Writing _ Illuminating_ _ Lettering Edward Johnston 2283 downloads.pdf

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Title: Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering

Author: Edward Johnston

Contributor: A. E. R. Gill

Illustrator: Noel Rooke

Release date: October 10, 2014 [eBook #47089]
Most recently updated: October 24, 2024

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WRITING &
ILLUMINATING, & LETTERING ***

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
See Transcriber's Endnote for details of this transcription. Scans of the
original printed book are available from
archive.org/details/writingillumina00john.

THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS
EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY

WRITING & ILLUMINATING,
AND LETTERING

Frontispiece.
A SCRIPTORIUM

This drawing (about two-fifths of the linear size of the original) is
made from a photograph of a miniature painted in an old MS. (written
in 1456 at the Hague by Jean Mielot, Secretary to Philip the Good,
Duke of Burgundy), now in the Paris National Library (MS. Fonds
français 9,198).
It depicts Jean Mielot himself, writing his collection of Miracles of
Our Lady in French. His parchment appears to be held steady by a
weight and also by (? the knife or filler in) his left hand—compare fig.
41 in this book. Above there is a sort of reading desk, holding MSS. for
copying or reference.

E D I T O R ’ S P R E FA C E

In issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic Crafts, it
will be well to state what are our general aims.
In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of workshop
practice, from the points of view of experts who have critically examined
the methods current in the shops, and putting aside vain survivals, are
prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set up a standard of
quality in the crafts which are more especially associated with design.
Secondly, in doing this, we hope to treat design itself as an essential part of
good workmanship. During the last century most of the arts, save painting
and sculpture of an academic kind, were little considered, and there was a
tendency to look on “design” as a mere matter of appearance. Such
“ornamentation” as there was was usually obtained by following in a
mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little of the
technical processes involved in production. With the critical attention given
to the crafts by [p-viii] Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seen that it was
impossible to detach design from craft in this way, and that, in the widest
sense, true design is an inseparable element of good quality, involving as it
does the selection of good and suitable material, contrivance for special
purpose, expert workmanship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere
ornament, and indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of
fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship
when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought—that is, from design
—inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced from
workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into affectation.

Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language addressed to the eye; it
is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool.
In the third place, we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship
before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would
gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of academic art, the
competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a very few per cent. can fairly
hope to succeed as painters and sculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is
every probability that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient
period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure
of success.
In the blending of handwork and thought in [p-ix] such arts as we propose
to deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary
routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art. It is
desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back
into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of us “in the city,”
and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than
in the last to Design and Workmanship.
· · ·
Of all the Arts, writing, perhaps, shows most clearly the formative force
of the instruments used. In the analysis which Mr. Johnston gives us in this
volume, nearly all seems to be explained by the two factors, utility and
masterly use of tools. No one has ever invented a form of script, and herein
lies the wonderful interest of the subject; the forms used have always
formed themselves by a continuous process of development.
The curious assemblages of wedge-shaped indentations which make up
Assyrian writing are a direct outcome of the clay cake, and the stylus used
to imprint little marks on it. The forms of Chinese characters, it is evident,
were made by quickly representing with a brush earlier pictorial signs. The
Roman characters, which are our letters to-day, although their earlier forms
have only come down to us cut in stone, must have been formed by

incessant practice with a flat, stiff [p-x] brush, or some such tool. The
disposition of the thicks and thins, and the exact shape of the curves, must
have been settled by an instrument used rapidly; I suppose, indeed, that
most of the great monumental inscriptions were designed in situ by a master
writer, and only cut in by the mason, the cutting being merely a fixing, as it
were, of the writing, and the cut inscriptions must always have been
intended to be completed by painting.

All fine monumental inscriptions and types are but forms of writing
modified according to the materials to which they are applied. The Italian
type-founders of the fifteenth century sought out fine examples of old
writing as models, and for their capitals studied the monumental Roman
inscriptions. Roman letters were first introduced into English inscriptions
by Italian artists. Torrigiano, on the tombs he made for [p-xi] Henry VII. in
Westminster Abbey and for Dr. Young at the Rolls Chapel, designed
probably the most beautiful inscriptions of this kind to be found in England.
This volume is remarkable for the way in which its subject seems to be
developed inevitably. There is here no collection of all sorts of lettering,
some sensible and many eccentric, for us to choose from, but we are shown

the essentials of form and spacing, and the way is opened out to all who
will devote practice to it to form an individual style by imperceptible
variations from a fine standard.
Writing is for us the most universal of the Arts, and most craftsmen have
to deal with lettering of a more formal kind. It is a commonplace of
historical criticism to point out how much the Italian artists owed to the
general practice amongst them of goldsmith’s work, a craft which required
accuracy and delicacy of hand. We cannot go back to that, but we do need a
basis of training in a demonstrably useful art, and I doubt if any is so
generally fitted for the purpose of educating the hand, the eye, and the mind
as this one of WRITING.
W. R. LETHABY.
October 1906.

[p-xii]
“We must set up the strong present tense against all the rumours of wrath, past or to come. So
many things are unsettled which it is of the first importance to settle,—and, pending their settlement,
we will do as we do. . . . Expediency of literature, reason of literature, lawfulness of writing down a
thought, is questioned; much is to say on both sides, and, while the fight waxes hot, thou, dearest
scholar, stick to thy foolish task, add a line every hour, and between whiles add a line. Right to hold
land, right of property is disputed, and the conventions convene, and before the vote is taken, dig
away in your garden, and spend your earnings as a waif or godsend to all serene and beautiful
purposes. Life itself is a bubble and a scepticism, and a sleep within a sleep. Grant it, and as much
more as they will,—but thou, God’s darling! heed thy private dream: thou wilt not be missed in the
scorning and scepticism: there are enough of them: stay there in thy closet, and toil, until the rest are
agreed what to do about it. Thy sickness, they say, and thy puny habit, require that thou do this or
avoid that, but know that thy life is a flitting state, a tent for a night, and do thou, sick or well, finish
that stint. Thou art sick, but shall not be worse, and the universe, which holds thee dear, shall be the
better.”
—Emerson.

“I began to think that if I should discover how to make enamels, I could make earthen vessels and
other things very prettily, because God had gifted me with some knowledge of drawing. And
thereafter, regardless of the fact that I had no knowledge of drugs, I began to seek for the enamels as
a man gropes in the dark.”
—Palissy.
“. . . in that communion only, beholding beauty with the eye of the mind, he will be enabled to
bring forth, not images of beauty, but realities (for he has hold not of an image but of a reality), and
bringing forth and nourishing true virtue to become the friend of God and be immortal, if mortal man
may.”
—Plato.

A U T H O R ’ S P R E FA C E

WRITING

The arts of WRITING, ILLUMINATING, & LETTERING offer a wide
field for the ingenious and careful craftsman and open the way to a number
of delightful occupations. Beyond their many uses—some of which are
referred to below—they have a very great educational value. This has long
been recognized in the teaching of elementary design, and the practice of
designing Alphabets and Inscriptions is now common in most Schools of
Art. Much would be gained by substituting, generally, WRITING for
designing, because writing being the medium by which nearly all our letters
have been evolved from the Roman Capital (see p. 35), the use of the pen—
essentially a letter-making tool—gives a practical insight into the
construction of letters attainable in no other way. The most important use of
letters is in the making of books, and the foundations of typography and
book decoration may be mastered—as they were laid—by the planning,
writing, and illuminating of MSS. in book form. Of this a modern printer
(see also p. 368) says:
“In the making of the Written Book, . . . . . . the adjustment of letter to letter, of word to word, of
picture to text and of text to picture, and of the whole to the subject matter and to the page, admits of
great nicety and perfection. The type is fluid, and the letters and words, picture, text, and page are
conceived of as one and are all executed by one hand, or by several hands all working together
without intermediation on one identical page and [p-xiv] with a view to one identical effect. In the
Printed Book this adjustment is more difficult. . . . . . . Yet in the making of the printed book, as in the
making of the written book, this adjustment is essential, and should be specially borne in mind, and
Calligraphy and immediate decoration by hand and the unity which should be inseparably associated
therewith would serve as an admirable discipline to that end.”

And though calligraphy is a means to many ends, a fine MS. has a beauty
of its own that—if two arts may be compared—surpasses that of the finest

printing. This in itself would justify the transcribing and preservation of
much good literature in this beautiful form (besides the preparation of
“Illuminated Addresses,” Service Books, Heraldic and other MSS.) and
make the practice of formal writing desirable. And furthermore as the old-
fashioned notion that a legible hand is a mark of bad breeding dies out, it
may be that our current handwriting will take legibility and beauty from
such practice. And even the strict utilitarian could not fail to value the
benefits that might some day come to men, if children learnt to appreciate
beauty of form in their letters and in their writing the beauty of carefulness.
ILLUMINATING
Of the practice of ILLUMINATING—properly associated with writing—it
may be observed that, among various ways of acquiring a knowledge of the
elements of design & decoration it is one of the most simple and complete.
Moreover, a fine illumination or miniature has a beauty of its own that may
surpass the finest printed book-decoration. And pictures in books may be as
desirable as pictures on the wall—even though like the beautiful household
gods of the Japanese they are kept in safe hiding and displayed only now
and then. [p-xv]
LETTERING
Magnificent as are the dreams of a fine Decoration based on lettering, the
innumerable practical applications of LETTERING itself (see Chap. XVI.)
make the study of Letter-Craft not only desirable but imperative. And
perhaps I may here be permitted to quote from The Athenæum of Feb. 3,
1906, which says of “the new school of scribes and designers of
inscriptions”
“These have attacked the problem of applied design in one of its simplest and most universal
applications, and they have already done a great deal to establish a standard by which we shall be
bound to revise all printed and written lettering. If once the principles they have established could
gain currency, what a load of ugliness would be lifted from modern civilization! If once the names of
streets and houses, and, let us hope, even the announcements of advertisers, were executed in
beautifully designed and well-spaced letters, the eye would become so accustomed to good
proportion in these simple and obvious things that it would insist on a similar gratification in more
complex and difficult matters.”

Yet Ordinary Writing and even scribbling has had, and still might have, a
good influence on the art of the Letter maker, and at least the common use
of pen, ink, & paper makes it a simple matter for any one to essay a formal
or ‘book’ hand. A broad nib cut to give clean thick and thin strokes (without
appreciable variation of pressure) will teach any one who cares to learn,
very clearly and certainly. And though much practice goes to the making of
a perfect MS., it is easier than people suppose to make really beautiful
things by taking a little pains. As “copy book” hands simple, primitive pen-
forms—such as the Uncial & Half-Uncial (pp. 38, 70)—afford the best
training and permit [p-xvi] the cultivation of the freedom which is essential in
writing: they prepare the way for the mastery of the most practical
characters—the ROMAN CAPITAL, roman small-letter, & Italic—and the
ultimate development of a lively and personal penmanship.
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING & ILLUMINATING

Developing, or rather re-developing, an art involves the tracing in one’s
own experience of a process resembling its past development. And it is by
such a course that we, who wish to revive Writing & Illuminating, may
renew them, evolving new methods and traditions for ourselves, till at
length we attain a modern and beautiful technique. And if we would be
more than amateurs, we must study and practise the making of beautiful
THINGS and thereby gain experience of Tools, Materials, and Methods. For it
is certain that we must teach ourselves how to make beautiful things, and
must have some notion of the aim and bent of our work, of what we seek
and what we do.
Early illuminated MSS. and printed books with woodcuts (or good
facsimiles) may be studied with advantage by the would-be Illuminator, and
he should if possible learn to draw from hedgerows and from country
gardens. In his practice he should begin as a scribe making MS. books and
then decorating them with simple pen & colour work. We may pass most
naturally from writing to the decoration of writing, by the making and

placing of initial letters. For in seeking first a fine effectiveness we may put
readableness before “looks” and, generally, make a text to read smoothly,
broken only by its natural division into paragraphs, chapters, and the like.
But these divisions, suggesting that a pause in reading is desirable, suggest
also that [p-xvii] a mark is required—as in music—indicating the “rest”: this
a large capital does most effectively.
A technical division of illumination into Colour-work, Pen-work, and
Draughtsmanship is convenient (see Chap. XI.). Though these are properly
combined in practice, it is suggested that, at first, it will be helpful to think
of their effects as distinct so that we may attain quite definitely some
mastery of pure, bright, colours & simple colour effects, of pen flourishing
and ornament, and of drawing—whether plain or coloured, that will go
decoratively with writing or printing. This distinction makes it easier to
devise definite schemes of illumination that will be within our power to
carry out at any stage of our development. And while the penman inevitably
gains some power of pen decoration it is well for him as an illuminator to
practise in bright colours and gold; for illumination may be as brilliant and
splendid in its own way as stained glass, enamels, and jewellery are in
theirs.1 At first, at any rate, hues that have the least suspicion of being dull
or weak are to be avoided as though they were plainly “muddy” or
“washed-out.” The more definite we make our work the more definitely will
our materials instruct us; and such service must precede mastery.
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF LETTERING

Referring again to good LETTERING: the second part of this book deals
with some of its Qualities, Forms—the Roman Capitals & their important
pen-derivatives—and Uses. It is written [p-xviii] largely from the penman’s
point of view,2 but a chapter on inscriptions in stone has been added and
various types and modes of letter making are discussed. The essential
qualities of Lettering are legibility, beauty, and character, and these are to
be found in numberless inscriptions and writings of the last two thousand

years. But since the traditions of the early scribes and printers and carvers
have decayed, we have become so used to inferior forms and arrangements
that we hardly realize how poor the bulk of modern lettering really is. In the
recent “revival” of printing and book decoration, many attempts have been
made to design fine alphabets and beautiful books—in a number of cases
with notable success. But the study of Palæography and Typography has
hitherto been confined to a few specialists, and these attempts to make “”
books often shew a vagueness of intention, which weakens their interest
and an ignorance of Letter-craft which makes the poorest, ordinary printing
seem pleasant by comparison. The development of Letters was a purely
natural process in the course of which distinct and characteristic types were
evolved and some knowledge of how these came into being will help us in
understanding their anatomy and distinguishing good and bad forms. A
comparatively little study of old manuscripts and inscriptions will make
clear much of the beauty and method of the early work. And we may
accustom ourselves to good lettering by carefully studying such examples
as we can find, and acquire a practical knowledge [p-xix] of it by copying
from them with a pen or chisel or other letter-making tool. A conscientious
endeavour to make our lettering readable, and models3 and methods chosen
to that end, will keep our work straight: and after all the problem before us
is fairly simple—To make good letters and to arrange them well. To make
good letters is not necessarily to “design” them—they have been designed
long ago—but it is to take the best letters we can find, and to acquire them
and make them our own. To arrange letters well requires no great art, but it
requires a practical knowledge of letter-forms and of the rational methods
of grouping these forms to suit every circumstance.
THE SCOPE OF THIS HANDBOOK

Generally this book has been planned as a sort of “guide” to models and
methods for Letter-craftsmen and Students—more particularly for those
who cannot see the actual processes of Writing, Illuminating, &c. carried

out, and who may not have access to collections of MSS. Much of, if not
all, the explanation is of the most obvious, but that, I hope, gives it more
nearly the value of a practical demonstration. In describing methods and
processes I have generally used the present tense—saying that they “are
—”: this is to be taken as meaning that they are so in early MSS. and
inscriptions, and in the practice of the modern school of scribes who found
their work on them.
Regarding the copying of early work (see pp. 195, 323, &c.) it is
contended that to revive an art [p-xx] one must begin at the beginning, and
that, in an honest attempt to achieve a simple end, one may lawfully follow
a method4 without imitating a style. We have an excellent precedent in the
Italian scribes who went back 300 years for a model and gave us the Roman
small-letter as a result (see p. 47). The beginners attitude is largely, and
necessarily, imitative, and at this time we should have much to hope from a
school of Artist-Beginners who would make good construction the only
novelty in their work. We have almost as much—or as little—to be afraid of
in Originality as in imitation, and our best attitude towards this problem is
that of the Irishman with a difficulty—“to look it boldly in the face and pass
on”—making an honest attempt to achieve a simple end. Perhaps we
trouble too much about what we “ought to do” & “do”: it is of greater
moment to know what we are doing & trying to do. In so far as tradition
fails to bound or guide us we must think for ourselves and in practice make
methods and rules for ourselves: endeavouring that our work should be
effective rather than have “a fine effect”—or be, rather than appear, good—
and following our craft rather than making it follow us. For all things—
materials, tools, methods—are waiting to serve us and [p-xxi] we have only
to find the “spell” that will set the whole universe a-making for us.
Endeavouring to attain this freedom we may make Rules and Methods
serve us (see p. 221), knowing that Rules are only Guides and that Methods
are suggested by the work itself: from first to last our necessary equipment

consists in good models, good tools, & a good will. Within the limits of our
craft we cannot have too much freedom; for too much fitting & planning
makes the work lifeless, and it is conceivable that in the finest work the
Rules are concealed, and that, for example, a MS. might be most beautiful
without ruled lines and methodical arrangement (see p. 343). But the more
clearly we realize our limitations the more practical our work. And it is
rather as a stimulus to definite thought—not as an embodiment of hard and
fast rules—that various methodical plans & tables of comparison & analysis
are given in this book. It is well to recognize at once, the fact that mere
taking to pieces, or analysing, followed by “putting together,” is only a
means of becoming acquainted with the mechanism of construction, and
will not reproduce the original beauty of a thing: it is an education for work,
but all work which is honest and straightforward has a beauty and freshness
of its own.
The commercial prospects of the student of Writing & Illuminating—or,
indeed, of any Art or Craft—are somewhat problematical, depending
largely on his efficiency & opportunities. There is a fairly steady demand
for Illuminated Addresses; but the independent craftsman would have to
establish himself by useful practice, and by seizing opportunities, and by
doing his work well. Only an attempt [p-xxii] to do practical work will raise
practical problems, and therefore useful practice is the making of real or
definite things. In the special conditions attaching to work which the
craftsman is commissioned to do for another person, there is a great
advantage. And the beginner by setting himself specific tasks (for example:
making a MS. book for a specific purpose—see p. 100) should give reality
to his work. As a craftsman in Lettering he might get work in some of the
directions mentioned in pp. 337–341.
Although the demand for good work is at present limited, the production
of good work will inevitably create a demand; and, finally, the value of
Quality is always recognized—sooner or later, but inevitably—and

whatever “practical” reasons we may hear urged in favour of Quantity, the
value of Quality is gaining recognition every day in commerce and even in
art, and there or here, sooner or later we shall know that we can afford the
best.
EDWARD JOHNSTON.
October 1906.
My thanks are due to Mr. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, to Mr. Emery Walker, and to Mr. George Allen
for quotations: to Mr. Graily Hewitt, to Mr. Douglas Cockerell, to Mr. A. E. R. Gill, to Mr. C. M.
Firth, and to Mr. G. Loumyer, for special contributions on gilding, binding, and inscription-cutting: to
Mr. S. C. Cockerell for several of the plates: to Mr. W. H. Cowlishaw, to the Rev. Dr. T. K. Abbott, to
Dr. F. S. Kenyon of the New Palæographical Society, to the Vicar of Holy Trinity Church, Hastings,
to the Secretary of the Board of Education, S. Kensington, to Mr. H. Yates-Thompson, to Mr. G. H.
Powell, and to others, for permission to reproduce photographs, &c.: and to Mr. Noel Rooke and G.
J. H. for assistance with the illustrations and many other matters: I should like, moreover, to
acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. W. R. Lethaby and Mr. S. C. Cockerell for encouragement and
advice in years past.
E. J.

FOOTNOTES TO AUTHOR’S PREFACE:
1 See Chap. XVI. “Of Colour” in “Stained Glass Work” by C. W. Whall, in this Series,
and the illuminator might profit by the suggestion (ibid., p. 232) of playing with a home-made
kaleidoscope.

2 Dealing with the practical and theoretical knowledge of letter-making and
arrangement which may be gained most effectually by the use of the pen.

3 In making choice of a model we seek an essentially legible character, remembering
that our personal view of legibility is apt to favour custom and use unduly, for a quite bad,
familiar writing may seem to us more readable than one that is far clearer in itself but
unfamiliar.

4 Much remains to be found out and done in the matter of improving tools & materials
& processes, and it would be preferable that the rediscovery of simple, old methods should
precede new & complex inventions. We still find the Quill—for its substance & for shaping it
and keeping it sharp—is a better tool than a modern gold or metal pen (see p. 60). The old
parchment, paper, ink, gilding-size & colours are all much better than those now obtainable
(see pp. 51, 167, 173, 178–179). I should greatly appreciate any advice from illuminators and

letter-craftsmen as to materials and methods, and should endeavour to make such information
available to others.—E. J.

ADDENDA & CORRIGENDA

P. 51. Beginners practising large writing may more easily use a thin, or diluted, ink: in small writing
this does not show up the faults with sufficient clearness.
P. 59. Quills often have a sort of skin (which tends to make a ragged nib), this should be scraped off
the back.
P. 63. Until the simple pen-stroke forms are mastered, the pen should be used without appreciable
pressure. With practice one gains sleight of hand (pp. 85, 311), and slightly changing
pressures & quick movements on to the corners, or points, of the nib are used. The forms in
the best MSS. shew such variations; e.g. the Uncials in fig. 5 appear to have been made with
varying pressure (perhaps with a soft reed) & their fine finishing-strokes with the nib-point
(comp. forms in fig. 146). Versals likewise shew varying, and sometimes uncertain, structures
that suggest a form consisting of strokes other than definite pen strokes. [p-xxv]

Figs. a to n, illustrating Addenda & Corrigenda.

P. 64. A nib may be sharpened several times, before it is re-cut, by paring it underneath (fig. a).

Pp. 73 & 81. The thin finishing-strokes of j, & F, G, J, N, are made with the point of the nib—see
note p. 63 above.
P. 99. The plan of a paper scale is shewn in fig. b.
P. 109. The dots for lines were often pricked through the edges of the book-sheets which were cut off
after ruling (fig. c).
P. 118. The spread or wedge-shaped thin stroke, sometimes very strongly marked, is common in early
forms (fig. d).
P. 144. & : better (pen) forms of these are shewn in fig. e.
P. 208. Ornamental Letter forms may consist of flourishes, patterns, leaves, flowers, &c. (see fig. f).
Pp. 215–217. Diapering generally means the variegation, figuring, or flowering, of a plain or
patterned surface, with a finer pattern (see fig. 191a). Some diagrams of simple patterns (g–
g2 from modern cantagalli ware) are shewn in fig. g. Note: the more solid penwork line-
fillings in figs. 87, 126, make effective framing borders (see fig. h).
Pp. 219–220. Note: the principle of breaking straight or long lines, mentioned in regard to
background edges (p. 190), and illustrated in the line-finishings (fig. 126) and flourishes (fig.
79), is related to branching out and is re-creative, whereas the prolonged line is tiresome (see
figs. k, k1, & comp. k2).
P. 249. The B & D should be round-shouldered—see note p. 280 below. [p-xxvi]
P. 260. It is sometimes better to make narrow forms than to combine wide ones—example fig. l.
Pp. 270–275. The large types—“Old Face” (founded on Caslon Type) and “Old French” (modern)
Pp. 280–288. respectively—are used in these pages as reference or index letters (not as models).
P. 280. Generally round-shouldered letters have finer and more stable forms than square-shouldered,
and generally emphasis should be laid on the strong, thick stroke running obliquely down
from left to right ( ), while the weak, thin stroke ( ) is rather to be avoided (see fig. m).
The writing used in the diagrams in this book, considered as a formal hand, shews a little too
much of the thin stroke (see p. 485).
P. 324. Commonly letters are made more slender in proportion as they are made larger, and it is
generally not desirable (or possible) in practical work to have exactly similar proportions in
large and small lettering.
P. 325. g from fig. 173 inaccurate—comp. fig. 173 & see fig. n.
P. 331. Ornamental letters—see note p. 208 above.
P. 481. A small writing is often the most practical—in the matter of speed in reading and less bulk in
the MS., besides speed in the writing of it—but it is more difficult for the beginner to write it
well and it is apt to lose some of the virtues of formal penmanship (see Fine-pen writing pp.
59, 86, 311, 324, 482).
P. 485. Oblique thin stroke—see note p. 280 above.

CONTENTS

Editor’s Preface vii
Author’s Preface xiii
Addenda & Corrigenda xxiii

PA RT I
W R I T I N G & I L L U M I N AT I N G

CHAPTER I
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING 35
CHAPTER II
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (1) TOOLS
Acquiring a Formal Hand: Tools, &c. — The Desk — Paper & Ink — Pens: The Reed: The Quill
— Of Quills generally — Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c. 48
CHAPTER III
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (2) METHODS
Position of the Desk — The Writing Level — Use of the Pen — Holding the Pen — Filling the
Pen, &c. 61
CHAPTER IV
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (3) MODELS
Models — Notes on Construction: Script I. — Coupling the Letters — Spacing: Letters, Words, &
Lines — Uncial Capitals: Script II. — Numerals & Punctuation Marks — Of Copying MSS.
Generally 70
CHAPTER V
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE
Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a Single Sheet — Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose)
— Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) — Spacing & Planning Manuscript 85
CHAPTER VI
MANUSCRIPT BOOKS
MS. Books: Tools & Materials — Methods & Proportions — The Size & Shape of the Book —
The Widths of the Margins — The Size of the Writing, &c. — Ruling — MS. Books: General

Remarks 98
CHAPTER VII
VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS
Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals — Notes on Construction of Versals —
Spacing & Arrangement of Versals 112
CHAPTER VIII
BLACK & RED
Rubricating — Initial Pages or Title Pages — Prefaces & Notes in Colour — Pages with Coloured
Headings — Page or Column Heading & Initial — Versals in Column or Marginal Bands —
Stanzas or Verses marked by Versals — Music with Red Staves — Tail-Pieces, Colophons, &c.
— Rubricating: General Remarks 127
CHAPTER IX
LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD
Tools & Materials — Laying the Ground — Laying the Gold-Leaf — Burnishing the Gold —
Remedying Faults in Gilding — Gold Writing — Other Methods & Recipes for Gilding —
Appendix on Gilding (by Graily Hewitt) 145
CHAPTER X
THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL LETTERS & SIMPLE
ILLUMINATION
Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment, “Vellum,” & Pounce — Colours —
Simple Colour Effects — Matt Gold — Burnished Gold — Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines
— Background Capitals — Applying the Background — Ornament of Backgrounds 172
CHAPTER XI
A THEORY OF ILLUMINATION
Illumination — “Barbaric, or Colour-Work, Illumination” — “Filigree, or Pen-Work, Illumination”
— “Natural, or Limner’s, Illumination” 193
CHAPTER XII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
The Development of Illumination — Line-Finishings — Initial Letters — Borders &
Backgrounds 204
CHAPTER XIII
“DESIGN” IN ILLUMINATION
“Design” — Elementary Patterns in Decoration — Scale & Scope of Decoration — Of
“Designing” Manuscripts, Generally 214

PA RT I I
LETTERING

CHAPTER XIV
GOOD LETTERING — SOME METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION &
ARRANGEMENT
Good Models — The Qualities of Good Lettering — Simplicity — Distinctiveness — Proportion
— Beauty of Form — Beauty of Uniformity — Right Arrangement — Setting Out & Fitting In
— “Massed Writing” & “Fine Writing” — Even Spacing — Theory & Practice 237
CHAPTER XV
THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES
The Roman Alphabet — Proportions of Letters: Widths — Upper & Lower Parts — Essential or
Structural Forms — Characterisation of Forms — Built-Up Forms — Simple-Written Capitals
— Uncials — Capitals & Small-Letters — Early, Round, Upright, Formal Hands — Slanted-Pen
Small-Letters — Roman Small-Letters — Italics — Semi-Formal Hands — Of Formal Writing
Generally — Decorative Contrasts — Ornamental Letters 268

APPENDIX A
CHAPTER XVI
SPECIAL SUBJECTS
Divers Uses of Lettering — MS. Books, &c. — Binding MSS (with Note by Douglas Cockerell)
— Broadsides, Wall Inscriptions, &c. — Illuminated Addresses, &c. — Monograms & Devices
— Title Pages — Lettering for Reproduction — Printing — Inscriptions on Metal, Stone, Wood,
&c. — Of Inscriptions Generally — Bibliography, &c. 337

APPENDIX B
CHAPTER XVII
INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE
(By A. E. R. Gill)
Treatment & Arrangement — The Three Alphabets — Size & Spacing — The Material — Setting
Out — Tools — A Right Use of the Chisel — Incised Letters & Letters in Relief — The
Sections of Letters — Working in situ 389

Notes on the Collotype Plates 407
The Collotype Plates 431
Index 489

PA RT I
WRITING ILLUMINATING

Fig. 1.

PART I
WRITING ILLUMINATING
CHAPTER I
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING

Nearly every type of letter with which we are familiar is derived from the
Roman Capitals, and has come to us through the medium, or been modified
by the influence, of the pen. And, therefore, in trying to revive good
Lettering, we cannot do better than make a practical study of the best pen-
forms, and learn at the same time to appreciate the forms of their
magnificent archetypes as preserved in the monumental Roman
inscriptions.
The development and the relations of the principal types of letters are
briefly set out in the accompanying “family tree”—fig. 1. When the student
has learnt to cut and handle a pen, he can trace this development practically
by trying to copy a few words from each example given below. [p036]
THE ROMAN ALPHABET.—The Alphabet, as we know it, begins with
the ROMAN CAPITALS5 (see fig. 2). Their fine monumental forms were
evolved by the use of the chisel—probably under the influence of writing—
and had reached full development about 2000 years ago (see Plates I., II.,
and Chapter XV.).

Fig. 2.
FORMAL WRITING—the “book-hand” or professional writing of the
scribes—comes of the careful writing of the Roman Capitals (see also

footnote, p. 38, on the beginnings of fine penmanship). It was the—
“literary hand, used in the production of exactly written MSS., and therefore a hand of
comparatively limited use. By its side, and of course of far more extensive and general use, was the
cursive hand of the time”6 [p037]

In early cursive writing—the running-hand or ordinary writing of the
people—
“The Letters are nothing more than the old Roman letters written with speed, and thus undergoing
certain modifications in their forms, which eventually developed into the minuscule hand.”7 (See fig.
3.)

Fig. 3.
Here it is sufficient to trace the history of the formal Latin “hands,” but
the continual, modifying influence exerted on them by the ordinary cursive
writing should be borne in mind. Notable results of this influence are seen
in Half-Uncials and Italics.
SQUARE CAPITALS were formal, pen-made Roman Capitals, of the
monumental type: they were used (perhaps from the second) till about the
[p038] end of the fifth century for important books (see Plate III.).

RUSTIC CAPITALS were probably a variety of the “Square Capitals,”
and were in use till about the end of the fifth century (fig. 4; see also p.
297).

Fig. 4.—Æneid, on vellum, third or fourth century.
ROMAN UNCIALS were fully developed by the fourth century, and were
used from the fifth till the eighth century for the finest books (fig. 5).

Fig. 5.—Psalter, fifth century.
Uncials are true pen-forms8—more quickly written than the “Square,”
and clearer than the “Rustic” Capitals—having the characteristic, simple

strokes and beautiful, rounded shapes which flow from the rightly handled
reed or quill. The [p040] typical Uncial letters are the round D, E, H, M, U
(or V), and A and Q (see p. 300).
ROMAN HALF-UNCIALS—or Semi-Uncials—(fig. 6) were mixed
Uncial and Cursive forms adopted by the scribes for ease and quickness in
writing. Their evolution marks the formal change from Capitals to “Small-
Letters.”

Fig. 6.—S. Augustine: probably French sixth century.
They were first used as a book-hand for the less important books about
the beginning of the sixth century.
IRISH HALF-UNCIALS were founded on the Roman Half-Uncials
(probably brought to Ireland by Roman missionaries in the sixth century).
As a beautiful writing, they attained in the seventh century a degree of
perfection since unrivalled (see Plate VI.).
They developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a “pointed”
writing, which became the Irish national hand.

ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS (fig. 7) were modelled on the Irish Half-
Uncials in the seventh [p041] century. They also developed in the eighth and
ninth centuries into a “pointed” writing.

Fig. 7.—“Durham Book”: Lindisfarne, about A.D. 700.
(See also Plate VII.)
CAROLINE (or CARLOVINGIAN) WRITING.—While English and Irish
writing thus came from Roman Half-Uncial, the Continental hands were
much influenced by the rougher Roman Cursive, and were, till near the end
of the eighth century, comparatively poor.
“The period of Charlemagne is an epoch in the history of the handwritings of Western Europe.
With the revival of learning naturally came a reform of the writing in which the works of literature
were to be made known. A decree of the year 789 called for the revision of church books; and this
work naturally brought with it a great activity in the writing schools of the chief monastic centres of
France. And in none was there greater activity than at Tours, where, under the rule of Alcuin of York,
who was abbot of St. Martin’s from 796 to 804, was specially developed the exact hand which has
received the name of the Caroline Minuscule.”9 [p042]

Fig. 8.—British Museum: Harl. MS. 2790. Caroline MS. first half of
9th century. (See also fig. 171 & p. 305.)
[p043]

The influence of the Caroline hands (see fig. 8) presently spread
throughout Europe. The letters in our modern copy-books may be regarded
as their direct, though degenerate, descendants.
SLANTED-PEN or TILTED WRITING.—The forms of the letters in early
writing indicate an easily held pen—slanted away from the right shoulder.
The slanted pen naturally produced oblique thick strokes and thin strokes,
and the letters were “tilted” (see fig. 9).
In the highly finished hands—used from the sixth to the eighth centuries
—such as the later Uncials and the Roman, Irish, and English Half-Uncials,
the pen was manipulated or cut so that the thin strokes were approximately
horizontal, and the thick strokes vertical (fig. 10). The earlier and easier
practice came into fashion again in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the
round Irish and English hands became “pointed” as a result of slanting the
pen.

The alteration in widths and directions of pen strokes, due to the use of
the “slanted pen,” had these effects on the half-uncial forms (see fig. 11):—
1. The thin strokes taking an oblique (upward) direction (a) (giving a
sharp angle with the verticals (d, a)) led to angularity and narrower forms
(a1), and a marked contrast between thick and thin strokes—due to the
abrupt change from one to the other (a2).
2. The thick strokes becoming oblique (b) caused a thickening of the
curves below on the left (b1), and above on the right (b2), which gave heavy
shoulders and feet.
3. The horizontal strokes becoming thicker (c) gave stronger and less
elegant forms. [p044]

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.
[p045]

4. The vertical strokes becoming thinner (d) (with oblique or pointed
ends—not square ended) increased the tendency to narrow letters.

Fig. 11.
It is to be noted that the Caroline letters—though written with a “slanted
pen”—kept the open, round appearance of the earlier forms. [p046]

TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH CENTURY WRITING.—The easy
use of the slanted pen, and the lateral compression of the letters which
naturally followed, resulted in a valuable economy of time and space in the
making of books. This lateral compression is strongly marked in the tenth
century (see fig. 12), and in the eleventh and twelfth centuries it caused
curves to give place to angles, and writing to become “Gothic” in character
(see Plate XI.).

Fig. 12.—Psalter: English tenth century.
(See also Plate VIII.)
THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND FIFTEENTH CENTURY
WRITING.—The tendency to compression continued, and a further
economy of space was effected in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by
the general use of much smaller writing (see fig. 13). In the fifteenth
century writing grew larger and taller again, but the letters had steadily
become [p047] narrower, more angular, and stiffer, till the written page
consisted of rows of perpendicular thick strokes with heads and feet

connected by oblique hair-lines—which often look as if they had been
dashed in after with a fine pen—all made with an almost mechanical
precision (see Plate XVII.).

Fig. 13.—Colophon of English MS., dated 1254.
ITALIAN WRITING.—In Italy alone the roundness of the earlier hands
was preserved, and though in course of time the letters were affected by the
“Gothic” tendency, they never lost the curved forms or acquired the extreme
angularity which is seen in the writings of Northern Europe (compare Plates
X. and XI.).
At the time of the Renaissance the Italian scribes remodelled their
“hands” on the beautiful Italian writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries
(see Plates X. and XVIII., XIX., XX.). The early Italian printers followed
after the scribes and modelled their types on these round clear letters. And
thus the fifteenth century Italian formal writing became the foundation of
the “Roman” small letters, which have superseded all others for the printing
of books. [p048]
ITALICS.—The Roman Letters, together with the cursive hand of the
time, gave rise to “Italic” letters (see fig. 1, & pp. 311, 316, 483).
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS originated in the simple written forms, which
were developed for special purposes, and were made larger or written in
colour (see Versals, &c., fig. 1, 189).

Their first object was to mark important words, or the beginnings of
verses, chapters, or books. As Initial Letters they were much modified and
embellished, and so gave rise to the art of Illumination (see pp. 113, 114).

CHAPTER II
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (1) TOOLS
Acquiring a Formal Hand: Tools, &c. — The Desk — Paper & Ink — Pens: The Reed: The Quill —
Of Quills generally — Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c.

ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: TOOLS, &C.
The simplest way of learning how to make letters is to acquire a fine formal
hand. To this end a legible and beautiful writing (see p. 70) should be
chosen, and be carefully copied with a properly cut pen.
For learning to write, the following tools and materials are required:—
Desk.
Writing-paper.
Ink and filler.
Pens (Reed and Quill) with “springs.” [p049]
Pen-knife, sharpening-stone, and cutting-slab.
Magnifying glass.
Two-foot (preferably three-foot) rule, and pencil.
Linen pen-wiper.
THE DESK

Fig. 14.
An ordinary desk or drawing-board can be used, but the best desk is
made by hinging a drawing-board (“Imperial” size) to the edge of a table.
The board may be raised and supported at any desired angle by a hinged
support, or by a round tin set under it (fig. 14). For a more portable [p050]
desk two drawing-boards may be similarly hinged together and placed on a
table (fig. 15).

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

A tape or string is tightly stretched—horizontally—across the desk to
hold the writing-paper (which, as a rule, is not pinned on). The lower part of
the writing-paper is held and protected by a piece of stout paper or vellum
fixed tightly, with drawing-pins, across and over it (fig. 16). Under the
writing-paper there should be a “writing-pad,” consisting of one or two
10
[p051] sheets of blotting-paper, or some other suitable substance.

It is a good plan to have the lower, front edge of the desk bevelled or
rounded, so that the tail part of a deep sheet, which may hang below the
table, does not become accidentally creased by being pressed against it. A
curved piece of cardboard fixed on the edge will answer the same purpose.
PAPER & INK
For “practice” any smooth—not glazed—paper will do. For careful work
a smooth hand-made paper is best (pp. 103, 111).
A good, prepared, liquid (carbon) ink is best. It should be as black as
possible, without being too thick. A jet-black ink will test the quality of the
writing by “showing up” all the faults; “pale” or “tinted” inks rather conceal
the faults, and lend a false appearance of excellence (p. 322). A thin ink
greatly adds to the ease of writing (see Addenda, p. 23). Waterproof inks, as
a rule, are too thick or gummy, and do not flow freely enough.
The ink-bottle is kept corked when not in use, to keep the ink clean and
prevent evaporation. Thick or muddy ink should be put away: it is not worth
while trying to use it.
A small brush is used for filling the pen.
PENS

A Reed or Cane pen is best
for very large writing—over
half an inch in height—and
therefore [p052] it is of great use
in studying pen strokes and
forms.
A Quill is best for smaller
writing, and is used for all
ordinary MS. work (pp. 54–60).
Fig. 17. The REED11 pen should be
about 8 inches long.

I. One end is cut off obliquely
(fig. 17).
II. The soft inside part is
shaved away by means of a
knife laid flat against it, leaving
the hard outer shell (fig. 18).

Fig. 18.

III. The nib is laid, back up,
on the slab (p. 61), and—the
knife-blade being vertical—the
tip is cut off at right angles to
the shaft (fig. 19).
IV. A short longitudinal slit
(a–b) is made by [p053] inserting
the knife-blade in the middle of
the tip (fig. 20).
Fig. 19.

V. A pencil or brush-handle is
held under the nib, and is gently
twitched upwards to lengthen
the slit (fig. 21). An ordinary
reed should have a slit about 34
inch long. A very stiff pen may
have in addition a slit on either
side of the centre.
Fig. 20.

The left thumb nail is pressed
against the back of the pen—
about 1 inch from the tip—to
prevent it splitting too far up
(see also fig. 27).

Fig. 21.

VI. The nib is laid, back up,
on the slab, and—the knife-
blade being vertical—the tip is
cut off at an angle of about 70°
to the shaft, removing the first
rough slit a–b (fig. 22). [p054]
Fig. 22.
VII. A strip of thin metal
(very thin tin, or clock spring
with the “temper” taken out by
heating and slowly cooling) is
cut the width of the nib and
about 2 inches long. This is
Fig. 23. folded into a “spring” (fig. 23).

VIII. The spring is inserted
into the pen (fig. 24).

Fig. 24.
The loop a b c is “sprung” into place, and holds the spring in the right
position. The loop c d, which should be rather flat, holds the ink in the pen.
The point d should be about 18 inch from the end of the nib.
THE QUILL.—A Turkey’s Quill is strong, and suitable for general
writing. As supplied by the stationers it consists of a complete wing-feather,
about 12 inches long, having the quill part cut for ordinary use. For careful
writing it should be re-made thus:—
I. The quill should be cut
down to 7 or 8 inches (fig. 25);
the long feather if left is apt to
be in the way.
II. The “barbs” or filaments
of the feather are stripped off
Fig. 25. the shaft (fig. 26). [p055]

Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.
III. The nib already has a slit usually about 14 inch long. This is sufficient
in a fairly pliant pen; in a very stiff pen (see p. 60) the slit may be

lengthened to 38 inch. This may be done with care by holding a half-nib
between the forefinger [p056] and thumb of each hand, but the safest way is
to twitch the slit open (fig. 27), using the end of another pen (or a brush-
handle) as explained under Reed, V. (see p. 53).
IV. The sides of the nib are pared till the width across the tip is rather less
than the width desired12 (fig. 28).

Fig. 28.
V. The nib is laid, back up, on the glass slab, and the extreme tip is cut off
obliquely to the slit, the knife blade being slightly sloped, and its edge

forming an angle of about 70° with the line of the shaft (fig. 29; see also fig.
36). [p057]
The shaft rests lightly in the
left hand (not gripped and not
pressed down on slab at all), and
the knife blade is entered with a
steady pressure.
If the nib is then not wide
enough it may be cut again; if
too wide, the sides may be pared
down.
Cut very little at a time off the
tip of the nib; a heavy cut is apt
to force the pen out of shape and
spoil the edge of the nib.
VI. The nib should then be
examined with the magnifying
glass. Hold the pen, back down,
over a sheet of white paper, and
see that the ends of the two half-
nibs are in the same straight line
a–b (fig. 30).
The nib should have an
oblique chisel-shaped tip, very
sharply cut (fig. 31).
A magnifying glass is
necessary for examining a fine
pen; a coarse pen may be held Fig. 29.
up against [p058] the light from a
window—a finger-tip being held just over the nib to direct the eye (fig. 32).

Fig. 30.

Fig. 32.
Fig. 31.

Fig. 34.

Fig. 33.

A nib in which the slit does not quite
close may be bent down to bring the two
parts together (fig. 33). [p059]
Uneven or blunt nibs (fig. 34) must be
carefully re-cut.

Fig. 35.
3
VII. The Spring (see Reed, VII.) (about 32 inch by 1 12 inch) is placed so
1
that the point is about 16 inch from the end of the nib. The long loop should
be made rather flat to hold plenty of ink (A, fig. 35)—neither too much
curved (B: this holds only a drop), nor quite flat (C: this draws the ink up
and away from the nib).
OF QUILLS GENERALLY
For ordinary use the nib may be cut with a fairly steep angle, as shown
(magnified) at (a) (fig. 36).

