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Title: The Ohio Journal of Science, Vol. XVI, No. 1, November 1915

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OHIO
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVI, NO. 1, NOVEMBER 1915 ***

The Ohio
Journal of Science

NOVEMBER,
Volume XVI. 1915 Number 1.

(Continuation of The Ohio Naturalist)

Official Organ of the

Ohio State University Scientific Society
and of the

Ohio Academy of Science

COLUMBUS, OHIO
Annual Subscription Price, $2.00 Single Number, 30 Cents
Entered at the Post-Office at Columbus, Ohio, as Second-Class Matter.

The Ohio Journal of Science
PUBLISHED BY THE

Ohio State University Scientific Society
Issued Monthly during the Academic Year, from November to June (eight
numbers).
Official Organ of the Ohio Academy of Science
Subscription Price: $2.00 per Year, payable in advance; to Foreign
Countries, $2.50.
Single Copies, 30 Cents.
Editor, John H. Schaffner
Associate Editor, James S. Hine
Associate Editor, Frederick W. Ives

EDITORIAL BOARD
J. F. Lyman Agricultural Chemistry
F. W. Ives Agricultural Engineering
A. G. McCall Agronomy
F. L. Landacre Anatomy
J. H. Schaffner Botany
Carl B. Harrop Ceramic Engineering
Jas. R. Withrow Chemistry
F. H. Eno Civil Engineering
N. W. Scherer Forestry
C. S. Prosser Geology
V. H. Davis Horticulture
W. A. Knight Industrial Arts
C. J. West Mathematics
Horace Judd Mechanical Engineering
Jonathan Forman Pathology
F. C. Blake Physics
R. J. Seymour Physiology (General)
Clayton McPeek Physiology (Medical)
E. R. Hayhurst Public Health & Sanitation

J. S. Hine Zoology and Entomology
The Ohio Journal of Science is owned and controlled by the Ohio State
University Scientific Society. By a special arrangement with the Ohio
Academy of Science, the Ohio Journal of Science is sent without
additional expense to all members of the Academy who are not in arrears
for annual dues.
The first fifteen volumes of the old Ohio Naturalist may be obtained at
$1.00 per volume.
Remittances of all kinds should be made payable to the Business
Manager, J. S. Hine.
Address The Ohio Journal of Science
Ohio State University, COLUMBUS

Ohio Academy of Science Publications.

First and Second Annual Reports Price 30 cts. each
Third and Fourth Annual Reports Price 25 cts. each
Fifth to Sixteenth Annual Reports Price 20 cts. each
Seventeenth Annual Report Price 40 cts. each

SPECIAL PAPERS.
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4. The Fishes of Ohio. pp. 105. Raymond C. Osburn
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Ecological Study of Big Spring Prairie. pp. 96. Thomas A. 50
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9. Batrachians and Reptiles of Ohio. pp. 54. Max Morse
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10. Ecological Study of Brush Lake. pp. 20. J. H. Schaffner,
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Otto E. Jennings, Fred J. Tyler
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14. Discomycetes in the Vicinity of Oxford, Ohio. pp. 54.
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Address: C. W. REEBE, Librarian, Ohio Academy of Science.

Library, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

THE

Ohio Journal of Science
PUBLISHED BY THE
Ohio State University Scientific Society
Volume XVI NOVEMBER, 1915 No. 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introductory 1
Lord—The Making of a Photographic Objective 3
Transeau—Notes on the Zygnemales 17
Organization of the Ohio State University Scientific Society 32

INTRODUCTORY.
Fifteen years ago the Biological Club of the Ohio State University
began publishing The Ohio Naturalist. This Journal has had a continuous
existence and has been an important medium in advancing the knowledge
of the natural history of the state. A number of years ago the Naturalist
became the official organ of the Ohio Academy of Science and was thus
sent to every member of the Academy. At that time the Ohio Academy was
largely composed of Biologists and Geologists, but has now widened its
scope to include Physicists, Mathematicians, and others. It was, therefore,
thought desirable by many that the scope of the Naturalist should be
enlarged so as to make it representative of all of the activities of the
Academy. In accordance with this desire, committees were appointed by the
various departments interested and a plan for future publication was
proposed which was finally adopted.
The Ohio State University Scientific Society was thus organized at the
Ohio State University and will take over the control of the new publication.
This Society is to have somewhat the same relationship to The Ohio
Journal of Science as the Biological Club had to the Ohio Naturalist. The
management of the Journal is under an Editorial Board made up of
representatives of various scientific departments of the University. This
Board elects annually the Editor and two Associate Editors.

Editorial Board.
Agricultural Chemistry, J. F. Lyman; Agricultural
Engineering, F. W. Ives; Agronomy, A. G. McCall; Anatomy, F.
L. Landacre; Botany, J. H. Schaffner; Ceramic Engineering, Carl
B. Harrop; Chemistry, Jas. R. Withrow; Civil Engineering, F. H.
Eno; Forestry, N. W. Scherer; Geology, C. S. Prosser;
Horticulture, V. H. Davis; Industrial Arts, W. A. Knight;
Mathematics, C. J. West; Mechanical Engineering, Horace Judd;
Pathology, Jonathan Forman; Physics, F. C. Blake; Physiology
(General) R. J. Seymour; Physiology (Medical), Clayton

McPeek; Public Health and Sanitation, E. R. Hayhurst; Zoology
and Entomology, J. S. Hine.

The Ohio Journal of Science is to be considered as a continuation of
The Ohio Naturalist. It is hoped that with the wider field covered, it may
interest a much larger number of the scientific people of the state, and be
financially supported so that it may soon develop into a journal of high
standard. It is the intention of the present Editors, with the large field before
them, to publish results of research as well as articles of general interest in
the advancement of Science. On the natural history side the aim at present
will be to pay more especial attention to the biology, geology and
geography of Ohio, but articles dealing with any other region will be
acceptable.

The Editors for the present year are as follows:
John H. Schaffner—Editor.
James S. Hine—Associate Editor (Business).
Frederick W. Ives—Associate Editor (Subscriptions).
John H. Schaffner.

THE MAKING OF A PHOTOGRAPHIC
OBJECTIVE.
Being a Description of a Course in Applied Optics Offered at the
Emerson McMillin Observatory of the Ohio State University.
H. C. Lord.

Photography, in its more serious phase, has taken an important place in
almost every field of human activity while in its lighter mood, through the
development of the “Kodak” and the roll film, is giving us one of our most
delightful pastimes. As a condition for the best work, a high grade lens is a
necessity and especially so for those extremely short exposures required in
the photography of rapidly moving objects. It often happens that some of
the most perfect and at the same time most difficult specimens of optical
design are found on cameras so small that they can be easily carried in
one’s coat pocket. These so called anastigmats furnish to the optician a
difficult and yet at the same time most fascinating problem for
mathematical investigation. Thousands of photographic objectives are
placed on the market every year, yet though almost every branch of
engineering is covered by our technical schools, I know of no place outside
of Germany where a student can be instructed in the design and
construction of a simple photographic objective. Professor Silvanus P.
Thompson in his inaugural address as President of the British Optical
Convention held in London in 1912, states: “In the Universities and
Colleges the only people who are learning Optics are merely taking it as a
part of Physics for the sake of passing an examination for a degree, and care
nothing for the application of Optics in the industries. They are being taught
Optics by men who are not opticians, who never ground a lens or calculated
even an achromatic doublet, who never worked an opthalmoscope or
measured a cylindrical lens.” Further on he speaks as follows: “What is
wanted is an establishment where the whole atmosphere is one of optical
interest; where theory and practice go hand in hand; where the
mathematician will himself grind lenses and measure their performance on
the test bench; where braincraft will be married to handcraft; where

