trees were found over eighteen inches.”
Mr. Dowling says the forest about Red lake “is somewhat varied, spruce
and Banksian pine alternating as the dominant trees. On all the dry and
sandy ground a thick growth of slender Banksian pine is found, and no trees
of large size are apparently to be seen in such areas, but in the valleys and
near the lakes black spruce is occasionally met with, forming small groves
scattered through the forests of deciduous trees. Individual trees of larger
size are common on the islands and points over which forest fires have not
run, and such trees may attain in some instances a diameter of twenty
inches, but the average is under eighteen inches. Birch and poplar are
almost always present wherever the soil admits. On the richer and lower
ground, between Red lake and Gull Rock lake, and farther down the river,
the poplar trees are well grown and appear in groves in which nearly all
trees average eighteen inches in diameter near the base. Farther to the

westward on the higher ground, the soil being sandy, the Banksian pine is
more abundant, and near the western end of Pipestone bay, some trees of
red pine form a small grove, which appears to be the northern limit of the
species in this basin.”
Mr. Dowling says the trees near Trout lake river are mostly poplar, with
slender spruce on the lower land just behind. Occasionally Banksian pine is
seen on the drier parts. Mr. Dowling mentions a tall forest of poplar and
birch as bordering the western branch of White-mud river.
Speaking of the country explored by him about Lac Seul, Mr. Dowling
says:—“The country is well covered by timber but of small average growth.
The sandy tracts are generally wooded by Banksian pine, but in the river-
valleys and on the heavier land, poplar, birch and spruce are abundant.
White and red pine are found in small groves south of Lac Seul and are of
good average size for timber. On the lake are scattered trees of both
varieties. The northern limit of red pine extends to Red lake, where a few
trees were observed. Cedar of inferior growth occurs in isolated localities
and extends northwest to the height-of-land, but none seem within Berens
river basin.”

Basins of the Winisk and the Attawapiskat.

According to Mr. McInnes’s report of his survey of the region drained
by the Winisk and the Attawapiskat in 1903, 1904 and 1905 (See p. 23):
—“The average size of the trees growing within the country explored is not
great. On exceptionally favourable tracts the spruces attain sizes quite large
enough for commercial use as sawn lumber, and large areas would afford
good pulpwood. Evidences of the constant recurrence of forest fires over
the area are everywhere plainly seen. The brulé areas, varying from quite
small patches to large tracts, are of every age; some are so old the forest has
attained the full height of the old growth and the newer age of the trees can
only be ascertained by a reference to their rings of growth, and others so
recent that no vegetation covers the blackened surface. These fires are
generally the result of the carelessness of Indian travellers, but may
sometimes be traced to the igniting of a dry, standing tree-trunk by
lightning. The oldest trees found in the whole area were growing on a till-
covered island, about fifty miles from the mouth of Winisk river. The

complete isolation from the mainland by broad channels ensured its
protection from fires having their origin outside its own borders. The
spruces growing here were found by their rings of growth to be between
two hundred and seventy and two hundred and eighty years old. The
diameters and ages of trees, growing in a number of different localities
throughout the region, were noted, and are given in the list below:—

Diam. Age
in in. by
3 ft. rings,
from of
ground. growth.
-------- --------
Tamarack, Winisk 32 miles from 9 100
river, mouth
Black spruce " 32 " 12 125
" " 32 " 12 153
" " 32 " 8 75
" " 50 " 10 275
" " 65 " near bank 8 130
" " 65 " " 6 115
" " 65 " 10 chains 3 105
back
Tamarack " 65 " " 3 80
Black spruce " below 10 130
Wapikopa lake
" " Wapikopa lake 9 145
" " " 6 135
" " Nibinamik lake 9 75
" " " 5 75
" " above 15 130
Nibinamik lake
Aspen poplar " " 15 130

Note:—It will be observed that this paragraph and other portions of this testimony really refer to the
Athabaska country treated of in the preceding chapter; but to save an awkward dislocation of Prof.
Macoun’s testimony, it has been kept intact. (E. J. C.)

As to the region explored by him in 1906 (See p. 23), Mr. McInnes
reports:—“Though a wooded country throughout, there are but limited
areas where the forest growth is of a size to be commercially of much value.
There are no hard woods, the only deciduous trees that attain merchantable
measurements being the canoe birch, the aspen and balsam poplars and the
tamarack. Black spruce is the most abundant coniferous tree and grows to a
size sufficient at least for pulpwood. Associated with tamarack, it covers all
the more marshy tracts, giving way where the land becomes drier to white
spruce, which is the timber tree of the region, and on the driest ridges to
Banksian pine. Forest fires have been widespread and most destructive
throughout the whole region sparing only the very wet muskeg areas and a
few tracts isolated by surrounding water or marsh.
“White and black spruce, tamarack, aspen, balsam and canoe birch form
the forest surrounding Cross lake, the deciduous trees for the most part
growing only in a fringe along the immediate shores.

Trees of Suitable Size for Sawing

into eight and ten inch boards are found on the islands, along the stream
valleys and in places near the lake shores, but the general average size of
the trees inland is smaller than this.”
Mr. McInnes has the following to say of the timber he noticed in his
ascent of Burntwood river:—“Above Odei river the forest is mainly spruce
and tamarack of about sixty years growth, the larger trunks reaching
diameters of from eight to ten inches, but the general average not more than
six inches. In the valleys occasional white spruces and tamaracks attain
diameters as great as eighteen inches. These are trees that have escaped
when the surrounding forest was burned and are sufficient evidence that,
but for the repeated fires, there would be large areas covered with good
timber. In the fifteen mile stretch of the Burntwood below Waskwatim lake,
the low flat along the river is covered by sixty years’ timber growth, mainly
of Banksian pine and spruce. The higher plateau is wooded principally with
spruce from six to eight inches in diameter, with scattered Banksian pine,
poplar and white birch succeeding an earlier burned forest. A mixed second
growth forest, mainly aspen poplar, covers all the uplands round

Waskwatim lake, while on the islands and on low flats bordering bays of the
lake are found white spruce and poplar of diameters up to one foot. The
country north of Footprint lake is described by Mr. McInnes as being
covered for the most part with a mixed second growth from ten to thirty
years old, but with here and there clumps of white spruce, with tall and
straight trunks a foot or more in diameter. As to the region just north of the
Saskatchewan, Mr. McInnes says the areas of forest, where the trunks are
large enough to be of commercial value, are limited. The principal tracts of
large standing timber are situated to the north of Moose lake, to the west of
Atikameg, in lower Grass river valley and on the ridge separating
Cormorant and Yawningstone lakes. The last named tract contains white
spruce of exceptionally large size with tall clear trunks. Smaller areas are
found on islands and points in the various lakes, along the upper valley of
Cowan river, and in clumps along all the stream valleys in the district.
Smaller timber, mainly black spruce, that would be of value for pulpwood,
is much more widely distributed over large areas.”
Mr. McInnes made a computation of the age of the trees in the area he
explored and found that the

Annual Growth is Slow.

They run from four to fourteen inches in diameter. They would furnish, he
thinks, very strong and firm lumber, and the smaller trees, owing to their
closely packed fibres and the comparative absence of open cellular matter,
would be especially well adapted for the manufacture of pulpwood for
paper making.
Mr. McInnes, in his evidence before the Senate committee of 1907,
stated that the western part of Keewatin has evidently been a country of
good timber generally, but unfortunately it has been almost all burned over,
so that the only areas of good timber that he knew of were the area north of
Moose lake, the area west of Clearwater lake, and the area between
Cormorant and Yawningstone lakes. He made cross-sections in that country
several times, and he found white spruce, and the largest tree he found was
thirty inches in diameter. He would say most of these trees make about
three fourteen-foot logs because they were growing thickly, and it was a
regular white spruce timber limit. There were a great many from ten inches

up to twenty-three inches. That is an area about six miles long by two or
three wide, and going through that there are areas of swamp. He cross-
sectioned through it, and would come to a quarter of a mile of good trees,
and then perhaps a mile of swamp land with black spruce, and half a mile of
good trees right across. North of that point there are only a few isolated
areas of timber that had escaped the fire. On the islands and lakes there
were pretty good timbers, and on some little peninsulas that are nearly cut
off; otherwise it had all been burnt.

About Waterpowers.

Specially referring to waterpowers, Mr. McInnes, in the report of his
explorations in 1906 (See p. 23), says: —“Between Lake Winnipeg and
Split lake, a distance of about two hundred and twenty-five miles, the
Nelson river has a descent of approximately two hundred and seventy-five
feet. The current between the numerous lake expansions is generally swift,
and upwards of a dozen falls and rapids occur, some of the former offering
magnificent sites for water powers. The aggregate power that could be
generated along the river is enormous, as the amount of water passing over
the various falls is very great. The volume of the river can be appreciated by
a consideration of the extent of its drainage area, which embraces all the
country westward to the mountains between the watershed of the Churchill
and Athabaska on the north, and the Missouri on the south, and eastward to
the head waters of Albany river, and within fifty miles of Lake Superior.”
Mr. Owen O’Sullivan, in his 1906 report (See p. 23), states that the
shores of Assean lake, which is about twelve miles long and a mile wide,
are “well wooded with black spruce, tamarack, and white birch.” The forest
growth at Waskaiowaka lake is chiefly black spruce and white birch of from
four to fourteen inches in diameter. Mr. O’Sullivan describes a hill of drift
“covered mostly with black spruce averaging eight inches in diameter” as
rising for two hundred feet above the level of the water on the east side of
the expansion of the Little Churchill below Waskaiowaka lake. As far down
as the junction of Switching river the country on both sides of the Little
Churchill produces black spruce, white birch and tamarack of small size.
From a point eighty miles down the Little Churchill northward, the country,
which was overrun by a fire that occurred some forty years ago, is now

partly covered with bunches of second-growth black spruce, tamarack and
white birch. Bunches of spruce and tamarack that escaped the fires were
frequently met close to the water’s edge.
In his evidence before the Senate committee of 1907, Mr. O’Sullivan
stated that in his trip in 1906, the only timber he saw was at Split lake—
spruce, poplar and white birch, from four to eighteen inches in diameter.
The country between there and Big lake is swampy and bears black spruce
with small spruce averaging four to six inches in diameter, which would
make good pulpwood. Then around Wabishkok there are birch and white
spruce, and so on. They are a little larger, as large as six to eighteen inches
in some places, occurring in isolated groves. The black spruce would
average in the nice terraces and level clay slopes from the lake about
eighteen inches. They grow that size and more. North of that, between there
and the tree limit or the open barren ground, the country was

Run Over by Fire

about forty years ago, and probably there was another fire which occurred
about five years ago, so there are no trees. Going down the Little Churchill
there are no trees to be seen on the heights, except in the valleys of the
river, where groves of spruce and poplar which escaped the fire are
standing. These spruce and poplars which are in the valleys are sometimes
twenty inches in diameter. The cottonwood grows to about fourteen inches.
It is tall and very healthy looking. The spruce trees grow pretty long, and
quite a number of sawlogs could be taken out of each tree. The soil is pretty
good, but the area is small. After leaving Big lake, all the way down there is
no timber at all. In the valleys of all the streams there is timber, consisting
of bunches of spruce and tamarack. At the Big Churchill the clay hills are
mostly covered with moss. It has been burned over, and there are good large
spruce in the valleys of Little Churchill river away up to about eighteen or
twenty inches in diameter, but they are very few. They are all very healthy
looking trees.
In 1902, Mr. Alfred W. G. Wilson, of the Geological Survey, made a
reconnaissance traverse across the southern part of the unexplored area
lying to the north of Lac Seul and east of Trout lake, visiting Slate, Marsh,
Gull, Smoothbrook, Cat and St. Joseph lakes. He states in his report:—“The

forest growth is found chiefly around the lakes and streams. The sands,
sandy gravels, or clays, usually of glacial origin, are generally forested, the
trees varying with the character of the soil. There are large areas of nearly
bare rock, where only a few stunted conifers or poplars grow in the
crevices. Where the soil is sparse, and the country low-lying but yet fairly
well drained, there is an open forest, chiefly black spruce, and the ground is
covered with a dense mat of moss interlaced with fibrous roots. The soil
covered, and the swampy areas, are usually thickly overgrown with small
shrubs, mostly alder. In general the timber is rather small, in most parts of
the district at present too small even for pulpwood or ties. Occasionally
along streams the trees are larger, especially north of the east end of Lac
Seul. Another area of good timber, chiefly black spruce and tamarack,
occurs along Root river between Lac Seul and Lake St. Joseph.”
Mr. J. W. McLaggan, in the account of his trip in 1907 (See p. 58),
describes the country between The Pas and Clearwater lake as covered with
small, mixed timber. On the north side of Cormorant lake, and along the
creek which connects it with Lake Yawningstone, and on the south side of
the latter lake, he saw from three to five million feet of good milling spruce
timber. Along Cowan river the country is described as low and flat, with
small quantities of good spruce timber in spots until within a few miles of
Black Duck lake when bunches of good spruce, estimated at ten million
feet, come into view. After crossing Black Duck lake the country continues
low and marshy, with scattered bunches of spruce and tamarack of a size
suitable for ties or pulpwood. As Mr. McLaggan approached Reed lake he
passed through low and swampy country covered with scrubby timber. To
the south of Reed lake about a million feet of medium sized spruce were
sighted. The country back was found to have been burned over and now
growing poplar, which, in a few years, will make good pulpwood. On the
north side of Herb lake there are spruce and poplar fit for railway ties and
pulpwood, and along the river to the rapids there are small bunches of
jackpine and tamarack and of merchantable spruce, but back from the lake
and river the country appeared all burned. Mr. McLaggan expresses the
opinion that there must have been a good timber area bordering these
waters, and that, if fire can be kept out,

Reforestation Will Soon Be Effected.

Along the shores of and on the islands in Setting lake there is, Mr.
McLaggan estimates, about ten million feet of young, sound, clear spruce
timber, averaging from twelve to fourteen inches in diameter. Between
Setting and Paint lakes are two falls of thirty feet, where splendid power
can be developed; the banks of the river become higher and there are small
bunches of spruce and poplar, but back from the river has been burned over.
On the south side of Paint lake there is a fairly good bunch of spruce,
suitable for railway ties or pulpwood. Back from the lake the country has
been burned over but is growing up again with poplar and other trees. On
Methye lake Mr. McLaggan found the timber to be mainly jackpine and
tamarack of small size, a limited portion of which would be fit for railway
ties. Traversing File river, with the exception of a bunch of spruce of about
half a million feet, averaging twelve to fourteen inches in diameter, there
was seen nothing but small, scrubby mixed timber of but little value. The
country back from the river has been burned over. Between Reed lake and
Elbow lake he saw about two million feet of good spruce and poplar,
averaging from twelve to fourteen inches in diameter. Towards the lower
end of Cranberry lake there are bunches of good spruce. It is estimated that
there are a million feet in all. The country continues rough and rocky, with
patches of good land and some muskeg. In the country between Cranberry
and Athapapuskow lakes there is a poor growth of scrubby timber. Some
small bunches of spruce were seen along Athapapuskow lake near the
portage, and by Goose river, but the country has all burned over, leaving
only small clumps of spruce. Speaking generally of the timber in the area
explored, Mr. McLaggan reported:—“The fires seem to have burned over
nearly all the country and I was not able to walk far enough into the interior
to find any land not burned, and from information gathered from Indians
and trappers, would conclude that this burned land reached from Grass to
Burntwood river, with the exception of small pieces along the lakes and
rivers. There is a growth of young timber coming up, since the fire, which
may be of value in time.”
W. Thibaudeau, C.E. (See p. 23), states in his report that although there
is no merchantable timber in the vicinity of Churchill, there is abundance of
fine building stone and limestone to be found everywhere, and there is also
an ample supply of timber for fuel purposes for many years along both
banks of Churchill river and around Button bay. He continues:—“Between
October 24, 1906, and November 9, 1906, I made an exploration of the

country between North river and Churchill river for a distance south of
Button bay, of about twenty miles. On the

East Side of Button Bay

I found a strip of good timber, consisting of spruce and tamarack six to ten
inches in diameter, about half a mile wide and extending three to four miles
in length on the east side, between the southern ridge of Churchill peninsula
and the bay, and about three miles south of Churchill. At the head of Button
bay (and parallel with it), there are a number of parallel ridges extending to
North river. These ridges are timbered with spruce and tamarack four to ten
inches in diameter. Close to North river there is a good spruce timber ten to
thirty inches in diameter in small scattered bunches, covering a distance of
about four miles. At the southern end of the south ridge of the western
peninsula at Churchill, there is a strip of good spruce timber, six to twelve
inches in diameter, extending about two miles by four miles; also on the
east side of the same ridge about one and one-third miles south of Mosquito
point, there is a strip of good timber for a distance of about four miles.
“Between December 7, 1906, and December 17, 1906, I made an
exploration of the country between Churchill and Owl rivers. Four miles
from Churchill river in a southerly direction I crossed a ridge, running in a
northeast and southwest direction at about one and one-half miles from
Hudson bay, extending opposite to Mosquito point. From the point of
crossing to the bay, on the sunny side, the ridge is well timbered with
spruce six to twelve inches in diameter. Twenty-five miles from the starting
point, I crossed another sandy ridge with scrubby timber. Two miles west of
this point there is a barren hill known as White mountain, three hundred feet
in height by one mile in length. At the eastern woods there are a few square
miles of spruce and tamarack averaging six to eight inches in diameter.
Close to White Whale lake I crossed another gravel ridge having no timber.
On each side of Salmon creek there are scrubs, willows and small spruce,
with grassy meadows. At Broad river to the left of the place of crossing, for
about four miles there is a strip of timber one-third of a mile in width, eight
to fourteen inches in diameter, consisting of stunted black spruce.”
The section about Waskaiowaka lake is fairly level and dry, with some
scrub timber. The banks are steep and covered with very thick mossy peat,

probably ten feet thick. The timber consists of black spruce and white birch
from five to sixteen inches in diameter. From the Hudson’s Bay Company’s
post on Split lake to the mouth of Grass river, the country on the east side of
the lake is undulating, and part of the banks and islands is fairly timbered
with spruce. Part of the shore of Landing lake and the islands are well
timbered with spruce six to ten inches in diameter. Travelling from Landing
lake to the head of Sipiwesk lake, the country was found dry and well
timbered with spruce from eight to fourteen inches in diameter. The islands
of Sipiwesk lake are well timbered with spruce, some being thirty inches in
diameter. On Reed lake, the islands are well timbered with spruce six to
fourteen inches in diameter. From Reed lake to Station 616 the country is
level, forty per cent. being swampy. There is some spruce and tamarack
timber four to eight inches in diameter. On the north side of Cormorant
lake, there is a strip of timber, four miles wide by ten miles long.

Log jam on Limestone river.

This Timber Was The Best Seen

while exploring around that country.
Mr. Thibaudeau describes the country from Split lake and extending to
The Pas, ten miles in width on each side of the proposed route of the
Hudson bay railway, as “a pulpwood belt”. He says in his report:—“On this
area, assuming one-sixth to be covered by pulp wood, the balance being
river, lakes, ponds, swamps, etc., and assuming ten cords per acre of an
average of six inches in diameter, there would be five million seven
hundred and fifty-six thousand six hundred and sixty cords. This is a very
low, but safe estimate.”
Mr. Thibaudeau makes the following reference to the water powers in
the region explored by him:—“Deer river at its mouth has a minimum flow
of seven thousand cubic feet per minute. A dam, eighteen feet high, can be
built at reasonable cost and would generate one thousand six hundred horse-
power. Two dams of the same height could be built within ten miles of the
river mouth, which is twenty-five miles from Churchill. North river, which
is three hundred and fifty feet wide during December, had a flow of not less

than two hundred and fifty thousand cubic feet per minute. With a fifteen-
foot dam, it would generate about five thousand horse-power. On Churchill
river, within sixty to eighty miles from Churchill, large waterpower could
be developed and transmitted to Churchill. Nelson river, Burntwood river
and Grass river have a number of falls which could be utilized for the
development of power for use in pulp mills or other industries.”
That portion of Mr. J. R. Dickson’s report (See p. 60) referring to the
timber of the district between

The Pas and Cross Lake

explored by him in 1910 is especially valuable. He states:—“In the region
we traversed, only five species, namely,—spruce, poplar, tamarack, birch
and jackpine have any possible commercial value, and of these, speaking
generally, only one, spruce, is large enough for sawmill purposes or railway
tie material. The poplar, birch and pine are invariably too short, spindly,
limby and crooked for any use save fuel or pulpwood, and what mature
tamarack there was is now standing dead from insect attack. We did not find
over two hundred green tamarack above ten inches in diameter all summer.
This remnant is on the northeast end of Bear island in Sipiwesk lake. Black
spruce is easily the predominant species in all that region, and, except on
very occasional well-drained tracts of spruce-flat type, where it reaches ten
to fourteen inches in diameter at breast height, it is a small spindly tree,
only four to eight inches diameter breast height at maturity, useless even for
second class ties. This is the condition in which the jackpine also occurs.
The white spruce, therefore, is the only species large enough to furnish
construction timber, sawlogs, or even railway ties, and the supply is very
limited. In the first place, this species occurs only on the best drained spots,
such as river and lake margins or on the small islands; in the second, the
fires of the past one hundred years have destroyed nearly all the old stand.
To sum up then, only a mere fraction of one per cent. of the area we
surveyed now carries merchantable timber—a fringe along lower Mitishto
and upper Minago rivers, and on a few of the islands and peninsulas in the
larger lakes—as shown on the map. There is probably enough timber
available to build the rough construction work of the Hudson Bay Railway.

“From the mere size of the country and the density of the oncoming
second growth stands, the possible supply of firewood is enormous.
Because of its remoteness from settlement, however, it has no present
commercial value. Owing to the killing by bark beetles of practically all the
larger tamarack (or possibly killed by larch sawfly previous to beetle attack,
though we found no trace of the sawfly), there is almost no green pile
timber of any value in the whole region. Hence, unless by importation, the
only choice left is between dead tamarack and the largest of the close-
grained black spruce. The latter would remain sound in soil contact for
about ten or twelve years, which would satisfactorily cover the first initial
experimental stage in the operation of the new road.
“Just at the present time, within the area we inspected, the timber is too
young and small upon the whole to be cut at a profit even for pulpwood.
But in the absence of fires for twenty years the now eighty-year-old stands
of four to eight-inch timber can be profitably cut for this purpose, and it is
probable that within the next quarter of a century part of the

Enormous Energy Now Running Free

in the falls and rapids of Nelson and Grass rivers will be harnessed to drive
pulp and paper mills. The age of the reproduction is in nearly every case a
measure of the time which has elapsed since the last destructive fire
occurred. As a general rule, to which, however, there are endless local
exceptions and variations—the young growth is approximately either forty
or eighty years of age, the former being now one to four inches in diameter,
and the latter four to eight inches, but none yet large enough for making
railway ties. It will, however, soon be suitable for pulpwood. Scattered trees
from older stands occur in this second growth, but not in sufficient number
to repay the cost of lumbering. The rate of growth in the very dense stands
that are usual in that latitude is decidedly slow except where the soil and
drainage conditions happen to be just right. Black spruce on semi-muskeg, a
site of average quality for that species, is only four to five inches in
diameter breast height at one hundred years. White spruce is rather
fastidious regarding moisture conditions and only appears on fairly well-
drained spots, attaining there a size of eight to twelve inches diameter
within a century. Poplar in that time reaches eight to ten inches. As for

jackpine, occasional trees reach twelve to sixteen inches, but only after long
immunity from fires, and such trees are too limby for use. I saw no jackpine
stand where the trees would average even six inches in diameter. If the
general drainage conditions could in some way be improved so as to
partially replace the unprofitable black spruce with the white species,

The Wealth Producing Power of the Region

would be immeasurably greater.”
Mr. William Beech of Churchill, in his communication to the press
referred to in the preceding chapter (See p. 63), writes of the timber
resources of Hudson bay region:—“Another valuable asset of the district is
the timber which everywhere dots the regions around the bay. The most
northerly species is the spruce, which extends north of Churchill about forty
miles, as far as Seal river, and which attains the height of about thirty feet
and an average diameter of from twelve to fifteen inches. The balance of the
timber is pulpwood and this exists in unlimited quantities. When you
consider that the best of water power is available all along the rivers for the
manufacture of this product, it will be seen that this is but another of the
valuable resources of the district.”
As to the water powers available, Mr. Beech writes:—“There are a great
number of magnificent water power sites, within very easy access of the
surveyed route of the railway, all of which can be easily developed to
furnish almost unlimited electrical energy. Hydro-electric energy could be
developed at any one of these sites within a distance of thirty miles from the
road, which would make transmission to points along it, or possibly
operation of it actually, by electricity. It certainly assures cheap power for
any manufacturing or milling centre which may develop. All these power
locations must inevitably become very valuable. A few years ago, no one,
with the exception of one or two far-seeing and experienced individuals,
believed in the power propositions on Winnipeg river where so much
development is now taking place. To-day what are they worth? They cannot
be bought at any price. I believe the same will be true of the sites
contiguous to the Hudson Bay Railway.”

