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Title: Of the Buildings of Justinian

Author: Procopius

Annotator: T. Hayter Lewis
Sir Charles William Wilson

Translator: Aubrey Stewart

Release date: May 21, 2021 [eBook #65404]
Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: English

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Transcriber’s Notes

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spelling and punctuation remain unchanged.
The table of contents was added by the transcriber
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MAP TO ILLUSTRATE PROCOPIUS ON THE BUILDINGS of JUSTINIAN
Drawn by George Armstrong FOR THE Palestine Pilgrims Text Society.
Outline from Dr. Smith’s Atlas.

Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Society.
OF THE

BUILDINGS OF JUSTINIAN.

BY
PROCOPIUS
(Circ. 560 A.D.).
Translated by
AUBREY STEWART, M.A.,
LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,

AND ANNOTATED BY
COL. SIR C. W. WILSON, R.E., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,
AND
PROF. HAYTER LEWIS, F.S.A.
LONDON:
1. ADAM STREET, ADELPHI.
1888.

CONTENTS.
PREFACE.
LIST OF PLATES.
INTRODUCTION.
BOOK I.
BOOK II.
BOOK III.
BOOK IV.
BOOK V.
BOOK VI.
APPENDIX I.
APPENDIX II.
INDEX.

PREFACE.
Procopius was born at Cæsarea in Palestine, early in the sixth or at the
end of the fifth century. He made his way, an adventurer, to Constantinople,
where he began as an advocate and Professor of Rhetoric. He had the good
fortune to be recommended to Belisarius, who appointed him one of his
secretaries. In that capacity Procopius accompanied the general in his
expedition to the East, a.d. 528, and in that against the Vandals, a.d. 533.
The successful prosecution of the war enriched Belisarius to such an extent
that he was enabled to maintain a retinue of 7000 men, of whom Procopius
seems to have been one of the most trusted, since we find him appointed
Commissary General in the Italian war. On his return to Constantinople, he
was decorated with one of the innumerable titles of the Byzantine Court,
and entered into the Senate. In the year 562 he was made Prefect of
Constantinople, and is supposed to have died in 565—the same year as his
former patron Belisarius.
His works are (1) the Histories (ἱστορίαι) in eight books, namely, two on
the Persian War (408-553), two on the War with the Vandals (395-545), and
four on the Wars with the Goths, bringing the History down to the year 553.
(2) The six books on the Buildings of Justinian, and (3) the Anecdota, or
Secret History—a work which has always been attributed to him.
The ‘Histories’ appeared first in Latin, 1470, the translator being
Leonardo Bruni d’Arezzo (Leonardo Aretino), who, believing his own MS.
to be the only one in existence, gave himself out for the author. They were
first published in Greek, at Augsburg, 1607: but the ‘Buildings’ had already
appeared at Basle, 1531.
The ‘Secret History’ was first published, with a translation into Latin, at
Lyons in 1623. The ‘Histories’ and the ‘Anecdota’ have been translated into
French. An English translation of the ‘Secret History’ was published in
1674. No other part of Procopius has, until now, been translated.
The following version of the ‘De Ædificiis’ has been specially made for
the Pilgrims’ Text Society, by Aubrey Stewart (late Fellow of Trinity,

Cambridge), who has added the valuable notes marked (S.). The notes
marked (L.), chiefly archæological, have been supplied by Professor Hayter
Lewis, and those marked (W.), chiefly topographical, by Colonel Sir C. W.
Wilson, the Director of the Society.
The illustrations of St. Sophia are taken from the magnificent work by
Salzenberg, published at Berlin.
Those from Texier and Pullan are taken by the kind permission of Mr.
Pullan from their work on ‘Byzantine Architecture.’
In the investigation of the antiquities of Palestine, the name of Justinian,
as associated with them, comes forward as often as that of Constantine or
Herod.
From Bethlehem to Damascus—from the sea-coast to far beyond the
Jordan—there are few places of note in which some remains, dating from
his era, do not exist, or in which, at the least, some records of his works are
not left in the history of his time. To him Mount Sinai owes the Church of
the Holy Virgin.
At Bethlehem he is said to have enlarged, if not rebuilt, the great
Basilica.
At Gerizim the mountain still bears on its summit the remains of the
church which he there constructed, and Tiberias is still surrounded, in part,
by the walls raised by him.
He is known to have constructed a large church to the Virgin on the
Mount of Olives, and several other churches in and about Jerusalem, the
grandest of which is described to have been an architectural gem, was in the
Harem area itself.
Besides these, which are definitely recorded to have been his work, he is
supposed by some of the best authorities to have erected the Golden Gate
and the Double Gate; and of late years it has been contended that the
Sakhrah itself was constructed by him as it now exists.
But there is scarcely one of these edifices, where remains of them exist or
are supposed so to do, which has not been the subject of controversy, the

authorship of the Sakhrah (taking that as an instance) having been assigned,
by various persons who would usually be considered as authorities on the
subject, to the Romans under Constantine, to the Byzantines under
Justinian, and to the Arabs under Abd-el-Melek.
It becomes, therefore, important to have a clear record as to what
Justinian did, not only in Palestine but in other countries, so as to be able to
judge to some extent, by well-authenticated examples, of the founders of
those edifices whose history is involved in doubt.
Of the writers who can give us this record, none has such authority as
Procopius, or gives so much detailed information; and he has, for that
reason, been largely quoted by Gibbon and by well-nigh every other writer
on Byzantine history; and he gives such definite information as to the dates
of many of Justinian’s buildings which remain to us, as to form a standard
by which to recognise the general characteristics in outline and detail
adopted by his architects in his greatest works, and which characterize the
style now well known as Byzantine.
Its first and greatest example is St. Sofia at Constantinople, which is,
perhaps, the boldest instance of a sudden change in almost every respect,
whether of plan, elevation, or detail, which is known in architecture.
Before its construction, the ground-plan of well-nigh every building
known to Western architects had defined the plan of all above it.
The columns in the apse of the Basilica, or church, carried galleries or
other erections above it, of varied design, but in the same straight or curved
lines as those beneath them.
The lines of the dome (except in slightly exceptional cases, such as the
ruin known as the Temple of Minerva Medica at Rome, or the Temple of the
Winds at Athens) were carried up on the distinct lines of the lower walls.
The capitals of the columns in the works of the ancient Greeks or
Romans were in each building carved on the same design; and however
beautiful each might be, the eye would see but one form of the Doric, Ionic,
or Corinthian, through the whole range of a colonnade.
The Byzantines changed all that.

The great dome of St. Sophia (the boldest piece of novel construction
ever, perhaps, attempted) forms the crown of a building quite original in
plan; and this dome is placed, not as that of the Roman Pantheon, low down
on thick walls of its own form, but suspended high above all the roof
around it, on four arches, which spring from detached piers, the keystone
alone of each arch giving a direct support to the dome; in every other part it
overhangs the void in the boldest manner.
The circular work between these arches is carried in a manner which is
comparatively easy to imitate now; but the rude and often picturesque
results of attempts at imitation in mediæval times, more especially in the
South of France, show how difficult the work was found to be at the outset.
Earthquake and faults of construction occasioned the rebuilding of the
great dome; but it still crowns, after a trial of more than 1,300 years, one of
the most beautiful buildings in existence.
Then the capitals of the columns, whose general outlines bear few traces
of the ancient orders, were often carved each in a different manner, and,
though harmonizing with each other in general outline, could bear separate
scrutiny, and show each a special motive and design.
The carving of these capitals, and of the other beautiful scroll-work and
foliage which decorate the walls of St. Sophia, has come down to us
through the Normans, and is quite peculiar.
It had none of the soft, round forms which the Romans loved, but is cut
in a sharp, crisp, and somewhat stiff style, casting distinctly marked and
sharp shadows, and the eyes of the foliage and other well-marked parts are
emphasized by being deeply drilled in. Many of the Byzantine
characteristics had been, to a large extent, foreshadowed in Eastern
buildings, even at so early a time as the Assyrian bas-reliefs; but it is to
Byzantine architects, under the fostering care of Justinian, that we owe the
picturesque changes and details of that style, the Byzantine, which takes its
name from his capital and is, to a large extent, identified with himself.
All the drawings have been made for this volume by Mr. George
Armstrong, formerly on the Survey Party under Captain Conder and
Captain Kitchener.

(L.)

LIST OF PLATES.
PAGE
MAP ILLUSTRATING PROCOPIUS Frontispiece
PLAN OF CONSTANTINOPLE 1
CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA 5
DETAILS OF CAPITALS, etc., OF ST. SOPHIA 7
SECTION OF ST. SOPHIA 9
SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS, CHURCH OF 19
FORTIFICATIONS AT DARA 42
CASTLE AND COLUMNS OF EDESSA 60
CISTERN OF IMBAHER OR BATHS OF ANTONINUS 132
BRIDGE ACROSS THE RIVER SANGARIS 133
ES SAKHRA (DOME OF THE ROCK) 139
EL AKSA 140
CHURCH ON MOUNT GERIZIM 144
CHURCH AT BETHLEHEM 148
CHURCH OF MAGNE KAHIREH 160

CONSTANTINOPLE.
Outline from Dr. Smith’s Atlas, C.A.

THE
SIX BOOKS OF PROCOPIUS OF CÆSAREA,
ON THE
BUILDINGS OF THE LORD JUSTINIAN.

INTRODUCTION.

I have not begun this work through any desire to make a display of my
own virtue, or trusting to my powers of language, or wishing to gain credit
by my knowledge of the places described, for I had nothing to encourage
me to undertake so bold a project. But I have often reflected on the great
blessings which countries derive from history, which transmits to posterity
the remembrance of our ancestors, and opposes the efforts of time to cover
them with oblivion; which always encourages virtue in its readers by its
praise, and deters them from vice by its blame, and in this way destroys its
power. All we need study then is to make clear what has been done, and by
whom of mankind it was done; and this, I imagine, is not impossible even
for the weakest and feeblest writer; besides this, the writing of history
enables subjects who have been kindly treated by their rulers, to express
their gratitude, and to make a more than adequate return, seeing that they
only for a time enjoy the goodness of their princes, while they render their
virtues immortal in the memory of their descendants, many of whom in this
very way have been led by the glory of their ancestors to a love of virtue,
and have been probably preserved from a dissolute course of life by the
dread of disgrace. I will shortly explain my object in making these prefatory
remarks.

The Emperor Justinian was born in our time,[1] and succeeding to the
throne when the state was decayed, added greatly to its extent and glory by
driving out from it the barbarians, who for so long a time had forced their
way into it, as I have briefly narrated in my ‘History of the Wars.’ They say
that Themistocles, the son of Neocles, prided himself on his power of
making a small state great, but our Emperor has the power of adding other
states to his own, for he has annexed to the Roman Empire many other
states which at his accession were independent, and has founded
innumerable cities which had no previous existence. As for religion, which
he found uncertain and torn by various heresies, he destroyed everything
which could lead to error, and securely established the true faith upon one
solid foundation. Moreover, finding the laws obscure through their
unnecessary multitude, and confused by their conflict with one another, he
firmly established them by reducing the number of those which were

unnecessary, and in the case of those that were contradictory, by confirming
the better ones. He forgave of his own accord those who plotted against
him, and, by loading with wealth those who were in want, and relieving
them from the misfortunes which had afflicted them, he rendered the empire
stable and its members happy. By increasing his armies he strengthened the
Roman Empire, which lay everywhere exposed to the attacks of barbarians,
and fortified its entire frontier by building strong places. Of his other acts
the greater part have been described by me in other works, but his great
achievements in building are set forth in this book. We learn from tradition
that Cyrus the Persian was a great king, and the chief founder of the empire
of his countrymen; but whether he had any resemblance to that Cyrus who
is described by Xenophon the Athenian in his Cyropædia, I have no means
of telling, for possibly the art of the writer has given some embellishments
to his achievements; while as for our present Emperor Justinian (whom I
think one may rightly call a king by nature, since, as Homer says, he is as
gentle as a father), if one accurately considers his empire, one will regard
that of Cyrus as mere child’s play.[2] The proof of this will be that the
empire, as I just now said, has been more than doubled by him, both in
extent and in power; whilst his royal clemency is proved by the fact that
those who wickedly plotted against his life, although they were clearly
convicted, not only are alive and in possession of their property at the
present day, but even command Roman armies, and have been promoted to
the consular dignity. Now, as I said before, we must turn our attention to the
buildings of this monarch, lest posterity, beholding the enormous size and
number of them, should deny their being the work of one man; for the
works of many men of former times, not being confirmed by history, have
been disbelieved through their own excessive greatness. As is natural, the
foundation of all my account will be the buildings in Byzantium, for, as the
old proverb has it, when we begin a work we ought to put a brilliant
frontispiece to it.

BOOK I.
I. The lowest dregs of the people in Byzantium once assailed the
Emperor Justinian in the rebellion called Nika, which I have clearly
described in my ‘History of the Wars.’ To prove that it was not merely
against the Emperor, but no less against God that they took up arms, they
ventured to burn the church of the Christians. (This church the people of
Byzantium call Sophia, i.e., Σοφία—Wisdom; a name most worthy of God.)
God permitted them to effect this crime, knowing how great the beauty of
this church would be when restored. Thus the church was entirely reduced
to ashes; but the Emperor Justinian not long afterwards adorned it in such a
fashion, that if anyone had asked the Christians in former times if they
wished their church to be destroyed and thus restored, showing them the
appearance of the church which we now see, I think it probable that they
would have prayed that they might as soon as possible behold their church
destroyed, in order that it might be turned into its present form. The
Emperor, regardless of expense of all kinds, pressed on its restoration, and
collected together all the workmen from every land, Anthemius of Tralles,[3]
by far the most celebrated architect, not only of his own but of all former
times, carried out the King’s zealous intentions, organized the labours of the
workmen, and prepared models of the future construction. Associated with
him was another architect named Isidorus, a Milesian by birth, a man of
intelligence, and worthy to carry out the plans of the Emperor Justinian. It
is, indeed, a proof of the esteem with which God regarded the Emperor, that
He furnished him with men who would be so useful in effecting his designs,
and we are compelled to admire the intelligence of the Emperor, in being
able to choose the most suitable of mankind to carry out the noblest of his
works.