precision, whether in computation or workmanship, will be the dominating
ambition.”
Some four years before the above quotations were written, the author
started to work up a course in Optics which should aim, not only to give to
the student a knowledge of the fundamental theory of lenses, but should
also apply those principles to the methods of optical design and thus enable
him to compute the curves of the component lenses of a photographic
objective. This has now been fairly well worked out and is given in the Arts
college under the official titles “Astronomy, 107, 108, 109 and 110.” The
basis of this course is “A System of Applied Optics,” by H. Dennis Taylor,
the inventor of the Cooke lens. This splendid volume develops, from the
standpoint of geometric optics, a complete discussion of the formation of an
image by a combination of any number of lenses, but does not apply the
methods and formulae there developed to the actual design of a
photographic objective. The writer of this paper was, therefore, compelled
to work out this part of the theory for himself and, as he had always felt that
all mathematics should ultimately end in arithmetic and that all arithmetic
should ultimately end in doing something, he resolved at the outset that the
course should end in laboratory work in the actual computation, grinding
and polishing of lenses. As to how well this has succeeded, I will let the
illustrations which accompany this article speak for themselves. Suffice it to
say that the half tone cuts were made from five by seven enlargements from
negatives, one and three quarters by two and one-eighth inches, taken with
a lens designed and built at this observatory and working at an aperture of F
six. A peculiar feature of this lens is that it is composed of four lenses all cut
from the same piece of crown glass. This lens beautifully illustrates the
importance of adding to the theoretical side of the course, the practical work
in the laboratory in construction and testing as this lens, though in the main
satisfactory, has one serious defect and a defect which is very instructive in
that it shows that at a certain point in the design, the theory was weak and
needed to be extended and enlarged. It should be stated that this theoretical
investigation is now completed and ready to be put to the test of practice.
This Observatory possesses a well equipped instrument shop, which
was used for the practical side of this work and it has seemed to me that a
description of how we used the ordinary tools of a machine shop, of what
special appliances we were compelled to make, and how we finally ground

and polished our lenses would be of general interest. These methods do not
pretend to be the best, nor those actually employed by the manufacturer, but
they do illustrate how a lens can be made and how a little ingenuity will
enable one if he has the standard tools of a machine shop to carry out
almost any kind of experimental work.
As a preliminary to this, a brief outline of the problem before the lens
designer may be of interest. A simple lens consists of a piece of glass
bounded by either plane or spherical surfaces as these, except in large
reflecting surfaces, are the only kind that can be made with sufficient
accuracy. Such a lens would have a great many defects or errors and would
be unable to give a sharp image on the photographic plate unless stopped
down to a very small aperture. By changing the radii of the surfaces, and
the thickness of the lens, the designer can vary these errors, but after all is
said and done he can do but little to improve the single lens. He then
combines lenses of different forms and of different kinds of glass into a
single objective, in this way making the positive errors of some of the
lenses balance the negative errors of the others, until he arrives at a
combination which is more or less perfect according to his skill as a
designer. How this is accomplished is far beyond the limits of this paper, so
I will now proceed to the mechanical side of the problem.
The first consideration is the glass; of course it must be what is known
as optical glass and its selection is really part of the work of the designer.
Optical glass is nothing more than a very perfect kind of glass which has
been exquisitely annealed. You are all familiar with the intense green of
window glass when seen edgewise; a piece of white paper will hardly be
changed in color when seen through twelve inches of a good optical crown.
The best optical glass is not made in this country, but must be purchased
from either Schott & Gen. of Jena or Mantois of France. The Jena glass has
become very celebrated and most of the lens makers state that their lenses
are made out of it and as a consequence most people think that Jena glass
means a certain kind, while, as a matter of fact, their catalogue for 1909
shows about seventy different varieties. These differ in optical qualities and
chemical composition, and cost from about a dollar to five dollars a pound,
with a few special varieties costing as much as fifteen dollars. This glass
comes in slabs, but will be cut by the makers with either a diamond saw or a
sand saw, the purchaser paying for the “saw dust.”

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
The slabs that were used here were 2" × 6" × ½" and the first operation
was to cut from these round disks a little larger than the finished lens. This
was accomplished in the following manner and is illustrated in Fig. 1. In the
chuck of a drill speeder on a Barnes drill press was placed a ¼" steel rod
which carried at its lower end a copper tube, A, which was steadied at the
bottom by a steel washer, bored to a loose fit to the tube, and clamped to the
glass as shown. Number 40 Carborundum was used and lubricated with
plenty of water. The tube must be lifted frequently to allow the abrasive to
flow to the cutting edge. This is done so often that it seems almost a
continuous motion of lifting and pressing down again, the tool resting on
the glass hardly more than two or three seconds at a time. The cutting may
be done at such a speed as to allow of a slight heating. As soon as the tube
has cut itself about a sixteenth of an inch into the glass, the guiding washer
may be removed and the glass will then act as its own guide. A disk about
one inch in diameter and a half of an inch thick could be cut out in a little

over a half of an hour. At B Fig. 1 is shown one of the uncut slabs and at C
and D two that are about used up. Though working rather slowly this
proved quite satisfactory though wasteful of glass as it cut a rather wide
scarf, copper must be used; brass was tried but the wear was so great as to
render it almost useless while the copper shows almost none.
As these disks are cut out they are not only cone shaped but the edges
are very rough so that the next operation was to grind these to smooth and
true circular disks. This was done on a Wells tool grinder shown in Fig. 2,
which was slowed way down by placing a large pulley on the counter shaft.
The glass to be ground was held by cementing it with pitch onto a piece of
brass rod which in turn was held in the drawing collet of the head A. A
special wheel B, made by the Norton people for grinding the rims of
spectacle lenses, was used and the machine slowed until the wheel would
keep wet when running against a sponge, C, resting in water. The glass disk
was in this way kept dripping and heating entirely prevented. The grinding
was then carried out just as with any other material and the edge was made
beautifully smooth and true in a few minutes. The beauty of pitch as a
cement for holding the glass is that a slight heating will soften it so that the
disk can be shifted to any position and then a dash of cold water clamps it
in place and at the same time the pitch will slowly yield to the slightest
pressure so that in a few minutes the glass is entirely free from strain. In
manufacturing this sort of work is done with a diamond and is of course
done much more quickly.
The disks were thick enough to make two lenses each so we sawed them
into two as illustrated in Fig. 3. A is an old polishing head upon which was
mounted a pulley at one end and a copper disk, B, at the other, the disk
being held between large washers. C is a cast iron box fastened to an arm,
D, hinged at E and kept pressed against the copper disk by a cord passing
over two pulleys on the ceiling. This made a most excellent automatic feed.
The glass to be split was fastened to a block of pine with pitch and the
wood held in the iron box, C, with wedges. Number 40 Carborundum was
used with plenty of water and the glass was cut through faster than a power
hack saw would cut through steel. The glass should be cut half way through
and then reversed so that the final break will come in the middle and thus
prevent the edges from spawling off. The chief defect of this machine was
the way it scattered emery.

Fig. 3
The disks are now ready for the grinding which is done on the machine
on the right of Fig. 3, which consists simply of a vertical spindle run by a
quarter twist belt from the counter shaft against the wall. The end of this
spindle is tapered at the upper end to receive the grinding tool or laps,
shown on the table in Fig. 5 which also shows the spindle raised so that the
grinding lap is seen above the tin box, C, which surrounds the spindle to
catch the abrasive that is thrown off in grinding. The glass is first smoothed
down on a flat lap until it is of equal thickness at all points as measured by a

micrometer when it is ready to be ground to the proper curves. For this
purpose the spherical laps, shown in Fig. 5, are turned in the special
machine illustrated in Fig. 4. The compound rest of an old Seller’s lathe
was removed and in its place, on the cross slide of the carriage, was
mounted the sphere turning rest. This consists of a base, A, in which the
slide, B, is so mounted that it can be rotated about the center, C, by turning
the milled head, D, which carries a worm at the opposite end. E is the tool
post with the cutting tool T and L the lap to be turned. A hole was drilled at
C into which was fitted a round piece of steel the upper end being pointed
and then half cut away like a center reamer. This was used in finding the
zero; the rod, pointed end up, was placed in the hole at C and the cutting
tool adjusted against the flattened side. The zero position is then determined
by measuring, with an inside micrometer, the distance from the tool post to
a stop placed at the end of the slide B. By adding to or subtracting from the
zero reading of the micrometer the length of the radius of the grinding lap,
the tool post may be set to the proper position for either a convex or a
concave surface. This, however, is only approximate, for these laps must be
made with the highest possible accuracy. After sufficient cuts have been
taken to give a spherical surface, the radius is carefully measured with a
special spherometer and the error in the radius corrected by changing the
position of the cutting tool by an amount calculated from the readings of the
spherometer. This spherometer we were compelled to build as we could find
none of sufficient accuracy on the market and it is described in a note at the
end of this article.