CHAPTER IV.

THE KEEWATIN AREA.

(Newest Ontario and Northern Manitoba.)

Economic Minerals.

The Rocks in Many Cases Highly Magnetic.—Norite Rock Similar to That at Sudbury About
Trout Lake.—Peat in the District North of Lake Winnipeg.—A Large District Underlain
By Keewatin and Huronian Rocks Which “Has Large Possibilities.”—Gypsum.—
Building Granites.—Quartz Veins on Grassy River Below Reed Lake.—A Possibility of
Nickel Occurring.

The evidence contained in the report of the British parliamentary
investigation of 1749 shows that from the establishment of the first trading
posts along the shores of Hudson bay, the attention of the officials and
servants of the Hudson’s Bay Company was attracted by the statements of
the natives as to the existence in the country of deposits of economic
minerals. The earliest authorities of the trading company appear, however,
not only to have abstained from investigating the mineral resources of the
region, but to have discouraged their employees from prospecting, desiring
them to concentrate all their efforts upon the fur trade. Many of the
witnesses before the committee repeated in their evidence statements
obtained from the Indians as to the existence of deposits of lead, and
particularly of copper, in the north, doubtless referring to the then unknown
Coppermine district.
The only evidence heard before the committee, unquestionably bearing
upon the mineral resources of the territory immediately under review in this
chapter, was given by Alexander Browne, who had been six years in the
company’s service as surgeon at the bay, and who stated that he had seen
large quantities of red earth, which was obtained about thirty-six miles to
the southward of Churchill river; that he had tried some of it in a crucible,
and found it to contain a heavy metallic substance like cinnabar, and a fluid
like quicksilver. This trial was only to satisfy his curiosity, having received
no orders to make it; but the

Governor was Present at the Experiment,

and upon the witness presenting his surprise to him that the company did
not endeavour to improve these discoveries, the Governor answered that he
was likewise surprised that they did not.
Rev. John Semmens (See p. 36), writing of his observations while on
service as a missionary in the Burntwood district, says:—“It was not my
business to seek for minerals, but having been a miner in earlier years, I had
my eyes open, and found many indications of deposits which, in my
opinion, at no distant day will contribute largely to the commercial
development of the north. I shall be surprised if one of these lodes is not
found at or near the southern outlet of Beaver Dam lake. And there will be
many others.”
Doctor Robert Bell, of the Geological Survey, describes the rocks of the
eastern part of Lake St. Joseph as “corresponding with some of those of the
Huronian series. On the northern side, three miles from Osnaburgh House,
there is a grey mica schist.” On the Albany, two and a half miles below
Shabushquaia river, “Huronian rocks make their appearance. They consist
of light-greenish, rather finely crystalline hornblende schist; black, with
some light-coloured schist, together with fifteen or twenty feet of fine-
grained banded magnetic iron ore, with slaty partings. A specimen of this
ore was analysed by Mr. Kenrick of the Geological Survey, and found to
contain 42·09 per cent. of metallic iron, and to be free from titanic acid.
Along with the magnetite is a band of iron pyrites, a few inches thick, with
traces of copper.” A dark green hornblende schist occurs at two miles before
coming to Shabushquaia river. It holds patches of calc-spar and quartz
running with the cleavage. Specks of copper pyrites were found in small
quartz veins in the schist at the foot of the falls at the eighth portage below
Lake St. Joseph on the Albany. At the eleventh portage Doctor Bell
examined a number of veins of quartz holding epidote and hornblende, but
no ores could be detected.
Doctor Bell, before the Senate committee of 1887, referring to his first
voyage to Hudson bay, explained that lignite had been found inland in the
country south and west of James bay. It belongs to a more recent geological
formation than the lignite in the vicinity of Edmonton.
Mr. A. P. Low, in his report of his examination of the country between
Lake Winnipeg and Hudson bay, says “The rocks in several places

Are Highly Magnetic,

and probably contain large quantities of iron ore, both disseminated in small
crystals through the rock, and in large masses.” When being examined
before the Senate committee in 1907, Mr. Low, then Director of the
Geological Survey of Canada, drew attention to the fact that the map of
Keewatin showed a large number of lakes, like Gas lake, Island lake,
Favourable lake, Severn lake, Trout lake, etc., and remarked that wherever
these patches of water are seen it indicates softer rocks than the other parts.
These rocks are usually Huronian, and in many places they carry good
indications of minerals, copper pyrites and different sulphides of that kind.
At Trout lake there is a large area of what is called norite rock. These are
the rocks in which the nickel deposits of Sudbury occur, and there is great
probability of a small deposit being found up there.
There have been no indications of coal discovered in Keewatin, but Mr.
Low explained that on hurried trips such as he had made it was impossible
to examine mineral deposits very much, and one is liable to lose many of
them. The general character of the southern part of Keewatin as regards
mineral resources is good.
In the bank of Nelson river, opposite the mouth of Pine creek, Mr. J. B.
Tyrrell reports a dark grey, rather fine-grained diorite or uralitic diabase,
probably forming part of a large dyke cutting the gneiss. “Near the north
end of Little Playgreen lake is a light reddish-grey massive biotite-granite
cut by veins, a foot or more in width, of red pegmatite containing crystalline
masses of molybdenite, with occasional crystals of pyrite and magnetite.”
Mr. Tyrrell reports copper and arsenical pyrites in a diabase dyke
exposed in an island in Pipestone lake two miles and a quarter from the
mouth of the river.
He reports the cliffs on the lower part of Burntwood river as being
“occasionally overlain by a small thickness of peat.” He reports other
deposits of peat in the district north of Lake Winnipeg.
Before the Senate committee of 1907, Mr. Tyrrell explained that the
primary object in all his explorations was the mineral development of the
country, and any other information that he collected was incidental. He
stated that there is a district from Cumberland House northeastward towards
Nelson river which is underlain by what are known as

Keewatin and Huronian Rocks,

the same kind as those in which minerals are found in northern Ontario at
the present time. The very existence of those rocks was barely known.
There had been practically no exploration of them, no prospecting, so that
no one could say as to whether they were to be a barren portion of those
rocks which are rich elsewhere, or whether they were to be like the
Huronian and Keewatin rocks elsewhere, rich in mineral of some of the
kinds so much desired. Comparing them with the rocks in other places, they
have large possibilities. From that point there is an area of sandstone in the
vicinity of Cree lake which may contain copper, but nothing much was
known of it. It is about the age and character of the rocks that are rich in
copper around Lake Superior, but no mineral wealth has yet been found in
it.
Mr. D. B. Dowling, in his report on the survey of Burntwood-Nelson-
Lake Winnipeg district in 1899, predicts that the several large areas of
Huronian rocks which he outlines will at some future time be thoroughly
prospected, and, as has been the case in nearly all such areas, ores of the
useful and precious metals are likely to be found. “As it is at present, a very
hasty visit has shown that many quartz veins and intrusive dykes cut these
rocks, and indications of the precious metals are not wanting. In the
Pipestone area on Nelson river, mispickel and copper pyrites are recorded
by Mr. Tyrrell, as well as a promising showing of mica on the south side of
Indian Reserve island, on Cross lake.”
In Severn district, in the southern part of the old district of Keewatin
(now part of Ontario), there is a large region lying to the southwest of Cape
Henrietta Maria, that had never been geographically explored before 1901.
In the year named, Mr. Dowling was entrusted to do this work, and was
instructed to make an instrumental survey of Ekwan river, the largest stream
in this region. A micrometer survey of the river was made to the mouth of
the Washagami branch, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles. The
general valley was found to be a narrow cut through clay, with cut banks on
either side for most of the distance to the first branch. As directed by his
instructions, Mr. Dowling

Looked for Gypsum

between Moose Factory and Albany, and found some loose pieces of it in
the vicinity of Nomansland.
“It is quite likely that this mineral occurs in situ in the vicinity,” Mr.
Dowling states in his report.
In another part of his report Mr. Dowling states:—“Silurian limestone is
found on Trout river, draining Mill lake, as well as in the bed of this lake
just north of the trap rocks. The rocks at the narrows of the lake, described
in the maps, as ‘high and romantic’ are cliffs one hundred and fifty feet in
height of trap, capping horizontal beds of probably Animikie age. The trap
overflow covers the uneven surface of these rocks, in much the same
manner as Nipigon bay in Lake Superior. The underlying rocks are dark
slates impregnated with iron ore, and interbanded with beds of jasper. Some
of the beds seem to contain a high percentage of magnetite and hematite.
On the east shore a section of about ninety feet of these jasper and iron-
bearing slates is exposed above the lake, but on the west side they have
been brought down to below the water level by a series of north and south
faults and the exposures there are of trap alone. These rocks form an east
and west ridge reaching to the lakes on the Washagami and eastward to a
large lake on a branch of Trout river, which, as before stated, drains Sutton
Mill lake and runs to the north.”
Mr. Dowling reported iron ore in the vicinity of Sutton Mill lake, west
of James bay, and south of Hudson bay. On the east coast of James bay and
Hudson bay abundant evidence of iron ore had been discovered; in fact, two
large islands, Taylor and Gillis islands, are said to be almost pure iron ore.
Mr. D. B. Dowling, in his report of 1902 (Part F.F. Geol. Sur. Report)
says:—“Small deposits of peat are to be found in various places, but the
most important, from an economic point of view, is the area north of Lake
Winnipeg described by Mr. Tyrrell. Along the valley of Burntwood river,
where it is cut through the thick clay deposit, the general surface of the
terrace is quite level. The drainage near the river is general, but back from
the edge of the valley, on the more level parts, there is very often a wide
expanse of swamp covered by a stunted growth of spruce and carpeted by
heavy layers of moss. These swamps may at some future time supply peat
for fuel.”
According to the report of Mr. Wm. McInnes, who explored in 1906
(See p. 23) the basins of Reed and Wekusko lakes and Grass river, there are
areas of intrusive granite, some of which, below Reed lake, are of even

texture and bright red colour and would furnish very beautiful stones for
monumental work and ornamental building. Palæozoic limestones cover all
the country between the Saskatchewan and an east and west line cutting the
southern ends of Reed and Wekusko lakes. The rocks are, as far as
examined, magnesian and are probably all dolomites. They occur in flat-
lying or gently undulating beds, varying in thickness from six feet or more
to quite thin and shaly, the latter occurring near the base and the heavy beds
forming the mass of the formation. Many of the heavy beds are even-
grained and uniformly bedded so that they can be readily taken out in
blocks of even thickness and of any required size. Many of the low cliffs
near the lakes are so situated as to be admirably adapted for quarrying.
Quartz veins are plentiful throughout the Keewatin belts, but, with the
exception of arsenical and iron pyrites and traces of copper (near File lake),
no valuable minerals were found in them, though their character,
particularly where exposed on Grassy river below Reed lake, was

Considered Promising Enough

for the occurrence of the minerals that are so often associated with these
rocks. The prevailing rocks exposed along Nelson river are biotite gneisses.
Only at two places on the shores are other rocks seen, at Pipestone lake and
on the southern shores of Cross lake, where a belt of Keewatin rocks
crosses, and for some miles follows the river valley. The exposures at Cross
lake are promising looking for the occurrence of gold, resembling closely,
as they do, the gold bearing strata of the district east of Lake of the Woods.
They are cut by intruded masses of the same crushed granite with blue
opalescent quartz, known locally in the eastern region as Protogene.
Mr. William McInnes, in his evidence before the Senate committee of
1907, stated that in the region just west of Hudson bay there are only two or
three belts of what is known as the Keewatin rocks. These are the rocks
which in western Ontario hold gold. The witness found no minerals in
commercial quantities. He found traces of copper on File lake. At Cross
lake there is an area of these Keewatin rocks cut by intrusive granite of the
same character as the protogene of western Ontario, which are almost
always gold-bearing, but nothing has been found there. The limestones
would make excellent building material. There are some intrusive granites

on Grassy river which are of fine texture and beautiful red colour, which
would make very fine monumental stone trimmings for buildings, etc., and
would quarry very well. That would be along the projected line of the
railway.

Nickel may be Found.

An occurrence, which seemed to Mr. McInnes to be of particular
interest, was his discovery on upper Winisk river of a large area of so-called
norite rock. That is the rock in which the nickel of Sudbury occurs. It is
quite a characteristic rock. Mr. McInnes examined samples under the
microscope, and they are not to be distinguished from the Sudbury rock.
That led him to hope that there was a possibility of nickel occurring there
too, but he did not find any, although he examined as well as he could. But
he had not much time, and was too far away. There are two or three areas of
these Keewatin rocks occurring unfolded in the Laurentian, but Mr.
McInnes found no minerals in economic quantities in them at all. Near
Eabamet river, a tributary of the Albany, he saw crystals of mica in the
granite, two and a half inches in diameter. Of course that is not large enough
to amount to much, but it shows a possibility that there might be something
better there.
Mr. A. W. G. Wilson says of the district north of Lac Seul explored by
him (See p. 74):—“There seems to be little prospect of finding valuable
economic minerals in the region in paying quantities. In almost all the
bands of basic schists small, less often large, veins of quartz occur. At the
surface these veins and the associated schists present the usual rusty
appearance due to the decomposition of the pyrite. The granites are
occasionally cut by pegmatitic dikes. Near the head of Cross lake, a rock,
apparently of this character, carries a small amount of molybdenite in
crystals varying in size up to an inch and a half across; it is uncertain
whether the mineral is of economic importance, but the small size and the
poor character of the specimen seen, and the difficulties of transportation
point to the deposit being economically unworkable. The extent of the vein
is not known. Near the inlet into Slate lake, about three-quarters of a mile
from its northeast end, on the eastern shore, is the only place where
magnetic minerals were found sufficiently segregated to produce a

noticeable local variation of the compass. Here, stringers of a metallic
mineral, probably magnetite, were found. Though this metal is sometimes a
constituent of the basic rocks, the more common occurrence of iron ore is in
the form of ilmenite. No hematite was noted in the district.”
In his report (See p. 60) Mr. J. R. Dickson speaks of the mineral
deposits of the area explored by his party south of Cross lake as follows:
—“Judging by such necessarily superficial observations as the members of
the party were able to make, the region we covered is not well supplied with
economic minerals.

Traces of Copper

were found at Wekusko lake, and samples of iron ore at Sipiwesk lake, and
careful prospecting might perhaps disclose deposits of commercial value,
but everywhere else so far as observed, the obtruding bedrock was either
pure granite or limestone. The latter, however, is mostly dolomite, the
variety used as a flux in the reducing of iron ores, and future ore discoveries
may give rise to such demand. This dolomite also will prove a valuable
building stone for prairie towns, when made available by the Hudson Bay
Railway.”
According to Mr. McLaggan (See p. 58) the section of country about
Reed lake is very rocky. Dark coloured granite, streaked with white quartz,
extends along the lower end of the lake and for six miles along the river.
Four miles farther Mr. McLaggan found indications of iron and saw a good
water power. Above Herb lake he saw another splendid water power, very
easy to develop, and along the river below rapids in five places from which
fair power could be generated. At the lower end of Herb lake and along the
river, granite mixed with white quartz was seen, and at the falls in the river,
about twenty miles below the lake, good slate was found. On this lake Mr.
McLaggan noted indications of iron. In places along and back from Grass
river, on either side, quartz was seen. The country has been burned over,
leaving only a few bunches of spruce, and the surface of the rock has been
well exposed, so that prospecting would be easy. Mr. McLaggan thinks that
this part of the country may prove rich in mineral.
On September 10, Mr. McLaggan reached Paint lake. Quartz was still in
sight, but not so frequent in occurrence. There are a number of islands in the

lake with rocky shores and small, mixed timber. Below Elbow lake the river
banks are high, the country becomes rougher, and fire has bared the rocks of
soil. White quartz crops out in considerable quantities. Along the banks of
Cumberland lake there are considerable quantities of limestone, which may
“become very valuable in time.”
Speaking of the region explored, as a whole, Mr. McLaggan considered
that as a mineral country it offers a wide field for prospectors. “In the
country travelled over there are indications of gold, silver, iron and
limestone, and Indians and white men from the north tell wonderful stories
of a place called Indian lake, north of Nelson House, and of an island on
Burntwood river where various minerals and oil are said to exist.”
In his report on the preliminary surveys for the Hudson Bay Railway,
John Armstrong, C.E., states:—“Our definite knowledge of minerals is
limited to limestone and marble. The limestone occurs in the southern
portion of the line a short distance from The Pas, in unlimited quantities
favourable for quarrying, and will probably prove the future source of
supply for the greater part of the provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba.
Marble of a very high grade occurs on Marble island in Hudson bay, and is
also found of a fair quality at Churchill. Iron ores, gold, silver, galena, mica
and other minerals have been discovered by the Geological Survey at
various localities on the bay, all of which are fully described in the reports
of that department. Various specimens of the precious metals have been
shown to our engineers, but their origin was preserved in so much mystery
that they could not be treated as evidence of the existence of the metal in
that territory, and might have been used with equal effect to demonstrate the
richness of a deposit in Colorado or Johannesburg.”

CHAPTER V.

THE KEEWATIN AREA.

(Newest Ontario and Northern Manitoba.)

Game, Fur-bearing Animals and Fish.

Flocks of Wild Fowl that Obscure the Sky.—Six Species of Seal in Hudson Bay.—Stocked
with Animals of Various Kinds.—White Fish Abound in Most of the Lakes and Streams.
—Saw Eleven Moose in One Day.—The Commercial Value of the Sturgeon Fisheries.—
Future Summer Playgrounds.—Barren Lands Caribou at Churchill.

The immense resources of this territory in the matter of fur, fin and
feather, are traditional, but the testimony of residents and explorers as to
distribution, present conditions, etc., are interesting and important.
Doctor Robert Bell, in his 1886 report (See p. 17), says the Indians
around Lake St. Joseph “live principally upon fish in summer and rabbits in
winter, but these resources are supplemented by geese and ducks in the
spring and autumn, and occasionally by larger game, such as caribou and
bears at any season. The fishes of the lake comprise whitefish, grey trout,
sturgeon, pike, pickerel, yellow-barred perch, grey and red suckers, besides
some smaller species.
“At seven miles before joining the Attawapiskat, Boulder river falls into
a lake three miles long, which the Indians call Sturgeon lake, from the
abundance of this fish to be found in it. While in the act of setting our gill
net, the evening we camped on its shores, a sturgeon, measuring upwards of
five feet in length, was caught in it.”
Doctor Bell reports that several lakes abounding in fish are said to occur
on the course of Henley river, which flows into the Albany ten miles below
the Forks.
Doctor Bell, in his evidence before the Senate committee of 1887, said
he had seen wild fowl in the region about Hudson bay in large numbers, and
if one were close enough up to them, and surprised them in a marsh, they
would rise in such clouds that

They Obscured the Sky

for a few moments until they got away. They would not darken the land in
their flight, but they would prevent one seeing the sky or the sun for a few

seconds. On the shores of Hudson bay and straits are found nearly all the
sea birds that live in the northern part of this continent, and some of those
of Europe. Some species are abundant; surf ducks, scoters, eider ducks, etc.
The eider duck is valuable on account of its down. Of geese, the grey goose
and the blue and the white wavies are very abundant in the spring and
autumn on the shore of Hudson bay—and especially towards the southern
parts of James bay. Swans are common. They breed on the islands, and
some on the shores of Hudson bay, and their skins are an article of trade. In
former years swans’ down was used for trimming ladies’ garments, and
swans’ skins formed an item of export for the Hudson’s Bay Company.
White bears are found in the northern part of Hudson bay, and there are
plenty of black bears around the southern part.
There are valuable fisheries, too. There are codfish in Hudson bay. The
variety the witness had seen is called the ‘rock cod,’ which is not of so good
a quality as the common variety of the Atlantic, but he understood that it is
the same species.
The variety of fish known as sea trout is found in the mouths of the
rivers running into Hudson bay and James bay. They do not go far up the
stream; they are never found beyond the first fall in a river. There are sea
trout in both Hudson bay and James bay, at the mouths of the rivers. They
are the same variety as that found on the Atlantic coast. They have the same
habits. There is also the speckled trout. The marine animals—fishes and
mammals of Hudson bay—have precisely the same habits as similar species
have on the Atlantic coast.
The fur seal is not found here, but the seals of Hudson bay are valuable
for their oil. They are tolerably abundant. There are

Six Species of Seal in the Bay.

There is the bearded seal, for instance, which grows to the length of thirteen
feet, the ringed seal, the Greenland seal in Hudson strait, the grey seal, and
the harbour seal, which is quite common in those waters, also the spotted or
fresh-water seal. The latter run up the rivers after salmon and whitefish. It is
a large spotted species with an almost white or light grey coat, with distinct
black spots thickly scattered over its body. This seal ascends the rivers for
long distances inland, sometimes as much as two hundred miles. They live

on fish, and they sometimes remain in the lakes in the interior. The skins of
these seals are valuable, making very good coats.
As to James bay, the best fish there is a variety of whitefish, apparently
identical with the large whitefish of Lake Superior, only the fish grow larger
in the cold waters in the north. The whitefish live equally well, if not better,
in salt water. They run up the rivers also. They belong to the salmon family.
Then there are trout of different kinds, and at the northern part of James bay
there is Hearne’s salmon. They are small salmon, but of very fine quality.
The flesh is equal to that of the common salmon, perhaps better. It is firm
and red and well flavoured. Hearne’s salmon seldom exceeds ten pounds in
weight. It is also found all around Hudson bay, and on both sides of Hudson
strait.
The porpoise, or more properly speaking, the small white whale, is
abundant in James bay.
Doctor Bell expressed the opinion that the fisheries of Hudson bay will,
no doubt, be very valuable.
Mr. A. P. Low, before the Senate committee of 1907, stated that the fish
in the inland waters of Keewatin are like those in the other northern parts of
Canada, and fairly abundant especially in the larger lakes. The chief fish are
the whitefish and the lake trout. In Hudson bay the whitefish and the
ordinary river trout have sea-going habits, and the Indians take quite a
number along the shores in nets, more especially in James bay.
Mr. Low reported sturgeon as being plentiful in Favourable lake.
Mr. J. B. Tyrrell in his report speaks as follows of the game and fish in
that area in the southwest of this region (See p. 19) explored by him in
1896:—“The country is stocked with animals of various kinds. Moose are
abundant in some of the more thickly wooded tracts. Black bears are
somewhat numerous, and beaver, otters, martens, mink, muskrats and red
foxes are killed by the Indians in considerable numbers in the aggregate
every year.

Whitefish Abound

in most of the lakes and streams, while the lake trout seemed to be
moderately plentiful in the clear lakes near the head of Grass river. Of the
other fish, the sturgeon and pickerel (Stizostethium vitreum) are the most

important. The region was known among the early fur traders as the
Muskrat country. Trout and whitefish are said to abound in Reed lake.”

Moose crossing Limestone river.

Near the forks of the Muhigan large game was very plentiful, and Mr.
Tyrrell saw eleven moose in one day.
As to his survey of the Ekwan district in 1901, Mr. D. B. Dowling
reports:—“The principal fur-bearing animals of this region are foxes, otters
and beavers. Of the larger mammals few appear to be taken by the Indians.
In the interior the game birds are all very scarce, the fall hunt for ducks and
geese being confined to the shores of the bay. The rivers afford a small
supply of whitefish. The streams running to the north into Hudson bay in
this region are, at certain seasons, well stocked with speckled trout. Sutton
Mill lake is well supplied with a slender variety of lake trout, and at the
narrows, speckled trout were also caught.”
Mr. Dowling mentions that at the foot of the first fall met with
ascending Trout lake river from Little Shallow lake, the Indians form large
camps in the autumn to catch whitefish as they are ascending the river to
the spawning grounds.

The Best Food Fishes.