CHURCH OF ST SOPHIA.

Specimen of Details of Capitals &c. of St.
Sophia
From Salzenburg

The church consequently presented a most glorious spectacle,
extraordinary to those who beheld it, and altogether incredible to those who
are told of it. In height it rises to the very heavens, and overtops the
neighbouring buildings like a ship anchored among them: it rises above the
rest of the city, which it adorns, while it forms a part of it, and it is one of its
beauties that being a part of the city, and growing out of it, it stands so high
above it, that from it the whole city can be beheld as from a watch-tower. Its
length and breadth are so judiciously arranged that it appears to be both
long and wide without being disproportioned. It is distinguished by
indescribable beauty, for it excels both in its size and in the harmony of its
proportion, having no part excessive and none deficient; being more
magnificent than ordinary buildings, and much more elegant than those
which are out of proportion. It is singularly full of light and sunshine; you
would declare that the place is not lighted by the sun from without, but that

the rays are produced within itself, such an abundance of light is poured
into this church. Now the front of the church (that is to say the part towards
the rising sun, where the sacred mysteries are performed in honour of God)
is built as follows. The building rises from the ground, not in a straight line,
but set back somewhat obliquely, and retreating in the middle into the form
of a half-circle, a form which those who are learned in these matters call
semi-cylindrical, rising perpendicularly. The upper part of this work ends in
the fourth part of a sphere, and above it another crescent-shaped structure is
raised upon the adjacent parts of the building, admirable for its beauty, but
causing terror by the apparent weakness of its construction; for it appears
not to rest upon a secure foundation, but to hang dangerously over the heads
of those within, although it is really supported with especial firmness and
safety. On each side of these there are columns standing upon the floor,
which themselves also are not placed in a straight line, but arranged with an
inward curve of semicircular shape, one beyond another, like the dancers in
a chorus. These columns support above them a crescent-shaped structure.
Opposite this east wall is built another wall containing the entrances, and
upon either side of it also stand columns with stonework above them in a
half-circle exactly like those previously described. In the midst of the
church are four masses of stone called piers, two on the north and two on
the south side, opposite and equal to one another, having four columns in
the central space between each. These piers are composed of large stones
fitted together, the stones being carefully selected and cleverly jointed into
one another by the masons, reaching to a great height. Looking at them you
would compare them to perpendicular cliffs. Upon these four arches rise in
a quadrilateral form. The extremities of these arches join one another in
pairs, and rest at their ends upon these piers, while the other part of them
rise to a great height, and are suspended in the air. Two of these arches, that
is, those towards the rising and the setting sun, are constructed over the
empty air, but the remainder have under them some stonework, with small
columns. Now above these arches is raised a circular building of a spherical
form through which the light of day first shines; for the building, I imagine,
overtops the whole country, and has small openings left on purpose, so that
the places where these intervals in the construction occur may serve for
conductors of light. Thus far I imagine the building is not incapable of
being described, even by a weak and feeble tongue. As the arches are
arranged in a quadrangular figure, the stonework between them takes the

shape of a triangle; the lower angle of each triangle, being compressed
between the shoulders of the arches, is slender, while the upper part
becomes wider as it rises in the space between them, and ends against the
circle which rises from thence, forming there its remaining angles. A
spherical-shaped dome standing upon this circle makes it exceedingly
beautiful; from the lightness of the building it does not appear to rest upon a
solid foundation, but to cover the place beneath as though it were suspended
from heaven by the fabled golden chain. All these parts surprisingly joined
to one another in the air, suspended one from another, and resting only on
that which is next to them, form the work into one admirably harmonious
whole, which spectators do not care to dwell upon for long in the mass, as
each individual part attracts the eye and turns it to itself. The sight causes
men to constantly change their point of view, and the spectator can nowhere
point to any part which he admires more than the rest, but having viewed
the art which appears everywhere, men contract their eyebrows as they look
at each point, and are unable to comprehend such workmanship, but always
depart thence stupified through their incapacity to comprehend it. So much
for this.

CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA.
HALF SECTION THROUGH GREAT DOME AND TRANSEPT
Vincent Brooks Day & Son

CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA.
HALF PLAN ON LEVEL OF GROUND FLOOR. HALF PLAN ON LEVEL OF
GALLERIES

The Emperor Justinian and the architects Anthemius and Isidorus used
many devices to construct so lofty a church with security. One alone of
these I will at this present time explain, by which a man may form some
opinion of the strength of the whole work; as for the others, I am not able to
discover them all, and find it impossible to explain them in words. It is as
follows:—The piers[4] of which I just now spoke are not constructed in the
same manner as the rest of the building, but in this fashion: they consist of
quadrangular courses of stones, rough by nature, but made smooth by art; of
these stones, those which make the projecting angles of the pier are cut
angularly, while those which go in the middle parts of the sides are cut
square. They are fastened together not with what is called unslaked lime,
not with bitumen, the boast of Semiramis at Babylon, nor anything of the
kind, but with lead, which is poured between the interstices, and which,
pervading the whole structure, has sunk into the joints of the stones, and
binds them together; this is how they are built. Let us now proceed to
describe the remaining parts of the church. The entire ceiling is covered
with pure gold, which adds glory to its beauty, though the rays of light
reflected upon the gold from the marble surpass it in beauty; there are two
porticos on each side, which do not in any way dwarf the size of the church,
but add to its width. In length they reach quite to the ends, but in height
they fall short of it; these also have a domed ceiling and are adorned with
gold. Of these two porticos, the one is set apart for male, and the other for
female worshippers; there is no variety in them, nor do they differ in any
respect from one another, but their very equality and similarity add to the
beauty of the church. Who could describe the galleries[5] of the portion set
apart for women, or the numerous porticos and cloistered courts with which
the church is surrounded? who could tell of the beauty of the columns and
marbles with which the church is adorned? one would think that one had
come upon a meadow full of flowers in bloom: who would not admire the
purple tints of some and the green of others, the glowing red and glittering
white, and those, too, which nature, like a painter, has marked with the
strongest contrasts of colour? Whoever enters there to worship perceives at
once that it is not by any human strength or skill, but by the favour of God
that this work has been perfected; his mind rises sublime to commune with
God, feeling that He cannot be far off, but must especially love to dwell in
the place which He has chosen; and this takes place not only when a man
sees it for the first time, but it always makes the same impression upon him,

as though he had never beheld it before. No one ever became weary of this
spectacle, but those who are in the Church delight in what they see, and,
when they leave it, magnify it in their talk about it; moreover, it is
impossible accurately to describe the treasure of gold and silver plate and
gems, which the Emperor Justinian has presented to it; but by the
description of one of them, I leave the rest to be inferred. That part of the
church which is especially sacred, and where the priests alone are allowed
to enter, which is called the Sanctuary, contains forty thousand pounds’
weight of silver!
The above is an account, written in the most abridged and cursory
manner, describing in the fewest possible words the most admirable
structure of the church at Constantinople which is called the Great Church,
built by the Emperor Justinian, who did not merely supply the funds for it,
but assisted it by the labour and powers of his mind, as I will now explain.
Of the two arches which I lately mentioned (the architects call them
‘lori’[6]), that one which stands towards the east had been built up on each
side, but had not altogether been completed in the middle, where it was still
imperfect; now the piers upon which the building rested, unable to support
the weight which was put upon them, somehow all at once split open, and
seemed as though before long they would fall to pieces. Upon this
Anthemius and Isidorus, terrified at what had taken place, referred the
matter to the Emperor, losing all confidence in their own skill. He at once, I
know not by what impulse, but probably inspired by heaven, for he is not an
architect, ordered them to carry round this arch; for it, said he, resting upon
itself, will no longer need the piers below. Now if this story were
unsupported by witnesses, I am well assured that it would seem to be
written in order to flatter, and to be quite incredible; but as there are many
witnesses now alive of what then took place, I shall not hesitate to finish it.
The workmen performed his bidding, the arch was safely suspended, and
proved by experiment the truth of his conception. So much then for this part
of the building; now with regard to the other arches, those looking to the
south and to the north, the following incidents took place. When the arches
called ‘lori’ were raised aloft during the building of the church, everything
below them laboured under their weight, and the columns which are placed
there shed little scales, as though they had been planed. Alarmed at this, the
architects again referred the matter to the Emperor, who devised the

following plan. He ordered the upper part of the work that was giving way,
where it touched the arches, to be taken down for the present, and to be
replaced long afterwards when the damp had thoroughly left the fabric. This
was done, and the building has stood safely afterwards, so that the structure
as it were bears witness to the Emperor.
II. In front of the Senate House there is an open place which the people
of Constantinople call the Augustæum: in it there are not less than seven
courses of stone in a quadrangular form, arranged like steps, each one so
much less in extent than that which is below, that each one of the stones
projects sufficiently for the men who frequent that place to sit upon them as
upon steps. From the topmost course a column rises to a great height—not a
monolith, but composed of stones of a considerable periphery, which are cut
square, and are fitted into one another by the skill of the masons. The finest
brass, cast into panels and garlands, surrounds these stones on every side,
binding them firmly together, while it covers them with ornament, and in all
parts, especially at the capital and the base, imitates the form of the column.
This brass is in colour paler than unalloyed gold; and its value is not much
short of its own weight in silver. On the summit of the column there stands
an enormous horse, with his face turned towards the east—a noble sight. He
appears to be walking, and proceeding swiftly forwards; he raises his left
fore-foot as though to tread upon the earth before him, while the other rests
upon the stone beneath it, as though it would make the next step, while he
places his hind feet together, so that they may be ready when he bids them
move. Upon this horse sits a colossal brass figure of the Emperor, habited
as Achilles, for so his costume is called; he wears hunting-shoes, and his
ankles are not covered by his greaves. He wears a corslet like an ancient
hero, his head is covered by a helmet which seems to nod, and a plume
glitters upon it. A poet would say that it was that ‘star of the dog-days’
mentioned in Homer.[7] He looks towards the east, directing his course, I
imagine, against the Persians; in his left hand he holds a globe, by which
the sculptor signifies that all lands and seas are subject to him. He holds no
sword or spear, or any other weapon, but a cross stands upon the globe,
through which he has obtained his empire and victory in war; he stretches
forward his right hand towards the east, and spreading out his fingers seems
to bid the barbarians in that quarter to remain at home and come no further.
This is the appearance of the statue.

The Church of Irene,[8] which was next to the great church, and was
burnt down together with it, was rebuilt on a large scale by the Emperor
Justinian—a church scarcely second to any in Byzantium except that of
Sophia. There was between these two churches a hospice for the relief of
destitute persons and those in the last extremity of disease, suffering in
body as well as in fortune, which was built in former times by a God-
fearing man named Sampson. This also did not remain unscathed by the
insurgents, but perished in the fire, together with the two neighbouring
churches. The Emperor Justinian rebuilt it in a more magnificent fashion,
and with a much greater number of rooms, and he has also endowed it with
a great annual revenue, in order that the sufferings of more unfortunate men
may be relieved in it for the future. Insatiate as he was in his love for God,
he built two other hospices opposite to this, in what are called the houses of
Isidorus and Arcadius, being assisted in these pious works by the Empress
Theodora. As for all the other churches which this Emperor raised in honour
of Christ, they are so many in number and so great in size that it is
impossible to describe them in detail, for no power of words nor one’s
whole life would suffice to collect and to recite the list of their several
names: let this much suffice.
III. We must begin with the churches of the Virgin Mary, for it is
understood that this is the wish of the Emperor himself, and the true method
of description distinctly points out that from God we ought to proceed to the
Mother of God. The Emperor Justinian built in all parts of the Roman
empire many churches dedicated to the Virgin, so magnificent and large,
and constructed with such a lavish expenditure of money, that a person
beholding any one of them singly would imagine it to have been his only
work, and that he had spent the whole period of his reign in adorning it
alone. For the present, as I said before, I shall describe the churches in
Byzantium. One of the churches of the Virgin[9] was built by him outside
the walls, in a place named Blachernæ (for he must be credited with the
pious foundations of Justin, his uncle, since he administered his kingdom at
his own discretion). This church is near the sea-shore, of great sanctity and
magnificence; it is long, yet its width is well proportioned to its length, and
above and below it is supported and rests on nothing less than sections of
Parian marble which stand in the form of columns. These columns are
arranged in a straight line in all parts of the church except in the middle,

where they are set back. Those who enter this church especially admire its
lofty and at the same time secure construction, and its splendid yet not
meretricious beauty.
He built another church in her honour in the place which is called the
Fountain, where there is a thick grove of cypress trees, a meadow whose
rich earth blooms with flowers, a garden abounding in fruit, a fountain
which noiselessly pours forth a quiet and sweet stream of water, in short
where all the surroundings beseem a sacred place. Such is the country
around the church; but as for the church itself, it is not easy to describe it in
fitting words, to form an idea of it in the mind, or to express it in language;
let it suffice for me to say thus much of it, that in beauty and size it
surpasses most other churches. Both these churches are built outside the
city walls, the one at the place where the wall starts from the sea-shore, the
latter close to what is called the Golden Gate, which is near the further end
of the fortifications, in order that both of them might form impregnable
defences for the city walls. Besides these, in the temple of Hera, now called
the Hiereum, he erected a church in honour of the Virgin, which cannot
easily be described.

In that part of the city which is called Deuteron[10] he built a noble and
admirable church in honour of St. Anne, whom some think to have been the
mother of the Virgin, and the grandmother of Christ; for God, in choosing
to become man, subjected Himself to having grand-parents and a genealogy
on His mother’s side like a man. Not very far from this church, in the last
street of the city, there is a fine church built in honour of the martyr Zoe.