But it is better for fine, sharp writing that
the angle be made very sharp: the knife
blade is laid back (much flatter than is
shown in fig. 29) and the quill is cut quite
thin; the knife blade is then held vertical
and the extreme tip of the nib is cut off
sharp and true (b, fig. 36).
For large writing, the curved inside of the
quill is pared flat (c, d, fig. 36) [p060] to give
full strokes. If the nib be left curved and
hollow underneath (e), it is apt to make
hollow strokes.
The pen may be made more pliant by
Fig. 36. scraping it till it is thinner, or by cutting the
“shoulder” (a–b, fig. 29) longer, or stiffer
by cutting the nib back until the “shoulder” is short.
Goose and Crow Quills (see p. 172).
The main advantages of a quill over a metal pen are, that the former may
be shaped exactly as the writer desires, and be re-cut when it becomes
blunt.
A metal pen may be sharpened on an oilstone, but the process takes so
much longer that there is no saving in time: it is not easily cut to the exact
shape, and it lacks the pleasant elasticity of the quill.
A gold pen is probably the best substitute for a quill, and if it were
possible to have a sharp, “chisel-edged” iridium tip on the gold nib, it
would be an extremely convenient form of pen. A “fountain pen” might be
used with thin ink.
PEN-KNIFE, CUTTING-SLAB, &C.

Fig. 37.
THE KNIFE.—Quill makers use a special knife. A surgical scalpel makes
an excellent pen-knife. The blade should be fairly stout, as the edge of a
thin blade is easily damaged. It should be ground almost entirely on the
right side of the blade (fig. 37) and kept very sharp. [p061]
THE SLAB.—A piece of glass (preferably white) may be used for fine
quills; hard wood, bone, or celluloid for reed and cane pens.
SHARPENING STONE.—A “Turkey” (fine) or “Washita” (fine or coarse
grained) stone.
MAGNIFYING GLASS.—A magnifying glass (about 1 inch in diameter)
is necessary for examining fine pen nibs to see if they are “true.” A
“pocket” glass is the most suitable for general use, and for the analysis of
small writing, &c.
RULE.—A 2, or 3-foot wood rule having brass strips let in to protect the
edges, or a metal rule.
LINEN PEN-WIPER.—A piece of an old linen handkerchief may be used
to keep the pen clean.

CHAPTER III
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (2) METHODS
Position of the Desk — The Writing Level — Use of the Pen — Holding the Pen — Filling the Pen,
&c.

POSITION OF THE DESK

Always write at a slope. This enables you to
sit up comfortably at your work, and to see
the MS. clearly as though it were on an
easel—and, by the resulting horizontal
position of the pen, the ink is kept under
control. It may be seen from ancient
pictures that this was the method of the
scribes (see Frontispiece). Never write on a
flat table; it causes the writer to stoop, the
MS. is seen foreshortened, and the ink
flows out of the pen too rapidly. [p062]
The slope of the desk may be about, or
rather less than, 45° to begin with: as the
hand becomes accustomed to it, it may be
raised to about 60° (fig. 38).
The “heel” of the right hand may be tired
at first, but it soon grows used to the
Fig. 38. position. A rest for the left arm, if
necessary, can be attached to the left side of the board.
Lighting. The desk is placed very near to a window, so that a strong light
falls on it from the left. Direct sunlight may be cut off by fixing a sheet of
thin white paper in the window. Careful work should be done by daylight.
Work done by artificial light always appears faulty and unsatisfactory when
viewed by day.
THE WRITING LEVEL
Each penman will find for himself the writing level along which his pen
will move most naturally and conveniently (see figs. 39 and 16). The paper
guard should be pinned on about 1 inch below the [p063] writing level: the
tape is fixed across about 3 inches above the guard. In the case of very large

writing the space between the tape and the
guard is greater, and in the case of a very
small MS. it is less.
The writing level is kept constant. When
one line has been written, the writing paper
—which is placed behind the tape and the
guard—is pulled up for another line. Fig. 39.

USE OF THE PEN
For the practical study of pen-forms use a cane or a reed pen—or a quill
cut very broad—giving a broad, firm, thick stroke. It is the chisel edge (p.
57) of the nib which gives the “clean cut” thick and thin strokes and the
graduated curved strokes characteristic of good writing (fig. 40).

Fig. 40.
Therefore, let the nib glide about on the surface with the least possible
pressure, making natural pen-strokes the thickness of which is only varied
[p064] by the different directions in which the nib moves (see Addenda, p.
23).
It is very important that the nib be cut “sharp,” and as often as its edge
wears blunt it must be resharpened. It is impossible to make “clean cut”
strokes with a blunt pen (see Addenda, p. 25).
When the nib is cut back, the “shoulder” should be cut back to preserve
the elasticity of the pen (p. 60).

HOLDING THE PEN
The hand holds the pen lightly and easily. A good method is to loop the
thumb and forefinger over, and slightly gripping, the shaft of the pen, and
support the shaft from below with the second finger. The third and fourth
fingers are tucked, out of the way, into the palm (figs. 41, 45).
The pen should be so lightly held that the act of writing should draw the
edge of the nib into perfect contact with the paper, both the half-nibs
touching the surface. (To make sure that the contact is perfect, make
experimental thick strokes on a scrap of paper—pinned at the right-hand
side of the desk—and see that they are “true,” i.e. that they are of even
width, with “clean cut” edges and ends.) The writer should be able to feel
what the nib is doing. If the pen be gripped stiffly the edge of the nib cannot
be felt on the paper; and it will inevitably be forced out of shape and
prematurely blunted.
A thin slip of bone—a “folder” or the handle of the pen-knife will do—is
commonly held in the left hand to keep the paper flat and steady (see fig.
41). [p065]
THE CUSTOMARY MANNER.—The ancient scribe probably held his
pen in the manner most convenient to himself; and we, in order to write
with freedom, should hold the pen in the way to which, by long use, we
have been accustomed; provided that, for writing an upright round-hand,
the pen be so manipulated and cut as to make fine horizontal thin strokes
and clean vertical thick strokes (see fig. 40, & footnote, p. 304).

Fig. 41.
SLANTED SHAFT, &c.—Most people are accustomed to holding a pen
slanted away from the right shoulder. The nib therefore is cut at [p066] an
oblique angle13 to the shaft, so that, while the shaft is slanted, the edge of
the nib is parallel with the horizontal line of the paper, and will therefore
produce a horizontal thin stroke and a vertical thick stroke. For example: if
the shaft is held slanted at an angle of 70° with the horizontal, the nib is cut
at an angle of 70° with the shaft (fig. 42). The angle of the nib with the shaft
may vary from 90° (at right angles) to about 70°, according to the slant at
which the shaft is held (fig. 43).

Fig. 42. Fig. 43.
If the writer prefers an extremely slanted shaft, to cut the nib
correspondingly obliquely would weaken it, so it is better to counteract the
slant by slightly tilting the paper (fig. 44).
To produce the horizontal thin stroke, therefore:
The slant at which the shaft is held,
The angle at which the nib is cut, and
The tilt which may be given to the paper:
must be so adjusted, one to
another, that the chisel edge of
the nib is parallel to the
horizontal line of the paper.
Before writing, make trial
strokes on a scrap of paper to
see that this is so: the vertical
thick strokes should be square
ended and the full width of the
nib, the horizontal strokes as
fine as possible.
Fig. 44.

Fig. 45.
HORIZONTAL SHAFT, &c.—The pen shaft is held approximately
horizontal. This will be found the natural position for it when the slope
[p068] of the desk is about 50° or 60°. It gives complete control of the ink in

the pen, which can be made to run faster or slower by slightly elevating or
depressing the shaft (fig. 45).
The writing-board may be slightly lowered or raised with the object of
elevating or depressing the pen shaft (fig. 46 & p. 118).

The pen makes a considerable
angle with the writing surface,
so that the ink, which is held in
the hollow of the nib, comes in
contact with the paper at the
very extremity of the nib,
making very fine strokes (a, fig.
47).

Fig. 46.

The spring is adjusted
carefully, the tip being
1
approximately 16 inch from the
tip of the nib. The nearer the
spring is to the end of the nib,
the faster the ink flows. The
loop must be kept flattish in
order to hold the ink well (see
fig. 35). [p069]

Fig. 47.
It is convenient to stand the ink, &c., beside the desk on the left, and for
this purpose a little cup-shaped bracket or clip may be attached to the edge
of the writing-board. The filling-brush stands in the ink-bottle (p. 51) or pot
of colour (p. 176), and is taken up in the left hand; the pen, retained in the
right hand, being brought over to the left to be filled.

Fig. 48.
The back of the nib is kept dry (a, fig. 48). A very convenient and
perfectly clean method, when care is taken, of removing any ink on the
back of the pen is to draw it across the back of the left fore-finger.
In careful work the pen should be tried, on a [p070] scrap of paper, almost
every time it is filled (to see that it is not too full and that the ink is flowing
rightly).
The nib is kept clean. A carbon ink (p. 51), through gradual evaporation,
is apt to clog the nib (especially in hot weather); therefore every now and
then, while the nib is in use, the spring is taken out and the whole
thoroughly cleaned. It is impossible to write well with a dirty pen.

CHAPTER IV
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (3) MODELS
Models — Notes on Construction: Script I. — Coupling the Letters — Spacing: Letters, Words, &
Lines — Uncial Capitals: Script II. — Numerals & Punctuation Marks — Of Copying MSS.
Generally.

MODELS
The best training is found in the practice of an upright round-hand (p. 302).
Having mastered such a writing, the penman can acquire any other hands—
sloping or angular—with comparative ease (p. 323).
The English Half-Uncial writing in Plate VII. is an excellent model.
Those who have sufficient time to spare for the careful study of this, or any
other legible and beautiful round-hand, should obtain access to the MSS. in
a museum, or procure good facsimiles (see Plates at end of Book, & p. 388).
Those who have not sufficient time for a careful and thorough study of an
early MS. will find it [p071] easier to begin with a simplified and modernised
writing, such as Script I. (fig. 49).

Fig. 49.
Before copying a hand it is well to examine carefully the manuscript
from which it is taken: observe its general appearance: note the character
and mode of the ruling, and the sizes and relative proportions of page, text,
margins, and ornaments. With regard to the actual forms of the letters and
the mode of their arrangement, such a method of analysis as the following
will be found useful, as an aid to accuracy in copying, and definiteness in
self-criticism. [p072]

Example: Analysis of
A METHOD OF ANALYSIS.
Script I.
(as in fig. 50).
1. THE WRITING general character: Modernized Half-
Uncial.
(Ruling) Double or single lines, &c. (see pp. Double lines (see figs.
304, 305): 59, 65).
Letters round or angular: round.
upright or sloping: upright.
coupled or separate: coupled.
2. THIN STROKES: horizontal or oblique (see figs. 10, 9): horizontal.
3. THICK STROKES: heavy, medium, or light (see fig. 183): medium.
4. “HEADS” & “FEET”: character (see fig. 145): solid, triangular, &c.
5. STEMS (ascending & short, medium, or long (see fig. 183): medium.
descending):
6. SPACING (Letters, Words, close or wide (see fig. 154): fairly close (see figs.
Lines): 54, 55).
7. ARRANGEMENT: in mass (of equal lines), or in column in mass of equal lines
(of unequal lines) (see fig. 154): (see fig. 66).
8. MEASUREMENTS (& width of thick stroke (see p. 83): 3
l = about ″ wide.
proportions see pp. 324, 32
327): height of o and d (see pp. 82, 84): 3
o = about ″ high.
8
11
d = about ″ high.
16
writing lines, distance apart (see p. Lines 1″ apart.
82):
9. COMPONENT PARTS: number and forms (see pp. 75, 81, a has 3 strokes.
84): b has 3 strokes.
c has 2 strokes.
and so on (see fig.
51).

[p073]
The pen generally is held so as to give approximately horizontal thin
strokes (see p. 66), but in making v (w, y) and x, parts of z, &c., it is

“slanted.” In figs. 51 and 57 these forms are marked with a small diagonal
cross × (see also p. 25).
Most of the strokes begin as down-strokes, but at the end of a down-
stroke, when the ink is flowing freely, the stroke may be continued in an
upward direction (as in coupling-strokes, &c., the feet of letters, the thin
stroke of x, and, if preferred, in making the last stroke of g, s, and y).
While the ink is still wet in a down-stroke, the nib may be replaced on it
and be pushed upward and outward to form the round arch in b, h, m, n, p,
and r. This stroke, reversed, is also used for the top of t.
The making of these UP-strokes is shown diagrammatically in fig. 51.
Note.—The forms +oin× in fig. 51 contain all the principal strokes in
this alphabet, and are therefore useful for early practice.

Fig. 50.

Fig. 51.
COUPLING THE LETTERS

The letters are joined together by means of their coupling-strokes, which
for this purpose may be slightly drawn out, and forward, from the naturally
round forms of the letters (see c, e, &c., fig. 52 & fig. 59).

Fig. 52.

The coupling-strokes are finishing strokes—and as such are akin to serifs
(p. 244)—growing out of or added to such stems as need “finishing.”
Coupling enables one to write faster and with [p076] more freedom, the
concluding or “coupling” stroke not being slowed down, but written with a
dash, which is covered by the first stroke of the succeeding [p077] letter. It
keeps the individual words more distinct, and therefore permits closer
spacing of the text. Coupling is for convenience and legibility, and where it
tends to interfere with legibility, we must be careful. The freer and more
cursive the hand, the greater is the tendency to join and run letters together,
as in ordinary writing.
It is preferable to couple letters below, if possible. Couplings above are
sometimes apt to confuse the reading; for example, the cross-bar of t
(though the most natural coupling for the scribe to use—see petatis, Plate
VII.) should generally be made to pass over or fall short of the succeeding
letter (see fig. 52).
SPACING: LETTERS, WORDS, & LINES
The letters of a word are fitted together so that there is a general effect of
evenness. This evenness is only to be attained by practice: it is
characteristic of rapid skilful writing, and cannot be produced satisfactorily
by any system of measurement while the writer’s hand is still slow and
uncertain. It is worth noting, however, that the white interspaces vary
slightly, while the actual distances between the letters vary considerably,
according to whether the adjacent strokes curve (or slant) away or are
perpendicular (figs. 53, 152).
It is sufficient for the beginner to take care that two curved letters are
made very near each other, and that two straight strokes are spaced well
apart.
If the curves are too far apart there will be spots of light, and where
several heavy stems are made too close together, “blots” of dark, marring

the evenness of the page. [p078]

Fig. 53.
Words are kept as close as is compatible with legibility. The average
space between two words is the width of the letter o (fig. 54). [p079]

Fig. 54.
The Lines in massed writing (see p. 262) are kept as close together as is
compatible with legibility. The usual distance apart of the writing-lines is
about three times the height of the letter o (see also p. 327).
The descending strokes of the upper line must “clear” the ascending
strokes of the lower line. Interlocking of these strokes may be avoided by
the experimental placing of p over d (fig. 55).

Fig. 55.
UNCIAL CAPITALS: SCRIPT II.

These modernised Uncials (see fig. 56, & p. 300) are intended to go with
Script I., and their analysis and mode of construction are almost identical
with those of Script I. (see pp. 72, 73). [p082]

Fig. 56.

Fig. 57.
Grouping: Uncials have no coupling-strokes; when several are used
together, they are not joined, but evenly grouped, allowing as before for

curves and straight strokes (see p. 77).
Spacing:
(a) When used with Script I., Uncials are written on the same lines,
and have to follow the same spacing (in spite of their longer stems).
(b) When Uncials are used by themselves, their spacing may be wider
(p. 297).
Note.—The height of Uncial o is about equal to the height of the Half-
Uncial d.
NUMERALS & PUNCTUATION MARKS
(See fig. 57.)
These are best made with a “slanted” pen (fig. 9).
When writing “Arabic numerals,” 1 and 0 may be made on the line, 2468
ascending, and 3579 descending.
OF COPYING MSS. GENERALLY
When copying a MS. it is best to choose a complete page—or part of a
page—to be copied in facsimile.
Two or three lines are copied to begin with; then the composition of the
individual letters and words is studied by means of a large pen; and finally
the whole page is copied in facsimile. (Of practising, see pp. 85, 86).
Make a general examination and analysis as suggested at p. 71. Accurate
measurements will be found helpful.
Take the heights of the o and the d, and the distance apart of the writing-
lines with dividers [p083] The width of the thick stroke is best found by
making experimental thick strokes—the full width of the pen nib—on a
scrap of paper: cut the paper in half across the thick strokes, and place the
cut edge on the thickest strokes in the original MS., you will then find
whether the pen nib should be cut wider or narrower.

The direction of the thickest strokes is approximately at right angles to
the direction of the thin strokes; which commonly approaches the horizontal
in early round hands, and is oblique in other hands (see fig. 9 and 10). The
positions both of these strokes in the model, and of your pen, determine the
angle of the nib. Therefore, cut the nib across at such an angle to the shaft
of the pen that, when you hold the pen naturally, the direction of the thin
strokes which it makes on the writing paper will coincide with the direction
of the thin strokes in the model; but
(a) The way in which the shaft is held,
(b) The angle at which the nib is cut,
(c) The position of the writing paper,
may all be slightly varied, so that the direction of the thin strokes can be
followed exactly (see p. 66).
The writing paper is cut and ruled exactly in accordance with the model;
and the heights of the letters and the widths of the thick strokes in the copy
agree as nearly as possible with those in the original. It is therefore a good
test for accuracy—when a few lines of writing have been copied—to
measure and compare their lengths. If they correspond with their originals,
it goes far to prove the copy a good one.
Before copying more of the page, the construction of the letters should be
carefully studied. The number and the forms of pen-strokes in each letter
[p084] are found by examination—with a magnifying glass if necessary—and

by the experimental putting together of strokes, to form a similar letter. For
this a large pen, such as a reed, is useful, and it is a good plan to write
individual letters and words exactly two, three, or four times their height in
the model: both the pen nib and the individual letters are made
correspondingly two, three, or four times as wide as in the original.
It is particularly important, in copying, to preserve accurately the
proportion of the thick stroke to the height and width of a letter (see p. 324).
These are conveniently measured by the pen nib itself, or by the estimated

width of the thick stroke; thus, in the writing shown in fig. 50, the width of
the o is approximately five, and the height approximately four, times the
width of the thick stroke.
Not only must the copier ascertain what the forms are like and what are
their proportions, but he must try to find out how they were made. This is of
the greatest importance, for the manner of making a letter, or even a single
stroke, affects its form and character with a definite tendency (see p. 416 &
fig. 172). And this becomes more marked the faster the writing. An
apparently right form may yet be wrongly—if slowly—made; but in rapid
writing, a wrong manner of handling the pen will inevitably produce wrong
forms. As the real virtue of penmanship is attained only when we can write
quickly, it is well worth training the hand from the beginning in the proper
manner.
Patient and careful examination should be made of the changing pen-
strokes, and of the mode in which they join—to form letters—and begin
and end—to form “heads” and “feet.” This, accompanied [p085] by practical
experiments in cutting and handling the pen, will bring out details of the
utmost technical value. A certain amount of legitimate “faking” (p. 246),
play of the pen, and sleight of hand (p. 311), may be found, but, in the main,
the regular, natural, thick and thin strokes of the pen, and the orderly
arrangement of the writing, give to a manuscript its beauty and character.
Then having cut the nib rightly, you may, in a sense, let the pen do the
writing, while you merely follow the strokes of the model, and you will, in
course of time, have the pleasure of seeing the same beautiful writing—in
the very manner of the ancient scribes—growing under your own hand.

CHAPTER V
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE
Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a Single Sheet — Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) —
Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) — Spacing & Planning Manuscript.

PRACTICE
In acquiring a formal writing the penman should have two paper books
constantly in hand: one for the study of the forms of letters, the other for
both the letters and their arrangement. The first should contain large and
very carefully made writing—with perhaps only one word to the line; the
second [p086] should have smaller and quicker writing, neatly arranged on
the pages, with four or five words to the line. (See MS. Books, Chap. VI.)
A broad nib is used in preference to a narrow one, so that the
characteristics of true pen-work are brought out and the faults made clear. A
fine, light handwriting is often very pretty, but it is certain to mislead the
novice in penmanship (see p. 324).
Having acquired a formal hand the penman may modify and alter it,
taking care that the changes are compatible, and that they do not impair its
legibility or beauty. Such letters as are obsolete he replaces by legible forms
akin to them in feeling, and, the style of the selected type becoming very
naturally and almost unconsciously modified by personal use, he at length
attains an appropriate and modern Formal-Handwriting. The process of
“forming” a hand requires time and practice: it resembles the passage of
“Copy-book” into “Running” hand, familiar to us all (see p. 323).

Fig. 58.
SCRIPTS I. & II.
Having cut the nib of a reed or large quill to the exact width required for
the thick stroke, copy the component strokes of the letter (Script I.), and
[p087] immediately make the complete letter: go through the whole alphabet

in this way several times (fig. 58). Next join the letters together (see p. 73)
[p088] to form words—writing always between ruled lines (fig. 59 & p. 414).

Fig. 59.

Fig. 60.
Script II. is similarly practised: the letters are grouped (p. 82) to form
words (fig. 60).
Next make a neat page of large writing, and, if possible, write such a
page every day. The more definite and methodical practice is, the better.
“Practising” anyhow, on scraps of paper, does more harm than good.

Fig. 61.
ARRANGING & RULING A SINGLE SHEET

The size of an inscription is commonly settled before the arrangement of
the text is planned out, being determined by considerations of its future
position and office, or by custom and use (see pp. 100–103 & 351). [p089]
The proportions of the writing, spacing, and margins will likewise
properly settle themselves (see pp. 265, 103, 107), but where the size of the
sheet only is fixed, we have, broadly speaking, to decide between “large”
writing with “small” margins (fig. 61), and “small” writing with “large”
margins (fig. 62).

Fig. 62.
Generally a compromise is arrived at and the proportions are more evenly
balanced (fig. 63).
Ruling (see also pp. 258, 99).—The mode of ruling marginal lines and
writing lines is shown in fig. 65. The ruling should be light, but firm and
accurate. A fine pen, or hard pencil, or a blunt point may be used. Where the

writing lines are double (as for round hands, p. 304), it is best to have a
double ruling point (see fig. 77). Two hard pencils firmly [p090] lashed
together make a convenient tool for large work: the distance between the
points is easily adjusted by means of a small wedge.

Fig. 63.
PROBLEM I. (A SHEET OF PROSE)
To write out the Pater noster (50 words) in a formal round-hand
(arranged in “mass” of equal lines) on a sheet of “foolscap” (i.e. 17 inches
high and 13 12 inches wide).
If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, a few
words are written out in a script chosen to suit the subject, the space, &c.,
and these are measured to find the area which the whole text so written

would occupy (fig. 64). The size of the script is then modified, if necessary,
to suit the available area. [p091]

Fig. 64.

Fig. 65.

Fig. 66.

[p094]

Frequently it is desirable first to determine the sizes of the margins.
These depend on various considerations of the position and office of the
MS., but more particularly on the size of the sheet and the character of its
future environment14 (see p. 351).
The top and side margins may be of equal width—or the top may be a
little less (see a, fig. 70). Ample space should be allowed for the foot
margin, which is generally about twice the width of the top, but may vary in
different cases, according as the text falls short of or encroaches upon it (see
pp. 352, 342). For a plain foolscap sheet: sides (each) 2 12 inches, top
(approx.) 2 inches, and foot (approx.) 4 inches, may be taken as suitable
margins (fig. 65).
The width of the sheet (13 12 inches) less the two side margins (2 12 inches
each) gives the length of the writing lines (13 12 – 5 = 8 12 inches). One or two
5
such lines are written experimentally in a suitable script (say, 16 inch), and
the average number of words per line (four) is found.
The number of words in the complete text (fifty) will determine the
number of lines: an extra line or so may be allowed for safety ( 50
4
= 12 1
2
,
say, thirteen). The spacing of these is calculated—
5 7 7 3
in. writing requires about in. (close) spacing (p. 79): Thirteen lines at in. gives 11 in. =
16 8 8 8
3 5
depth of text: 11 in. from 17 in. leaves 5 in.15 for head and foot margins
8 8

—and if the space is not sufficient, the writing is made a little smaller. If, on
the other hand, the [p095] marginal depth left over were excessive, the
writing might be made a little larger in order to fill up the space.
PROBLEM II. (A SHEET OF POETRY)

To write out “He that is down, needs fear no fall,” in a formal round-
hand on a sheet of foolscap (i.e. 17 inches high × 13 12 inches wide).
Here there are three verses of four lines each: these with two space lines,
left between the verses, give a total of fourteen lines (fig. 67).

Fig. 67.
A poem has a given number of lines of various lengths, and only very
strong reason or necessity can justify our altering its proper form (e.g. by

breaking up the lines) in order to make a mass of equal lines. Such
theoretical margins as are possible in the treatment of prose can therefore
seldom be observed in writing out a poem, and, unless the height or the
width of the sheet can be altered, there is apt to be an excess of margin in
one or the other direction. When such excess margin is obviously
unavoidable, no objection can be made to its appearance. Poetry may
conveniently be treated as “fine writing” (see p. 263).
If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, several of
the longer lines (e.g. the first and the eleventh in the poem given) are
written on a piece of paper in the size of writing preferred (say, 14 inch). By
laying this paper on the given sheet, it is seen whether such lines would
allow of sufficient side margins. (If they would not, the writing may be
made smaller.)
The height of the writing ( 14 inch) must allow of the full number of lines
(fourteen) being properly [p097] spaced on the sheet (17 inches) with
sufficient head and foot margins. This is calculated—
1 3 3 1
in. writing requires approximately in. spacing (p. 79): Fourteen lines at in. gives 10 in. =
4 4 4 2
1 1
depth of text: 10 in. from 17 in. leaves 6 in. for head and foot margins
2 2

—and if the space were not sufficient, the lines might be made a little
closer, or the writing a little smaller (or, if necessary, the blank lines might
be left out between the verses; p. 123).
The Sizes of the Margins.—It will be seen that the above method is
primarily for settling a length of line which will allow of sufficient side
margins. The process can be reversed; if necessary, the side margins are
made of a given width, thus determining the exact length of the line, the
size of writing which this line allows being found experimentally.
Note.—The extra long lines may slightly encroach on the right-hand
margin: the effect of this is balanced by the falling short of other lines.

SPACING & PLANNING MANUSCRIPT
In penmanship great nicety of spacing and arrangement is possible. The
ascending and descending strokes may be shortened or drawn out, the
spaces between letters and words may be slightly increased or decreased,
the lines may be written near or far apart, and the letters may be written
with a broader or narrower nib.
Elaborate spacing and planning, however, should not be attempted at
first, and straightforward, undesigned work is often the best. The student is
apt to waste time writing out an elaborate draft [p098] in order to ascertain
how to space the matter. This is a mistake, because if written well, it is a
waste of good writing on a mere draft; if written ill, it is bad practice. The
briefer experiments and calculations are, the better, though the simplest
problem always requires for its solution a calculation or process of guess
and trial (such as suggested in the preceding pages). Practice will make
people very good guessers, and the best work of all is done when the
worker guesses rightly, and follows his guesses with the actual work, itself
the trial and proof of accuracy.

CHAPTER VI
MANUSCRIPT BOOKS16
MS. Books: Tools & Materials — Methods & Proportions — The Size & Shape of the Book — The
Widths of the Margins — The Size of the Writing, &c. — Ruling — MS. Books: General
Remarks.

MS. BOOKS: TOOLS & MATERIALS
The making of manuscript books, based on a study of the early MSS., offers
the best training to the scribe and illuminator in writing, lettering,
rubricating, gilding, illuminating initials and borders, and miniature
painting, and is the best means of mastering the foundations of Book
Typography and Decoration.

Materials, &c. for MS. Books; Paper (see pp. 51, 103, 111, 317); Vellum
and Parchment and Pounce [p099] (see pp. 110, 167, 173–5).—Cut a small
sheet the size of a page of the book, and clip the long edge between two flat
pieces of wood (holding it as it would be if bound). If the page will bend
over and stay down by its own weight, it is thin enough (R fig. 68); if it
stands up (W), it is too stiff.

Fig. 68.
Cutting Sheets.—A frame or template (the size of the sheet desired) is
used by parchment makers. It is useful for cutting out the sheets for a
common size of parchment book. They are cut on the end-grain of wood, or
on card or glass.
Folding.—A Folder, as used by bookbinders (or a bone paper-knife), is
useful, and also a Set or T-Square for testing right angles, &c. The fold and
the top edge of each book-sheet are commonly squared by proper folding.
Ruling, &c. (see p. 343).—For marking distances of lines, a carefully
prepared paper17 scale or pattern (p. 25) and an awl (p. 109), or a [p100]
“star-wheel”—having regular intervals between the spikes—may be used.

Or the ruling—of the writing lines—may be simplified by using a stout card
frame (internally the size of the text-column) with strips glued across it: for
a common size of book this might be made in stout tin or other metal. The
lines are commonly ruled with a ruling stylus (see figs. 72, 77), or a sort of
“rake” may be made to rule six lines at once.
Writing, Colouring, Gilding, Binding (Chaps. II., X., IX., XVI.).
METHODS & PROPORTIONS
Having to make a manuscript book for a specific purpose, the scribe
formulates in his mind a general plan of the work, and decides
approximately the respective sizes of page and of writing which seem most
suitable.
He endeavours to fashion the book in accord with its use, and therefore
allows the (most suitable) material, the subject-matter and the office of the
book, and the way in which it will be read and handled, to determine as far
as is possible the proportions of its parts, and its treatment as a whole.
Its material may be vellum, parchment, or paper, on which a variety of
pens, brushes, and other tools, with inks, colours, and metal foils, may be
employed. Its office may be “useful” or “ornamental”; its contents may be
long or short, weighty or light, and of greater or less worth; it may be for
public or for private use; and the book may be intended to be placed on a
lectern, to be held in the hand, or to be carried in a coat pocket.
In following out such natural indications, the [p101] practised craftsman
relies greatly on his working methods, preferring a direct mode of treatment
to one which is too ingenious or subtle. In deciding a doubtful point, a
common-sense of proportion is a sufficient guide, and one may generally
assume that great works are best “writ large,” and that large letters look best
on an ample page, and vice versâ.
The main proportions which have to be considered are interdependent,
and follow one another in their natural order (see p. 256), thus—

1. The size and shape of the book.
2. The widths of the margins.
3. The size of the writing, &c.
And the methodical scribe makes his books of certain definite and regular
sizes, each size having corresponding and regular proportions of margins
and writing. Though these may greatly depend on individual taste and
experience, it is suggested that—like all good designs—they should be
allowed as far as possible to settle and arrange themselves.
THE SIZE & SHAPE OF THE BOOK
A book is thought of by the scribe chiefly as an open book, and the width
and height of its pages are chosen with a view to its convenient shape and
pleasant appearance when open. The most economical sizes into which a
suitable sheet of paper can be folded (or a skin of parchment can be cut)
may commonly be allowed to decide these proportions.
When a printer is about to print a book he chooses a sheet of paper which
will fold into a suitable shape and size. If the sheet be folded [p102] once to
form two leaves, the book is called a folio (fig. 69); folded again to form a
“section” of four leaves—a quarto (4to); or folded a third time to form a
section of eight leaves—an octavo (8vo).18 [p103] The book is made up of a
number of sections sewn on to strings or tapes (see p. 347).

Fig. 69.
The penman will find that, besides saving time and labour, it conduces to
good work if he keep to certain regular sizes for “large,” “medium,” and
“small” books; and, if the ordinary sheets of paper which he uses will fold

in convenient folio, quarto, and octavo sizes, it is well that he make these
his standards for paper books.
Paper being made in sheets of various dimensions, by folding a large or a
small sheet, a “large” or “small” folio—4to, 8vo—can be obtained.
It may be noted that the length and the width of sheets of paper19 are very
commonly about as 9 is to 7. And therefore, when the sheet is folded for
folio or octavo, the proportions are roughly about 7: 4 12, which are very
good proportions for a page of a book. It is obvious that a narrow
(“upright”) book is easier to handle and more pleasant in appearance (when
open) than an album or “oblong” shape of book (b and c, fig. 70).
THE WIDTHS OF THE MARGINS
Margins are necessary in order to isolate and frame a text: thus they
contribute to its legibility and beauty. It is better that they be wide rather
than narrow (see p. 106, & Note, p. 265); but excessively wide margins are
often neither convenient nor pleasing (see p. 222).
The “page” or column of text should be in such proportion to the page of
the book, and be placed on it in such a way as to leave adequate [p104]
margins on every side. A narrow column of text is generally best, for short
lines are easiest to write and to read, and do not tire the hand, or the eye, in
passing from one line to the next. For this reason the text is often divided
into two or more columns when the page is wide, or the writing is very
small in comparison.

Fig. 70.
The exact proportion of margin to text in a given page depends on
circumstances, and is largely a matter of taste (ex. fig. 71 & note 2, b, p.
256). But just as it is advantageous generally to keep to certain [p106] sizes
of pages, it is well to keep to certain—corresponding—sizes of margins for
regular use.

Fig. 71.—Diagram showing the ruling of a (Recto) page
4 34 inches × 7 14 inches as for a manuscript book (allowing
five or six words to the Writing-line). There are fifteen
5
Writing-lines, the Line-space being 16 inch.
The proportions of large CAPITALS, shown above, are
set by the Line-space (footnote, p. 221).
The Foot margin is 1 78 inch.
Inner margin 58 inch. Side margin 1 14 inch. Top margin
approximately 78 inch (measured to the top of the writing on
the first line—see also fig. 65).
The proportions of the margins to each other follow a sort of tradition
(see fig. 70), the foot margin (4) usually being twice as wide as that at the
top (2), the side margins generally greater than the top and less than the
foot. The two pages of an opening may be viewed as one sheet having two
columns of text; and the two inner margins, which combine to form an
interspace, are therefore made narrow (about 1 12 each), so that together they
are about equal to one side margin (fig. 70). These proportions (1 12 : 2 : 3 : 4)
approximate to the proportions common in early MSS.
Sufficient and proportional margins add greatly to the usefulness and
beauty of a book. That the writers and illuminators used them when books
were read and valued in a way we can scarcely realise now, shows that such
things are not, as some might suppose, a matter of affectation. Besides the
natural fitness of the common proportions commends them: a deep foot
margin is a foundation to the whole, and gives a spare piece for the reader
to hold,20 and wide side margins rest the eyes and keep the text from
“running off the page” at the end of each line; and (the two) narrow inner
margins combine to separate the pages sufficiently, but not too far, so that

they form two “columns” together, framed by the outer margins of the open
book.
1
When books are meant to be bound, from 16 inch to 18 inch extra margin
should be allowed all round the page for the cutting down and binding. The
[p107] binding is apt to encroach on the inner margins, especially in vellum

books, which do not open fully; in order, therefore, that the inner margins
may keep their proper width, an extra width of 18 to 14 inch (according to the
stiffness of the material) is allowed.
THE SIZE OF THE WRITING, &C.
The shape, size, and margins of the page (already settled) together
determine the length of the writing-line (see fig. 71); and the size of the
writing should be such as will allow a reasonable number of words to that
line.21
Eight or nine words to the line is a common proportion in ordinary
printed books, and may be taken by the scribe as his ordinary maximum.
Lines having very many words are difficult to read.
On the other hand, lines of only two or three words each are generally
tiresome, though they may be allowed in special cases of fine writing (see p.
262), where it is less necessary to economise space or time, and the effect of
an even mass is not desired. But in any case where there is an attempt to
make the right-hand edge of the text approximately even, at least four or
five words to the line are necessary; the scribe may therefore take four
words per line as his ordinary minimum.
We may say generally, then, that an ordinary manuscript book should
contain between four and eight words (or between 25 and 50 letter-spaces)
to the line. [p108]
The exact size of the writing allowed in a given case may be found by a
process of guess and trial, but this is seldom necessary for the practical
scribe who uses regular sizes for regular occasions.

The line spacing.—The size of the letter determines approximately the
distance apart of the writing-lines (see pp. 79, 327). Much depends on
whether the ascending and descending letters are long or short (see fig.
154).
The number of writing-lines to the page equals the number of times that
the line-space is contained in the text-column (i.e. the height of the page
less the top and foot margins)—allowing for the top line not requiring a full
space (see fig. 71). Any fractional space left over may be added to the foot
margin, or, if nearly equal to one line-space, a little may be taken from the
margins to complete it.
The Large Capitals are commonly one, two, or more of the line-spaces in
height (fig. 71, & p. 128).
RULING
Having folded and cut the large sheet of paper into small (book) sheets of
the size determined on, take one of these as a pattern and rule it throughout
as if it were to be used in the book.
The ruling stylus has a blunt point, which
indents the paper, but does not scratch it. A
stout pin bent to a claw shape and held in a
piece of wood does very well (fig. 72).
[p109]

Under the writing paper there should be a
“pad” of ordinary paper (or blotting paper).
Fig. 72.
The marginal lines are ruled from head to
foot of each leaf (a, fig. 73). Besides being a guide for the writing, they give
an appearance of straightness and strength to the written page.22

Fig. 73.
The writing lines are ruled across, between the marginal lines, their
places having been indicated by equidistant dots (b, fig. 73).

A dozen or more of the small
sheets of the book are piled together
on a board with their top edges
exactly coinciding, and the pattern
sheet is accurately placed on the top
of the pile. The pile of sheets may be
fixed by a narrow piece of wood
placed across and screwed down (fig.
74). (See Addenda, p. 25.)

Fig. 74.

Fig. 75.
Fig. 76.
The writing line dots are [p110] pricked through all the sheets by means of
a fine awl or needle set in a wooden handle (fig. 75).
The writing lines are ruled as in fig. 76 (sometimes across the narrow
inner margins).

For double writing lines a double-ruling
stylus may be made of two pins fixed in a
wooden handle at the exact width of the
writing gauge (fig. 77).

Fig. 77.
MS. BOOKS—GENERAL REMARKS
Sections (p. 102).—A section, or “gathering,” commonly consists of four
book-sheets, folded in half into eight leaves (i.e. sixteen pages), but three or
even two sheets are sufficient when they are extra thick, and five or six may
be used when extra thin. Parchment sheets should have their smooth sides
so placed together that each “opening” of the book has both its pages rough
or both smooth and the pages are pounced after they are ruled (see p. 174).
Before the writing is begun the pages of the section are numbered on the
inner marginal line, [p111] about 12 inch or so below the footline. This will

prevent mistakes.
Fly-leaves.—One or more leaves of the first and last sections in a book
are left blank (besides the extra sheet or section (p. 346) which is used in
the binding—attached to the cover). A book of any size or importance ought
to have at least three fly-leaves at the beginning, and three or four at the
end. These extra leaves protect the manuscript, and, in a sense, constitute
margins for the whole body of the text. They may also be used to make thin
books thicker, for the sake of the binding. At the end of Service books, or
other books likely to be of permanent interest, additional fly-leaves should
be provided for notes and annotations (see pp. 344, 346).
Rough or Smooth Edges.—The rough “Deckle” edges of hand-made
paper are inconvenient in a book of any thickness, and should be trimmed
off after folding, though they may be left in the case of very thin books. The
deckle edge should not occur at the top of the page, as it would there be a
trap for dust, and because it is important that the tops of pages should all be
level. The top edge or head of a book is often cut and gilt in order to keep
out the dust—this is called “Library gilt.” It is more suitable, however, that
all the edges be gilt.
The Top Margins throughout the book are kept quite level. Any
irregularity at the top of a page catches the eye at once, while slight
differences at the side, or considerable differences at the foot, may occur
without spoiling the appearance of the margins. All measurements for
marginal and writing lines, &c., are therefore made from the [p112] fold of
the book-sheet and from the top edge, which is cut at right angles to the
fold.
Regular Writing.—In writing one page it is a good plan to have its fellow
page, or a similarly written one, fixed on the desk beside it as a pattern. This
will save the beginner from a very common error—writing larger or smaller
(which of course spoils the look of the pages).

Initial Page.—The text of a book commonly begins on a recto, or right
hand, page (see p. 365).

CHAPTER VII
VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS
Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals — Notes on Construction of Versals —
Spacing & Arrangement of Versals.

DEVELOPMENT OF VERSALS
The earliest books consisted of a number of
lines of continuous writing in capital letters.
There were seldom any divisions of the text
—into paragraphs, chapters, or the like—or
even of one word from another; nor were
important words distinguished by larger
initials. The first division of paragraphs was
made by a slight break in the text and a
mark; later, the first letter of the first
complete line of the new paragraph was
placed in the margin and written larger.
When “small-letters” were evolved, capitals
ceased to be used for the body of the text,
and became distinguishing letters for
headings and important words. [p113]
Fig. 78.
The capitals written at the beginnings of
books, chapters, and paragraphs grew larger and more ornamental, and at
length were made in colour and decorated with pen flourishes. Such letters,
used to mark the beginnings of verses, paragraphs, &c., were called
“Versals.”23

In modern printing and
ordinary writing the first line of
a paragraph is generally
indented (a, fig. 78), but the
earlier method of employing a
special mark or letter (b or c) is
more effective, and it might
very well be used, even in
modern printed books, for fine
editions. Affording a legitimate
opening for illumination and
book-ornament, it was (and is)
the natural method for the
penman, who, starting with
these useful capitals, by
flourishing them—in their [p114]
own colour, or by dotting,
outlining, or ornamenting them,
with a contrasting colour (see
fig. 79, from an old MS.),
evolved the Illuminated Initial.
Types of Versal Letters
(examples: Plates IX., X., XI.,
XII., and fig. 1, 78 to 94, 150,
161, 165, 166, 189).—The
earlier Versals had very simple
and beautiful pen shapes, and
are the best models for the
modern penman to follow. After
Fig. 79. (13th century). the fourteenth century they were

often fattened and vulgarised and overdone with ornament. In this way they
not only lost their typical forms; but their “essential forms”—as letters
derived from the Roman Alphabet—became much disguised and
confounded (see fig. 128).

GENERAL ANALYSIS OF VERSALS

1. THE LETTERS (Pen-made), Built-up, Ornamental
(coloured), “Gothic” Capitals (Round and
Square forms).
2. HORIZONTALS—
STRAIGHT: Medium—commonly the width of the nib.
CURVED: Thin—the thin stroke of the pen.
3. PERPENDICULARS: Built-up, slightly curved in on either side.
4. SERIFS: Long, thin, slightly curved.
5. LONG STEMS: Various (see p. 119, & figs. 84, 90).
6. SPACING—
Letters & Words: Various (see figs. 89, 92, 166).
Lines: Usually one or more of the line-spaces apart
(see pp. 126, 128).
7. ARRANGEMENT: Singly: set in text or margin, or part in both
(fig. 86).
Grouped: after large initials (fig. 92).
In Lines: wide or close, often one word to
the line (fig. 89).
8. MEASUREMENTS: Stem width: commonly two or three widths-
of-nib across thinnest part (fig. 165).
O height: commonly one, two, or more of
the line-spaces.
9. COMPONENT A has approx. 10 strokes & filling.
PARTS: B has approx. 8 strokes & filling.
C has approx. 7 strokes & filling.
and so on (see fig. 81).

Fig. 80.

Fig. 81.

NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION OF VERSALS
(See figs. 80, 81, 85, 165)
Versal Letters are properly built-up (p. 291) with true pen-strokes (b, fig.
81). Drawn or painted, they acquire a different character (p. 292). Their
office being to mark important parts of the text, they are generally
distinguished by colour and freedom of form—tending to curves and
flourishes.
The pen has an extra long slit ( 12 inch to 34 inch), and the writing-board
may be lowered (see fig. 46, b) to permit of the thick, liquid colour running
out freely. The nib is of the ordinary shape (but not too oblique), and
generally rather less in width than the nib used for the accompanying text
(a, fig. 81).
The outlining strokes are quickly written and immediately filled in, each
letter being loaded well with the colour, which thereafter dries evenly, with
a slightly raised “flat” surface. The liquid colour should be fairly thick (see
colour, p. 176).
“Gothic lettering” is a term used for “Black-letter” and related types, as
distinguished from “Roman” types. “Gothic” capitals tend to roundness, the
small-letters to angularity, but in each the abrupt change from thick to thin
strokes, and the resulting contrast of stroke, are characteristics—the result
of pen work.24 In Versals this contrast is marked; the ends of the thinner
strokes spread (see Addenda, p. 25, & cross-bar of A, fig. 71), and the
heavy parts are crossed by thin serifs. Versals may retain their pen character
and yet approach [p119] the “Roman Letter” (p. 294), or be changed into the
ornate “Lombardic” (p. 34). They are capable of great variety, and the
“round” or “square” D, E, H, M, and W may be used at pleasure.
The Stems curve in slightly on either side. When they are very tall the
mid part may be quite straight, imperceptibly curving out towards the ends
(b, fig. 82). This gives an effect of curvature throughout the length, while
keeping the letter graceful and straight. The head of a stem (especially of an

ascender) should be slightly wider than the foot
(fig. 83). This applies generally to every sort of
built-up capitals.

Fig. 83.
The stem width may be nearly the same in
Versals of different heights (a, fig. 84): generally
the letters tend to become more slender in
proportion as the letters grow taller (b). Very large
Versals (or initials) are often made with a hollow
stem to avoid a heavy appearance (L, fig. 84). [p120]

Fig. 82.

Fig. 84.
The Serifs are long and slightly curved in ornamental forms (fig. 79):
shorter, and nearly straight in stiffer forms (fig. 166). In many cases the
serifs appear to have been written first, the stems being added between them

(f, fig. 81)—in old MSS. the stems often show ragged ends crossing the
serifs. Sometimes the serif appears to have been added to the stem in two
pieces, half on either side springing from the corners of the stem (g). The
safest way seems to be the complete finishing stroke added to, and forming
sharp angles with, the stem (h).
Arms or Branches.—Width of nib at start, and built-up at free end. (Pen
horizontal, figs. 81, 165). [p121]

Fig. 85.
The Bows or Curves of Versals (and of built-up letters generally) are
begun with the inside stroke—a rather flat curve: and finished with the

outer stroke—a pronounced curve (a, fig. 85). This preserves [p122] the
continuity of the interior curve, together with the clean contrast of the thick
and thin strokes (see inside shapes, p. 253). The normal form may be
flattened or curved a little (b), but exaggeration in either direction produces
a degraded form. Part round letters, as D, P, and q, may be begun with a
complete inner oval, or a nearly completed O (to which the stem is added);
this preserves their interior symmetry (c).
The beauty and quality of Versal letters depends very much on their
freedom; touching-up or trimming after they are made is apt to spoil them;
and when good letters are made with a free hand, minute roughnesses,
which are due to their quick construction, may be regarded as shewing a
good rather than a bad form of care-less workmanship (see (c) fig. 164).
SPACING & ARRANGEMENT OF VERSALS
(Allowing for the special treatment of Versals called for by the extreme freedom and elasticity of
their pen forms, the following remarks apply generally to the spacing and arrangement of coloured
capitals in written pages)

Versals accompanying Small Text are generally dropped below the
writing-line, so that their tops are level with the tops of the small letters
(fig. 86).
Sizes of Versals.—Letters which are of the same importance—i.e. serve
the same purpose—are usually of like size and form throughout; and the
more important a letter, the more it tends to be elaborated and decorated
(see figs. 90, 92).
Special words in Text marked by Versals.—Where coloured capitals are
used throughout the text (fig. 92), the colours are usually varied (pp. 134,
185). [p123]
Line beginnings marked by Versals.—Where every line on a page begins
with a coloured capital, the majority of the forms are kept rather plain (see
(5) p. 136). They may be effectively treated as a band of simple or
variegated colour (p. 136). This is a common treatment for a list of names

or a poem; sometimes, especially if there are many lines, simple-written
capitals (p. 297) may be used instead of Versals.
Verses or Paragraphs may be marked by Versals set in the text (a), or
part in margin, part in text (b), or wholly in the margin (c, fig. 86). The
marginal capital is the simplest, and it has the advantage of leaving the page
of text entire; it may, however, sometimes be desirable to break the
continuity by an inset capital, especially in cases of closely written text, or
of stanzas not spaced apart (see p. 138).
The first word of a paragraph, which is begun with a Versal, is often
completed in simple-written capitals of the same colour as the text (a, fig.
86).
Various ways of marking Paragraphs.—(a) The paragraph marks , ¶,
preferably coloured, may be used instead of (or even with) Versals (comp.
fig. 95); (b) by one word or line (or several words or lines) of simple-
written (or built-up) capitals in black or colour (see fig. 93); (c) by some
suitable ornament (see fig. 87); (d) in many cases it is well to have spaces
between the paragraphs or verses (see p. 138).
Line-Finishings at the ends of Verses, &c. (pp. 205, 425), may be made
with the Versal pens and colours. [p124]

Fig. 86.

Fig. 87.
[p125]

To mark Chapters (or even Books), extra large Versals (fig. 88) may be
used, in lieu of more elaborate initials. Smaller Versals may be grouped
round about, beside or inside initials (p. 208 & fig. 92).
Headings and Pages in Capitals (see also pp. 128, 132).—Each line of
capitals is generally kept uniform throughout its length,25 though different
lines vary in size and colour (see fig. 89). If it be possible it is well to keep
the individual word entire [p126] and to let the heading or page contain the
complete initial phrase or sentence (see fig. 91).

Generally the greater the number of capitals the plainer their forms are
kept, and the closer their spacing. It is best to keep to the regular method of
spacing the lines of Versals one of the writing-line spaces (or more) apart—
though in special cases the Versals may be independent of the writing-lines.

Fig. 88.
Spacing Out.—Coloured letters and ornaments are usually put in after the
plain MS. has been written. A very little practice enables the scribe
accurately to guess the amount of space which he should leave for the
Versals, &c., whether it is designed to have several lines of them, or a single
letter only on the page. A few pencil marks may be used to settle a doubtful
point, but an elaborate sketching or setting out in pencil spoils the freedom
of the work. [p127]

CHAPTER VIII
BLACK & RED
Rubricating — Initial Pages or Title Pages — Prefaces & Notes in Colour — Pages with Coloured
Headings — Page or Column Heading & Initial — Versals in Column or Marginal Bands —

Stanzas or Verses marked by Versals — Music with Red Staves — Tail-Pieces, Colophons, &c. —
Rubricating: General Remarks.

RUBRICATING
“Red, either in the form of a pigment or fluid ink, is of very ancient and
common use. It is seen on the early Egyptian papyri; and it appears in the
earliest extant vellum MSS., either in titles or the first lines of columns or
chapters. The Greek term was μελάνιον κόκκινον; Latin minium,26
rubrica.”—(Thompson’s “G. & L. Palæography,” p. 51.)
Rubricating, or the adding of Red, or other coloured, letters, line-
finishings, or signs, to a MS. or Book, in which the main body of the text is
already completed in black, constitutes in itself a very useful and effective
form of decoration. It is, moreover, a connecting link between plain writing
and illumination proper; and we may safely assume that the artists who
made the beautiful illuminations of the Middle Ages were trained as scribes
and rubricators.
INITIAL PAGES OR TITLE PAGES
Fig. 89 represents an Initial Page in Red Capitals. (The same
arrangement may of course be used [p128] with a variety of colours and with
gold: see Note (4) below). Such a page is, as it were, an “illumination” to
all the pages, following it in black text.
Title Pages came into fashion after printing was introduced. Early MSS.
commonly began with the opening words written in large, decorated
capitals, the title sometimes being written quite small, near the top of the
page: other details were commonly put in the colophon in early books (see
p. 142).
When the title is more important, in a literary sense, than the opening
sentence, it may be well to follow the modern fashion. But when there is a
finely worded opening sentence—perhaps the key-note to the rest of the
text—while the title is merely for reference, it seems reasonable to magnify

and illuminate the actual beginning of the book rather than the mere name
of it (see p. 365).
Note (1).—In fig. 89 the title—(JESU CHRISTI) Evangelium Secundum
Joannem—is written in as a decoration of the initial word; the old form “
” is used for “Jesu Christi” (these letters, it will be noticed, are
here employed to lighten the large capitals, see p. 208).
(2) Where IN is an initial word, to enforce narrow initial I, both letters
may be magnified.
(3) The scale of the lettering corresponds with that of the ruled lines
(these do not show in the figure): the letters and the interlinear spaces are
each one line high; the initial word is four lines high. Such a mode of
spacing is very simple and effective, and will save the rubricator much
unnecessary trouble and fruitless planning (see footnote, p. 221).
(4) Other Colour Schemes.—All Burnished Gold (or with Title in red); or
IN gold, with smaller capitals Red (or in Blue and Red lines alternately—or
Blue, Red, Green, Red: see p. 181). [p129]

Fig. 89.
PREFACES & NOTES IN COLOUR

Fig. 90 represents a preface, or note, written in red.
It was a frequent practice in old MSS., where there were prefaces, or
prologues, or notes—not actually part of the text—to keep these distinct by
writing them in red. A somewhat similar usage still exists in modern
typography, where such parts are sometimes distinguished by Italic type
(see p. 315).
The distinction of a preface, “rubric,” or note from the main body of the
text makes a book more readable, and, as a page of red (or blue) writing is
very pleasant and effective, we may certainly take advantage of such a
reasonable excuse for introducing it. Entire books have been written in red,
but this is a questionable mode, as too much red text would tire the eye.
Note (1).—The writing is founded on the tenth-century English hand
given in Plate VIII.
(2) The flourishes on s and e fill gaps at the ends of the lines, and the
spread out A M E N fills the last line.
(3) The Headline is in simple written capitals.
(4) The effect of colour contrast of the built-up Ps with the simple
writing: the solid Ps (though really the same colour) appear to be a much
deeper red than the writing, which is lightened by the intermingled white of
the paper.
(5) Other Colour Schemes.—The Versals (Pp) in burnished gold; the rest
in red or blue. [p131]

Fig. 90.

PAGES WITH COLOURED HEADINGS
Fig. 91 represents the first page of a chapter (or a book) with a Heading
in red capitals.
It is convenient in practice clearly to distinguish between the two modes
of beginning—
(a) with an illuminated Initial-Page (see fig. 89), or,
(b) with an illuminated Heading (see fig. 91).
The former may be treated as though it were a decoration to the whole
book. The latter is intended more particularly to decorate its own page.
The Heading should therefore be proportionate to the body of the text
below it. About one-third Heading and two-thirds text make a good
proportion. A “Heading” occupying half, or more than half, of the page is
apt to look disproportionate, and it would be preferable to this to have a
complete, or nearly complete,27 Page of coloured capitals.
Note (1).—The full effect of black and red is obtained by an arrangement
of the two colours in marked contrast.
(2) The lines are used as a scale for the Heading, the red capitals and
interspaces each being one line high. If a Heading so spaced appear too
close to the first line of black writing, another line space may be left.
(3) The round Es are used to fill out the second line, and the square,
narrow E to relieve the crowded third line.
(4) Other Colour Schemes.—The entire heading, or the letters W, H, B,
O, R, in burnished gold; or the whole variegated (see p. 180). [p133]

Fig. 91.
[p134]

PAGE OR COLUMN HEADING & INITIAL
Fig. 92 represents the first page of a book or chapter in two columns,
beginning with a rather ornate Heading, in which the Initial is made the
principal feature, and having coloured Versals and line-finishings
throughout the text.
It is more difficult to get a good effect in this way than by means of a
marked colour contrast (see p. 144), or variegated colour, and gold (see
Note 7).
Note (1).—The lines bounding the text would naturally be indented, or
pale (not black as in the block), and ruled from head to foot of the page (see
Note (2) on the next figure).
(2) The red ornamental line-finishings (see p. 205) would be more
effective if variegated.
(3) The Versals in the text are made about a line high, but are dropped
below the line (p. 122).
(4) The Versals in the Heading are made one line high, with one-line
spacing—between O and D increased to two lines (partly filled by a
flourish from the D), in order to fit the U, O, and D in evenly beside the
Initial.
(5) The Initial Q should project slightly up and out—beyond the
bounding lines—to mark the top, left corner more strongly (see footnote, p.
211).
(6) All the rubricating on this page is done with the same pen (see pp.
205, 218).
(7) Other Colour Schemes. “Quod fuit ab initio,” the filigree
ornament and the V V in burnished gold (or the Q and VV in gold), the
rest of the Versals and line-finishings in Red and Blue, or Red and Green, or
Red, Blue, and Green (see pp. 181, 185). [p135]

Fig. 92.

[p136]

VERSALS IN COLUMN OR MARGINAL BANDS
Fig. 93 represents two columns of black text, consisting of short verses,
&c., which are marked by coloured capitals—forming bands of colour—in
the margins.
Note (1).—The coloured capitals in the figure are made rather larger than
usual, to enforce the effect of the two lines of red and mark their contrast
with the columns of black text. In practice, however, they would be better
and more distinct if rather smaller.
(2) The lines bounding the text would naturally be faint, or grooved (p.
343); but, ruled from head to foot of the page, they would be sufficiently
apparent to add materially to the general effect of orderly arrangement.
(Lines are printed here to show clearly the way the two columns are ruled
and to suggest this effect, though the process block necessarily gives a false
impression in making them appear too short and too heavy).
(3) Extra width between the columns (and also in the margin) may be
allowed for the coloured capitals (compare fig. 92).
(4) Words in simple written capitals are used to mark slight divisions, or
changes of sense, in the text.
(5) A stiff Versal of a rather “Roman” type is used, partly because of the
number of the capitals (see p. 126).
(6) Other Colour Schemes.—The larger capitals might be in burnished
gold, the rest in red (or in red, blue, and green); or all might be in red, blue,
and green. [p137]

Fig. 93.

[p138]

STANZAS OR VERSES MARKED BY VERSALS
Fig. 94 represents a poem in two verses which are distinguished by
interspaces and by coloured capitals—a brief introductory line also being in
colour. (It is supposed that the poem occurs in a book—mainly in prose—
written in Roman small-letters.)
It is generally best to distinguish the verses of poems by one-line
interspaces. When this is done, coloured initials are not so necessary, and
their value become chiefly decorative (see 123).
Note (1).—The writing is founded on “Italic” (see Plate XXI.), and (it is
supposed that) it would be used here wherever the songs occurred; firstly, to
distinguish them from the rest of the text, and secondly, to keep the lines of
the poem entire—Italics occupying less room than ordinary, round Small-
Letters (see p. 315).
(2) The story opens with the first line, which may in this case be regarded
either as a Title or as a prefatory note in red.
(3) The two red capitals are made of a rather “Roman” type to match the
Italic (and the small Roman text of the book). The difference in height made
between the W and the S is intended to balance the difference in width, and
to give them an appearance of equal weight. This may be permitted where
there are only a few capitals; where there are many, their heights are
generally kept more uniform.
(4) Another Colour Scheme.—W and S would look better in burnished
gold. [p139]

Fig. 94.

[p140]

MUSIC WITH RED STAVES
Fig. 95 is a reproduction, in facsimile, showing quarter of a page of a
folio Service Book (probably French, early sixteenth century). The page
consists of two columns of ten staves each, and is headed
In vigi (lia), natiuitatis dnī. The book is printed on vellum in red and
black; the columns of music have faint red bounding lines ruled by hand
(not shown in the figure).
The red stave is very effective, and it was commonly used in early MSS.
and printed books. There appears to be some doubt, however, as to its
practical value, and I have been advised that it is not so legible as the black
line stave, and also that, in Church Service Books (see p. 345), in order to
make an absolutely clear distinction, red should be reserved entirely for the
rubrics.
The “plain-song” chant, with its four-line stave, has a simpler and finer
appearance than the more modern and elaborate five-lined stave and tailed
notes. The latter, however, may yet be treated very effectively.
Note 1.—The mark and the capitals , and were blotted—it
can scarcely be called “painted”—with yellow. Yellow or red were often
used in this way to mark the small black capitals in printed books (p. 428, &
comp. p. 302). It is a questionable method. (These blots have been removed
from the figure—except, by an oversight, in the case of ).
(2) Other Colour Schemes.—(a) The title, or (b) the text and the notes,
might be in burnished gold (the other parts in either case remaining in red
and black). [p141]

Fig. 95.
[p142]

TAIL-PIECES, COLOPHONS, &C.
Fig. 96 represents a coloured Tail-piece or decorative finish at the end of
a book (or chapter).
The Colophon (see p. 128 & figs. 13, 191), generally distinguished from
the text by a smaller or different hand, and—especially in early printed
books—by colour or other decorative treatment, occurs at the end of a
book, where it is the traditional right of the penman and the printer to add a
statement or a symbolical device. The Name (of craftsman and assistants),
Time, and Place are commonly stated—preferably quite simply—e.g. “This
book, written out by me, A.B., in LONDON, was finished on the 31st day of
DECEMBER 1900.” Any reasonable matter of interest concerning the text,
the materials, methods, lettering, or ornament, and an account of the
number of leaves and their size, &c., may be added. But the craftsman,
properly and modestly keeping his name off the title-page, is at liberty to
exercise his right, marking the end of, and signing his work in any way he
chooses—even in a speech or a sentiment—provided the form of the
colophon be unobtrusive and its language natural. Printer’s devices or book-
marks, consisting of symbols, monograms, &c. (p. 362), were likewise
used.

Fig. 96.

[p144]

RUBRICATING: GENERAL REMARKS
Contrast of Red and Black.—The most effective arrangement of red
lettering with black text involves a sharp contrast, and, as a rule, the
concentration of the red in a line or mass (see figs. 91, 93, and 96, where
the red lettering is massed at the head, side, and foot of the black). Too
many red capitals scattered through a page lose their effect, and appear as
though they were brown-red rather than bright red (see pp. 134, 185).
Printed title-pages, &c., may be seen with promiscuous lines of black and
red, in which the fine effects obtainable by the use of bright colour is
dispersed and lost; while the same, or even a less, amount of red, massed in
one or two places in the page, would show to great advantage.
Notes in Red in Margins.—Red lettering, and particularly small red
writing, may be used freely in the margins; being much lighter than black, it
appears there as a marginal decoration, not interfering with the regular look
of the page. Indeed, red may be used more freely, and I think its decorative
effect is greater, in the form of rubrics, than in any other simple form of
ornament (see Red in Church Service Books (pp. 140, 345) and Red
substituted for Italics (p. 315)).
Paragraph and other Marks.—Various symbols, numerals, and marks
*
(such as ¶ † ‡ § —Addenda, p. 25) may be made in
red.
Red Lines.—Lines made to divide, or outline, pages (“rules” or “rule
borders”) should be sparingly used, and then rather in black than in red (see
p. 364). If in red, particularly between lines of writing, these should be
“ruled feint” with diluted colour. [p145]
Red for Ornaments.—Red may be used pretty freely with other colours
(blue, green, and gold), but by itself more sparingly.

OTHER COLOURS.—The foregoing remarks refer mainly to contrasts of
black and red, but apply, to a certain extent, to black with any bright colour
(or gold) (see “Other Colour Schemes” given above, and p. 180).

CHAPTER IX
LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD
Tools & Materials — Laying the Ground — Laying the Gold-Leaf — Burnishing the Gold —
Remedying Faults in Gilding — Gold Writing — Other Methods & Recipes for Gilding —
Appendix on Gilding (by Graily Hewitt).

TOOLS & MATERIALS
These should be kept together in a convenient box, as it is important that the
process should not be interrupted by a search for a missing tool.

Tools and Materials. Summary of Process.
HARD LEAD PENCIL. For drawing forms if necessary.
POUNCE. For preparing surface: “pouncing.”
“SIZE” OR RAISING For raising and backing leaf.
PREPARATION.
SMALL SAUCER. For mixing size in.
NEEDLE SET IN HANDLE. For bursting bubbles, &c.
QUILL PEN. For “laying” the size.
KNIFE. For trimming size, &c.
GOLD-LEAF. For gilding. [p146]
SCISSORS. For cutting gold-leaf.
BURNISHING-SLAB. For backing the parchment or paper
while under pressure.
BREATHING-TUBE. For damping size.
RUBBING-PAPER. For pressing leaf on to size.
CHALK OR SOFT LEAD For marking form on rubbing-paper.
PENCIL.
BURNISHER, TOOTH For (1) pressing down, and (2)
SHAPE. burnishing gold-leaf.
FEATHER (Brush, &c.). For dusting off the pounce.
BRUSH. For brushing off waste leaf.
(HARD INDIARUBBER.) (For removing gold from parchment.)
(POWDER GOLD & FINE (For “mending” in certain cases.)
BRUSH.)

LAYING THE GROUND
Drawing the Form.—Elaborate letters or ornaments may be drawn with a
hard pencil, which will leave slight indentations in the surface of the page
when the marks of the lead have been removed with indiarubber. In the case

of free lettering or gold writing, however, the forms should be made directly
with the pen (see pp. 148, 164).
Preparing the Surface: Pouncing.—The surface is thoroughly cleaned
and prepared with powdered pumice stone, or other suitable “pounce” (see
pp. 167, 174). This being rubbed well into the actual part which is to take
the size absorbs grease and slightly roughens28 the surface. The surrounding
parts are also pounced to prevent the gold-leaf from sticking to them later.
Composition of the Ground or Size. The chief [p147] substance in a “size”
or raising preparation is generally some kind of earthy matter, to give it
body. Other substances, having toughness and stickiness, are used to bind
the earthy matter and prevent its breaking when the page is turned over or
bent, and also to make the size adhere to the page and the gold-leaf stick to
the size. Yellow or red colouring matter is often added. A preservative, such
as oil of cloves—in a minute quantity—may be present: this will permit of
the size being kept in a semi-liquid condition, in a closed jar.
The following recipe was given to me by Mr. G. Loumyer:—
“Chalk (Whiting).
Oxide of Iron— 1 grain.
2
Glue (Carpenter’s)—4 grains.
Gum Arabic—2 grains.
Water—50 grains.
Melt the gum and the glue together in the water, then add the oxide of iron, and lastly put in
enough chalk to make the whole a rather liquid paste. Apply to the parchment, which you have
previously well rubbed with whiting, and, when dry, apply the gold-leaf with alcohol.”

Mixing the Size with Water.—A little of the size, taken from the jar (see
above), is put in the saucer with a few drops of water to soak for an hour or
two. It is then rubbed down with a finger-tip, care being taken to mix it very
thoroughly and to avoid making bubbles. The right consistency is judged by
experience—it should be thick rather than thin.

It is essential that all the ingredients be present in their right proportions,
and the mixture should be stirred every now and then. Otherwise the earthy
[p148] matter settles down, and the sticky parts, remaining in solution above,

are liable to be used up. What is left in the saucer after use is apt to be
deficient in its sticky parts, and it is best thrown away. Take out of the jar
only what is required at the time, and mix a fresh lot the next time.
Bubbles, formed in the mixture, may be burst by a needle, or by adding a
minute drop of oil of cloves.
Methods of Laying the Size.—The parchment or paper is laid flat on a
table; if on a slope, the size would run down and lie unevenly. A quill pen
with a finely cut nib and an extra long slit (about 58 inch) is used for laying
the size. It is filled pretty full by means of a quill or a brush; if by the latter,
special care must be taken to avoid bubbles.
Experiments should be made in various methods.
I. Perhaps the best way of laying the size, so that it may set properly and
that the burnish may retain its brilliance, is to put on a thin coat with a pen
—in the direct manner in which coloured Versals are made (q.v.)—and
afterwards add two or three thin coats, allowing each coat to dry
thoroughly. This requires considerable patience and skill, as it takes a long
time, and there is a danger, in adding several coats, of spoiling the form by
going over the edges.
II. The simplest method for ordinary gold letters is to make them with
one extra thick coat29 of size, exactly like coloured Versals—first a natural
pen outline, and then the filling in (see fig. 81). This requires some practice
to do well, as the thicker size is more difficult to manage than the [p149]
colour.30 Very narrow parts—such as the thin strokes—are apt to be
deficient in size, and therefore, while they are still wet, the pen—held
nearly vertical with the nib in contact with the surface of the size—is
moved slowly along it until the stroke has received sufficient size and is
properly filled out.

Fig. 97.
III. A method that may be found more convenient for heavy forms, is to
hold the pen across the form to be gilded (which has previously been
marked on the parchment) with its nib resting on the further outline (a, fig.
97). The nib being moved along that line, by contact with the parchment
restrains the size from passing beyond it, while allowing it to flow out
freely behind and below (a, 2). The opposite side is similarly treated, and, if
the form be narrow, the size as it flows out blends with that already laid (b).
The ends of the form are finished in like manner (c). [p150]
The angle of the pen with the parchment is less for a wider form (b, fig.
98).

Fig. 98.
As a general rule the size should stand pretty high when wet; it shrinks in
drying, and, if it forms too thin a coat, it will neither hold the gold-leaf fast
nor burnish well. While the size is still wet it is easy to raise it to any height
desired by running more size into the form in the manner described above.
It is well, however, not to raise the size too high, as burnished gold too
much raised looks out of place on a page and has a heavy and vulgar
appearance (p. 184). Very high raising also does not dry so well, and when
dry it is more liable to chip.
The work of laying the size should be carried out as quickly as possible.
If one part of the form is left any appreciable time before the remaining
parts are sized, the first part will begin to settle and dry, and the different
layings will not blend or lie evenly. Though the size is thick and awkward
to use at first, a little skill will coax it quickly and evenly out of the pen, and
it will all blend and dry with an even surface.
When it is sized, put the work away to dry in a [p151] drawer or safe place
where it cannot be smudged or get dusty.

Drying the Size.—The average time allowed is twenty-four hours, but it
varies with the weather and the temperature; damp weather may make a
longer time necessary, and dry weather or heat will shorten the time. The
thickness of the raising affects the time very much; a very thin coat will dry
in an hour or two, while an extra thick coat may take several days. Size not
dry enough is too sticky to burnish; if too dry, it is so absorbent that it sucks
up all the moisture which is breathed on it. To ensure the gold-leaf’s
sticking thoroughly, it is safer on the whole to gild the size while it is still
slightly damp, and delay the burnishing till it is drier.
The time to allow and the right condition of the size for gilding can only
be accurately judged by experience.
LAYING THE GOLD-LEAF
Note.—In illuminated MSS., in order to avoid risk of injury to the gold it
may be laid last of all (see pp. 170–1). The inexperienced illuminator,
however, may find it better to follow the easier method of finishing the gold
before applying the colours.
The process of gold-laying must be carried out steadily and quickly; all
the necessary tools, &c., should be ready to hand (see p. 145).
The Gold-Leaf.—This is sold in books of twenty-five leaves. The
ordinary leaf, about 3 14 inches square, consisting of gold and alloy, is said to
1
be beaten out to less than 200,000 inch in thickness. As gold sticks readily to
gold, especially when very thin and liable to wrinkle and fold over, or to
paper, red [p152] bole or ochre is scattered between the leaves of the ordinary
book. This powder will come off on the work and give it an ugly colour,
when burnishing, unless it is dusted off very carefully.
It is better to get gold “double” (or “quadruple”) the ordinary thickness,
specially prepared for fine work such as illuminating, quite pure, and put up
in white books (without bole).

Cutting the Leaf.—With the scissors, which must be quite clean and
sharp (or else the gold will stick to them and tear), cut a whole or half leaf
of gold, together with the paper leaf on which it lies, out of the book.

Fig. 99.
The gold is cut on one paper (fig. 99) (not between papers, for then it
would stick and tear), and the cut edges of the paper and the gold stick
together slightly. If the edge of the gold is anywhere loose and apt to flap
about, it and the corresponding paper edge can be nicked together with the
scissors (fig. 100). The gold-leaf being lightly held to the paper in this way
is easily handled.
A piece of gold, about 18 inch larger all round than the form to be gilded,
is cut from the leaf in the manner described above (a, b, fig. 100). Except in
the case of a very large form, it is not worth trying [p153] to save gold by
cutting it out in the same shape. Square, oblong, and triangular shaped
pieces are suitable for ordinary use; these are laid in a convenient place—
the edge of a book cover will do very well (fig. 101)—ready to be picked
up at the right moment.
The burnishing slab (a flat piece of vulcanite, celluloid, or metal) is
placed under the page to give it a hard, firm back, which will make the
pushing and rubbing of the burnisher effective.

Fig. 100.

Fig. 101.
Preparing the Size.—If the size has dried rough, it may be lightly scraped
with the pen-knife—removing as little as possible of the surface, in which

the essential stickiness frequently seems to be concentrated. [p154]
Ordinarily a form should not require trimming, though if its edges have
accidental roughnesses, these may be trimmed a little with the pen-knife.
Damping the Size.—The breathing tube is about 12 inch (or less) in
diameter, and 6 inches or more in length; it may be made of paper or cane.
One end of the tube being lightly held between the lips, the other is moved
about over the size, which is gently breathed upon (fig. 102). The breath
condensing on the surface of the size, moistens it and renders it sticky. The
amount of moistening required depends on the condition of the size.

Fig. 102.
Care has to be taken that the breath does not condense in the tube and
drop on to the work.

Fig. 103.
Laying the Gold-Leaf.—Immediately that the size has been sufficiently
breathed upon, the piece of paper with gold-leaf adhering (held ready in the
right [p155] hand) is placed upon it, gold-leaf downwards, care being taken
to place it steadily down, and not drag it across the size (fig. 103).

Fig. 104. The burnisher is shown here held in the right hand —
ready for the next operation —— See Figs. 106 & 107.
The Rubbing Paper—a convenient piece of thin but tough paper (held
ready in the left hand)—is immediately laid above the gold-leaf paper, and
is then rubbed over firmly with the finger-tip, in order at once to attach the

leaf to the size (fig. 104). It is then quickly rubbed with the soft pencil [p156]
or chalk till the raised form underneath is indicated on the surface of the
paper (fig. 105).
These two operations may be combined by having a little blue chalk
either on the finger-tip or on the upper surface of the rubbing paper.
Round the outline of this form the point of the burnisher31 is worked,
pressing the gold-leaf firmly—through both the papers—against the size, in
the angle formed by the size and the surface of the parchment (fig. 106).
The fore part of the burnisher is then passed rapidly all over the rubbing
paper with a firm pressure (fig. 107).
The rubbing paper and the other paper
are picked off, and an experienced eye can
usually tell if the gold is sticking properly
by a peculiar, smooth appearance which it
then has.
Several Letters or Forms which are close
together may be gilded simultaneously—
with one piece of gold-leaf—as if they were
one complex form. This saves time, but if
too many forms are gilded together, some
of them are liable to be less thoroughly and
effectually treated.

Fig. 105.

Fig. 106.
Small Scattered Forms (dots, &c.).—For these the gold-leaf may be cut
into a sufficient number of little pieces, which are allowed to fall (gold side
downwards) on a sheet placed to receive them. [p157] They are picked up
separately by means of a needle stuck into their backing-paper.

Fig. 107.
Additional Coats of Gold-Leaf.—A second leaf of gold may be laid on
immediately on the top of the first; this will ensure richness and facilitate
burnishing. Additional leaves may be laid after burnishing, but, unless the
first gilding is absolutely clean, there is a risk of the second leaf peeling off
when re-burnished. [p158]
BURNISHING THE GOLD
The Burnisher.—A tooth-shaped agate burnisher (fig. 108) is commonly
used.
The point is used for pushing the leaf into angles and for burnishing
angles (a).

The fore-part for general burnishing (b).
The bend for cross-burnishing and for angles (c).
The side for very gentle and light burnishing (d).
The burnisher is kept scrupulously clean, and to ensure this it is
frequently rubbed on a cloth.
Dusting off the Pounce.—The edge of the parchment may be tapped
smartly on the desk to shake off the pounce, and a feather or a soft
handkerchief may be used, care being taken not to brush the pounce over
the gold. [p159]
Brushing off Waste Leaf.—The superfluous gold round the edge of the
gilded form may be lightly brushed off with the tip of the brush. This may
be done after or before the burnishing—preferably after (see p. 170).
Any gold which may have stuck to the surrounding parchment, in spite of
the pouncing, may be removed with the knife or with the hard indiarubber
point, great care being taken not to touch the gilded size.
Burnishing the Gold.—The gold-leaf may be burnished immediately after
laying when the size is very dry, but it is safer to wait for a quarter of an
hour—or longer, if the size is at all damp (see Drying, p. 151).
The slab is again put under the work, and the burnishing is begun very
gently and cautiously: should the burnisher stick in the very least, it is
instantly stopped (or else the gold will be scratched off), examined, and
cleaned.
The first strokes of the burnisher are generally carried all over the work,
very lightly and with a [p160] circular movement (fig. 109), till the gold
begins to feel smooth, and the matt surface gives place to a dull polish.

Fig. 108.

Fig. 109. Fig. 110.

As the gold gets smoother a little more pressure is used, and the
burnisher is moved in straight lines in every direction across the gold (fig.
110). At this point the gold should have a peculiar and agreeable feeling of
smoothness under the burnisher, an unmistakable sign that all is going well.
A rapid light polish with the bend of the burnisher across a gold stem will
give a very good finish (c, fig. 108).
Properly burnished gold in a right light is at first as bright as a mirror,
and in some lights may look [p161] quite dark by reason of its smoothness. A
piece of white paper may be held at such an angle that the white light from
it is reflected by the gold; this will show the quality of the burnish, and also
show up any brown spots which the leaf may have failed to cover. It is

helpful, moreover, during the actual process of burnishing to have a
reflecting paper folded and standing beside the work (fig. 111).

Fig. 111.
At first the size under the burnished gold is not thoroughly hardened, and
great care should be taken of it (not to breathe on nor finger the gold in any
way, nor allow it to lie about and get dusty). It is best to put it away safely
in a drawer for a week or two.
After a week or fortnight, when the size has set a little more, it may be
very gently re-burnished, and this may be done again at the end of another
[p162] fortnight. This final burnishing, when the size is nearly hard, will give
it a very lasting polish. It is well, however, to take every care of burnished
gold, and to secure it from risk of damage as soon as may be. Illuminated
miniatures were often protected by a piece of silk between the leaves—and

this should be done now, in the case of fine work. That a bound volume
protects the burnished gold within it is proved by the large number of MSS.
in which the gold, laid and burnished 500 years ago, is in perfect and
brilliant preservation.
REMEDYING FAULTS IN GILDING
To lay and burnish gold satisfactorily requires considerable experience.
Careful practice with a good “size” will overcome the chief difficulties:
these, and their probable causes, are here summarised:—

To make the Size stick to the Surface. Probable Causes of Size not sticking to
Parchment or Paper.
Clean and pounce thoroughly: roughen if Dirty Surface.
necessary (pp. 146, 167). Greasy Surface.
Horny Surface or
Non-porous Surface.
Procure or make a proper composition, mix Size not sticky enough
thoroughly always, and stir frequently when
in use. If composition is at fault, add— Size not tough enough (and crumbling off)
a. Sticky matter. Both causes due to faulty composition, or
b. Toughening matter mixing. [p163]
(pp. 147, 166, and Appendix).
To make the Gold-leaf stick to the Size. Probable Causes of Gold-leaf not sticking to
Size.
Breathe on thoroughly and avoid delay in Size not damped enough due to
laying the gold (p. 154).
insufficient breathing on, or
too absorbent nature or condition of,
Do not allow size to dry too long (p. 151). size.

More, and more careful, rubbing and pressure Not sufficient rubbing and pressing on of gold.
(p. 156).
(See above.) Size not sticky enough.
Raise the size sufficiently (p. 150). If not Not enough size, particularly in thin lines and
enough when dry, roughen surface and add edges.
another coat.
Try re-gilding (p. 157), or, if spots persist, The gold may refuse to stick in spots with no
scrape them gently and try again: failing apparent reason, but probably from one or
that, gently scrape off all the gold and try other of the above causes. Or the size may
white of egg (dilute), or a slight re-sizing have been touched accidentally and have
(as above). become greasy or dirty.
If the spots are very small and there is not
time to spare for re-gilding, they may be
touched with powder gold and dilute white
of egg, and burnished when dry.
To make the Gold-leaf smooth and bright. Probable Causes of Gold-leaf’s not burnishing
properly.
a. Allow longer time (p. 151). Size too sticky. Due to—
b. Allow longer time (p. 151). a. Damp weather.
b. Insufficient time allowed for drying.

c. Remove size and re-size with proper c. Too much sticky matter in size.
composition.
Sometimes this difficulty may be overcome by
using several coats of gold-leaf (p. 157).
Scrape smooth with sharp knife. (Sometimes Size rough surfaced.
the size itself is burnished before the gold-
leaf is laid.)
Clean burnisher frequently. Burnisher becoming dirty.

[p164]

Both paper and parchment when much wet with size are apt to cockle.
Generally it is not possible, or desirable (see p. 174), to guard against this
by first stretching the material, but the size may be used with less water, so
that it will dry sooner. In cases where there is a gold background it may
often be divided into small parts (to be sized at different times) by the
pattern (see p. 191). For large unbroken patches of gold several thin coats
may be put on, one after the other.
Some sizes have a tendency to crack: this is difficult to guard against.
But, if the cracks are very minute—such as may be seen in many instances
in the best early MSS.—they do not constitute a serious blemish.
Burnished gold is often damaged by careless handling or insufficient
protection.
GOLD WRITING
The page (having been ruled as for ordinary writing) is thoroughly
pounced all over.
The pen has an extra long slit, and the size is made a little more fluid than
usual to allow of its flowing freely and making true pen-strokes (p. 63).
The desk is lowered (fig. 46, b), or flat, so that the size may flow freely.
The nib sometimes makes only a wet down-stroke on the parchment, but,
by lightly pushing the pen up again, the stroke will be filled by the size
which flows out from under the nib. Simple pen-strokes in small writing
hold but little, and so ought to be filled as full of size as possible (pp. 150,

184). They will be found to dry much more [p165] quickly than larger forms,
and may be gilded within a few hours of writing. Half-a-dozen or more
letters are gilded together (see p. 156).
OTHER METHODS & RECIPES FOR GILDING
Gold-leaf may be cut with a “gilder’s knife” on a “gilder’s cushion,” and
picked up with a “gilder’s tip.”
Water, white of egg, or alcohol may be used to make the gold-leaf adhere
to the size.
“Transfer gold-leaf” is convenient, but the greasiness of the transfer
paper is apt to dim the gilding.
Gold-leaf is made in many shades, from “red” (gold + copper) to “green”
(gold + silver); though these may be used very effectively, they are liable to
tarnish, and it is best to begin with pure gold (see pp. 152, 169).
Silver-leaf oxidises and turns black; platinum (a good substitute) costs
about 2s. 6d., and aluminium (not so good) about 6d. per book.
“Gold Ink” has been made with powdered gold: its effect is inferior to
raised and burnished writing.
The following is from “The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini”
(written about the beginning of the fifteenth Century): Translated by
Christiana J. Herringham, 1899:—
“Chap. 157.—How you must do miniature-painting and put gold on parchment.
“First, if you would paint miniatures you must draw with a leaden style figures, foliage, letters, or
whatever you please, on parchment, that is to say, in books: then with a pen you must make the
delicate permanent [p166] outline of what you have designed. Then you must have a paint that is a
sort of gesso, called asiso, and it is made in this manner; namely, a little gesso sottile [see chap. 116,
below], and a little biacca [whitelead], never more of this than equals a third part of the gesso; then
take a little candy, less than the biacca; grind these ingredients very finely with clear water, collect
them together, and let them dry without sun. When you wish to use some to put on gold, cut off a
piece as large as you have need of, and temper it with the white of an egg, well beaten, as I have
taught you. [The froth is allowed to stand for one night to clear itself.] Temper this mixture with it;
let it dry; then take your gold, and either breathing on it or not, as you please, you can put it on; and
the gold being laid on, take the tooth or burnishing-stone and burnish it, but hold under the
parchment a firm tablet of good wood, very smooth. And you must know that you may write letters
with a pen and this asiso, or lay a ground of it, or whatever you please—it is most excellent. But
before you lay the gold on it, see whether it is needful to scrape or level it with the point of a knife, or

clean it in any way, for your brush sometimes puts more on in one place than in another. Always
beware of this.”