Mr. McInnes, in the report of his explorations about Winisk and
Attawapiskat rivers (See p. 23), says:—“Whitefish and sturgeon are the best
food fishes, and occur in most of the lakes. Both are taken in nets, and the
latter also by spearing from scaffolds built out over rapids in the river. Doré
and pike are also generally distributed over the whole area, and form an
important source of food supply, though the sucker among the fishes, like
the rabbit among the mammals, holds the most important place, as it can be
caught everywhere, not only in the larger lakes but also in the smaller ponds
and streams. Brook trout were actually caught only in Winisk river near its
mouth, and in the streams running into Albany river, but were seen in the
rapids below Weibikwei; the Indians assert that they occur also in the lake
itself. Lake trout were caught in large numbers in Trout lake at the head of
Severn river, but are not found in either the Winisk or Attawapiskat waters.
“The moose (Alces americanus) has been found as far north as the
southern shore of Weibikwei lake, in north latitude 52° 50′, though tracks
were actually seen during our exploration only as far north as Attawapiskat
river. Even here it is not nearly so plentiful as farther south in the belt of
country lying near the Canadian Pacific Railway and extending for about
one hundred and fifty miles north of it. Caribou (Rangifer caribou) range all
over the district. No red deer are found anywhere throughout the region.
The fur-bearing animals, though not so plentiful as they once were, are still
fairly abundant throughout the district; the otter and the beaver from long-
continued trapping are less numerous, perhaps, than any other species.”
Bears, Mr. McInnes says, are taken in good numbers, and foxes,
including the red, silver, black and cross varieties are numerous. Otters and
pine martens are taken in good numbers and beavers occur more sparingly.
Minks and muskrats are plentiful. That the raccoon occasionally strays as
far north as north latitude 52° is shown by the fact of one being taken by an
Indian woman on upper Attawapiskat river in 1903.
Mr. McInnes describes Atikameg (locally known as Clearwater),
Cormorant and Reed lakes as “very beautiful sheets of clear water, well
stocked with fish, including lake trout and whitefish.”
Mr. McInnes, in his evidence before the Senate committee of 1907,
expressed the opinion that if the region lying west of Hudson bay were
opened up by railways there would be a considerable business in exploiting
the fisheries, because the sturgeon is valuable. They would get the sturgeon
on the lower Nelson and part of the Churchill. Big lease-holding companies

put steamers on the various lake expansions on the Nelson, so that they
reached down to within a few miles of Split lake, and marketed sturgeon in
that way. They put tramways on all the portages. They ran that way for a
couple of summers, but the distance was too great and it did not pay. The
larger lakes have good whitefish and sturgeon. The head of the Adawadskit
was particularly full of sturgeon. Going out Mr. McInnes’s party was short
of pork and stopped one day to get supplies. In one night’s fishing the
Indians caught so many sturgeon that they had enough to carry them for one
hundred and fifty miles to the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post. One of the
sturgeon

Was Three Feet Long.

At the mouth of the Winisk the Indians were catching speckled trout and
whitefish in very large numbers. In fact the Indians of all that interior
country live on fish. They smoke and dry them to a limited extent, and late
in the autumn catch them before the larger lakes are frozen over, when the
temperature is low enough to freeze the fish. They catch enough to put by
for the winter. Some are sent to Chicago frozen.
In his report (See p. 60) of the survey made by his party in 1910 of the
area south of Cross lake, Mr. J. R. Dickson states:—“The deeper lakes all
abound in whitefish of the finest size and quality. In Paint lake during the
mayfly season (July up there) their dorsal fins could be seen cutting the
water everywhere. Pickerel, and of course jackfish and suckers are likewise
very abundant. We had no sturgeon net, but we saw quite a number jumping
in Sipiwesk lake. Altogether the fishing industry should be a decidedly
profitable one after the railway goes through. Much of that region is suited
only, and admirably, to producing a permanent revenue from this source.
The beaver have been almost exterminated, but mink, fisher, muskrat and
other fur-bearers are still fairly numerous. As to large game, moose and
caribou are plentiful, but we saw no elk or bear. More stringent game laws
will shortly be necessary with the opening of the country to white hunters.
Nearly all those northern lakes are thickly studded with beautiful islands—
quite a similar Laurentian country to Muskoka, but on a more extensive
scale. Some future day these large island-studded lakes will become popular

summer playgrounds for the people of the prairies, for the July and August
weather is delightful. As yet of course, they are almost inaccessible.”
Mr. McLaggan, who explored the country in 1907, describes the waters
between The Pas and Clearwater lake as abounding in trout, whitefish,
jackfish and pike. Reed lake is studded with many islands and replete with
large trout, whitefish, pike and pickerel. Grass river, where it broadens into
the long stretch known as Setting lake, is described by Mr. McLaggan as
one of the most beautiful sheets of water he has ever seen and quite
comparable to the St. Lawrence where it passes through the Thousand
islands. He looks forward to it becoming a great summer resort. Goose river
is very shallow and so teems with whitefish that they seem to cover the
bottom and can be killed with sticks. Generally, along his route, Mr.
McLaggan “found game in great plenty and immense waters teeming with
fish.” W. Thibaudeau, C.E., states in his report (See p. 23):—“In September,
October and part of November large shoals of white whales (I counted
thirty-five in one shoal) could be seen going up river at Churchill at every
tide. Salmon, trout and whitefish are taken in the river and harbor all the
year, but are more abundant in the spring.

Within a Few Miles of Churchill,

in the fall and winter, large herds of barren lands caribou were encountered.
These herds supply fresh meat of an excellent quality for the residents of
Churchill. Polar bears are occasionally shot in the vicinity of Churchill.
Along the western peninsula Eskimo congregate in the spring for the
purpose of seal hunting, these animals frequenting these shores in the spring
in large numbers. Among the fur bearing animals are found black fox, silver
fox, red and white fox, marten, and wolves both black and gray. Swans,
geese, ptarmigan and many species of duck in large numbers, and some
spruce grouse are found along the shores of Churchill harbour and river.
Referring specially to his exploration of that part of the country between
Churchill and Owl river in December, 1906, Mr. Thibaudeau states:—“For
one whole day we passed through an immense herd of barren lands caribou.
There must have been thousands of them.”
Reporting on the fish and game along the route of his exploration trip
from Churchill to The Pas, Mr. Thibaudeau says:—“From timber line on

Hudson bay to The Pas are found moose and caribou in fair quantities.
Rabbits are scarce throughout the country explored. Saw a few spruce
grouse; ptarmigan are found plentifully, but not further south than Grass
river. Whitefish abound in all the lakes from Churchill to The Pas; also in
some lakes are found trout, pike and suckers. Indians and travellers rely
upon this source of supply for dog feed.”
Mr. William Beech, of Churchill, in his communication to the press
already quoted, writes:—“Fur-bearing animals exist in large quantities, and
in many varieties, throughout the woods and along the shores and rivers. I
have seen enormous white polar bears three hundred yards from my house
as early as August 9, and at times they are very aggressive. Wolves are
numerous, and very bold at times, so bold in fact that I have frequently
heard them running round upon the roof above my head. White, red and
black foxes, and a few of the rare silver variety are to be found at all
seasons, and are

Valuable for the Fur They Bear.

Caribou roam in herds, and are very good eating, while seals, ducks,
ptarmigan, geese and swans abound throughout the districts round about.
Curlew, snipe, and loons also provide good shooting. Of fur-bearing
animals besides foxes there are beaver, otter, mink, ermine, and wolverine,
innumerable.
“Great sport is afforded to those who are so inclined in harpooning
whales. I have counted as many as twenty in one school, going up the river
at almost every tide, and an impressive sight it is. In summer at Churchill
the Hudson’s Bay Company capture many white whales, from ten to fifteen
feet in length and weighing from one thousand to two thousand pounds, by
the use of extra strong nets. The flesh is cut up and kept to feed the dogs in
winter, while the blubber is boiled down at the factory and the hides are sent
to England.
“It will surprise you, perhaps, when I tell you that we fish on dry land at
Churchill. That is a fact, nevertheless. The natives of Churchill, both
Indians and Eskimos, and also the white men, set their nets on dry land.
They set their nets, which are about fifteen feet long, with three upright
posts placed vertically on the shore. When they have set them they simply

wait for the tide to come in, and when it has come in they simply wait until
it has gone out, and there are their fish all ready to be taken out without any
trouble. The catch consists chiefly of whitefish, salmon trout, and pickerel,
all of good quality.
“When the Hudson bay route is completed, one of the best fishing trades
in the world will be opened up. There are five lakes, in all, in the district, all
full of fish, and the farthest teaming which is necessary would be about
forty miles. On lake Winnipeg at the present time, fish are hauled a distance
of one hundred and forty miles, and they are teamed into Edmonton from
Lesser Slave lake, a distance of one hundred and seventy-five miles and
made to pay. The salmon of the north averages from four to ten pounds in
weight, and is of good quality; the whitefish is not so large as that of Lake
Winnipeg, but it is of fine flavor, and very firm. The caplin, a small fish
resembling the sardine, is found in such quantities at some seasons of the
year that they are left in thousands upon the shore when the tide goes out.
Fishing usually commences at the latter part of June and finishes at the end
of August.”

NORTHERN SASKATCHEWAN

CHAPTER VI.

NORTHERN SASKATCHEWAN.

Agriculture and Arable Land.

An Early Scientific Explorer’s Enthusiastic Description of Part of the Country.—“Capable of
Any Extent of Cultivation.”—An Old Hudson’s Bay Company’s Official Who Considered
it “A Splendid Country to Settle in.”—Mr. Crean Reports That “It is no Experiment” to
Raise Wheat in North Saskatchewan.—Missionary Farmers and Their Accomplishments.
—Capable of Supporting “A Dense, Thriving Population.”—“A Splendid Ranching
Country.”—Heaviest Rains Just When they are Needed.

To obtain a correct idea of the resources of that part of the province of
Saskatchewan north of North Saskatchewan river, one has to consider that
great extent of territory as consisting of two very distinct areas, one to the
south, the other to the north of Churchill river. While the area to the south
of the Churchill is a well-wooded, park-like country, with great agricultural
possibilities, the soil of the region north of that river, so far as explorations
up to this time have shown, is mainly sandy and sterile.
Thanks to its being crossed by the old fur traders’ portage routes from
Cumberland House, Fort à la Corne and Fort Carlton, on the Saskatchewan,
to Frog portage on the upper Churchill and Methye portage on the
Clearwater, the southern part of the region immediately under review has
been known and written about for many years, but there is very little indeed
in the ancient writings worthy of notice in this chapter. The first white
travellers over the long and toilsome water routes of this beautiful country
of swift-running rivers and isle-studded lakes were the enterprising fur
traders from Montreal, who in course of time combined to form the
Northwest Company. Their interests were all centred in the fur trade, and
while travelling through the country, business, time and the exigencies of
the commissariat combined to

Prevent Them from Exploring

the country with a view to investigating its natural resources, even if they
had any inclination to do so, which is doubtful. At any rate such of these
pioneer travellers through this country as ventured to write about their
travels devoted their literary efforts to describing their adventures en route,
their camps, the methods and habits of the voyageurs and Indians, the

Indian camping places, and the rivers, lakes and overland trails traversed.
Generally very minute details were given in these old books of travel as to
the geographical features of the country, distances, bearings, the direction
and currents of the rivers, the size, shapes and relative situation of the lakes,
etc., but one reads over page after page, and book after book, without
finding a single reference to the soil, or to the possibilities of the country
from an agricultural point of view. In the course of time the opening up to
the fur trade of the farther northwest on the banks of Athabaska and
Mackenzie rivers resulted in a greatly increased amount of travel over the
old canoe routes, but it did not attract attention to the natural wealth of this
region, and until recent years the attractions this country offers to the
agricultural settler have remained unrecognized.
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in his book (1801), states that “no part of this
country has ever been cultivated by natives or Europeans, except a small
garden at Ile à la Crosse, which well repaid the labour bestowed upon it.”
Examined before the British parliamentary committee of 1857, Richard
King, M.D., surgeon and naturalist to the expedition in 1833 in search of Sir
J. Ross, was asked:—“Are you under the impression that there is any
portion of the territory which you then saw that would be available for the
purpose of settlement?” He replied:—“Yes, I found a very large country, as
it appeared to me at that date. I hold in my hand one of Arrowsmith’s very
best and recent maps, he being the great authority upon that country, and the
square piece of country which I always looked upon as a very fertile valley
is there distinctly shown. It is bounded on the south by Cumberland House,
on the Saskatchewan. It is an enormous tract of country. Cumberland
territory is, according to Sir J. Richardson, I find, several thousand square
miles. Then it is bounded by Athabaska lake on the north. I am not now
exactly giving it north and south. I may state that I passed through a great
portion of that country, but of course what I am saying as to the larger
portion that I am now speaking of, is not only from my own personal
observation upon it, but from an inquiry upon the spot, seeing the nature
and extent of that country. This large portion which I have described as
within this area I looked upon as the

Most Fertile Portion Which I Saw.

“On this map it is very clear. You will see the country entirely
surrounded by water.”
Asked if he meant to express an opinion that the whole of that territory
was suitable, as regards soil and climate, for the purpose of cultivation,
Doctor King replied that he was told by the traders there generally that it
was precisely the same land as that which he passed through, namely, a rich
soil, interspersed with well-wooded country, there being growth of every
kind, and the whole vegetable kingdom alive.
Doctor King impressed upon the committee the fact that in going
through that country his position was that of a naturalist; he “came away
certainly with the impression that it was a very magnificent country in
many parts of it; of course there were barren portions, but upon the whole,
up to Athabaska lake, it appeared to me to be capable of any extent of
cultivation.”
Doctor King said that some time previous to his visit to that locality
there had been some agricultural activity at the Hudson’s Bay Company’s
post at Cumberland House due to the enterprise of Governor Williams.
Doctor King found capacious barns, and implements in fields which had
evidently been placed under culture. On approaching Cumberland House,
he had found a little new colony of thirty persons established, a Canadian,
an Englishman, and half-breeds. They had their fields divided out into
farms, and other things. It was described to him that they had formed a little
colony at Cumberland House but had been

Ordered from the Immediate Vicinity

by the Hudson’s Bay Company. The settlers told Doctor King that “at the
time they were ordered off, the Company would not allow them to go on
cultivating; that it was against the Company, and that therefore the thing
was to be broken up, etc., etc.”
As to the little new settlement, Doctor King stated that it appeared to
him, in going over the colonists’ farms, that they were very highly
cultivated. There was corn, wheat, and barley growing. He bought a calf
from them; he gave seven shillings for it. A fat bullock sold for twelve
shillings.

Haying near Green lake.

Doctor King testified that when he went on to Cumberland House, he
found that the settlers were really borne out in what they had stated, for he
found that the barns and implements were in the fields, and that the cows,
oxen, and horses had all gone wild. He enquired the reason of it and was
told that Governor Williams had a penchant for farming and that the
Company had ordered him off somewhere else.
Hon. William Christie, formerly Inspecting Chief Factor of the
Hudson’s Bay Company, before the Senate committee of 1888, explained
that there was a vast extent of splendid country from Prince Albert on the
whole north side of the Saskatchewan, going away up until the traveller
came near Fort Pitt, keeping a little to the north. Then, when he would come
to the route of Green lake, there was two days’ journey through a
magnificent country, beautifully timbered, well watered and supplied with
abundance of fish. As he once travelled through it, he remarked to one of
his men,—

“What a Splendid Country To Settle In.”

Green lake, witness explained, is north of Carlton, about eighty miles.
One crosses at Carlton and for two days can travel through a prairie country
with bluffs here and there, and lakes; it is a splendid country. Then he
would travel for two days through a forest to Green lake.
Professor John Macoun, in the Dominion Government Canadian Pacific
Railway Report of 1877-8, says:—“I was at Ile à la Crosse (almost due
north of Battleford) on September 22, 1875, and saw potatoes still green as
they were in July. I was told by Mr. Cummins that these potatoes hardly
ever were killed by frost in September. Here there was a flour mill driven
by horse-power and I am told that all kinds of grain ripen successfully.”
Professor Macoun in his book “Manitoba and the Great Northwest,”
published in 1882, made the following reference to the northern portion of
Saskatchewan as an agricultural country:—“About fifty miles north of
Carlton the ‘Star Mission,’ in connection with the Church of England, is
situated. This Mission was established in 1874, and placed in charge of the
Rev. Mr. Hinds, who, besides being a minister, was a practical farmer. He at
once commenced to teach the old men farming and the children English,
and in less than one year had a number of small farms commenced, and the
children well advanced in the knowledge of English. Since then he has been
very successful, and in 1879 Mr. O’Keeffe, D.L.S., writes of the Mission:
‘At Sandy lake the Indians under the supervision of the Rev. Mr. Hinds,
Church of England Missionary, were cultivating successfully fine fields of
grain and raising vegetables.’ Of the country in this vicinity the same writer
says: ‘No finer country could be desired than the section above described.
The water is pure and abundant, and the land extremely rich. Pea vine,
vetches, grasses, and, in fact, all herbaceous plants were luxuriant.’ ”
In the report of his explorations during the years 1893 and 1894, Mr. J.
Burr Tyrrell gives the following general description of this area:—“The
country between Saskatchewan and Churchill rivers is very different from
that north of the latter stream. From Prince Albert, situated on the banks of
the North Saskatchewan, at an elevation of one thousand four hundred feet
above the sea, the surface rises with a gentle slope northward to a heavy
stony moraine ridge, the highest point of which, on Green lake trail, was
found to have an elevation of about two thousand two hundred and twenty
feet. From this high ridge the country slopes gradually northward, at first
with a gentle rolling, and afterwards with a more even surface, to the chain
of lakes and extensive swamps that lie along the edge of the district directly

underlain by Archaean rocks. This country has very much the general
appearance of that portion of northwestern Manitoba to the west of lakes
Manitoba and Winnipegosis, including Duck and Riding mountains,
previously described by the writer.”
Between Churchill and Saskatchewan rivers two lines were examined
by Mr. Tyrrell, one from Prince Albert northwestward by Green lake to Ile à
la Crosse, and the other from Stanley Mission southwestward by Montreal
lake to Prince Albert.
Writing of some of the more noticeable geographical features of this
area Mr. Tyrrell says:—“Churchill river from its northern source at Methye
portage, following its windings, has a length of four hundred and eighty
miles to the mouth of Reindeer river. It is a long series of very irregular
lakes filled with clear blue water, connected by short and usually rapid
reaches. Some of the rapids are produced by rocky barriers, while others are
over boulders and between banks of till, such as is underlying much of the
surrounding country.
“The largest tributaries flowing into the Churchill from the south are
Beaver, Sandy and Rapid rivers.

Flowers at Ile à La Crosse.

“Beaver river rises on the Cretaceous plateau, not far from Lac la Biche,
and, flowing, first eastward for two hundred and fifty miles, and then
northward for a hundred miles, empties into the south end of Ile à la Crosse
lake. Its course northward was alone surveyed. Here it is a rapid stream
from one hundred to two hundred feet wide, flowing between low clay
banks, beautifully wooded with spruce and poplar. Much of the land along
the course appeared to be well adapted for agricultural purposes, and the
rank vegetation gave

Promise of Abundant Harvests.”

The Venerable Archdeacon J. McKay, one of the best known Church of
England Missionaries of the Canadian west, was examined before the
Senate committee of 1907. He stated that he was born on the eastern shore
of James bay, near Rupert’s House. His father was a Hudson’s Bay
Company’s officer. Witness had his education in Manitoba in the early days.
He had been more in the old country than in eastern Canada. He lived at
Moose Factory until he was eighteen.
Archdeacon McKay explained that he had been forty-five years in the
west, in charge of missions of the Church of England, and was ten years at a
place on Churchill river, a little north of Lac la Ronge. The nearest point to
Lac la Ronge on the map is where the Anglican mission is situated, about
ten miles north of Lac la Ronge, on Churchill river. This is about due north
from Prince Albert, and in a straight line it would be considerably over two
hundred miles from Prince Albert. He had been for some time
superintendent of the Anglican missions. For the two years preceding his
examination he had been at Lac la Ronge. He had been as far north in this
country as Lake Cariboo. In fact he had been away to the north end of
Reindeer lake. It is very poor country up there, and the trees are not very
large. From the Churchill he had been down to Hudson bay, and he had
been as far west as Ile à la Crosse lake and on to Methye lake, which is not
many miles south of Clearwater river and in an east-southeasterly direction
from McMurray.
The land between Lac la Ronge and Prince Albert in some places is very
good. It is all forest practically until to about thirty miles from Prince
Albert, or perhaps twenty or thirty. Then the open country begins where it is

not heavily timbered. To the west of Lac la Ronge the country is very much
the same. It is not rocky, some muskeg and some pretty good land, but all
timbered—in some places heavy timber. There is spruce and poplar. The
spruce is good enough for lumber, and of course it would do for pulpwood.
The witness had travelled the country about Lac la Ronge pretty thoroughly,
and if it were cleared of timber it would, in his opinion, be generally

Fair Agricultural Land.

The rocky country is north of that.
So far as agriculture at Lac la Ronge is concerned, Archdeacon McKay
said he had raised good wheat at his former mission on Churchill river for
seven years in succession without having it frosted. The climate is good. It
is a rocky country, and there is not a great deal of good land; but so far as
the climate is concerned it is all right for raising anything that can be raised
in Saskatchewan generally. Potatoes grow splendidly.

Potatoes at Anglican Mission, Lac la Ronge.

He could not describe what the grasses are, but they are grasses that
grow mostly in moist land, something like slough hay, grasses that grow on
the margins of lakes, and along the rivers. There was not much stock there,
but he had stock when he lived on the mission on Churchill river, fifteen
head of cattle and two horses. That is a little north of Lac la Ronge, and is
practically the same country. As to the Lake Ile à la Crosse country, he
considered it fairly good. It is not rocky and there is plenty of timber and
plenty of hay as a rule—some prairie hay and some swamp hay, and the soil
is fairly good—better than Lac la Ronge. It gets better as you go west. It is
certainly better about Ile à la Crosse than at Lac la Ronge, and there is no
rock country about Ile à la Crosse. The hay is long. It is very much the same
as the natural hay in Manitoba. The only whites in the country he had
described north of the Saskatchewan were the Hudson’s Bay Company’s
officials and traders. There is no agricultural settlement at Lac la Ronge.

There are only Indians there, and they have not gone into anything in the
direction of agriculture more than raising a few potatoes.
Archdeacon McKay stated that it is a peculiarity of that part of the
country around Lac la Ronge that the frosts are very late. On a small island
in the lake Archdeacon McKay has seen potatoes in the beginning of
October with the

Vines Untouched by Frosts

at that late season. That was of course on account of the large body of water
that equalized the temperature. On the mainland that would probably not be
the case, but two years ago he was at Lac la Ronge when Mr. Chisholm, the
Indian Inspector, came out to make treaty payments towards the end of
August, probably August 20, and the potato vines were not touched at all
either on the mainland or on the islands. The snowfall is not very heavy. It
is generally a little heavier than in Prince Albert section of the country, but
not always so. Three feet on the level would be considered deep snow. As a
rule the first frosts come some time in September. In 1906 the potatoes were
touched with frost about September 15, but not seriously. In the spring one
can put in grain from May 5 as a rule. He used to sow wheat May 5
generally, and plant potatoes from May 20 on. The lowest temperature in
winter, judging from his own sensations, was about the same as Prince
Albert. In the summer time it is quite as hot at Lac la Ronge as at Prince
Albert. It is farther north and the days are longer.
The weather at Lac la Ronge is moderately dry. Generally there is
sufficient rainfall for the crops. In the summer of 1906 there was quite a
long spell of dry weather, which affected the wild fruits. It was an
exceptional spell of dry weather, but generally there is a good rainfall. The
rainy season would be quite equal to Manitoba.
Richard S. Cook, Esq., Mayor of the city of Prince Albert,
Saskatchewan, was examined before the Senate committee of 1907. He
stated that he had at the date of his examination by the committee been
engaged in farming at Prince Albert for fifteen years. He had a large stock
and dairy farm, operated it successfully, and had made it pay every year.
Mr. Cook stated that he had travelled considerably over the country about
Prince Albert, particularly to the north and northwest of that city. He had

gone north from Battleford and down Beaver river. Little is known of that
country. It has always been travelled by canoe. Stanley Mission was the
farthest north he had been, two hundred and fifty miles north of Prince
Albert, and about the same distance north of Battleford. The country in that
northern district is fit to be an empire in itself, and a wealthy one. People
knew little of it yet, but it was going to prove an excellent country for
agriculture. It was such an immense country it was hard to grasp the
possibilities of it. One might travel over it for years and know very little
about it. There is very little open country there, except where the fire has
gone, but about seventy-five per cent. of the soil in that country is good,
capable of being cleared up and becoming good agricultural land. The area
must be at the least about two hundred and fifty miles by two hundred and
fifty miles. In travelling about the country, he had examined the region
about Fort Pitt, Beaver lake, Moose lake and Cold lake. For a considerable
distance immediately back from Saskatchewan river the soil is light; not a
very good country. The country immediately behind Fort Pitt, however,

Is Fit for Raising Grain.