Fig. 4

Fig. 5
In Fig. 4, R is simply a steady rest made with the large overhang to
allow the slide B to swing under it in turning a convex surface. Two master
laps, male and female, must be made and carefully ground together. Every
effort should be taken to make these as accurate as possible since upon
these depends the goodness of our lens. This special tool is easy to make
and leaves nothing to be desired in its operation. Detail drawings and
directions for making it are given in a note at the end.
We now come to the grinding or lapping of the lenses themselves. This
is done in a lap turned as above and carefully fitted to the master laps and
which must be trued from time to time as the work progresses. This lapping
of glass is entirely different from the lapping of metals in that, while in
metals the lap is to be kept almost free from the abrasive, in glass the lap
must be freely supplied with emery and water or deep scratches will result.
The best way to apply the emery is with a paint brush; the brush, saturated

with emery, being held in front of the lens as it is ground. The lens may be
held in the hand or cemented to a disk of brass having a center hole drilled
in the back in which is placed a pointed piece of steel held in the hand, the
lens being free to rotate about the pointed steel holder. Of course where the
lens has to be ground to a definite thickness it must be held by hand. Flour
of emery was used to rough grind though coarser grades would have
worked faster. The final smooth grinding was done with a special fine
emery made for this purpose by Bausch and Lomb. Great care must be
taken in the grinding to keep the lens as nearly centered as possible. A lens
is said to be centered when the line which joins the centers of curvature of
the surfaces passes through the center of figure. Obviously if a double
convex lens could be ground to a knife edge it would be centered but if this
were done the edge would be almost certain to crumble in the final
polishing and deep scratches result. The centering of a convex lens can be
watched by keeping the edge as nearly uniform of thickness as possible
with a concave lens, if the original blank is made larger than necessary and
care is taken to make the sides parallel, the centering can be watched by
keeping a flat edge of equal width around the concave portion, the lens
being placed back on the flat tool, from time to time, as the work
progresses. If care is used the lens need be made but little larger than the
finished size to allow for the final accurate centering to be described later.
After being smooth ground the lens is beautifully smooth and velvety to
the touch but is just as much ground glass as ever, that is, it is absolutely
opaque. We now come to the polishing. This is done with specially prepared
rouge and only an excessively small amount of glass is taken off. Lord
Rayleigh in a paper on “Polishing of Glass Surfaces” read before the British
Optical Convention held in 1905, states: “I started with a finely ground
surface, rather more finely ground I think than is used in practice, and I
found that in order to obtain a pretty good polish it was necessary to remove
a weight of glass, corresponding to a depth of about 6 wavelengths. I do not
pretend that such a polish would satisfy the requirements of commerce;
probably the 6 would have to be raised to 10 or 12 in order to get to the
bottom of the deepest pits.” When it is remembered that a wave length is
about the fifty thousandth part of an inch we realize how very delicate such
lapping must be. For this work the lap is covered with pitch which has been
brought to the proper degree of hardness either by boiling, to harden it or by
adding asfalt varnish to soften it. The proper degree of hardness is very

important and must be adjusted to the temperature of the room. Obviously if
the pitch is too soft it will not hold its shape and it will be impossible to
hold the polishing tool to the proper radius. I have put three different curves
on a lens about an inch in diameter in a few minutes and it had to go back
on the grinding machine before it could be finished.
The polishing tool is prepared as follows: A disk of pitch, about ¼"
thick, is cast by pouring it in a mold made by a strip of brass bent to a
circle, the ends clamped with a tool maker’s clamp, and rested on a piece of
cold cast iron which has been planed smooth. This should be of such size
that when bent to the proper shape it can be molded over a tool similar to
the grinding tool but with a radius changed by about the thickness of the
pitch. This tool is then heated and painted with a stick of pitch, the disk is
warmed, and the two pressed together, when cooled the pitch will stick tight
to the iron but will be far from a smooth surface. This and the master tool of
the opposite curvature are placed in warm water and pressed together and at
the same time one slowly rotated, one about the other. When a good fit is
secured they are cooled and a number of small holes, about 1-8" in
diameter, are drilled all over the pitch to distribute the abrasive, which of
course spoils the surface and the tool must be again pressed. This pressing
to shape must be done repeatedly and requires great care and some practice
in order to have the pitch come to the exact opposite of the pressing tool.
The most important thing is to do the pressing slowly and in fact in the
whole process of this work one must never get in a hurry. Ritchey, in his
memoir on the construction of the great 60" at Mt. Wilson, recommends
covering the pitch with beeswax, and for quicker and poorer work a cloth
polisher may be used, the cloth being a special felt and cemented to the cast
iron tool with a thin layer of pitch.
The abrasive is rouge or red oxide of iron and its preparation is fully
described in the above mentioned work by Ritchey. We purchased the
anhydrous red oxide of iron from Merck & Co. This was mixed with plenty
of water in the jars shown at E, Fig. 5. The rouge will rapidly precipitate,
the coarse particles falling to the bottom, and leaving clear water above the
precipitated rouge. The upper two-thirds of the rouge will be almost perfect
and will give a beautiful polish when carefully siphoned off. This should be
kept in tightly corked bottles, one of the best things is a horse radish jar as
this has a place for the handle of the brush in the glass stopper, and all dust

and grit can be easily washed off before the jar is opened. For polishing, the
lens is cemented to a handle at whose end is a piece of brass turned to fit the
lens in the sphere turning machine already described. Even in a small lens
the polishing tool must be run slowly, the speeds of our machines run from
170 to 300 revolutions per minute and the fastest can seldom be used. The
reason of this is that the lens fits the polisher so perfectly that almost a
perfect vacuum is formed and the lens hugs the polished so closely that it is
impossible to hold it in small sizes by hand alone and in the case of a
convex surface, if the cavity is carried clear out to the edge of the glass
disk, this may be broken simply by the friction due to this grip of the glass
and pitch. Fig. 5 shows a horizontal polishing head at B and a vertical one
at C. There is little choice except that for convex surfaces B seems the best,
as it can be run faster, while for concave C seems better.
The lenses are now ready to be centered, that is, the circumference so
turned that the line which joins the centers of curvature of the two spherical
surfaces shall pass through the center of figure. In order to accomplish this,
the lens is first cleaned from the pitch used to cement it to the handle used
in holding the lens for polishing. For a long time I could find no way of
doing this satisfactorily when pitch was the cement; finally, I laid my
troubles before Dr. A. M. Bleile, Head of the Department of Physiology,
and he suggested to first soak the lens in lard and then wash it in benzol
(C6H6). This worked like magic though the first time I tried it I used some
lard that had been heated with some pitch in it which made the lard very
soft in fact almost as soft as it could be and yet not be an oil, and this same
lard was used over and over again. The action is rather peculiar; the lard
does not apparently effect the pitch at all but after a few minutes in the
benzene it all flakes off and leaves the lens perfectly clean. The actual
centering is then carried out on the grinding machine shown in Fig. 2; A
holder, D, whose front face has been turned in the spherical turning
machine to fit one of the surfaces of the lens, is held in the head A. If the
lens be cemented to this with a thin coat of pitch, it is obvious that the
surface of the lens next to the holder will have its center of curvature
coincide with the axis of rotation of the spindle of the head, A, but the
center of curvature of the other lens surface will probably fall outside of this
axis. A lamp, L, has a tin chimney with a pin hole in it turned towards the
lens, this pin hole forming a brilliant point of light, an image of which is