“Chap. 116.—How to prepare gesso sottile (slaked plaster of Paris) for grounding panels.
“You must now prepare a plaster for fine grounds, called gesso sottile. This is made from the same
plaster [plaster of Paris] as the last, but it must be well purified (purgata), and kept moist in a large
tub for at least a month; renew the water every day until it almost rots, and is completely slaked, and
all fiery heat goes out of it, and it becomes as soft as silk. Throw away the water, make it into cakes,
and let it dry; and this gesso is sold by the druggists to our painters. It is used for grounding, for
gilding, for working in relief, and other fine works.” [p167]

APPENDIX: ON GILDING
(By Graily Hewitt)
Success with raised gilding can only be expected when practice has rendered attention to the
details of the process automatic and there is no need to pause and think. Even then the results must be
somewhat uncertain and experimental. For our own preparations of size are usually unsatisfactory,
and the ingredients of the best we can buy are unknown to us. And our vellum is certainly not of the
quality we find in the old books. Some one is badly wanted to investigate the chemistry of the one
and an appropriate preparation of the other. But we can take as much care as our time allows, passing
nothing as “good enough” which we have not well examined, and bringing to the business all the
patience and deftness available.
Vellum is too stiff, or too dry, or too greasy. When stiff, it is too thick for books; when dry, too apt
to crack or cockle; when too greasy, exasperating. And yet the soft and rather greasy sort can be
rendered more agreeable than the rest with labour. It should be rubbed by the flat of the hand with
powdered pumice (or even fine sandpaper on the rough side) and French chalk, especially on its split
(or rougher) side, until it is serviceable. A few trials will teach how long to give to this. Five minutes
for one side of a lamb’s skin would not be too much. It can then be beaten with a silk handkerchief,
but not rubbed with this until the size has been laid. It may be rubbed cleaner between the laying of
the size and the gilding. Especially must those parts of pages be thoroughly rubbed clean which in the
book, when made up, will lie upon and be pressed against gold letters on the page opposite; or the
pumice left behind will scratch them. On the other hand, if the vellum has not been thoroughly
pumiced on both pages, the greasiness in [p168] it will dim the gold in time, both from above and
below; or even make the size flake off altogether. The size is often blamed for faults of the vellum
and its want of preparation.
Again size, or “raising preparation,” is too sticky or too dry. If the former, the gold will not burnish
well; if the latter, it will burnish, but will not stick at the edges, and will crack sooner or later. And
though the essential quality of gilding is brightness, one may be content to fail of this rather than
have letters ragged in outline or broken on the surface.
The size in use should be just liquid enough to flow evenly from the pen. More water makes it dry
too brittle, and tends to cockle the vellum also; less tends to blobbiness and unevenness. Even when
it is put on fairly an uncomfortable groove is apt to form as it dries down the centre of letters; but this
can be either filled up as soon as the first layer is dryish, or the sides of the groove can be scraped
(when the letter is quite dry) down to the level of the groove itself with a sharp knife. The knife must
be sharp. As this scraping does not affect the extreme edges the power of the size there to hold the
leaf is not impaired by it; and certainly a well-scraped surface is extremely even and pleasant to gild.
If the surface, however, be burnished and not scraped before laying the leaf, it will not hold the size

well, and remains lumpy also where lumps were there originally; while scraping gets rid of these.
During use the size should be kept thoroughly mixed; and a small sable brush serves well for this
purpose, as soon as it can be used so carefully as not to cause bubbles.
To know the exact time to allow between laying and gilding one had need to be a meteorologist, so
much “depends on the weather.” Very dry and very wet weather are equally unkind. Generally an
interval of about twenty-four hours is right; but it is better to gild too soon than too late, provided one
can be content, on testing the naked surface of the gilded letter with a [p169] burnisher, and noting
that the glitter is reluctant to come, to leave the burnishing for a while, and only lay the leaf, pressing
it well home to the outline of the letters. The burnishing can then be done in a few more hours. But if
the size be too dry, the difficulty will be to make the leaf stick to it at all. In this case the leaf
adhering can be scraped off, the size scraped down further, and another thin coat added and gilded
after a shorter interval. If the letter be so fouled that such repairs are difficult, it should be entirely
scraped away and the size relaid altogether. In doing this care is needed that the vellum be not injured
round the letter.
The best gold-leaf for ordinary work costs about 3s. for twenty-five pages. More expensive leaf,
being thicker, does not stick so well to the edges; cheaper is too thin to burnish well. Two kinds may
be used together with good results, the finer leaf being put on next the size, and the thicker at once on
to the top of that. The letter is then pressed and outlined as usual through paper, and the thin leaf will
be found of considerable assistance towards the making of a clean cut edge. Generally, however, the
piling on of several leaves is inadvisable, as bits are liable to flake away as the letter goes on drying,
leaving dim specks where they have been. Yet if, after the outlining through the paper, the leaf is seen
to be very dull or speckled with the colour of the size, this means that the size has been partly pressed
through the leaf; and another laid immediately will have enough to stick to, and will burnish well.
The best result comes of one moderately thick leaf laid and burnished at the right time as quickly as
possible. Thicker leaves need only be used for large surfaces, where the edge can be scraped even
and clean, or where a black outline is to be added.
As soon as the leaf is laid, and from that point onward, the breath must be kept from the letter with
a shield (of cardboard or tin) held in the left hand or otherwise. Inattention to this is responsible for
many failures. Not [p170] only should the actual letters under operation be so protected, but where a
quantity are sized ready for gilding on the page these should be protected also, as well as any parts
already finished; for breath not only moistens but warms, and on warm size moisture condenses less
easily. If the work to be done presently is so warmed, it will be found more difficult to deal with
when its time comes. The first work done in the day is often the best, and for this reason, that the size
for it is cool; but in gilding this portion one almost necessarily warms that to be done later. Two
pages, where possible, should therefore be gilded alternately, one cooling while a portion of the other
is gilded. Or thin plates of metal, or even cardboard, may be placed about as shields to protect all
surfaces not under actual operation.
Superfluous gold is best removed by dusting lightly with an old and very clean and dry silk
handkerchief. Indiarubber will certainly remove gold from the vellum, but it will as certainly dim any
part of the gilding it touches. If the vellum was properly pounced to start with the silk will easily
remove all the leaf unstuck, except little odds and ends, and these are safeliest taken away with the
point of a knife.
As the pressure of burnishing helps the leaf to stick, it is best to wait till the letter has been
burnished before this dusting. Such spots as are visible ungilded may be afterwards treated with a
slight breath and transfer gold-leaf, or gold dust, may be painted on them. In the latter case the spots
must be most carefully burnished, if burnished at all, or their surroundings will be scratched.
When a gold letter is to be set on a coloured background, or in the neighbourhood of colour, it is
best put on after the colour; as may be observed was the method occasionally with the old books. If

the gold is put on first, it will certainly be dimmed by warmth and breath during the colouring. On
the other hand, if it is put on last, great care must be taken that the gold-leaf shall not stick to the
coloured portions. Where possible, a stencil [p171] pattern of the parts to be gilded should be cut out
of paper. This is easily made from a pencil rubbing taken after the size is laid, the raised pattern being
of course cut out carefully a trifle larger than the outline so obtained. The paper is then laid over all
the work, and the sized portions showing through the cuttings can be gilded without injury to the
colour.
All gilded work should be retained, if possible, for a week or more, and then re-burnished. And in
burnishing generally the burnisher should not be used, even when the size is hard, with any great
force or pressure at first. For the size in drying sets as if moulded, and this mould cannot be squeezed
about or actually crushed without being loosened or cracked. Throughout the whole process a gentle
and vigilant alacrity is required. Success will come easily if it means to come. It cannot be forced to
come.
The binder of a book with gilding in it should be warned to press the sheets as little as possible,
and to use all his care in handling it, so as to keep moisture, warmth, and fingering from the gold.
The folding of the sheets, when left to him, should also be done rather differently from usual, for all
gilded pages need to be kept as flat as possible. None of the sizes in use seem capable of resisting
bending of their surfaces without crimping or cracking. Where there is much gilding, the book will be
the better for being sewn with a zigzag32 through the sections, as this helps to “guard” the gilded
work. [p172]

CHAPTER X
THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL LETTERS & SIMPLE
ILLUMINATION
Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment, “Vellum,” & Pounce — Colours — Simple
Colour Effects — Matt Gold — Burnished Gold — Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines —
Background Capitals — Applying the Background — Ornament of Backgrounds.

TOOLS & MATERIALS FOR SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
TOOLS, c., FOR GILDING.—See Chapter IX. (pp. 145–6).
IVORY TRACING POINT.—This is useful for various purposes, and for
indenting patterns in burnished gold (see p. 191).
BRUSHES.—Red Sables are very good. A separate brush should be kept
for each colour—or at least one brush each for Reds, Blues, Greens, White,
and gold “paint”—and it is convenient to have a medium and a fine brush
for each.

PENS FOR COLOUR.—Quill pens are used: “Turkey” or “Goose.” The
latter is softer, and is sometimes preferred for colour work. For very fine
work (real) Crow Quills may be tried. A separate pen should be used for
each colour.
COLOURED INKS.—Brown ink (tempered with black if desired) may be
used for fine outlines: if the outlined forms are to be coloured afterwards, it
is convenient if the ink be waterproof. [p173] Coloured inks seldom have as
good a colour as the best paint colours (see Colours for Penwork, p. 176).
COLOURS.—(p. 175). MATT GOLD (see p. 183).
PAINT-BOX.—The little chests of drawers, sold by stationers for 2s. 6d.,
make very convenient “paint-boxes”: pens, &c., may be kept in one drawer;
gilding, tools, &c., in another; and colours and brushes in another.
PAPER (see pp. 51, 98, 103).—PARCHMENT, VELLUM, & POUNCE
(see below).
PARCHMENT, “VELLUM,” & POUNCE
(See also Appendix on Gilding, p. 167 and pp. 98, 356)
The name “Vellum” (strictly applicable only to calf-skin) is generally
given to any moderately good skin prepared for writing or printing on. All
the modern skins are apt to be too stiff and horny: chemical action
(substituted for patient handling), followed by liberal sizing and “dressing,”
is perhaps responsible. The old skins have much more life and character,
and are commonly much softer. Their surface is generally very smooth—
not necessarily glazed—often with a delicate velvety nap, which forms a
perfect writing surface.
Parchment (sheep-skin), as supplied by law-stationers, though rather
hard, still retains the character of a skin, and is in every way preferable to
the Vellum33 which is specially prepared for illuminators. A piece of
parchment about 26 inches by 22 inches costs about 2s. 6d. Lambskin is
still better.

“Roman Vellum” is a fine quality of sheep or [p174] “lamb” skin, made in
imitation of the Vellum used in the Vatican.
The surface of a modern skin may be greatly improved by “pouncing”
but there seems to be a danger of its becoming rough or porous.
Pounce.—Fine powdered pumice (as supplied by drysalters) is very
good. It is rubbed on with the hand (p. 167), or with a pad or a piece of rag.
Law-stationers use a pounce in which the main constituents are chalk (or
“whiting”) and powdered resin. The latter, when used before gilding, is apt
to make the gold-leaf stick to the surrounding parchment. (Before Writing,
see Note 7, p. 359.)
Chalk, “Whiting” “French Chalk,” and Powdered Cuttlefish Bone might
be used as substitutes for pumice, or as ingredients in preparing a pounce.
Sandarach (a resin) rubbed on an erasure appears to prevent ink spreading
when the surface is written over.
A skin of parchment has a smooth (whiter) side—the original flesh side
—and a rougher, yellower side—the original hair side. The penman will
find the smooth side preferable for writing on (though, of course, both sides
must be used in a book: see p. 110). This side is more easily damaged, and
erasures have to be very carefully made with a sharp knife, or by gentle
rubbing with indiarubber. On the rough side, erasures cause little or no
damage to the surface. A piece of rubber—or a paper stump—dipped in
pounce may be used. It is better—as it is more straightforward—to avoid
erasures if possible, and to correct mistakes frankly, as in ordinary writing
(see p. 344).
For ordinary purposes parchment should be cut to the size desired, and be
held on the desk by the [p175] tape, guard, &c. (see p. 50). It is generally a
mistake to pin it down, or to damp and stretch it on the drawing-board (see
p. 356).
Parchment is stained a fine purple with “Brazil-wood”: this may be
obtained from a “store chemist.” Three teacups full of Brazil-wood are

stewed in about two pints of water, with two teaspoonsful of alum (which
acts as a mordant). The colour of this liquid is brownish-red, and to make it
purple, carbonate of potash is added (very carefully, or it will become too
blue). The liquid is poured into a tray, and the parchment skin is placed in it
for half a day or a couple of days. The colour dries lighter, so it should be
prepared rather dark, and diluted if necessary: strips of parchment should be
used to test it; they are taken out and dried at the fire.
The parchment skin is stretched on a frame, the edges being caught up
over little buttons or pegs, and tied at these points with string. It is allowed
to dry slowly.
COLOURS
POWDER COLOURS are the purest: they may be mixed with gum arabic
and water. Yolk of egg and water is sometimes used as a medium (or white
of egg) (see pp. 166, 179). It is more convenient for the beginner to use
prepared colours, which are ready and dependable.
CAKE COLOURS rank next to powder colours for purity: they seem to
need tempering with a little gum or honey or glycerine (or egg—see above)
for use on ordinary parchment.34 Used [p176] plain with water, they are apt
to flake off when dry.
PAN COLOURS are very safe for ordinary use.
TUBE COLOURS sometimes seem to have too much glycerine; they are,
however, very convenient for preparing mixed colours in any quantity,
because of their semi-fluid condition, and because the amount of each
colour in the mixture may be judged with considerable accuracy by the
length which is squeezed out of the tube (p. 178).
COLOURS FOR PENWORK, &c.—For simple letters or decoration it is
well to use a pure
RED—neither crimson nor orange tinged:
BLUE—neither greenish nor purplish:

GREEN—neither bluish nor “mossy.”
A little “body colour” is generally used with blues and greens to keep them
“flat” (p. 118). These colours should be mixed as required, and be diluted to
the right consistency with water (see p. 118). Colour which has been mixed
and in use for some time—especially if it has been allowed to dry—is best
thrown away (see mixing size, p. 148).
If there is much rubricating to be done, a
quantity of each colour sufficient to last several
days may be mixed, and kept in a covered pot. A
little pomatum pot is convenient—the smaller the
better, as it keeps the colour together, and does not
allow it to dry so quickly.
The filling-brush (a rough brush kept for filling
the pen) may rest in the pot (see fig. 112), being
given a stir round every time it is [p177] used to
prevent the settling of the heavy parts of the colour.
A drop of water is added occasionally as the liquid
evaporates and becomes too thick.35
TINTS FEW AND CONSTANT.—Red, Blue, and
Fig. 112. Green (and perhaps purple) with Gold, White, and
Black, are sufficient for everything but the most
advanced type of Illumination. And it is in every way desirable that, until he
has become a Master Limner, the Writer and Illuminator should strictly
limit the number of his colours (see p. 215).
It is one of the “secrets” of good “design” to use a limited number of
elements—forms or colours or materials—and to produce variety by skilful
and charming manipulation of these.
It is well to follow the early Illuminators in this also: that these few
colours be kept constant. When you have chosen a Red, a Blue, and a Green
—as pure and bright as you can make them—keep those particular tints as

fixed colours to be used for ordinary purposes. For special purposes (pp.
182, 202) paler tints may be made by adding white, and varied tints may be
mixed, but even when your work has advanced so that you require a more
complex “palette,” you should stick to the principle of constant tints and
modes of treatment for regular occasions: this is the secret of method.
RED.—Vermilion is prepared in three forms: “Vermilion,” “Scarlet
Vermilion,” and “Orange Vermilion.” For ordinary use “Scarlet Vermilion”
is the best (it may be tempered with a minute quantity of white).
“Vermilion” is not quite so bright, and tends more to crimson, but, mixed
with [p178] “Orange Vermilion” it gives the “scarlet” form. The pan colour is
generally most convenient.
Where scarlet is in juxtaposition with gold, their effect may be
harmonised by having a large proportion of blue in the neighbourhood:
sometimes a more crimson colour than vermilion may be used.
Chinese Vermilion is a fine colour, but difficult to obtain; it is even said
that the genuine pigment is reserved exclusively for the Chinese Emperor
(whose edicts are written with “The Vermilion Pencil”).
GREEN.—Verdigris is a very fine colour, closely resembling, and
possibly the same pigment as, the green in early MSS., but I believe that it
has not been rendered permanent in modern use.
Green Oxide of Chromium (transparent) (or “Veridian”) is a very good
permanent green. It is rather a thin colour, and requires body, which may be
given with lemon yellow, or with white and yellow ochre; being a rather
bluish green, it is the better for a little yellow. This (mixed) green is most
conveniently prepared from tube colours.
BLUE.—Ultramarine Ash (whole tube about 4s.) is a very beautiful
colour. It is rather pale and transparent (and a little “slimy” to work) when
used alone. A mixture (preferably made with tube colours) consisting of
Ultramarine Ash and Chinese White and (a very little) Prussian Blue makes

an extremely fine, pure blue. A similar mixture with cobalt as a base makes
a very good blue.
Ultramarine or Powdered Lapis Lazuli (unfortunately known as
“Genuine Ultramarine”36) is a fine colour; it may have a slightly purplish
tint and need [p179] tempering with green to make a pure blue (whole cake
about 18s.).
The Blue in common use in early MSS. (before Ultramarine came into
use) has a fine, pure colour, and considerable body: it is more raised than
any other colour; it is often seen to be full of little sparkles, as though there
were powdered glass in it. It is supposed to have been prepared from a
copper ore.
The following note on this blue has been given to me by Mr. C. M.
Firth:—
“The blue is Native Carbonate of Copper finely powdered and tempered with white of egg
(Vermilion is tempered with the Yolk).”
“The ore is of two kinds, a crystalline of a medium hardness found in France at Chessy, and hence
called Chessylite, and a soft earthy kind which is obtained in Hungary, and largely now from
Australia. The latter is from its ease of manipulation the best for paint making. It should be ground
dry till it is no longer gritty and is of a sky blue (pale) colour.”
“The Blue in MSS. was liable to wash off, but the oil in the Yolk prevented a similar result with
the Vermilion. The Blue is identical with the Azzuro della magna (for d’allemaigne) of the Middle
Ages. The frequently advanced hypothesis that the blue was due to a glass is based on the accounts of
(I.) The Vestorian blue copper ‘frit’ for enamels probably; (II.) on the accounts in sixteenth century of
the Manufacture of Smalt, which owes its colour to a glass tinted with Cobalt. This Azzuro is the
oldest known Western blue, and was probably employed on Egyptian walls, where it has gone green,
as also in Italian Frescoes.”
“The Green tint of the chemical change in the Copper is seen in initials in books too much exposed
to the damp. These exhibit a bright green tint in places where the colour was thinly applied.” [p180]

It appears that Yolk, besides being unsuited in colour for tempering this
blue, changes it to a greenish colour (the effect of the oil, which forms
about 30 per cent. of Yolk of Egg).
WHITE.—The tube Chinese White37 is the most convenient to use when
tempering colours.
“White Line or Hair Finishing” (see p. 183). Various tools have been
recommended for this. A sable pencil with the outer hairs cut away, “the

smallest brush” made, and even a fine steel pen. I am inclined to believe
that some of the early Illuminators used a fine quill—such as a crow quill,
or a goose quill scraped thin and sharply pointed.
PURPLE is seldom used in simple pen-work, lettering, &c., but largely
and with very fine effect in complex illumination. A reddish-purple is to be
preferred. A good colour can be made from the purple stain described on p.
175, or from Ruby madder and a little Rose madder, with a very little
Ultramarine.
SIMPLE COLOUR EFFECTS
Simple “Rubrication” (see p. 127).—Red letters were most commonly
contrasted with blue (the “warmest” and “coldest” colours),38 in some MSS.
with green alone, but more commonly the three [p181] colours were used
together, the alterations being generally—

Red cap. in columns RED in lines
Blue cap. of Versal BLUE of Caps.
letters (see fig.
Red cap. RED
(see fig. 89).
Green cap. 93) GREEN
&c. &c.
Repetition and Limitation of Simple Colours (and Forms).—The uniform
treatment of a MS. necessitates that no colour (or form) in it should be quite
singular, or even isolated if it can possibly be repeated. If, for example,
there be a Red capital on the “Verso” page, the “opening” is improved by
some Red—a capital, a rubric, or even a line-finishing—on the “Recto”
page. Very often the one piece of colour is very small, and, as it were, an
echo of the other (compare Line-finishings and Initials, pp. 205, 193).
While it is not always possible or desirable so to treat both pages of an
opening, yet, in the book taken as a whole, every colour used should be
repeated as often as there is a reasonable opportunity. And, therefore,

where the opportunities for colour in a book are few and far between, it is
well to limit the “colours” used to two, or even one.
This necessity for repetition applies to simple rather than to complex
“Illuminated” Forms—e.g. a book need not have more than one Illuminated
Initial—but within such complex forms themselves [p182] repetition is
recognised as one of the first principles of “decorative design” (see p. 215).
Proportions of Colours.—In Harmonious Illumination, Blue very
commonly is the predominating colour; but no exact proportions can be laid
down, for the combined colour effect depends so much on the arrangement
of the colours.
Effects of Neighbouring Colours.39—When blue and red are in
juxtaposition, the blue appears bluër and greener; the red appears brighter
and more scarlet. With Red and Green, the Red appears more crimson, and
the green, greener and bluër. A greenish blue will appear plain blue beside a
pure green; a blue with a purplish tinge will appear more purple.
Experiments might profitably be made with simple arrangements of Red,
Blue, Green, Black, White, and Gold in combinations of two or more.
Tempering Colours with White.—Forms such as flower petals, &c., may
be painted in Blue or Red, paled with White, and then be shaded with the
pure colour; this gives considerable richness, and the effect may be
heightened by very careful white line work (q.v.). Green leaves, &c., may
be made very pale and then touched with Yellow—this gives a brilliant
effect.
Black Outlines.—The effect of these is to make a bright colour appear
brighter and richer, to define, and, to a certain extent, harmonise,
neighbouring colours and shapes, and to keep the design flat [p183] (see p.
186). For one or more of these reasons, all coloured forms—patterns,
charges, &c.—in a compound colour scheme have an outline—strong or
delicate, according to the strength or delicacy of the work (see pp. 188, 187,
202, 221, 165).

White Lining.—A black outline is often separated from the colour by a
fine white line (see fig. 129). White lines also are used to harmonise
colours, one or more commonly being painted (or “penned”) upon the
colours. This tends to make the colours appear paler and lighter—
brightening them if they are dark. Care must be taken not to overdo the
white lining, or it will make the colours chalky and cold. White is also used
in groups of dots, and in fine patterns on backgrounds (see pp. 213, 430).
Gold is even more effective than white or black for harmonising colours.
It is commonly Burnished in bars or frames (see p. 481), and in spots (pp.
481, 187), or in large masses (p. 191). Matt Gold (see below).
MATT GOLD
Matt gold, or gold “paint”—the pure gold powder with white of egg is
best—is generally painted upon colour. It was much used in old miniatures
for “hatching” and lighting landscapes, houses, costumes, &c.; and stars,
rays of light, and outlines of clouds were painted in delicate gold lines upon
the blue of the skies. Such gold lining has a very mellowing and pleasant
effect upon colour, but it can easily be overdone. Matt gold may be used
besides, for letters, ornament, and patterns painted upon colour. Such forms
have either no outline, or a very faint one: their effect depends upon their
lightness, and they are not made to appear solid. [p184]
A very pretty effect may be obtained in a small
and not very formal manuscript by painting into the
spaces left for the capitals little squares of red and
blue, and painting upon these the letters and
ornament—all in gold powder—very freely and
quickly. The kind of treatment is rather crudely
Fig. 113. suggested by fig. 113. The pleasant appearance of
the pages—as though they were scattered over with
tiny squares of cloth of gold and red and blue—is produced with
comparative ease, while the use of leaf gold might entail an expenditure of

more time and pains than the book was worth. In the finest class of
manuscripts, however, these matt gold letters would be somewhat informal
and out of place.
BURNISHED GOLD
Gold is always raised and burnished as bright as possible, unless there is
a special reason for using matt gold.
The height to which it is raised varies, according to the effect desired,
from a considerable thickness to the thinnest possible coat of “size.”
Extremely thin and extremely thick raising are both objectionable (see p.
150): roughly speaking, a suitable height for any ordinary purpose is
1 1
between 100 and 32 of an inch.
The surface, in the case of large forms, is generally made as smooth and
perfect as possible, so that, as Cennino Cennini says, the burnished gold
“will appear almost dark from its own brightness”; and its [p185] brightness
is only seen when the light falls on it at a particular angle. The gilding of a
manuscript, however, is slightly flexible, and a large gilded surface is likely
to be bent, so that some part of it is sure to catch the light.
Small surfaces highly burnished very often do not show the effect of, or
“tell” as, gold, unless they catch the light by accident. It is well, therefore,
where the forms are small to have several on the page, so that one or
another will always shine out and explain the rest. And while the proper
craftsman tries always to get the best finish which he reasonably can, the
natural, slight unevennesses or varying planes of small gilded forms may be
of advantage to the whole effect. The pleasant effect of such natural
variations may be seen in thirteenth-century Initials, where numbers of little
gold pieces are fitted into the backgrounds, and their changing surfaces
cause the whole to be lit up with little sparkles of light. A parallel to this
may be found in the hand-tooling of a book-cover, which sparkles with
gold, because the binder could not press in each piece of gold-leaf

absolutely level. On the other hand, the “deadness” of a machine-stamped
cover is largely due to the dead level of its gilding.
Black and Gold.—One of the finest effects in calligraphy can be obtained
by the simple contrast of gold capitals with black writing (see p. 299).
While, as in the case of black and red, the strongest effects are obtained
by a marked contrast, gold may yet be very effectively used for small
capitals throughout the black text. It does not lose or blend its brilliance
with the black of the writing as colour is apt to do, but lights up and
illuminates the page. For this reason gold will [p186] “help out” and make
agreeable a black and colour effect which, by itself, would have been a
failure (see p. 134).
BURNISHED GOLD FORMS & OUTLINES
Plain gold letters, symbols, and other detached forms, not having
backgrounds, are usually not outlined. An outline cheapens their effect,
making them darker and heavier, and, if the line be at all thick, concealing
the true form of the letter, and giving it a clumsy appearance.

Fig. 114.

It is an instructive experiment to make a gold (or plain white) letter with
a thick outline (a, fig. 114), and then paint a background round it. The effect
is quite altered, and greatly improved (b, fig. 114). The outline no longer
tells as the outer line of the form, but partakes more of the nature of the
background, in which it cuts out, as one might say, a little niche for the
letter to rest in.
Gold-leaf forms on coloured backgrounds are [p187] outlined—generally
in black—in order that letter and background may together form a flat
design, stable and at rest in the page.
The distinction between the use of gold “paint” and the treatment of a
leaf gold form should be carefully observed: the matt gold powder lies upon
colour, and may appear to blend with it (p. 183); the bright gold-leaf
constitutes a distinct form, which either lies upon the surface of a page, or
is, as it were, set in a background.
Gold (leaf) Floral Ornament, &c.—If the stalk and leaves are both gold:
they are commonly not outlined, unless on a background.
If there be a thin stalk in black or colour with gold leaves: the leaves are
outlined with the stalk-colour (they were commonly furred: c, fig. 115).
If there be a thick coloured stalk with gold leaves: both stalk and leaves
commonly have a black outline, the “leaves” often being treated as spots of
gold (below).
Gold Spots or Dots are usually outlined and furred with black (fig. 115).
The effect produced is of a bright gold form on a grey background.
A simple “leaf” or detached spot of gold has a formless look, much as a
small blot of colour or ink would have. The black outline and the grey
background-effect seem in this case to give form and interest to the spot; at
least they give it a place to rest in—a nest to hold the small golden egg.
[p188]

Even a stalk and tendril (d, fig. 115) has the same effect of giving
intention and meaning to what might otherwise be a mere blot.

When several spots of gold (or colour)
are arranged in a simple design, together
they constitute a simple form which does
not require a background. Thus the line-
finishing (a, fig. 126) has a formal and
intentional arrangement in itself, and
therefore need not be outlined.

Fig. 115.
BACKGROUND CAPITALS
Background Capitals or Initials frequently employ burnished gold, either
for the letters or the ground. All the parts (including “solid” patterns) are
generally outlined in black, or dark colour.
The commonest colours for grounds are Reds and Blues. The grounds are
frequently countercharged, or made one colour inside and another outside
the initial (p. 190). Sometimes little or no gold is used, and many fine white
lines are employed to separate and harmonise the colours of the Initial and
the ground. It is well, however, for the beginner to keep the letter and the
ground distinct, by observing the Herald’s maxim, and using “Metal on
colour, or colour on metal.”
The forms of the letters vary from those of ordinary capitals in being
thicker in proportion to their height, and frequently in having no serifs. A
very thin line or serif is apt to be lost in the background.

Fig. 116.
A very good form of background initial may be [p189] made out of the
ROMAN CAPITAL (a, fig. 116) by thickening all its parts; in place of the
serifs, curving out and shaping the ends of the stems (b, d) to a sort of
“blunderbuss” pattern (g).
APPLYING THE BACKGROUND
It is well first to make the letter,40 and then to apply the background to it
(as though it were a sort of mosaic). The background is packed tightly
round the letter, and the letter occupies the background, [p190] so that they
appear to be in the same plane (a, fig. 117).

Fig. 117.
Such “flatness” is secured even more certainly and effectively by using
two colours (e.g. red and blue) in the background—one inside and one
outside the letter (see Plate XII.).
The curves of the gold letter may with advantage slightly project, and so
break the hard, square outline of the background.
The letter should not have the appearance of being “stuck on,” as it is apt
to if the background is large and empty, or if the ornament passes behind
the letter (b, fig. 117).
In the case of letters with projecting stems or tails: the tail may be outside
the background (a, [p191] fig. 118), or the background may be prolonged on
one or both sides of the tail (b and c), or the whole “field” may be enlarged
to take in the complete letter (d).

Fig. 118.
There is no limit to the variety of shapes which backgrounds may take—
symmetrical or asymmetrical, regular or irregular—provided they fit the
initial or the ornament (which may itself partially, or entirely, bound them),
are properly balanced (see Plate XII., and p. 419), and take their right place
on the page.
ORNAMENT OF BACKGROUNDS
The ornament, as a rule, covers the background evenly, and is closely
packed or fitted into its place.
Gold grounds are generally plain, sometimes bearing patterns in dots.
These are indented in the surface by means of a point (p. 172) which is not
too sharp. It presses the gold-leaf into tiny pits, but does not pierce it. Gold
grounds may be broken up into small parts by coloured chequers (p. 215) or
floral patterns. [p192]
Coloured grounds are, as a rule, more or less evenly covered with some
form of decoration in thin white or matt gold lines, or in “solid” patterns in
various colours (see pp. 202, 212). A simple and pretty diaper pattern may

be made by diagonal lines of matt gold, cutting up
the colour into small “lozenges,” each alternate
lozenge having a fleur-de-lis or little cross, or other
simple ornament (fig. 119).

Fig. 119.

Fig. 120.

A bolder design, in a broad white or coloured line, may be, as it were,
woven through counterfeited slits in the letter (fig. 120). This helps to
preserve the general flatness of the letter, [p193] background, and ornament,
and gives additional interest.
The mimic slits are made by black lines drawn on the burnished gold of
the letter. Where the stem of the ornament comes over the gold, the size is
cut away with a pen-knife; the part hollowed out is painted with white to
cover any blemishes, and then painted with the stem colour, and outlined.
A plain or pale stem may have a faint or brown outline, and be “shaded”
at the sides (with greys, browns, or yellows) to give an effect of solidity; a
stem that is painted in strong colour (e.g. red or blue) may have a central
white line painted upon it.
Note that where the initials have backgrounds, the line-finishings are
commonly made with backgrounds to match, though their treatment is
naturally much simpler (see Plates XV., XVII.).

CHAPTER XI
A THEORY OF ILLUMINATION
Illumination — “Barbaric, or Colour-Work, Illumination” — “Filigree, or Pen-Work, Illumination”
— “Natural, or Limner’s, Illumination.”

ILLUMINATION
It is convenient to give a wide meaning to the word when we speak of an
“illuminated manuscript,” for the scribe works with a very free hand, and
when he wishes to decorate his pages he can [p194] write the words
themselves in red, green, or blue, as easily as he could have written them in
black. He can take a clean pen and a new colour and initial and “flourish”
any part of the work to his heart’s content. He may acquire the art of laying
and burnishing gold, and no possible brilliance of effect is denied him—
within the limits of his skill as an illuminator (see also pp. 298–299).

A limited number of specially prepared printed books can likewise be
illuminated. But the greater the number of copies, the less labour may be
spent on each one, and the more their illumination tends to be simple
“rubrication”—adding coloured capitals, flourishes, and the like (see p.
127). And, if a large edition is to be decorated, the printer must be content
to use black, or black and red, in woodcut or “process” work (see pp. 365,
372).
Illumination proper may be defined as the decoration by hand, in bright
gold or colours, of writing or printing.
There are three broad types of illumination, which for want of better
terms I distinguish as “Barbaric” (or colour-work), “Filigree” (or pen-
work), and “Natural” (or limner’s). These types run naturally one into
another, and they may be blended or combined in every possible way, but it
is convenient to consider them and the distinctive treatments which they
involve separately.
“BARBARIC, OR COLOUR-WORK, ILLUMINATION”
(See also pp. 203, 208, 209, 215–18, 414, 421, 422)
This is mainly a colour treatment in which forms seem to be regarded
chiefly as vehicles for [p195] colour. Its effect appeals to the senses, rather
than to the imagination; and such interest as the forms have lies greatly in
their skilful disposal or intricate arrangement. Sometimes in their fantasy—
where organic forms are introduced—as the “great fish” in the act of
swallowing Jonah (in order to make the T of ET), Plate XII. This type of
illumination appears to have reached its climax of barbaric splendour in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Though its revival nowadays might seem a little out of keeping with the
more sedate and grown-up point of view of modern life, we cannot doubt
that it is still lawful to decorate our work with the brilliance and splendour
of gold and colours. Whether it is expedient or not depends upon how it is
done: to justify our work, it must succeed; it must be bright and splendid,

and really gladden our eyes. And we must really take pleasure in the
making of it, for if we do not, we can hardly expect that it will give pleasure
to others.
Simple and Complex Forms.—Between simple forms—which are in a
sense permanent—and complex forms—which are always changing—it is
necessary to make a careful distinction.
An equilateral triangle drawn by “Euclid” and one drawn by a modern
Senior Wrangler are, or ought to be, practically the same thing. If the
ancients made an ornamental band of geometrical forms, that is no bar to
us; we also are at liberty to make decorative bands of circles, lozenges, or
triangles.
The ancient Romans made a capital A—its essential form (see fig. 142)
two strokes sloped together and joined by a cross-bar (very like the [p196]
“Pons Asinorum”), it could hardly be simpler—they used chisels and pens,
which gave it its more characteristic and finished form. If we use chisels
and pens properly we shall get a similar result—not absolutely the same—
for no two chisels or two hands can be quite the same—but closely
resembling it and belonging to our own time as much as to any other.
The essential form of the “Roman” A is a purely abstract form, the
common property of every rational age and country,41 and its
characterisation is mainly the product of tools and materials not peculiar to
the ancient Romans.
But when there is any real complexity of form and arrangement, or
sentiment, we may reasonably suppose that it is peculiar to its time, and that
the life and virtue of it cannot be restored.
It was common enough in the Middle Ages to make an initial A of two
dragons firmly locked together by claws and teeth. Such forms fitted the
humour of the time, and were part of the then natural “scheme of things.”
But we should beware of using such antique fantasies and “organisms”; for
medieval humour, together with its fauna and flora, belong to the past. And

our own work is only honest when made in our own humour, time, and
place.
There are, however, an infinite variety of simple abstract forms and
symbols, such as circles, crosses, squares, lozenges, triangles, and a number
of Alphabets, such as Square and Round Capitals, [p197] Small Letters—
upright and sloping—which—weeded of archaisms—we may use freely.
And all these forms can be diversified by the tools with which they are
made, and the manner in which the tools are used, and be glorified by the
addition of bright colours and silver and gold. Very effective “designs” can
be made with “chequers” and diaper patterns, and with the very letters
themselves. And I have little doubt that an excellent modern style of
illumination is quite feasible, in which the greatest possible richness of
colour effect is achieved together with extreme simplicity of form.
“FILIGREE, OR PEN-WORK, ILLUMINATION”
(See also pp. 205–208, 209, 218–20, 425, 428–29; figs. 79, 92, 125–26,
150, 188–89; Plates XI., XIII., XIV., XVII.)
This is a type of illumination which can safely be attempted by one who,
having learnt to write, is desirous of illuminating his writing; for it is the
direct outcome of penmanship (see p. 204), and consists mainly of pen
flourishes, or semi-formal lines and shapes which can be made with a pen,
suitably applied to the part to be decorated. Its effect may be very charming
and restful: no colour standing out as in a positive colour scheme, no
individual form catching the eye; but the whole having a richness of simple
detail and smooth colouring more or less intricate and agreeably
bewildering.
It may be compared to the tooling of a book-cover, both in the method of
producing it, and in its effect. A book-binder has a number of stamps which
bear the simplest forms and symbols, such as [p198] little circles and
“leaves” and stars and curved lines, and with these simple elements he

builds up a pleasant “design,” which he tools, usually in gold-leaf, upon the
cover.
The scribe can vary the forms which his pen produces, and the colours
which he gives them, with a freedom that the set form and the method of
using the binder’s tools do not allow. But the skilled penman will find that
his pen (or, at any rate, his penmanship) largely determines the forms of his
freest flourishes and strokes, and that the semi-formal nature of such
ornament demands a certain simplicity and repetition of form and colour,
which do not unduly tax his skill as a craftsman.

Fig. 121.
Suppose, for example, that the scribe wishes to illuminate the border of a
page of writing. He may choose a limited number of simple, pen-made
forms for the elements of his design; say, a circle, a “leaf,” and a “tendril,”
and a few curved flourishes and strokes (fig. 121), and with these cover the
allotted space evenly and agreeably. [p199]
The ornament being treated as though it were a sort of floral growth,
requires a starting point or “root.” The initial letter is the natural origin of
the border ornament, the stalk of which generally springs from the side or
from one of the extremities of the letter. The main stem and branches are
first made with a very free pen, forming a skeleton pattern (fig. 122).
Note.—The numbers in the diagram indicate the order in which the strokes were made. The main
stem (111) sweeps over and occupies most of the ground; the secondary stem (222) occupies the
remainder; the main branches (333, &c.) make the occupation secure. [p200]

Fig. 122.

Next the minor branches are
added to cover the space evenly,
and then the flowers, fruit, and
buds—made up of combinations
of the “leaves,” circles, &c.—
are more or less evenly disposed
in the spaces formed by the
large, round curves at the ends
of the branches (fig. 123). [p201]

Fig. 123.

The “leaves” are placed all
over, wherever there is
convenient room for them (just
as the leaves of a real plant are).
Then the stalks of the leaves are
added, and, lastly, the
interspaces are filled with
“tendrils,” which greatly
contribute to the pleasant
intricacy of the design (fig.
124). [p202]

Fig. 124.

Colour Schemes.—The safest treatment of such a “design” is in black and gold (see p. 187). The
leaves, which are kept rather flat, may be outlined after gilding. The flowers, &c., may be made up in
red and blue (tempered with white: see p. 182). This is the colour treatment of the example, Plate
XVII.
If the leaves are green, the stem and outline may be more delicately drawn in pale or grey-brown
ink, and the green may be a delicate pale olive or grey-green. (A strong, black stem with bright green
leaves is apt to look crude and hard.) In such a delicate green plant border, delicate blue and red
flowers, and one or two rather flat gold “berries” (single, or in threes) may be placed.
A very effective colour decoration of a much simpler type may be made in red and green (or blue)
pen-work—using the pen and the colours with which the Versal letters and line-finishings are made.
A red flourished stem with red leaves or tendrils, and green berries (or leaves), or a green stem with
green leaves and red berries.
A floral pattern may also be made in plain burnished gold—both stem and leaves—not outlined (p.
187 & Plate XXII.).

A more complex decoration resembling the “floral filigree” has a “solid”
stem in light or dark colour on a dark or light ground (or on a gold ground),
as suggested in the rough diagram, fig. 120.
The examples of Italian fifteenth-century work in Plates XVIII. and
XIX. show a related type of illumination, known as the “white vine
pattern.” Very carefully and beautifully drawn, it strongly suggests natural
form.
“NATURAL, OR LIMNER’S,42 ILLUMINATION”
(See also pp. 212, 219–21, 227, 423–24, 426–28, 486; figs. 131a–141;
Plates XV., XVI., XXIII.)
This, the finest type of illumination, has very great possibilities; and it is
to be hoped that some craftsmen, who have the necessary skill, will find an
opening for their work in this direction. [p203]
Plate XV. is a thirteenth-century example of the transition from the
“barbaric” to the “natural.” The dragon-tailed initial with its wonderful
scroll-work and “ivy-leaf” being the perfection of barbaric form, carrying
brilliant colour and serving to support and frame the delicate and beautiful
drawing which it contains.43 But in the drawing itself the skill of a fine
illuminator combines with the fancy of a cunning draughtsman to satisfy an
æsthetic taste and appeal to the imagination.

Plate XVI. shows a rare, and singularly beautiful, treatment of an Italian
fourteenth-century MS. decorated with plant and insect forms (p. 427).
Plate XXIII. (modern) show a border of wild roses and climbing plants:
the colour treatment in the original is very brilliant (see p. 486).
The “natural” type depends very much on the beauty and interest of its
form; and a draughtsman before he had become an illuminator, might be
content to decorate MSS. and printed books with pen drawings only faintly
coloured or tinted; but when he had mastered the limitations which the craft
would impose on his drawing for pure and bright colour, there is no degree
of brilliance, even unto “barbaric splendour,” which he might not lay upon
his trained and delicate forms. [p204]

CHAPTER XII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION44
The Development of Illumination — Line-Finishings — Initial Letters — Borders & Backgrounds.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
An art or craft is so largely dependent on the tools and materials which are
used by the craftsman, that we may reasonably say that it begins with the
tools and materials, through which it has been produced. Now,
“illumination” can be traced back step by step to simple penmanship. And
its true development is most graphically sketched by Ruskin (“Lectures on
Art,” No. V.) when he says—
“The pen . . . is not only the great instrument for the finest sketching, but its right use is the
foundation of the art of illumination. . . . Perfect illumination is only writing made lovely; . . . But to
make writing itself beautiful—to make the sweep of the pen lovely—is the true art of illumination;”
And also that those who have acquired “a habit of deliberate, legible and lovely penmanship in their
daily use of the pen, . . . may next discipline their hands into the control of lines of any length, and,
finally, add the beauty of colour and form to the flowing of these perfect lines.” [p205]

LINE-FINISHINGS

Line-finishings are used to preserve the evenness of the text when lines
of writing fall short. When the space left is small, or occurs in the middle of
a sentence, a quick stroke of the pen—often a continuation of the last letter,
or springing from it—is sufficient (fig. 125); but where there are many and
long gaps (as, for example, in a psalter at the ends of the verses), they may
be filled in with dots (see Plate VIII.) or flourishes (a, b, c, fig. 126) either
made in black with the script pen, or with another pen, in colour or gold.
Line-finishings commonly echo the treatment of the initials (see p. 181).
In twelfth-century MSS. long delicate flourishes are commonly found, in
red, blue, or green—matching the colours of the Versals, and probably made
with the same pen. The latter being rather finer than the text pen keeps these
flourishes from appearing too prominent (see e, f, fig. 126).
Such work should be simple and characteristic pen-work, showing the
thicks and thins and crisp curves, the result of the position of the pen, which
is usually “slanted” (see p. 43).
Bands of pen-made “geometrical” patterns—used with rather close
writing—may be very simple and direct, though appearing pleasantly
elaborate (see figs. 87 and (g) 126, Plate XIV., and pp. 215 & 25).
INITIAL LETTERS
(See also pp. 16, 48, 112–14, 124, 134, 181, 188–193, 193–99, 211–15, and
the Collotype Plates)
The development of Illumination proper was—and still is—bound up
with the growth and decoration of the Initial Letter.

Fig. 125.

Fig. 126.
[p208]

The first step in this development is the mastery of the pen-made Versal
letter, and the right treatment of simple coloured capitals (see chapters VII.,
VIII., and X.). The next step is their elaboration. The simplest ornamental
treatment is found in the flourishing of a terminal of the initial letter (fig.
150), or the arrangement of the remaining letters of the word inside or
beside it. Pen flourishes may consist of the simplest curved and zigzag
strokes (sometimes springing from the actual letter: see p. 251), ending with
a “twirl” of the pen in a loop or a “bud” (figs. 150, 79); or they may strike
out a sort of formal floral pattern, filling or surrounding the initial (fig. 92),
and such a pattern in its turn may spring from the letter into the margin, and
grow into a complete “illuminated border” (see p. 199).
Hollow Letters.—A large capital is often made hollow, primarily with a
view to lightening its appearance, which might be rather heavy if the letter
were made solid (p. 119). The hollow—which is commonly left plain (i.e.
the colour of the paper or parchment)—may be a mere line, straight or
curved or zigzag (fig. 189), or a pattern, or lettering (fig. 89). Sometimes it
is made large and filled in with a contrasting colour, leaving a white line,
however, between the two colours. And sometimes half the letter is made in
one colour, and the other half (on the opposite side of the hollow centre) is
made in a contrasting colour. A “hollow” letter (especially if very large)
may be strengthened and improved by a filling of colour or ornament.
(Addenda, p. 25.)
“Woven” Forms.—A simple form of ornament (related to “Basket
work”) which effectually strengthens the construction of a hollow letter—
without impairing its lightness—consists in a crossing [p209] and “weaving”
or knotting of its actual parts (fig. 127).

Fig. 127.

The elaborated (in fig. 127) is from a 10th or 11th century MS.
(Brit. Museum, Egerton, 608). The Initial and its inwoven ornament cut up
the background into a number of distinct parts (distinctly coloured). Note
also that the entire background is contained by the Initial.
The “knot” (fig. 127), or a basket-work ornament, is sometimes used as
an arbitrary starting-point for a filigree border (see p. 428) where an initial
is lacking.
Variety in Initials.—The sizes and styles of the initials which are used for
the same purpose throughout the book vary very slightly or not at all.
Generally, the more important the division which the [p210] initial marks, the
larger the initial and the more ornate (p. 298). A slight complexity in the
opening letter or word of a book does not seriously interfere with the
readableness of the book as a whole. The general rule is followed that the
greater the number of (decorative) forms the plainer they are kept (see p.