He found the church of the Archangel Michael[11] at Byzantium small,
very dark, and quite unworthy of being dedicated to the archangel, having
been built by one Senator, a patrician in former times, and in shape very
like a small bedroom in a poor man’s house. Wherefore he razed it entirely
to the ground, that no part of its former unseemliness might be left, and
rebuilding it of a goodly size, in the manner which we now see, changed it
into a building of wonderful beauty. This church is of a quadrangular form,
its length apparently not greatly exceeding its width; of its sides, that which
looks towards the east has at its extremities a thick wall constructed of a
great mass of stones, but in the middle is set back, forming a recess, on each
side of which the roof is supported by columns of variegated stone. The

opposite wall, that towards the west, is pierced with doors opening into the
church.
IV. His faith in the Apostles of Christ is testified in the following manner:
In the first place he built the Church to SS. Peter and Paul, which did not
exist before in Byzantium, close to the King’s palace, which was formerly
called by the name of Hormisdas.[12] This was once his own private house;
and when he became Emperor of the Romans, he made it look worthy of a
palace by the magnificence of its buildings, and joined it to the other
imperial apartments. Here also he built another church dedicated to the
glorious saints Sergius and Bacchus,[13] and afterwards another church
standing obliquely to it. These two churches stand, not facing one another,
but obliquely towards one another, joined together, and vying one with
another. They have a common entrance, are equal to one another in all
respects, are surrounded by a boundary wall, and neither of them exceeds
the other or falls short of it, either in beauty, size, or any other respect; for
each alike reflects the rays of the sun from its polished marble, and is alike
covered with lavish gilding and adorned with offerings; in one respect alone
they differ, that the length of one is straight, whereas the columns of the
other for the most part stand in a semicircle. They both have one portico at
their vestibule, which from its great length is called Narthex.[14] The whole
vestibule, the court, the inner doors from the court and the neighbourhood
of the palace are alike common to both, and both these churches are so
admirable that they form a great ornament to the entire city, and especially
to the palace.

PLAN OF CHURCH OF SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS.

After this, out of his exceeding great reverence for all the Apostles,[15] he
did as follows. In ancient times there was one church at Byzantium
dedicated to all the Apostles, but through length of time it had become

ruinous, and seemed not likely to stand much longer. Justinian took this
entirely down, and was careful not only to rebuild it, but to render it more
admirable both in size and beauty; he carried out his intention in the
following manner. Two lines were drawn in the form of a cross, joining one
another in the middle, the upright one pointing to the rising and setting sun,
and the other cross line towards the north and the south wind. These were
surrounded by a circuit of walls, and within by columns placed both above
and below; at the crossing of the two straight lines, that is, about the middle
point of them, there is a place set apart, which may not be entered except by
the priests, and which is consequently termed the Sanctuary. The transepts
which lie on each side of this, about the cross line, are of equal length; but
that part of the upright line towards the setting sun is built so much longer
than the other part as to form the figure of the cross. That part of the roof
which is above the Sanctuary is constructed like the middle part of the
Church of Sophia, except that it yields to it in size; for the four arches are
suspended and connected with one another in the same fashion, the circular
building standing above them is pierced with windows, and the spherical
dome which overarches it seems to be suspended in the air, and not to stand
upon a firm base, although it is perfectly secure. In this manner the middle
part of the roof is built: now the roof over the four limbs of the church is
constructed of the same size as that which I have described over the middle,
with this one exception, that the wall underneath the spherical part is not
pierced with windows. When he had completed the building of this
Sanctuary, the Apostles made it evident to all that they were pleased and
thoroughly delighted with the honour paid them by the Emperor; for the
bodies of the Apostles Andrew, Luke, and Timothy, which had before this
been invisible and altogether unknown, were then made manifest to all men,
signifying, I imagine, that they did not reject the faith of the Emperor, but
permitted him openly to behold them, to approach and to touch them, that
he might gain from them assistance and security for his life. This was
discovered in the following manner.
The Emperor Constantine built this church in the name and in honour of
the Apostles, making a decree that there should be a sepulchre there for
himself, and for those who should rule after him, women as well as men;
which is observed even to the present day. Here also the body of the father
of Constantine was laid; but he did not in any way hint that the bodies of

the Apostles were there, nor did there appear to be any place set apart for
the bodies of saints. When, however, the Emperor Justinian was rebuilding
this church, the workmen dug up the whole foundation, lest any unseemly
thing should be left in it. They saw there three neglected wooden coffins,
which declared by inscriptions upon them that they contained the bodies of
the Apostles Andrew, Luke, and Timothy, which the Emperor and all
Christian men beheld with the greatest delight. A solemn procession and
public festival was ordered, and, after the customary rites had been
performed in their honour, the coffins were covered up, and again placed in
the ground. The place was not left unmarked or uncared for, but was
reverently dedicated to the bodies of the Apostles. In return for the respect
paid them by the Emperor, the Apostles, as I said before, made themselves
manifest to all men; for, under a religious prince, the host of heaven do not
hold themselves aloof from the affairs of men, but love to mingle with
them, and rejoice in intercourse with mankind.

Who could be silent about the Church of Acacius,[16] which, being
ruinous, he pulled down and built up again from its very foundations,
adding wonderfully to its size? It rests on all sides upon brilliantly white
columns, and its floor is covered with similar marble, from which so bright
a light is reflected as to make one imagine that the whole church is covered
with snow. Two porticos stand in front of it, the one supported on columns,
and the other looking towards the forum. I was within a little of omitting to
mention the church which was dedicated to St. Plato the Martyr,[17] a truly
worthy and noble building, not far from the forum, which is named after the
Emperor Constantine; and likewise the church dedicated to the Martyr
Mocius,[18] which is the largest of all these churches. Besides this, there is
the Church of the Martyr Thyssus, and the Church of St. Theodorus,[19]
standing outside the city in the place which is called Rhesias, and the
Church of the Martyr Thecla, which is near the harbour named after Julian,
and that of St. Theodota in the suburb which is called Hebdomon. All these
were built from their foundations by this Emperor during the reign of his
uncle Justin, and are not easy to describe in words, while it is impossible to
admire them sufficiently when beholding them. My narrative is now
attracted to the Church of St. Agathonicus,[20] and I am forced to mention it,
though I have no longer voice nor words befitting such a work: let it be
sufficient for me to have said thus much of it; I will leave the description of

its beauty and sumptuousness in all respects to others to whom the subject
is fresh, and who are not wearied out by their labours.
V. Finding other churches in what is called the Anaplus, and along the
coast of the opposite continent, which were not worthy to be dedicated to
any of the saints, as also round the gulf which the natives call Ceras,[21]
after the name of Ceroessa, the mother of Byzans, who was the founder of
the city, he showed a royal munificence in all of them, as I will presently
prove, having first said a few words about the glory which the sea adds to
Byzantium.
The prosperity of Byzantium is increased by the sea which enfolds it,
contracting itself into straits, and connecting itself with the ocean, thus
rendering the city remarkably beautiful, and affording a safe protection in
its harbours to seafarers, so as to cause it to be well supplied with
provisions and abounding with all necessaries; for the two seas which are
on either side of it, that is to say the Ægean and that which is called the
Euxine, which meet at the east part of the city and dash together as they
mingle their waves, separate the continent by their currents, and add to the
beauty of the city while they surround it. It is, therefore, encompassed by
three straits connected with one another, arranged so as to minister both to
its elegance and its convenience, all of them most charming for sailing on,
lovely to look at, and exceedingly safe for anchorage. The middle one of
them, which leads from the Euxine Sea, makes straight for the city as
though to adorn it. Upon either side of it lie the several continents, between
whose shores it is confined, and seems to foam proudly with its waves
because it passes over both Asia and Europe in order to reach the city; you
would think that you beheld a river flowing towards you with a gentle
current. That which is on the left hand of it rests on either side upon widely
extended shores, and displays the groves, the lovely meadows, and all the
other charms of the opposite continent in full view of the city. As it makes
its way onward towards the south, receding as far as possible from Asia, it
becomes wider; but even then its waves continue to encircle the city as far
as the setting of the sun. The third arm of the sea joins the first one upon the
right hand, starting from the place called Sycæ,[22] and washes the greater
part of the northern shore of the city, ending in a bay. Thus the sea encircles
the city like a crown, the interval consisting of the land lying between it in
sufficient quantity to form a clasp for the crown of waters. This gulf is

always calm, and never crested into waves, as though a barrier were placed
there to the billows, and all storms were shut out from thence, through
reverence for the city. Whenever strong winds and gales fall upon these seas
and this strait, ships, when they once reach the entrance of this gulf, run the
rest of their voyage unguided, and make the shore at random; for the gulf
extends for a distance of more than forty stadia in circumference, and the
whole of it is a harbour, so that when a ship is moored there the stern rests
on the sea and the bows on the land, as though the two elements contended
with one another to see which of them could be of the greatest service to the
city.
VI. Such is the appearance of this gulf; but the Emperor Justinian
rendered it more lovely by the beauty of the buildings with which he
surrounded it; for on the left side of it, he, to speak briefly, altered the
Church of St. Laurentius the Martyr, which formerly was without windows
and very dark,[23] into the appearance which it now presents; and in front of
it he built the Church of the Virgin, in the place which is called Blachernæ,
as I described a little above. Behind it he built a new church to SS. Priscus
and Nicolaus, renewing the whole building. This is an especially favourite
resort of the people of Byzantium, partly from their respect and reverence
for the saints, which were their countrymen, and partly to enjoy the beauty
of the situation of the church; for the Emperor drove back the waves of the
sea, and laid the foundations as far among the billows as possible. At the
upper part of the gulf, in a very steep and precipitous place, there was an
ancient Church of SS. Cosmas and Damianus; where once these saints
appeared on a sudden to the Emperor as he lay grievously sick and
apparently at the point of death, given up by his physicians, and already
reckoned as dead, and miraculously made him whole. In order to repay their
goodness, as far as a mortal man may do, he entirely altered and renewed
the former building, which was unseemly and humble, and not worthy to be
dedicated to such great saints, adorned the new church with beauty and size
and brilliant light, and gave it many other things which it did not formerly
possess. When men are suffering from diseases beyond the reach of
physicians, and despair of human aid, they resort to the only hope which is
left to them, and sail through this gulf in boats to this church. As soon as
they begin their voyage they see this church standing as though on a lofty

citadel, made beautiful by the gratitude of the Emperor, and affording them
hope that they too may partake of the benefits which flow from thence.
On the opposite side of the gulf the Emperor built a church which did not
exist before, quite close to the shore of the gulf, and dedicated it to the
Martyr Anthimus. The base of this temple, laved by the gentle wash of the
sea, is most picturesque; for no lofty billows dash against its stones, nor
does the wave resound like that of the open sea, or burst into masses of
foam, but gently glides up to the land, silently laps against it, and quietly
retreats. Beyond this is a level and very smooth court, adorned all round
with marble columns, and rendered beautiful by its view of the sea. Next to
this is a portico, beyond which rises the church, of a quadrangular form,
adorned with beautiful marble and gildings. Its length only exceeds its
breadth far enough to give room for the sanctuary, in which the sacred
mysteries are performed, on the side which is turned towards the rising sun;
such is the description of it.
VII. Beyond this, at the very mouth of the gulf, stands the Church of the
Martyr Irene,[24] which the Emperor has so magnificently constructed that I
could not competently describe it; for, contending with the sea in his desire
to beautify the gulf, he has built these churches as though he were placing
gems upon a necklace; however, since I have mentioned this Church of
Irene, it will not be foreign to my purpose to describe what took place there.
Here, from ancient times, rested the remains of no fewer than forty saints,
who were Roman soldiers, and were enrolled in the twelfth legion, which
formerly was stationed in the city of Melitene, in Armenia; now, when the
masons dug in the place which I just spoke of, they found a chest with an
inscription stating that it contained the remains of these men. This chest,
which had been forgotten, was at that time purposely brought to light by
God, both with the object of proving to all men with how great joy He
received the gifts of the Emperor, and also in order to reward his good
works by the bestowal of a still greater favour; for the Emperor Justinian
was in ill-health, and a large collection of humours in his knee caused him
great pain. His illness arose from his own fault; for during all the days
which precede the Paschal Feast, and are called fast-days, he practised a
severe abstinence, unfit not only for a prince, but even for a man who took
no part in political matters. He used to pass two days entirely without food,
and that, too, although he rose from his bed at early dawn to watch over the