formed by each surface and reflected by the total reflecting prism, P, into
the telescope, T, where it is seen through the eyepiece. If the centers of
curvature of both surfaces do not accurately coincide with the axis of
rotation of the head, A, the images of the pin hole will describe circles as
this axis is rotated. The back surface will of course be centered if the layer
of the pitch used as cement is of uniform thickness which will generally be
the case if the work has been carefully done; but in any case the image
formed by it should be examined. If the front surface is out of center, as it
generally will be, the holder should be warmed and the lens shifted, care
being used to keep it tight against the surface of the holder as it is being
shifted. As soon as both images remain stationary as the head, A, is rotated,
the lens is fed against the wheel, B, and ground true and to size. This
worked beautifully and the tests were wonderfully sensitive. As soon as the
component lenses of the objective have all been thus centered, they are
ready to be assembled in the cell or shutter in which they are to be used; but
as this is simply a matter of careful machine work, I need not describe it
further.
I know of no literature on the grinding of small lenses though the
following memoirs on the making of large reflecting telescopes should be in
the hands of any one interested in this work:

On the Construction of a Five-foot Equatorial Reflecting
Telescope.
By A. A. Common, LL. D., F. R. S.
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. L., 1890-
91.

On the Construction of a Silvered Glass Telescope, Fifteen and a
Half Inches in Aperture, and its Use in Celestial Photography.
By Henry Draper, M. D.,
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. 34.

On the Modern Reflecting Telescope and the Making and Testing
of Optical Mirrors.
By George W. Ritchey.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. 34.

Note 1—A Spherometer for Short Radii.

Fig. 6
In Fig. 6, A is a regular Brown & Sharpe Micrometer Head
with the measuring point ground to an angle of 60° and slightly
rounded; B is a round steel base all machined at one setting in
which the micrometer head is clamped by a set screw not
shown.
Let r be the radius of the spherical surface, MNO, and we
2 2
will have at once r = (a + d ) ⁄ 2d. The advantage of this form of
spherometer is that it is very easy to make the point of the
micrometer exactly central with the base and the value of 2a can
be accurately determined by means of an ordinary micrometer

calliper. For a convex surface, 2a should obviously be the inside
diameter of the base, B.
In using the instrument, two tables, one for concave and one
for convex surfaces, should be prepared; these tables to give the
power in dioptres for each one thousandth of an inch in the
value of d. Using the American Optical Co.’s Standard Index,
namely, μ equal to 1.5000 and one dioptre as being the power of
a lens of 40 inches focus, we have, for a plano lens, p = 40⁄f =
40d
⁄ (a2 + d2) since f = r ⁄ (μ-1).
The advantage of forming the table in dioptres in place of
radii directly is that the tabular differences are small at all parts
of the table so that interpolation can be readily done and this is
not the case in tables which give the radii directly.
If upon measuring the radius of the tool or lap being turned
in the sphere turning machine, Fig. 4, with this spherometer, the
tool is found to be in error by an amount Δp this may be
corrected by changing the position of the cutting tool by an
amount 20 (Δp ⁄ p2).

Note 2—Cross Section of the Sphere Turning Rest.

Fig. 7
In Fig. 7 is shown a cross section of the sphere turning rest
further illustrated in Fig. 4. In machining this the following
suggestions should be followed. The piece M should be cast
with a lug projecting from the face PQ to chuck it by and all the
turning done at one chucking. It should be made a close fit to R
and bolted tight against DG and ED´ with the bolts S3 and S4,
clearance being given along the line HF. To compensate for
ware the face DG and ED´ can be releaved from time to time
with a file. The base N, should be planed along AB, where it
fastens to the cross slide of the carriage, then bolted to a face
plate of the lathe and finished, care being used to leave the
setting of the compound rest unchanged between machining the
faces CD and C´D´ of the pieces M and N. The dove tail on R
should be first planed and then this bolted to a face plate and the

boss GHFE and the faces KG and EL turned at one setting. If
these directions are followed almost no hand work will be
needed. W is a brass worm wheel held by screws not shown and
J is the sliding tool post clamped at X with the tool at K´.

NOTES ON THE ZYGNEMALES.[A]
Edgar Nelson Transeau.
The following notes principally concerning North American
Zygnemales are based on a study of the specimens accumulated in the
course of eight years collecting in central Illinois; a collection made by Mr.
Charles Bullard, of Cambridge, Mass., in Massachusetts and New
Hampshire; the specimens distributed in the Phycotheca Boreali-Americana
by Collins, Holden and Setchell; the specimens distributed in American
Algae, by Miss Josephine E. Tilden; the specimens in the U. S. National
Herbarium; and small collections sent me by Professor Farlow, Miss Tilden,
Professor A. B. Klugh, Professor D. S. Johnson and Miss Grace Stone.
They have been compared with the species distributed by Wittrock and
Nordstedt in their “Algae Aquae dulcis exsiccatae,” and other valuable
European and South American specimens sent me by Professors O. Borge
and O. Nordstedt.
In determining almost any species of the Zygnemales it is absolutely
essential that the specimens show both the vegetative cells and the mature
spores. With the exception of a few species of Mougeotia the spores are
colored either yellow, brown, or blue when they are mature. The
characteristic markings of the median spore wall do not develop usually
until this color appears. Consequently it is useless to attach names to
vegetative specimens based on dimensions and number of chromatophores.
Keys based on such characters are not only useless, but misleading.
Judging from my experience in Illinois it is highly probable that the list
of North American forms will be considerably augmented, when intensive
studies have been made at localities in the Southern United States. The most
satisfactory method of collecting these forms is to take samples from the
various ponds and streams at regular intervals of ten days, or two weeks,
throughout the growing season. Many of the species show local variations
and considerable experience is needed before many of the forms can be
satisfactorily classified. The writer has in course of preparation an

illustrated key to the group, in which figures for all of the species will be
published.

DEBARYA Wittrock.

This genus is in many respects the most generalized of all the
Zygnemales. It is distinguished by three important characteristics: (1) the
entire contents of the gametangia enter into the making of the zygospore;
(2) the zygospore is formed in the conjugating tube and is not cut off from
the other parts of the gametangia by partition walls; (3) as the gametes
move toward the tube during conjugation, their place is taken by a secretion
of cellulose, which renders the gametangia solid and highly refractive. This
secretion also occurs when a vegetative cell forms an aplanospore.

Debarya glyptosperma Wittrock.

This species has been recorded for America. It is not uncommon in
Massachusetts and has also been found in Minnesota and Florida. In P. B.-
A. No. 808 from Boswell, California is a somewhat smaller variety with
blue spores associated with Zygnema peliosporum Wittr. The spores are
common in the material and the vegetative cells and filaments occasional.
Following is a diagnosis for this variety:
Var. formosa nov. var. Cellulis vegetativis 7.5-9µ latis; zygosporis 24-
30µ × 30-42µ, caeruleis; ceterum ut in typo.
Vegetative cells 7.5-9µ in diameter, zygospores 24-30µ × 30-42µ steel
blue, otherwise like the type.

Debarya americana nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 9-12µ × 27-120µ, ad dissepimenta constrictis;
chromatophoris cum pyrenoidibus 2; cellulis fructiferis, 10-14µ × 75-180µ;
zygosporis ovoideis vel quadrato-ovoideis, 20-40µ × 30-40µ, angulis
rotundatis, productis, vel retusis; parthenosporis 15-20µ × 20-30µ, oblique
ellipticis, cum polis retusis; mesosporio subtiliter et irregulariter verrucoso,
maturitate luteo-brunneo.