126), and if a book contained an “initial” on every page, it would be both an
artistic and a working economy (if there were many pages) to make the
majority of them rather plain.
But however simple the treatment of the initials may be, there is still
room for considerable variety of form or ornament or type—as “round” or
“square” letters (see fig. 80, and especially Plate XI.). Such variety is found
in the best work; it adds a liveliness and charm which are quite lacking
where there is unnecessary or mechanical repetition.
“Lombardic” versus Roman Capitals.—The round, fat letters which are
known as “Lombardic” (see fig. 1, and Plates XV., XVII.) have been
generally used for “illuminated initials” in Northern Europe since the
thirteenth century. But—though they are capable of very beautiful treatment
—they are rather doubtful models for us to follow. The fact that such letters
will always pack neatly into a square niche or background—though an
obvious convenience—is not an unmixed advantage. And the majority of
examples show a debased type of Letters—often so unlike their originals,
and so like one another, as to be scarcely readable. For the sake of
readableness the stems should be made longer (fig. 128). The more slender
“Roman” type of initial, commonly used in Italy (Plate XVIII.), is in every
way a more legible letter. The Roman Alphabet still remains the finest [p211]
model, and it is better that fine lettering should be almost too slender and
delicate, than that it should be at all heavy or clumsy.

Fig. 128.
BORDERS & BACKGROUNDS
The illuminated border was originally an extension or branching out of
the initial decoration. It commonly occupied the greater part of the left-hand
margin, and from thence it extended into the head45 or foot margin (or into
both), or completely surrounded the text, and even the eight margins of a
[p213] complete opening are sometimes covered with illumination. In late

and modern usage the border is frequently separated from the initial,
constituting a “framing border.”46

Fig. 129.
Note.—This diagram suggests a simple treatment of an initial word in
colours and gold. The graphic method employed by heralds for indicating these

—by lines and dots—is here discarded for the stronger contrasts of black, white,
and “grey.”
The letters contained inside the initial P are kept distinct—(1) crimson
(“grey” in diagram) being used solely for the patches of ground adjoining the
(gold) letters, and for filling the hollow part of the (gold) P, the whole word
stands out in crimson and gold; (2) the floral pattern is also in gold, but it does
not cover or hide any part of the word.
The remaining ground is green inside and blue outside the P. The dots
are in red on the green ground, in cream with a red centre dot on the blue.
The gold throughout is outlined black, and the blue ground has a black
outline, separated from it by a white line.

In some MSS. there are two side-borders on a page, one springing from
the Initials on the left, the other sending branches into the gaps on the right
(see Plates XVII., XVI.). In some cases the two pages of an opening are
balanced by a side-border in each of the wide side margins (p. 428).
Backgrounds of Initials (see pp. 188–193, 421–23) and borders are
treated very similarly. It may be noted that, where a solid-stem pattern cuts
up the ground into small pieces, these are often painted in different colours
—commonly red, and green, and blue (see pp. 209, 430). And the groups of
dots (fig. 129)—in white or other colours—may fill the interstices of a
background, putting the finishing touch to the even covering and pleasant
intricacy of the decoration (comp. p. 201). Or little flowers and leaves may
be used instead—growing from a thin (white) stem which appears to twine
throughout the main pattern—just as the smaller plants in a hedge creep and
twine among the larger stems. There is no better model in nature for the
illuminator than a country hedgerow. [p214]

CHAPTER XIII
“DESIGN” IN ILLUMINATION
“Design” — Elementary Patterns in Decoration — Scale & Scope of Decoration — Of “Designing”
Manuscripts, Generally.

“DESIGN”

Perhaps the nearest right definition of “design” is “contrivance”—applied
to the actual doing of the work, rather than to the work when done:
“decoration” (when that is the sense intended) is a safer word,47 because it
implies “of something.” And generally that “something” lies at the root of
the matter. For example: “illuminated initials” and “illuminated borders,” so
called, are really illuminating: they are properly a decoration of manuscript
or print.
To consider a “piece-of-decoration” as a thing existing apart from that
which it decorates, as something drawn or copied, and, so to speak, stuck on
to the finished work, is as unnatural as it would be to contemplate the
flame-of-a-candle as a thing apart from the candle. [p215]
The finest decoration is really part of the work itself, and may be
described as the finishing touches given directly to the work by the tools
which are properly employed on it.
The illuminator has, as a rule, to decorate a given manuscript with pen or
brush work—it may be with the simplest pen flourishes, or with the most
elaborate figure “design.” How to make that illumination part of the work,
he can learn only by patient practice and by careful handling of his tools.
ELEMENTARY PATTERNS IN DECORATION
Nearly all simple Decoration consists of a comparatively limited number
of elements—simple forms and pure colours—which are built up into more
complex forms to occupy an allotted space. A primitive type of such built-
up decoration is seen in the dotted patterns, which are found in every age—
in the remains of the most ancient art, and in the shell decorations which
children make on the sands at the present day. Examples of dotted
“backgrounds” in the “Durham Book” are shown in fig. 130 (a and b).
Chequers and Diapers—in which two or more elements are employed—are
related patterns.48 (See also Addenda, p. 25 & fig. 191a.)

A simple way of filling a band (or long narrow [p216] space) is to run a
zigzag line along it (c). This may be treated either as a line or wavy stem,
which may send out buds, leaves, or flowers into the spaces (g), or as two
series of triangles which may be “countercharged” (f).49 A second zigzag,
cutting the first, would produce two series of triangles and a central row of
lozenges (d). And it is not a very great step from this to the “twist” where
the two lines pass over and under, the lines being made “solid” in white or
gold on a coloured background (e, fig. 130). The main difference appears to
be that while the one is of the nature of an abstract form, the other suggests
a concrete form, such as might be made with twisted cords or rods.

Fig. 130.

These primitive patterns never become antiquated; they are still the root
forms of “design,” and the pleasant even covering of a given space by
simple elements—which is their métier—accounts for much of the
unconscious pleasure which we take in good bricklaying or sewing or
writing, and in a thousand things, where “many littles make a mickle.”
For their decorative possibilities in Illumination we can experiment in the
most delightful way—framing our writing with bands of countercharged
triangles in burnished gold, and blue and white, or with golden zigzags on a
blue ground, or chequering backgrounds with scarlet and blue, and trying a
hundred and one other ways (p. 197). Such patterns have been made the
most of in Heraldry, [p218] an art which in itself would form a foundation for
a splendid and complete scheme of Illumination.
SCALE & SCOPE OF DECORATION
Penmanship.—Many of the most beautiful MSS. were made in pen-work
throughout.50 And it is well that the penman should stick to his pen as much
as is possible. Not only does it train his hand to make pen ornaments, the
forms of which are in keeping with the writing, but it helps to keep the
decoration proportionate in every way. It is an excellent plan for the
beginner to use the writing-pen for plain black capitals or flourishes, and to
make all other decoration with similar or slightly finer pens than the one
used for the writing.
Again, the direct use of the pen will prevent much mischievous
“sketching.” Sketching is right in its proper place, and, where you know
exactly what you wish to do, it is useful to sketch in lightly the main parts of
a complex “design” so that each part may receive a fair portion of the
available space. But do not spoil your MS. by experimental pencilling in
trying to find out what you want to do. Experiments are best made roughly
with a pen or brush on a piece of paper laid on the available space in the
MS., or by colouring a piece of paper and cutting it out to the pattern
desired and laying it on. Such means are also used to settle small doubts

which may arise in the actual [p219] illuminating—as to whether—and
where—some form or some colour should be placed on the page.
Filigree, Floral, & other Decoration.—The acquired skill of the penman
leads very naturally to a pen flourishing and decoration of his work, and
this again to many different types of filigree decoration more or less
resembling floral growths (see figs. 125, 126; pp. 197–202; Plates XI.,
XVII.).
Now all right decoration in a sense arranges itself, and we may compare
the right action of the “designer’s” mind to that necessary vibration or
“directive” motion which permeates the universe and, being communicated
to the elements, enables the various particles to fall into their right places:
as when iron filings are shaken near a magnet they arrange themselves in
the natural curves of the magnetic field, or as a cello bow, drawn over the
edge of a sand-sprinkled plate, gathers the sand into beautiful “musical
patterns.”
And to most natural growths, whether of plants or ornament, this
principle of self-arrangement seems common, that they spread out evenly
and occupy to the greatest extent possible their allotted space. Branches
and leaves most naturally grow away from the stem and from each other,
and oppose elbows and points in every direction. In this way the growth fits
its place, looking secure and at rest—while in disconnected parallels, or
branches following their stem, there is often insecurity and unrest.51 (See
also Addenda, p. 25.)
For example: a circular space is filled more [p220] decoratively by a cross
(a, fig. 131) than by a contained circle; a square is better filled by a
“lozenge” or a circle (b and c) than by a smaller square set square and
parallel (compare the diapering of the chequers in fig. 191 a). A circular or
square space might be filled on this principle with a filigree arrangement
such as is suggested by (d, fig. 131). Note.—In the case of two curves in the
ornament touching (either internally or externally) they may be linked at

this point by a (gold) band or circle or lozenge (e, fig. 131, see also Plate
XVII.).

Fig. 131.
Miniatures and Drawing.—In drawing and painting, the difficulty which
is apt to beset the illuminator is how to strike a balance between
“Naturalism” and “Conventionalism,” so called. While the only criterion is
good taste, we may be guided by certain general principles.
To limit the number of elements in a “design”—whether of form or
colour—is nearly always an [p221] advantage (pp. 177, 181, 198). And the
miniaturist, while depicting the nature of a plant, usually limits the number
of its branches and leaves and shades of colour. Every part of a “design”
should be drawn clearly and distinctly, and in proportion to the whole. The

miniaturist, therefore, usually draws in careful outline every branch and
leaf, making the whole proportional with the MS. which it decorates.
In fact, the qualities of good illumination are the same as the qualities of
good writing—Simplicity, Distinctiveness, Proportion, &c. (see p. 239). And
the “convention” (here literally a coming together) required is only such as
will make the drawing and colouring of the illumination and the form and
colour of the writing go well together.
Note.—Figs. 135 to 141 (woodcuts—with part of the text—from a Herbal printed at Venice in
1571 [p. 369]) and figs. 132, 133, and 134a (wood engravings by T. Bewick, printed 1791) are
suggested as examples of drawing—of plants and animals—suitable for book-decoration (see also
figs. 134b, c, d; Plates XV., XVI., XXIII., and notes on “limner’s illumination,” p. 203).

OF “DESIGNING” MANUSCRIPTS GENERALLY
Cultivate the simplest and most direct methods, and make “rules of
thumb”52 for work-a-day use, to carry you successfully through all routine
or ordinary difficulties, so that your hand will be trained and your mind free
and ready to deal with the harder problems when they arise. [p222]
Use a limited number of pure, bright colours, and keep your work clean,
neat, and definite.
Go straight ahead, trusting to workman-like methods, and not calculating
overmuch. Do the work in a regular order, settling, first, the general
scheme, the size of the book, the writing, and the margins; then when you
are ready—
1. Prepare the sheets (see pp. 99, 110, 167).
2. Write the text—leaving spaces for decoration.
3. Write in—
(a) The coloured writing.
(b) The coloured capitals.
(c) The line-finishings.

4. Illuminate—Following a regular order in the various processes
involved—

(a) The Initials.
(b) Line-finishings.
(c) The Borders.

5. Bind the book (p. 346), or have it bound, in order to make a real and
finished piece of work.
Practise an artistic economy of time and space: usually the quicker you
write the MS. the better it is. Allow sufficient margins to make the book
readable and handsome, but not so wide as to make it appear fanciful.
Allow sufficient ornament, not overloading the book with it. Let the
ornament be of a type suited to the book and to the subject—not too
painstaking or elaborate in an ordinary MS.; not too hasty and slight in an
important work.
Endeavour to strike a balance between what may be called “practical”
and “ornamental” considerations: an illuminated MS. is not meant to be
entirely “practical,” but it is a greater failure if made entirely “ornamental.”
Let the text be readable in every sense, and let the ornament beautify it:
there should be give and take, as it were, and that most desirable quality
—“sweet reasonableness.” [p223]

Fig. 132.

Fig. 133.

Fig. 134. Part of Fig. 133. Enlarged twice linear.

Fig. 134a.

Fig. 134b.
“The intricacies of a natural scene (fig. 134 a—after
Bewick) may be simplified when rendered in such a
simple medium as the pen drawings of a MS. (comp. fig.
134 b). Figs. 134 c & d are old examples of strong, simple
drawing. Students should practise themselves by
translating figs. 132, 133 into fine, Quill-pen drawings.”—
(N. R.)

Fig. 134c. (This and fig.
134d are copies from a
thirteenth century MS. in
the possession of Mr.
Yates-Thompson.)

Fig. 134d.

Fig. 135.—The Reed.

Fig. 136.—Asparagus.

Fig. 137.—The Lentil.

Fig. 138.—The Vine.

Fig. 139.—The Carnation.

Fig. 140.—The Peony.

Fig. 141.—The Peach.

FOOTNOTES TO PART I:
5 “The alphabet which we use at the present day has been traced back, in all its essential
forms, to the ancient hieratic writing of Egypt of about the twenty-fifth century before Christ. It
is directly derived from the Roman alphabet; the Roman, from a local form of the Greek; the
Greek, from the Phœnician; the Phœnician, from the Egyptian hieratic. . . . We may without
exaggeration . . . carry back the invention of Egyptian writing to six or seven thousand years
before Christ.”—Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, “Greek and Latin Palæography,” pp. 1–2.

6 Ibid., p. 196.

7 “G. & L. Palæography,” p. 204. (Minuscules = “small letters.” Half-Uncials are
sometimes distinguished, as “round minuscules”—p. 302.)

8 It is possible that their forms were influenced by the use of the brush in painting up
public notices and the like. The introduction of the use of vellum—a perfect writing material—
in the making of books, led to such a great advance in the formality and finish of the book-
hands (especially of the Uncial character) that, practically, it may be said to mark the beginning
of penmanship as a “fine” art. This change may be assigned to any time between the first and
the third centuries (palæographical dates before the fifth century must generally be regarded as
approximate).

9 “Greek and Latin Palæography,” p. 233.

10 Some Eastern scribes use a “pad” of fur. This, or a piece of springy cloth, or other
elastic substance, would probably be helpful, and experiments should be made in this direction.

11 The ordinary “Reed pen” of the artists’ colourman is rather soft and weak for formal
writing. The reeds used by the native scribes in India and Egypt, and some of the harder
English reeds, are excellent. A fine, hollow cane also makes a very good pen.

12 The width of the cut nib corresponds exactly with the width of the thickest stroke
which the pen will make in writing.

13 If the edge of the nib were cut at right angles to the shaft, obviously the horizontal
stroke would not be thin, and the true thick and thin strokes would be oblique (see “slanted
pen” writing—fig. 9 & 11).

14 For example, a framed sheet does not require such wide margins as a similar sheet
unframed.

7
15 Really about 6 inches, because the top line of writing will not occupy its full inch,
8
the unused part of which adds to the top margin (see fig. 65).

16 MS. Books are further considered in Chap. XVI.

17 The direct use of a thick wood or metal scale may lead to inaccuracy.

18 The two, four, eight (or more) pages are printed on both sides of the sheet before it is
folded. Two or more sheets are generally folded and put together to form a folio “section.”
1 1 1
19 Such as Foolscap (17″ x 13 ″), Crown (20″ x 15″), Demy (22 ″ x 17 ″), Royal (25″
2 2 2
x 20″), &c.

20 In Oriental books, which are sometimes held by their top margins, the top is deepest.

21 If the average number of words be previously fixed—as in a poem (see p. 95)—that
will practically determine the size of the writing.

22 They are often ruled double (see p. 343), and sometimes the top and foot lines are
ruled from edge to edge of the sheet.

23 Though Versals may generally be regarded as paragraph marking letters, it is
convenient to apply the term to the Versal type of letter—e.g. “a heading in Versal letters” (see
fig. 91).

24 In “Roman” letters the thicks and thins are not necessarily strongly marked, though
their pen-forms have often a natural “Gothic” tendency.

25 The mediæval scribes often made the first line of a chapter or book in uniform
capitals (excepting the initial letter). The succeeding line generally was smaller, and of a
different colour and type—even when a divided word was carried over into it.

26 Minium = red-lead, used in early times for “rubrics” and drawings, hence is derived
the word “Miniature.”

27 An illuminated Page will allow of a few lines of black text at the foot (an
arrangement very common in the elaborate Initial Pages of the fifteenth century), but these
should be quite subordinate to the “Illumination.”

28 The surface of horny or greasy parchment may be slightly roughened with a pen-
knife till little hairs are raised which will hold the size, care being taken that this roughening
does not extend beyond the actual parts which are to be covered with size. (Oxgall: see
footnote, p. 175.)

29 As this is usually allowed to dry for twenty-four hours, make sure, before laying the
size, that you will be able to lay the gold-leaf on it at or near the same time on the next day.

30 Should a drop fall on the page it can be removed quickly with the knife, but it is
safer to allow it to dry and then to pick it off carefully. Size which has flowed beyond the
bounds of the form may be trimmed away when it has set.

31 A finer metal or ivory point may also be used.

32 Vide D. Cockerell, “Bookbinding and the Care of Books,” p. 81.

33 The very costly, specially prepared calf-skin is too highly “finished,” and has much
the appearance of superior cardboard. It is stiff and shiny, and its surface is objectionable to
work on.

34 OXGALL may be used for a greasy surface; painted on it, or mixed with the colour.

35 And the nib is cleaned out now and then (with the filling brush), or wiped, to prevent
the colour clogging it (see p. 70).

36 “French Ultramarine” is an artificial compound, and a poor colour.

37 For white lining, &c.—if in constant use—the Chinese White in bottle is said to be
the best; a little Spirits of Wine should be poured into it, to keep it moist and make it work
better. It should be stirred well, and a sufficient quantity for immediate use is taken out and
mixed in a small saucer. The bottle is kept tightly corked.

38 And single forms were often parti-coloured, as III., IV., Blue, with red serifs, or vice
versâ (see also pp. 208, 216).

39 In “white light” three rays (known as the “Primary Colour-Sensations”) have been
distinguished—Red, Green, and Blue; any two of these are complementary to the remaining
colour, and appear to be induced optically in its neighbourhood.
(Yellow light is combined of Red and Green rays, and this may partly explain the particular
fitness of Blue and Gold Illumination.)

40 In the case of a burnished gold letter, the gilding may be deferred until the adjacent
coloured parts are finished (see p. 170).

41 It has even been supposed that we might make the inhabitants of Mars aware of the
existence of rational Terrestrials, by exhibiting a vast illumination—in lamp-light—consisting
of a somewhat similar form—the first Proposition in Euclid.

42 Note.—Limning strictly means Illuminating, but has come to imply drawing and
painting, especially of portraits and miniatures. Here, all its senses are intended.

43 The modern illuminator, having no tradition for making such scroll-work, would find
that natural or organic forms—as of trees or plants (see p. 221)—would serve the same end and
have more “sweet reasonableness” in modern eyes. Excellent scroll-work, moreover, might be
formed out of ornamental Capitals—if sufficient excuse could be found for introducing them: a
large flourished L, for example, could be made exactly on the same lines as the pendant and
scroll in Plate XV. Narrow gold rods also may be used in a border to support a floral growth, or
as frames if necessary (compare rules, p. 364).

44 The steps in the development sketched very briefly in this chapter, refer both to the
past history of the art of illumination and to its possible revival (see Author’s preface, p. 16).

45 Where it is possible it is desirable to mark the top left-hand corner of the “page” (and
also the lower corner) by a branch, flourish, bud, or flower (see Plates XIX., XXII.). A top left-
hand corner appearing vacant or rounded off is apt to weaken the whole effect (see p. 134).

46 Framing borders, or borders which surround the text, may be allowed nearly to fill
the entire marginal space.

47 “Design” has been associated so much with bad cleverness in the artist, or clever
badness in the natural man, that if we use the word in a good sense it is apt to be
misunderstood.
Decoration is derived from decus, decor = comeliness or grace.

48 Chequers in colours and gold were largely used in the fourteenth-century MSS. for
backgrounds in miniatures. There is an example of very beautiful heraldic diapering (in
enamel) on the shield of William de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, in Westminster Abbey (A.D.
1296). On p. 336 of this book there is a diagram of a very fine shield bearing a diapered
chequer.

49 If the triangles were countercharged in colour and colour—e.g. red and blue—the
zigzag would be made white, black, or gold, to separate and harmonise the colours (see pp.
182–83).

50 A most beautiful twelfth-century MS., known as the “Golden Psalter,” has many gold
(decorated) Initials, Red, Blue, and Green (plain) Versals and Line-Finishings, every part being
pen-made throughout the book.

51 In a spiral the stem, following itself, may be tied by an interlacing spiral, or the turns
of the spiral may be held at rest by the interlocking of the leaves (see G, Plate XXII.).

52 As an example of a good “rule of thumb,” use the ruled lines of a manuscript as a
scale for other measurements and proportions, leaving one, two, three, or more of the line-
spaces for capitals, ornaments, &c.: you have this scale—as it were, a “ready reckoner”—
present on every page, and following it enables you more easily to make the decoration agree
and harmonise with the written text and with the book as a whole (see p. 128 & figs. 89, 91,
71).

PA RT I I
LETTERING

CHAPTER XIV
GOOD LETTERING——SOME METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION &
ARRANGEMENT
Good Models — The Qualities of Good Lettering — Simplicity — Distinctiveness — Proportion —
Beauty of Form — Beauty of Uniformity — Right Arrangement — Setting Out & Fitting In —
“Massed Writing” & “Fine Writing” — Even Spacing — Theory & Practice.

GOOD MODELS
If lettering is to be rightly constructed and arranged, the study of good
models is essential. Some of the writing and lettering in the old MSS., and
the letters used on various old tombstones and brasses, weeded of
archaisms, will be found almost perfect models. Yet to select one of these
from the many which are “more or less” good, requires much
discrimination.
It is suggested below that the essential virtues of good lettering are
readableness, beauty, and character. If, then, we can discover some of the
underlying qualities which make for these, our choice will at least be better
considered, and instead of [p238] forming our “style” on the first type of
letter that pleases, we shall found our work on a good model, full of
possibilities of development.
The Roman Capital (Chap. XV.).—The ancestor of all our letters is in
undisputed possession of the first place: but it is open to comparatively few
to make a practical study of its monumental forms by means of cutting
inscriptions in stone with a chisel.

The Pen-formed letters are more easily practised, and the mastery of the
pen acquired in the practice of a root form—such as the half-uncial—is the
key to the majority of alphabets (which are pen developed) and to those
principles underlying the right construction and arrangement of lettering,
which it is our business to discover.
Doubtless a “school” of lettering might be founded on any fine type, and
a beautiful alphabet or fine hand might be founded on any fine inscription:
but the practical student of penmanship may be sure of acquiring a
knowledge of lettering which would be useful to any craftsman concerned
with letters, be he printer, book-illustrator, engraver, or even inscription
carver.
THE QUALITIES OF GOOD LETTERING
The first general virtue of lettering is readableness, the second, fitness for
a given Use. And the rational basis of the following summary is the
assumption that such fitness is comprised in beauty and character, and that
a given piece of lettering having readableness, beauty, and character has
the essential virtues of good lettering.
The qualities on which these virtues seem chiefly to depend, and their
special significations in the case of plain writing, may be set forth as
follows:— [p239]

THE QUALITIES OF GOOD WRITING

RIGHT FORM
READABLENESS
1. Simplicity:
As having no unnecessary parts (and as being simply arranged: see 6).
2. Distinctiveness:
As having the distinguishing characteristics of each letter strongly marked (and the words
distinctly arranged: see 6).
3. Proportion:
As having no part of a letter wrongly exaggerated or dwarfed (and as the lettering being
proportionally arranged: see 6).
BEAUTY
4. Beauty of Form:
As having beautiful shapes and constructions, so that each letter is an individual and
living whole (not a mere collection of parts) fitted for the position, office, and material of
the object bearing the inscription.
5. Beauty of Uniformity:
As the assimilation of the corresponding parts—“bodies,” “limbs,” “heads”—and as the
“family likeness” of the different letters, so that they go well together.
RIGHT ARRANGEMENT
BEAUTY
6. Beauty of Arrangement:
As having a general fitness in the placing, connecting, and spacing of letters, words, and
lines, in the disposal of the lettering in the given space, and in the proportioning of every
part of the lettering and its margins.
RIGHT EXPRESSION
CHARACTER
7. Essential qualities of (Hand and Pen) work:
As being genuine calligraphy, the direct outcome of a rightly made and rightly handled
pen. (See p. 278.)
8. Freedom:
As having skilled and unaffected boldness. (See pp. 122, 327, 323, 369.)
9. Personality:
As having the characteristics which distinguish one person’s hand from another’s. (See
also pp. 278, 323.)

[p240]

This summary, while not presuming to define the Virtues, or achieve
Beauty by a formula, does indicate some guiding principles for the letter-

maker, and does suggest a definite meaning which may be given to the
terms “Right Form,” “Right Arrangement,” and “Right Expression” in a
particular craft.
It is true that “Readableness” and “Character” are comprised in Beauty,
in the widest sense; but it is useful here to distinguish them: Readableness
as the only sound basis for a practical theory of lettering, and Character as
the product of a particular hand & tool at work in a particular craft.
The above table, therefore, may be used as a test of the qualities of any
piece of lettering—whether Manuscript, Printing, or Engraving—provided
that the significations of those qualities on which “Character” depends be
modified and adapted to each particular instance. It is however a test for
general qualities only—such as may help us in choosing a model: for as to
its particular virtue each work stands alone—judged by its merits—in spite
of all rules.
SIMPLICITY
(As having no unnecessary parts)
Essential Forms and their Characterisation.—The “Essential Forms”
may be defined briefly as the necessary parts (see p. 275). They constitute
the skeleton or structural plan of an alphabet; and One of the finest things
the letter-craftsman can do, is to make the Essential Forms of letters
beautiful in themselves, giving them the character and finish which come
naturally from a rightly handled tool. [p241]
If we take the “Roman” types—the letters with which we are most
familiar—and draw them in single pencil strokes (as a child does when it
“learns its letters”), we get a rough representation of their Essential Forms
(see diagram, fig. 142).
Such letters might be scratched with a point in wax or clay, and if so used
in practice would give rise to fresh and characteristic developments,53 but if
we take a “square cut” pen which will give a thin horizontal stroke and a

thick vertical stroke (figs. 10 and 40), it will give us the “straight-pen,” or
simple written, essential forms of these letters (fig. 143).
These essential forms of straight-pen letters when compared with the
plain line forms show a remarkable degree of interest, brought about by the
introduction of the thin and thick strokes and gradated curves, characteristic
of pen work.
Certain letters (A, K, M, N, V, W, X, Y, and k, v, w, x, y) in fig. 143 being
composed chiefly of oblique strokes, appear rather heavy. They are
lightened by using a naturally “slanted” pen which produces thin as well as
thick oblique strokes. And the verticals in M and N are made thin by further
slanting the pen (fig. 144).
To our eyes, accustomed to a traditional finish, all these forms—in figs.
143 and 144, but particularly the slanted pen forms—look incomplete and
unfinished; and it is obvious that the thin strokes, at least, require marked
terminals or serifs. [p242]

Fig. 142.

Fig. 143.

[p244]

Fig. 144.
Finishing-Strokes.—The pen naturally produces a variety of finishing-
strokes—“heads,” “feet,” serifs, &c.—each type of which strongly
characterises the alphabet in which it is employed.
The main types (fig. 145) are—
(a) Hooks or beaks.
(b) Straight (or curved) strokes, thick or thin according to the direction
of the pen.
(c) Triangular “heads” (and “feet”), straight or slanted, and more or less
curved and sharpened.
(d) Thin finishing-curves, horizontal or oblique.
To give uniformity to the various letters of an alphabet it is necessary to
treat similar parts as consistently as possible throughout (see No. 5, p. 239).
And the remarkable way in which “heads” impart a “family likeness” to

letters closely resembles the same phenomenon among human beings (see
pp. 324, 254).
If we consider the four types of serif, as applicable to straight-pen
writing, we find— [p245]
(a) Hooks or Beaks Suitable only for certain parts of certain
(d) Thin Finishing-Curves letters (and for informal writing).
(b) Straight (or Curved) THIN Strokes Informal (or Ornamental).
(c) Triangular “Heads” Formal and capable of imparting great
elegance and finish.

Fig. 145.

For a formal, straight-pen writing, therefore, we may assume that a form
of triangular head is, on the whole, the most suitable, while some of the
letters may be allowed to end naturally in finishing hooks and curves. [p246]

Fig. 146.
Heads are easily built up at the ends of thick strokes, but some practice is
required to enable a penman to make them on the thin strokes properly and
skilfully. On the thin horizontals they are made with an almost continuous

movement of the point of the nib from the thin stroke itself (see (a) to (h)
fig. 146) closely resembling the termination of some of the thin strokes in
the Irish half-uncial (Plate VI.). On the thin oblique or vertical stems a thin
crossing stroke is first made, and then shaped [p247] with the pen point to
meet the stem (see (i) and (k) fig. 146).
We may write out the letters now with their suitable serifs, and we see
that the Pen character and finish, given to the “Essential, or Skeleton,
Forms” (fig. 142) result in a very formal and highly finished alphabet (fig.
147).
Slanted-pen characters and serifs (see fig. 145)—
(a) Hooks or Beaks Suitable for most of the letters, but tending to
(d) Thin Finishing-Curves be informal.
(b) Straight (or Curved) THICK Strokes Formal and strong.
(c) Triangular Heads Formal and suitable for small-letters, and free
capitals (see fig. 168).

The alphabets (fig. 148), produced from the skeleton forms (fig. 142) by
the slanted pen, while not having such a conscious air of finish as the
straight-pen letters, are much easier to write, and have in a greater degree
the virtues of strong,54 legible, natural penmanship.
They are eminently suitable for general MS. work (see p. 305) when the
beginner has mastered an early form of round-hand (see pp. 70, 304).

Fig. 147.

Fig. 148.

DISTINCTIVENESS
(As having the distinguishing characteristics of each letter strongly marked)
The “Characteristic Parts” are those parts which most particularly serve
to distinguish one letter from [p250] another (fig. 149). We should therefore,
when constructing letters, give special attention to their preservation, and
sometimes they may even be accentuated with advantage—always with an
eye to the life-history, or evolution, of the letter in question, and allowing
for the influence of the special tool with which it is to be made (see
Proportion, below).

Fig. 149.
PROPORTION
(As having no part of a letter wrongly exaggerated or dwarfed—see pp.

274, 277–78)

Fig. 150.

The right proportioning of letters entails the preservation of their
Essential Forms and their Characteristic Parts, and, provided these are not
[p252] seriously interfered with, a certain amount of exaggeration (and

dwarfing)55 is allowable in special cases; particularly in ornamental
writings, and Pen-flourished capitals or terminal letters (see figs. 79 and
125).
Rational exaggeration usually amounts to the drawing out or flourishing
of tails or free stems, or branches—very often to the magnifying of a
characteristic part (see fig. 150, & pp. 250, 331). It is a special form of
decoration, and very effective if used discriminately.
BEAUTY OF FORM
(As having beautiful shapes and constructions, so that each letter is an individual and living whole
(not a mere collection of parts) fitted for the position, office, and material of the object bearing the
inscription)

To choose or construct beautiful forms requires good taste, and that in its
turn requires cultivation, which comes from the observation of beautiful
forms. Those who are not accustomed to seeing beautiful things are, in
consequence, often uncertain whether they think a thing beautiful or not.
Some—perhaps all of us—have an intuition for what is beautiful; but most
of us have to achieve beauty by taking pains.
At the least we are apt to be misled if we label abstract forms as
essentially beautiful or essentially ugly—as by a mistaken recipe for beauty.
For us as craftsmen “achieving beauty by taking pains,” means acquiring
skill in a special craft and [p253] adapting that skill to a special piece of
work. And perhaps the surest way to learn, is to let our tools and materials
teach us and, as it were, make beautiful shapes for us.
“Inside Shapes.”—The beauty of a letter depends very much on its inside
shape—i.e. the shape of the space enclosed by the letter form. As this is
often overlooked, it may be briefly referred to. Frequently when it seems
difficult to say what is wrong with a piece of bad lettering, a glance at the
inside shapes will reveal the fault. In simple writing, if the pen be properly

cut and properly held, these shapes will generally take care of themselves,
and internal angles or asymmetrical lines which occur are characteristic of
that particular form of penmanship, and not accidental (b, fig. 151).

Fig. 151.
[p254]

In making Built-up letters—which have both outer and inner strokes—the
inner strokes should generally be made first (see p. 121).
Plain and Ornamental Forms.—Not only for the sake of readableness,
but to promote a beautiful and dignified effect, the forms of letters are kept
simple when the text is long. And, generally, the less frequent the type, the
more ornamental may be its form (see pp. 126, 210, 298, 330).

BEAUTY OF UNIFORMITY
(As the assimilation of the corresponding parts—“bodies,” “limbs,” “heads”—and as the “family
likeness,” of the different letters, so that they go well together)

Right uniformity makes for readableness and beauty, and is the result of
good craftsmanship.
Readableness.—Where the text letters are uniform, the reader is free to
give his attention to the sense of the words, whereas the variations in an
irregular or changing text are distracting.56
Beauty.—The abstract beauty-of-uniformity may be said to lie in this,
that the different letters, or individual elements, “go well together.” The
beautiful effect of uniform lettering is thus caused by the united forces, as it
were, of all the letters.
Good Craftsmanship.—A pen, or other letter-making tool, being handled
freely and regularly, the uniform movements of the tool in similar cases will
produce uniform strokes, &c. (On the other hand, the interruption and loss
of freedom to the [p255] writer who is irregular, or who forces an unnatural
variety,57 results in inferior work.)
RIGHT ARRANGEMENT

BEAUTY OF (As having a general fitness in the placing, connecting, and spacing
of letters, words, and lines, in the disposal of the lettering in the
ARRANGE-
given space, and in the proportioning of every part of the
MENT
lettering and its margins)

The particular fitness of a given inscription depends upon considerations
of its particular office, position, material, &c. (see pp. 100, 351). For
general use, however, the craftsman has certain regular modes of disposing
and spacing the lettering, and proportioning the whole. And, as in
constructing individual letters, so in treating lettering as a whole, he
endeavours to give his work the qualities that make for readableness: viz.
simplicity, distinctiveness, and proportion.

Simplicity in the Disposal of the Lettering.—For convenience of
construction, reading, or handling, the simple, traditional arrangement of
lettering is generally followed in dealing with flat surfaces (paper, vellum,
&c.):58—

Distinctiveness in the Spacing of the Lettering necessitates sufficient
interspaces: the following common spacing of Letters, Words, Lines, &c.,
may be modified to suit special circumstances.
Letters, as a rule, are not equidistant, but their interspaces are approximately equal (a, fig. 152).
Words, commonly one letter-space apart (b and c).
Lines of Capitals, frequently half (d) or whole (e) letter-height apart. Lines of Small-Letters,
commonly ascenders and descenders just clearing (f).
Divisions of Text a clear line apart, or marked by a difference in colour or size (see figs. 94, 96,
186, &c.).

Proportion in the Treatment of the Whole Inscription.—The spacing-
proportions referred to above apply to lettering generally, but the
proportions of an inscription as a whole involve the consideration of a
special case. Example:—

The Proportions to be Considered in the Case of a Manuscript Book (see pp. 100–108, 341,
&c.).
(1) Size and shape of the Book and its page (Set by custom, use of Book, size of material,
(proportion of width to height) (see p. 103). &c.) (see figs. 69, 70, and pp. 101, &c.).
(2) Width of Margins— 1
(a) (Commonly about 1 : 2 : 3 : 4) (see fig.
Proportions— 2
(a) to each other. 70, and pp. 103–7).
(b) to size of page. (b) (Frequently about, or more than, half the
(c) to the lettering. area of the page).
(3) Size of Writing— Proportion of height of (Set by page, and margin, and number of
letter to length of line. words in the line; usually more than four
words to the line) (see pp. 107–8).
(4) Number of lines— Proportion of text to (Set by page, margin, and height-of-letter, and
page. modified by treatment of spacing) (see pp.
108, 262).
(5) Size of Large Capitals, Initials, &c. (Set by Small-Letter; commonly one, two,
three, or more of the writing-line-spaces
high) (see footnote, p. 221).
(6) Size of Decorative Divisions of the Text (Set by page, &c.; usually such Division is
(marked by different treatment, colour, relatively small or large—as a definite
ornament, &c.). “heading,” or a whole page) (see p. 132).

Fig. 152.
SETTING OUT, & FITTING IN

Ruling.—The approximate sizes of margins and letters, and the number
of lines of text, having been estimated, guiding lines are ruled on the
surface (see p. 343)—a right and a left vertical marginal line, with the
necessary number of horizontals between them. (In the case of a
manuscript, these lines are ruled faintly (or grooved), and are left to form a
feature of the page; for inscriptions on other materials than paper,
parchment, &c., they are generally removed after setting-out.)
Setting-out.—An inscription of any size, or one requiring complex or
very nice arrangement, is set-out in faint, sketchy outline of lead pencil or
chalk. Simple writing is not set-out, but such slight calculation or planning
as is necessary is carried out mentally, or on a scrap of paper. By practice
the scribe, like the compositor, can fit his lettering to the given space with
ease and accuracy. For writing and (to a large extent) printing, both
combine setting-out and the act of “lettering” in one operation. And this
shows how practice gives foreknowledge of the “mechanical” part of the
work, leaving the mind free to take pleasure in its performance; and also
how slight—if necessary at all—is the experimental setting-out of simple
forms required by the practised workman.

Fig. 153.
Dividing Monosyllables.—In simple writing—the beauty of which
depends on freedom rather than on precision—I think that even such an

awkward word as “through” should not be broken. If the space at the end of
a line is insufficient, it should be left blank, or be filled in with a dash of the
pen. But in the case of words in LARGE CAPITALS, especially in title-
pages and the like, where spacing [p259] is more difficult, and smooth
reading less essential, any word may be divided at any point if the necessity
is sufficiently obvious. But (even when the division is syllabic) breaking
words, as interfering with the ease of reading, may often be avoided with
advantage, and divisions which give accidental words, especially when they
are objectionable, as [p260] “TH-ROUGH,” or “NEIGH-BOUR,” should not be
allowed. Among other ways of dealing with small spaces, without breaking
words, are the following:—
Ending with Smaller Letters.—The scribe is always at liberty to compress
his writing slightly, provided he does not spoil its readableness or beauty.
Occasionally, without harming either of these, a marked difference in size
of letter may be allowed; one or more words, or a part of one, or a single
letter, being made smaller (a, b, fig. 153; see also Plate V.).
Monogrammatic Forms, &c.—In any kind of lettering, but more
particularly in the case of capitals, where the given space is insufficient for
the given capitals, monogrammatic forms resembling the ordinary
diphthong Æ may be used; or the stem of one letter may be drawn out,
above or below, and formed into another (c, fig. 153).
Linking.—Letters which are large enough may be linked or looped
together, or one letter may be set inside another, or free-stem letters may be
drawn up above the line (d, fig. 153, but see p. 26).
Tying up.—One or more words at the end of a line of writing—
particularly in poetry (see p. 95)—may be “tied up,” i.e. be written above or
below the line, with a pen stroke to connect them to it (fig. 67).
Care must be taken that none of these methods lead to confusion in the
reading. Their “Quaintness”—as it is sometimes called—is only pleasing
when their contrivance is obviously made necessary.

“MASSED WRITING” & “FINE WRITING”
We may distinguish two characteristic modes of treating an inscription, in
which the treatment of the letter is bound up with the treatment of the
spacing (fig. 154). [p262]

Fig. 154.

“Massed Writing” (Close Spacing).—The written or printed page is very
commonly set close, or “massed,” so that the letters support and enforce
one another, their individual beauty being merged in and giving beauty to
the whole. The closeness of the letters in each word keeps the words
distinct, so that but little space is required between them,59 and the lines of
writing are made close together (ascending and descending stems being
shortened, if necessary, for this purpose).
“Fine Writing” (Wide Spacing).—An inscription in “Fine Writing” may
be spaced widely to display the finished beauty of the letters, or to give free
play to the penman (or letter-craftsman). It consists generally of a number
of distinct lines of Writing (or other lettering).
The two modes may be contrasted broadly, thus—

MASSED WRITING FINE WRITING
(Lines near together.) (Lines spaced and separated.)
Has an effect of richness, depending on tone Has an effect of elegance, depending on form
of mass and close, even spacing. of letters and distinct arrangement of lines.
Simple method (for ordinary use); saving of Refined method (for special use); lavish of
time and space, suited for long space and time, suited for large spaces or
inscriptions or small spaces. short inscriptions.
Lines generally of equal length, or if some fall Lines may be of unequal length, giving
short, end-fillings may be used—gaps are irregular, right-hand edge, as in poetry (see
avoided if possible. p. 263)—gaps allowed on either side.[p263]
Ascending and descending stems—medium or Stems—medium or long: long stems often a
short: serifs simple, and not strongly marked feature, ending in carefully made
marked. heads and feed, or flourishes.
Suited for slanted-pen forms of “gothic” Suited for straight and slanted pen forms of
tendency, and heavy, black writing “roman” tendency, and slender, light writing
(example, “black letter”).* (example, “Italic”).*
Requires generally contrasts of colour or Allows variety in size of Letters (see pp. 298,
weight (p. 330), and will bear more and 328): its typical treatment is as plain, fine
heavier illumination (Line-fillings, Initials, lettering—better without heavy Borders, &c.
Borders, &c.). (p. 299).
* Note.—Both modes are suited for Roman Capitals and Small-Letters.

These two modes may not have been recognised by the ancient letter-
craftsmen: their comparison here is intended chiefly as a stimulus to
definite thought, not as a hard-and-fast division of two “styles”; for there
may be any number of possible compromises between them. In practice,
however, it will be found convenient to distinguish them as two modes of
treating LINES OF WRITING which produce markedly different effects, the one,
as it were, of COLOUR, the other of FORM.
Plates XI., XIII., XIV., XV., XVII. may be taken as examples of
“Massed Writing,” Plates IV., V., VI., VII., IX., (XXI.) of “Fine Writing”;
the other plates suggest compromises between the two.
Poetry (see p. 95), or any text consisting of, or which is conveniently
broken up into unequal lines, may be treated as “Fine Writing.” There is no
objection to a straight left-hand edge with an irregular right-hand edge,60

where the cause of the irregularity [p264] is natural and obvious, and no fault
of the scribe’s. Such an arrangement, or rather, straightforward writing, of
poetry is often the best by virtue of its freedom and simplicity (see p. 371).
In many cases, however, a more formal and finished treatment of an
irregular line text is to be preferred (especially in inscriptions on stone,
metal, &c.), and the most natural arrangement is then an approximately
symmetrical one, inclining to “Fine Writing” in treatment. This is easily
obtained in inscriptions which are previously set-out, but a good plan—
certainly the best for MSS.—is to sort the lines of the text into longs and
shorts (and sometimes medium lines), and to set-in or indent the short lines
two, three, or more letters. The indentations on the left balance the
accidental irregularities on the right (fig. 154, and Plate IV.), and give an
appearance of symmetry to the page (see Phrasing, p. 384).
Either mode of spacing (close or wide) may be carried to an unwise or
ridiculous extreme. “Leading” the lines of type was much in vogue a
hundred years ago, in what was then regarded as “high-class” printing. Too
often the wide-spaced line and “grand” manner of the eighteenth-century
printer was pretentious rather than effective: this was partly due to the
degraded type which he used, but form, arrangement, and expression all
tended to be artificial. Of late years a rich, closely massed page has again
become fashionable. Doubtless there has been a reaction in this from the
eighteenth century to an earlier and better manner, but the effect is
sometimes overdone, and the real ease and comfort of the reader has been
sacrificed to his rather imaginary æstheticism.
By attaching supreme importance to readableness, [p265] the letter-
craftsman gains at least a rational basis for his work, and is saved from the
snares which lurk in all, even in the best, modes and fashions.
EVEN SPACING
In the spacing of a given inscription on a limited surface, where a
comparatively large size of letter is required, what little space there is to

spare should generally be distributed evenly and consistently (a, fig. 155).
Lavish expenditure of space on the margins would necessitate an undue
crowding61 of the lettering (b), and wide interspacing62 would allow
insufficient margins (c)—either arrangement suggesting inconsistency (but
see p. 352).
Note.—A given margin looks larger the heavier the mass of the text,63
and smaller the lighter the mass of the text. And, therefore, if lettering be
spread out, as in “Fine Writing,” the margins should be extra wide to have
their true comparative value. The space available for a given inscription
may in this way largely determine the arrangement of the lettering,
comparatively small and large spaces suggesting respectively “Massed
Writing” and “Fine Writing” (see p. 262).