State, whose business he ever transacted, both by actions and words, early
in the morning, at midday, and at night with equal zeal; for though he would
retire to rest late at night, he would almost immediately arise, as though
disliking his bed. Whenever he did take nourishment, he refrained from
wine, bread, and all other food, eating only herbs, and those wild ones
which had been for a long time pickled in salt and vinegar, whilst water was
his only drink. Yet he never ate to repletion even of these; but whenever he
dined, he would merely taste this food, and then push it away, never eating
sufficient. From this regimen his disease gathered strength, defying the
efforts of physicians, and for a long time the Emperor suffered from these
pains. During this time, hearing of the discovery of the relics, he
disregarded human art, and commended himself to them, deriving health
from his faith in them, and finding healing in his bitterest need from his true
faith; for as soon as the priests placed the paten upon his knee, the disease
at once vanished—forced out of a body dedicated to God. Not wishing that
this matter should be disputed, God displayed a great sign as a testimony to
this miracle. Oil suddenly poured forth from the holy relics, overflowed the
chest, and besprinkled the feet and the purple garment of the Emperor.
Wherefore his tunic, thus saturated, is preserved in the palace as a
testimony of what then took place, and for the healing of those who in
future time may suffer from incurable disorders.
VIII. Thus did the Emperor Justinian adorn the gulf which is called the
Horn; he also added great beauty to the shores of the other two straits, of
which I lately made mention, in the following manner. There were two
churches dedicated to St. Michael the Archangel, opposite to one another,
on either side of the strait, the one in the place called Anaplus[25] on the left
hand as one sails into the Euxine Sea, and the other on the opposite shore.
This place was called Pröochthus by the ancients—I suppose because it
projects a long way from that shore—and is now called Brochi, the
ignorance of the inhabitants having in process of time corrupted the name.
The priests of these two churches, perceiving that they were dilapidated by
age, and fearing that they might presently fall down upon them, besought
the Emperor to restore them both to their former condition; for in his reign
it was not possible for a church either to be built, or to be restored when
ruined, except from the royal treasury, and that not only in Byzantium, but
also everywhere throughout the Roman Empire. The Emperor, as soon as he

obtained this opportunity, demolished both of them to the foundation, that
no part of their former unseemliness might be left. He rebuilt the one in
Anaplus[26] in the following manner. He formed the shore into a curve
within a mole of stone, which he erected as a protection to the harbour, and
changed the sea-beach into the appearance of a market; for the sea, which is
there very smooth, exchanges its produce with the land, and sea-faring
merchants, mooring their barques alongside the mole, exchange the
merchandise from their decks for the produce of the country. Beyond this
sea-side market stands forth the vestibule of the church, whose marble vies
in colour with ripe fruit and snow. Those who take their walks in this
quarter are charmed with the beauty of the stone, are delighted with the
view of the sea, and are refreshed with the breezes from the water and the
hills which rise upon the land. A circular portico surrounds the church on all
sides except the east. In the midst of it stands the church, adorned with
marble of various colours. Above it is suspended a domed roof. Who, after
viewing it, could speak worthily of the lofty porticoes, of the buildings
within, of the grace of the marble with which the walls and foundations are
everywhere encrusted? In addition to all this, a great quantity of gold is
everywhere spread over the church, as though it grew upon it. In describing
this, I have also described the Church of St. John the Baptist,[27] which the
Emperor Justinian lately erected in his honour in the place called
Hebdomon; for both the two churches are very like each other, except only
that the Church of the Baptist does not happen to stand by the sea-shore.
The Church of the Archangel, in the place called Anaplus, is built in the
above manner; now upon the opposite shore there is a place at a little
distance from the sea, which is level, and raised high upon a mass of stones.
Here has been built a church in honour of the Archangel, of exceeding
beauty, of the largest size, and in costliness worthy of being dedicated to the
Archangel Michael by the Emperor Justinian. Not far from this church, he
restored a church of the Virgin, which had fallen into ruins long before,
whose magnificence it would take long to examine and to express in words;
but here a long-expected part of our history finds its place.
IX. Upon this shore there stood from ancient times a beautiful palace: the
whole of this the Emperor Justinian dedicated to God, exchanging present
enjoyment for the reward of his piety hereafter, in the following manner.
There were at Byzantium a number of women who were prostituted in a

brothel, not willingly, but compelled to exercise their profession; for under
pressure of poverty they were compelled by the procurer who kept them to
act in this manner, and to offer themselves to unknown and casual passers-
by. There was here from ancient times a guild of brothel-keepers, who not
only carried on their profession in this building, but publicly bought their
victims in the market, and forced them into an unchaste life. However, the
Emperor Justinian and the Empress Theodora, who performed all their
works of piety in common, devised the following scheme. They cleansed
the State from the pollution of these brothels, drove out the procurers, and
set free these women who had been driven to evil courses by their poverty,
providing them with a sufficient maintenance, and enabling them to live
chaste as well as free. This was arranged in the following manner: they
changed the palace, which stood on the right hand as one sails into the
Euxine Sea, into a magnificent convent, to serve as a refuge for women who
had repented of their former life, in order that there spending their lives in
devotion to God, and in continual works of piety, they might wash away the
sins of their former life of shame; wherefore this dwelling of these women
is called from their work by the name of the Penitentiary. The princes
endowed this convent with large revenues, and furnished it with many
buildings of exceeding great beauty and costliness for the comfort of these
women, so that none of them might be forced by any circumstances to relax
their practice of chastity. So much then for this part of the subject.
As one sails from this place towards the Euxine Sea, there is a lofty
promontory jutting out from the shore of the strait, upon which stood a
Church of the Martyr St. Pantelëemon,[28] which, having been originally
carelessly built, and having been much ruined by lapse of time, was taken
down by the Emperor Justinian, who built the church which now stands
there with the greatest magnificence, and both preserved the honour due to
the martyr and added beauty to the strait by building on each side of it the
churches which I have mentioned. Beyond this church, in a place which is
called Argyronium, there was, in old times, a hospital for poor men afflicted
with incurable diseases, which having in the course of time fallen into the
last stage of decay, he most zealously restored, to serve as a refuge for those
who were thus afflicted. Near this place there is a district by the sea-side
called Mochadius, which is also called Hieron. Here he built a temple in
honour of the Archangel of remarkable splendour, and in no respect inferior

to those Churches of the Archangel, of which I spoke just now. He also built
a church dedicated to St. Tryphon the Martyr, decorated with much labour
and time to an indescribable pitch of beauty, in that street of the city which
is called by the name of ‘The Stork.’ Furthermore, he built a church in the
Hebdomon, in honour of the martyrs Menas[29] and Menæsus; and finding
that the Church of St. Ias the Martyr, which is on the left hand as one enters
the Golden Gate, was in ruins, he restored it with a lavish expenditure. This
is what was done by the Emperor Justinian in connection with the churches
in Byzantium; but to describe all his works throughout the entire Roman
Empire in detail, is a difficult task, and altogether impossible to express in
words, but, whenever I shall have to make mention of the name of any city
or district, I shall take the opportunity of describing the churches in it.
X. The above were the works of the Emperor Justinian upon the churches
of Constantinople and its suburbs; but as to the other buildings constructed
by him, it would not be easy to mention them all. However, to sum up
matters, he rebuilt and much improved in beauty the largest and most
considerable part both of the city and of the palace, which had been burned
down and levelled with the ground. It appears unnecessary for me to enter
into particulars on this subject at present, since it has all been minutely
described in my ‘History of the Wars.’ For the present I shall only say this
much, that the vestibule of the palace and that which is called Chalce, as far
as what is known as the House of Ares, and outside the palace the public
baths of Zeuxippus,[30] and the great porticoes and all the buildings on
either hand, as far as the forum of Constantine, are the works of this
Emperor. In addition to these, he restored and added great magnificence to
the house named after Hormisdas, which stands close to the palace,
rendering it worthy of the palace, to which he joined it, and thereby
rendered it much more roomy and worthy of admiration on that side.
In front of the palace there is a forum surrounded with columns. The
Byzantines call this forum the Augustæum. I mentioned it in a former part
of this work, when, after describing the Church of St. Sophia, I spoke of the
brazen statue of the Emperor, which stands upon a very lofty column of
stones as a memorial of that work. On the eastern side of this forum stands
the Senate House, which baffles description by its costliness and entire
arrangement, and which was the work of the Emperor Justinian. Here at the
beginning of every year the Roman Senate holds an annual festival,

according to the custom of the State. Six columns stand in front of it, two of
them having between them that wall of the Senate House which looks
towards the west, while the four others stand a little beyond it. These
columns are all white in colour, and in size, I imagine, are the largest
columns in the whole world. They form a portico covered by a circular
dome-shaped roof. The upper parts of this portico are all adorned with
marble equal in beauty to that of the columns, and are wonderfully
ornamented with a number of statues standing on the roof.
Not far from this forum stands the Emperor’s palace, which, as I have
said before, was almost entirely rebuilt by the Emperor Justinian. To
describe it all in words is impossible, but it will suffice for future
generations to know that it was all the work of this Emperor. As, according
to the proverb, we know the lion by his claw, so my readers will learn the
magnificence of this palace from the entrance-hall. This entrance-hall is the
building called Chalce; its four walls stand in a quadrangular form, and are
very lofty; they are equal to one another in all respects, except that those on
the north and south sides are a little shorter than the others. In each angle of
them stands a pier of very well-wrought stone, reaching from the floor to
the summit of the wall, quadrangular in form and joining the wall on one of
its sides: they do not in any way destroy the beauty of the place, but even
add ornament to it by the symmetry of their position. Above them are
suspended eight arches, four of which support the roof, which rises above
the whole work in a spherical form, whilst the others, two of which rest on
the neighbouring wall towards the south and two towards the north, support
the arched roof which is suspended over those spaces. The entire ceiling is
decorated with paintings, not formed of melted wax poured upon it, but
composed of tiny stones adorned with all manner of colours, imitating
human figures and everything else in nature. I will now describe the
subjects of these paintings. Upon either side are wars and battles, and the
capture of numberless cities, some in Italy, and some in Libya. Here the
Emperor Justinian conquers by his General Belisarius; and here the General
returns to the Emperor, bringing with him his entire army unscathed, and
offers to him the spoils of victory, kings, and kingdoms, and all that is most
valued among men. In the midst stand the Emperor and the Empress
Theodora, both of them seeming to rejoice and hold high festival in honour
of their victory over the kings of the Vandals and the Goths, who approach

them as prisoners of war led in triumph. Around them stands the Senate of
Rome, all in festal array, which is shown in the mosaic by the joy which
appears on their countenances; they swell with pride and smile upon the
Emperor, offering him honours as though to a demi-god, after his
magnificent achievements. The whole interior, not only the upright parts,
but also the floor itself, is encrusted with beautiful marbles, reaching up to
the mosaics of the ceiling. Of these marbles, some are of a Spartan stone
equal to emerald, while some resemble a flame of fire; the greater part of
them are white, yet not a plain white, but ornamented with wavy lines of
dark blue.[31] So much for this building.
XI. As one sails from the Propontis towards the eastern part of the city,
there is a public bath on the left hand which is called the Baths of Arcadius,
and which forms an ornament to the city of Constantinople, great as it is.
Here our Emperor constructed a court standing outside the city, intended as
a promenade for the inhabitants, and a mooring-place for those who sail
past it. This court is lighted by the sun when rising, but is conveniently
shaded when he proceeds towards the west. Round it the sea flows quietly
with a gentle stream, coming like a river from the main sea, so that those
who are taking their walks in it are able to converse with those who are
sailing; for the sea reaches up to the basement of the court with great depth,
navigable for ships, and by its remarkable calm enables those on the water
and on the land to converse with one another. Such is the side of the court
which looks upon the sea, adorned with the view over it, and refreshed with
the gentle breezes from it. Its basement, its columns, and its entablature are
all covered with marble of great beauty, whose colour is of a most brilliant
white, which glitters magnificently in the rays of the sun; moreover, many
statues adorn it, some of brass and some of marble, composing a sight well
worth mention; one would conjecture that they were the work of Phidias the
Athenian, of Lysippus of Sicyon, or of Praxiteles. Here also is a statue of
the Empress Theodora on a column, which was erected in her honour by the
city as an offering of gratitude for this court. The face of the statue is
beautiful, but falls short of the beauty of the Empress, since it is utterly
impossible for any mere human workmen to express her loveliness, or to
imitate it in a statue; the column is of porphyry, and clearly shows by its
magnificent appearance that it carries the Empress, before one sees the
statue.

I will now explain the Emperor’s works to afford an abundant supply of
water to the city. In summer-time the imperial city used for the most part to
suffer from scarcity of water, although at other seasons it had sufficient; for
at that time, in consequence of the drought, the fountains flowed less
plenteously than at other seasons, and supplied the aqueducts of the city
very sparingly. Wherefore the Emperor devised the following plan. In the
Portico of the Emperor, where the advocates, and magistrates, and other
persons connected with the law transact business, there is a very lofty court
of great length and width, quadrangular in shape, and surrounded with
columns, which is not constructed upon an earthen foundation, but upon the
rock itself. Four porticos surround this court, one upon each side of it. The
Emperor Justinian excavated one of these porticos, that upon the south side,
to a great depth, and stored up there the superfluity of water from the other
seasons for use in summer. These cisterns receive the overflow from the
aqueducts, when they are too full of water, giving them a place to overflow
into, and afford a supply in time of need when water becomes scarce. Thus
did the Emperor Justinian arrange that the people of Byzantium should not
want for sweet water.

He also built new palaces elsewhere, one in the Heræum,[32] which is
now called the Hiereum, and in the place called Jucundiana. I am unable to
describe either the magnificence or exquisite workmanship, or the size of
these palaces in a manner worthy of the subject. Suffice it to say that these
palaces stand there, and were built in the presence and according to the
plans of Justinian, who disregarded nothing except expense, which was so
large that the mind is unable to grasp it. Here also he constructed a sheltered
harbour, which did not exist before. Finding that the shore was exposed on
both sides to the winds and the violence of the waves, he arranged a place
of refuge for mariners in the following manner: he constructed what are
called chests, of countless number and of great size, flung them into the sea
on each side of the beach in an oblique direction, and by continually placing
fresh layers in order upon the others, formed two walls in the sea opposite
to one another, reaching from the depths below to the surface of the water
on which the ships sail; upon this he flung rough stones, which when struck
by the waves break their force, so that when a strong wind blows in the
winter season, everything between these walls remains calm, an interval
being left between them to serve as an entrance for ships into the harbour.