Vegetative cells 9-12µ × 27-120µ constricted at the end walls,
chromatophore with two pyrenoids; fertile cells 10-14µ × 75-180µ;
zygospores ovoid or quadrately ovoid, 20-40µ × 30-40µ, with angles
rounded, produced, or retuse; parthenospores 15-20µ-× 20-30µ unilaterally
ellipsoid with retuse ends; median spore wall minutely and irregularly
verrucose, yellow-brown at maturity.
This species was collected by Professor A. B. Klugh, Kingston, Ontario.
It is the material upon which the Ontario record for Mougeotia calcarea
(Cleve) Wittr. is based. Of special interest is the chromatophore with two
pyrenoids, which although an axile plate is distinctly two-lobed and forms
an easy transition to the next species, in which the chromatophore
resembles Zygnema. Type in herb. E. N. T. Collection No. 2950.

Debarya decussata nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 16-20µ × 25-50µ cylindraceis; chromatophoris
asteroidiis duobus, singulis cum pyrenoidibus (ut in Zygnemate);
zygosporis vel ovoideis, vel irregularibus, 24-30µ × 30-48µ cum angulis vel
rotundatis, vel retusis, vel productis; aplanosporis uno latere ovoideis, 17-
25µ × 20-40µ; parthenosporis 15-20µ × 20-30µ; membrana media
sporarum scrobiculata, luteo-brunnea; akinetis ad dissepimenta constrictis,
membrana subcrassa et glabra, 18-20µ × 20-36µ.
Vegetative cells 16-20µ × 25-50µ cylindrical; chromatophores two,
stellate, each with a pyrenoid (as in Zygnema); zygospores ovoid, quadrate-
ovoid, or irregular, 24-30µ × 30-48µ, with rounded, retuse, or produced
angles; aplanospores unilaterally ovoid, 17-25µ × 20-40µ; parthenospores
15-20µ × 20-30µ; median spore walls scrobiculate, yellow-brown; akinetes
with smooth heavy walls, 18-20µ × 20-30µ.
Type in herb, E. N. T. Collections No. 1177, 1939, 1949, 2686 and
2918. I have specimens from several localities in central Illinois;
Williamsport, Pa.; Minnesota; Mackinaw, Mich. and Kingston, Ontario.
This form is of great interest because of its resemblance, in the
vegetative condition, to Zygnema decussatum (Vauch.) Transeau. Also
because it shows not only the zygospores, but aplanospores and
parthenospores. In all cases the secretion of cellulose accompanies the

process of spore formation. The unilaterally placed aplanospores are
strikingly different from those formed by the Zygnemas. In some of the
Illinois ponds it regularly produces only zygospores, in other ponds from
which I have collections covering a period of several years it fruited only
asexually, producing aplanospores and akinetes. But several of the
collections show all the forms of reproduction in different cells of the same
filament.
The characteristics of this species suggest that the peculiar Zygnema
reticulatum, which was described by Hallas in 1895[B], is in reality a
Debarya. The fact that the reproductive cells become filled with cellulose,
that the aplanospores are very irregular in form and that the vegetative cells
contain as high as seven chromatophores, are all in harmony with this idea.
On this basis it is also easy to understand the most notable peculiarity of the
species—that spores derived from cells with several chromatophores
produce two or three sporelings.
With the addition of the two new American species and this Danish
species Debarya reticulata (Hallas) nov. comb. the description of the
genus needs to be modified as follows:
Vegetative cells cylindrical or constricted at the ends, varying from 1-16
diameters in length; chromatophore varying from an axile plate with two or
more pyrenoids to stellate chromatophores, each with a central pyrenoid.
Reproduction by zygospores formed of the complete contents of the
gametangia; not cut off from the gametangia by partition walls; but in the
process of conjugation, as the gametes pass into the conjugating tube, their
place is taken by a secretion of cellulose. Aplanospores occupying only part
of the sporogenous cell, the remainder being filled with cellulose. All spores
variable in form. Parthenospores and akinetes occur not infrequently in
some of the species. The walls of the aplanospores and parthenospores
resemble the zygospores of the same species in their markings.
There are now eleven described species belonging to this genus. D.
immersa W. West and D. africana G. S. West bear a close resemblance to
Mongeotia sphaerocarpa Wolle. D. Hardyi G. S. West has much the same
appearance as Mongeotia viridis (Kutz) Wittrock. D. desmidiodes W. & G.
S. West, D. calospora (Palla) W. & G. S. West, D. reticulata, D. americana,
and D. decussata have characters in common with the Zygnemas. D.

glyptosperma has the vegetative characters common to several of the
species, but its spores are quite unique among the Zygnemales.

ZYGNEMA Agardh.

Z. pectinatum (Vauch.) Agardh.

This is probably common in the eastern half of the United States at
least. In Illinois along with the type occurs the variety conspicuum (Hass.)
Kirchner, and a variety with large spores. This latter variety in fact is more
common than the type.
var. crassum nov. var. Cellulis vegetativis 30-40µ × 20-80µ; zygosporis
40-55µ × 50-60µ, ceterum ut in typo.
Vegetative cells 30-40µ × 20-80µ; zygospores 40-55µ × 50-60µ,
otherwise like the type. Type in herb. E. N. T. Collections No. 2350, 2392,
2660, 2685.

Z. ericetorum (Kütz) Hansgirg.

Professor G. S. West has studied the reproduction of this species and
finds that it is a true Zygnema and that the description and figure by De
Bary, which shows the cutting off of two special gametangia before the
union of the gametes is at fault, consequently there is no longer any need of
maintaining the genus Zygogonium Kützing.

Z. peliosporum Wittrock.

Specimens of this species have been distributed under the name of Z.
chalybeospernum Hansgirg, in P. B.-A. No. 808 from Boswell, Calif. (N. L.
Gardner); Amer. Alg. No. 156 from Ft. Collins, Colo. (J. H. Cowan); and
Amer. Alg. No. 392 from Vancouver, B. C. (J. E. Tilden). Z.
chalybeospermum has the median wall smooth, but the spores of all of the
above specimens have distinctly scrobiculate median walls. In size the

specimens show a somewhat greater variation in dimensions than has been
recorded for European localities.

Z. cruciatum (Vauch) Agardh.

Specimens of this species have been found at Fath Pond, north of
Coffeen, Ill., in which both zygospores and aplanospores occurred in
abundance. The aplanospores fill or slightly enlarge the vegetative cells as
in Z. Collinsianum Transeau,[C] but the ends of the spores are usually more
nearly truncate, 34-50µ × 30-80µ. At Casey, Ill., a variety with the same
dimensions but steel blue spores occurs in the old Ice Plant Pond.
var. caeruleum nov. var. Cellulis vegetativis et sporis ut in typo, sed
membrana media sporarum caerulea.
Vegetative cells and spores as in the type, except that the median spore
wall is steel blue. Type in Collection E. N. T. No. 495.

Zygnema stellinum (Müller) Agardh.

The specimen distributed under the name Z. insigne (Hass.) Kütz. in the
P. B.-A. No. 457, from Chestnut Hill, Mass. (G. F. Moore), belongs to this
species as shown by the scattered mature spores. This species is common
everywhere in central Illinois. In the U. S. Natl. Herb, is a specimen from
Baltimore Co., Md., (J. D. Smith). In Amer. Alg. No. 157, a specimen from
St. Paul, Minn., (J. E. Tilden) shows both zygospores and aplanospores. The
aplanospores are cylindric ovoid in form, occupying the entire cell 30-33µ
× 40-88µ, median wall scrobiculate.

Zygnema cylindricum nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 28-33µ × 28-66µ; zygosporis incognitis;
aplanosporis cylindricis vel tumido-cylindricis, 30-33µ × 24-58µ, sporangia
complentibus; membrana media brunnea scrobiculata.
Vegetative cells 28-33µ × 28-66µ; zygospores unknown; aplanospores
cylindric or tumid-cylindric, 30-33µ × 24-58µ, filling the sporangia, median
wall brown, scrobiculate. Type in Herb. E. N. T. No. 1164, 1177.