Fig. 155.

In certain decorative inscriptions, where letters are merely treated as
decorative forms—readableness [p267] being a matter of little or no moment
—the treatment of the spacing is adapted to a particular surface; and, for
example:—

Fig. 156.
THEORY & PRACTICE
The above discussion of theories and “rules” for the construction and
arrangement of good lettering is intended to suggest some useful methods—
not to provoke excessive fitting or planning, but rather to avoid it.
Straightforwardness is perhaps the greatest virtue in a craft, and whatever
“rules” it may break through, it is refreshing and charming.
An excellent example for the scribe or inscription maker is the method of
an early printer, who had only four or five sorts of type—say, “Small-
Letters” and “Capitals” (Roman and Italic) and “Large Capitals,” and who,

without any elaborate “design,” simply put his types into their proper [p268]
places, and then pulled off his pleasant sheets of “commonplace” printing.
The scribe should choose the best and simplest forms and arrangements,
and master them before going further; he should have a few definite types
“at his finger tips,” and, for everyday use, a matter-of-course way of putting
them down on paper.
Ambiguity is one of the greatest faults in a craft. It comes often from
vague ambitions. One may be inspired by good ambitions, but the
immediate concern of the craftsman is to know what he is capable of doing
at the present, and to do it.
Let the meaning of your work be obvious unless it is designed purely for
your own amusement. A good craftsman seeks out the commonplace and
tries to master it, knowing that “originality” comes of necessity, and not of
searching.

CHAPTER XV
THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES
The Roman Alphabet — Proportions of Letters: Widths — Upper & Lower Parts—Essential or
Structural Forms — Characterisation of Forms — Built-Up Forms — Simple-Written Capitals —
Uncials — Capitals & Small-Letters — Early, Round, Upright, Formal Hands — Slanted-Pen
Small-Letters — Roman Small-Letters — Italics — Semi-Formal Hands — Of Formal Writing
Generally — Decorative Contrasts — Ornamental Letters.

The Roman Alphabet
The Roman Alphabet is the foundation of all our alphabets (see Chapter I.).
And since the full [p269] development of their monumental forms about 2000
years ago, the Roman Capitals have held the supreme place among letters
for readableness and beauty. They are the best forms for the grandest and
most important inscriptions, and, in regard to lettering generally, a very
good rule to follow is: When in doubt, use Roman Capitals.

The penman may with advantage devote some study to a fine
monumental type of Roman Capital (such as that of the Trajan Column
Inscription: Plates I. and II.), and endeavour to embody its virtues in a
built-up pen form for use in MSS. (p. 294).
PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS: WIDTHS
The marked distinction between the “Square” and the “Round” forms,
and the varying widths of the letters—as seen in the early inscriptions,64 are
characteristic of the Roman Alphabet. We may broadly distinguish Wide
and Narrow letters thus—

WIDE OQCGD “Round.”
MW “Square.”
H (U) A N V T (Z)
NARROW B E F R S Y (X)
IJ
KLP

[p270]

The “Round” Wide Letters—O, Q, C, G, D.—

O may be regarded as the Key letter of an alphabet. Given an O and an
I of any alphabet, we can make a very good guess at the forms of the other
letters.
In fine Inscriptions the external line of O is commonly an almost perfect
circle (see Plate II.)—i.e. its height and width are equal. This may be
regarded as the ideal shape, though a slight widening or narrowing of the
letter (fig. 157) is quite permissible.65

Fig. 157.
Q, C, G, and D follow the proportions of O [p271] very nearly, and, though
C, G, D are a little narrower, they have the same effect of roundness and
width.

Fig. 158.
The “Square” Wide Letters—M, W, and H, (U), A, N, V, T, (Z)—

M & W Their mean width is properly about equal to their height.
H Width equal to, or a little less than, height (fig. 158), but if made too
narrow it would look heavy, being double-stemmed.
(see pp. 287, 284) resembles H.

A, N, & V are double-stemmed, and have internal angles, moreover,
which would become too sharp—and tend to close [p272] up—if they were

made too narrow (fig. 158).

T The cross-bar—the characteristic part of T—projects a fair way on
either side of the stem.

Z Either wide or (moderately) narrow (fig. 158).
The Narrow Letters, B, E, F, R, S, Y (X)
(see fig. 159).

Fig. 159.
There is a point of division in these letters about the middle of the stem
or a little above (see p. 273), and we may argue that each being composed,
as it were, of two little letters—which are half-height, they are
proportionately half-width: and this will be found approximately correct.

B may be said to consist of one little D on the top of another, averaging
respectively half the height and width of a full-sized D.

E, F, & R follow the proportions of B (see also E, 4, p. 282). [p273]

S may be made of one little tilted O on the top of another—joined
together and having the superfluous parts removed.

Y is like a little V upon a little I.
X Either narrow or wide (fig. 159).
The Narrow letters, K, L, and P—
These forms are related to the B, E forms, but it is permissible to make

K and force to the
them a little wider to give clearance to the angles of the

single arm and loop—the characteristic parts (see fig. 149)—of L and P.

UPPER & LOWER PARTS
In the letters B, E, H, K, X (A), F, R, P (S), Y there is generally a
tendency to enlarge the lower part, the cross-bar—or division—being set
above mid-height. This tendency may reasonably be accounted for as
follows:—
The natural division of B, E, H, K, & X, regarded as abstract
forms, would be symmetrical—i.e. at the centre of the stem.66 In order that
its apparent position may be central, however, it is necessary, for optical
reasons, to make [p274] its actual position above the centre.67 And further, by
a reasonable enlargement of the lower part, these letters acquire a greater
appearance of stability.
It would be well, I think, for the letter-craftsman to begin by making such
divisions at the apparent centre (i.e. very slightly above mid-height; see E,
F, X, Plate II.), so keeping most nearly to the essential forms (see p. 275).
Later he might consider the question of stability (see B, Plate II.). The
exaggerated raising (or lowering) of the division associated with “Art
Lettering” is illegible and ridiculous.

A The lower part is essentially bigger, and the cross-bar is not raised, as
that would make the top part disproportionately small.

F usually follows E, but being asymmetrical and open below it may, if
desired, be made with the bar at—or even slightly below—the actual centre.

R In early forms the bow was frequently rather large (see Plate II.), but
it is safer to make the tail—the characteristic part—more pronounced (see
Plates III., XXIV.).

P The characteristic part of P is the bow, which may therefore be a little
larger than the bow of R (see Plate III.).

S In the best types of this letter the upper and lower parts are
approximately equal; there is a tendency slightly to enlarge the lower [p275]
part. (In Uncial and early round-hands the top part was larger: see Plates IV.
to VII.)

Y varies: the upper part may be less than that of X, or somewhat larger.
ESSENTIAL OR STRUCTURAL FORMS
The essential or structural forms (see p. 240) are the simplest forms which preserve the characteristic
structure, distinctiveness, and proportions of each individual letter.

The letter-craftsman must have a clear idea of the skeletons of his letters.
While in every case the precise form which commends itself to him is
matter for his individual choice, it is suggested in the following discussion
of a typical form—the Roman B—that the rationale of his selection
(whether conscious or unconscious) is in brief to determine what is
ABSOLUTELY essential to a form, and then how far this may be amplified in
the direction of the PRACTICALLY essential.
The letter B reduced to its simplest (curved-bow) form—i.e. to the bare necessity of its distinctive
structure—comprises a perpendicular stem spanned by two equal, circular bows (a, fig. 160).

In amplifying such a form for practical or æsthetic reasons, it is well as a rule not to exceed one’s
object—in this case to determine a reasonable (though arbitrary) standard essential form of B, having
a distinctive and proportionate (f) structure. We may increase the arcs of the bows till their width is
nearly equal to their height (b), make their outer ends meet the ends of the stem (c), and their inner
ends coincide (d). Raising the division till its apparent position is at or about the middle of the stem
entails a proportionate increase of width in the lower part, and a corresponding decrease in the upper
part (e).

Fig. 160.

The very idea of an essential form excludes the unnecessary, and its
further amplification is apt to take from its distinctiveness and legibility.
Where no limits are set, modification is apt to become [p276] exaggeration.
And, though special forms and ornamental letters may be produced by
“reasonable exaggeration” (k, l, m, fig. 161), if the tool be kept [p278] under
proper control, yet, generally, such structural changes do not improve the
appearance of the plain letter forms.

Fig. 161.
We may test our “Standard” (a, fig. 161) by considering the effects of further amplification.

(1) Raising the division68 slightly is permissible (b, fig 161)—too much makes the top part
disproportionately small (c).
(2) Widening both bows, or separating their junction from the stem, tends to dissociate the bows
from the stem, making the letter less distinctive (g and i, fig. 161).

Widening and narrowing are both allowable and occasionally desirable,
but assuming that a standard or ideal width can be approximately
determined, it is well to keep to it for common and ordinary use.
CHARACTERISATION OF FORMS
(See also Built-Up Forms, pp. 291–6, and pp. 240, 253)

That the tool69 gives character and finish to the Essential Forms of
letters, can easily be proved by a little practical experience of the natural
action of a properly cut pen (see figs. 142 to 148, and 162). And the penman
—or indeed any other letter-maker—is advised to allow the pen to train his
hand to [p280] make the proper strokes automatically: then he may begin to
master and control the pen, making it conform to his hand and so produce
Letters which have every possible virtue of penmanship and are as much his
own as his common handwriting.

Fig. 162.
Most of the letters in a good alphabet have specially interesting or
characteristic parts (p. 250), or they exhibit some general principles in

letter making, which are worth noting, with a view to making good letters,
and in order to understand better the manner in which the tool—whether
pen, chisel, or brush—should be used.
The characterisation of the Roman Capital Form. Note.—The large types
below are indices—not models.

A
1. A pointed form of A, M, and N (see Plate II.) may be
suitable for inscriptions in stone, &c., but in pen work the top is
preferably hooked (fig. 167), beaked (fig. 147), or broken (fig.
158), or specially marked in some way, as this part (both in
Capital A and small a) has generally been (fig. 189).
2. The oblique strokes in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, Y, whether thick or
thin, are naturally finished with a short point inside the letter and a long,
sharp point, or beak, outside (see serifs of oblique strokes, p. 289).
3. The thin stem may be drawn out below for an occasional form (see F,
3).

B
1. B, D, R, and P are generally best made round-shouldered
(fig. 162 & Addenda, p. 26).
2. B, D, E, F, P, R (and T) have generally an angle between the
stem and the top horizontal, while [p281]
3. below in B, D, E (and L) the stem curves or blends with the horizontal.
4. See O, 2.

C
1. C, G, and S; the top horizontals or ‘arms’ may be straighter
than the lower arms, or vice versâ (see figs. 167 and 206).
2. C, G, and S; the inside curve is best continuous—from the
‘bow’ to the ends of the ‘arms’—not being broken by the serifs,
and
3. it is best to preserve an unbroken inside curve at the termination of all
free arms and stems in built-up Roman Capitals. In C, G, S, E, F, L, T, and
Z the upper and lower arms are curved on the inside, and squared or slightly
pointed outside (the vertical stems curve on either side) (fig. 163).

4. ‘Arms’ are best shaped and curved rather gradually out to the terminal
or serif, which then is an actual part of the letter, not an added lump (p.
289).
5. See O, 2.

D
1. See B, 1.
2. See B, 2 and 3.
3. The curve may be considered as springing from the foot of
the stem, and may therefore for an occasional form be separated
from the stem at the top (D, fig. 177).
4. See O, 2.

E
1. See B, 2 and 3.
2. See C, 3 and 4.
3. The lower limb in E, L (and Z) is often drawn out: these,
however, are properly to be regarded as occasional or special
[p282] forms: the lower serif of this type commonly points out (see figs. 206,
188).
4. E’s three arms (& F’s two) are approximately equal in length in the
best early forms (Plate II., &c.).

F
1. See B, 2.
2. See C, 3 and 4 (and E, 4 above).
3. One or more (the development of the letter and tradition may
decide which) of the free stems of A, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, P,
R, T, V, W, X, Y may be drawn out for occasional forms (see fig. 188).
4. The elongated stems of F, I, J, P, T, Y may hang below the line, or they
may (occasionally) stand on the line and overtop the other letters.
1. See C, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
2. The stem may be drawn out below the line (F, 3).
3. The stem sometimes forms an angle with the lower ‘arm’
(this is safest: see fig. 148), sometimes they blend (fig. 147).

4. The point of the lower ‘arm’ may project a very little beyond the stem
to mark the outer angle.
5. The wholly curved “gothic” (and also the other round letters: see
p. 119) may be introduced occasionally among Roman Capitals.
6. See O, 2.

H
The left-hand stem is occasionally drawn out above (F, 3 &
comp. fig. 3), and
2. this form is sometimes associated with an ornamental
cross-bar (fig. 189).
3. H and N may slightly widen out above.

I
1. The stem may be drawn out above or below (F, 3 and 4).
2. See J, 2.

J
1. The stem or tail may be drawn out (F, 3 and 4).
2. Note.—With regard to the use of I for J (and V for U): this is
associated so much with the Latin usage, that it is perhaps
permissible still in Latin.70 But for modern English, in which these
letters are strongly differentiated, the tailed J and the round U are to be
preferred. Besides the suspicion of affectation attaching to the other mode,
its strangeness gives an appearance of awkwardness—almost amounting to
illegibility—to common words, such as “A QVAINT IVG” or “IAM IAR.”
And, at the least, very careful [p284] discrimination is desirable:
“IVBILATE” may pass, but “IVIVBE” is not really readable.
3. The tail of the J may be slight, provided it be distinct, and the second
stem of the U may match the first (fig. 158); the ugly and in
common use need not be copied.
4. See also Tails, pp. 289–291.
1. The stem is sometimes drawn out above (F, 3).

K
2. Both arms are occasionally lengthened, and the width of the
letter increased, by joining the thin arm to the stem lower down;
the thick arm, or tail, then springs from the side of the thin arm
(compare ). This tends away from the essential, and is
therefore a less safe form.
3. The tail may be curved or drawn out occasionally (see Tails, pp. 289–
291).
4. Serifs on arms. See A, 2.

L
1. See B, 3.
2. See C, 3 and 4.
3. See E, 3.
4. See F, 3.

M
1. The stems are commonly slightly spread out to give
greater clearance for the inner angles. An occasional form is
much spread out .
2. Note.—There are inscriptional forms of M [p285] and N
without the top serif (Plate II.). But the pen forms and others have top
serifs, and these commonly extend outward—tending to beaks (see A, 1 and
2)—rather than in. (V, W, X, Y (and N) show a similar tendency—see p.
289.)
3. The thin stem of M is occasionally drawn out (F, 3).

N
1. Sec C, 3 and 4.
2. See H, 3.
3. See M, 2, and A, 1 and 2.
4. The first stem is drawn out below the line for an occasional
form (most suitable for an Initial Letter): the right-hand stem is very
occasionally raised (when a final letter) (F, 3).
5. Note.—The stems of N (the only vertical thins—not counting M’s—in
the Roman Capitals) tend sometimes to be thicker: see Plate II.

O
1. O is the key letter of the curved forms and, in a sense, of
the whole alphabet (p. 270). The upright form— —may be
regarded as the ideal simple letter.
2. Very commonly, however, O is tilted— —(see fig.
163), and when this is the case, all the curved letters—B, C, D, G, P, Q, R,
S, U—are correspondingly tilted (see Plate II.). The tilted form is more
easily made, but both are good forms.

P
1. See B, 1 and 2.
2. See O, 2.
3. (P with stem below line (see Plate IV.) must not be allowed to
confuse with D) (see F, 3 and 4). [p286]
4. The bow of P appears to be attached (to the stem) above: in certain
forms it is slightly separated from the stem below: see Plate II.

Q
1. Q resembles O with a tail: see O.
2. There are many characteristic varieties of the tail: see Tails
(pp. 289–291).
3. Note.—Q being always followed by U, it is convenient
often to deal with the two letters together. (See Plate II.)

R
1. See B, 1 and 2.
2. See O, 2.
3. In the form nearest the essential, the junction of the Bow
and the Tail touches the stem. If the tail springs from the curve of
the bow (Plate II.) greater care in construction is necessary (compare K).
The treatment of the tail is very important. It may end in a serif (see A, 2),
or it may be curved and pointed (see Tails, pp. 289–291). It may be drawn
out (see fig. 50).
4. See F, 3 (& comp. fig. 169).
1. See C, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
2. See O, 2 (and p. 273).
3. S very often leans slightly forward.

S
1. See B, 2.
2. See C, 3 and 4.
3. Drawing out of stem: see F, 3 and 4.
4. Note.—The right arm is occasionally extended—to fill a line

T
—when T is a terminal letter (in this case it is generally made
lighter, and the left arm heavier—somewhat as in the Uncial T,
figs. 56 & 188). [p287]
1. Note.—The curve—if it be modelled on the common tilted
O (see O, 2)—is thin where it meets the second stem.
2. (V for U). See J, 2, 3, and footnote.
3. The foot of the second stem projects on the right only, and
gives clearance to the angle of the curve on the left. Sometimes
the second stem ends in a hook or beak, which (very occasionally) is drawn
out below.

V
1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. The thick stem may be drawn up (F, 3), in which case the
thin commonly curves over for strength (see figs. 89, 95).
3. (See note on V for U, under J.)
1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. The best form is of two V’s crossed, .
3. The first or both the thick stems may be drawn up and the
thins curved over (see V, 2).

X
1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. There is sometimes a slight curving in of the stems,
especially the thin stem (see fig. 80).
3. The thin stem is sometimes drawn out below (F, 3), and
commonly curved.
1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. See F, 3 and 4. (Y with stem below line (see Plate V.) must not be
allowed to confuse with V.)

Y
3. An occasional rather interesting form [p288] of Y has the
arms curving out and ending in points (see fig. 167).
1. See C, 3 and 4.
2. The lower arm of Z is sometimes drawn out (see E, 3): it
may be curved and pointed (or flourished).

General Remarks on the characterisation of the Roman Capitals and
related forms (see fig. 163).71
VERTICAL STEMS.—(a, fig. 163) Thick (excepting in the thin stemmed
N (and M)).
(b) Slightly curved in on either side (see fig. 116), or appearing so
because of the outward curve of the serifs (see figs. 204, 206).
(c) A fine effect is obtained when the stem is made wider above than
below (see p. 119).
(d) Free stems occasionally are drawn out (see above, F, 3 and 4, and pp.
251, 260, 332).
OBLIQUE STROKES or STEMS.—Thick, to the left , thin, to the right /
(see A, K, &c.), otherwise like vertical stems (above)—(see also SERIFS (e)
below).
HORIZONTALS, ARMS, BRANCHES, or BARS.—Thin: free ends
sometimes drawn out and flourished (see figs. 125, 188).
BOWS and CURVES.—Gradated, and following the O (see pp. 44, 121,
270, 285).
SERIFS or FINISHING STROKES.—(a) Note.—Serifs of some sort are
practically essential to the proper characterisation of an alphabet (see figs.
147, 148, 162), and should generally have a certain uniformity (p. 324).
[p289]

(b) The serifs, &c., of simple-written forms are treated at p. 244 (see fig.
145).

(c) In Versals and certain other forms the mode of making requires the
serif to be a distinct addition to the letter (see figs. 116, 166).
(d, fig. 163) In the finest built-up A B Cs serifs are treated as the actual
finishing and shaping of the ends of the stems and branches, rather than as
added parts (see C, 3 & 4, p. 281 and p. 240). This particularly affects the
construction of the thin strokes (see figs. 165, 167).
(e) The serifs of the oblique strokes in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, Y are
commonly not placed centrally, but projecting in the direction of the stroke
(i.e. away from the letter, thus: ), branching out from the parent stem
(see tails, below), and avoiding an acute angle (as ). This has tended to
produce hooks and beaks (see fig. 163), which are often used for the oblique
strokes, particularly of A and N (see figs. 189, 158), and the tails of K and R
(see below).
(f) There is a similar natural tendency to hook or flourish the terminals of
vertical stems on the left, particularly of B, D, I, J, K, L, P, R; less often of
E, F, H. A very interesting and beautiful effect may be obtained by
delicately curving down the upper serifs on the left (like thin beaks). Such
serifs are sometimes very slightly turned up on the right, and it may be
noted that this tendency of the “horizontals” to curve up and forward
is natural and characteristic of freely made, vigorous lettering
(see Uncial T, pen dashes, &c., figs. 169, 125, &c.).

Fig. 163.

TAILS.—(a) The tails of K, Q, R [p291] (and J)—and the strokes in A, F,
G, I, M, N, P, Y, &c., which may be drawn out tail-wise—play an important
part in the right construction, and the occasional decoration, of plain
lettering. They may end either in serifs or in curves (see SERIFS (e), above,
and fig. 188).
(b) Note.—It is a characteristic of vigorous forms that branches, &c.,
stand out well from their stems (pp. 219, (e) 289, (N) 271), and a good tail
should stand out well from the letter (K, Q, fig. 167).
(c) An excellent form of tail for ordinary use, combining strength and
grace, consists of a (strong) straight stroke ending more or less abruptly in a
(graceful) finishing curve.
(d) An extraordinarily long tail requires a slight double curve to take off
its stiffness.
(e) A good tail may be made by the addition of a double curved stroke on
the under side of a straight tail (or of a single curve above).
(f) In treating the tail of J, or the drawn-out stems of A, F, G, I, M, N, P,
Y, it is important to preserve the essential straightness of the stems.
Therefore, if a finishing curve be used, its size is related to the length of the
straight stroke, and, unless this be extraordinarily long, the curve is usually
made rather small and abrupt. A curve which is too large is apt to weaken
the form and “pull it out of the straight” (g, fig. 163).
BUILT-UP FORMS
Built-up Letters are composed of compound strokes (c, d, fig. 164);
Simple-written Letters of simple strokes (a, b).
The Pen being an instrument which produces [p292] definite thick and thin
strokes on a smooth surface, is perfectly adapted to the construction of
either simple or compound forms; other tools, such as the stylus, needle,
graver, &c., produce various scratches, stitches, or cuts, generally of the
nature of rather varying thin strokes, and to produce thick strokes a
building-up process is required.

In making built-up forms the control exerted by the tool is less obvious,
and more depends upon the craftsman, who must therefore use greater care
and judgment. Not only is it possible, but, occasionally, it may be desirable
to depart from the more obvious tool-forms; though generally the more
simply and naturally tool-made a form is, the better it is.
The fine early inscriptions are supposed to have been first drawn or
painted (in outline) and then cut into the stone. The chisel forms were
doubtless affected in this way by brush (and indirectly by pen) forms, but
these were of the simplest—nothing was sketched in that was unfitted for
the chisel to make into a natural and true chisel-form.
The action of the brush or “pencil” to a certain extent resembles that of
the pen, but their effects are really distinct. In contrasting pen-made and
brush-made letters, we may observe that a pen form tends to abrupt
changes from thin to thick: a brush form to gradation (fig. 164). The pen
particularly affects curved strokes (comp. a & b), generally making them
more quick and abrupt (or even broken, see * * c), than brush curves. The
brush will give more graceful and finished but less uniform letters (see p.
376).
The character of a pen-letter depends greatly on the nib-width (p. 324),
and narrow, medium, or broad nibs are used according to the type of letter
required. [p293]

Fig. 164.
A narrow nib may be used for special (built-up) Initials and Capitals,
which are drawn rather than written (a, fig. 165). The horizontal arms
(made by the pen held horizontally) are markedly affected, and if a very
fine nib were used, the necessity of strengthening and thickening them
would tend further to reduce the pen character.
A broad nib gives strong, uniform pen-letters (b).
For ordinary use letters are perhaps best made with a “medium” nib (c).
The width of the ordinary writing-pen, or rather narrower, gives a good

proportion for initials, &c. (see pp. 118, 218).
In MS. books the early built-up Capitals were [p294] commonly of a rather
severe type—approaching the Roman Capital, but having the sharp contrast
between the thicks and the thins characteristic of pen-letters (fig. 166). They
make very simple and effective “Versals.”

Fig. 165.

Fig. 166.—Pen-capitals from a tenth-century MS.
(writing-lines dotted in fig. to show spacing

method).
A more highly finished type of pen-made Roman Capital may be made
by blending the serifs and stems (d, p. 289): it is nearer to the inscriptional
form, but it exhibits a more curved and supple [p296] outline, which comes
of natural pen-strokes (fig. 167).

Fig. 167.
The remarks in Chapter VII. on the treatment of the more elastic
“Gothic” Versal (a free variety [p297] of the Roman) may be taken as

applying generally to (Coloured) Built-up Capitals—due allowance being
made for the characteristic differences of the various types.
SIMPLE-WRITTEN CAPITALS
“Rustic Capitals” (fig. 4) may be referred to here as typical, simple-
written capitals. Though not a very practical form,72 they are full of
suggestions for a semi-ornamental lettering in which the pronounced
treatment of the heads and feet might be a feature (comp. fig. 203). They
were used as ornamental letters for titles and the like (see Plates VIII., IX.,
&c.) for centuries after they had gone out of ordinary use.
Simple-written Roman Capitals.—(Examples: Plates III., XVIII., XIX.,
XXI., figs. 147, 148, 168, 175, 179. See also pp. 247, 429.)
Uncials.—(Examples: see p. 300.)
Simple-written Capitals ordinarily conform to the writing line—as set by
the small text (p. 82). This applies even where several words in capitals
have to be inserted in the small text, though in special cases where these
might look too crowded such capitals might be written on alternate lines.
Used for Initial Words, headings, whole pages, or books, in black or
colour, they are written with greater freedom and accorded more special
treatment (see pp. 298, 299).
Simple-written Capitals are best composed of sharp, clean, pen-strokes:
they may be quite plain [p298] or more or less decorative (fig. 168), subject
to the general rule that the fewer the number of letters or the more
ornamental their office, the more elaborate and fanciful may be the forms
employed (see p. 294).

Fig. 168.
A freely used pen naturally produces occasional varieties for special or
ornamental purposes: these tend to elegance and drawn out flourished
strokes (p. 331); they vary chiefly in being extra large.73 [p299] Several of
these may be used with fine effect in a page of plain Capitals, their “weight”
(and generally their colour) being the same as that of the text (see Plate V.,
and p. 328).

Whole Books or Pages written in Capitals.—A very grand effect may be
produced by these at the expense of a little more time and material than a
Small-letter MS. entails. The lines of writing are commonly made one-
letter-height apart: this requires ordinary simple ruling—the capitals being
written between every alternate pair of lines (see p. 412).
Such writing may conveniently be treated as “Fine Writing” (p. 262). It
justifies the use of wider margins. It is generally more difficult (and less
necessary) to keep the right-hand edge as straight as a small text permits.
The irregularities of this edge may be balanced by setting out in the left
margin the first letters of sentences, verses, and the like (see p. 264). Such
initials may be written larger or more ornamentally as suggested above; or,
if built-up Letters are required, plain, rather slender Roman Capitals are the
most suitable: these look best in burnished gold.
Perhaps the finest and most beautiful work which the penman can
produce, is a book written entirely in gold74 capitals75 on purple vellum
(see pp. 164, 175). This is only possible in special cases, but a book rightly
so made being illuminated from within, has an incomparable simplicity and
grandeur, surpassing that of the finest post-decorated and illuminated
manuscripts. [p300]

UNCIALS
Examples: Plates IV., V.; fig. 5, 169 (enlarged); (modified, fig. 56).

Uncials are typical pen-capitals.76 Though not of such practical use as the
simple-written Roman Capitals, their great possibilities and their beauty
make them worth practising. (See Round, Upright, Formal Hands, p. 304.)
Their use is limited by two considerations—
First: that while the round are essentially legible (p.
239), people generally are not accustomed to them, and may find them hard
to read; and
Secondly: that have ascending and
descending strokes which are apt to become too pronounced and give an

unpleasant appearance of “tailiness” to a page of Uncial Writing (in
English, see footnote, p. 326).
The first difficulty may be met by keeping Uncials for special MSS.—for
private use—and introducing them sparingly or not at all in Service Books,
Placards, &c., where ease and quickness of reading are essential.
The appearance of “tailiness” (not so obvious in Latin) may be avoided
by making the tails shorter and keeping the lines of writing well apart. Or
freely made Roman Capitals without tails (see D, tail-less, fig. 57) may be
substituted for one or more of the chief offenders. [p302]

Fig. 169.—Part of Plate V. (q.v.), enlarged three times
linear.

Uncials may be “round” (see Plate IV., fig. 5, and p. 304), or “pointed”
(see fig. 169, and p. 413).
CAPITALS & SMALL-LETTERS
During the development of Small-Letters from Capitals but little
distinction was made in their use, and such capital forms as N and R were
freely and promiscuously used in the round minuscule writings, together
with the small-letters n and r (see Plates VI., VII.). On the other hand,
Small-Letter forms were frequently written larger and used as initials. In
Irish and Anglo-Irish MSS. these were filled inside with green, yellow, or
red, and surrounded outside with red dots, or otherwise decorated with
colour (see fig. 7, and Plate VI.).
In early MSS., therefore, one does not find an alphabet of Simple-Written
Capitals, which is peculiar to a given small text. But we may employ a
kindred capital—such as the round Uncial for the round Half-Uncial. And a
fitting alphabet may always be constructed, from the “Roman” or “Uncial”
types of Capitals (footnote, p. 300), by taking the same pen with which the
small-letters have been made and using it in a similar manner: “straight” for
“straight-pen” writing, and “slanted” for “slanted-pen” writing (see figs.
147, 148).
When in doubt as to the type of Capital—for any purpose—use Roman
Capitals.
EARLY, ROUND, UPRIGHT, FORMAL HANDS
Examples: Half-Uncials—fig. 6 (Roman); Plate VI. (Irish), Plate VII. (English) fig. 170 later; see
also pp. 40, 44, 413–415. Uncials (Plate IV. and p. 38). [p304]

The main types are the “round” Uncial and Half-Uncial, commonly
written with an approximately “straight pen.”77 They are generally treated
as fine writing (p. 262), and written between ruled lines: this has a marked
effect in preserving their roundness (see p. 414).

Fig. 170.—Part of an English eight-century MS. (British Museum,
Case C, No. 68), enlarged three times linear.

They are very useful as copy-book hands (see p. 70), for though the
smooth gradation of their curves, their thin strokes, and their general
elegance unfit them for many practical purposes, yet their essential
roundness, uprightness, and formality afford the finest training to the
penman, and prevent him from falling into an angular, slanting, or lax hand.
Their very great beauty, moreover, makes them well worth practising, and
even justifies their use (in a modernised form) for special MSS., for the
more romantic books—such as poetry and “fairy tales”—and generally
where speed in writing or reading is not essential.
With an eye trained and a hand disciplined by the practice of an Irish or
English Half-Uncial, or a modified type, such as is given in fig. 50, the
penman may easily acquire some of the more practical later “slanted-pen”
types.
“SLANTED-PEN” SMALL-LETTERS
(Typical Examples:—
Carlovingian ninth-century MS.—Fig. 8 (enlarged, fig. 171): [p305]
English tenth-century MS.—Plate VIII. (enlarged, fig. 172):
English eleventh-century MS.—Plate IX. (enlarged, fig. 173):
Italian twelfth-century MS.—Plate X. (enlarged, fig. 174).)

The use of the “slanted pen” generally produced stronger, narrower, and
stiffer letters. Its effects are detailed in pp. 43–47, and fig. 11, and may best
be studied in the tenth-century example (fig. 172—the letter forms are
described on p. 416).
In the Carlovingian MS.—which does not show these effects in any
marked degree—we may note the wide letter forms, the wide spacing, the
long stems (thickened above by additional strokes), the slight slope of the
letters, and the general effect of gracefulness and freedom (see fig. 171).
Carlovingian MSS. may be said to represent a sort of mediæval copy-books,
and their far-reaching influence on writing makes them of great interest to
the modern penman, who would, moreover, find one of these hands an
excellent model for a free “formal hand.”

Fig. 171.—Part of fig. 8, enlarged three times linear (see
p. 305).

For practical purposes the “slanted-pen” letter is generally superior to the
“straight-pen” letter. The “slanted-pen” letters have greater strength and
legibility, due mainly to the presence of the thick horizontals—often equal
in width to the verticals. Their use saves both space and time, as they are
narrower, and more easily and freely written78 than the straight-pen forms.

Fig. 172.—Fig. 12, enlarged twice linear (see p. 305 &
Plate VIII.). Note: top line is cut down.

Fig. 173.—Part of Plate IX. (Charter of CNUT),
enlarged three times linear (see p. 416).

Fig. 174.—Part of Plate X., enlarged three times linear (see pp.
417–419).

The real importance to us of these early types [p310] lies, I think, in their
relation to the Roman Small-Letter (pp. 418–19 & 429–83), and their great
possibilities of development into modern formal hands approaching the
“Roman” type.
ROMAN SMALL-LETTERS
Ex.: (Italian) Plates XIX., XX. (15th century); figs. 175, 176 (16th century): figs. 147, 148 (modern
MS.).

The Roman Small-Letter is the universally recognised type in which the
majority of books and papers are printed. Its form has been in use for over
400 years (without essential alteration) and as far as we are concerned it
may be regarded as permanent.
And it is the object of the scribe or letter-maker gradually to attain a fine,
personal formal hand, assimilating to the Roman Small-Letter; a hand
against the familiar and present form of which no allegations of
unreadableness can be raised, and a hand having a beauty and character
now absent or unfamiliar. The related Italic will be mastered for formal MS.
work (p. 315), and the ordinary handwriting improved (p. 323). These three
hands point the advance of the practical, modern scribe.
The Roman Small-Letter is essentially a pen form (and preferably a
“slanted-pen” form; p. 305), and we would do well to follow its natural
development from the Roman Capital—through Round Letters and Slanted-
Pen forms—so that we may arrive at a truly developed and characteristic
type, suitable for any formal manuscript work and full of suggestions for
printers and letter-craftsmen generally.
A finished form, such as that in Plate XX.—or even that of fig. 175—
would present many [p311] difficulties to the unpractised scribe, and one who
so began would be apt to remain a mere copyist, more or less unconscious
of the vitality and character of the letter. An earlier type of letter—such as
that in Plate VIII.—enables the scribe to combine speed with accuracy, and

fits him at length to deal with the letters that represent the latest and most
formal development of penmanship.
And in this connection, beware of practising with a fine nib, which tends
to inaccuracy and the substitution of prettiness for character. Stick to
definite pen strokes, and preserve the definite shapes and the uniformity of
the serifs (p. 324): if these be made clumsily, they become clumsy lumps. It
may be impossible always to ascertain the exact forms—especially of
terminals and finishing strokes—for the practised scribe has attained a great
uniformity and some sleight of hand which cannot be deliberately copied.
But—whatever the exact forms—we may be sure that in the best hands they
are produced by uniform and proper pen strokes.
ITALICS
Ex.: Plate XXI., and figs. 94, 177, 178 (enlarged).

Italics79 closely resemble the Roman Small-Letters, but are slightly
narrowed, slightly sloped to the [p314] right, and very freely written
(commonly with a “slanted pen”). The serifs generally consist of slight
natural terminal hooks, &c.—though in p and q a finishing stroke is
sometimes added. Ascending and descending strokes (in b, d, f, h, k, l, g, j,
p, q, y) are commonly rather long, and often end in curves, sometimes in
flourishes (fig. 177).

Fig. 175.—Italian Prayer Book: 16th century (see opp. p. & p. 345).

Fig. 176.—(From same MS. as fig. 175, enlarged
three times linear.)

Fig. 177.
The lines of writing are generally widely spaced—allowing for the long
stems: the bodies of the letters being narrow are generally rather closely
packed, and frequently the lines of writing appear [p315] as almost
continuous light but compact writing, while the ascenders and descenders
and parts of the Capitals may be flourished freely in the spaces between the
lines—sometimes filling them with ornamental pen work, which contrasts
strongly with the extreme plainness and regularity of the bodies.

Italic Capitals are a variety of the Roman Capitals, slightly sloped
(frequently less sloped than the accompanying small-letters), and
sometimes much flourished (fig. 177). The types modelled on the latter
were called by printers in the seventeenth century, “Swash Letters.”
Use of Italics.—In printing they served at first to mark such portions of
the text as—

Introductions, and subsequently were used Quotations,
Prefaces, for Emphasising,
Indexes, Words not part of the
Notes, Text (e.g. Chapter
headings in the
Bible, &c.).

In MSS. when it is not desirable to alter the character, Red Writing (see p.
130) may be substituted for italics. Italics—either in black or red—go best
with “Roman” characters.
Like the Roman Small-Letter, the Italic is a generally recognised and
accepted form: this and other considerations, such as the peculiar elegance
and charm of the letters, their formal relation to modern handwriting, their
compactness and economy of space in the line, and the fact that they may
be written easily and with extreme regularity—being indeed the most rapid
of formal hands—are practical reasons for a careful study of the type, and
justify the writing of certain MS. books entirely in Italics. [p317]

Fig. 178.—Part of Plate XXI., enlarged, (approx.)
four times linear (see p. 483).

SEMI-FORMAL WRITING
Figs. 179, 180, and 181 are taken from a sixteenth-century Italian MS.80
written in a semi-formal cursive hand in dark brown and red-brown inks
(probably originally nearer black and red), on 150 leaves of fine paper.
The proportions of the Book,81 together with the good writing, have a
very agreeable effect, and are interesting as being used by a writer over 300
years ago. The extra width of the side margins may have been allowed for
annotations—some notes were written in by the scribe himself.
1
Page = 11 inches high, 8 inches wide.
8
Margins
7 3
Inner ( inch + inch allowed for Small Capitals)
8 8
1
= 1 inch (approximate).
4
3
Top = 1 inch (constant).
8
3
Side = 2 inch (approximate).
4
Foot = 3 inch (approximate).
5
Writing-Line Space nearly inch high: length (varies), average 4 inches.
16
3
Text Column nearly 6 inches high, consisting of 22 lines of MS.
4

Character of the Writing.—The good shapes of the letters, their great
uniformity, and their easy yet formal arrangement, mark this MS. as the
work of a skilful penman. But, while pen character of a sort is very evident,
the writing approaches the stylographic (apparently a rather narrow blunt
nib was used), and the absence of definite thicks and thins distinguishes it
from all the formal hands hitherto discussed: it may conveniently be termed
Semi-formal.

Fig. 179.

Fig. 180.

Fig. 181.

[p321]

Construction.—The rapidity and uniformity of this writing are largely
due to an extremely easy zigzag movement of the pen, such as is natural in
writing m, n, and u—the final upstroke usually running on into the next
letter. Note particularly that the round letters c, d, e, g, o, q generally begin
with a nearly straight down stroke—like the first part of u—to which tops
are added (see fig. 182). In the case of a, the first stroke curves forward to
meet the second. [p322]

Fig. 182.
In the straight-stemmed capitals B, D, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, P, R, and T, the
first stroke is made rather like an (showing the tendency to a zigzag) the
foot of which is generally crossed horizontally by a second stroke making a
form resembling —on this as a base, the rest of the letter is formed (see

fig. 182). This tends to preserve the uniformity of the letters: and gives a
fine constructive effect, as, for example, in the letter .
General Remarks.—The semi-formal nature of such a MS. would seem
to permit of a good quill—not necessarily sharp—being used with the
utmost freedom and all reasonable personal sleight of hand; of soft tinted
inks—such as browns and brown-reds; of an un-ruled page (a pattern page
ruled dark, being laid under the writing paper, will, by showing through,
keep the writing sufficiently straight), and of a minimum of precision in the
arrangement of the text. And in this freedom and informality lie the reasons
for and against the use of such a hand. There is a danger of its becoming
more informal and degenerating because it lacks the effect of the true pen in
preserving form.82 But, on the other hand, it combines great rapidity and
freedom with beauty and legibility: few printed books could compete in
charm with this old “catalogue,” which took the scribe but little longer to
write than we might take in scribbling it.
Many uses for such a hand will suggest themselves. Semi-formal
documents which require to [p323] be neatly written out, and Books and
Records of which only one or two copies are required, and even Books
which are worthy to be—but never are—printed, might, at a comparatively
low cost, be preserved in this legible and beautiful form.
It suggests possibilities for an improvement in the ordinary present-day
handwriting—a thing much to be desired, and one of the most practical
benefits of the study of calligraphy. The practical scribe, at any rate, will
prove the advantages of being a good all-round penman.
OF FORMAL WRITING GENERALLY
On Copying a Hand.—Our intentions being right (viz. to make our work
essentially readable) and our actions being expedient (viz. to select and
copy the simple forms which have remained essentially the same, leaving

the complex forms which have passed out of use—see pp. 195–6), we need
not vex ourselves with the question of “lawfulness.”83
Where beautiful character is the natural product of a tool, any person may
at any time give such character to a useful form, and as at this time a
properly cut and handled pen will produce letters resembling those of the
early MSS., we may take as models such early, simple pen-forms as have
remained essentially the same,84 and copy them as closely as we can while
keeping them exact and formal.
Finally, personal quality is essential to perfect workmanship, but that is
the natural and gradual—sometimes [p324] scarcely visible—departure from
a model, that comes of practice and time.
Forms of Letters: component pen-strokes.—In a good hand the chief
component strokes—stems, bows, and serifs—are repeated again and again
(see pp. 244, 254)—this is essential to the uniform character and the
quickness of the writing. When substituting a new for an old letter a
naturally used pen will produce such common pen-strokes, giving the
desired “family likeness” to the new letter85 (b, fig. 183).
Proportion86 of Thick Strokes.—The broader the thick stroke is in
proportion to the height of a letter, the more the form of the letter is
controlled and affected by the pen (c, fig. 183). For training and practice,
therefore, the wide nib is the most useful. A narrower nib (d or e) allows of
more freedom and variety, and there is a great charm in slender lettering—
this the trained scribe may essay (see Plate XX., and p. 482).

Fig. 183.

Proportion86 of Stem Height.—The character of a writing depends very
much on whether the stems are short, medium, or long. The stems of b and
p may be as short as half the height of the bodies (f, fig. 183); a medium
stem for ordinary use might be two-thirds of, or equal to, the height of the
body (g). Stems may be drawn out to almost any [p326] length, and may
constitute a decorative feature of the writing, as in the Anglo-Saxon87 MS.,
Plate IX. (See p. 331, and fig. 188.)