Oat field at Anglican Mission, Lac la Ronge.

The further north one goes in that country the better it is. The altitude is
gradually getting less, and on Chipewyan reserve, south of Cold lake, there
is as fine land as he had ever seen in his life. The grass is four and one half
feet long, and people had been known to grow one hundred tons of hay the
first season. Mr. Cook doubted whether wheat would grow the first year.
Around Cold lake the fires had been very destructive. There had been
timber there, and where it had been burnt over the grass was good. The soil
was all right and the pea vine growing, and good rich grass, so that he
thought the country down the Beaver would be a fairly good agricultural
country. This district is one hundred and fifty miles north of the
Saskatchewan. It would be northwest of Battleford about one hundred and
fifty miles. At Stanley and Churchill, two hundred and fifty miles north of
Prince Albert, they were raising all kinds of stuff. There was a sheaf of
wheat in the Board of Trade in Prince Albert which was brought from there,

and it was certainly a very fine specimen. Mr. Cook thought that in the area
he had visited in the north there was a country that would be settled up and
sustain a large population. The fires had been very destructive in parts of
the Stanley country. The soil throughout at one time was a good soil, but
where the fires were very heavy and hot it burnt the top of the soil. He
would judge that seventy-three per cent. of that country would have good
agricultural soil as soon as it was cleaned out.
Settlements had been started twenty miles north of Prince Albert, and
some years ago an American went in there and he now has a beautiful farm.
The witness brought in a collection of vegetables from that country, and he
never saw a better lot of farmers’ produce in his life. This original American
pioneer was growing Turner raspberries, and anyone will tell you that
where you can grow Turner raspberries, fall wheat will grow, and where fall
wheat will grow the climate is fit for anything. The settler in question got
the Turner raspberries from Mr. Cook in Prince Albert. It takes a certain
climate to grow that raspberry, and they claim the same climate will grow
fall wheat. It is not the wild raspberry of the country, but a variety sent out
from the experimental farm in Ottawa. Wild raspberries grow all through
that country. That one man starting out demonstrated that the climate was
all right, and others followed suit, and there are now one hundred and fifty
or two hundred settlers in that country, which was considered a few years
ago as no good. The same remarks apply to the country clean out to Candle
lake. That country is fairly clear and open, and there is some hazel brush,
and where hazel brush will grow the land is considered good, and where
poplar will grow it is also considered good soil.
Mayor Cook expressed the opinion that

Lack of Means of Communication

was all that kept the tide of settlement from flowing into that northern
country. He went on to explain that the people out on the Saskatchewan and
north of it anticipate being able to ship by the Hudson bay route. They are
all expecting it. They consider that there is not a question of doubt but that
it will be successful. They expect an open route via Hudson bay for half of
July, all of August, September, October, November and part of December.
Witness was speaking from the information received from people who spent

their lives on Hudson bay. Many of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s officials
came in to Prince Albert district to settle, after they had been
superannuated. From information obtained from these old Hudson’s Bay
Company’s men, his honest opinion was that it was a perfectly feasible
route for the months he had given:—half of July, all of August, September,
October, November and a part of December.
Mr. Cook, concluding, remarked: “When you are shipping out your
cattle, you are sending them by the short route, and the shrinkage will be
light. One feed, and probably none at all, would last to Churchill. The short
route would also make it possible to ship out at least one-third of the crop
before the frost sets in, which would be a great relief to the settlers.”
W. F. Bredin, Esq., member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, for
the Division of Athabaska, and residing at Lesser Slave lake, was examined
before the Senate committee of 1907 and stated that at the date of his
examination he had resided ten years in the country north of Edmonton. He
had been from Edmonton north to Fort Wrigley, and he had been on Peace
river from Fort St. John, thirty miles inside the British Columbia line, to
about five hundred miles down the Peace—from that point. Ten years
previous to his examination he went down the Athabaska to the Mackenzie
in boats.
Mr. Bredin referred briefly to a trip he made east from Athabaska
district during the summer of 1906, when he travelled from McMurray up
Clearwater river and thence across to Prince Albert. The land on Clearwater
river for one hundred miles, in the bottoms, is very good. It appeared to
him, from the river, however, to be very sandy back on the high rocks. He
should think there would be a good deal of rock and muskeg. From where
he left Clearwater river in to Prince Albert, on the North Saskatchewan, the
country was more or less of a sandy nature. There were beautiful lakes all
the way, filled with good whitefish and trout. The whole northern country is
that way.
In his evidence before the Senate committee of 1907, Mr. H. A. Conroy
remarked:—“There is some good country along the Clearwater—very nice
country from an agricultural point of view.”

The Crean Reports.

A great amount of invaluable information as to the natural resources of
the region south of Churchill and Clearwater rivers is contained in the
report by Frank J. P. Crean, C.E., of his explorations (See p. 25) in 1908 and
1909. It is interesting to note that this work of exploration was the first ever
undertaken in a systematic way to ascertain the agricultural possibilities of
Canada’s northland.
The late Mr. R. E. Young, Superintendent of the Railway Lands Branch
of the Department of the Interior, under whose direction, and at whose
instance, these explorations were conducted, in forwarding Mr. Crean’s first
report, wrote:—“Mr. Crean’s report gives a great deal of useful information
about the district, and the results of his observations appear to shew that
mixed farming may confidently be expected to prove successful over a
large area. When the country is made accessible by roads a considerable
settlement of agriculturists may, I think, be looked for. The country is also
shewn by his report to be rich in natural resources.”
In forwarding Mr. Crean’s second report to the minister, Mr. Young
wrote:—“The exploration in the year 1909 shows results even more
satisfactory as to the possibilities of the country for settlement than the
exploration of the previous year. A very considerable proportion of the area
explored is shewn by Mr. Crean’s observations to be well adapted for mixed
farming and to have natural resources of timber, hay, fish and game which
will be of much value to incoming settlers. Results of actual operations in
cattle raising are of a most encouraging nature. At and in the vicinity of
Meadow lake over one hundred miles north of Battleford, there are herds of
cattle aggregating over three hundred, and over fifty horses, all of which are
described as in a thriving condition. At Cowpar and Winefred lakes towards
the western part of the track explored and in Clearwater valley to the north,
conditions seem also most promising for stock-raising. It may be of interest
to note here that recent reports of investigations in Siberia, Mongolia and
northern Manchuria by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of
Agriculture of the United States, give accounts of the discovery of three
varieties of yellow-flowered alfalfa which are found growing and thriving
in a wild state under conditions of climate much more severe, both as to
cold in winter and snowfall, than are to be found in any part of northwestern
Canada as far north as there are any claims made as to possibilities of
settlement. It may therefore be considered reasonably probable that

whatever advantages alfalfa has over our native grasses as fodder are
assured for all habitable parts of our north country.”
As to the district about Lac la Ronge, Mr. Crean says in his report of
1908:—“Besides the mineral wealth supposed to be available there is also
considerable land to be found capable of being tilled.

It is No Experiment

to endeavor to raise wheat in this section. It has already been done. Stanley,
or as it is sometimes called Stanley Mission, is worthy of special
description. It appears that Stanley is one of the best known spots in the
north. The village or settlement is situated on a most picturesque point
jutting into Churchill river. The country surrounding it is rolling, and this
adds considerably to the beauty of the locality. From an agricultural
standpoint the land is good. The soil is a rich loam and the subsoil is sandy
clay. The loam, however, attains a great depth. I put one hole down almost
four feet and had not then struck a subsoil. This, however, was exceptional.
Stanley’s fame rests altogether on the energy and initiative of Reverend Mr.
Hunt, a Church of England clergyman, and the founder of a Church of
England Mission there about 1851. Mr. Hunt, as far as I could ascertain, not
only built the celebrated and beautiful church, but also planted some wheat
and barley. This he found would grow successfully, and he established a
small mill to grind the wheat. At first he used a hand mill, which is still
standing at the Mission House. Later on, however, he built a small water
power mill and for a number of years this was in operation, used not only
by the Mission but also by the Hudson’s Bay Company.”

What a Missionary is Doing.

On the north shore of the bay at the southwest end of the lake, the
Church of England Mission have a large school not yet completed, and also
an open air saw mill. The Reverend Mr. Brown is in charge of the Mission
and is endeavouring to establish a farm in order to teach the natives to
work. He has some cattle, pigs, and poultry. Reverend Mr. Brown has a
good garden, nothing in it suffering from frost. At Little Hills, just at the
mouth of Montreal river, wheat has been grown successfully and Mr.

Brown intends putting in a crop this year. I might here be permitted to say
that the Reverend Mr. Brown, who is materially assisted by his wife in his
Mission work, is deserving of the most unstinted praise for his zeal and
industry in the building up of the Mission. Under somewhat
disadvantageous circumstances he fills the several positions of minister of
the gospel, farm instructor and mechanic to his flock, cheerfully and with
good effect. The Hudson’s Bay Company had a good garden last year, but
most of the ground here is stony. Revillon Frères have a post here and they,
too, raise all the vegetables they require.
Mr. Crean reports that on Deer lake (Montreal lake section) “just east of
the narrows a white man lives and he has a first class garden. Around Deer
lake the land is good and I see no difficulty in its development. The soil at
Deer lake is a good light loam inclined to be sandy, with a blue clay subsoil.
Muskegs occur, but they are generally small. There is ample hay
everywhere. I fancy this country might profitably be surveyed and opened
for settlement. I did not travel to the east of Montreal lake, but from
information obtained there is not any great difference in the country from
the west side.”
Mr. Crean goes on to say that there has been no attempt at agriculture in
Snake lake and Sandy river section. “The height of land dividing the water
sheds of Ile à la Crosse and Sandy river is not very high but is clearly
marked by a clay ridge. This ridge has been burnt off in recent years and is
covered with fallen timber and brulé. A poplar growth is springing up now.
This part of the section should make good agricultural country. There is,
however, a vast area of swamp in this section; I cannot say if it could be
drained. Sandy river flows through vast hay meadows. These are not too
wet and are by no means swamps. Of course most of the meadows would be
improved by clearing of scrub bush.”

Oat field at La Plonge.

Mr. Crean reports having seen wheat and oats growing at the Roman
Catholic mission at the junction of Beaver and La Plonge rivers on
September 4, 1908. Mr. Crean says in his report:—“The wheat was a first
attempt, but will be tried on a much larger scale this year. The small patch
sown last year must have been put in late in the spring. It appeared well
matured but frosted; this I fancy was due to its being planted close to the
river. The priest has cleared a good sized patch, perhaps about ten acres,
which he intends sowing in wheat. The oats were splendid and grew to a
great height. The vegetables were especially good. The variety astonished
me. Almost every vegetable was represented and appeared to thrive.
Potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, lima beans, green peas, carrots, turnips,
onions, lettuce, beets, parsnips, and tomatoes all growing splendidly.

I Never Saw a Better Garden,

and indeed I don’t remember seeing as good in the west. This garden is
indicative of what can be done. The land around the mission is all good and
easily cleared as it is covered with poplar.

Mr. Crean reports that in 1908 the priests at Ile à la Crosse had about
three acres in use as a garden. The Hudson’s Bay Company’s post had about
thirty-five acres ploughed and five acres in oats, which sell at that point at a
dollar per bushel. “The Hudson’s Bay Company grows potatoes for sale, but
the native, being almost entirely a flesh eater, looks on vegetables with
contempt.”
Mr. Crean stated that there were some good gardens at Canoe lake. One
Chipewyan grew some barley but cut it too soon. At the southwest of Canoe
lake the country rises considerably, and the soil is good. There is no
settlement but the country is adapted to farming.

Potatoes at Buffalo river.

“At Buffalo river there is quite a large settlement of Chipewyans. They
grow quite a little barley and some oats. The Chipewyans and some half-
breeds seem not to care for flour when left alone and so they grow barley in
preference to any other grain. It is easier to cook, being just thrown in soup.
The land on the northerly side of Buffalo lake is good but there are no
people living there. The Chipewyans at Buffalo river told me that they
never heard of the crop of barley being a failure for the past fifty years.”
At Methye lake, according to Mr. Crean’s report, there is a Roman
Catholic Mission near the east end, and a priest, Father Pinard, is in charge.

He has a small garden and had a little patch of barley. Both did well. At the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s post, ten miles away, on the west side of the lake,
there is a garden of about an acre. It looked splendidly on September 17.
The potato tops were not touched by frost. The swamp through which
Methye river flows, though very wet, produces

A Large Quantity of Hay.

The winter supply of feed for the cattle on Methye portage in its palmy
days was grown at Methye Post and at Buffalo lake at the mouth of Methye
river (hence called Bull’s House), but now there is no necessity for raising
grain or fodder, the Hudson’s Bay Company having abandoned this route to
the Mackenzie about the time of the Riel Rebellion in 1885. Mr. Crean says:
—“From conversation with the natives, the priest and the Hudson’s Bay
Company’s manager, I feel sure that the climate here would be quite
favourable to wheat raising. I am informed by the residents that this section
is not affected by early frosts, and the gardens which I saw certainly bear
out their statements.
“Pigs will, I firmly believe, thrive well in the north, and sheep will at
any rate not suffer from the raids of the coyote.
“Although the north may never seriously compete with the more
southerly latitudes in the wheat market, still, by judicious mixed farming, it
will eventually be equally productive and

Support a Dense, Thriving Population.

Mr. Crean thus described Clearwater river and valley:—“The
Clearwater is a stream varying from one hundred to three hundred feet
wide. It is fairly rapid, and generally about four feet deep. At several points
along the river there is a considerable fall where a substantial amount of
power might be developed. The valley is from half a mile to three miles
wide, and generally contains magnificent soil. In the upper region the
timber is large and almost completely covers the valley. On the slopes of the
valley, which are from two hundred to six hundred feet long and rather
steep, the timber still continues, poplar and some spruce, but once the bench
land is reached there are some large openings, and hay meadows to be

found. When the railway reaches McMurray, there is no doubt that a large
agricultural settlement will take possession of this beautiful valley.”
Mr. Crean writes in his report:—“The valley of Clearwater river would,
in my opinion, be a magnificent cattle range, and should be a farming
country. There are large open prairies, and the grass is splendid. Vetch and
pea-vine grow everywhere. I was greatly impressed with Clearwater valley;
it is quite similar to North Saskatchewan valley. The soil is a good loam
with a sandy clay subsoil. I had ample opportunity to observe it carefully as
the whole place in the vicinity of the portage is pitted with prospect holes.
The loam would be about a foot deep on an average.”
As to natural pasturage and hay in the area explored by him in 1908,
Mr. Crean states:—“Along Big river in the southern portion of the tract is

A Splendid Ranching Country.

Hay abounds, and water and shelter is easily obtained. The country is
principally open, dotted with bluffs of poplar, and hay is to be had
everywhere. The grass cures here and the rolling hills would be blown clear
of snow which would afford a winter range for stock almost equal to the
Porcupine hills in southern Alberta. Farther north, however, the country is
too flat until Methye portage is reached. The valley of Clearwater river
below Methye portage would furnish a cattle range that to my thinking
would be hard to beat. I am informed that there is even a better cattle range
in the valley of Pembina river, southwest of Methye portage, but I did not
see it. Generally speaking, in my opinion mixed farming would be the
industry best adapted to the entire tract explored. Everywhere I travelled
there was an abundance of hay and along the main routes hay was stacked
in quantities in many places but always with an eye to proximity to the trail.
Sometimes the meadows would be small but always numerous. At Green
lake there were particularly fine meadows, and I am told to the west of it is
even better.”
Mr. Crean, in the report covering Green lake, Ile à la Crosse, Methye
portage, Snake lake and Lac la Ronge sections, writes:—“It may be said
that the whole tract though not exactly fitted for agricultural settlement
throughout in its present state, is still capable of producing large quantities
of cereals and farm produce and supporting a large population. The over

abundance of water and lack of natural drainage, causing large swamps and
muskegs, might in my opinion be easily remedied by clearing out some of
the rapids on Churchill river and providing outlets for the surplus water
where natural outlets are lacking.”
Mr. Crean has the following general remarks to make as to the soil of
the district covered by his explorations in 1908:—“The soil throughout the
district varies so much that a general report of it would be inadequate. In the
southeasterly portion the soil is good, being a light loam, with a blue clay
subsoil; towards the west the soil is light loam with sandy clay subsoil.
North of Montreal lake the soil is still good but large stones occur more
frequently till at Lac la Ronge rock outcrop is met with. There are of course
fertile spots where the soil attains a considerable depth, but no large
compact areas of land occur in the northeastern part of the tract explored,
except at Stanley, where perhaps three thousand acres of arable lands may
be found in one block. To the west of Lac la Ronge though rock outcrop
continues; fertile spots occur more frequently, till at Trout lake there is no
sign of rock. The soil around Trout lake is light and rather sandy. Muskegs
occur frequently until Snake lake is reached. Sandy river flows through a
large hay meadow, bounded on the west by a muskeg or peat bog, extending
westerly to Ile à la Crosse lake. This hay meadow varies in width from one
quarter of a mile to three miles. Abundance of good hay might be cut along
this river. This whole country between Snake lake and Ile à la Crosse lake,

Needs Drainage

and there are few high spots in it except along the shore of the lakes or
rivers. On the west side of Ile à la Crosse settlement there is practically no
land fit at present for cultivation, the country being all low and almost a
muskeg. I explored this side pretty thoroughly for a distance of about sixty
miles and found it to be practically all the same, and almost the same level
as the lake. Along what is termed Deep river, connecting Ile à la Crosse lake
and Little Buffalo lake, the banks are higher and the land good, but this is
only a fringe along the river, seldom extending more than half a mile inland.
These muskegs could, of course, be easily drained. The soil around Buffalo
lake is light, but appears to be fertile. It is generally a light loam rather
inclined to be sandy, with a sandy subsoil. In some places the soil is much

heavier and is very fertile. Methye river flows through an immense swamp,
which extends for miles on each side, no ridges being even in sight. At
Methye lake the soil is very much better, being a heavy loam varying from
eighteen inches to almost any depth. Once the height of land at Methye
portage is crossed on the portage, the whole country towards the west takes
on a far better aspect, and the soil appears to be as good as could be
desired.”
With special reference to climatic conditions, Mr. Crean, in the report of
his explorations in 1908, says:—“The climate seems well adapted for
raising any cereal. In fact, wherever wheat has been tried it has grown
successfully. At Methye portage, which is considerably north (Latitude 56°
35′ 11′′), oats and barley have been grown. Wheat was not tried, but I feel
sure it would grow successfully, notwithstanding the relatively high
altitude. Methye portage has an altitude of about one thousand six hundred
and seventy-seven feet as compared with one thousand three hundred and
ninety-eight feet at Prince Albert. It is very much above the general level of
the country to the south and east.”

Low Altitude and Long Summer Day.

Mr. Crean quotes Professor John Macoun’s remark that “in considering
the possibilities of agricultural development of all this modern country, one
fact to be kept steadily in mind is the advantage of the low altitude and the
long day, which are fixed conditions and will always remain the same,” and
gives a table verified by Doctor W. F. King, Chief Astronomer of the
Department of the Interior, to compare the hours of sunshine on specified
days during the summer at Ottawa, Prince Albert, and Methye portage. On
May 1 the length of the day between sunrise and sunset at Ottawa (45 north
latitude) is 14 hours, 4 minutes; at Prince Albert (53 north latitude) 14
hours, 46 minutes; at Methye portage (56.36 north latitude) 15 hours, 12
minutes. June 20, the hours of sunshine are as follows:—Ottawa, 15 hours,
26 minutes; Prince Albert, 16 hours, 42 minutes; Methye portage 17 hours,
30 minutes. For August 20 the figures are:—Ottawa, 13 hours, 42 minutes;
Prince Albert, 14 hours, 17 minutes; Methye portage, 14 hours, 36 minutes.
Mr. Crean states that in 1908 “The first frost registered by my
thermometer was on October 2, when the thermometer fell to 24 degrees

Fahr. I was at Methye portage on September 17, and the potato tops were
not frozen in the least. The garden was also quite untouched. Nor had I seen
any frozen vegetables on the way up. . . . . . . The lakes began to freeze on
October 20, but remained open for perhaps two weeks, the weather turning
quite mild again. There was not sufficient snow to travel with dogs until
November 20, and the snow was not deep until December 15. The rainfall
in this district is ample, though not excessive, and its uniformity from year
to year is a valuable feature. As far as I could learn the heaviest rains occur
in the early summer

Just When Rain is Most Needed

for agricultural operations. The snow fall is not generally heavy, seldom
exceeding eighteen inches, and, as with the rainfall, is uniform.”

Green Lake settlement.

As to agriculture, actual and possible, in Green lake district, Mr. Crean
reports:—“At and around the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post on the north
end of Green lake there is a considerable settlement of half-breeds. A
Roman Catholic mission is established here. Revillon Frères have also a

post. The priest has a good garden having all kinds of vegetables, and also a
small fruit garden growing currants, gooseberries, raspberries and
strawberries. These all thrive and mature. Green lake is important as a
stopping place for freighters in winter and consequently large quantities of
hay are stacked. Some oats and barley are grown but no real effort has been
made to farm. Father Teston of the mission says that he has grown oats and
barley for fifteen years in succession and so far has not had a failure. I
interviewed a native named Morin, who said that he had grown potatoes,
oats and barley in small quantities for thirty-five years and could not recall
having ever had a failure. He has never kept a record of when he sowed or
when he harvested, neither has the Reverend Father. Morin owns thirty-five
head of cattle and twelve head of horses. He has sown wheat on six or
seven occasions and it always ripened. In his opinion there is no doubt that
wheat could be raised anywhere in the locality. The ice in Green lake goes
out early and it is generally very late before it freezes. The summers are
always warm and there is ample rain. The gardens, which I saw here, were
certainly fine although they were not cared for as they should have been.
Weeds were allowed to grow in profusion.”
In his report of his explorations in 1909 along the west side of Green
lake, Mr. Crean wrote:—“The crops were not very far advanced when I was
there, nor indeed did any resident sow grain to any extent. There was a
small field of oats, a small field of barley and the usual gardens. The
gardens, as is customary in the fur country, are neglected; but yet the
vegetables seem to grow in profusion. Lettuce and radishes in fourteen days
grow from the seed to a size fit for table use. On Sunday, July 14, I saw
some radishes one and one-half inches in diameter, fourteen days’ growth.”

Meadow lake district.

Oat field at Meadow lake.

Mr. Crean reports most favourably on Meadow lake district, west of
Green lake. He says:—“This section of the country is practically prairie and
contains, in my opinion, some of the very finest farm land in Canada. The
soil is exceedingly rich, there being in some portions twenty-four inches
black loam, with clay subsoil. The open prairie country is perhaps twelve
miles wide, and extends from Meadow lake almost to the fourth meridian.
At the Indian Farm Instructor’s house there was a plot of about five acres of
the finest of banner oats. I could not obtain any data as to when these oats
had been planted, but saw it on August 1, when it looked very well with
good promise of ripening in plenty of time before the frosts. A settler named
Evans is situated on the northern boundary of the Indian Reserve. In his
garden I saw beans, tomatoes, peas, cauliflower, onions, carrots and
parsnips, all doing very well. Mr. Evans came into this country last winter,
at least just before the spring, broke this land, harrowing it as well as
possible, and planted a garden on the sod on June 12. At Meadow lake there
are two or three large herds of cattle which are thriving well. The grass at
Meadow lake grows perfectly, and is of the very finest quality for feed. The
snow may be deep here, but hay is so easily procured that I am of the
opinion that it would balance the scarcity of winter range. There was
considerable disagreement amongst the people living in this country as to
whether the grass really ripened. I satisfied myself later on (in October) that

it really does ripen. The few settlers agree that two loads of hay will winter
one animal, that is, two loads for each head of stock, whether yearling or
full grown. Hay grows in such profusion that two loads to the animal could
easily be obtained for even a large herd of cattle. There is little doubt that
cattle fed and finished make better beef than range cattle, and the
opportunity of procuring finishing food (ensilage) is always present in the
northern latitudes. Hay here is by no means slough grass, but it is the

Finest of Northern Upland Hay.”