Here also he built the churches which I formerly mentioned, and also
porticos, market-places, public baths, and everything else of that sort; so
that this palace in no respect falls short of that within the city. He also built
another harbour on the opposite continent, in the place which is called after
the name of Eutropius, not very far from the Heræum, constructed in the
same manner as that which I mentioned above.
The above are, described as briefly as possible, the works of the Emperor
Justinian in the imperial city. I will now describe the only thing which
remains. Since the Emperor dwells here, a multitude of men of all nations
comes into the city from all the world, in consequence of the vast extent of
the empire, each one of them led thither either by business, by hope, or by
chance, many of whom, whose affairs at home have fallen into disorder,
come with the intention of offering some petition to the Emperor. These
persons, forced to dwell in the city on account of some present or
threatened misfortune, in addition to their other trouble are also in want of
lodging, being unable to pay for a dwelling-place during their stay in the
city. This source of misery was removed from them by the Emperor
Justinian and the Empress Theodora, who built very large hospices as
places of refuge in time of need for such unfortunate persons as these, close
to the sea, in the place which is called the Stadium, I suppose because in
former times it was used for public games.
Note.—For the interesting church of the Chora, see
Appendix.

BOOK II.

I. The new churches which the Emperor Justinian built in Constantinople
and its suburbs, the churches which were ruinous through age, and which he
restored, and all the other buildings which he erected there, are described in
my previous book; it remains that we should proceed to the fortresses with
which he encircled the frontier of the Roman territory. This subject requires
great labour, and indeed is almost impossible to describe; we are not about
to describe the Pyramids, that celebrated work of the Kings of Egypt, in
which labour was wasted on a useless freak, but all the strong places by
means of which our Emperor preserved the empire, and so fortified it as to
render vain any attempt of the barbarians against the Romans. I think I
should do well to start from the Median frontier.
When the Medes retired from the country of the Romans, restoring to
them the city of Amida,[33] as has been narrated in my ‘History of the
Wars,’ the Emperor Anastasius took great pains to build a wall round an, at
that time, unimportant village named Dara, which he observed was situated
near the Persian frontier, and to form it into a city which would act as a
bulwark against the enemy. Since, however, by the terms of the treaty
formerly made by the Emperor Theodosius with the Persians, it was
forbidden that either party should build any new fortress on their own
ground in the neighbourhood of the frontier, the Persians urged that this was
forbidden by the articles of the peace, and hindered the work with all their
power, although their attention was diverted from it by their war with the
Huns. The Romans, perceiving that on account of this war they were
unprepared, pushed on their building all the more vigorously, being eager to
finish the work before the enemy should bring their war against the Huns to
a close and march against themselves. Being alarmed through their
suspicions of the enemy, and constantly expecting an attack, they did not
construct their building carefully, but the quickness of building into which
they were forced by their excessive hurry prevented their work being
secure; for speed and safety are never wont to go together, nor is swiftness
often accompanied by accuracy. They therefore built the city-walls in this
hurried fashion, not making a wall which would defy the enemy, but raising
it barely to the necessary height; nor did they even place the stones in their

right positions or arrange them in due order, or fill the interstices with
mortar. In a short time, therefore, since the towers, through their insecure
construction, were far from being able to withstand snow and hot sun, most
of them fell into ruins. Thus was the first wall built round the city of Dara.
[34]

FORTIFICATIONS AT DARA.
From Texier & Pullan’s Byzantine Architecture

It occurred to the Emperor Justinian that the Persians would not, as far as
lay in their power, permit this Roman fortress to stand threatening them, but
that they would march against it with their entire force, and use every
device to assault its walls on equal terms; and that a number of elephants
would accompany them, bearing wooden towers upon their backs, which
towers instead of foundations would rest upon the elephants, who—and this
was the worst of all—could manœuvre round the city at the pleasure of the
enemy, and carry a wall which could be moved whithersoever its masters
might think fit; and the enemy, mounted upon these towers, would shoot
down upon the heads of the Romans within the walls, and assail them from

above; they would also pile up mounds of earth against the walls, and bring
up to them all the machines used in sieges; while if any misfortune should
befall the city of Dara, which was an outwork of the entire Roman Empire
and a standing menace to the enemy’s country, the evil would not rest there,
but the whole state would be endangered to a great extent. Moved by these
considerations he determined to fortify the place in a manner worthy of its
value.

In the first place,[35] therefore, since the wall was, as I have described,
very low, and therefore easily assailable, he rendered it inaccessible and
altogether impregnable. He placed stones which so contracted the original
battlements as only to leave small traces of them, like windows, allowing
just so much opening to them as a hand could be passed through, so that
passages were left through which arrows could be shot against the
assailants. Above these he built a wall to a height of about thirty feet, not
making the wall of the same thickness all the way to the top, lest the
foundations should be over-weighted by the mass above, and the whole
work be ruined; but he surrounded the upper part with a course of stones,
and built a portico extending round the entire circuit of the walls, above
which he placed the battlements, so that the wall was throughout
constructed of two stories, and the towers of three stories, which could be
manned by the defenders to repel the attacks of the enemy; for over the
middle of the towers he constructed a vaulted roof, and again built new
battlements above it, thus making them into a fortification consisting of
three stories.
After this, though he saw, as I have said before, that many of the towers
had after a short time fallen into ruin, yet he was not able to take them
down, because the enemy were always close at hand, watching their
opportunity, and always trying to find some unprotected part of the
fortifications. He therefore devised the following plan: he left these towers
where they were, and outside of each of them he constructed another
building with great skill, in a quadrangular form, well and securely built. In
the same manner he securely protected the ruinous parts of the walls with a
second wall. One of these towers, which was called the Watchtower, he
seized an opportunity of demolishing, rebuilt it securely, and everywhere
removed all fear of want of strength from the walls. He wisely built the
outside part of the wall to a sufficient height, in due proportion; outside of it

he dug a ditch, not in the way in which men usually make one, but in a
small space, and in a different fashion. With what object he did this, I will
now explain.
The greater part of the walls are inaccessible to besiegers, because they
do not stand upon level ground, nor in such a manner as would favour an
attack, but upon high precipitous rocks where it would not be possible to
undermine them, or to make any assault upon them; but upon the side
turned towards the south, the ground, which is soft and earthy and easily
dug, renders the city assailable. Here, therefore, he dug a crescent-shaped
ditch, deep and wide, and reaching to a considerable distance. Each end of
this ditch joined the city wall, and by filling it with water he rendered it
altogether impassable to the enemy. On the inner side of it he built a second
wall, upon which during a siege the Roman soldiers keep guard, without
fear for the walls themselves and for the other outwork which stands before
the city. Between the city wall and this outwork, opposite the gate which
leads towards Ammodius, there was a great mound, from which the enemy
were able to drive mines towards the city unperceived. This he entirely
removed, and levelled the spot, so as to put it out of the enemy’s power to
assault the place from thence.

II. Thus did Justinian fortify this stronghold;[36] he also constructed
reservoirs of water between the city walls and the outwork, and very close
to the Church of St. Bartholomew the Apostle, on the west side. A river runs
from the suburb called Corde, distant about two miles from the city. Upon
either side of it rise two exceedingly rugged mountains. Between the slopes
of these mountains the river runs as far as the city, and since it flows at the
foot of them, it is not possible for an enemy to divert or meddle with its
stream, for they cannot force it out of the hollow ground. It is directed into
the city in the following manner. The inhabitants have built a great channel
leading to the walls, the mouth of which is closed with numerous thick bars
of iron, some upright and some placed crosswise, so as to enable the water
to enter the city, without injury to the strength of its fortifications. Thus the
river enters the city, and after having filled these reservoirs, and been led
hither and thither at the pleasure of the inhabitants, passes into another part
of the city, where there is an outfall constructed for it in the same way as its
entrance. The river in its progress through the flat country made the city in
former times easy to be besieged, for it was not difficult for an enemy to

encamp there, because water was plentiful. The Emperor Justinian
considered this state of things, and tried to find some remedy for it; God,
however, assisted him in his difficulty, took the matter into His own hands,
and without delay ensured the safety of the city. This took place in the
following manner.
One of the garrison of the city, either in consequence of a dream or led of
his own accord to it, collected together a great number of the workmen
engaged in building the fortifications, and ordered them to dig a long trench
in a certain place, which he pointed out to them, a considerable distance
within the city wall, declaring that they would there find sweet water
flowing out of the ground. He dug this trench in a circular form, making the
depth of it for the most part about fifteen feet. This work proved the saving
of the city, not through any foresight of the workmen, yet, by means of this
trench, what would have been a misfortune was turned into a great
advantage to the Romans; for, as during this time very heavy rain fell, the
river, of which I just spoke, raged outside the fortifications and rose to a
great height, being unable to proceed, because when it was swollen to such
a size neither the channel nor the entrances in the wall were large enough to
contain it, as they had been before. It consequently piled up its waters
against the wall, rising to a great height and depth, and in some places was
stagnant, and in others rough and violent. It at once overthrew the outwork,
swept away a great part of the city wall, forced its way through the city
gates, and, running with a great body of water, occupied almost the whole
city, invading both the market-place, the narrower streets, and the houses
themselves, swept off from them a great mass of furniture, wooden vessels,
and such like things, and then, falling into this trench, disappeared under
ground. Not many days afterwards it reappeared near to the city of
Theodosiopolis, at a place about forty miles distant from the city of Dara,
where it was recognised by the things which it had swept away out of the
houses at Dara, for there the whole mass of them reappeared. Since that
period, in time of peace and quiet, the river flows through the midst of the
city, fills the reservoirs with water, and passes out of the city through the
outfall especially constructed for it by the builders of the city, which I
described above, and, as it supplies that region with water, becomes a great
boon to the inhabitants of the neighbourhood. When, however, a hostile
army advances to besiege the city, they close the passages through the iron

gratings with what are called sluice-doors, and at once force the river to
change its course and to flow into the trench and the subterranean gulf
beyond, so that the enemy suffer from want of water and are at once obliged
to raise the siege. Indeed Mirrhanes, the Persian general, in the reign of
Cabades, came thither to besiege the city, and was compelled by all these
difficulties to retire baffled after a short time; and a long while afterwards,
Chosroes himself advanced with the same intentions, and attacked the city
with a numerous army; but being driven to great straits through want of
water, and perceiving the height of the walls, he imagined the place to be
entirely impregnable, gave up his project, and straightway retired into
Persia, being out-generalled by the foresight of the Roman Emperor.
III. Such were the works of the Emperor Justinian in the city of Dara. I
shall now describe what he arranged to prevent any second misfortune
happening to the city from the river, in which matter his wishes were
manifestly assisted by Heaven. There was one Chryses of Alexandria, a
clever engineer, who served the Emperor as an architect, and constructed
most of the works both in the city of Dara and in the rest of the country.
This Chryses was absent when the misfortune from the river befell the city
of Dara; when he heard of it, he retired to bed in great grief, and dreamed
the following dream: A figure of more than human stature appeared to him,
and showed and explained to him a device which would protect the city
from any dangerous inundation of the river. He, conceiving this idea to be
divinely inspired, at once wrote an account of the device and of the vision,
and sent it to the Emperor, giving a sketch of what he had been taught in his
dream. It happened that not long before this a message reached the Emperor
from the city of Dara, giving him an account of what had happened with the
river. Thereupon the Emperor, disturbed and alarmed at what had taken
place, straightway summoned those most celebrated architects, Anthemius
and Isidorus, whom I have mentioned before. He informed them of what
had happened, and inquired what arrangement could be devised to prevent
this mischief befalling the city a second time. Each of them described what
he considered to be a suitable plan for this purpose; but the Emperor,
evidently acting under a divine impulse, although he had not yet seen the
letter of Chryses, miraculously invented and sketched out of his own mind
the plan suggested by the dream. The interview terminated without the
adoption of any distinct plan, and without their deciding upon what was to

be done; but three days afterwards came a messenger to the Emperor, who
brought the letter from Chryses, and who explained the form of the
arrangement which he had seen in his dream. The Emperor now again sent
for the architects, and ordered them to recall to mind their former ideas of
what ought to be done. They repeated everything in order, both their own
devices and the spontaneous inventions of the Emperor; after which the
Emperor brought forward the messenger sent from Chryses, and showing
them the letter and the sketch of what he had seen in his dream, caused
them to wonder greatly, when they perceived how Heaven had assisted our
Emperor in everything for the advantage of the Empire. The plan of the
Emperor accordingly won the day, and triumphed over the art and learning
of the architects. Chryses returned to the city of Dara, with orders from the
Emperor to carry out the work which he had described with all speed,
according to the plan revealed in the dream. He carried out his orders in the
following manner.
In a place about forty feet distant from the outwork of the city, across the
valley in which the river runs between the two mountains, he constructed a
barrier of considerable height and width, joining each end of it to the
mountain on either side, in such a manner that the water of the river in its
strongest flood could never force its way through it. This work is called by
those who are learned in such matters a dam, or sluice, or whatever else
they please. He did not build this barrier in a straight line, but in the form of
a crescent, in order that its arch, which was turned against the stream of the
water, might be better able to resist its violence. The upper and lower parts
of this barrier are pierced with apertures, so that, when the river suddenly
rises in flood, it is forced to stop there and to flow no further with the entire
weight of its stream, but passing in small quantities through these apertures
it gradually diminishes in violence and power, and the wall is never
damaged by it; for the flow of water, collecting in the place which, as I have
said before, is about forty feet in length, lying between the barrier and the
outwork, is never unmanageable, but runs gently to its usual entrance, and
thence is received in the artificial channel. As for the gate, which the fury of
the river broke open in former times, he removed it from thence, and
blocked up its site with enormous stones, because this gate, being situated
on flat ground, was easily reached by the river when in flood; but he placed
the gate not far off, in a lofty place in the most precipitous part of the circuit