Fig. 184.
Distinct Lines of Writing.—The line—especially in MS. books—is really
a more important unit than [p327] the page; and the whole question of the
arrangement of Lettering hinges on the right treatment of the lines. One is

particularly struck by the distinctness of the lines of writing in the old
MSS., due mainly to—
(a) The binding together of the letters in the line—commonly by strong
serifs or heavy “shoulders” and “feet” (see figs. 11, 184, and p. 414).
(b) Packing the letters well together (see pp. 77, 262).
(c) Spacing the lines sufficiently apart (see pp. 262–265).
It is a good rule (especially when practising) to space the lines fairly
widely. Really fine writing shows generally to greater advantage if not too
much crowded, and there is more danger of making reading hard by
crowding the lines, than by crowding the words (see fig. 156).
Whatever mode of treatment be followed, each line should be written
with as much freedom as possible, the simplest straightforward writing
being preferable to that which is over-arranged.
DECORATIVE CONTRASTS
The decorative treatment of lettering generally involves contrasts of size,
weight, colour, or form—that is, of large and small, heavy and light,
variously coloured, or variously shaped letters. As a general rule, marked
contrasts are best; a slight contrast may fail of its effect and yet be
sufficiently noticeable to give an unpleasant appearance of irregularity.
Contrasts of Colour (see pp. 144, 180).—Note that, while it is convenient
to distinguish “colour”—as red, blue, green, &c.—weight strictly involves
[p328] colour: built-up or heavy letters in black show extra black beside

lighter writing, while the latter appears grey in comparison (see figs. 197,
186); in red writing the heavy letters appear red, the lighter letters, pink (see
fig. 90).
Contrast of Size.—The simplest decorative contrast is that of LARGE88
letters with smaller letters (fig. 185); the strokes being of equal, or nearly
equal, weight, there is an harmonious evenness of tone throughout. Where
the large letters are very much larger, their parts are made somewhat
heavier to keep their apparent “weight” approximately equal (see p. 486).

This is one of the most effective treatments for inscriptions generally (see p.
299, and Plates V. and XXIV.).

Fig. 185.
Contrasts of “weight” and size.—In simple writing these are obtained by
using two sizes of pen—the small, light letters being used for the bulk of
the [p329] text, the larger heavier letters being used for occasional words or
lines (or vice versâ). This is a very effective simple treatment for MSS. (fig.
186).

Fig. 186.—(See also fig. 191.)
The occasional letters may be more decoratively treated (see Responses
and Rubrics, p. 345) by introducing the further contrasts of colour (p. 144)
or form (p. 336). [p330]
Contrasts of form, “weight,” and size.—These are generally obtained by
the use of large built-up C apitals, together with a simple-written (or

ordinarily printed) text (fig. 187).

Fig. 187.
A marked contrast usually being desirable, the built-up capitals
(especially if black) are kept quite distinct from the rest of the text (see fig.
197): if they are scattered among the other letters they are apt to show like
blots and give an appearance of irregularity to the whole. As a rule, the
effect is improved by the use of red or another colour (see figs. 91, 93).
Contrast of form—for decorative purposes—is usually combined with
contrast of weight (e.g. “Gothic,” heavier, p. 336) or size (e.g. Capitals,
larger, p. 371).
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS
(See Chaps. VII., VIII., X., XII., & pp. 34, 251, 26)

To give ornament its true value we must distinguish between ordinary
occasions when simplicity and directness are required, and special
occasions when elaboration is desirable or necessary.
The best way to make ornamental letters is to [p331] develop them from
the simpler forms. Any plain type may be decoratively treated for special
purposes—some part or parts of the letters usually being rationally
“exaggerated” (p. 252). Free stems, “branches,” tails, &c., may be drawn
out, and terminals or serifs may be decorated or flourished (fig. 203).
Built-Up Forms.—Even greater license (see fig. 161) is allowed in Built-
Up Letters—as they are less under the control of the tool (p. 292)—and

their natural decorative development tends to produce a subordinate simple
line decoration beside or upon their thicker parts (fig. 189 & p. 26). In
MSS. the typical built-up, ornamental form is the “Versal” (see Chap. VII.),
which developed—or degenerated—into the “Lombardic” (fig. 1). Here
again it is preferable to keep to the simpler form and to develop a natural
decorative treatment of it for ourselves.
“Black Letter” or “Gothic,” still in use as an ornamental letter (fig. 190),
is descended from the fifteenth-century writing of Northern Europe (Plate
XVII.). A better model may be found in the earlier and more lively forms of
twelfth and thirteenth century writing (fig. 191).

Fig. 188.—(See also figs. 125 and 150.)

Fig. 189.—(See also Plates VI., XI., XXII., figs. 79 and
84, and p. 420.)

Fig. 190.—Ordinary Modern “Black Letter” Type (see p.
331).

Fig. 191.—MS. written by an English Scribe, in 1269, at
Mons, in Hainault—Part of Colophon in large text. (B. M.
Egerton, MS. 2569. Reduced five-sixths Scale.)

Rightly made, and used, it is one of the most picturesque forms of
lettering—and therefore of ornament—and besides its ornamental value,
there is still in the popular fancy a halo of romance about “black letter,”
which may fairly be taken into account. Its comparative illegibility,
however,—due mainly to the substitution of straight for curved strokes—
debars it from ordinary use.89 Though its [p336] distinction in form and
colour (p. 327) from ordinary small lettering, make it useful in arresting
attention; as in a legal document, where the clauses are marked by

&c.
Its most effective use, however, is as pure ornament—when it does not
matter whether the words are easily read or not. For mottoes, &c., painted
or carved on walls or furniture, and for ornamental borders round tapestry
hangings, tombs, book-covers, bowls, flagons, plates, &c., bands of such
ornamental lettering are extremely decorative (see footnote (2), p. 255, &
also p. 364).

Fig. 191a.—Shield of Arms of Earl
de Warrenne, Castle Acre Priory,
Norfolk (Gold and blue chequers,
diapered—see p. 215): reproduced, by
permission, from Boutell’s “English
Heraldry,” No. 68.

FOOTNOTES TO PART II:
53 In fact, our “small-letters” are the formalised result of the rapidly scratched Square
Capitals of the Roman era (p. 37 & fig. 3).

54 Their greater strength may not at first be apparent in fig. 148, as the nib used
therefor is narrower, in proportion to the height of letter, than that used for fig. 147 (see also
fig. 151).

55 The exaggeration of one part may be said relatively to dwarf the other parts of a
letter; but it is seldom advantageous, and often not permissible, to dwarf part of a letter
absolutely.

56 As when the construction of a part of some letter is peculiar (all the y or g tails, for
example, catching the eye, and standing out on the page), or, as when promiscuous types are
used, giving the impression of a confused crowd of letters.

57 Variety.—There is a variety both readable and beautiful (see pp. 210, 369), but it is
founded on uniformity (and sincerity).

58 “Bands” and symmetrical or asymmetrical groups of lettering adapted to the
available space are used—usually as ornament—upon friezes, furniture, chests, book covers,
flagons, dishes, and the like (see fig. 156 & p. 336). The special treatment of such things is a
matter for the craftsman who makes them.

59 By closing up the letters and the words one may generally avoid “rivers,” or
accidental spaces straggling through the text. The presence of “rivers” is at once made evident
by slanting the page and looking along its surface, across the lines. Note, that whether the lines
be close or wide, the interspacing of the Small-Letters does not vary very much.

60 The gaps on the right may be filled with line-finishings to preserve a “Massed”
effect, but for many purposes this would be apt to look too ornamental (see pp. 205, 423).

61 In (b) fig. 155, the letters have been unintentionally narrowed. The natural tendency
to do this forms another objection to such undue crowding.

62 In (c) the letters have been unintentionally widened.

63 Experiment.—Cut out a piece of dark brown paper the exact size of the body of the
1
text in an entire page of this Handbook, viz. 5 inches by 3 inches, and lay it on the text: the
16
tone of the brown paper being much darker than that of the print makes the margins appear
wider.

64 Such inscriptions contrast favourably with that Nineteenth Century style in which it
was customary to make every letter occupy the same space and look as much like its neighbour
as possible.

65 Note.—There is less danger of spoiling letters by narrowing them than by widening,
because the limits to the possible narrowing of a letter are more obvious than the limits to its
possible widening. Further, when letters are widened there is a tendency to thicken their parts
and make them heavy and vulgar.

66 The primitive forms of these letters were vertically symmetrical, I believe.

67 It is interesting to note in this connection that the eye seems to prefer looking upon
the tops of things, and in reading, is accustomed to run along the tops of the letters—not down
one stroke and up the next. This may suggest a further reason for smaller upper parts, viz. the
concentration of as much of the letter as possible in the upper half.

68 The extremely beautiful and finished B in the “Trajan Alphabet” (Plate II.) has the
division a little higher, and a marked enlargement of the lower part; until the letter-craftsman
can approach the perfection of its execution he will find a simpler form more suitable for his
“standard.” A curious form, in which the top lobe has nearly or quite disappeared (comp. c, fig.
161), is found in early Roman inscriptions. This form (which may have helped to give us the
useful small b) is not suitable for a modern Capital, and would lack the distinctiveness of B.

69 Chisel-made Roman Capitals (possibly influenced by brush, &c., pp. 292, 391),
Plates I., II.: (modern), XXIV. Pen-made, Plates III., XVIII.: (modern), figs. 147, 148, 167,
168, &c.

70 J. C. Egbert in an “Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions” says, “J was not

specialised as a letter until the 15th Century.” It would seem that in early inscriptions a tall
I
was frequently used for J between vowels, and for I at the beginnings of words: later, while the

medial I remained straight, the initial form was curved to the left and used for both I and J; this

curved initial form,
J, at length became identified with the letter J.
Similarly, it appears that V was used for an initial, and U for a medial; and later, the V form
became identified with the consonant.

In the words in fig. 95, the initial I is curved like a J,

while the medial i’s are straight; the initial V has a v form, while the medial V in nativ(itatis)
has a u form.

71 The more ornamental treatment of Stems, Bows, Serifs, Tails, &c., is referred to at p.
331, and in figs. 188, 189.

72 Their thin stems and heavy branches may tend to weakness and illegibility—e.g.
such letters as E, F, I, L, and T (see fig. 4) are not always easily distinguishable.

73 Increasing the size of letter affects the form as though the nib were narrowed (see p.
324).

74 Some may be in “silver” (p. 165).

75 In a very short book these might even be built-up capitals.

76 Palæographers call them “majuscules” (= “large letters”), but distinguish them from
“Capitals.” For the purposes of the modern penman, however, they may be regarded as Round
Capitals. (For their treatment, see pp. 297–299, and 304.)

77 The writing in fig. 170 shows a slightly slanted pen. To make quite horizontal thins
is difficult, and was probably never done, but it is worth attempting them nearly horizontal for
the sake of training the hand.

78 Note.—Single-line ruling is commonly used—the writing being on, or a little above
or below, the line: this allows of greater freedom than the double line (see p. 304).

79 It is convenient to use the term “Italics” for both the cursive formal writing and the
printing resembling it. Italic type was first used in a “Virgil” printed by Aldus Manutius of
Venice in 1500. The type was then called “Venetian” or “Aldine.” It was counterfeited almost
immediately (in Germany and Holland it was called “cursive”); Wynkin de Worde used it in
1524. It seems to have been originally intended for printing entire Classics, but was afterwards
used to distinguish portions of the text (see also p. 373).

80 The Book is a catalogue of early Roman inscriptions: apparently a written copy of a
printed book.

81 1
With a sheet of paper 11 inches by 16 inches the student might reconstruct these.
8
82 Practising a more formal hand as a corrective would prevent this.

83 The Law fulfils itself: that which we must not copy is that which we cannot copy.

84 E.g. the letters in the tenth-century English hand—Plate VIII.: excepting the archaic
long and round (b, fig. 183).

85 The propriety of the actual form of the new letter will largely depend on the scribe’s
knowledge of the development of that particular letter and its component parts (comp. the
interesting development of g, sketched in fig. 3 & 183, but note correction of Ex. 173 in
Addenda, p. 26).

86 The proportions of the thick strokes, stem heights, &c., in a given hand need not be
exactly followed, but it should be recognised that any alteration in these will inevitably alter the
forms and the character of the letters (fig. 183, and pp. 84 & 26).

87 In English so many ascending and descending letters are used, that it might be the
best and most natural treatment of these to make them a marked feature of the writing (see also
“Fine Writing,” pp. 261–63). Note, in this connection, that our a b c has been developed as a
Latin alphabet, and that the evenness of Latin MS. is largely due to the infrequence of tailed
letters.

88 Where there is only a slight difference in size, the effect is improved by using a
different form or colour (see pp. 130, 345).

89 Compare and monotone. For general purposes, therefore, and particularly
for forming a good hand, the earlier scripts are to be preferred (or the late Italian): even
twelfth-century “Gothic” writing is hardly readable enough for “practical” purposes.

APPENDIX A

CHAPTER XVI
SPECIAL SUBJECTS
Divers Uses of Lettering — MS. Books, &c. — Binding MSS. (with Note by Douglas Cockerell) —
Broadsides, Wall Inscriptions, &c. — Illuminated Addresses, &c. — Monograms & Devices —
Title Pages — Lettering for Reproduction — Printing — Inscriptions on Metal, Stone, Wood, &c.
— Of Inscriptions Generally — Bibliography, &c.

DIVERS USES OF LETTERING
The following list of some of the uses of hand-made lettering, though
necessarily very brief, will perhaps suggest possibilities both to the student
and the craftsman:—

MS. BOOKS, &c.: (see pp. 98, 341, & Author’s Preface).
Fine Literature: (1) Preferably “the best.”
(2) That which is worthy of calligraphy.
(3) That which is the “favourite” of the
owner of the book.
Poetry is differently treated from prose (see
pp. 95, 263, 371, 138), and should have
extra wide side margins when possible
(p. 483).
Single Poems, &c.: Poems, cards, hymns, &c. (see pp. 137–
139, & Poetry, above), preferably in the
form of small books.
Tracts or Treatises: Copies might be preserved (p. 323) in good
writing (instead of Typewriting).

Church Services: Prayers, Communion, Marriage, &c. (pp.
140, 144, 345).
Gospels & Psalters: Note.—The Psalms, &c., may be treated as
poetry (as in the “Revised Version”) or
as prose (as in the “Authorised
Version”), see Fine Literature above.
Almanacks: These may be very varied; containing
vacations, terms, sessions; public,
church, or family festivals, personal
memoranda or topical quotations. They
offer great opportunities for heraldic or
symbolic ornament (such as coats-of-
arms, astronomical signs, &c.).
Dedications, &c., in These may be on a parchment leaf inserted
Books: and securely glued into the beginning
(Lettering on (preferably bound up with book), or be
Architects’ Plans: see written on a fly-leaf. Annotations,
Maps & Plans, p. extracts, &c., may be written in colour in
339) printed books (p. 144).
“Copy-Books:” (see below).
BROADSIDES: Sheets printed (or written) on one side: see
p. 350.
Notices: (Posters, Placards, Hand-bills, &c.).
Quotations: (Texts, Mottoes, &c.) (see p. 336).
Church Texts, &c.: (The Creed, Commandments, &c.).
Family Trees & These may be very decorative—in plain
Pedigrees: black and red, or with coats-of-arms or
other ornament. They might also be
made in book form.
WALL INSCRIPTIONS: Carved or painted: see pp. 350, 375–385, &
Chapter XVII.
Public Notices: Note: on walls, plastered, or unsuited for
carving, sgraffito might be used with

Lettering in Churches, fine effect.
&c.: Letters may also be painted upon cemented
Lettering in & upon into the wall (p. 377).
public buildings:
(ILLUMINATED) (Petitions, &c.) (see p. 353).
ADDRESSES, &c.:
MONOGRAMS & (see p. 361. These are frequently designed
DEVICES: for stencilling or other mechanical
reproduction).
LETTERING FOR (see p. 365).
REPRODUCTION: See also BROADSIDES, above.
Printer’s types and (in woodcut and metal: pp. 365, 367).
Ornamental letters:
Title Pages: (see p. 363).
Paper and other Book (Magazines, Newspaper-Headings, Music,
covers: Catalogues, &c.).
Maps & Plans: good, clear lettering may be used in these
with fine effect.
Book Plates: (preferably simple, with Arms, Crest, or
Symbol, and suitable lettering).
Letter-paper Headings, (preferably in copper-plate “Roman” and
Cards, &c.: “Italic”).
Bill Heads, Receipt (preferably in copper-plate or type: see p.
Forms, &c.: 365).
Certificates: (Testimonials, &c.) The plainer these are
made, the better.
Programmes, Menus, (Christmas cards, &c.).
Cards, &c.:
Almanacks: (see above).
MS. Books and “copy- Possibly might be reproduced by copper-
books”: plate if written well enough (p. 367).
Advertisements, &c.: Better lettering in these would not only
mitigate many eyesores, but would

probably attract by its novelty (see p.
352).
ENGRAVING, &c.: (see pp. 364, 365, 375).
Brasses, &c.: (“Brasses,” Name-plates, Door-plates,
&c.).
Punches: (for naming, numbering, &c.).
Utensils: (Bowls, flagons, plates, &c.).
Ornaments: (Jewellery, &c.).
Die Sinking: (for coins, medals, &c., and for embossed
letter-paper headings, &c.).
INSCRIPTIONS IN (see pp. 375–385, & Chap. XVII.).
STONE & WOOD:
On Monuments & Also on mile-stones, boundary stones,
Buildings: bridges, &c.
Tombstones:
Foundation Stones:
Memorial Tablets:
“SIGN WRITING”: (see pp. 350, 376).
Signs: (for stations, inns, shops, &c.).
Shop Fascias, &c.:
Names, &c.: (on doors & on carts, coaches, &c.).
Notice Boards:
“Ticket Writing”:
EMBROIDERY, &c.: see remarks on built-up forms, p. 292: and
Chapter XII. [on Lettering, &c.] of
“Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving,” by
Mrs. A. H. Christie, in this Series.
Decoration for
hangings, (p. 336):
Marking clothes, &c.

All the arts employ lettering directly or indirectly, in fine decoration or
for simple service.
The following list of ancient uses is interesting:90—
“I. TITULI
1. Dedicatory and Votive Inscriptions (Tituli Sacri).
2. Sepulchral Inscriptions (Tituli Sepulchrales).
3. Honorary Inscriptions (Tituli Honorarii).
4. Inscriptions on Public Works (Tituli Operum Publicorum).
5. Inscriptions on Movable Objects (Instrumentum).

II. INSTRUMENTA
1. Laws (Leges et Plebi Scita).
2. Decrees of the Senate (Senatus Consulta).
3. Imperial Documents (Instrumenta Imperatorum).
4. Decrees of Magistrates (Decreta Magistratuum).
5. Sacred and Public Documents (Acta Sacra et Publica).
6. Private Documents (Acta Privata).
7. Wall Inscriptions (Inscriptiones Parietariae).
8. Consular Diptychs (Diptycha Consularia).”

MS. BOOKS, &C.
Books in the making—as compared with ordinary inscriptions—are
capable of great compression or expansion, and may be said to have a
quality of elasticity. Nearly all other ordinary inscriptions are set
inscriptions (p. 350), requiring a given number of words to be set out in a
given space. But in books, while it is convenient that the treatment of the
text should conform generally to a chosen size of page (p. 103), the contents
of the page may vary according to the letter-form and the spacing (pp. 107,
262), and the number of the pages is not definitely limited, so that another
page, or a [p342] number of additional pages, may always be taken to
complete the text.
The size of page, margin, and writing having been settled (see Chap. VI.)
—and the pages ruled—the penman writes out the text with the utmost
freedom, not stopping to make fine calculations, but leaving such spaces

and lines, for Initials, Headings, &c., as his fancy and common-sense
dictate, and letting the text—or its divisions—smoothly flow on from page
to page till a natural termination is reached. And if the terminal page has
only one or two lines on it, it is not necessary to attempt a balance with the
previous page—the book or chapter91 ends just there, for the good reason
that there is no more of it.
Colophons, Tail-pieces, &c. (see p. 142), make a pleasant finish, and may
complete the page or not as convenient.
Planning: Sections and Pages.—Calculations of the amount of text, of
the number of sections or pages required, and so on, are useful, and
planning the pages may be convenient—for example, one or more of the
verses of a poem, or a given number of words, may be allotted to the page
—provided always that the scribe preserves his freedom, and treats each
case on its merits. If he think it most suitable to devote a complete page to
each paragraph, he may do so in spite of its resulting in the pages all being
of different lengths.
The one general limitation which it is proper to [p343] observe is that of
the Writing-line—its length92 and spacing—and to this may be added the
desirability of beginning the text of every page on the first or head line.93
For most of us it is not practically possible to do without the aid of the
writing-lines—which really lead, through uniformity, to greater freedom—
though a book written without them94 might be as beautiful as any ruled
manuscript.
Marginal Lines.—These, the terminals of the writing-lines, are frequently
made double, with about 14 inch between (see Plates XX. and XV.). On the
left this space is utilised for marginal capitals, or is left blank; on the right
the first line acts as a warning mark and the normal termination of the text,
the second as a barrier beyond which the writing should not go. The double
lines, in being more obvious than single lines, are also more effective in
“straightening” the page (p. 109): presumably for this reason the two upper

and two lower writing-lines were often ruled from edge to edge of the page
(see Plate XI.).
Ruling.—Marginal and writing-lines, once ruled, are to be left intact, and
may be regarded as actual component parts of the finished pages. They are
best made with a hard blunt point (p. 108)—the furrows so made give an
interesting character, almost a “texture,” to the smooth surface of the page.
But they may be ruled with a fine lead pencil, or with a fine pen and faint
black or [p344] coloured inks. Inked or coloured lines, however, are not
generally written upon (see footnote, p. 305), but between (see Plates XIII.,
XVII., XX., &c.).

Fig. 192.
Correcting Mistakes.—A neatly made rather small letter above and a
“carat” below (as in ordinary writing) may be used for an omission (fig.
192). A superfluous letter may be neatly struck out. Erasures are usually
unsatisfactory, and a simple, unostentatious correction, besides disarming
criticism, is in accordance with the proper freedom of the craft (see p. 174).
Annotations, &c., preferably in smaller coloured writing, are very
decorative in the broader margins (pp. 144, 315).

Special Books.—A MS. book is necessarily unique, and some special or
personal interest—either of the craftsman (see p. 142) or his “client”—
inevitably attaches to it. This may affect its size and form, the treatment of
the text, and the decoration and construction generally (see p. 100). Every
legitimate opportunity of adding to its individual character should be taken
by the scribe and illuminator. [p345]
Fig. 175 and Plate XX. are both taken from private prayer books or
psalters; in each the name of the owner (e.g. “Euanzelista famulo tuo,”
Plate XX.) is frequently inserted. Plates XV. and XXII. are also taken from
specially commissioned MSS., and many evidences of their ownership,
such as portraits or coats-of-arms, form part of the decoration of such
books.
Church Services, &c.—(For a special church or person.) Church uses are
so varied, that it is most important to ascertain the custom, use, or taste of
the persons concerned—especially as to the order of, and the introduction
or omission of, certain words, paragraphs, or parts, the colours used in the
text, the notation of the music—and the manner in which the book will be
used.
A service book for the use of a priest gives prominence to the parts in
which he is concerned—the responses95 may be smaller, and different in
form or colour. The rubrics—in red (see pp. 140, 144)—are kept quite
distinct, and may form a very decorative feature. For a private person the
other parts—such as are said by the congregation—might be specially
marked. In either case a certain amount of planning—e.g. completing
prayers, &c., in an opening, to avoid turning over—may be justified by its
convenience to the reader. Should very careful planning ever be required, a
pattern-book may be made, having the contents of each page roughly
indicated in it.
Wedding Service Books, &c.—The interest and [p346] value is enhanced if
the book is specially prepared—containing the proper names and dates, and

only the special psalms, hymns, prayers, homilies, &c., which will be used.
Dated pages may be provided at the end of the book for the signatures of
the “friends and neighbours” of the principals.
BINDING MSS.
MSS. should be bound without delay in order to complete and protect
them.
To bind books in stiff boards, in leather, requires considerable practice
and skill, but a very effective limp vellum cover can be made by the scribe
himself, who, in binding his own books, will learn to think of the binding as
a part of the book, and to allow for it in the writing and planning (see p.
106).
The following note96 on covering books in limp vellum is specially
contributed by Mr. Douglas Cockerell:—
“How to cover a book in a limp vellum cover without using special appliances.
3
“Cut four strips of stiff vellum inch wide and about four inches long. On these slips you will sew
8
the sections of your book.
“Add to your book a plain section at either end;97 vellum for a vellum book, paper for a paper
book. Knock up the backs of the sections squarely, keeping the heads level, and across the back mark
with a soft pencil guided by a square, lines to show the position of the slips. The positions of the four
slips should leave the space between the slips the same as that between the [p347] top slip and the
head of the book; the space between the bottom slip and the tail should be a little longer than the
1
spaces between the slips. At about inch from either end make an additional line across the back for
2
the “kettle” or catch stitch. These lines will show as dots on the back of single sections. Each
individual section should now have at the back a dot at either end for the kettle stitches, and four
3
pairs of dots inch apart to show the position of the slips, ten dots in all.
8
1
“To sew the book, fold the vellum slips about 1 inch from one end and bend to a right angle.
2
Place your front end-paper outside downwards, with the back even with the edge of a table or board,
and place your folded slips with their shorter ends under it. Then insert your needle from the outside,
at the head “kettle stitch” mark, into the centre of the section and bring it out at the first band mark;
put the slip in position and reinsert your needle at the mark on the other side of the slip, and so on to
the end of the section, coming out at the tail kettle stitch. This should leave your section with a
thread,98 passing alternately along the centre fold inside and across the slips outside, with a loose
end hanging from the kettle stitch mark where you began, and a thread with the needle hanging from
the other kettle stitch mark (fig. 193). [p348]

Fig. 193.

Fig. 194.
“Lay on your next section and sew it in the same way but in the reverse direction, tying up with the
first loose end when you come to it. Sew the whole book in the same way, tying on a new needleful
of thread as each is exhausted, making practically a continuous thread going backwards and forwards
inside the sections and across the slips from end to end of the book. Each succeeding kettle stitch
should be caught up by a loop (fig. 194), and it is well to catch together the loose threads crossing the
slips.
“When the book is sewn, the back may be covered with thin glue and lined with a piece of leather,
but as this is a little difficult to manage neatly, and as the book will hold together without it, for a
temporary binding the sections may be left without glue.

Fig. 195.

“For the cover cut a piece of covering vellum99 (vellum with a surface) large enough to cover the
1
book and to leave a margin of 1 inches all round. Mark this with a folder on the underside, as shown
2
at A, fig. 195. Spaces (1) and (2) are the size of the sides of the book with the surrounding
“squares,”100 space (3) is the width of the back, and space (4) the width for the overlaps on the
foredge.101 Cut the corners as shown at (5), and fold the edges over as at B, and then fold over the
overlaps [p349] and back as at C. Be sure to make all folds sharp and true.
“To avoid mistakes it is well to make a cover of stiff [p350] paper first, and then, when that fits
exactly, to mark up the vellum from it.
3
“On the inside of the vellum cover, mark faint lines about inch from, and parallel to, the creases
4
1
of the back, and further lines about inch from these. Place your book in the cover and mark the
4
places where the slips cross these lines. Make slits in the cover there, and lace the slips through them
(fig. 196), first putting a piece of loose, toned paper inside the cover to prevent any marks on the
book from showing through the vellum. Then lace pieces of silk ribbon of good quality102 through
the cover and end-papers, leaving the ends long enough to tie.”

Fig. 196.
BROADSIDES, WALL INSCRIPTIONS, &C.

Set Inscriptions.—Ordinary inscriptions generally consist of a given
number of words to be set out in [p351] a given space. Careful planning may
sometimes be required to fit in the words suitably, or to adapt the lettering
to the space. But setting-out (p. 258) becomes much simpler after a little
practice, and the good craftsman avoids over-planning.
The Place of the Inscription.—The actual space for a wall inscription is
commonly suggested by an architectural feature—a stone, a panel, or a
niche—of the wall; but in choosing a suitable space for a given inscription,
or suitable lettering for a given space, we must take into account—
1. The office of the inscription.
2. How it is to be read—
(a) “At a glance,” or
(b) by close inspection.
3. The distance from the reader.
4. The lighting of the space.
5. The character of the surroundings.
6. Any special features.
The Size of the Letters.—The all-important question of readableness may
be settled thus: the inscription having been planned suitably to fill the
space, one or two words are written or painted (the exact size) on paper—
smoked or otherwise coloured if necessary to resemble the background.
This is stuck upon the chosen part of the wall, and then viewed from the
ordinary position of a reader. When the inscription is high up, the thin parts
—especially the horizontals of the letters—must be made extra thick to be
seen properly from below.
Margins.—Wide margins are only required for comparatively small
lettering which demands the close [p352] attention of the reader,103 and
generally a set inscription looks best if the lettering be comparatively large
—covering most of the given surface, and leaving comparatively narrow

margins. The frame or moulding, or the natural edge or environment of the
circumscribed space, is very often sufficient “margin” (see Plate XXIV.).
The margins vary, however, according to circumstances; especially the
foot margin, which may be very narrow if all the space is required for the
lettering (see fig. 211), or very large104 if there is plenty of space (see fig.
210). And, as in special pages or terminal pages of books, so in single
sheets, panels, &c., the “foot margin” may show—as it really is—as the
space which did not require to be filled, and was therefore “left over.”
Number of Different Types.—While in a book of many pages
considerable diversity is allowed, it is essential to the strength and dignity
of a single sheet or set inscription to limit the number of types employed in
it. Three or four ordinary types will generally give sufficient variety, and if
it be necessary—as in notices and placards—that Important Words be put
in special types to catch the eye, let two—or at most three—special types
suffice, and let the remainder of the text be as quiet and reserved as
possible. “Display Types” commonly defeat their object by being overdone.
A simple contrast is the most effective (fig. 197). [p353]

Fig. 197.
ILLUMINATED ADDRESSES, &C.
Forms of Addresses, &c.—The writer should be prepared to advise his
“clients” on the form which the address may take, on special features in its
writing and illuminating, and on its general treatment.
Ordinarily an Illuminated Address is prepared either as a Framed
Parchment (p. 356), a Parchment Scroll, or sheet (p. 356), or a small bound
MS. (i.e. in book form: p. 357).105
The wording commonly consists of three parts: the Heading (usually the
name of the addressee), the Text (usually divided into paragraphs), the
Signatures (or a list of names) of the subscribers.
An address is commonly in the 1st or 3rd person, and in case of any
confusion of these, any slip of the pen, or other oversight in the draft, the
penman [p354] should, if possible, call attention to it before the document is
put into permanent form.

A very convenient and agreeable style of “address” is a formal letter,
beginning “Dear Mr. A——— B———,” and ending in the ordinary way.
This is a form which may be drawn up more simply, and which reads more
naturally, than the ordinary 1st or 3rd personal statement.
An “address” is sometimes in the form of a resolution passed by a public
or private body or committee. For municipal or other important
corporations, such an extract from their minutes, neatly and “clerkly”
written out on parchment, and duly attested by the signatures of their
“head” and their secretary, and without ornament save their seal—on a
dependent ribbon—or their coat-of-arms, or badge, would not only be the
most natural, but possibly the most dignified and effective shape which
might be given to the formal presentation of their compliments.
An “address” accompanying a present is frequently little more than a list
of names with a brief complimentary or explanatory statement. If possible
such an inscription should be written or engraved on the article itself, or be
specially designed to accompany it. In some cases this is very simple: when
a volume, or set of volumes, is given, the inscription may be written in the
first volume—or on a parchment which may be inserted—or it may be
prepared in book form, in a binding to match. A silver or other ornament
sometimes has a little drawer provided to hold a narrow scroll of names. A
portrait may have an inscription on the frame—or even in a corner of the
picture—or be accompanied by a simple, framed parchment. [p355]
Signatures.—A neatly written out list of subscribers—especially when
their number is large—is very convenient: it does not require individual
personal appointments, nor involve risks of damage to the address. The
actual signatures of subscribers, however, are of greater interest and
sentimental value, and on such grounds are preferable to a mere list of
names.
To avoid risks (or with a view to incorporating the signatures in the
decorative scheme) the decoration, gilding, &c., may sometimes be deferred

until after the signing of the address.
When the exact number and the names of the subscribers are known
beforehand, lines may be provided for their signatures, marked with letters
in alphabetical order (the proper number of lines under each). This method
solves any difficulty in regard to precedence in signing.
Note.—Ordinary signatures require about 12 inch by 3 inches space each.
If there are many they may be conveniently arranged in two or more
columns, according to the space available.

Directions for Signing106—
Edges of parchment not to project beyond desk or table, lest they be
creased.
Paper to be provided to cover the address, with FLAPS to raise when
signing.
When lines for signatures are grooved (p. 108), signatories to face the
light (this makes the lines more evident).
Ink of one colour to be used if possible.
Clean, ORDINARY pens to be provided, and pieces of paper for trying
them on.
Framed Parchments.—The parchment may have—beyond the top and
foot margins—spare pieces which (after the writing and illuminating is
finished) are bent over the ends, and glued to the back, of a stout, white
card, or millboard—covered with white or light coloured paper. Or—extra
margin being allowed all round—the edges of the parchment are cut into
tags or “scallops,” and folded over an ordinary canvas stretcher, and well
tacked at the back with small brads. The wedges are carefully adjusted till
the parchment lies flat.
A parchment glued to the surface of a millboard is more convenient for
framing, but has a less natural surface, and is not so easily managed by the
penman as the plain, flexible parchment.

Frames should be gold, black, or white; very plain, and generally without
mounts. The parchment, however, must be framed so that there is no danger
of any part of it coming into contact with the glass (as that, being damp,
would lead to cockling).
Parchment Scroll.—The foot edge of the parchment may be folded over
twice,107 a strong, silk ribbon (see footnote, p. 350) is laced along through
slits in the folded part (a, fig. 198), so that the two ends come out again at
the centre—where they may be knotted together—and are ready to tie round
the scroll when it is rolled up (b). A rather narrow, “upright” parchment is
most convenient (c). An “oblong” parchment may be very effectively
arranged in long lines of writing (d). If a special casket or case is not
provided, a neat [p357] japanned tin case may be obtained for a few shillings.

Fig. 198.
A small Bound MS. is certainly the most easily handled form in which an
address may be prepared—its convenience to the penman, the signatories,
the reader, and the addressee, is strongly in its favour. A lengthy address, or
a very large number of names, may be contained in a comparatively small
book.
Method of Planning out Addresses, &c.—If in the [p358] book form, the
address is treated much as an ordinary book (see Chap. VI., and Binding, p.

346). The framed or scroll address is planned similarly to a single sheet (p.
90). The following notes of a working method were made during the
planning out of an address:—

(1) Decide approximately the general form, shape, and decorative treatment of address.
(2) Count words in TEXT (leaving out HEADING and SIGNATURES) = 130
Count paragraphs = 3
(Decide whether first or last paragraph is to be in a different form or
colour.)
Decide approximate width = 12 inches.
1
Decide approximate side margins (2 inches each)
2 = 5 inches.
Hence length of writing-line = 7 inches.
1
Allow inch lines, and approximately eight words to the line.
2
(3) 130 words TEXT, approx. 16 lines = 8 in. deep.
Allow extra (on account paragraphs) 1
1 line = in. deep.
2
1
(Roughly sketch out HEADING on lines each inch by 7
2
inches.) Allow for HEADING 6 lines = 3 in. deep.
Allow for two SIGNATURES, &c. 1
3 lines = 1 in. deep.
2
Total depth of Writing, &c. 26 lines = 13 inches.
Allow for Top margin 2 inches.
Allow for Foot margin 3 inches.
(Note.—This was a “scroll,” and the foot margin was folded up to within
an inch of the SIGNATURES. A plain sheet would have required about
4 inches foot margin.)
Length of Parchment 18 inches.
1
(4) Cut a paper pattern, 12 inches by 18 inches. Rule (in pencil) Side margins (2 inches and
2
1 1
2 inches), and Top margin (2 inches), and 26 ( inch) lines. On this write out the
2 2
address in ordinary handwriting, using ordinary black and red (or coloured) inks: make
approximately eight words to the line, and write as fast as possible; this helps to keep
the spacing uniform.
This written pattern should not take more than twenty minutes for its entire preparation: it
is intended to be used as a check on the previous calculation (not as an exact plan), and
as a copy, it being easier to copy from your own, than from another’s, handwriting.
If the original draft is typewritten, it is hardly necessary to make such a pattern.
(5) Check this copy very carefully with the original to see that the words, &c., are correct.
(6) Cut, rule, and pounce the parchment (pp. 343, 174).
(7) On some scraps of parchment, ruled with a few similar lines, and pounced, try one or two
lines of writing, both in vermilion and black, to see that all goes well.

This enables you to get the pens and inks into working order, and will very likely save the
carefully prepared parchment from being spoilt.
(8) Write out the address, leaving suitable gaps for gold or special letters.
(9) Put in special letters, decorative capitals, and any other decoration.
(10) Check the finished address very carefully with the original draft (see (5) above) and look
it over for mistakes, dotting i’s, and putting in commas, &c., if left out. It is important
that such a formal document should be accurate.

General Remarks.—The above simple mode of planning out can be
further simplified in custom and practice. By the penman keeping to regular
shapes, proportions,108 and modes of treatment for regular [p360] occasions,
the addresses, &c., will practically “plan themselves” (p. 101), and better
workmanship is the natural result.

Fig. 199.
Generally the simpler the form and the treatment of an Illuminated
Address, the better the effect. The most effective decoration is the plain

coloured or gold capital, and the finest ornament is a coat-of-arms (see
“Heraldry,” below; and for general, [p361] simple Illumination, see Chapters
VII. to XIII.). A symbolical mark, such as a crest, badge, monogram,
cypher, or other device (p. 362), boldly and decoratively treated, may be
used in place of a coat-of-arms.
There is too much “Illumination” in the conventional “Address,” which
looks like a “piece of decoration” with a little writing. A really reasonable
and effective Illuminated Address is a piece of writing suitably decorated.
• • •
Heraldry.—A reliable handbook must be consulted, for accurate
“blazoning” is essential. Early examples should be studied (see p. 387). The
diagram, fig. 199, is given as an example of how a charge was evenly
arranged on the shield (see balanced background, p. 419). Another example
—showing a diapered chequer—is given on p. 336.
Shields in Illuminated borders may be coloured before the border, lest the
brilliant mass of colour of the shield clash with the border. The shield, if
large, may with advantage set the tone of the whole colour scheme.
MONOGRAMS & DEVICES
A Monogram consists of two or more letters combined in one form, as
the diphthong , and the amperzand109 for : its legibility may
be helped by compound colouring. A Cypher consists of linked or interlaced
letters, as , [p362] and may be repeated and reversed if desired (see fig.
200).

Fig. 200.

Monograms and cyphers may be very decoratively employed as
ornaments, and may be used to mark a man’s goods, or as a signature on his
work: something easily recognized—either very legible or characteristic—
is therefore desirable. The two modes may be combined, and there is no
limit to [p363] the effective devices and ornaments which may be composed
of letters. Simple and straightforward devices, however, are generally
preferable to very ornate or intricate designs.
Chronograms.—A chronogram consists of a word or words in which the
numerical letters indicate a date. The following is from a very fine
memorial inscription at Rye (see fig. 207):—
Ioannes ThreeLe MeDIo Lætæ ætatIs fLore obIIt.
It expresses the date I + L + M + D + I + L + I + L + I + I (or 1 + 50 + 1000
+ 500 + 1 + 50 + 1 + 50 + 1 + 1) = 1655. As every letter having a numerical
value (i.e. C, D, I, (J), L, M, (U), V, (W), X) may be counted, a proper
chronogram is not easily composed.
The letter-craftsman will discover many ways of “playing” with letters,
and of expressing—or concealing—names and numbers in other words, and
he may take every liberty he chooses in his private pleasure, provided it
does not clash with public convenience.
TITLE PAGES
If large capitals be used, the Name of the Book, the Author, &c., above;
the Name of the Publisher, the Date, &c., below,110 may together fill the
page. Ordinary capitals (as used in the text) leave a space in the centre (see
Title Page of this book): often pleasantly filled by a small woodcut—a
symbolical device, monogram, or printer’s mark.
Generally, the fewer and simpler the types, the better: though contrasts of
size, form, or colour [p364] (see p. 327)—such as printing one or two words
in large CAPITALS, or in (p. 331), or part in red
—may sometimes be used with good effect. When the types are rather

varied, single or double framing lines (called “rules”) placed round the page
have the effect of binding the whole together. The page may also be divided
into parts by transverse “rules”—these further solidify it. Black rules are
preferable to red (p. 144): if they are double, the outer line may be thicker
than the inner.111
Relation of Title Pages, &c., to the Text.—Generally the practical part of
the book is to be considered and settled before the ornamental and the
decorated Title page conforms to the treatment of the text pages, and should
be clearly related to them by the character of its letters or its ornaments. Its
margins (especially the top margin) should be approximately the same as
those of the text pages, though framing borders may occupy part of, or
nearly all, the marginal space. Without doubt the artless, ordinarily printed
title page is preferable to those specially designed “title pages” that have
little or no relation to the rest of the book.
Wood Engraving (see pp. 365, 371).—Of all the “processes,” wood
engraving agrees best with printing. The splendid effect of Title and Initial
pages engraved in wood may be seen in the books of the Kelmscott Press.
In early printing, woodcut ornaments or borders were commonly used to
[p365] decorate the printed title page. An example of this combined method

—of which unfortunately the greater part of the borders have to be left out
—is shown in fig. 201 (from a 16th century book).112
Initial Pages and Openings.—The claim of these to decorative treatment
should be considered (p. 128). We generally look at the outside of a book
for the title—which should be clearly stamped on the cover. But inside the
book we look rather for its actual beginning than for its name, and, while
something in the nature of the “sub-title” might be used, it would be quite
reasonable to revive the ancient fashion—especially in the case of MS.
Books—of making the actual beginning the most decorative part of the
book. Or a very fine effect may be obtained by the decoration of the entire

initial opening—the title on the verso (left page), the beginning of the first
chapter on the recto (right page).
LETTERING FOR REPRODUCTION
Where it is possible, it is generally best to make use of ordinary
typography. A good fount of type and a natural setting-up or arrangement of
it, are more effective than many special designs (see pp. 364, 267).