Professor John Macoun speaks in the highest terms of the nutriment
contained in this kind of hay. That there is ample of it is a certainty. An old
settler in this country is Cyprian Morin, who is a fine specimen of the old
half-breed or native; born at Methye portage in 1834, he is now as active as
a man of thirty. Morin’s mother died four years ago at the age of one
hundred and nine years. She was at that time quite capable of doing a good
deal of work; in fact, I am told, attended to all the baking. Morin who runs a
trading post and has raised barley and garden vegetables every year for
twenty years, has also eighty head of cattle and some thirty five horses; he
has never tried wheat. He says that the grass must ripen in this country (and
it does), as the horses remain fat all winter. About eight miles to the west of
Morin, a man named Fiddler has located, who has one hundred and fifty
head of cattle and sixteen horses. Last winter his losses were extremely
heavy. He told me that he lost seventy head of cattle, but said that it was
because the cattle had not recovered from their travelling over the trail from
Battleford. William LaRonde who also lives in this locality, his place being
situated on Meadow lake, has fifty head of cattle, all doing well. Reverend
Father Cochin has lately opened a mission here, and has a rather nice little
church, which is not yet finished. He has a good garden this year.”
With reference generally, to the whole area of country explored by him
in 1909, Mr. Crean stated in his report:—“In estimating the area of land
available in its present state for agriculture, I do not wish it to be understood
that it is one large tract, but that ten million acres of land in large and small
tracts out of the total is capable of producing crops, which will enable
settlers to make a comfortable livelihood. The land is almost entirely
covered by a growth of small poplar. There are some open places and a

good deal of swamp. I will, however, refer to this when dealing in detail
with the tract. The climatic conditions prevailing throughout offer no
obstacle to farming, and wherever experiments in agriculture have been
attempted they have always been successful.”

Whitefish Lake District.

Mr. Crean has this to say of Whitefish lake district (southwest of
Methye lake), which he explored in 1909:—“This section lies almost upon
the height of land between Arctic ocean and Hudson bay. The land is drier
and of a better quality than that to be found at or around Buffalo lake; still,
as is often the case in this north country, one finds muskegs, almost
impassable, either on top of, or very often half way up a considerable hill.
There are a great number of muskegs between Methye portage and
Whitefish lake, the country being flat and in need of draining. Whitefish
lake is two hundred and forty feet higher than Methye lake, that portage
which leads from it to Gypsy lake (eight miles in length) crossing the actual
height of land. From Gypsy lake the water empties into the Clearwater,
thence to the Athabaska and Arctic ocean. The natives at Whitefish lake
grow turnips, carrots, parsnips and potatoes, but lack seed of any other kind.
The potatoes are completely worn out and change of seed is certainly
necessary. Going southwest from Whitefish lake towards Pembina river, the
land improves, some very fine semi-open country being encountered. The
Indians at Whitefish lake, who travel a great deal, use horses rather than
canoes. The horses which I saw were not noticeable either for their
condition or their breeding, the former being extremely poor, and the latter
being absent,—Indian cayuses of the common type.”

Waterhen lake district.

As to Waterhen lake district north of and across Beaver river from
Meadow lake district, Mr. Crean, in his 1909 report, states:—“The country
surrounding Waterhen lake is for the most part good, especially that portion
which lies to the west of the lake, where there is some very fine land. Hay
grows everywhere, and though the country can generally be considered
wooded there are large openings. The land around Island river and Island

lake (Lac des Isles) is included in this tract. From Island lake to Beaver
river there is a portage of twelve miles, which passes through the finest
semi-open country. Pea vine and vetch are found in abundance. This good
land extends to the fourth meridian, perhaps beyond, but I did not go any
farther. No crops are grown. Indians there depend entirely on game, fish and
fur for a somewhat precarious living. Waterhen river passes through a very
large hay swamp shortly after flowing out of Waterhen lake. As it
approaches Beaver river, however, the land becomes more of a muskeg, and
although there are ridges containing arable land, the whole country may be
taken to be sorely in need of drainage.”
Mr. Crean did not go into the region north of Clearwater river, but he
made enquiries regarding it, and has the following to say about it in his
report:—“The country to the north of the Clearwater has not been explored
even by fur-traders or Indians. Occasionally one meets a half-breed who has
travelled through it, and the rumour current amongst the fur-traders is that
the country contains nothing but small lakes, jackpine and rock outcrop.
Still, the Indians who trap in this country kill nothing but beaver, which, it
is well known, live upon poplar; therefore I concluded the country must be
a poplar country and of some promise agriculturally.”

North of the Churchill.

Most of the information we possess as to the most northern portion of
the region under review, namely the country north of Churchill river, is
contained in the report by Mr. J. B. Tyrrell of the exploration conducted by
him in 1892. This report covers an area of about sixty thousand square
miles, bounded on the south by Churchill and Clearwater rivers; on the west
by the lower portion of Athabaska river; on the north by Athabaska lake,
Stone river, with its expansions, Black and Hatchet lakes, Wollaston lake
and Cochrane or Ice river; on the east by the lower part of Cochrane river,
Reindeer lake and Reindeer river. It lies between north latitudes 55° 20′ and
59° 37′, and east longtitude 101° and 111° 30′.
Mr. Tyrrell, in his report, gives some interesting information as to the
great lakes and the rivers which are such conspicuous topographical
features of this area.

Reindeer lake, from which Reindeer river flows, has an area of about
two thousand two hundred square miles, and an elevation above the sea of
one thousand one hundred and fifty feet. Its water is very pure and clear.
Wollaston lake is a large body of beautifully clear transparent water
lying in a general north-and-south direction, with a greatest length of about
fifty-five miles and an approximate area of eight hundred square miles.
Though smaller than Reindeer lake, it is very similar to it in general
character. Very many rocky islands rise abruptly out of its clear blue water.
Wollaston lake is the dividing line between the waters flowing to Churchill
river and those flowing to the Mackenzie, for it is not only drained by
Cochrane river, toward the Churchill, but Stone river flows from its
northwestern side, towards Lake Athabaska.
Lake Athabaska lies in a general east-northeasterly and west-
southwesterly direction, its southwestern end being in northern Alberta.
This lake has a greatest length of one hundred and ninety-five miles, a
greatest width of thirty-five miles, a shore-line of four hundred and twenty-
five miles and a total area of two thousand eight hundred and fifty square
miles. Its depth has not yet been determined.
Cree lake is a large elongated body of pure transparent water lying in a
general northeast and southwest direction, with a greatest length of forty-
nine miles and a width as yet undetermined. Cree river discharges its waters
towards Lake Athabaska.
Geikie river is, as far as is known, the principal tributary of Wollaston
lake. It rises in some small lakes near the source of Foster river, and flows
northeastward through a thickly drift-covered country. For long stretches it
is straight and without current, giving the appearance of a wide, quiet river,
or a chain of long narrow lakes.
The principal tributaries of the Churchill river on the north are
Mudjatik, Haultain, Foster and Reindeer rivers. Mudjatik river is a swift,
winding stream about eighty miles in length, generally flowing in a shallow
channel through a sandy plain, in the bottom of a wide depression between
ridges of granite. It is obstructed by comparatively few rapids, and these are
for the most part over ridges of boulders.
Mr. Tyrrell, and his assistant, Mr. Dowling, considered the whole of the
far northern part of this region as

Absolutely Unsuitable For Agriculture.

It is mentioned, in the report, that, under the trees at White Spruce rapid,
on Geikie river, pembina berries, raspberries, etc., were growing in
profusion in July, but no areas of arable land were found. All references to
the soil are unfavourable, these for instance:—“There is no soil of any value
for agricultural purposes along Mudjatik river.”
“The country surrounding Cree river is sandy and very barren.”

CHAPTER VII.

NORTHERN SASKATCHEWAN.

Tree Growth and Timber Resources.

A Rare Bit of Sylvan Beauty.—Ash-Leaved Maples Successfully Grown From Seed.—Notes
by The Way on Available Water Powers.—Much Country Covered with Small Timber Not
Generally of Commercial Value.—Some Areas of Good Timber Which Will be Invaluable
To the Settlers.

The wide belt of territory north of the Saskatchewan as far northward as
Churchill and Clearwater rivers, is pre-eminently a wooded country, its
resources in the way of timber being very valuable, and its forest-clothed
mounds, river valleys and lake basins imparting to it a beautiful park-like
appearance in marked contrast to the more monotonous scenery of the great
prairie country south of the Saskatchewan. There is little doubt that the
scenic beauties of the region, by attracting travellers, will, when there is
railway communication, contribute materially to the development of the
natural resources of this extremely promising portion of the, as yet,
unexploited northwest. Included in this territory is the famous scenery of
Methye portage, which for upwards of a century has excited the admiration
of explorers and travellers as perhaps the most superb natural panorama of
forest scenery in North America. Of the many books and diaries of men
who have had the privilege of enjoying this view, there is not one which
omits to pay tribute to its beauty.
Alexander Mackenzie, in the account of his trip of 1789, describes the
height of land overlooking the Clearwater from Methye portage as
commanding “a most extensive, romantic and ravishing prospect. From
here the eye looks down on the course of the little river, by some called
Swan river, by others Clearwater or Pelican river, beautifully meandering
for upwards of thirty miles. The valley, which is at once refreshed and
adorned by it, is about three miles in breadth and is confined by two lofty
ridges of equal height, displaying a most beautiful intermixture of wood and
lawn, and stretching on till the blue mist obscures the prospect. Some parts
of the inclining heights are covered with stately forests, relieved by
promontories of the finest verdure, where the elk and buffalo find pasture.
These are contrasted by spots where fire has destroyed the woods and left a
dreary void behind it. . . . . . . .”

Mackenzie, further, declares this “enchanting scenery” to be a
“wonderful display of uncultivated nature.”

Most Delightful Natural Scenery.

Harmon, writing in 1800, gives us the following as his impression of
this view:—“About a mile from this end of the portage is a hill, which
towers majestically to the height of a thousand feet above the plain below,
and which commands a most extensive and delightful prospect. Two lofty
and extensive ridges enclose a valley about three miles in width, which
stretches far as the eye can reach. Little river, which is also, by different
persons, denominated Swan, Clearwater, or Pelican river, winds in a most
delightful manner along this charming valley. The majestic forests, which
wave upon these ridges, the delightful verdure of the intervening lawn, and
the beautiful stream which wanders along through it, giving a pleasing
variety to the scene, until these objects become blended with the horizon,
form, on the whole, the most delightful natural scenery that I ever beheld.”
Sir John Franklin, in his account of his expeditions, writing of the view
from the heights above the Clearwater at Methye portage, describes it as
“the most picturesque and romantic prospect we had yet seen in this
country. Two ranges of high hills run parallel to each other for several miles
until the faint blue haze hides their particular characters, when they slightly
change their course and are lost to the view.”
Captain (later Sir) George Back makes enthusiastic references to this
beautiful view, for instance the following:—“A thousand feet below, the
sylvan landscape lay spread before us, to the extent of thirty-six miles, in all
the wild luxuriance of its summer clothing. Even the most jaded of the
party, as he broke from the gloom of the wood on this enchanting scene,
seemed to forget his weariness, and halted involuntarily with his burden

To Gaze For a Moment,

with a sort of wondering admiration, on a spectacle so novel and
magnificent. . . . . . . . . . . There is something appalling in the vastness of a
solitude like this.”

Sir George Simpson, in his narrative, speaks of “that noble view of
Clearwater river which has been drawn with so much truth and beauty by
Sir George Back.”
Bishop Tache, in the accounts of his travels, writes of the Clearwater:
—“This delightful little stream, rising to the east of Methye portage has, up
to the present time, and in spite of the difficulties of navigation, enjoyed
almost the exclusive privilege of supplying a route to Athabaska-
Mackenzie. On descending the heights of Methye portage one takes boat on
this little river which, in order to keep the traveller in the midst of the
beauties it presents to his view, places obstructions in the way, necessitating
the portages of White Mud, the Pines, Bigstone, the Horse and the
Cascades.”
The early travellers were also impressed with the fine trees in this
section of the northwest, and occasionally mention extra fine groves which
attracted their attention. For instance, Simpson speaks of “firs of great size”
on a projecting point in Methye lake, and, referring to one of his camps in
Clearwater valley, says:—“One of the pines, under shelter of which we took
up our night’s lodgings, measured three yards in girth at five feet from the
ground.”
As in other parts of Canada, forest fires have wrought dreadful havoc in
parts of this belt, but there still remains considerable areas of good timber.
The Venerable Archdeacon McKay, in his examination before the
Senate committee of 1907, stated that as to the country around Lac la
Ronge there is timber all through it, wherever it has not been destroyed by
fires. He explained that he put up a sawmill operated by water power at Lac
la Ronge in 1906. The logs that are sawn there are the kind of timber found
in that part of the country. They average seventeen logs to the thousand feet.
They would be logs fourteen or fifteen feet long. The diameter would be
about two feet across at the butt—good, large logs, clean timber, very much
the same timber as at Prince Albert. This good timber is scattered all over
the country, sometimes for miles. It depends on the nature of the country.
Asked how far this timber area would outskirt to the east, west and
north, the Archdeacon replied he would say that kind of country extended
all the way through right down to Lac la Ronge, and down all the way to the
border of the province. Although he had not been through it, he had
travelled backwards and forwards on it a good deal, visited Indian camps
and so on, and it is very much the same kind of timber all through. In some

places it is muskeg, and in some places heavy timber. Reindeer lake is not
north of the tree limit. There are trees there, but they are small. They do not
grow so large as farther south. It is a good way north of Reindeer lake
before the barren grounds are reached. The Archdeacon had never been
farther north than Reindeer lake.

Timber about Lac la Ronge.

Mr. Tyrrell describes the country immediately north of the
Saskatchewan as a thickly wooded belt, “which contains a large quantity of
timber, chiefly white spruce, trees up to eighteen inches in diameter. It is a
wooded country with trees from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter, tall
with clean trunks—good, nice timber. Of course, the timber does not grow
as large on high, dry, sandy ridges as it grows in the valleys. Most of the
timber is in good soil in the valley bottoms, but there is more or less land all
over. The poplar and birch affects the higher land, and the spruce and
hemlock the valleys.”
Mr. Dowling states that the sides of Green lake are “densely wooded
with poplar and spruce.”

Pioneer Arboriculture.

Speaking of his visit to Ile à la Crosse lake, Mr. Dowling states in his
report:—“Some ash-leaved maples had been planted in the garden of the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s post, which are now from ten to fifteen feet high,
quite healthy and bearing abundant seed.”
According to Mr. Dowling’s report “The timber in the rocky country
bordered by the southern shore of Lac la Ronge is not large or abundant.
Southward there is some improvement, and large individual spruce trees
occur occasionally. The ‘lob sticks’ at Big Stone, Hudson’s Bay Company’s
post, are fine examples of these. On Montreal river, small Banksian pine
cover the eastern slope of the sandy plateau. No large timber, spruce or
pine, is seen till near the lake, where at the southern end some groves of
large spruce occur. On the watershed south of Montreal and Deer lakes the
largest timber is seen. Here the formation of the country is evidently

morainic, but southward the country slopes gently towards Saskatchewan
river.”

Some Merchantable Timber Areas.

Mr. Crean reports that a considerable quantity of merchantable spruce
timber is to be found in Methye lake section. There is some remarkably fine
spruce along the banks of Whitefish river, and it extends in not very dense
forest across to Methye lake, a distance of about eight miles.
Summarizing the results of his explorations in 1908, Mr. Crean reports.
—“Although numerous prairie openings occur, this tract may be spoken of
as practically covered with small timber not generally of any commercial
value. The poplar is the principal growth, and, following the rule so well
known throughout the western prairie country, indicates good land. Some
spruce is found and large quantities of small second growth jackpine. There
is some tamarack. There is, of course, no white or red pine. The poplar in
some places would make fine pulpwood or barrel staves. Generally
speaking it is of no commercial value. There are several small groves of
good spruce along Churchill river, and at Methye portage there is a large
quantity of good spruce. Along Whitefish river the timber is large and of
good quality. On both the east and west side of Green lake some good
timber is found but it is scattered. Generally there is ample timber for
settlers’ use, but not enough to supply any lumber industry.
“Throughout this district there are many points where a large amount of
water power could be developed, and there are numerous small power sites.
The district might be utilized so as to create great industrial centres. The
great advantage of the numerous water powers is the fact that sufficient
power can be obtained at many points to supply the needs of a fair sized
community. On almost every stream there are sites where small powers
could be easily developed and grist mills, saw mills, lighting and pumping
plants could be operated at the minimum of expense. I did not gauge or
measure the possibilities of any of the water powers, but made rough
estimates of a few prominent ones. On Beaver river at what is termed Grand
rapids probably

Ten Thousand Horse Power Could be Developed.

Rapid river, which enters the Churchill about seven miles below Stanley,
falls seventy feet in one cascade. This should afford a large amount of
power. Churchill river between Ile à la Crosse lake and Knee lake, a
distance of about twenty-five miles, has a fall of eighty feet. This fall is
practically all in three rapids, all of which have sharp descents. At one rapid
there is a cascade eight feet high. All the tributaries on the north side of the
Churchill afford ample opportunity of development of power. Mudjatik
river is a series of water-falls.”
Mr. Crean, in his report of 1909, says:—“Waterhen river is very rapid,
and along it are several small falls and steep descents. These would be
ample to develop power for a small community, but not enough for any
commercial proposition. On Clearwater river occurs one of the best
commercial water powers which I have seen. It could be easily and
inexpensively developed.”
All reports agree in saying that there are numerous water powers
susceptible of development throughout the area under review, but there is
not much detailed information given on this point.

Prairie along Clearwater river.

Mr. Crean reports that along Whitefish river there is a considerable
quantity of good tamarack, but explains that although this timber would be
extremely useful to any settler going into the country, he did not think there
was sufficient for any commercial project. There is a considerable quantity
of timber north of Waterhen lake and river. There are several scattered
clumps of fine spruce in this locality which are passed on the string of small
portages when one is travelling from Waterhen lake to Island river. The
diameter would average perhaps twelve inches, but running up to twenty-
four inches.

The Native Timber Trees.

Mr. Crean incorporates in his report the following description, with
comparative values, of the most common kinds of timber found in the
north:—
“(1). White Spruce (Picea canadensis (Mill) B., S. & P.)
The wood is light, soft, not very strong, straight grained, light yellow,
with hardly distinguishable sapwood. This is the best tree for lumber
purposes in the northern forest, and is also one of the best for pulpwood. It
usually grows on higher ground than the black spruce.
“(2) Black Spruce (Picea mariana (Mill), B., S. & P.)
The wood resembles closely that of the white spruce, and as lumber or
pulpwood no distinction is made between them. The wood has a slight red
tinge and has paler sapwood. The black spruce grows usually in muskegs
and low places and owing to the coldness of the soil does not grow fast, and
is usually small, not usually over six or eight inches in diameter.
“(3). Jackpine (Pinus Banksiana, Am.)
The wood is light, soft, not very strong, close grained and dark, nearly
brown in colour, with light thick sapwood. This tree is used mostly for
railway ties and fuel, but is manufactured into lumber to some extent. It is
not equal in colour or smoothness to the wood of the spruce. It is used for
pulp, but has not so fine a fibre or colour as the spruce.
“(4). Tamarack (Larix americana, Michx.)
The wood is light brown, heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse grained and
very durable. It is used for railway ties, posts and dimension timbers. It is

not sawn into lumber, being more useful for other purposes, and is not used
for pulp.
“(5). Poplar, Aspen or White Poplar (Populus tremuloides, Michx.)
The wood is light brown with almost white sapwood. It is smooth and
easily worked. It is used for pulp and is cut into lumber for inside finish. As
it is a widely extended and quick growing tree it is used largely for fuel.
Next to the spruce it is the most valuable tree for pulp. It is manufactured
largely into finer grades of paper by the soda process.
“(6). Balsam or Black Poplar (Populus balsamifera).
The wood is light brown, with thick sapwood. It is rather coarse and not
strong. It is chiefly used for fuel, though sometimes cut into boards where
other lumber is not available. It is not so valuable as the aspen poplar.
“(7). Birch (Betula papyrifera, Marsh).
The wood is light, strong, tough, hard, very close grained, light brown,
tinged with red, with thick, nearly white sapwood. It is used for spools, lasts
and turned work generally. Birch fibre is short and brittle, and not easily
bleached, and is not suitable for pulp.”

Reindeer lake and river.

The district north of Churchill and Clearwater rivers, authorities agree,
is only thinly wooded, the growth becoming smaller towards the northern
limit. According to Mr. Tyrrell, the banks of Churchill river from Methye
portage to the north of Reindeer river are low and thickly wooded with
spruce and poplar. White spruce (Picea Alba) forms some groves of fair
size in the bottom lands along Reindeer river near Churchill river, but
farther north it is rarely seen except in some particularly favorable
localities. One small isolated grove of white spruce was found in a high
sandy island in Hatchet lake, standing out conspicuously in the midst of the
surrounding forest of small black spruce. Poplar (Populus tremuloides) and
Birch (Betula papyrifera) are the only remaining trees of any importance.
They are chiefly found in the vicinity of Churchill river, though small
scattered trees were seen on the banks of Stone river. The rocky shores and
islands of Reindeer lake are generally thinly covered with a sparse growth
of small, black spruce. The irregular shores of Wollaston lake are chiefly
composed of thinly wooded, rocky hills. Geikie river flows between low,

sparsely-wooded banks. The banks of Mudjatik river are thinly wooded
with Banksian pine and spruce. As to Cree river, surrounding country is
sandy and very barren supporting but a scanty growth of black spruce and
Banksian pine, with very little underbrush. Some fine, large, white spruce
were noticed at spots on Geikie river.

Near Lake Athabaska.

Mr. Tyrrell mentions that along the northeast shore of Lake Athabaska,
“Some good white spruce, up to fourteen inches in diameter, is growing on
the points.”
Mr. Tyrrell, before the Senate committee of 1907, in speaking of the
forests of the country north of the Churchill, explained that far in the north
there is the tract of country that has no trees on it; then a belt of country
from one to two hundred miles in width, with small Banksian pine, spruce,
larch, poplar and some white birch. He would not consider any of those
woods valuable for timber purposes, except locally. They would serve for
pulpwood, but the growth is not thick. Still over considerable areas there
might, of course, be a large quantity of timber for pulpwood. In that belt the
trees would average probably six inches. Occasionally you would find some
a good deal larger. The poplar grows on the drier lands. It is not an
indication of good land in an extremely northern country. It indicates a dry,
sandy soil, but further south it indicates excellent soil.

CHAPTER VIII.

NORTHERN SASKATCHEWAN.

Economic Minerals.

A Large Amount of Iron Ore in the Northeastern Corner of the Region, on the North East Side
of Lake Athabaska.—Indications Favourable for the Discovery of Coal.—Nickel and
Traces of Cobalt on Reindeer lake.—Medicinal Waters.—Bituminous Springs and Pit
Coal on Cree river.—Tar Sands Near Buffalo lake.

In the report of his explorations in 1892 and 1893, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell
notes the occurrence of several areas of Huronian quartzite along the
northeast side of Lake Athabaska. In one case, he states:—“At a distance of
a mile and a half from this island (four miles and a half east of Beaver
Lodge island) in a direction north 66° east, a conspicuous red hill rises one
hundred and twenty-five feet above the water, its abrupt red cliff standing
out boldly towards the southwest. On its northeastern side, at its base, it is
composed of thinly fissile quartzose schist, very much reddened, striking
north 30° west, and dipping south 60° west, at an angle of 10°. Farther up
the side of the hill the rock is a quartzite, interbedded with layers of
hematite, which in some places forms the larger part of the mass. The
summit of the hill, several hundred yards in length, is composed of a highly
hematitic quartzite, mingled with a large quantity of limonite, especially on
the higher points. In places the rock is a conglomerate, with quartz pebbles,
and a matrix of limonite. Other similar red hills can be seen in the distance
on the strike of the rocks, and the total amount of iron here and in the
vicinity is doubtless very large.”
Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, before the Senate committee of 1907, stated that from
a line at Cumberland House, on Saskatchewan river, northwestward to
Churchill river, and westward along Churchill river, the country to the south
is underlaid by the more recent clay rocks of the plains, and the mineral
wealth that is to be looked for there is

Coal and Iron.