This species is not uncommon in ponds, and pools throughout central
Illinois. It was at first classified as aplanosporic material of Z. stellinum
(Müller) Agardh. On going over the specimens in all my collections,
however, it was found that in no case were the filaments containing the
aplanospores connected with the filaments containing zygospores. This
must be the final test of the identity of the species, as it occurs in some
collections alone, sometimes associated only with fruiting Zygnema
pectinatum, and sometimes with Z. stellinum.

Zygnema rhynchonema Hansg.

In a collection of algae made at the Minnesota Seaside Station,
Vancouver Island, B. C., in 1901, by Professor Tilden, is a form which
perhaps belongs here. The vegetative cells are from 22-28µ in diameter, and
32-52µ in length, while the European specimens are described as 16-20µ in
diameter and 2-6 diameters long. The Vancouver specimens are producing
both aplanospores (globose, 24-26µ in diam.), and zygospores (ovoid 24-
28µ × 36-44µ) by the union of gametes through the partition wall
separating the two gametangia. The specimens show some evidences of
being in an abnormal condition.

SPIROGYRA Link.

S. Juergensii Kützing.

The specimen in P. B.-A. No. 510 from Knightsville, R. I., distributed
under the name of S. longata (Vauch) Kütz. with cell diameter 27-30µ, and
ellipsoid spores 30-33µ in diameter, fertile cells enlarged, evidently belongs
to this species. The spores of S. longata are distinctly ovoid with rounded
ends. In the Illinois specimens the spores of S. Juergensii frequently occur
with diameters up to 33µ.

S. varians (Hass.) Kütz.

The varieties scrobiculata Stockman and minor Teodoresco have not
been reported from America. They both occur rarely in Illinois. The latter I
have also seen in material collected by Mr. Charles Bullard, at Lynnfield,
Mass. The former is characterized by its scrobiculate spores, the latter by its
smaller dimensions throughout. In my herbarium S. varians scrobiculata is
represented in Collections No. 1799, and 1881; and S. varians minor in
Collection No. 2951.

S. Borgeana nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 30-35µ × 50-200µ, dissepimentis planis,
chromatophoris singulis anfractibus arctis 1.5-5; cellulis fractiferis altero
latere inflatis, altero latere (in quo conjugatio sequitur) rectis; zygosporis
ellipticis, 33-40µ × 54-70µ, membrana media flava, glabra.
Vegetative cells 30-35µ × 50-200µ, end walls plane, 1 chromatophore
making 1.5-5 turns; fertile cells inflated on the outer side, straight on the
conjugating side; zygospores ellipsoid 33-40µ × 54-70µ, median wall
yellow, smooth. Type in herb. E. N. T. Coll. No. 1883, 1890. Charleston,
Illinois.
This species bears some resemblance to a form of S. varians figured by
Professor Borge.[D] It differs from his figure in that the conjugating side of
the fertile cells is not at all swollen, and the dimensions are somewhat
larger. If this form had been found but once it would have been passed over
as a variation intermediate between S. Juergensii and S. varians. But it has
been found several successive years in a small stream south, and at a small
pond west of Charleston, Illinois.

S. lutetiana Petit.

So far as I am aware no specimens of this species have been found in
America. The Illinois record in my list[E] is an error. The P. B.-A. specimen
labelled S. lutetiana is S. fallax (Hansg.) Wille, as shown by its often
replicate cell walls, verrucose spores and the number of chromotophores.

S. velata Nordstedt var. occidentalis Transeau.

Specimens of this variety have been distributed in the P. B.-A. No. 96,
under the name of S. dubia Kütz. var. longiarticulata Kütz. from Oak Bay,
Victoria, British Columbia (N. L. Gardner). The spores are for the most part
not mature but they show the characteristic scrobiculate markings of the
median wall.

S. Lagerheimii Wittrock.

This species is not uncommon in central Illinois. The specimen labelled
S. communis in P. B.-A. No. 1416, from Winchester, Mass., has a cell
diameter over 30µ, and the spores are ellipsoid instead of ovoid. The
median spore wall in the mature spores is punctate. Here also belongs the P.
B.-A. specimen No. 365, Falmouth, Mass. Both the vegetative cells and the
spores are considerably below the lower dimensions for S. porticalis. The P.
B.-A. specimen No. 1668, S. porticalis var. tenuispira Collins establishes
this name as a synonym of S. Lagerheimii. Professor Farlow has recently
sent me a specimen of this species from Chocorua, N. H.

S. daedalea Lagerheim.

This species has recently been found in a pond south of Coffeen, Ill.
The spores show the characteristic markings and the dimensions are near
those of the original collection. The spores are slightly more rhomboidal
than in the type material, which I have seen. In herb. E. N. T. Collection No.
2912, 2850.

S. Goetzei Schmidle.

This species previously known only from the tropics has been found in
the collection of Mr. Charles Bullard, from Wellfleet, Mass. In herb. E. N.
T. Collection No. 2954.

S. submarina (Collins) nov. comb.

This species was described by Collins as a variety of S. decimina
(Müller) Kütz, which it somewhat resembles in the form of the vegetative

cells. The spores, however, are distinctly ellipsoid, while those of S.
decimina are ovoid. The dimensions are much smaller than those of S.
decimina. It seems better therefore to recognize this as a distinct species. It
has been collected in Massachusetts, Connecticut and Bermuda.

E. ellipsospora Transeau.

Described originally from Illinois, I have seen specimens during the
past year from Maine, Massachusetts and Minnesota. Professor G. S.
West[F] described about the same time a species from Columbia, South
America, which appears to be a form of this same species. The vegetative
cells are considerably larger, the chromatophores are six (or five) in
number, and the spores are at the upper limit of size of the North American
form. As our specimens all show, a wider range of dimensions and number
of chromatophores, the South American form is best classified as a variety
under the name S. ellipsospora var. splendida (G. S. West) nov. comb.

S. propria nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 60-68µ × 80-150µ, dissepimentis planis;
chromatophoris 3, anfractibus arctis .5-1; cellulis fructiferis cylindricis;
zygosporis ellipticis 42-60µ × 80-120µ; membrana media sporarum
scrobiculis irregularis ornata, luteo-brunnea.
Vegetative cells 60-68µ × 80-150µ, end walls plane; 3 chromatophores
making .5-1 turn in the cell; fertile cells cylindrical; zygospores ellipsoid,
42-60µ × 80-120µ, median wall irregularly pitted, yellow-brown. Type in
herb. E. N. T. Coll. No. 2666. Coffeen, Illinois.
This species is very distinct in the form of its spores and their position
in the fertile cells. Lateral conjugation only has been observed. It is possible
that the number of chromatophores is more variable, but in all the
vegetative cells in which they could be counted there were three.

Spirogyra braziliensis (Nordstedt) nov. comb.

Owing to the indefinite and imperfect description of S. lineata Suring.,
the variety Braziliensis Nordstedt, of which we have a perfect description
and specimens (W. & N. Alg. aq. dulc. exsicc. No. 360), should be given
specific rank. Its connection with S. lineata is very problematical.

S. fluviatilis Hilse.

In all the published descriptions of this species the spores are described
as smooth, and the number of chromatophores is given as four. I have seen
many specimens from Illinois, and collections from the upper peninsula of
Michigan (T. L. Hankinson), Minnesota (J. E. Tilden), Hawaii (J. E. Tilden),
Massachusetts (P. B.-A. No. 1217), Pennsylvania (E. N. T.) and Guatemala
(W. A. Kellerman). In all cases the mature spores are brown and
scrobiculate, and the number of chromatophores is three or four.

S. nova-angliae nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 50-60µ × 200-350µ, dissepimentis planis;
chromatophoris 3-5, anfractibus arctis 2.5-4.5; cellulis fructiferis non
inflatis; zygosporis ovoideis 50-65µ × 80-120µ: membrana media sporarum
reticulata et dense punctata, flava.
Vegetative cells 50-60µ × 200-350µ, end walls plane; 3-5
chromatophores making 2.5-4.5 turns; fertile cells not inflated; zygospores
ovoid 50-65µ × 80-120µ: median wall reticulate and densely punctate,
yellow in color.
This species was first found in the collections of Mr. Bullard from
Beaver Dam, Brook Pond, Natick; the pond west of Winter Pond,
Winchester; and the Middlesex Fells, Mass. Recently the same form was
found in a large prairie pond south of Coffeen, Illinois. Its position in the
genus is near S. malmeana Hirn. In herb. E. N. T. Collections No. 2952,
2953 and 2900.