of the walls, which it was impossible for the river to reach. Thus did the
Emperor arrange these matters.
The inhabitants of this city suffered greatly from the want of water, for
there was no fountain springing out of the ground, nor was any water
carried about the streets in an aqueduct, or stored up in cisterns; but those
who lived in the streets through which the river passed could draw
drinking-water from it without trouble, while those who dwelt at a distance
from the course of the river had either to fetch their drinking-water with
great trouble or to perish with thirst; however, the Emperor Justinian
constructed a great aqueduct, by which he brought the water to every part of
the city, and relieved the distress of the inhabitants. He also built two
churches, that which is called the Great Church, and the Church of St.
Bartholomew the Apostle.[37] Moreover, he built very spacious barracks for
the soldiers, that they might not inconvenience the inhabitants.
Not long after this he restored the wall and outworks of the city of
Amida, which had been built in former times, and were thought likely to
fall into ruins; thus ensuring the safety of that city. I am now about to speak
of his buildings in the forts which stand on the frontier of the territory of
these cities.
IV. As one goes from the city of Dara towards the land of Persia, there
lies on the left a tract entirely impassable for carriages or horses, extending
to the distance of about two days’ journey for a lightly-equipped traveller,
ending in an abrupt and precipitous place called Rhabdium.[38] The land on
each side of this road to Rhabdium belongs for a great distance to Persia.
When I first saw this I was surprised at it, and inquired of the people of the
country how it was that a road and tract belonging to the Romans should
have enemy’s land on each side of it. They answered, that this country once
belonged to the Persians, but that at the request of the King of Persia one of
the Roman Emperors gave a village abounding in vines near Martyropolis,
[39]
and received this region in exchange for it. The city of Rhabdium stands
upon precipitous and wild rocks, which there rise to a wondrous height;
below it is a region which they call ‘the field of the Romans,’ out of
wonder, I suppose, at its belonging to the Romans, though it lies in the
midst of the Persian country. This Roman field lies on flat ground, and is

fruitful in all kinds of crops; one might conjecture this from the fact that the
Persian frontier surrounds it on every side.
There is a very celebrated fort in Persia, named Sisauranum, which the
Emperor Justinian once captured and razed to the ground; taking prisoners a
great number of Persian cavalry, together with their leader Bleschanes. This
place lies at a distance of two days’ journey from Dara for a lightly-
equipped traveller, and is about three miles distant from Rhabdium. It was
formerly unguarded, and altogether neglected by the Romans, so that it
never received from them any garrison, fortification, or any other benefit,
wherefore the peasants who tilled this country, of which I just spoke,
besides the ordinary taxes, paid an annual tribute of fifty gold pieces to the
Persians, in order that they might possess their lands and enjoy the produce
of them in security. All this was altered for them by the Emperor Justinian,
who enclosed Rhabdium with fortifications, which he built upon the summit
of the mountain which rises there, and, taking advantage of the position of
the ground, rendered it impossible for the enemy to approach it. As those
who dwelt in it were in want of water, there being no springs on the top of
the cliff, he constructed two cisterns, and by digging into the rocks in many
places made large reservoirs of water, so that the rain-water might collect,
and the garrison might use it freely, and not be liable to capture through
distress for want of water.
He also rebuilt solidly, and gave their present beauty and strength to all
the other mountain forts, which reach from this point and from the city of
Dara to Amida; namely, Ciphæ, Sauræ, Smargdis, Lurnes, Hieriphthon,
Atachæ, Siphris, Rhipalthæ, Banasymeon, and also Sinæ, Rhasius, Dabanæ,
and all the others which were built there in ancient times, and which before
this were constructed in a contemptible fashion, but which he made into an
impregnable line of outposts along the Roman frontier. In this region there
stands a very lofty mountain, precipitous, and altogether inaccessible; the
plain below it is rich and free from rocks, suitable both for arable and
pasture land, for it abounds in grass. There are many villages at the foot of
this mountain, whose inhabitants are rich in the produce of the country, but
lie exposed to the attacks of the enemy. This was remedied by the Emperor
Justinian, who built a fort upon the summit of the mountain, in which they
might place their most valued possessions, and themselves take refuge at
the approach of the enemy. This is named the Fort of the Emperors.

Moreover, he carefully rebuilt and safely fortified the forts in the
neighbourhood of the city of Amida, which before were only surrounded by
mud walls, and were incapable of defence. Among these were Apadnæ and
the little fort of Byrthum: for it is not easy to set down all their names in
detail, but, speaking generally, he found them all exposed to attack, and has
now rendered them impregnable; and since his time Mesopotamia has
become quite protected against the Persian nation.
Nor must I pass over in silence what he devised at the fort of Bara, of
which I just now spoke. The interior of this fort was entirely without water,
and Bara is built upon the precipitous summit of a lofty mountain. Outside
its walls, at a great distance, at the bottom of the hill, there was a fountain
which it was not thought advisable to include within the fortification, lest
the part which was situated upon the low ground should be open to attack.
He therefore devised the following plan. He ordered them to dig within the
walls until they reached the level of the plain. When this was done in
accordance with the Emperor’s order, to their surprise they found the water
of the fountain flowing there; thus the fort was both constructed securely
and conveniently situated with regard to water supply.

V. In the same manner, since the walls of Theodosiopolis,[40] the bulwark
of the Roman Empire on the river Aborrhas, had become so decayed by age
that the inhabitants derived no confidence from their strength, but rather
terror, as they feared that before long they would fall down, the Emperor
rebuilt them for the most part, so that they were able to check the invasions
of the Persians into Mesopotamia. It is worth describing what he did at
Constantina. The original wall of Constantina was so low that a ladder
would easily reach the top, and in its construction was greatly exposed to
attack, and seemed hardly to have been built in earnest; for the towers were
of such a distance from one another, that if the assailants attacked the space
between them, the garrison of the towers would be too far off to drive them
back; moreover, the greater part of it was so ruinous from age that it seemed
likely soon to fall. In addition to this, the city had an outwork which was
more like a siege-work to enable the enemy to attack it; for it was not more
than three feet in thickness, cemented with mud, the lower part of it built of
rock fit for making mill-stones, but the upper part of what is called white-
stone, which is not to be trusted and is very soft, so that the whole work
might easily be captured. However, the Emperor Justinian rebuilt the

decayed part of the walls, more especially on the west and north sides;
between every two towers of the wall he placed the third, so that since his
time all the towers for the defence of the wall stand close together. He also
greatly raised the height of the wall and of all the towers, so as to render the
place impregnable to an enemy. Moreover, he built covered approaches to
the towers, each of which towers contained three stories of vaulted stone, so
that each one of them was called and really was a castle in itself, for what
the Greeks call ‘phrourion’ is called a ‘castle’ in the Latin tongue. Besides
this, Constantina used formerly to be reduced to great straits for want of
water; there are indeed wells of good water outside the walls at the distance
of a mile, round which grows a large wood of very lofty trees; within the
walls, however, since the streets are not built upon level but upon sloping
ground, the city in ancient times was waterless, and its inhabitants suffered
much from thirst and the difficulty of obtaining water; but the Emperor
Justinian brought the water within the walls by means of an aqueduct,
adorned the city with overflowing fountains, and may justly be termed its
founder. These were the works of the Emperor Justinian in these cities.
VI. The Romans had a fort by the side of the river Euphrates on the
extreme frontier of Mesopotamia, at the place where the river Aborrhas[41]
effects its junction with the Euphrates. This fort was named Circesium,[42]
and had been built in former times by the Emperor Diocletian; however, our
present Emperor Justinian, finding that it had become ruinous through lapse
of time, and was neglected and not in a posture of defence, altered it into a
strong fortification, and made it into a city of eminent size and beauty.
When Diocletian built the fort he did not completely surround it with a
wall, but brought each end of the walls down to the river Euphrates, built a
tower at each end of them, and left the side between them entirely
unfortified, imagining, I suppose, that the waters of the river would suffice
to defend the fort on that side. In the course of time, however, the stream of
the river, continually eating away the bank, undermined the tower on the
south side, and it became evident that unless prompt measures were taken it
would shortly fall. Now appeared the Emperor Justinian, entrusted by
Heaven with the glory of watching over, and, as far as one man can do, of
restoring the Roman Empire. He not only saved the undermined tower,
which he rebuilt of a hard stone, but also enclosed all the unprotected side
of the fort with a very strong wall, thus doubling its security by adding the

strength which it derived from the wall to that afforded by the river. Besides
this, he also built a powerful outwork round the city, especially at the spot
where the junction of the two rivers forms a triangular space, and thus left
no place exposed to the attacks of the enemy. Moreover, he appointed a
general who had the title of Duke, and who always resided there with a
garrison of picked soldiers, thus rendering the place a sufficient bulwark for
the frontier of the empire. He also rebuilt in its present splendour the public
bath which is used by the inhabitants, which had become quite ruinous and
useless by the incursions of the river; for he found all that part of it which is
suspended above the solid foundation for the convenience of bathers,
underneath which the fire is placed, and which is called the hypocaust,
exposed to the influx of the river, by which the bath was rendered useless;
he therefore strengthened with stonework, as I have said, the part which
formerly had been hollow, and built another hypocaust above it, which the
river could not reach, thus restoring the enjoyment of the bath to the
garrison. In this manner did our Emperor restore the buildings of Circesium.
Beyond Circesium there is an ancient fort named Annucas, whose wall
the Emperor Justinian found a mere ruin, and which he rebuilt in so
magnificent a fashion that its defences vie with those of the most celebrated
cities; and in the same manner he rendered formidable, and altogether
unapproachable by an enemy, those forts situated near the city of
Theodosiopolis, which before his time were either without walls, or only
walled with mud and absurd heaps of stones. These are Magdalathum, with
two others on either side of it, and the two forts, the Great and Little
Thannurium, Bismideon, Themeres, Bidamas, Dausaron, Thiolla, Philæ,
Zamarthas, and, one may say, all the rest. There was an extensive position
near Thannurium, which could easily be occupied by our enemies the
Saracens, by crossing the river Aborrhas, from which point they were able
to penetrate in small parties into the thick and extensive forest and the
mountain which is situated in that region, and make inroads upon the
Roman inhabitants of that country; now, however, the Emperor Justinian
has built a tower of hard stone in that place, manned it with a considerable
garrison, and has altogether repressed the incursions of the enemy by the
establishment of this bulwark against them.
VII. The above are the works of the Emperor Justinian in this part of
Mesopotamia; I must speak in this place of Edessa, Carrhæ, Callinicum,

and all the other strong places which are in that country, since they lie
between the two rivers. Edessa[43] stands on the banks of a small stream
called Scirtus, which collects its waters from many places, and runs through
the midst of the city: from thence it passes onwards, after having supplied
the wants of the city, effecting its entrance and exit through by a channel
constructed by former generations, which passes through the city walls.
This river once, after much rain, rose to a great height, and seemed as
though it would destroy the city; it tore down a large part of the outworks
and of the walls, inundated almost the whole city, and did much damage,
suddenly destroying the finest buildings, and drowning a third part of the
inhabitants. The Emperor Justinian not only at once restored all the
buildings of the city which were overthrown, among which were the church
of the Christians and a building called Antiphorus, but also arranged with
great care that no such disaster should ever again occur, for he made a new
channel for the river, outside the city walls, which he arranged in the
following manner. The ground on the right bank of the river was formerly
flat and low-lying, while that on the left was a precipitous mountain, which
did not allow the river to turn aside from its accustomed course, but forced
it to flow into the city, because when flowing towards the city it met with
no obstacle on its right bank. He therefore dug away the whole of this
mountain, making a channel on the left bank of the river deeper than its
former bed, and built on the right bank an enormous wall of stones, as large
as a waggon could carry, so that if the river ran as usual with a moderate
volume the city would not be deprived of the convenience of its water; but
if it should be swollen into a flood a moderate stream would run as usual
throughout the city, but the excess of water would be forced into this
channel constructed by Justinian, and thus extraordinarily conquered by
human art and skill might run round the back of the race-course, which is
situated not far off. Moreover he forced the river within the city to run in a
straight course, by building a wall above it on either side, so that it could
not turn out of a straight path; by which means he both preserved the use of
it for the city, and removed all fear of it for the future. The wall and
outwork of Edessa, like those of the other places, had for the most part
fallen into ruins through age; wherefore the Emperor restored them both,
making them new and much stronger than they were before. Part of the wall
of Edessa is occupied by a fort, outside of which rises a hill very close to
the city and overhanging it; this hill was in ancient times occupied by the

inhabitants, and included in their walls by an outwork, that it might not
form a weak point to the city. Their work, however, made the city much
more open to assault in that quarter; for their outwork was very low, built
on an exposed site, and could be taken even by children playing at sieges.
Justinian therefore took it down and built another wall on the top of the hill,
which is in no danger of an assault from higher ground in any quarter, and
which follows the slope of the hill down to the level ground on both sides,
and joins the city wall.[44]

EDESSA.
From Texier & Pullan’s Byzantine Architecture
COLUMNS ON A TERRACE OF THE CASTLE.

Also at the cities of Carrhæ[45] and Callinicum[46] he destroyed the walls
and outworks, which were much impaired by age, and rendered them
impregnable by building the present complete fortifications; he also built a
strong wall round the unprotected and neglected fort at Batnæ,[47] and gave
it the fine appearance which it now presents.