He had considerable confidence in both those most useful products being
found in that country. Coal is found on Saskatchewan river at Edmonton,
and on Pembina river, west of Edmonton, and there are several more
outcroppings of coal down Saskatchewan river as far as Prince Albert. Most

of the country north of Saskatchewan river had not been explored for coal.
It is a country of gentle slopes covered with grass and wood, and the coal
outcropping in such a country is certain to be covered. There is no
possibility of seeing it as a natural outcrop. It has to be looked for, but it has
not been looked for in that country sufficiently to find it, so he was
perfectly confident that the same seams that outcrop on the Saskatchewan,
in the west at all events, would be traced much further north.
Writing in his report of his survey of the west shore of Reindeer lake,
Mr. Dowling states:—“From Priest’s point (proceeding southward), the lake
gradually narrows from a minimum width of four miles, to a narrow inlet
less than a mile wide at the outlet, and the course of this part lies very
nearly southwest and northeast following in a general way the strike of the
rocks. A band of dark mica-schists is crossed, reaching from near Priest’s
point to twenty miles southwest, and along the course followed through the
islands many small dykes of a quartzose fine-grained granite were found, in
which iron pyrites is freely developed. The beds of fine-grained gneiss on
Camping island, ten miles south from Priest’s point, are also found with
many veins of pyrites and on the hill in the centre of the island many of the
beds are very much rusted and decomposed. The pyrites are found to
contain a small percentage of

Nickel and Traces of Cobalt.

At the north side of a small creek on the west shore, southwest from
Camping island, the Indians report a soft soapstone or serpentinous rock
from which they make pipes, but a visit to the locality did not result in
finding this rock, which was then said to be obtained in small pieces from
the shore and generally under the water. The rock there was, however, a
light green sericite-schist, and it is possible that unfoliated or less cleavable
portions of this might be soft enough for the purpose named. The
stratigraphical relations of this band with the surrounding gneisses, could
not in the time at the disposal of the party be made out, so that it is
problematical whether this may be a small area of highly altered Huronian
beds or not. The next rock occurring to the south is a dark garnetiferous
gneiss, followed by reddish granitic gneiss to the outlet of the lake.”

Mr. Dowling mentions that in descending Reindeer river his attention
was attracted by the red colouring of a hill near the river, below the mouth
of Stump river. He states:—“On a nearer view, this red colouring is found to
be due to the debris of a decomposed band occupying the crest of the ridge.
The rock has been very highly charged with iron oxides and pyrites. The
strike of the beds is south 10° east, with dip eastward at angles varying from
60° to 80°. Several large seams of red granite cut into the hill and break up
the beds somewhat.
“A section of the hill shows a light, coarse gneiss near the bottom, with
a dark mica-schist, followed by a bed of light, rusty coloured gneiss having
a thickness of about five feet. This in some places seems to have been very
rich in pyrites and is weathered out to a reddish ochre. The outcrop is just
below the crest of the ridge, and from it the ochre falling down, stains the
whole face of the hill. Above, on the summit, the rock is mostly a dark-red
gneiss.”
Archbishop Clut, examined before the Senate committee of 1888, stated
that he had seen sulphur springs on Clearwater river. Asked if he had ever
heard of the existence of valuable minerals in any part of the country
northeast of Lake Athabaska, Bishop Clut explained that he had seen a man
named McCarthy, at Fond du Lac, Lake Athabaska, who told him that he
had discovered gold, but as he was not an educated man, the bishop did not
know whether he was mistaken or not. The man said he would not show it
to anybody, but that he was almost sure that he had found a gold mine.
Nobody had brought to him specimens of gold, silver or anything of that
kind from that region.

Bituminous Springs and Pit Coal.

Chief Factor A. McDonald chronicles in his journal having passed
bituminous springs on Cree river, south of Lake Athabaska, just above the
junction of the Pierre au Calumet or Pipestone river (McLeod’s “Peace
River”). He also reports having passed, the same day, “Large strata of pit
coal all along either side of the river.”
Mr. Alfred Von Hamerstein informed the Senate committee of 1907 that
“on Clearwater river there are first class medicinal springs. The natives
have been using the water right along, and it acts very well on the bowels. It

is like the well known Hunyadi mineral water. It is a very nice, picturesque
country, and the natives go up there and doctor themselves.”
In the course of his examination before the Senate committee of 1907,
Mayor Cook, of Prince Albert, explained that nobody in the region north of
the Saskatchewan bothers about the coal. Coal had been discovered at Lac
La Ronge—there was no doubt about that. Good samples had been brought
in, but nobody bothered with it yet because wood was so plentiful.
W. F. Bredin, M.L.A., stated before the Senate committee of 1907, that
on his way from McMurray to Prince Albert, he found that the tar sands
appeared on Buffalo lake, which is on the Churchill system of water, and
that, in his opinion, showed that the tar sands are both on the Mackenzie
water system and on the Churchill system, on both sides of the divide there.
Mr. Crean in his 1908 report says:—“At the narrows between Little
Buffalo lake and Buffalo lake, there is a tar sand outcrop. The Indians use it
to pitch their canoes.”
Mr. Crean also says:—“Lac la Ronge district is claimed to have great
possibilities as a mineral district. The Laurentian range of rock crops out
here and is easily traced to the northwest. Whether this outcrop really
contains mineral of economic value is still unsettled. Numerous claims have
been staked at Nickel island in Lac la Ronge and on the mainland close by,
also on Churchill river above Stanley. I had not time to prospect the
country, but from casual observation I should think that it would repay a
closer investigation. The vein on Nickel island is very distinct and about
eighteen inches wide on the outcrop. Several small companies have been
formed and development work in a limited way is progressing.”
So far there has been very little systematic prospecting for economic
minerals in the portion of the province of Saskatchewan north of the river of
that name, but the people of Prince Albert and Battleford and the pioneers
settled in the wilderness north of those towns, have for years believed that
coal, iron and other minerals will be found in the vicinity; trappers, traders
and Indians often return from the wilderness with stories of mineral
discoveries.

CHAPTER IX.

NORTHERN SASKATCHEWAN.

Game, Fur-Bearing Animals and Fish.

“So Fine a Country for the Chase That It May Be Regarded as an Extensive Preserve.”—The
Wood Buffalo Used To Roam Over It, but Do Not Now.—Moose and Caribou Plentiful.—
The Indians Kill the Moose for Their Hides.—Fish of Various Kinds in Abundance.—
Sturgeon That Weigh a Hundred Pounds.—One Indian Killed Eighteen Moose During
One Season.

As fish has always been the staple food of the inhabitants of that part of
the province of Saskatchewan north of the river of that name, and the fur
trade their only industry, it goes without saying that the country abounds in
fish and game. A very few quotations from travellers and explorers is all
that is required to give an idea of the species of fish and animals to be found
in this region, and of their occurrence.
In his account of his passage through the Clearwater country, Simpson
writes:—“This is a fine country for the chase, and so little frequented in
winter, that it may be regarded as an extensive preserve. We saw three
moose deer on the top of one of the hills, and their tracks and those of the
wood buffalo were numerous in every direction. The valley of the river is
entirely sheltered from the inclement north and northwest winds, but its
exposure to the east usually rendered the snow deep and soft, as we found
to our cost. . . . . . . . . Just before breakfasting we saw, on the northern hills,
a large moose, and a band of five wood buffalos sunning their fat sides—a
sight sufficient to make the mouths of the pemmican eaters water, but they
were beyond our reach, and, taking the alarm, quickly disappeared. The
declivities of the hills seemed, as we passed along, completely chequered
with the tracks of these and smaller animals.”
Mr. H. J. Moberly, chief trader of the Hudson’s Bay Company at Rapid
river, (Lac la Ronge) Cumberland district, forwarded the Senate committee
of 1887 evidence in writing regarding animal life in the far northwest. He
explained that he knew Saskatchewan (north) river and valley from the
mouth of the Saskatchewan on Lake Winnipeg up to its source in Rocky
mountains. He also knew Athabaska river and valley from its source down
to its mouth in Athabaska lake, and was well acquainted with all the country
between those two rivers, from Rocky mountains down to Carlton, and
from there, taking a line via Green lake, Beaver river, Ile à la Crosse lake,

Deep river, Buffalo lake, Methye river and lake, Methye portage and down
the Clearwater to its junction with Athabaska river, as an eastern line and
Rocky mountains as a westward. He knew well all the country between
Athabaska and Peace rivers, from their mouths to their sources.
As to wood buffalo, at the time Mr. Moberly wrote, there was a band,
probably about two hundred, between the Saskatchewan and the Athabaska.
(There are none there now). They kept on the mountains between Lac la
Biche and McMurray. Another band, probably three hundred strong, was
between Athabaska and Peace rivers on Thickwood and Birch mountains. A
third band, probably seven hundred strong, was scattered through the
mountains between Liard and Peace rivers, and from Salt river to the foot of
Rocky mountains.

Moose Run All Over the Wooded Country

north of the prairies and east of Rocky mountains.
The distribution of other game and fur animals in far northwestern
Canada was given by Mr. Moberly as follows:—Reindeer (cariboo), large—
all over the wood countries from Saskatchewan, to the barren grounds of
the north; reindeer, small—all over the barren grounds in the north, and
come south in winter as far as Lac de Brochet, Athabaska lake and Peace
river, close to Rocky mountains; red deer—Athabaska and Peace river
valleys; black tail deer, jumping deer and chevreux—same country as the
red deer; black and brown bears—all over the wooded country and Rocky
mountains; grizzly bears—Rocky mountains, valleys of the Peace,
Athabaska, Liard, and Fraser, but seldom farther than two hundred and fifty
miles from the foot of the Rockies; beaver—Athabaska, Peace river and in
fact all over the wooded country.
In his report of his exploration of the country between Churchill river
and Lake Athabaska in 1892, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell writes:—“The moose (Alces
Americanus), roams through the more thickly wooded parts of the country
as far north as Stone river, which is probably near the northern limit of its
range. Seven individuals in all were seen during the course of the summer.
The woodland caribou (Rangifer caribou) is said to occur in the more
southern portion of the district, near Churchill river, but none were seen.
The barren ground caribou (Rangifer Grœnlandicus) comes south in winter

to the south end of Reindeer lake and the upper portion of Mudjatik and
Foster rivers. It travels north in spring to the Barren Lands, but a very few
animals are occasionally left behind, one having been shot in July near the
north end of Cree lake. The Canada lynx (Lynx Canadensis) is moderately
abundant in some seasons in the more southern part of the district. The gray
wolf (Canis lupus occidentalis) roams over the country, but is not plentiful.
The coyote (Canis lisatrans) is found occasionally as far north as the height
of land, one having been shot by the writer on one of the small lakes near
the source of Foster river. It is, however, certainly not common in the
district. Red, black and cross foxes (Vulpes vulgaris), wolverine
(Guloluscus), marten (Mustela Americana), weasel (Putorius vulgaris),
mink (P. vison) and skunk (Mephitis mephitica) are all found in greater or
less abundance in the rolling wooded country underlain by Archaean rocks.
The otter (Lutra Canadensis) was found on all the streams north to Stone
river. The black bear (Ursus Americanus) roams over the whole country. A
few beavers (Castor fiber) may still be met with in many of the streams. A
considerable colony was found in the untravelled country near the source of
Geikie river, but our canoemen brought back word of this (to the Indians)
important discovery, and doubtless the beaver were killed during the
following winter. The muskrat (Fiber zibethicus) was seen swimming in all
the streams. The rabbit or American hare (Lepus Americanus) is found
everywhere in the denser woods, but it did not seem to be anywhere
abundant.

Fish in Abundance.

“Fish seem to be everywhere abundant in the lakes and streams, but the
number of species is very limited. The lake trout, (Cristivomer namaycush)
is, however, the largest of any of the finny tribes. One was caught near the
mouth of Stone river weighing twenty-five pounds. The whitefish
(Coregonus clupeiformis) is found everywhere throughout the district, but
more especially in the shallower lakes. The blue fish or Back’s grayling,
(Thymallus signifer) was caught in Stone river at the foot of the heavy falls
below Black lake. Pike, (Esox lucius), pickerel, (Stozostethium vitreum),
methy, (Lota lacustris) and two or three species of suckers, (Catastomus

teres and Myxostoma macrolepidota) were found in almost all the water
stretches.
Mayor Cook, of Prince Albert, when examined before the Senate
committee of 1907, explained that at that time he held the appointment of
inspector of fisheries. He testified that once, some years previously, on
Beaver river, he had seen thirty-two thousand whitefish caught in two
nights, which would average about two or two and one-half pounds each.
They put up the winter supply of fish in three or four nights. These fish
were caught by half-breeds and Indians. The fish were coming down after
spawning, and those catching them set the nets right across the river. This
happened in close season, “but they did not bother about that; it was the fish
they were after.” There are whitefish, trout, jackfish and some sturgeon in
Torch and Saskatchewan rivers. Reindeer lake and the small lakes all
around it are full of fish. They fish up there until December 1. Sometimes
the lakes are open until December 15, and break up again about May 15 to
20. It depends upon the size of the lake. If it is a very large lake it will take
a little longer. Witness had seen the lakes open on December 15. Those
lakes are teeming with fish,—whitefish, sturgeon and trout. The trout run as
high as fifty pounds.
The sturgeon run from ten to one hundred pounds. Witness had never
seen one over one hundred pounds. He had seen one whitefish that weighed
seventeen and one-half pounds, and trout that weighed fifty. He had them
for the exhibition in Ottawa, but the train was blocked and did not get
through. The biggest jackfish he had ever seen weighed forty-five pounds.
They have some little bits of things but they range up to that. In other places
they have big fish from ten to forty-five pounds in weight.
According to Mr. Crean, Methye lake is a fine body of fresh water and
is well stocked with fish. “Wild fowl of every kind abound here. Moose and
caribou are plentiful. The result of Nature’s bounteousness, is that the
native, content with Nature’s provision, grows nothing. He kills the moose
for its hide.”
In his report on the area explored by him, in 1908, Mr. Crean stated:
—“The staple food of the native north of the Saskatchewan is fish, and with
this commodity he is amply supplied. Whitefish are found in all the lakes
and rivers. Green lake is stocked to repletion with as fine whitefish as will
be found anywhere. Ile à la Crosse lake is also amply supplied. Canoe lake,

Marten lake and all the immense water area comprised of the numerous
lakes in this district are well stocked with this valuable food.
“Game of all kinds abound, the principal species being the moose, the
caribou, the deer, the black bear, the cinnamon bear, the lynx, the wolf
(timber), the fox, the wolverine, the otter, the beaver, the mink, the marten,
the muskrat, the rabbit, and the squirrel. Among the principal birds found
are swans, geese, ducks, partridges, ptarmigans, gulls, jays, (whiskey jacks),
kingfishers, crows, robins and loons.

Moose are Still Plentiful

but are being killed in large numbers by the natives and the wolves. The
same remark would apply to caribou of the woodland variety. The barren
land caribou or reindeer come down as far as Cree lake (one hundred miles
north of the Churchill) in numbers, and a few stray farther south. I shot one
in the muskeg just north of Lac Ile à la Crosse.”

Landscape in Clearwater valley.

Mr. Crean states that an Indian living on Snake lake at the mouth of
Sandy river killed eighteen moose during the autumn of 1908.

“Game, particularly moose,” according to Mr. Crean, “is plentiful in the
Meadow lake district, and easily obtained. Beaver are plentiful in one or
two districts, particularly along Clearwater valley and the rivers tributary to
the Clearwater from the north. They are, of course, very easily killed, and
consequently form a large portion of the fur in the north. When other fur is
scarce, the Indian devotes his attention in particular to the killing of beaver.
Muskrat were extremely numerous and were taken in very large numbers.
Early in the fall, however, before the fur could possibly be of any use they
were being killed in great numbers.”

THE ATHABASKA COUNTRY

CHAPTER X.

NORTHERN ALBERTA.

Agriculture and Arable Land in the Eastern Section or
“Athabaska Country.”

A Section of the West Where Officials of the Hudson’s Bay Company Were Directed to
Cultivate Gardens.—Some Points Where Wheat has been grown, Including the Sample
which took First Prize at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition.—Crude Indian Gardens
at Cowpar lake.—Livestock Grazing out in December and January.

A glance at the latest “Railway Map of the Dominion of Canada,”
published by the Department of the Interior, will show that the surveyed,
and consequently fully-explored, part of the province of Alberta extends
considerably farther north than do the lines which mark the northernmost
limit of the surveyed territory in Saskatchewan.
The areas of arable land in Northern Alberta are admittedly so extensive
and important, and there has been such a large accumulation of evidence as
to the latent agricultural wealth of the actual agricultural experiments in this
most promising region, that, with the object of enabling the reader the more
readily to follow the text, and to assist him in locating the geographical
points mentioned, it has been deemed advisable to divide the material
referring to arable lands and agriculture in this territory into two separate
chapters, corresponding with two divisions of the area immediately under
review. The country readily lends itself to such a division; in fact, invites it.
The region west of the 114th meridian has long been known and
designated as “Peace river country,” and possesses characteristics, and to
some extent, a history quite its own. The remaining or eastern half of the
territory, at least as far north as the lower reach of Peace river, is the main
basin of the Athabaska and, as such, will be treated as a distinct area in the
present chapter, the one immediately following to be devoted to the subject
of the arable lands and agricultural possibilities of Peace river country.
Athabaska river, which is the most southerly of the three great
tributaries of the Mackenzie, rises in Rocky mountains near Mount Brown,
at an altitude of about five thousand seven hundred feet, and pursues a
northeasterly and northerly course for nearly six hundred miles to
Athabaska lake, falling in this distance some five thousand feet, and being
interrupted by several series of rapids. In the first three hundred miles of its
course it falls about four thousand feet, and receives in succession Baptiste

river from the west, the Macleod and Pembina from the south, and the
Lesser Slave, draining the large lake of that name, from the west. Below its
confluence with the last named stream, the Athabaska turns southeastward
for some fifty miles and then resumes its northerly course. In the course of
the next one hundred and fifty miles it receives, in succession, La Biche
river from the east; Quito or Calling river from the west; Big Mouth brook
from the east; Pelican river from the west; and House river from the east.
Just below the mouth of the last river the Athabaska strikes a range of low
hills, and in forcing a passage through them is deflected eastward, and for a
distance of about seventy-five miles contains many rapids, falling in this
distance some four hundred feet. At the lower end of this stretch it receives
the waters of Clearwater river, its principal tributary below Lesser Slave
river. The Clearwater rises on the height of land between the Churchill and
the Athabaska, and pursuing a nearly straight easterly course for some one
hundred and fifty miles, mingles its limpid waters with the sediment-laden
flood of the latter stream. In the lower part of its course the Clearwater
occupies a deep valley and is very rapid. Thirty or forty miles above its
mouth it is joined by the Pembina, a stream of about equal volume. Below
the mouth of the Clearwater the Athabaska pursues a nearly direct course
northward, receiving Red, Moose, and Bar rivers from the west, and enters
Athabaska lake through a number of channels including alluvial islands.
Lake Athabaska was known to the pioneer fur-traders and explorers as
“Lake of the Hills,” and it is so described by Mackenzie and others.
The country drained by the Athabaska is

Mainly a Rolling Plain

and with the exception of a few areas of semi-prairie land, is well wooded,
with a forest composed mainly of spruce, fir, pine, tamarack, poplar, birch
and willow. A large part of its surface is occupied by mossy swamps, called
muskegs, and hundreds of ponds and lakes, of which Lesser Slave, seventy
miles in length, is by far the largest, occupy its shallow valleys. Immense
areas have been swept by fire, sometimes repeatedly, and in some places the
original forest covering has been destroyed and small prairies have
succeeded.

The first information we obtained as to the agricultural possibilities of
Athabaska basin came from explorers and travellers passing through the
most northern portion of it on their way to Peace river, Great Slave lake and
the Mackenzie via the old canoe route by Methye portage and the
Clearwater. In more recent years, particularly since the inauguration of
steamboat communication along the long navigable stretches of the
Athabaska and Mackenzie, the favourite route to the far northwest has been
down the Athabaska from Athabaska, and, as is only natural, our knowledge
of the resources of the country has increased greatly.
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, as far back as 1787, saw at a trading station
of Peter Pond, on Elk or Athabaska river, “as fine a kitchen garden as he
ever saw in Canada.”
It might be explained here, that in the spring of 1778, a number of the
Saskatchewan traders put their goods into a common stock, and placed Mr.
Peter Pond in charge of them, directing him to proceed to the Athabaska and
trade with the Indians. He took the present Hudson’s Bay Company’s route,
by Cumberland House, Frog portage, Ile à la Crosse, and on to Methye
portage and down Clearwater river to the forks of the Athabaska. Here he
built a house, and in the spring of 1779 planted garden seeds.
As a general thing, at the early trading posts, agriculture of any kind,
even the making of gardens, was neglected, and, rightly or wrongly, the
officials of the Hudson’s Bay Company got the credit of discouraging such
ventures. If this had ever actually been the settled policy of the company, it
was officially abandoned some time previous to the year 1826, for, writing
in the year mentioned at Chipewyan (north latitude 58° 40′) of
improvements in the country, the

Result of Judicious Arrangements

then recently effected by the directors of the Hudson’s Bay Company, Sir
John Franklin writes:—“They (the directors) have also directed, where the
soil will allow, a portion of the ground to be cultivated for the growth of
culinary vegetables at each of their establishments, and I witnessed the
good effect of this order, even at this advanced post, where the ground is
rocky; the tables of the officers being supplied daily, and those of the men
frequently, with potatoes and barley. Such luxuries were very rarely found

beyond Cumberland House on the route that we travelled during my former
journey.”
Sir John Franklin also mentioned a phenomenon which has a
considerable bearing upon the agricultural possibilities of this country,
namely the quick change from winter to summer and the rapid growth of
vegetation. He wrote of the advent of spring at Chipewyan in 1827:—
“There can scarcely be a higher gratification than that which is enjoyed
in this country in witnessing the rapid change which takes place in the
course of a few days in the spring. Scarcely does the snow disappear from
the ground before the trees are clothed with thick foliage, the shrubs open
their leaves, and put forth their variegated flowers, and the

Whole Prospect Becomes Animating.”

Sir John also mentioned that the first flight of swans northward was
noticed at Chipewyan on April 15, the first geese on April 20, the first
robins on May 7, and the first house martins on May 12. Barley was sown
at Chipewyan on May 15, potatoes on May 21 and garden seeds on May 22,
and it was expected that all would be ready for use by the close of the
following September.
Sir George Simpson’s party were regaled with “new, but very small
potatoes,” on August 11, 1828.
Sir J. Richardson, before the British parliamentary select committee of
1857, asked to state to the committee any general opinion which he had
formed of the capabilities of any considerable portion of the country which
he had traversed, for the purpose of settlement and colonization, replied:
—“With regard to the production of cereals, wheat may be grown up to the
58th parallel of latitude (same latitude as Fort Vermilion) in favourable
places, but only in parts.”
The report of the Dominion Government’s survey parties sent out in
advance of the Canadian Pacific contain important references to agriculture
in the country. In the report for 1877-78 (p. 332) appears the following
reference to Chipewyan (latitude 58·7°):—“Professor Macoun there
obtained in 1876, fine samples of wheat and barley—the former sixty-eight
pounds to the bushel and the latter fifty-eight pounds. At the French
mission, two miles above the fort, oats, wheat and barley were all cut by

August 26.” In 1880 report it is stated (p. 102), “Reverend Gordon said in
1880 that wheat and barley raised at Chipewyan received a medal at the
Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876.”
In the report of 1877-78 (p. 326) there is this reference to McMurray
(latitude 56·7°):—“Professor Macoun on September 8, 1875, found
tomatoes, cucumbers, wheat and barley, under cultivation together with all
vegetables found in kitchen gardens in Ontario. He spent ten days there and
obtained specimens of wheat and barley which

Have Astonished Everyone

to whom they were exhibited; many of the ears contained one hundred
grains and the weight of both wheat and barley was nearly ten pounds
above the ordinary weight per bushel. These grains had been raised on soil
comparatively poor—very poor for the district—and lying only a few feet
above the level of Lake Athabaska.”
In a report of his then recent trip through this country written by
William Oglivie, D.L.S., in 1884, he writes:—“A great deal of the soil
along the bank of the Athabaska was of very fair quality. At McMurray,
where there are a couple of small prairies or meadows, the soil is good, and
the root crops and garden produce raised there are generally very good. The
Hudson’s Bay Company have a garden at McMurray of upwards of an acre
in extent, and the Episcopal mission one of smaller area, but the soil is very
sandy. The Roman Catholic mission have a garden also, most of which they
obtained by draining a bog into the lake. In the season of 1883 (which was a
pretty favourable one in that district, being free from summer frosts) the
Hudson’s Bay Company raised about four hundred bushels of potatoes, the
Episcopal mission thirty bushels on a small patch, and the Roman Catholic
mission about five hundred bushels. Many of the retired Hudson’s Bay
Company’s servants also have small patches which they cultivate, potatoes
and fish being the principal articles of food used during the winter.”
Doctor Robert Bell, before the Senate committee of 1887, testified that
they grew cucumbers and melons as far north as Lac la Biche. He had seen
them there himself, and he was not sure but that they grew pumpkins, too.
He pointed out that where cucumbers and melons grow pumpkins will grow
also. It is hard, Doctor Bell pointed out in the course of his evidence upon

this occasion, to induce the Indians to grow anything. Even potatoes, which
they all know to be a safe crop, they will not grow unless encouraged by
supplying them. If supplied with seed in the autumn they will not preserve
any over the winter. They would not take the trouble to dig a pit or build a
cellar in which to preserve the seed, but in the spring, when the time comes
for planting, if anyone were to give them the seed they would plant it.
Artichokes would be very suitable to introduce amongst the Indians,
because they are very hardy and productive; the seed remains in the ground
and the Indians could not destroy it all.
Mr. Alfred von Hamerstein, who has lived in Athabaska district since
1897, trading and prospecting, was examined before the select committee of
the Senate of Canada in 1907.