S. diluta Wood.

I first came across this species in Mr. Bullard’s collection from the pond
west of Winter Pond, Winchester, Mass. On going over Wood’s description,
its identity with S. diluta is unmistakable. The position, color and form of
the spore, and the shape of the fertile cells is perfectly represented in
Wood’s figure. The dimensions also correspond. Wolle is responsible for
confusing this species with S. nitida (Dillw.) Link, but a glance at Wood’s
figure is sufficient to show that it is very different from that species. The P.
B. A. specimen No. 513 (labelled S. nitida) from Bridgeport, Conn.,
belongs here. Miss Grace Stone also sent me a collection of this species
from near New York City. In the U. S. National Herbarium is another
specimen from Bois Sabbi, Louisiana, April 7th, 1891, (A. B. Langlois).
Recently the species has been collected at Donnelson, Illinois, by Mr. Frank
Harris.
The vegetative cells are usually shorter than in S. nitida, the spores are
ovoid, not ellipsoid, and the spore wall is verrucose, or reticulate-verrucose,
chestnut brown in color. In herb. E. N. T. Coll. No. 2900.

S. crassa Kützing.

Var. formosa nov. var. Varietas gracilis, cellulis vegetativis 80-95µ ×
80-270µ; zygosporis 88-100µ × 120-150µ × 70-90µ; ceterum ut in typo.
A small variety, vegetative cells 80-95µ × 80-270µ: zygospores 88-
100µ × 120-150µ × 70-90µ; otherwise similar to the type. Type in herb. E.
N. T. Coll. No. 1939. This variety occurs in a pond east of Ashmore, Ill.

S. submaxima Transeau.

This species which was described from Illinois has been found with
nearly the same dimensions in the collections from Middlesex Fells, and
South Peabody Station, Mass., sent me by Mr. Chas. Bullard.

S. micropunctata nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 30-36µ × 120-300µ, dissepimentis planis,
chromatophoris singulis anfractibus arctis 3-7; cellulis fructiferis modo

binis vel quaternis inter cellulas vegetativas distributis, modo continuis,
altero latere (in quo conjugatio sequitur) inflatis, altero rectis; tubo
conjugationis plerumque ex cellula mascula emisso; zygosporis ellipticis
37-42µ × 57-100µ membrana media micropunctata et lutea.
Vegetative cells 30-36µ × 120-300µ, end walls plane; 1 chromatophore
making 3-7 turns; fertile cells scattered in twos or fours among vegetative
cells, or continuous, inflated on the conjugating side, outer side straight;
conjugating tubes formed almost wholly by the male cell, zygospores
ellipsoid 37-42µ × 57-70µ, median wall minutely punctate, yellow. Type in
herb. E. N. T. Coll. No. 2470, 2953.
This species was first found in the West Big Four Pond, east of
Charleston, Illinois. It has since been found in a collection from Chocorua,
N. H., sent me by Mr. Chas. Bullard. It evidently belongs in the punctata
group of the Spirogyras, but in form and markings of the spore, and the
shape of the fertile cells it is amply distinct from its nearest allies; S.
punctiformis Transeau and the next species to be described.

S. reflexa nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 30-40µ × 120-300µ, dissepimentis planis;
chromatophoris singulis anfractibus arctis 3-8 cellulis fructiferis binis vel
quaternis inter cellulas vegetativas distributis, inflatis et valde reflexis; tubo
conjugationis ex cellula mascula emisso; zygosporis ellipticis, 44-54µ × 90-
150µ, membrana media glabra et luteo-brunnea.
Vegetative cells 30-40µ × 120-300µ, with plane end wall; 1
chromatophore making 3-8 turns; fertile cells in groups of 2 or 4, inflated or
enlarged and strongly reflexed; conjugating tube formed by the male cells;
zygospores ellipsoid, 44-54µ × 90-150µ, median wall smooth, yellow-
brown. Type in herb. E. N. T. Collection No. 2661, 2664, 2912.
This species has been under observation for four years and has been
collected from ponds near Casey, Lerna, Coffeen and Donnellson, Illinois.
The large, smooth spores, the reflexed conjugating cells, and the tube
produced wholly by the male cells are the distinguishing characteristics.

S. hydrodictya nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 75-100µ × 210-360µ, dissepimentis planis,
chromatophoris 7-10, modo subrectis longitudinalibus, modo spiralibus
anfractibus arctis .1-.5; cellulis fructiferis inflatis vel subinflatis; tubo
conjugationis ex cellula mascula emisso; zygosporis lenticularibus vel
globoso-lenticularibus, 80-120µ × 110-195µ, membrana media scrobiculis
obsita, brunnea.
Vegetative cells 75-100µ × 210-360µ, end walls plane, 7-10
chromatophores, either straight, or spiral making .1-.5 turns; fertile cells
inflated or subinflated; conjugating tube formed by the male cell;
zygospores lenticular or globose-lenticular 80-120µ × 110-195µ, median
wall brown, pitted. Type in herb. E. N. T. Coll. No. 2661, 2665. Coffeen,
Illinois.
This is one of the most remarkable forms described in this genus. It
combines large size, the lenticular spore form, and the habit of forming the
conjugating tube entirely by the male cell. The conjugating tube has walls
heavier than those of any known species. Conjugation is both lateral and
scalariform, and occurs between scattered cells, very rarely continuous for
6-8 cells. In the fruiting condition the filaments form a mesh-work which
suggests the specific name. It has thus far been found only in the Fath Pond,
north of Coffeen, Illinois.

S. protecta Wood.

A study of American specimens of this species from Massachusetts,
Connecticut, New Jersey, Michigan and Illinois, shows that like S.
Grevilleana there are always some cells with two chromatophores. I have
twice found this species producing aplanospores.

S. tenuissima (Hass.) Kütz var. rugosa Transeau.

P. B.-A. specimen No. 456, Easton’s Pt., Newport, R. I., belongs to this
variety rather than the type, as shown by the scrobiculate spore wall. In Mr.
Bullard’s collection there are also specimens of the variety from
Pennannock, N. J., and from Spy Pond, Lake St., Arlington, Mass.

S. Farlowii nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 24-30µ × 70-180µ, dissepimentis replicatis;
chromatophoris singulis, rarius duobus, anfractibus arctis 2.5-6; cellulis
fructiferis inflatis (ad 39-60µ); zygosporis ellipticis, polis plus minus
acuminatis, 32-45µ × 48-93µ, membrana media glabra, lutea.
Vegetative cells 24-30µ × 70-180µ, end walls replicate; 1 (rarely 2)
chromatophore making 2.5-6 turns; fertile cells inflated to 39-60µ;
zygospores ellipsoid, ends more or less pointed, 32-45µ × 48-93µ, median
wall smooth, yellow. Type in herb. E. N. T. Coll. No. 2955, 2956, 2957.
In Mr. Bullard’s collection there are specimens of this species from
Lexington, Arlington, and Middlesex Fells, Mass. The P. B.-A. specimen
No. 362, labeled S. Grevilleana, from Medford, Mass., belongs here, rather
than to S. Grevilleana, in which the spores are distinctly ovoid with broad
rounded ends.

S. groenlandica Rosenvinge.

This interesting form is characterized by quadrately inflated fertile cells,
highly refractive cell walls, and unusually long cells and spores. In Mr.
Bullard’s collection there are specimens from Stony Brook, South
Framingham, Middlesex Fells, Wayside Inn, North Eastham, and Malden
Fells, Massachusetts. The P. B.-A. specimen No. 363 labelled S. inflata,
Orange, Conn., belongs to this species.