VIII. These, as I have said before, were the works of the Emperor
Justinian in Mesopotamia and Osrhoene. I will now describe what was done
on the right bank of the river Euphrates. In all other parts the Roman and
Persian frontiers border upon one another, and each nation proceeds from
its own country to make war and peace with the other, as all men of
different habits and empires do when they have a common frontier; but in
the province which was formerly called Commagene, which is now called
Euphratesia, they dwell nowhere near to one another, for the Roman and
Persian frontiers are widely parted by a country which is quite desert and
devoid of life, and possesses nothing worth fighting for. Yet each nation,
though not regarding it as a work of much importance, has built a chain of
forts of unbaked brick where the desert borders upon their inhabited
country. None of these forts have ever been assaulted by their neighbours,
but the two nations dwell there without any ill-feeling, since there is
nothing for either of them to covet; however, the Emperor Diocletian built
three of these forts in this desert, one of which, named Mambri, had fallen
into ruin through age, and was restored by the Emperor Justinian.
About five miles from this fort, as you go towards the Roman country,
Zenobia, the wife of Odenathus, the chief of the Saracens in those parts,
built a small city in former times and gave it her own name, calling it
Zenobia.[48] Since then, long lapse of time brought its walls to ruin, and as
the Romans did not think it worth caring for, it became entirely uninhabited.
Thus the Persians, whenever they chose, were able to place themselves in
the midst of the Romans before any news had been heard of their coming;
however, the Emperor Justinian rebuilt the whole of Zenobia, filled it with
numerous inhabitants, placed in it a commander with a garrison of regular
soldiers, and thus formed a powerful fortress, a bulwark of the Roman
Empire and a check upon the Persians. He did not merely restore it to its
former appearance, but made it far stronger than it was before. The place is
closely surrounded by high cliffs, from which the enemy were formerly able
to shoot down upon the heads of the defenders of the wall; being desirous to
avoid this, he constructed a building upon the walls, on the side nearest
these cliffs, which might always act as a protection to the defenders. This
building is called a ‘wing,’ because it appears to hang upon the wall.
Indeed, it is not possible to describe all that our Emperor built at Zenobia:
for as the city is situated far away in the desert, and for this reason is always

exposed to peril, and cannot derive any succour from the Romans, who
dwell at a distance, he took the greatest pains to render it secure. I will now
relate some few of his works there.
Zenobia stands beside the river Euphrates, which flows close to its walls
on the eastern side. This river, surrounded by high mountains, has no space
in which to extend itself, but its stream is confined among the neighbouring
mountains and between its rugged banks. Whenever it is swollen by rain
into a flood, it pours against the city wall and washes not merely against its
foundations but as high as its very battlements. The courses of stone in the
walls, drenched by this stream, became disarranged, and the whole
construction was endangered; he, however, constructed a mole of enormous
masses of hard rock, of the same length as the wall, and forced the flooded
river to expend its rage in vain, setting the wall free from any fear of injury,
however high the river might swell. Finding that the city wall upon the
northern side had become ruinous from age, he razed it to the ground,
together with its outwork, and rebuilt it, but not upon its former site,
because the houses of the city were so crowded together at that point as to
inconvenience the inhabitants; but he proceeded beyond the foundations of
the wall, beyond the outwork and the ditch itself, and there built an
admirable and singularly beautiful wall, thus greatly enlarging Zenobia in
this quarter. There was, moreover, a certain hill which stood near the city
towards the west, from which the barbarians, when they made their attacks,
were able to shoot with impunity down upon the heads of the defenders,
and even of those who were standing in the midst of the city; this hill the
Emperor Justinian surrounded with a wall on both sides, and thus included
it in the city of Zenobia, afterwards escarping its sides throughout, so that
no enemy could ascend it. He also built another fort upon the top of the hill,
and thus rendered it altogether inaccessible to those who wished to assault
the city, for beyond the hill the ground sinks into a hollow valley, and
therefore it cannot be closely approached by the enemy; above this hollow
valley the mountains at once rise on the western side. The Emperor did not
merely watch over the safety of the city, but also built churches in it, and
barracks for the soldiers: he also constructed public baths and porticos. All
this work was carried out under the superintendence of the architects
Isidorus and Joannes, of whom Joannes was a Byzantine, and Isidorus a
Milesian by birth, being the nephew of that Isidorus whom I mentioned

before. Both of these were young men, but showed an energy beyond their
years, and both displayed equal zeal in the works which they constructed
for the Emperor.

IX. After Zenobia was the city of Suri,[49] situated on the river Euphrates,
whose fortifications were so contemptible that when Chosroes assaulted it,
it did not hold out for so much as half-an-hour, but was instantly taken by
the Persians. This fort, however, like Callinicum, was restored by the
Emperor Justinian, who surrounded it with a strong wall, strengthened it
with an outwork, and enabled it for the future to resist the attack of the
enemy, There is in Euphratesia a church dedicated to Sergius, an eminent
saint, whom the ancients so admired and looked up to that they named the
place Sergiopolis,[50] and surrounded it with a low rampart, sufficient to
prevent the Saracens in that region from capturing it by assault; for the
Saracens are by nature incapable of attacking walls, and consequently the
weakest mud wall is sufficient to resist their onset. In later times this church
received so many offerings as to become powerful and famous throughout
the land. The Emperor Justinian, reflecting upon these matters, at once
applied himself to its protection, surrounded it with a most admirable wall,
and provided a quantity of water, stored up in reservoirs, for the use of its
inhabitants; besides this, he built in the place houses and porticos, and all
the other buildings which are regarded as the ornaments of a city. He also
placed a garrison of soldiers in it to defend the walls in time of need; and,
indeed, Chosroes, the King of Persia, who determined to take the city, and
who brought up a large army to besiege it, was compelled to raise the siege,
being overcome by the strength of the walls.
The Emperor spent equal care upon all the towns and forts on the borders
of Euphratesia, (namely) Barbalissus,[51] Neocæsarea, Gabula, Pentacomia,
which is on the Euphrates, and Europus.[52] At Hemerius, finding the walls
built in some parts carelessly and dangerously, and in some parts formed
only of mud, while the place was deficient in water-supply and
consequently despicable as a fortification, he razed them to the ground, and
at once carefully rebuilt them of courses of the hardest stone, making the
wall much wider and higher than before. He also constructed reservoirs for
water in all parts of the works, all of which he filled with rain-water, and,
placing a garrison there, he rendered the place as powerful and secure as we

now see it. Indeed, if one were carefully to consider this, and to inspect all
the other good works of the Emperor Justinian, one would say it was for
this alone that he had received the crown, by the manifest favour of God,
who watches over the Roman people.

Besides these places he also found Hierapolis,[53] which is the chief of all
the cities in that region, lying exposed to any enemy that might attack it, but
by his own provident foresight he rendered it safe; for, as it originally
enclosed a large empty space and on that account the entire circuit of the
walls could not be guarded, he cut off the part which was useless, arranged
the walls in a safer and more compact form, and, by thus reducing it to the
size necessary for use, made it one of the strongest cities of the present day.
He also conferred upon it the following benefit. A fountain of sweet water
springs perpetually out of the earth in the midst of the city, and forms
therein a wide lake; this, indeed, added to the safety of the city when it was
beleaguered by an enemy, but in time of peace was by no means necessary,
as much water was brought into the city from without. In process of time
the inhabitants, having enjoyed a long period of peace, and having never
experienced any distress, neglected this spring; for it is not in human nature
when in prosperity to make provision against times of adversity;
consequently they gradually filled up the lake with rubbish, and were
accustomed to bathe in it, to wash their clothes in it, and to throw all kinds
of refuse into it....
In this province of Euphratesia were situated two other towns,
Zeugma[54] and Neocæsarea, which were indeed towns in name, but were
merely surrounded by dry stone walls, built so low that they might be
crossed by an enemy without any difficulty, since they could leap over them
without fear; while they were so narrow as to be altogether indefensible,
because they afforded no room for the garrison to stand upon to defend
them; however, the Emperor Justinian surrounded these places also with
real walls, of a sufficient width and height, and equipped them with all
other means of defence, thus giving them a just right to be termed cities,
and rendering them safe from the attacks of the enemy.
X. Moreover, with regard to the cities taken from Chosroes, that
barbarian, disregarding the perpetual peace which he had sworn to observe,
and the money which he had received on account of it, was filled with envy

of the Emperor Justinian, because of the conquests which he had made in
Libya and in Italy, and considered his plighted faith to be of less importance
than the gratification of this passion; he watched his opportunity, when the
greater part of the Roman army was away in the West, and invaded the
Roman territory unexpectedly, before the Romans had any news of the
approach of the enemy; these cities, I say, the Emperor Justinian so
strengthened and beautified that they are all at the present time much more
flourishing than before, and have no dread of injury from barbarian
invasion, fearing no attacks of any kind.

Above all, he rendered the city of Antiochia,[55] which is now surnamed
Theopolis, far more beautiful and powerful than it was before; its wall in
ancient times was too large, and extended beyond all reason, uselessly
enclosing flat ground in one place, and lofty cliffs in another, so that it was
full of weak points. The Emperor Justinian reduced it to a useful size,
making it protect the city alone, and not the places which it formerly
enclosed. In the lower part of the fortifications, where the city had spread
out to a dangerous extent over a smooth plain, and was indefensible through
the great length of the wall, he drew it back as far as possible,
advantageously reducing the size of the city in that quarter, and
strengthening it by concentration. As for the river Orontes, which formerly
flowed past it in a circuitous course, he changed its direction, and caused it
to skirt the walls of the city. Thus, by an artificial channel, he brought the
course of the river as near the city as possible, by which means he relieved
the city from the danger of its unmanageable size, and yet retained the
protection afforded by the river Orontes: then, by building new bridges, he
supplied fresh means of intercourse across the river, which he diverted from
its course as far as was required, and then returned to its former bed.
The upper part of the city, on the high ground, he fortified in the
following manner. On the summit of the mountain which is called
Orocassias there is a lofty rock which stands close outside the wall opposite
to the fortifications in that quarter, and which renders them easy to attack. It
was from this point that Chosroes took the city, as I have explained in my
work on the subject. The region within the walls was for the most part
uninhabited and difficult of access, for the place is divided by lofty rocks
and deep ravines, which cut off all the paths, so that the wall of Antiochia
seems there to belong to another city. He therefore disregarded the rock

which overhangs the wall so close and renders it liable to capture, and
decided to build his new wall at a distance from it, having learnt by
experience the folly of the original builders; moreover, he levelled the
ground within the walls, which formerly had been precipitous, and made the
ascent to this part of the city not only practicable for people on foot, but for
horsemen and even for carriages. On this high ground he also built baths
and reservoirs for water within the walls, and dug a well in each tower,
remedying the original waterless character of the place by the storage of
rain-water.
It is worth our while to describe his works upon the torrent which
descends from these mountains. Two precipitous mountains overhang the
city, standing close to one another; of these, the one is called Orocassias,
the other Stauris. They are joined by a glen and ravine which lies between
them, which in time of rain produces the torrent named Onopnictes, which
used to flow down from the high ground and overflow the fortifications,
and sometimes rose so high as to pour into the streets of the city, doing
much mischief to the inhabitants. The Emperor Justinian remedied this in
the following manner. In front of that part of the wall which is nearest to the
ravine, from which the torrent used to rush against the wall, he built an
exceedingly high wall, reaching from the hollow bed of the ravine to the
mountains on either side, so that the torrent was not able to rush past it, but
was forced to stay and collect its waters there. In this wall he made
apertures, through which he forced the water to run gently in a smaller
volume, checked by this artificial barrier, so that it no longer broke with its
full force against the city wall so as to overflow it and ruin the city, but
proceeded gently and quietly, as I have explained, and flowing in this
manner passed wherever it was desired to go through the channels
constructed for it by the former inhabitants.
Thus did the Emperor Justinian reconstruct the walls of Antiochia; he
also rebuilt the entire city, which was burnt by the enemy. As the whole city
was reduced to ashes, and levelled to the ground, and only heaps of rubbish
remained after the conflagration, it was at first impossible for the citizens of
Antiochia to recognise the site of their own dwellings. He consequently
removed all the ruins, and cleared away the charred remains of the houses;
but, as there were no public porticos or halls supported by columns, no
market-place, and no streets which marked out the quarters of the city, there

was nothing to point to the site of any particular house. However, the
Emperor, without any delay, removed the rubbish as far as possible from the
city, thus freeing the air and the ground from all impediments to building,
and first covered the foundations of the city everywhere with stones large
enough to load a waggon. After this he divided it by porticos and market-
places, defined all the blocks of building by streets, arranged the aqueducts,
fountains, and watercourses with which the city is adorned, constructed
theatres and public baths in it, and graced it with all the other public
buildings which belong to a prosperous city.
He also brought thither a number of workmen and artificers, and thus
rendered it more easy for the inhabitants to rebuild their own houses; the
result of this is that Antiochia at the present day is a more celebrated city
than before. He also built therein a large church in honour of the Virgin, the
beauty and magnificence of which is in all respects beyond description. He
endowed this church with a considerable revenue, and also built a large
church dedicated to St. Michael the Archangel. Moreover, he made
provision for the sick poor in that place, and built dwellings for them,
separate for the different sexes, in which they were supplied with
attendants, and the means of curing their diseases; while at the same time he
established hospices for strangers who might be staying for any time in the
city.
XI. In like manner he also restored, greatly strengthened, and brought
into its present condition the wall of the city of Chalcis, together with its
outwork, which had become weak and ruinous through age.

There was in Syria an utterly neglected village named Cyrus,[56] which
the Jews had built in ancient times when they were led captive from
Palestine into Syria by the army of the Medes, from which country they
were long afterwards released by Cyrus the King; wherefore they called the
place Cyrus in honour of their benefactor. In the course of time Cyrus
became quite overlooked and was entirely without walls; but the Emperor
Justinian, with a prudent zeal for the safety of the Empire, and also out of
reverence for the SS. Cosmas and Damianus, whose bodies lay near that
place down to my own time, made Cyrus into a flourishing and admirable
city, rendering it safe by a very strong wall, with a numerous garrison, large
public buildings, and with all other appurtenances on an exceedingly

magnificent scale. In former times the interior of this city was without
water, but outside the walls was a plenteous spring which provided
abundance of drinking-water, yet was altogether useless to the inhabitants,
since they had no means of drawing water from it without great labour and
peril; for they were obliged to go to it by a circuitous path, as the country
between it and the city was precipitous and altogether impassable, so that an
enemy, if he were present, could easily lay an ambush and cut them off. He
therefore constructed a watercourse from the city walls to the fountain, not
open, but concealed underground with the greatest care, which supplied the
city with water without either trouble or danger.