S. S. Grahame at McMurray.

The agricultural resources of the Athabaska district, as far as this
witness could understand, were indicated by the farming that was then
actually being conducted

With Fairly Good Success

at Athabaska. At Baptiste lake there was, when the witness first went there,
no agriculture attempted. He was the first man to introduce farming there.
He kept a trading store, and the natives insisted on having different kinds of
seeds. Amongst others he got some flower seeds, and some lovely flowers
were raised. The people raise some crops there now. It is a very good
ranching country—first-class. Several people went up there with cattle. A
man named Mailloux took one hundred and twenty head of cattle, and they
were in good shape. The kind of grass there is a red top, a very big grass.
The country has all been burnt over and the timber has fallen, so the grass
cannot be cut with a mowing machine, but in some places they have cleared
away the fallen timber and can use machinery now. Vetches and wild pea
vines grow all over that country, but there is no bunch grass to be found; it
is mostly red top. How far north it grows witness could not say. He had
traced it up in very large quantities on Slave river. About a hundred or two
hundred yards from the river there is a big slough, and this grass grows all
along there very luxuriantly. There is no place along the northern shores of
Lake Athabaska where grass can be grown. It is mostly rock and muskeg.
At McMurray, according to Mr. von Hamerstein, the land is good, and
between the junction of the Clearwater and the Athabaska there is a flat of
land about three miles long, and from a quarter of a mile to a mile and a
half or two miles wide, which is very fine soil; but the rest of it is all hills
covered by an inch and a half of moss, under the moss being the limestone
rock. They raise good garden stuff at McMurray. A party there had good
crops for three years.
Where there is soil to be found it is very good, mostly old river beds or
where eddies have accumulated soil; but the rest is sand and muskeg. East
of McMurray there are several lakes, the centre of what is described as fine
hay country. The natives there have from sixty to eighty horses, and there
are reported to be

Good Grazing Patches

round the lakes. It is probably a better ranching country than an agricultural
one. To the northwest of this district are some muskeg lakes, where the
natives have quite a few horses and cut considerable hay.

From Fort Smith, going in a southerly direction to a place called Salt
river they have a very fine large prairie, and it extends right through to
Peace point. The people there are not given to farming. It is against their
interests, because they could make a living much more easily by hunting.
People often ask why they do not farm, but it must be remembered that in
order to raise a crop of potatoes they would have to stay by it the whole
season; and there is more variety in hunting. But some of them do farm and
raise a few cattle. The country is difficult of access; they do not get any new
stock, and it has become badly inbred. As a result he had seen cattle there
having the head of a bull and the body of a calf. There are not very many
cattle in there; only certain natives have them, and a man with four or five
head of cattle is a very rich man. Some patches of land are very good.
Mr. Elihu Stewart, who had travelled over the northwest while
Superintendent of Forestry, stated before the Senate committee of 1907 that
along the Athabaska the country is composed of a succession of rolling
hills, and there is a good deal of light soil. The valleys are very good, and
Mr. Stewart understood that the country through by Lake Waubascow, all
the way to Lesser Slave lake, is through a good district of country. Through
this district there is good land—perhaps not all the way through. Along the
Athabaska the country is light, second-class land, but Mr. Stewart found at
Calling river, some sixty miles below Athabaska, a man

Raising Wheat There.

He says he raises as good wheat as can be grown, but Mr. Stewart would
not consider from the appearance along the banks that there were the same
alluvial deposits that are found farther north.
Mr. H. A. Conroy of the Indian Department informed the Senate
committee in 1907 that the Indians and half-breeds told him that the country
between Great Slave river and Hay river is covered with buffalo grass,
excepting a little timber that grows in a fringe around Great Slave lake. He
had information from Indians living in that country that it is an open
country covered with prairie grass.
Mr. J. Burr Tyrrell, in his evidence before the Senate committee of
1907, remarked as to the country immediately north of Lake Athabaska that
it could not be considered as being within the arable area. The arable belt,

however, as one goes west from Hudson bay to Athabaska river, widens
enormously. He spoke generally of the vast country west of Athabaska river
to Peace river country, and said there is certainly a large tract of agricultural
land there. However, one or another may differ about the value of any
particular part of that country. In the country, going west into Peace river
region, there is certainly a large area of good land that Mr. Tyrrell would not
attempt to confine inside of such a belt as he had been speaking of.
W. F. Bredin, M.L.A., in his evidence before the Senate committee of
1907, said that descending Athabaska river from McMurray, where
Clearwater river goes into the Athabaska, the elevation of the plateau above
the river is very much less than it is on the upper river. It looks like a great
alluvial plain, from the river all along from McMurray to Lake Athabaska,
two hundred miles. That country is more or less timbered, and the soil is
excellent. Going down Slave river to Great Slave lake, for a distance of
three hundred miles, on the east of Slave river, it is all rocks; while west of
the river the country is all alluvial, and the soil is generally very good, right
down to Great Slave lake.
At Chipewyan on Athabaska lake the Roman Catholic priests have a
farm which was originally a muskeg, right amongst the Laurentian rocks,
and they grow wheat there that was awarded a

Medal at the Centennial Exposition.

The muskeg between the Athabaska and the Peace can all be drained and
cultivated. These muskegs are from a foot to three feet deep until you strike
hardpan. The moss keeps the heat of the sun out. In fact there is ice in some
of those muskegs all the year round, covered with moss.
Mr. Frank Crean, in his 1909 report, gives the following information
regarding the country west of Methye and Buffalo lakes and south of
Clearwater river:—“Along Pembina river there are fine hay meadows
which should enable anybody who desired to keep cattle to procure ample
feed for the winter. To the west of Cowpar lake there is a large prairie which
would certainly afford magnificent summer range, though I am informed
that in winter the snow is too deep for cattle to range out.” Northwest of
Cowpar lake Mr. Crean saw some horses grazing in December. Their owner

had made no arrangement to winter them, and Mr. Crean was told that the
horses thrived.
Cowpar lake lies just south of latitude 56°. It is a small lake, and of
itself of no great importance. The surrounding country, however, is
exceptionally good farming land, and to the east and south at about ten
miles distance is found the commencement of a large prairie about forty
miles long and varying from twelve to fifteen miles in width. This prairie is
in its present state fitted for agriculture. The Indians from Cowpar lake go
there in the spring and plant gardens, leaving them until the fall when they
bring the produce to their homes at Cowpar lake.
Mr. Crean continues:—“Pembina river flows through the south end of
this prairie, and several small lakes touch it. The prairie is watered by small
creeks draining into these lakes, and altogether it is

An Ideal Spot for the Pioneer,

as hay, water, wood and fish are to be found in abundance throughout its
extent. The land adjoining Cowpar lake on the east and south is all arable,
being open and rolling. To the northeast, towards Whitefish lake, the land is
also good. It is easy to predict that Cowpar lake will some day be a centre
of a considerable settlement, although at present the only occupants are
about four families of Chipewyans.”
Winefred lake, according to Mr. Crean, is a large body of water amply
stocked with fine whitefish, and Indians both from the south and north
come to Winefred lake to catch fish in the fall. The country surrounding the
lake is mostly swampy hay land, but might, he thought, be easily drained. A
good deal of muskeg is found in this vicinity, indeed, more than anywhere
else that Mr. Crean travelled on the watershed of the Athabaska.
About Heart lake the land is all good though somewhat rolling and
inclined to be broken. There is no more obstacle to farming around this lake
than there is anywhere else between it and Edmonton. The country is
identical with that passed through en route to Edmonton. In fact the country
is almost prairie, some bluffs of poplar being the only pretence of woods.
With reference to the northern portion of the area explored by him in
1909, Mr. Crean states:—“In the matter of attempts at agriculture the fact
that there is no demand for agricultural produce in the north prevents people

who live there from carrying on even experimental work. Wheat has been
grown successfully at McMurray, which was about the most northerly point
touched by me. Here, too, all the ordinary vegetables grown in the more
southerly portions of the province are grown with the greatest success.”
Mixed farming would appear to be an industry which most readily adapts
itself to northern conditions. Wheat can be grown in almost any part of the
north which I have explored. It is undeniable that northern latitudes increase
the likelihood of summer frosts. If, however, live stock is kept, the larger
yield of grain to the acre, even if slightly frosted, will pay quite as well
converted into beef or pork as a smaller yield of the better quality grain in
more southern latitudes.”
The officers of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police have contributed
considerable valuable information regarding the northern section of the
country under review in this chapter.
In his 1909 report, Inspector D. M. Howard, of the Royal Northwest
Mounted Police, referring to the northern section, wrote:—“In the northern
part of the district, Chipewyan and Smith Landing, very little grain is
grown. The Roman Catholic mission at Fort Smith have put in a small crop
of about fifteen acres under oats and barley this year as an experiment.
There are about thirty-five head of cattle all told in Chipewyan sub-district,
but the stock is not very good, being too much inbred. The Hudson’s Bay
Company brought in ten head of horses this year from Edmonton and the
Roman Catholic mission brought four from Vermilion; this, with the three
police horses, makes a total of about forty head.”
During the winter of 1909 Sergt. R. W. Macleod, of the Royal
Northwest Mounted Police, made a patrol across country from Fort
Vermilion to the mouth of Hay river on Great Slave lake. In his report (p.
178, Annual Report of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police for 1909), he
states that from Fort Vermilion for about sixty miles the country is prairie
with small poplar bluffs scattered over it, and the next twenty-five miles is
mostly pine bush with here and there a small prairie, then on into Hay river
at Horse track is prairie with poplar bluffs and willow scrub, a total distance
of one hundred and ten miles from Fort Vermilion. In 1905 the government
had a road cut out, corduroyed, and graded the entire distance suitable for a
wagon road. Previous to that time an Indian pack trail was the only way to
travel. The Hudson’s Bay Company and Revillon Brothers each built a sales
shop and residence at the end of the wagon road on the south bank of Hay

river, and have been doing business there in the winter only, for fur. There
are no white people in the country closer than Fort Vermilion. The country
between Hay river and Fort Vermilion is nearly

All Apparently Suitable for Farming,

with a splendid supply of wood and water. Hay river is about one hundred
yards wide at the Horse trace (local name) and is fed by numerous muskegs
to the north of Dunvegan on Peace river, and the southeast slope of the
divide between Peace and Liard rivers.
When Sergeant Macleod and his patrol were at Alexandra falls on
January 29, they found that three small bands of Indian horses were
wintering out on the portage, which is a prairie with poplar bluffs.
Corporal Mellor (of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police) in September
of the same year, made a patrol with horses into the buffalo country
southwest of Smith Landing. In his report the Corporal states that from Salt
river “we proceeded northwest through about eight miles of small poplar,
and then across a large stretch of prairie country. This is not prairie country
in the generally accepted term, but simply ground of a marshy nature,
perfectly flat, and covered with a luxuriant growth of grass. This would
doubtless afford splendid land were it not that the water thereon is intensely
salty and quite unfit for use. These prairies are of large extent stretching
from Peace river, in the south, I am told, to Buffalo river, in the north, a
distance of over one hundred miles. They are dotted all over with thick
clumps of willows, the only trees growing thereon.”

Indian Camp near Fort Smith.

In the last annual report of Superintendent G. E. Sanders, D.S.O.,
commanding “N” Division at Athabaska, and dated October 1, 1911, that
officer describes the area from Athabaska river to Great Slave lake and west
to the Rockies as an agricultural country. He states:—“The general state of
the district from an agricultural and business point of view is one of great
development and progress. The stream of settlement into the country round
about Athabaska and to upper Peace river and Grande prairie has continued
to a much larger extent during the year. With the influx of settlement traders
have followed and a general

Air of Prosperity Prevails,

with very optimistic hopes for the future. The homestead entries at
Athabaska for the first three months of this year exceeded the entire number
for 1909, and for the past months the entries are upwards of one hundred
and seventy-five in excess of those received during the whole of 1910. The
homestead entries at Lesser Slave lake and Grande prairie have increased at
an even greater rate. At the latter place, the first day the Land Office opened
there, seventy-five entries were received.”

“It was generally expected that the railway would reach Athabaska in
November, but the contractors have met with so many set-backs, due to the
weather, shortage of labour and, lately, sickness amongst their horses, that it
is extremely doubtful when the work will be completed.
“As a consequence of the coming of the railway the town of Athabaska
has experienced quite a boom in real estate, and the prices for lots in the
townsite and for land adjoining have become very high, lots that sold for
three hundred dollars last year are now exchanging hands at three thousand
dollars, and land within a mile has been sold for one hundred and seventy-
five dollars per acre. A great deal of building is going on and every one
predicts an important future for the place on account of its many natural
advantages, and its situation making it the distribution point for the vast
country to the north.”
In an interview, Hon. F. Oliver, ex-Minister of the Interior, stated, after
his long trip in 1910 (See p. 27) that along the rivers passed through
proceeding from Edmonton to the delta of the Mackenzie where the banks
are high the soil and climate conditions are perfectly good for agriculture.
So far as McMurray, conditions are entirely good for agriculture, judging
from what he saw himself and from what people told him.
The minister explained this statement by pointing out that the difference
in latitude is neutralized by the great drop in altitude and the

Influence of the Warm Chinook Wind.

Indian Family arriving at McMurray for Treaty.

McMurray, while two hundred miles farther north than Edmonton, is but
eight hundred and fifty feet above sea level, while Edmonton had an
altitude of two thousand two hundred feet.
Mr. Oliver here made reference to conditions which are to-day
recognized by men of science.
According to Mr. E. A. Preble, of the U.S. Biological Survey (See p.
22), “The climatic conditions of the various parts of Athabaska valley vary
considerably, according to location. The more open portions of the upper
part of the valley, though lying at a considerable altitude, enjoy the
‘Chinook’ winds, which so temper the climate that it compares favourably
with more easterly regions lying much farther south. Lack of detailed data
precludes the possibility of comparing absolutely the climatic conditions of
the upper and the lower Athabaska; but the effects of the ‘Chinook’ winds
are felt to some extent throughout the course of the river.”
According to the same authority—“The climate of Athabaska lake is not
radically different from that of other parts of the Mackenzie region which
are practically removed from the influence of the warm Pacific winds.
Though it lies at a low altitude, the proximity of the lake to the “Barren
Ground,” from which winds are frequent, keeps its average temperature
rather low. An occasional warm west wind slightly tempers the winter

climate. The Peace and the Athabaska break up at their mouths about May
1, but the neighbouring part of the lake usually does not open until about
the middle of May, and the eastern part probably not before June. The lake
usually closes at Chipewyan some time in November.”
Mr. H. A. Conroy informed the Senate committee of 1907 that he had
travelled through Athabaska-Peace river country once when for twenty-one
days in January he did not need his coat in the middle of the day. The cattle
were all out in the pasture fields. He had been going in there every year for
eight years, and had been there for five winters. Mr. Conroy stated that he
never saw a very deep snowfall in that country. He felt pretty sure that the
‘Chinook’ winds go through to Athabaska lake. He remarked that in that
country in the winter he did not suffer as much from cold as he had suffered
in Ottawa, and he slept out every night, sometimes under a tent and
sometimes in the open. He travelled once with a dog train and afterwards
with ponies, and got along very well with them.

THE PEACE RIVER COUNTRY

CHAPTER XI.

NORTHERN ALBERTA.

Agriculture and Arable Land in the Western Section or “Peace River Region.”

Where Wheat Has Been Grown with Remarkable Success for Many Years.—Scientific
Explorers Early Recognized this as a Wheat Growing Country.—A Head of Cabbage
Fifty-three and a half inches in Circumference.—Livestock Lives Out of Doors in Winter.
—According to a Church of England Missionary, Peace river Enjoys the Finest Climate in
the World.

The more westerly (or Peace river) section of northern Alberta is
attracting much attention on account of its remarkable agricultural
possibilities; and the numerous settlements which have, during the past few
years, been established, have practically demonstrated that the glowing
accounts which have from time to time reached the outside world as to the
fertility of Peace river country, have not been exaggerated.
Peace river, which has lent its name to the country along its banks,
whether in British Columbia or in northern Alberta, is formed by the
junction of Finlay and Parsnip rivers, two transmontane streams, and is the
largest and longest of the tributaries of the Mackenzie. It rises in and drains
a large district west of Rocky mountains, and then continuing eastwards,
intersects the axis of that range and drains the country lying along its
eastern slopes, through four degrees of latitude. Its length, from the
confluence of Finlay and Parnsip rivers, to the point at which it unites with
the waters flowing from Lake Athabaska to form Slave river, is seven
hundred and fifty-seven miles, but measuring from Summit lake, the source
of its principal branch, it is approximately nine hundred and five miles.
From the confluence of the Finlay and the Parsnip, the Peace flows in a
general easterly direction for some three hundred miles to its junction with
the Smoky, falling in this distance a little less than eight hundred feet. The
country through which it flows may be considered as a plateau in which it
has excavated

A Rather Deep Valley.

A number of streams, Pine river from the south being one of the largest,
discharge their waters into it. Back from the river the country is mainly
level or rolling, and is thinly wooded. Smoky river is the largest tributary of

the Peace. Its principal branches rise on the eastern slope of Rocky
mountains, and it drains a large extent of thinly wooded and prairie country.
Below the mouth of the Smoky, the Peace turns and pursues a winding
though general northerly course nearly to Fort Vermilion. It is bordered at
first by steep sandstone cliffs, but its valley gradually becomes wider and
shallower. Extensive plains comparatively level and clothed with grass or a
sparse growth of poplars, border it on both sides. North of Fort Vermilion
this character of country is said to extend to the valleys on Hay and Buffalo
rivers. The country between Peace river and Great Slave lake, however, is
very imperfectly known.
One of the first records we have of successful agriculture in Peace river
country is in the famous diary of Daniel Williams Harmon of the Northwest
Company’s service, who spent several years there. He speaks favourably of
the situation of Dunvegan (north latitude 56°, west longtitude 119°), where
he found himself located in October, 1808. He goes on to say in his diary:
—“Our principal food will be the flesh of the buffalo, moose, red deer, and
bear. We have a tolerably good kitchen garden, and we are in no fear that
we shall want the means of a comfortable subsistence.”
In an entry in his diary dated May 6, the following spring, Harmon
states:—“We have planted our potatoes, and sowed most of our garden
seeds.” Under date June 2, the same year, we find the entry:—“The seeds
which we sowed in the garden, have sprung up, and grow remarkably well.
The present prospect is, that strawberries, red raspberries, shad-berries,
cherries, etc., will be abundant this season.”
July 21 Harmon writes:—“We have cut down our barley and I

Think it is the Finest

that I have ever seen in any country. The soil on the points of land along
this river is excellent.”
Under the date of September 1, the same year, Harmon noted the
commencement of the annual migration of wild fowl southward, and on
Friday, October 6th, he wrote in his diary:—“As the weather begins to be
cold, we have taken our vegetables out of the ground, which we find to
have been very productive.”

In his diary for the following year, Harmon records a summer frost on
June 23, writing:—“The last night was so cold, that the tops of our potatoes
were frozen.” The frost in question does not seem to have damaged the
crops, for on Wednesday the 3rd of the following October this observant
diarist wrote:—“We have taken our potatoes out of the ground, and find that
nine bushels, which we planted May 10 last, have produced a little more
than one hundred and fifty bushels. The other vegetables in our garden have
yielded an increase, much in the same proportion, which is sufficient proof
that the soil of the points of land along the river is good. Indeed, I am of the
opinion, that wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, etc., would grow well in the
plains around us.”
It is very evident that all of the officials of the fur trading companies
who were on duty in Peace river country did not devote the same intelligent
attention to agriculture that Harmon and his colleagues did.
When Charles Horetzky, C.E., was at Dunvegan in 1873 (See p. 17)
there was no bread used, and the only vegetables served at meals were some
“very diminutive potatoes.” Mr. Horetzky comments as follows on this
subject:—“Owing to the fact that the Company’s agents are liable to be
suddenly removed from one post to another, those people are, not
unnaturally, averse to the expenditure of time and labour necessary for
farming experiments; hence the absence of farm produce at these posts. But
the natural advantages of excellent soil of unlimited extent, and the
proverbially early disappearance of the snow in spring, would lead one to
believe that good crops of barley, potatoes, and fall wheat might be
successfully raised in this part of the Northwest.”
One of the strongest arguments advanced by Mr. Horetzky in his
advocacy of Peace river pass route for the Canadian Pacific Railway was
that a line built via this route would open up

A Vast Fertile Region

situated to the south of Peace river—“a region probably comprising an area
equal in extent to Manitoba, well wooded with abundance of fresh water, of
excellent soil, and in all probability possessing unlimited quantities of good
coal. The climate is most salubrious, and, by all accounts, as mild as, if not
milder than, that of Red river. On the extensive plains bordering upon Peace

river, both north and south of it, snow rarely exceeds two feet in depth, and
never packs.”
The travellers and traders who have been in Peace river country are as
enthusiastic about its picturesque appearance as about its apparent fertility.
Mr. Horetzky reached Peace river a few miles above the mouth of the
Smoky September 30, 1873, and thus describes the scene:—“We feasted
our eyes on the glorious landscape now mapped out before us. A strong
westerly gale was blowing, but the air was so warm and balmy, that to
recline on the beautiful grassy sward, full face to the blast, was positively
delicious. For several miles, to the southwest, the noble river, flowing eight
hundred feet below us, on its silent course to Arctic ocean, could be
distinctly traced as it meandered through its mighty valley. Several large
and wooded islands dotted its surface here and there, causing eddies and
whirlpools, which in their turn made long and faint streaks of foam, barely
visible in the distance. From our position, and embracing an angle of fully
one hundred and thirty degrees, or, in other words, from the northwest
round to south, a boundless and nearly level expanse of country could be
taken in at a glance, the only breaks being the great valleys of Peace and
Smoky rivers, than which nothing we had ever seen could be more
beautiful, the former especially, in its magnitude and depth, surpassing all
we had anticipated.”
The pioneer missionaries attached to the Church of England and Roman
Catholic missions appear to have done more towards demonstrating the
agricultural possibilities of Peace river country, and the whole Mackenzie
basin, than the fur traders.
In the “Mission Field” of January 2, 1882 (a London monthly
publication of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel), the Right
Reverend Bompas, Bishop of the Church of England in Athabaska and
Mackenzie districts (his diocese comprising the centre Arctic watershed of
British America), published the following:—“The excellence of the land in
Peace river country for farming purposes is well known; the