Fig. 201. (see footnote, p. 365)

Wood and Metal Engraving.—If special forms or arrangements of letters
are required, for which type is lacking or unsuited, they are best cut in wood
or [p367] metal. The engraver leaves the mark of his tool and hand upon, and
so gives character to, such lettering; while, if he has some knowledge of
letters, he may give fresh beauty to their forms.
The Zincotype Process reproduces, either in facsimile or on a reduced
scale, the “design” made by the craftsman in “black and white.” This it does
more or less exactly according to the pains taken by the zincographer, the
quality of the paper employed, &c. The literalness and facility of this
process, however, seem to have had a prejudicial effect on the work of the
designer. Unless he conscientiously determines that his design shall stand
without “touching-up,” the knowledge that he may blot out or trim a faulty
line with white, that he may fill out or finish a deficient stroke with black,
that he may work large and zincograph small, is apt to result in carelessness
combined with over-finishing—or a sort of perfection without character.
If zincography be used, a strong, rather type-like letter, or a built-up letter
—arranged to give a general effect of richness of mass, would appear more
natural than the doubtful “reproduction” of delicate writing or fine pen-
lettering.113
Etching.—Calligraphy might be reproduced with very fine effect,
retaining its natural delicacy and on a plane surface, if a process of etching
writing in facsimile were possible.
PRINTING
The general question of fine printing and its relation to calligraphy can
only be briefly referred [p368] to here. A proper study of the art of
typography necessitates practice with a printing press, and probably the
help of a trained assistant.
To would-be printers, printers, and all interested in typography, the easily
acquired art of writing may be commended as a practical introduction to a

better knowledge of letter forms and their decorative possibilities.
In this connection I have quoted in the preface (p. 13) some remarks on
Calligraphy by Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, who, again, referring to typography,
says—114
“The passage from the Written Book to the Printed Book was sudden and complete. Nor is it
wonderful that the earliest productions of the printing press are the most beautiful, and that the
history of its subsequent career is but the history of its decadence. The Printer carried on into Type
the tradition of the Calligrapher and of the Calligrapher at his best. As this tradition died out in the
distance, the craft of the Printer declined. It is the function of the Calligrapher to revive and restore
the craft of the Printer to its original purity of intention and accomplishment. The Printer must at the
same time be a Calligrapher, or in touch with him, and there must be in association with the Printing
Press a Scriptorium where beautiful writing may be practised and the art of letter-designing kept
alive. And there is this further evidence of the dependence of printing upon writing: the great revival
in printing which is taking place under our own eyes, is the work of a Printer who before he was a
Printer was a Calligrapher and an Illuminator, W I L L I A M M O R R I S .
“The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to communicate to the imagination, without
loss by the [p369] way, the thought or image intended to be communicated by the Author. And the
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought
and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to
win access for that communication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
to take advantage of every pause or stage in that communication to interpose some characteristic and
restful beauty in its own art.”

Early Printing was in some points inferior in technical excellence to the
best modern typography. But the best early printers used finer founts of type
and better proportions in the arrangement and spacing of their printed
pages; and it is now generally agreed that early printed books are the most
beautiful. It would repay a modern printer to endeavour to find out the real
grounds for this opinion, the underlying principles of the early work, and,
where possible, to put them into practice.
Freedom.—The treatment or “planning” of early printing—and generally
of all pieces of lettering which are most pleasing—is strongly marked by
freedom. This freedom of former times is frequently referred to now as
“spontaneity”—sometimes it would seem to be implied that there was a
lawless irresponsibility in the early craftsman, incompatible with modern
conditions. True spontaneity, however, seems to come from working by
rule, but not being bound by it.

For example, the old Herbal from which figs. 135 to 141 are taken
contains many woodcuts of plants, &c., devoting a complete page to each.
When a long explanation of a cut is required, a smaller type is used (comp.
figs. 135 & 138); when [p370] the explanation is very short, it does not fill
the page. This is a free and natural treatment of the greatest convenience to
the reader, for illustration and text are always in juxtaposition. And though
the size of the type and the amount of the text are varied, yet the uniform
top margins, and the uniform treatment and arrangement of the woodcuts,
harmonise the pages, and give to the whole book an agreeable effect of
freedom combined with method.

Fig. 202.

An old way of treating a text and its commentary is indicated by the
diagram (fig. 202). The text is printed in large type, the commentary, in
smaller type, surrounds it; such portion of the text being printed on each
page as will allow sufficient surrounding space for the accompanying [p371]
commentary on that portion. The proportions and treatment of every page
are uniform (note, particularly, the uniformity of the upper parts of the
pages, five lines of commentary being allowed to enclose the text, or bound
it above, on every page) with the exception that the height of the text-
column varies—one page having as few as three lines of text to the column,
another having fifty-nine lines. This free treatment of the text gives a
charming variety to the pages.
Poetry.—A broader and freer treatment is desirable in the printing of
poetry. The original lines and the arrangement of the verses should be more
generally preserved. And though the opening lines of a poem may
sometimes be magnified by printing them in capitals—which necessitate
their division—to sacrifice the naturally varying line to the “even page” is
questionable, and to destroy the form of a poem in order to compress it is a
“typographical impertinence” (see p. 95).

For special letters or ornaments, woodcuts are best (see p. 364). The early
printers generally had little, simple blocks of ornamental devices which

might be used separately, or be built up into a frame border for a whole
page—a simple method and effective, if used reasonably. [p372]
The judicious use of colour, especially of red (see pp. 127, 144), is very
effective. The extra printings required for additional colours may make it
worth while (in the case of limited editions) to put in simple initials,
paragraph marks, notes, &c., by hand (see pp. 194, 113). The earliest
printed books, being modelled on the MS. books, employed such
rubrication freely, in spaces specially left in the text or in the margins. There
are still great possibilities in the hand decoration of printed books.
• • •
The following note on printing, reproduced here by the permission of Mr.
Emery Walker, appeared in the Introductory Notes of the Catalogue of the
first exhibition of The Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, in 1888.

“PRINTING

“Printing, in the only sense with which we are at present concerned,
differs from most if not from all the arts and crafts represented in the
Exhibition in being comparatively modern. For although the Chinese
took impressions from wood blocks engraved in relief for centuries
before the wood-cutters of the Netherlands, by a similar process,
produced the block books, which were the immediate predecessors of
the true printed book, the invention of movable metal letters in the
middle of the fifteenth century may justly be considered as the
invention of the art of printing. And it is worth mention in passing that,
as an example of fine typography, the earliest dated115 book, the
Gutenberg Bible of 1455, has never [p373] been surpassed. Printing,
then, for our purpose, may be considered as the art of making books by
means of movable types. Now, as all books not primarily intended as
picture-books consist principally of types composed to form
letterpress, it is of the first importance that the letter used should be
fine in form; especially, as no more time is occupied, or cost incurred,

in casting, setting, or printing beautiful letters, than in the same
operations with ugly ones. So we find the fifteenth and early sixteenth
century printers, who were generally their own type-founders, gave
great attention to the forms of their types. The designers of the letters
used in the earliest books were probably the scribes whose manuscripts
the fifteenth-century printed books so much resemble. Aldus of Venice
employed Francesco Francia of Bologna, goldsmith and painter, to cut
the punches for his celebrated italic letter. Froben, the great Basle
printer, got Holbein to design ornaments for his press, and it is not
unreasonable to suppose that the painter may have drawn the models
for the noble Roman types we find in Froben’s books. With the
decadence in handwriting which became marked in the sixteenth
century, a corresponding change took place in the types; the designers,
no longer having beautiful writing as a model and reference,
introduced variations arbitrarily. The types of the Elzevirs are regular
and neat, and in this respect modern, but they altogether lack the spirit
and originality that distinguish the early Roman founts of Italy and
Germany: Gothic characteristics inherited from their mediæval
predecessors. In the seventeenth century type-founding began to be
carried on as a craft apart from that of the printer, and although in this
and the succeeding century many attempts were made to improve the
“face” (as the printing surface of type is called), such examples as a
rule reflect only too clearly the growing debasement of the crafts of
design. Notable among these attempts were the founts cut by William
Caslon, who started in business in London as a letter-founder in 1720,
taking for his models the Elzevir [p374]

“In 1844 the Chiswick Press printed for Messrs. Longmans ‘The
Diary of Lady Willoughby,’ and revived for this purpose one of
Caslon’s founts. This was an important step in the right direction, and
its success induced Messrs. Miller & Richard of Edinburgh to engrave
a series of ‘old style’ founts, with one of which this catalogue is
printed. Most other type-founders now cast similar type, and without
doubt if their customers, the printers, demanded it, they would expend
some of the energy and talent which now goes in cutting Japanese-
American and sham seventeenth-century monstrosities in
endeavouring to produce once more the restrained and beautiful forms
of the early printers, until the day when the current handwriting may
be elegant enough to be again used as a model for the type-punch
engraver.
“Next in importance to the type are the ornaments, initial letters, and
other decorations which can be printed along with it. These, it is
obvious, should always be designed and engraved so as to harmonise
with the printed page regarded as a whole. Hence, illustrations drawn
only with reference to purely pictorial effects are entirely out of place
in a book, that is, if we desire seriously to make it beautiful.
EMERY WALKER.”

INSCRIPTIONS ON METAL, STONE, WOOD, &C.
As the material naturally modifies the shapes of the letters cut or formed
on its surface, and as the object bearing the inscription affects their
arrangement, it is essential that the inscription cutter make himself familiar
with various stones, metals, woods, &c., with the various chisels and
gravers which are properly employed on them, and with fine inscriptions or
examples of good pieces of lettering (see pp. 388, 237).
A knowledge of penmanship will be found useful, and the pen may be
appealed to to decide questions of abstract form in regard to letters which
have come from pen forms (e.g. Roman Small-Letters, Italics, &c.). And in
this connection it may be noted again that the “slanted-pen forms” (pp. 305,
43) are generally the most practical.
Engraving on Metal.—Letters incised in metal may most nearly approach
pen forms, as the fine grain of the metal and the comparatively small scale
of the work allow of fine “thin strokes.” The engraver, however, while
following generally the “thicks” and “thins” of the penman, allows the
metal and the tool and, to a large extent, his own hand, to decide and
characterise the precise forms and their proportions.
Inscriptions in Stone (see Chap. XVII., Plates I., II., and XXIV., and pp.
292, 36).—The grain of stone does not generally allow of very fine thin
strokes, and the “thicks” and “thins” therefore tend to differ much less than
in pen-work. Their origin, moreover, is much less easily traced to the tool—
i.e. the chisel—and the difference was less in the [p376] early inscriptions
(see Plate II.) than we are now accustomed to (see Plate XXIV.): perhaps it
may be explained as a fashion set by penmanship (see p. 241).
Inscriptions on Wood are frequently in relief (see raised letters, p. 377),
matching the carved ornament. Incised letters may be painted or gilded to
make them show more clearly.
Sign-Writing and Brush-Work.—Inscriptions, such as shop signs, notices,
&c., painted on wood or stone, require—besides a practical knowledge of

materials—a considerable facility with the brush or “pencil.” Directness
and freedom of workmanship are most desirable.116
A suitable brush will make letters closely resembling pen letters. But the
pen automatically makes letters with a uniform precision, which it is neither
desirable nor possible for the brush to imitate: and greater skill is required
to control the brush, which in the hand of a good “Writer” will be permitted
to give its own distinct character to the lettering (see also p. 292, and fig.
164).
The brush is properly used for temporary inscriptions, especially on the
surface of painted wood or stone, but, for more important work, incising or
carving (painted if desired) are to be preferred as [p377] being more
permanent117 and preserving the original form118 of the lettering.
OF INSCRIPTIONS GENERALLY
(See also Chapter XIV. and pp. 350–353)
Alphabets.—For practical purposes the best letters are the Roman
Capitals, Roman Small-Letters, and Italics. These are susceptible of very
decorative treatment without loss of legibility. And there are many varieties
of the pure Roman Capital (see figs. 203–207), besides the “Gothicised”
Roman and the simple “Gothic” Capitals, which are all essentially readable.
Different Sizes of Capitals in inscriptions in wood, stone, metal, &c., are
generally kept approximately equal in “weight” (see p. 328). Note.—A
downward decrease in height of the letters is common in early inscriptions
(p. 410).
Incising is generally the most simple, and therefore the most natural,
method for making an ordinary inscription. The letters should be large
rather than small, and be deeply cut. Note, however, an incised stamp or die
produces an impression in relief on clay, &c. This may be seen in the
lettering on Roman pottery.
Raised Letters.—From the earliest times letters in relief (or litteræ
prominentes) have been used for special purposes. They are generally rather

more legible than the incised letters, and the difference between “thicks”
and “thins” tends to disappear. [p378]

Fig. 203.—Hübner’s Exempla, No. 187 ( 14 scale of
inscription), “Rustic Capitals” (see p. 297) between A.D. 14–
37.

Fig. 204.—Hübner’s Exempla, No. 384 (one-fifth scale of
inscription). 1st or 2nd Century, A.D.

Fig. 205.—Hübner’s Exempla, No. 1084 (one-
fourth scale of inscription). 2nd Century, A.D.

Fig. 206.—(Two portions) From a Rubbing of a
Florentine marble dated MCCCCLXVII., slightly reduced (scale

twelve-thirteenths). Note the interlinear spaces are 1 34 inch.

Fig. 207.—From a Rubbing of a Slate at Rye,
dated 1655 (see p. 363). Exact size.

Fig. 208.—From a Rubbing of a Stone at Oxford (by A.
E. R. Gill, 1905). Reduced, two-thirds scale.

[p384]

It is quite possible to make a beautiful and characteristic alphabet of
equal-stroke letters, on the lines of the so-called “Block Letter” but properly
proportioned and finished (such letters may be Raised, or Incised or
Painted: see incised form, p. 391).
Raised letters, if exposed to wear or damage, may be protected by being
on a sunk panel or having a raised frame or ornament. The background also
may be left in raised strips flush with the letters, between the lines of the
inscription.
Punctuation.—In early inscriptions the words were separated by points;
in the more ancient they are square shaped , , , in the more
elaborate, triangular , , , sometimes with curved-in sides
(Plate I.). These developed later into the ivy leaf , or “hederæ
distinguentes.” Such points may be used occasionally in modern work with
fine effect, but should seldom be used between every word, unless the
words are necessarily so close that distinguishing marks are required.
Phrasing and Arrangement.—An inscription may be arranged in
sentences or phrases, and occasionally, by the use of larger letters, greater
prominence is given to a word or phrase (see figs. 197, 204, 211). This
method is particularly adapted to the nature of a set inscription (p. 264), and
may help both its readableness and its appearance, but it must be borne in
mind that to lay stress on any one statement or word may pervert its
meaning or attract too much attention to it.
Any confusion of sense, or accidental word (p. 259) or phrase, appearing
in the setting-out is [p385] avoided, if possible, by a slight rearrangement of
the part, or, if necessary, of the whole inscription. Great care is taken that
the spelling is accurate: a pocket dictionary should be carried.
Reading is further facilitated by avoiding, where possible, the dividing of
words at the ends of lines. It may be observed that in the more ancient

inscriptions words were generally kept entire.
Exercises in letter form and arrangement, more profitable than mere
paper “designing,” might be devised by the craftsman. Inscriptions might be
cut—on a small scale—in gesso or chalk, or inscriptions might be variously
spaced and arranged on a properly coloured surface—such as a drawing-
board covered with light or dark cloth—in letters cut out of sheet-lead or
card.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, &C.
The few books and pamphlets given below are generally, of recent date,
practical, and inexpensive. The prices quoted are, I believe, those at which
the books are generally sold (not necessarily their published prices). They
are all illustrated, except Nos. *9, 10, 11, and 19.
WRITING, &c. (See also Nos. 8, 12, 14, 19, 28, 29, and 31.)
1. The Story of the Alphabet: Edward Clodd, 1900. 9d.
2. Greek and Latin Palæography: Edward Maunde Thompson. 3s. 9d.
(The extracts in these pp. 36, 41, 416, &c., are from the 2nd
edition, 1894.)
3. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2726, Feb. 17, 1905; Papers
on [p386] Calligraphy and Illumination: Edward Johnston and
Graily Hewitt. 6d.
4. Fac-similés de Manuscrits Grecs, Latins et Français du Ve au XIVe
Siècle exposés dans la Galerie Mazarine: Bibliothèque Nationale
Département des Manuscrits. 5s.
5. “A Guide to the Manuscripts” in the British Museum, 1906 (30
plates). 6d.
6. Bible Illustrations: Oxford University Press, 1896. About 2s.
ILLUMINATION, &c. (See also Nos. 3, 4, 5, 12, 14, 29, and 31.)
7. Illuminated Letters and Borders: John W. Bradley, 1901 (19 plates).
(Price at South Kensington Museum) 1s. 8d.
8. English Illuminated Manuscripts: Sir E. M. Thompson, 1895. (Now
out of print.)

*9. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2368, April 8, 1898; a
Paper on English Art in Illuminated Manuscripts: Sir E. M.
Thompson. 6d.
*10. The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini (a contemporary
practical treatise on 14th-century Italian painting): Translated by
Christiana J. Herringham, 1899. 6s.
*11. Some Hints on Pattern Designing: (lecture, 1881), William
Morris, 1899. 2s. 6d.
(11a. “Books for the Bairns.—No. 50,” contains 55 reproductions of
Bewick’s Birds. 1d.)
BOOKS—MANUSCRIPT & PRINTING. (See also Nos. 2 to 9, and 29
and 31.)
12. Books in Manuscript: Falconer Madan, 1893. 6s. (Frontispiece
drawn from this by permission.)
13. The Story of Books: Gertrude Burford Rawlings, 1901. 9d.
[p387]

14. The Old Service-Books of the English Church: Christopher
Wordsworth and Henry Littlehales, 1904. 7s. 6d.
15. Early Illustrated Books: Alfred W. Pollard, 1893. 6s.
16. Facsimiles [in colour] from Early Printed Books in the British
Museum, 1897. 7s. 6d.
17. A Guide to the Exhibition in the King’s Library (illustrating the
History of Printing, Music Printing, and Bookbinding): British
Museum, 1901 (36 illustrations). 6d.
18. “Arts and Crafts Essays by Members of the Arts and Crafts
Exhibition Society”—Printing: William Morris and Emery Walker
—(1st pub. 1893), 1899. 2s. 6d.
*19. “Ecce Mundus,” containing The Book Beautiful: T. J. Cobden-
Sanderson, 1902. 2s. 6d.
20. Printing (a technological handbook): Charles Thomas Jacobi,
1898. 3s. 9d.
21. Bookbinding and the Care of Books (The Artistic Crafts Series of
Technical Handbooks), 1901: Douglas Cockerell. 5s.

22. A Note on Bookbinding: Douglas Cockerell, 1904. 1d.
HERALDRY, SYMBOLISM, &c. (See also Nos. 1, 12, 15, 29, and 31.)
23. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2309, Feb. 19, 1897; A
Paper on The Artistic Treatment of Heraldry: by W. H. St. John
Hope. 6d.
24. English Heraldry: Charles Boutell, 1867. 6th ed. 1899, about 3s.
9d.
25. The Stall Plates of the Knights of the Garter, 1348–1485: W. H.
St. John Hope (90 coloured plates, Imp. 8vo). About £3. [p388]
26. Didron’s Christian Iconography (or the History of Christian Art in
the Middle Ages): 2 vols. 3s. 9d. (each).
LETTERING, &c. (See also Nos. 1 to 8, and 12 to 20.)
27. Lettering in Ornament: Lewis F. Day, 1902. 5s.
28. Alphabets: Edward F. Strange (1st ed. 1895). 4th ed., 3s. 9d.
29. The Palæographical Society’s Publications (out of print),
containing hundreds of facsimiles (chiefly of MSS.), are of great
interest. They may of course be seen in the British Museum
Library. The New Palæographical Society publishes a selection of
facsimiles annually.
30. Hübner’s Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae Latinae a Caesaris
dictatoris morte ad aetatem Justiniani (Berlin, 1885, price 46s.)
contains many fine outline drawings of ancient Roman inscriptions
(see figs. 203–5). It is kept with the books of reference in the
Reading Room at the British Museum.
31. Photographs of fine pieces of lettering may be obtained at the
Book Stall in South Kensington Museum (see footnote, p. 409).

Original MSS. or Inscriptions—from which we can learn much more
than from photographs or drawings—may be found in most parts of the
country, and in London especially in the British Museum, South Kensington
Museum (see p. 391), the Record Office (Rolls Chapel, see p. 11), and
Westminster Abbey (MSS. in the Chapter-House).

FOOTNOTES TO APPENDIX A:
90 p. 224, J. C. Egbert’s “Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions,”—1896.

91 If there is sufficient room left on the terminal page for a clearly marked beginning
(such as a decorative initial), the next chapter may begin there, and so fill the page—but
generally there is no objection to leaving blank what the text has failed to fill.

92 The line need not always be filled by the writing (p. 425).

93 It would not be necessary for the first page of a chapter to have the ordinary dropped
head and blank upper space if a fine initial or decorative heading were used to mark it.

94 Some of the books engraved by William Blake suggest possibilities of such un-
conventional treatment, both of writing and “illumination” (see also p. 21).

95 The distinction in the Prayer Book between “Amen” and “Amen”—used as a
response—is best marked by the sign (for Responsum) in red, placed before the latter, as:
Amen (see pp. 144, 25).

96 Figs. 195 and 196 are from Mr. Cockerell’s “Bookbinding and the Care of Books,”
in this Series.

97 These form the fly-leaves (p. 111).

98 Thread should be unbleached. Silk of the best quality is better than thread.

99 Forrel may be used as a cheap substitute for vellum.

100 “Squares” = “the portion of the boards projecting beyond the edges of the book.”

101 “Foredge” = “(fore edge) the front edge of the leaves.”

102 A good, rather dark green ribbon looks well—such as that known as “Church lace,”
used for the “tyers” in some of the Kelmscott books. Very good ribbons may be obtained from a
bookbinder, at 6d. to 1s. 6d. a yard.

103 E.g. all ordinary written and printed matter intended to be read at a short distance
(see pp. 103–106).

104 As much as two-thirds, or more, of the whole space.

105 The addressee’s taste and convenience ought to be considered: e.g. to one the
framed inscription might be an embarrassment, while by another it might be preferred.

106 To be given to the person in charge of the address.

107 The original intention of this fold, in deeds, was to provide for the attachment of the
3
seal, and, perhaps, to prevent any addition being made. If the folded part be fairly wide, say,
4
to 1 inch, little or no foot margin need be allowed.

108 1
E.g. to keep toinch writing-line spaces (except for extra small addresses, or small
2
books). This being approximately the right space for ordinary SIGNATURES, results in further
simplification of ruling and arrangement.

109 In the common form , the letters (see Plate VI.) are now barely
traceable.

110 Other particulars may be put in the colophon (p. 142).

111 The use of “rules,” though quite legitimate, will be found misleading if it be
depended on to “doctor” and “pull together” any weak arrangement of lettering.

112 More, Sir Thomas: “Utopia, et Mori et Erasmi Epigrammata”: 4to, Froben, Basle,
1518. Woodcut borders and Title pages by Holbein. (The reproduction is from the title page to
the Epigrams.) Note.—The exceptionally fine type of capitals (see p. 373) here shown is used
throughout the book for headings, &c.

113 Doubtful, because, unless unusual care be taken, its delicate quality may be lost in
the process, and also because of the type-like impress of the block on the paper.

114 “Ecce Mundus (The Book Beautiful),” 1902.

115 It was dated 1456 by a rubricator, not by the printer.—E.W.

116 This is recognised in the Sign-writing profession, where, I understand, an applicant
for work is sometimes given a blackboard or a piece of American cloth, on which he writes out
a short inscription in “sharp white.” It is not necessary to watch the writer; good, direct
workmanship shows itself, and also every hesitating stroke or fault, every patch or “touching-
up” or “going over,” is made evident.

117 Brush lettering may be used very effectively on Tiles and China, &c. (see p. 339),
when it is of course rendered permanent by baking.

118 The original form of a painted inscription (not carved) is inevitably spoilt by re-
painting.

APPENDIX B

CHAPTER XVII
INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE
(By A. E. R. Gill)
Treatment & Arrangement — The Three Alphabets — Size & Spacing — The Material — Setting
Out — Tools — A Right Use of the Chisel — Incised Letters & Letters in Relief — The Sections
of Letters — Working in situ.

TREATMENT & ARRANGEMENT
Treatment.—Inscriptions are carved in stone for many uses: for Foundation
Stones and Public Inscriptions, for Tombstones and Memorial Inscriptions,
for Mottos and Texts, for Names and Advertisements, and each subject
suggests its own treatment.
Names and Advertisements should be easily read, and usually entirely
unornamental. The Treatment of Texts, Memorial Inscriptions, Foundation
Stones, &c., may, according to the needs of the case or the opportunities of
the carver, be either simple or elaborate.
Colour and Gold may be used both for the beauty of them and, in places
where there is little light, to increase legibility.
Arrangement.—There are two methods of arranging Inscriptions: the
“Massed” and the [p390] “Symmetrical.” In the former the lines are very
close together, and approximately equal in length, and form a mass.
Absolute equality is quite unnecessary. Where the lines are very long it is
easy to make them equal; but with lines of few words it is very difficult,
besides being derogatory to the appearance of the Inscription. In the
“Symmetrical” Inscription the length of the lines may vary considerably,

and each line (often comprising a distinct phrase or statement) is placed in
the centre of the Inscription space.
Short Inscriptions,such as those usually on Tombstones or Foundation
Stones, may well be arranged in the “Symmetrical” way, but long
Inscriptions are better arranged in the “Massed” way, though, sometimes,
the two methods may be combined in the same Inscription.
THE THREE ALPHABETS
The Roman Alphabet, the alphabet chiefly in use to-day, reached its
highest development in Inscriptions incised in stone (see Plate I.), and it
became absolutely suited to the material.
Besides ROMAN CAPITALS, it is necessary that the letter-cutter should
know how to carve Roman small-letters119 (or “Lower case”) and Italics,
either of which may be more suitable than Capitals for some Inscriptions.
Where great magnificence combined with great legibility120 is required,
use large Roman Capitals, [p391] Incised or in Relief, with plenty of space
between the letters and the lines.
Where great legibility but less magnificence is required, use “Roman
Small-Letters” or “Italics,” or Roman Capitals, either small, or close
together, or both.
All three Alphabets may be used together, as, for instance, on a
Tombstone, one might carve the Name in Capitals and the rest of the
Inscription in Small-Letters, using Italics for difference.

Fig. 209.
Beauty of Form may safely be left to a right use of the chisel, combined
with a well-advised study of the best examples of Inscriptions: such as that
on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.) and other Roman Inscriptions in
the South Kensington and British Museums, for Roman CAPITALS; and
sixteenth and seventeenth century tombstones, for Roman small-letters and
Italics.121 If the simple [p392] elementary form of the letter be cut firmly and
directly, it will be found that the chisel will suggest how that form may be
made beautiful. This may be shown, for example, by an attempt to carve a
quite simple Incised letter with no Serifs and with all the strokes equally
thick. In making the ends of the strokes nice and clean it will be found that
there is a tendency to spread them into Serifs, and the letter is at once, in
some sort, beautified (see fig. 209).
SIZE & SPACING
Drawing out.—Take paper and pencil, or what you will, and write out the
words of the Inscription in Capitals, or small-letters (or both), without any
regard to scale or the shape of the space the Inscription is to go in. The
carver will then see easily of what letters and words his Inscription is

composed. Next draw the shape of the Inscription space (say to 1 inch or 1 12
inch scale), and in that space set out the Inscription, either “Massed” or
“Symmetrical,” as has been decided. The drawing should be neither
scribbled nor elaborated. A good plan is to cut the lead of the pencil to a
chisel shape. The natural thicks and thins of the letters (see p. 44) may then
be produced easily and quickly. The carver will thus be able, after a little
experience, to calculate quite easily what size he will be able to carve his
letters, what space he will be able to leave between the lines, and what
margins he can afford.122 [p393]
The Size of Lettering depends on where it is to go (i.e. outdoors or
indoors, far away or near), the material to be used, and the space at the
carver’s disposal.
Out of Doors letters should not, as a rule, be less than 1 14 inch high, more
if possible.123
Indoors smaller lettering may be carved, but even then 1 inch is quite
small enough, and that only in marble, slate, or the finest stones.
In such stones as Ancaster or Ham-Hill it is not possible to carve good
letters less than 3 inches high.

Fig. 210.
More than one size of letter may be used in the same Inscription to give
emphasis to certain words, thus: on a Foundation Stone the Date (see fig.
210), [p394] and on a Tombstone the Name (see fig. 211), may be made
larger than the rest.

Fig. 211.
Spacing.—Proper spacing is essential to a good Inscription. As a general
rule, Roman letters should not be crowded together. Space should be left
between each, varying according to the letters—a narrower space between
two O’s, for example, and, generally, a wider space between two straight
letters. The lines may be about the height of the lettering apart (see Plate I.)
or pretty close together (see Plate XXIV.).
Margins.—If the Inscription is to be carved in a panel, the surrounding
mouldings take the place of margins, and the lettering may fill the panel
(see fig. 211). If any space be left, let it come, as it [p395] naturally will, at
the bottom. If the lettering is not to be in a panel, the margins depend
primarily on what the carver can afford, and where the Inscription is to go.
Every case must be treated on its own merits, but as a general rule one may

say that the bottom margin should be the widest and the top margin the
narrowest.
THE MATERIAL
The best quality a stone can have, from a letter-cutter’s point of view, is
fineness or closeness of texture, combined with freedom from holes and
flints or occasional shells, and the letter-cutter will do well to choose the
stone himself, if possible, having regard to this quality.
The following is a list of a few of the best stones for outdoor and indoor
use:—
Outdoors or Indoors.
Portland.—Especially good for lettering on account of its fineness
and its excellent weathering qualities, for it not only hardens on the
surface, but also becomes quite white if exposed to wind and rain,
thus showing very clearly any differences of light and shade.
Hoptonwood Fine and hard: good weathering qualities. Great
Slate delicacy may be attained in these.
Ancaster Only suitable for large lettering.
Ham-Hill
Ketton
Indoors only.
Clunch Very fine and delicate work may be done in these.
Chalk
Bath.—A cheap stone, and easily carved; but unsuitable for small
lettering.
Marbles and Alabasters.—Excellent for Inscriptions indoors, but
much colour or veining tends to confuse lettering.
SETTING OUT
The stone being ready for the setting out, i.e. smoothed and cleaned, lines
are ruled on it for the lines of lettering and margins with a pencil or point. If

the Inscription is to be arranged “Symmetrically,” a centre line is ruled from
top to bottom.
The carver should rule and set out one line and carve that before ruling
another, as pencil marks are liable to be rubbed off by the hand in
carving.124
In “Setting Out,” the spacing of the letters is thought of rather than their
forms. And though the beginner may find careful drawing helpful, the forms
which may best be produced with the chisel are found only by practice and
experience (p. 399).
TOOLS
The chisels needed for simple work are flat chisels of the following
sizes:—
1
16
inch, 14 inch, 38 inch, 12 inch, 1 inch.

The shanks should be about 7 inches long.
It will be found useful to keep a few “Bull-nosed” chisels (see 7, fig. 212)
for use in cutting curves, and a few “skewed” chisels (8, fig. 212) for use in
cutting the background of Raised letters, as a chisel of that shape is more
easily used in a corner.

Fig. 212.

The chisels are either Hammer-headed or Mallet-headed, or they may
have wooden handles [p397] (see fig. 212, and pp. 401–2). The Hammer-
headed are the most used, and a good number should be procured. The best
are made with cupped ends, to prevent them from slipping on the hammer
(see 5, fig. 212). [p398]

Fig. 213.
Temper and Sharpness.—Above all things the chisels must be of the right
temper, and sharp.125 They may be tempered by a smith or tool-maker—if

the craftsman can do it for himself, so much the [p399] better. They are
sharpened on a piece of Grit-stone (hard York stone, for instance) with
water. The Temper of a chisel may be seen by the colour (blue shows a soft
or low-temper, straw colour a hard or high temper), and felt by the way it
rubs on the Grit-stone (a hard tool will slide easily over the stone, while a
soft one will seem to stick or cling).126
Mallets.—A wooden mallet or Mell, a Zinc mallet or Dummy, and an iron
or steel hammer are required (fig. 213).
The Mell is made wholly of wood, and should, for letter cutting, be about
5 12 inches in diameter.
The Dummy has a head of zinc and a wooden handle. It should be about
2 12 inches in diameter.
The hammer should be about the same size and weight as the Dummy.
A RIGHT USE OF THE CHISEL
The workman must find out, for himself, how best to use his tools. In the
ordinary way, it is best to hold the chisel at an angle of about 45° with the
surface of the stone—in the manner shown in fig. 214—in cutting both
straight stems and curves. The chisel is held firmly (usually in the left hand,
with the little finger about an inch from the cutting end of the chisel) and
tapped rather than banged, and lightly rather than heavily.
The best way to cut a letter is to start at the extreme left-hand point of the
bottom Serif, and, working upwards, to cut the left side of the stroke first.
Then start similarly at the extreme right-hand point of the bottom Serif, and
cut the right side of the stroke. Then finish the Serifs. [p400]
When cutting a curve, cut the inside first (fig. 214), and start as near the
narrowest part of the curve as possible.

Fig. 214.
In Incised letters unnecessary junctions of the parts may be avoided (see
fig. 215). Where they are necessary, as in a capital E, or in a small y, cut
[p401] away from the junction or down on to it, rather than towards it.

Fig. 215.
The Mallet-headed and wooden-handled chisels are used with the Mell
for large work and for cutting surfaces. [p402]

The Hammer-headed chisels are used with the hammer for ordinary
work, and with the Dummy for small and delicate work.

Fig. 216.

A Mallet or Dummy is not used in carving chalk, but the chisel is pushed;
the right hand doing the pushing, and the left hand guiding and steadying
the chisel (see fig. 216). If the chisel [p403] were struck, the surface of the
chalk would flake off.
In cutting an Incised Inscription with the ordinary “V” section (see fig.
217), use one size of chisel throughout. The width of the chisel should
generally be about the width of the letter stem required. More elaborate
sections necessitate the use of several sizes of chisels.
INCISED LETTERS & LETTERS IN RELIEF
Inscriptions may be Incised or in Relief, that is, sunk or raised.127 The
modus operandi and the time spent in carving the actual letters are the same
in either case, but whereas when the Incised letter is carved there is nothing
more to be done, after the carving of the Raised letter there is still the stone
surrounding it (i.e. the background) to be dealt with, and this may simply be
carved smooth,128 or, if our imagination be strong enough, and our hand
have the cunning, it may become under the tool a field of roses and lilies in
which the letters are set.
Other things being equal, it becomes a question of economy which form
of lettering one will carve, as the necessity of dealing with the background
of a Raised Inscription, while more than doubling the opportunities of the
carver, at least doubles the time spent in carving.
Raised lettering will show out more clearly than Incised lettering where
there is little light. [p404]
Roman Capitals are more adapted for carving in Relief than are Roman
small-letters or Italics, which are directly derived from the pen.

Fig. 217.

Raised lettering is more allied to ordinary carving, while Incised lettering
may be thought of as writing in stone. [p405]

THE SECTIONS OF LETTERS
For Incised letters, a “V” section (1, fig. 217) of about 60° is best for
regular use; deeper rather than shallower. The letters may with advantage be
cut a little deeper towards the Serifs (see fig. 218).
Although the simple “V” section is the most
useful, other sections may be used for large letters
(i.e. letters more than 6 inches high), or letters in a
very fine material (2 & 3, fig. 217).
If the lettering is to be gilded, and the stone will
permit of it, Section 4 (fig. 217) is a good one to
use. Only the curved part is to be Gilded, and not
the small bevelled sides. Fig. 218.
For Raised letters, the best and most useful
section is No. 5; the slightly bevelled sides tell as part of the letter.
Experience, and the weathering conditions, will suggest the amount of
Relief to be given. For letters 1 12 inch high, out of doors, 16
3
inch of relief is
ample, and if there be good light 18 inch is enough. Excessive relief looks
clumsy.
Sections Nos. 6 and 7 are suitable only for large letters; and elaborate
sections should as a rule be used only for letters standing alone.
WORKING IN SITU
If possible the carver should work in situ. When that is impracticable,129
he should consider most carefully where his Inscription is to go. [p406]
In an Inscription which is much above the eye level, the letters may be
narrower in proportion to their height, and the horizontal strokes extra thick
to allow for foreshortening. (See also pp. 351, 270.)

The advantages of working in situ are great, for by so doing the carver
sees his job as he works under the same conditions of light and environment
that it will finally be seen under, and the work is more likely to become a
part of the place because it has grown there.
And it is good to carve an Inscription on the actual wall of a fine
building, and better still to work in the inspiriting atmosphere of building in
progress, or to work in the open air where the artificial notions of workshop
or studio are dissipated and the feeling of life and freedom gained.

FOOTNOTES TO APPENDIX B:
119 With which we may include Arabic numerals.

120 It should be clearly understood that legibility by no means excludes either beauty or
ornament. The ugly form of “Block” letter so much in use is no more legible than the beautiful
Roman lettering on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.).

121 Roman small-letters and Italics, being originally pen letters, are still better
understood if the carver knows how to use a pen, or, at least, has studied good examples of
manuscripts in which those letters are used.

122 Some advice from the letter-cutter might be useful to the client as to the number of
words and the space they will occupy in cases where it is possible to adapt the one to the other.

123 Small lettering is less convenient to read out of doors, and is apt to get filled with
dirt or moss.

124 Whenever it is possible the carver should not be bound to follow a drawing strictly,
but should do his work in the straightforward manner described above. Unfortunately he is
often obliged to set out the whole Inscription exactly before carving it, and in such a case it is
usual to carve the bottom line of letters first and to work upwards, cutting the first line last.

125 Really sharp, i.e. sharp enough to cut a piece of paper without tearing it.

126 The harder the stone to be carved, the more highly tempered will the chisels need to
be.

127 In learning to cut Inscriptions one would naturally begin with Incised letters.

128 Where the ground between the letters is left plain, an absolute flatness and evenness
is not necessary. The common method of jabbing or “pecking” the background is objectionable.

129 E.g. Tombstones and Memorial Slabs are not usually fixed until finished.

N O T E S O N T H E C O L L O T Y P E P L AT E S
(Note.—In order to make the illustrations [whether of facsimiles or enlargements] as large and as
full as possible, I have sacrificed “appearance” to use and allowed most of the collotype plates,
and many of the diagrams in the book, to encroach on the margins.—E. J.)

GENERAL NOTE.—All the plates are in facsimile as to size (or nearly so,
allowing for errors in reproduction) except I., II., XXII., and XXIV., which
had to be reduced, and therefore only portions of the MSS. can be shown.
Note.—All the MSS. are on “Vellum” (see p. 173). In order to get a better
impression of the size and general proportion of a MS., the student might
reconstruct it—or at least mark off the margins, text, &c.—on paper, from
the measurements given. Or a sheet of paper might be cut to the size of the
given page or opening, with an aperture (in its proper place) through which
the plate might be viewed.
The plates are arranged in chronological order as nearly as possible. They
are intended briefly to illustrate the Development of the Formal Book Hands
from the Roman Capital and the General Development of the Illuminated
MS.: I hope, moreover, that, fragmentary as they are, they will prove
usefully suggestive in regard to the Arrangement of Text and Lettering and
Ornament. The wonderful effect of the colouring cannot be given here, but,
in any case, the illuminator should look at some original MSS. Several of
the MSS. from which the plates are taken are exhibited in the British
Museum.

PLATE I.—Portion of Inscription on base of Trajan Column,130
Rome, circa 114 A.D. Scale approx. 19th linear.

THE STONE (within the internal line of the moulding): 3 feet 9 inches
high, and 9 feet 34 inch long. [p410]
THE BORDERS.—The lettering practically fills the panel (see p. 352):
the surrounding moulding is approx. 4 inches wide.
THE LETTERS (for their forms see next note).

First two lines: 4 12
Second two lines: 4 38

Fifth line: 4 18

Last line: 3 78
All approximate heights, inches

THE SPACES (between Lines) decrease from 3 inches to 2 34 inches. A
decrease in the height of the letters from the top to the foot line is common
in early inscriptions (see figs. 203–205). Several reasons for this suggest
themselves: (a) (Sometimes the beginning words, being farther from the
reader, may require to be larger). (b) The architectural beauty of a large
heading (comp. stem heads, p. 288). (c) The importance of beginnings
generally (there is very often a marked difference between the upper lines
containing important words and the rest of the inscription: comp. figs. 197,
91).
Note.—The WORDS are separated by triangular points (p. 384).

130 There is a cast (No. 1864–128) in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South
Kensington, where also the photograph of the inscription is obtainable, from portions of which
Plates I. and II. are reproduced.

PLATE II.—Alphabet from Trajan Inscription. (Circa 114 A.D.)
Scale approx. 16th linear. (See note above.)

THE “TRAJAN” ALPHABET.— Very fine letters for inscriptions in
stone: possibly painted before incision (see p. 292); see also remarks on
Roman Capitals, pp. 268–296, and note:—
SERIFS.—Small and carefully curved.
THIN PARTS about half the width of the thick stems (pp. 375, 285).
A (M and N), pointed (p. 280).
B—a very beautiful form, with large lower bow (p. 278).
C, G, and (D)—Upper parts rather straight (p. 281).
E and F—mid arm slightly shorter than upper arm.
E and L—lower serif pointed out (p. 282). [p411]
LO (shown sideways in collotype) and LT show L’s arm projecting under next letter.
M—pointed: slightly spread (p. 284), distance apart of points above equal to inside distance of
stems below.
N—pointed: practically no difference in thickness of vertical and oblique parts (p. 285).
O—very beautiful: width slightly less than height (p. 270); slightly tilted (as are all the other
curved letters: see p. 285).
P—Bow not joined to stem below (first P rounder topped).
Q—tail carried under V (U).
R—large bow: straight tail, with finishing-curve (p. 291).
S—leans forward slightly (p. 286).
Proportions of widths to heights (comp. with pp. 269–273)
OCDGMNQ width slightly less than height.
ARTV 1
width approx. th less than height.
6
BX width rather more than half height.
P width approx. equal half height.
LS width slightly less than half height.
EF 3
width approx. ths of height.
7

Fig. 219.
H, (J), K, (U), W, Y, Z are not present in the inscription. A rough diagram
(fig. 219) is given below showing approximately suitable forms for these
(Re junction of U in stone; see p. 400, & fig. 215). [p412]

PLATE III.—Written Roman Capitals, Fourth or Fifth Century.
(Virgil’s “Æneid”).

(From a facsimile in the Palæographical Society’s Publications, 1st
Series, Vol. II., Pl. 208, of a MS. in the library of S. Gall, Switzerland. See
also “Greek and Latin Palæography,” p. 185.)
LETTERS.—Simple-written (slanted-pen) Roman “Square Capitals.”
WORDS in early MSS. were not separated (p. 112).
LINES ruled with a hard point (p. 343). The letters appear to have been
written between every alternate pair (p. 299), but slightly over the line.

A very handsome writing which might still be used for special MSS. (see
pp. 304, 300, 299).

PLATE IV.—Uncial Writing, probably Italian Sixth or Seventh
Century. (Latin Gospels). Brit. Museum, Harl. MS. 1775.

(Shown in Brit. Mus. Department of MSS., Case G, No. 11.)
THE VOLUME contains 468 leaves (7 inches by 4 34 inches).
MARGINS, Approx.: Inner 58 inch, Head 78 inch, Side 98 inch, Foot 88 inch.
(They may have been cut down by the binder.)
WRITING.—A fine round Uncial MS. (pp. 38, 302), arranged in long
and short lines.
Note.—On many of the letters there are fine hair-line curved tails and
flourishes, which are scarcely visible in the photograph. (These tails were
also used in the earlier Uncial shown in fig. 5—see also Addenda, p. 23.)
SECTIONS.—Marked by built-up letters of an Uncial type, and
numbered, mR cxxiiii to mR cxxvi (with references to “Harmonies”). The
passage is S. Mark xi. 21–25. [p413]

PLATE V.—Uncial Writing, probably Continental Seventh Century.
(Gospel of S. John). Ex libris Stonyhurst College. (See also
enlargement, fig. 169.)

(From a facsimile in the Palæographical Society’s Publications, 1st
Series, Vol. II., Pl. 17.)
THE VOLUME contains 90 leaves, approx. 5 38 inches by 3 58 inches. The
Inner margin is approximately 12 inch wide.