S. fallax (Hansgirg) Wille.

This species is one of several forms near S. insignis (Hass.) Kützing. If
Wille’s description is correct and identical with Hansgirg’s material, then S.
inconstans Collins becomes a synonym of S. fallax. Hansgirg’s figure
suggests that the filaments in his material are homosexual. While Wille’s
description and figure suggests that the filaments are reflexed and that
conjugation does not regularly occur between parallel filaments, with the
spores all in one filament. It is difficult to decide just where these rough-
spored forms belong as the earlier authors did not pay much attention to

spore markings. In this connection the note by Professor Nordstedt in
connection with specimen No. 958 in Wittrock and Nordstedt’s Algae
Exsiccatae is of interest. Until these forms have been clearly separated by a
study of the original collections it seems best to use S. fallax for S.
inconstans, of which the type is P. B.-A. No. 1568. Here also belongs P. B.-
A. No. 1570, Middlesex Fells, Mass., and P. B.-A. No. 1571, Wakefield,
Mass.

S. floridana nov. sp.

Cellulis vegetativis 56-66µ × 120-335µ, dissepimentis planis;
chromatophoris 4-5, subrectis vel anfractibus arctis .5; cellulis conjugatis
abbreviatis, inflatis (ad 135µ) et geniculatis; canalis conjugationis brevis et
latis; zygosporis ellipticis, 75-105µ × 95-135µ membrana media glabra,
lutea.
Vegetative cells 56-66µ × 120-335µ, end walls plane; 4-5
chromatophores, nearly straight or making a half turn; conjugating cells
geniculate, shortened; fertile cells inflated up to 135µ; conjugating tube
very short and broad; zygospores ellipsoid, 75-105µ × 95-135µ median wall
smooth, yellow. Type in U. S. National Herbarium, collected by J. D. Smith,
in S. W. Florida, March, 1878.
In its dimensions S. floridana is intermediate between S. stictica (Eng.
Bot.) Wille and S. ceylanica Wittrock. In several publications the statement
is made that S. ceylanica is intermediate between S. stictica and the
common forms of Spirogyra. A study of authentic material of this species
has shown that it has not intermediate characters, but with its spores having
a minutely pitted median wall, it seems to be intermediate between S.
floridana and S. illinoiensis Transeau, the most specialized form in the
Sirogonium group of the genus.
Throughout the study of these collections the writer has been greatly
assisted by Mr. Hanford Tiffany, now a teacher in the Charleston, Illinois,
High School. It is a pleasure to acknowledge my indebtedness to the many
collectors who have sent me specimens for study.

ORGANIZATION OF THE OHIO STATE
UNIVERSITY
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
As the result of the sentiment expressed at the 1914 meeting of the Ohio
Academy of Science that the official organ of the Academy, “The Ohio
Naturalist,” should be broadened and made more comprehensive in scope,
and feeling that the Ohio State University had no publication representing
the scientific work being done at the institution, the members of the
Biological Club of the University, in whom the publication of the “Ohio
Naturalist” had been vested, called a meeting of representatives of the
various departments interested in science at the university to discuss the
advisability of publishing as successor to the “Naturalist” a journal to be
known as the Ohio Journal of Science.
The first meeting was held in May, 1915, and committees appointed to
outline preliminary plans. At subsequent meetings the reports of the
committees were discussed, interest in the plan continued to develop, until
at a meeting held October 13 the following self-explanatory Constitution
was adopted. The society as now constituted represents twenty-four
departments of pure or applied science at the university.

Raymond J. Seymour,
Secretary Pro Tem.

CONSTITUTION.

Article I—Name.

The name of this society shall be the Ohio State University Scientific
Society.

Article II—Object.

It shall be the purpose of the Society to promote scientific work in the
University by holding meetings for the presentation and discussion of the
results of scientific work; by co-operating with other agencies in arranging
for scientific lectures and in the entertainment of visiting scientists and
scientific societies; by publishing the Ohio Journal of Science and by
furnishing opportunity for the discussion and promotion of any project of
scientific interest which may properly come within the scope of such an
organization and, in general, by furthering in every way possible the
interests of scientific work in the University and the State.

Article III—Membership.

Any member of the instructional staff in the Ohio State University
interested in scientific work shall upon application be eligible to election to
membership in the Society. Students of the Ohio State University interested
in scientific work shall be eligible to membership when endorsed by two
faculty members of the society.

Article IV—Officers.

Section 1. The officers of the society shall consist of President, Vice-
President, Secretary and Treasurer. These officers shall perform the duties
common to such positions.
Section 2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the officers and the
Editor of the Ohio Journal of Science. It shall have power to arrange
programs for meetings, to represent the society when co-operating with
other organizations and to conduct all affairs of the society not otherwise
provided for.

Article V—Editorial Board.

The Editorial Board shall be responsible for the management of the
Ohio Journal of Science. It shall consist of representatives, one from each
department of science in the university represented in the society
membership. This board shall elect annually an Editor and two Associate
Editors.

Article VI—Elections.

Election to membership shall be by vote of the Executive Committee.
The officers shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting in May.
Nominations shall be presented by a nominating committee which shall
consist of the Editorial Board.
One member of the Editorial Board shall be elected by each department
from among the members of such department represented in the society and
in case any department fails to elect a member for this board the Executive
Committee shall elect for the department.

Article VII—Publication.

The Editor and Associate Editors of the Ohio Journal of Science shall
have immediate direction of the publication. The department editors shall
be responsible for the approval of papers from their several departments,
and all papers offered for publication shall be submitted to such department
editors.
The selection for publication from available material shall be
determined by the Editorial Board.

Article VIII—Quorum.

A quorum for the transaction of regular business shall consist of at least
fifteen members with a representation of at least one-third of the
departments included in the society.

Article IX—Amendments.

Amendments to the constitution may be made by the concurrence of
three-fourths of the members present at a duly called meeting, notice of
such amendment having been given to all members at least one week in
advance.

BY-LAWS.

Article I.

The membership fees of the society shall be twenty-five cents per year
or one dollar for a period of five years and such fee shall entitle the
members to participation in all activities of the society but shall not include
the subscription to the Ohio Journal of Science.

Article II.

The subscription price to the Ohio Journal of Science shall be two
dollars to non-members, and one dollar and seventy-five cents to members.

Article III.

The fiscal year of the society shall coincide with that of the University
—July 1st to June 30th. The publication to be issued during eight months,
beginning with November.

Article IV.

Regular meetings shall be held on the second Tuesday evening of the
months of October, November, March, April and May. The meeting in May
shall be the annual meeting for the election of officers and an editorial
board. Other meetings may be called by the Executive Committee, or by the
President on petition of five members.

Article V.

The University Instructional Staff shall be understood to include any
member of the teaching force.

Article VI.

Amendments to the By-laws may be adopted at any regular meeting by
vote of a majority of the members present, notice of proposed amendment
having been given at time meeting is called.

The College Book Store

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Ten Colleges and a Graduate
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THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

FOOTNOTES:

[A] Contribution from the Botanical Laboratory of the Ohio State University,
No. 91.
[B] Hallas, E., Om en ny Zygnema-Art med Azygosporer. Bot. Tidsskrift
20:1-16. 1895.
[C] See Fig. 3, Plate XXV, Amer. Jour. Bot. 1:301. 1914.
[D] Borge, O., Beitrage zur Algenflora von Schweden.
[E] Transeau, E. N., Annotated list of the Algae of Eastern Illinois. Trans. Ill.
Acad. Sci. 6:69-89, 1913.
[F] West, G. S., A contribution to our knowledge of the Freshwater Algae of
Columbia. Memoires de la Societe neuchateloise des Sciences Naturelles
5:1013-1051. Neuchatel, 1914.

Transcriber's Notes:

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The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up paragraphs and so
that they are next to the text they illustrate.
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otherwise noted.
Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations in spelling and
punctuation remain unaltered.

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