Soil is Rich and Productive,

and the climate most salubrious. A mission station is established at Fort
Vermilion under the charge of the Reverend Arthur Garrioch, and a church

is fast approaching completion. Other mission stations have been started at
different parts of the river, and in 1878 a mission farm was begun which the
bishop hopes will in time obviate the necessity of procuring all the supplies
of flour, etc., from Red river, the expense of which, from heavy freights, is
so great that every bag of flour by the time it reaches the missionaries north
of Athabaska costs upwards of £5.”
It was as superintendent of the mission farms that the head of the
Lawrence family, the originators of farming on an extensive scale and by
scientific methods in Peace river country, was attracted there.
Besides the satisfactory pioneer attempts at tilling the soil of Peace river
country, the raising of live stock was many years ago demonstrated to be
successful. As early as 1823 there was an infant ranching industry there, Sir
George Simpson’s party having noted a small band of half a dozen horses
when approaching Dunvegan.
In the reports of the government explorers a great deal of interesting
information will be found as to the soil, climate, and agricultural
possibilities of Peace river country.
Professor John Macoun was the first scientific explorer to draw
attention to the agricultural possibilities of Peace river country, after making
a thorough examination of the natural flora, the soil, climatic conditions,
etc. Mr. Macoun had accompanied the first Canadian Pacific Railway
survey expedition, and had subsequently been botanist to the geological
survey party appointed to investigate this very country. There was much
information as to the agricultural possibilities of the country in Professor
Macoun’s official reports, and he summarized his conclusions in his book
“Manitoba and the Great Northwest,” published in 1882. He defines a tract
lying between the upper reaches of Athabaska river and the fifty-seventh
parallel of latitude, in Peace river basin, which he considers “may be
classed as fertile,” and estimates its area as about thirty-one thousand five
hundred and fifty square miles. Speaking of this tract, he states:—“Its
average elevation may be stated as little over two thousand feet, and this is
maintained with considerable uniformity, for though the general surface
slopes slightly from the north and south toward Peace river, the region as a
whole may be considered as a plateau through which the great gorge-like
valley of the Peace has been excavated.
“The northern banks of Peace river valley are also very generally open
grassed, and parts of the valley of the Smoky and other rivers have a similar

character. The total area of

Prairie Land, West of Smoky River,

may be about three thousand square miles. The remainder of the surface is
generally occupied by second-growth forest, occasionally dense, but more
often open and composed of aspen, birch, and cottonwood, with a greater or
less proportion of coniferous trees. Some patches of the original forest,
however, remain, particularly in the river valleys, and are composed of
much larger trees, chiefly coniferous, among which the black spruce is most
abundant. Handsome groves of old and large cottonwoods are also to be
found in some of the valleys. Where the soil becomes locally sandy and
poor, and more particularly in some of the more elevated parts of the ridges
before described, a thick growth of scrub pine and black spruce, in which
the individual trees are small, is found, and in swampy regions the taramack
is not wanting, but grows generally intermixed with the black spruce.
“Though the prairies are most immediately available from an
agricultural point of view, the regions now covered with second growth and
forest, where the soil itself, if not inferior, will eventually be equally
valuable. The largest tract of poor land is that bordering the valley of the
Athabaska on the north.”
Professor Macoun was examined before the Senate committee of 1888
and gave a considerable amount of information, all valuable at the time, and
much of it still so, as to the character of Peace river country from Macleod
in latitude 55°, to Lake Athabaska, up the Athabaska to the Clearwater, and
up the Clearwater to its head.
Starting from the Parsnip and through Rocky mountains, the good
country for agriculture commences, according to Professor Macoun, at
Rocky mountains portage at Hudson Hope (in British Columbia) or The
Hope of Hudson, as Capt. Butler puts it. From that point down the country
is suitable for agricultural purposes, the whole distance; on the prairie, not
on the slopes of the river, but on the prairie above. The north bank of the
river, that is the one facing south, has hardly any wood, but is covered with
berries, and witness found the cactus growing there. The other side of the
river, facing the north, was covered largely with spruce down to the river’s
edge, the whole upward slope. It was only the banks of the river that were

wooded; above, all was prairie, with poplar and willow in clumps. It was of
the same character as the North Saskatchewan, but with much taller grass.
Said Professor Macoun:—“While at Fort Vermilion, on Peace river, in
latitude 58° 24′, I was informed by old Mr. Shaw, who had charge of that
post for fifteen years, that

Indian Corn Would Ripen

well every year there, and at Battle river corn ripened three years in
succession, and that frost never injured anything on this part of the river.
The whole country at Fort Vermilion is a plain, not elevated at its highest
point more than a hundred feet over the river, but the greater part of it is less
than fifty feet. The soil is wonderfully like that of the second prairie steppe,
in the prairie region, as the surface is composed of black loam, mixed
apparently with limestone gravel. From Fort Vermilion, Caribou mountains
are visible about forty miles off. These may have the effect of keeping off
the cold winds from Great Slave lake, and hence the country is permanently
warm. Both days and nights have been warm down on this part of the river,
whereas on the upper parts, where high banks are, the cold was even felt at
night in August.
“The grain at Fort Vermilion was sown on May 8 and 20, and was cut
on August 6. Wheat growing among the barley and by the fences was
almost ripe August 12, when I was there. At Rocky mountain portage
(British Columbia), where Peace river issues from Rocky mountains,
latitude 56 degrees, we found a first rate garden with vegetables far
advanced, July 21; new potatoes, onions, and carrots were part of our bill of
fare. That was in 1875. Five days later, at Fort St. John (B.C.) vegetation
was even further advanced, and all kinds of garden stuff were in the greatest
perfection. Nigger Dan’s barley was colouring on July 26, and would be cut
the first week in August. His potatoes were large, and enough for fourteen
men were dug on August 2.
“I may mention that strawberries were fully ripe on July 6, at Hudson
Hope (B.C.). At Dunvegan, barley was almost fit to cut August 4. Cabbage
in the priest’s garden were closing, and all his garden vegetables far
advanced.

“At Battle river pease were getting ripe August 8. At Fort Vermilion
potatoes were very large and many heads of barley contained sixty grains,
others many more. I never saw such fine barley before. Barley was sown on
May 8 and cut on August 6—that is at latitude 58° 24′. At Red river (a small
fort, fifty or sixty miles below Fort Vermilion), they have no ploughs, and
the ground was broken up with a spade or hoe. The garden stuff

Was Wonderfully Luxuriant,

pease, Windsor beans and potatoes being far advanced; cucumbers started
and raised in the open air, a very large crop, and a number of them were
ripe on August 14.
“At Chipewyan mission, two miles from the fort, there were wheat, oats
and barley, a good crop as regards grain. Windsor beans were ripe and
pulled up on August 17. Wheat and barley were in stock August 26, and
specimens of these, which I brought to Ottawa, are here on the table.
“At Red river fort a Frenchman named St. Cyr had a garden, and he told
me he had a particular thing growing in the garden that he did not know
anything about. I went out to look at it, and there was a splendid patch of
cucumbers, many of them ripe. That was in August. I said: ‘These are
cucumbers; how did you start them?’ He said: ‘I got the seed from England
and put it in the ground, and that is what has come from it.’
“I passed down the Athabaska (from Chipewyan) to the Mission, and I
found growing on soil that would be of no value here whatever, sand and
muck, an old swamp where they had planted wheat on May 5, and I found it
in the stook on August 26, and brought away from it the grain that was
awarded the bronze medal at Philadelphia in 1876. It was forwarded to me,
but I said that it did not belong to me, but to the missionaries at Athabaska.
I exhibited this very lot of grain in Manitoba before Consul Taylor and
many other gentlemen, and the matter of the number of grains in the
fascicle was then discussed and made public. They took a quantity of the
wheat from me and shelled it, and Mr. Gouin, Inspector of Inland Revenue,
weighed it, and it showed a weight of sixty-eight pounds to the bushel.[15]
“The wild pea or vetch grows all through Peace river valley, but was
particularly noticed on the plateau above Fort St. John (in British
Columbia) in latitude 56°. Here it was actually measured by myself and was

found to attain a height of eight feet, while the weeds, such as the purple
fire weed of the east (Epilobium angustifolium) attained a height of seven
feet. These are given in illustration of the wonderful luxuriance of the
commoner plants on that high plateau. The vegetation throughout the whole
Peace river valley is of the most luxuriant character, and it seems

More Like That of the Tropics

than a country drawing near the Arctic Circle.”
Professor Macoun explained that in Peace river country, the snow
passes off so easily that as soon as it is off the ground and a few inches of
the soil thawed, the ground is ready for seeding, because the soil is friable
and the snow of little depth. The character of the month of September is
almost identical with that of the very best Septembers in Ottawa—a smoky
atmosphere with occasional white frosts in the morning, but generally a
calm atmosphere. In October the frosts get more severe towards the last of
the month. About the 25th at Chipewyan ice begins to form and the rivers
and lakes soon close.
Professor Macoun furnished the committee with some data from notes
kept by Daniel Williams of Fort St. John, commonly known as “Nigger
Dan.” These notes showed that from 1872 to 1875 the date for planting
potatoes varied from April 25 to May 10, and for sowing barley and oats
from April 22 to May 7. After September 22, in 1874, Williams dug over
one hundred bushels of potatoes.
William Ogilvie, D.L.S. (See p. 18) in his report of 1884, wrote:
—“Opposite Fort Vermilion, on the north of the river, there is an extensive
tract of prairie and poplar bluff country, which extends from the Peace to
the watershed between Peace and Mackenzie rivers, southwestward along
the Peace for about forty miles or more, and northeastward along the river a
few miles, until it merges into the country already described. This is said to
be a first class country in every way, well wooded and watered, with a rich,
deep, black loamy clay soil; and if the life of flowers and berries be any
indication of freedom from frost, this district is favoured in this respect, as
the berries ripen here when they are killed in the surrounding parts.
“The country southwestward from the end of this tract to Battle river is
described as woods and swamps, alternating with patches of prairie and

open woods, and from Battle river to the prairie near Dunvegan, generally
drier and with more prairie.
“It appears, therefore, that from Dunvegan, on the north side of Peace
river, down the river to Peace point, and thence to Salt river on the Great
Slave, there is a tract of country about six hundred miles in length and forty
miles wide, of which a large percentage is fit for immediate settlement, and
a great deal more could be very easily closed.
“Of the country southeast of the Peace, between it and the Athabaska,
very little is known. It was described by all whom I met, who had seen any
portion of it, as a rolling surface, the ridges heavily wooded with fair
timber, and many of the basins containing swamps and lakes of
considerable size. Out of one of the latter, Lake Wapisca, Loon river flows
into the Peace, and another stream called by the same name into the
Athabaska, at Grand rapids. Some of the ridges rise into high hills, and in
some of these, rock exposures are said to be visible.
“At Dunvegan, notwithstanding the severity of the frosts, the crops were
very good, both in quality and quantity. When I was there, the Roman
Catholic missionaries

Had Threshed Their Grain,

samples of which I brought back. The yield was as follows:—Fifty pounds
of wheat were sown on April 16 and reaped on August 20, and twenty-
seven bushels threshed of good clean grain; fifteen pounds of Egyptian
barley sown on April 18 and reaped August 20, and fifteen bushels
threshed, weighing fully sixty pounds to the bushel. The Hudson’s Bay
Company and the Church of England mission had not threshed, and could
not give their returns, but they were well satisfied with their crops of all
kinds. The Reverend Mr. Brick, of the Church of England mission, was
already using bread, when I was there, made from wheat of the present
year’s growth.”
Mr. Ogilvie in his 1891 report wrote as follows:—
“For a distance of six or seven miles back from Peace river valley there
is much prairie and meadowland, with some woods and swamps scattered
over it. The soil is an excellent black clay loam as rich as any I ever saw,
and the growth of hay and grass bears testimony to this fact. The dip of the

valley from this plain is very sharp and the banks very steep, falling about
eight hundred feet in a mile.
“At Fort St. John the Hudson’s Bay Company have a small patch on
which they raise potatoes and garden stuff along with barley and oats. The
grain always ripens and the vegetables are as good as one would wish to
use. Mr. Gunn, the officer in charge here, has been in Peace river district
since 1883, and in the interval he has wandered around the adjacent country
a good deal.
“The Hudson’s Bay Company have several bands of horses in the
vicinity of Fort St. John, only a few of which have ever been broken. These
animals live on the prairie on the north side of the river, winter and summer,
and

Very Seldom Are There Any Losses,

except by wolves, or when the Indians are starving they may quietly dispose
of one or two and report them lost.
“At Dunvegan, the Company has grown wheat, barley, oats, potatoes,
and garden stuff generally for many years with astonishing success. When I
was there in 1883-84, I saw grain and vegetables fully equal in quality and
quantity to any I have ever seen anywhere, the garden vegetables being
especially fine. Last year everything was harvested and stored when I got
there, but what I saw of the produce was excellent. I saw two sunflowers
which measured fourteen inches across the disc. With the corolla attached,
these flowers would have been nearly two feet in diameter. The seeds of
each weighed fourteen ounces and measured nearly a quart. A head of
cabbage was shown from which I stripped off all the loose leaves leaving it
fit for cooking and then measured and weighed it. It measured fifty-three
and one-half inches in circumference, and weighed twenty-eight and one-
half lbs. This was an exceptionally large head, of course, but the general run
of both cabbage and cauliflower was large and would be considered so
anywhere. Mr. Round, the officer in charge of the post, told me he two
years ago made a departure from the old fashioned method of growing these
plants, and instead of developing them in hot beds, he simply planted the
seed once for all in drills in the garden, and when they arrived at the proper
stage, pulled out the superfluous ones. He found this method just as

satisfactory and much less troublesome. The other garden vegetables were
just as large and good as one would wish to see them. Mr. Round informed
me he planted fifteen bushels of potatoes last summer, and after using them
freely for the sustenance of his family (five members) and the servants, in
all eight or ten, from the time they were fit for use, until they were
harvested, he harvested upwards of two hundred bushels. He sowed about
four bushels of wheat, and though the dry season much affected the result
he would have about sixty bushels. This grain is used in various ways, some
of it being ground into flour by the aid of small hand mills. He sowed four
bushels of oats, and though part of the crop was destroyed by a hail storm,
one hundred bushels were threshed. In 1890 he planted twenty-five bushels
of potatoes, and though they were freely used from the time they were fit
for use until harvested, seven hundred and twelve bushels were harvested.
The Anglican and Roman Catholic missions here also successfully raise
both grain and vegetables, the latter depending for much of their
subsistence on the results of their agricultural labours.
“This post has been in existence for the greater part of a century, and
more or less farming has always been done at it during that time.”
Mr. Ogilvie embodied in his report a number of extracts from the
Dunvegan post journal which are interesting as conveying an idea of the

Climate and the Growth of Vegetation.

Some of these extracts are worth requoting here:—
“1829. Ice began to move in the river April 12. Sowed barley April 17;
planted potatoes April 30; cut barley August 10; cut wheat August 25;
harvested potatoes September 24; first snow October 21; first drift ice
October 24.
“1830. Ice broke up April 28; sowed thirty quarts of wheat May 3;
sowed garden seeds May 4; planted potatoes May 5; cut wheat September
14; commenced digging potatoes September 27; first drift ice October 29;
ice set fast November 25.
“1886. Ice started to break up April 13; sowed barley May 12; planted
turnips May 13; planted potatoes May 17; began harvesting operations
August 20; cut buckwheat September 2; harvested potatoes September 23;

stored nine hundred and eighty-four bushels; slight snow October 12; first
ice drifting November 10; ice set fast November 30.
“1887. Ice started April 27; sowed oats April 29; sowed other seed May
2; commenced planting potatoes May 5; sowed garden seeds May 9; sowed
peas May 11; finished planting potatoes May 28; planted fifty bushels;
severe frost June 7, injuring young vegetables, etc., severe frost again on
June 25, cutting down everything to the ground, potatoes and all; July 29
new potatoes for the first time; first snow fell on September 16; commenced
taking up potatoes September 20; harvested six hundred and eighteen
bushels; took up turnips and carrots September 5; first drift ice in river
October 24, but it cleared out again and returned November 12; set fast
November 29.
“1888. Ice moved May 1; began sowing barley May 9; began planting
potatoes May 10; sowed oats and wheat May 15; sowed garden seeds May
16; sowed turnips May 28; slight frost August 1, injured garden stuff; cut
barley September 5; cut oats September 7; started taking up potatoes
September 27; finished October 3, five hundred and twenty-nine bushels;
took up turnips October 5; first snow October 15; first ice in river October
27; ice set fast November 27.”
Mr. Ogilvie continues, in his report:—
“I would now call particular attention to the mention of frost in June,
1887, and to the fact that it cut down vegetables to the ground. Alone there
is nothing very wonderful about the statement, as it is just what we would
expect frost to do; but in conjunction with using new potatoes for the first
time on July 29, just one month after the frost, and the further fact that

Six Hundred and Eighteen Bushels Were Harvested,

it is most astonishing. Mr. Round, the officer who made the entry, was a
witness of the event, and he is a gentleman whose sanity I would as soon
doubt as his word. I questioned him about it and he assured me
emphatically of its correctness. He can offer no explanations, if it is not that
a fog generally settles on the river valley after a frost and shields plants
from the direct rays of the sun a good part of the day; but even that does not
account for this case, as he assures me the potatoes were cut down, black, to
the ground.

“The Reverend J. G. Brick, Anglican missionary, who spent some time
at Dunvegan, combining farming with mission work, in 1886 started what
might be called a branch farm at Old Wives lake, about thirty-six miles
from Dunvegan, on the cart trail, between the latter place and Smoky river
crossing, on the plateau above the immediate valley of the river. Reference
will be made to this later.
“In 1889, he established himself in the valley of the river on the north
side, about five miles above the mouth of Smoky river. Here he has
established a mission and a school for the education of the young, on which
he bases all his hopes for the improvement of the natives. He keeps this
school open during the winter months, and as an inducement to attend, he
gives all the children who live at a distance their dinner.
“This gentleman took in with him a large outfit of farm implements and
stock. He has a small grist mill and threshing mill, with which he threshes
and grinds his grain. By grinding his wheat twice it makes a fair article of
flour, but his facilities for bolting it are not quite up to the times,
consequently his flour is not quite so white as our high grade flour, but it
makes good bread, nevertheless.
“He is well satisfied with his success agriculturally. He furnished me
with the following information relative to his doings in 1891:—
“Began ploughing April 11; sowed first wheat April 15; ice broke up
April 20; river cleared April 26; commenced harvesting August 20; cut
wheat August 27; about nineteen acres under grain, total yield six hundred
and ninety-eight bushels.

Wheat Two Hundred and Fifty Bushels on Six Acres;

oats two hundred bushels, barley two hundred and twenty-six bushels. After
all the grain was removed he raked the field and got twenty-two bushels of
grain from the rakings. He sowed two varieties of wheat, Ladoga, and
wheat he got in Manitoba, which he thinks is Red Fife, but is not sure; both
are beautiful specimens of grain. He has some two-rowed barley which he
procured while in England in 1888, when he obtained one pound. The yield
in 1891 was six hundred pounds of as fine, clean, bright and plump grain as
could be seen elsewhere.

“His Ladoga wheat was sown April 21 and harvested August 24, but he
allowed it to over-ripen, and thinks he lost at least four or five bushels while
harvesting. He sowed ninety pounds and threshed one thousand five
hundred. He obtained a sample of black Norway oats from Webb and
Company, England, which he sowed on five-eighths of an acre of ground,
last year. When harvesting it was all drawn off the field in one wagon load,
and when threshed it turned out sixty-four bushels of first-class grain. Last
year he tried Indian corn; it did not ripen, but yielded excellent green corn;
cucumbers were grown successfully, but did not ripen. Yet I saw as good
pumpkins fully developed both here and at Dunvegan as one would wish
for.
“Mr. Brick has about forty head of cattle, and several horses; last fall on
my arrival there he had about forty pigs, but killed some during my stay,
and only intended to winter about twenty-five. He employs a good deal of
local labour, and pays for it with food to a very large extent; in fact it is the
only way it could be paid for in the country. The hay for wintering the cattle
and horses is cut on the plateau about seven miles from the farm. He
generally allows his cattle to run out until Christmas, the grass on the
meadows being enough for them to feed on it after the early snows have
fallen. The horses not kept in for use are wintered out. The Hudson’s Bay
Company at Dunvegan have about one hundred and fifty wild horses, and
the Roman Catholic mission and the Indians also have many which always
winter out on the plains north of the Post, which affords them both food and
shelter, as the country between Dunvegan and Smoky river, crossing on the
north side, is particularly park-like prairie to a distance of twelve to twenty
miles back from the river. The woods afford them shelter and on the prairies
the rich grasses grow. There are also large areas

Where Excellent Hay Grows.

Flour Mill at Fort Vermilion.

No other attention is, or has been, given to these animals than to
occasionally send a man out to hunt them up and count them. This is not so
difficult a task as it would seem, as they run in bands; each band consists of
mares and a stallion, who will give fight to the death for his mares. Each
band is known by the name of its stallion, and as each keeps pretty well in
the one locality, it is not so difficult to keep track of them as it would
appear. I saw several bands on my way from Dunvegan and all were very
fat, notwithstanding that the cold winter weather had set in a month before,
and the snow had been a foot deep for ten or twelve days. ‘Chinook’ winds
occasionally visit this part of the country and carry the snow off; here also
they blow from the southwest. The approach of one is known some little
time before it arrives by the roar it makes. Many people in the country call
them the ‘high-winds’ they blow so strongly. They often visit Lesser Slave
lake.”
Mr. R. G. McConnell of the Geological Survey, in the report of his visit
to the country, wrote in 1888:—“Vegetables of various kinds are grown

yearly without difficulty, at Fort Vermilion, Lesser Slave lake, Whitefish
lake and Trout lake, while potatoes are grown by the Indians even on the
summit of Birch mountain, at a height of two thousand three hundred feet
above the sea. Wheat and other cereals have been fairly successful at Lesser
Slave lake and at Fort Vermilion, the only places where they have been
tried. The prairie country round Fort Vermilion equals in fertility the famous
Edmonton district and appears to enjoy an equally good climate, its higher
latitude being compensated for by its more western situation and by its
lower elevation. This district is about one thousand feet above the sea. In
the interior, narrow strips of aspen-covered, but excellent land, are usually
found along the main rivers, and surrounding many of the lakes, and
numerous areas, often

Equal in Size to Eastern Counties,

might be selected, which appear well adapted for cultivation, but the
numerous swamps, muskegs and marshes which separate these areas detract
greatly from their value. The western, and especially the northwestern,
portion of this district contains the most promising agricultural lands.”
Mr. McConnell, before the Senate committee of 1907, explained that his
exploratory work in Peace river country had been mostly along the streams.
He had, however, been over quite a bit of the tableland. He had nearly
always gone back from the river quite a bit, twenty or thirty and forty miles
in places. From Lesser Slave lake he started on foot with a couple of men
packing, and went through all the country between Lesser Slave lake and
Big Knife lake, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles. His mission
was specially to look for minerals, but, of course, he was supposed to keep
his eyes open for anything. As to the extent of land suitable for cultivation
in Peace river country, Mr. McConnell said there are aspen ridges all
through that country which may be good, but they are separated by muskegs
everywhere, except on the table prairie. These muskegs occur with solid
ground in between them, and in those places aspens grow, and where those
poplars are found the land is nearly always good. But the poplars do not
grow to any size. The aspen is not on the prairie; it is on the wooded
country, in between the muskegs. Besides there are occasional patches of
prairie at Fort Vermilion, following Peace river down, and also Grande

prairie. There is no large continuous prairie thirty miles from Edmonton
towards the north. There are occasional patches of prairie tableland with
only small areas of bottom land. The tableland decreases in height as going
northward. Farther down the Vermilion the prairie begins again. At Fort
Vermilion the country is not so much subject to frost as in the higher land.
Wheat has been grown there a great number of years. In the valley of the
river the low land on each side is fertile. There is no great quantity of it on
either bank. There are just these flats. Taking the aggregate it is a large
quantity because it is a tremendously long river. The valley is probably a
mile wide on both sides of the river.
Grande prairie, in upper Peace country, which is

About Seventy-five Miles Across,

is probably the largest area of open country, and there is a prairie following
Peace river about twenty-five miles. That disappears going down Peace
river, and the country is wooded and partly muskeg as far as Fort Vermilion.
Then there is another small prairie area. Taking the upper stretches of the
country, northward forty miles from the river, the country is partly muskeg.
Travelling across it with horses, one would run into a muskeg every couple
of miles, and there are ridges only a few feet higher than the muskegs, and
they are nearly always covered with poplar, and those ridges seem to be
fairly good agricultural land. But they are always separated by these
muskeg lands. This muskeg is very deep. Mr. McConnell had had horses go
down in it. Along all the streams there is a certain amount of good land.
There are a great many streams in that country, and in the aggregate the
amount of water is large.
As to Grande prairie, or north Peace river country, the soil is very good
there. There is a subsoil. It is a good wheat country, and in June and July it
is looked upon as the best wheat country in the world. He had noticed the
pea vine growing in that section, and so far as he could judge from going
over it, the country is a good agricultural one, except for frosts. There
happened to be some frosts both times he was there, but apart from that the
country is certainly good. There is swamp grass growing about the margins
of the small lakes. It was after the middle of the month of August that he