He also very strongly rebuilt the entire circuit of the walls of Chalcis,[57]
which had fallen into ruin down to its very foundation and was altogether
indefensible, and he strengthened it with an outwork; he also restored all the
other towns and forts in Syria in an admirable fashion.
Thus did the Emperor Justinian provide for the security of Syria; there is,
too, in Phœnicia, by the side of Lebanon, a city named Palmyra, which was
built in the desert in ancient times, and which was conveniently placed on
the road by which our enemies the Saracens would enter our country. It
was, indeed, originally built for this purpose; namely, in order to prevent the
barbarians making unexpected inroads into the Roman territory. This place,
which through lapse of time had become almost entirely deserted, was
strongly fortified by the Emperor Justinian, who supplied it abundantly with
water, and filled it with a garrison of soldiers, so as to check the inroads of
the Saracens.

BOOK III.

I. The Emperor Justinian fortified the eastern country in the manner
which I have described in a former part of this work. Now as I started from
the Persian frontier in my description of his work upon the fortresses, I
think it will be convenient to proceed from thence to that of Armenia, which
skirts the Persian territory from the city of Amida as far as that of
Theodosiopolis. Before describing the buildings in that quarter, I think it
would be advisable to give some account of how our Emperor brought the
Armenians out of a condition of danger and terror into their present state of
settled security; for he did not preserve these his subjects by buildings
alone, but also by his foresight in other matters, as I shall presently explain.
To do this I must refer for a short time to ancient history.
In old times the Armenians had a king of their own nation, as we are told
by the historians of remotest antiquity. When, however, Alexander of
Macedon overthrew the King of Persia, the Persians remained quiet under
his yoke, but the Parthians revolted against the Macedonians, conquered
them in war, drove them out of their country, and pushed their frontier as far
as the river Tigris. Subsequently the Persians remained subject to them for
five hundred years, up to the time when Alexander, the son of Mamæa,
ruled over the Romans. At this time one of the kings of the Parthians made
his brother, named Arsaces, King of the Armenians, as the history of the
Armenians tells us; for let no one suppose that the Arsacidæ are Armenians.
Now for five hundred years there was peace between them in consequence
of their relationship. The King of the Armenians dwelt in what is called
Greater Armenia, having been from ancient times subject to the Emperor of
the Romans; but afterwards one Arsaces, King of Armenia, had two sons,
named Tigranes and Arsaces. When this King was about to die, he made a
will by which he left the succession to his kingdom to both his sons, not
dividing its power equally between them, but giving a fourfold greater share
to Tigranes. The elder Arsaces, after making this division of his kingdom,
passed away, but Arsaces his son, grieved and enraged at the inferiority of
his position, laid the matter before the Roman Empire, hoping that by using
all means in his power he might drive his brother from the kingdom, and
render his father’s unjust wishes of no effect. At this time Theodosius, the

son of Arcadius, ruled over the Romans, being still a child. Tigranes,
fearing the Emperor’s vengeance, put himself in the hands of the Persians
and handed over his kingdom to them, preferring to live as a private man
amongst the Persians, rather than to make an equitable arrangement with his
brother, and rule jointly over the Armenians with him in good faith and
honour. Arsaces, being equally afraid of the attacks of the Persians and of
his brother, abdicated his own kingdom in favour of the Emperor
Theodosius, on certain conditions, which I have explained at length in my
History of the Wars. For some time the country of the Armenians was an
object of contention between the Romans and the Persians, but they finally
agreed that the Persians should possess the share of Tigranes, and the
Romans that of Arsaces. Both parties signed a treaty on these conditions,
and henceforth the Emperor of the Romans appointed whom he pleased,
and at what time he thought proper, to rule over the Armenians. This ruler
was called the Count of Armenia down to my own time.
However, since such a kingdom as this was not capable of repelling the
incursions of the enemy, because it possessed no regular army, the Emperor
Justinian, perceiving that Armenia was always in a disorderly condition,
and therefore was an easy prey to the barbarians, put an end to this form of
government, and placed a general in command of the Armenians, giving
him a sufficient number of regular soldiers to repel the invasions of the
enemy. This was the arrangement which he adopted for what is called
Greater Armenia; but the remainder of Armenia, that which reaches from
this side of the river Euphrates as far as the city of Amida, was governed by
five Armenian satraps, whose offices were hereditary and tenable for life;
however, they received the insignia of their office from the hands of the
Roman Emperor alone. It is worth while to explain what these insignia
were, since they will never again be seen by men: they were a cloak made
of wool, not such as grows on sheep, but such as is gathered from the sea.
The animal on whom this wool grows is called ‘pinna.’ The cloak was of
purple, covered with gold at that part where it was fastened together; there
was a gold brooch upon the cloak, containing a precious stone, from which
three amethysts were suspended by loose golden chains. The tunic was of
silk, entirely covered with the golden ornaments known as ‘feather-work;’
the boots were red-coloured, reaching to the knee, such as it is not lawful
for anyone to wear except the Roman Emperors and the Kings of Persia.

No Roman soldiers were ever employed either by the King of Armenia or
the satraps, but they trusted exclusively to their own resources in war. In
later times, however, during the reign of the Emperor Zeno, when Illus and
Leontius openly revolted against the Emperor, certain of the satraps took
their side; wherefore the Emperor Zeno, after his victory over Illus and
Leontius, allowed one of the satraps, whose satrapy—that of the country
called Belabitis—was the weakest and least important, to retain his former
possession, but deposed all the others, and did not allow these governments
any longer to be held by hereditary descent, but filled them by persons
chosen by the Emperor, as is the custom with all the other Roman
governments. Yet even then Roman soldiers were not placed in them, but
Armenian soldiers, as had formerly been customary, and who were quite
unable to defend them against the attacks of the enemy. Perceiving this, the
Emperor Justinian abolished the title of satrap for all time to come, and
appointed two rulers over these nations, with the title of Dukes, giving them
a large number of regular Roman soldiers, in order that with them they
might defend the Roman frontier. He also built for them strong places, as
follows.
II. I shall begin with the country of Mesopotamia, in order to connect my
account with what has been described above. He established one of these
rulers of the Armenian tribes, who have the title of Duke, in the city which
is called Martyropolis,[58] and the other in a fortress which is named
Citharizon. I will now describe in what part of the Roman Empire these
places are situated. The city of Martyropolis is situated in that part of
Armenia which is called Sophanene, close to the river Nymphius, and
bordering closely on the enemy’s country; for at that place the river
Nymphius divides the Roman and Persian territory. Beyond the river lies
the country named Arxanes, which from ancient times has belonged to the
Persians. Yet this city was always neglected by the Romans, and lay
exposed to the attacks of these barbarians; so that Cabades, the King of the
Persians, in the reign of the Emperor Anastasius, invaded the country of the
Romans, and led an army through Martyropolis, which is distant from
Amida a little more than a day’s journey for a lightly equipped traveller. As
a mere incident and unimportant part of his invasion he took this city
without any siege, assault, or beleaguerment, but simply by giving out that
he was coming; for the inhabitants, who knew well that they could not hold

out for a single moment of time against his army, as soon as they saw the
Median host near at hand, at once went over to Cabades, with Theodorus—
who at that time was satrap of Sophanene—at their head, dressed in the
insignia of his office, and delivered themselves and the city of Martyropolis
up to him, taking with them the public revenue for two years. Cabades,
pleased with this, refrained from ravaging the city and the entire country,
which he regarded as part of the Persian Empire. He dismissed the people
unhurt, and neither did any injury to them nor altered anything in their city,
but replaced Theodorus—whom he regarded as a wise man—as satrap over
them, placing in his hands the symbols of authority, and trusting him to
protect the Persian territory. After this he led his army onwards, took Amida
by a siege, and retired into the Persian territory, as I have described in my
‘History of the Wars.’ The Emperor Anastasius, perceiving that it was not
possible for the city of Martyropolis to defend itself without any
fortifications against the attacks of the enemy, not only was not angry with
Theodorus and the people of Sophanene, but declared that he was very
thankful to them for their action. The wall of the city of Martyropolis was in
thickness about four feet, and in height about twenty feet; so that it could
not only be easily captured by an enemy, who employed siege operations
and brought battering engines against it, but could easily be escaladed.
In consequence of this, the Emperor Justinian proceeded as follows. He
dug a trench outside the walls, laid foundations in it, and built a new wall of
a thickness of four feet, at a distance of four feet from the old wall. He
raised this wall also to a height of twenty feet, making it in all respects
equal in size to the old one; he then filled up the space between the two
walls with stones and mortar, thus forming the whole work into one wall
twelve feet in thickness. He then raised it, keeping the thickness the same,
to a height twice as great as that which it formerly possessed; moreover, he
built an admirable outwork round the city, and built all the other defences of
a fortified place.
III. On the west side of Martyropolis is a place named Phison, which also
is situated in that part of Armenia which is called Sophanene, and is distant
from Martyropolis a little more than one day’s journey. About eight miles
beyond this place lie precipitous and altogether impassable mountains,
between which are two narrow passes, situated close to one another, which
are called Clisuræ. Travellers from Persian Armenia to Sophanene, whether

they proceed from the Persian territory or by way of the fortress of
Citharizon, must necessarily proceed through these two passes, of which the
one is called by the natives Illyrisis, and the other Saphchæ. Each of these
ought to be fortified with the utmost care, in order to bar the way against
the enemy; in former times, however, they remained entirely unguarded.
But the Emperor Justinian, by placing admirable fortifications both at
Phison and in the passes, and by establishing sufficient garrisons in them,
rendered it altogether impossible for the barbarians to invade the country.
These were the works of the Emperor Justinian in that part of the country of
Armenia which is called Sophanene.
In Citharizon, which is in the province called Asthianene, he built a new
fort on a hilly spot, of great size, and completely impregnable. This place he
furnished with a sufficient supply of water, and all other conveniences for
its inhabitants, and placed in command of it, as I said before, the other Duke
of Armenia with a sufficient garrison of soldiers, thus rendering the tribes of
Armenia secure in this quarter also.

As one goes from Citharizon[59] towards Theodosiopolis and Greater
Armenia is the country of Corzane, which extends for a distance of about
three days’ journey, without any lake, river or mountain to divide it from the
country of the Persians, whose frontier is confused with it; so that the
inhabitants of this region, whether they be Roman or Persian subjects, have
no fear of one another, and never expect any attack, but intermarry with one
another, have common markets for their produce, and cultivate the country
together. When the rulers of either nation make an expedition against the
other at the command of their prince, they always find their neighbours
unprotected; for each of them has extremely populous places close to one
another, while in former times there was no fortification whatever; so that it
was possible for the King of Persia to invade the Roman territory in this
quarter more easily than anywhere else, until the Emperor Justinian
prevented his doing so, in the following manner. In the midst of this country
there was a place named Artaleson, which he surrounded with a very strong
wall, and made into an impregnable fortress; he placed a garrison of regular
soldiers in it, and appointed a general over them, whom the Romans in the
Latin language style ‘a Duke.’ Thus did he fortify the whole of that frontier.

IV. These were the works of the Emperor Justinian in that quarter. I now
come to what he did in the rest of Armenia. The city of Satala was formerly
in a perilous position, because it is not far distant from the enemy’s country,
and is built upon low ground, surrounded by many hills, so that it ought in
consequence of its position to possess impregnable fortifications. However,
its defences were even more untrustworthy than its position, the works
having been badly and carelessly constructed, and by lapse of time having
fallen into ruin. The whole of these were demolished by the Emperor, who
built a new wall round it of sufficient height to appear to overtop the
neighbouring hills, and of sufficient thickness to support such an unusual
height with safety. He built round it an outwork of an admirable character,
and struck despair into the heart of the enemy. He also built a very strong
fort not far from Satala, in the province of Osrhoene.
In this province there was an old fort built by the ancients upon the ridge
of a precipitous hill, which was once taken by Pompeius, the Roman
general, who, when he became master of the country, fortified it with great
care, and named it Colonia. The Emperor Justinian exerted all his power in
restoring this fort, which had fallen into decay after so long a time;
moreover, he distributed enormous sums of money among the inhabitants of
this region, and thus persuaded them to build new fortifications on their
own ground, and to restore those which had fallen into ruin; so that nearly
all the works situated in that country were built by the Emperor Justinian.
There also he built the forts of Baiberdon and Arcon; he restored
Lysiormum and Lutararizon;[60] he also built a new fort in the place which
is called the Ditch of Germanus. Moreover, he restored the walls of
Sebastia[61] and Nicopolis, which are cities of Armenia, which were on the
point of falling, having become decayed through age. In them he built
churches and monasteries. At Theodosiopolis he built a church dedicated to
the Virgin, and restored the monasteries in the places named Petrius and
Cucarizon. At Nicopolis[62] he built the monastery of the Forty-five saints,
and a church of St. George the Martyr at Bizana. Near Theodosiopolis he
restored the monastery named after the Forty Martyrs.
There was a place in what used to be called Lesser Armenia, not far from
the river Euphrates, where formerly a regiment of Roman soldiers was
stationed. The place was named Melitene, and the regiment was named

Legion. Here the Romans in former times had built a square fortification on
low ground, which was convenient for soldiers’ quarters and for the
reception of their standards. Afterwards, by the orders of Trajan, the Roman
Emperor, the place was raised to the dignity of a city, and became the
capital of that nation. In the course of time the city of Melitene became
large and populous; and since it was no longer possible for the inhabitants
to dwell within the fortification, which, as I have said, enclosed but a small
space of ground, they built their city in the plain near it, erecting thereon
their churches, the dwellings of their magistrates, the market-place, and the
shops of their merchants, the streets, porticos, baths, theatres, and all the
other ornaments of a large city. In this manner Melitene became for the
most part composed of suburbs. The Emperor Anastasius attempted to
enclose the whole of it with a wall, but died before he had carried out his
intention; however, the Emperor Justinian built a wall all round it, and
rendered Melitene[63] a great defence and ornament to the Armenians.
V. These are the works of our Emperor in that part of Armenia which lies
on the right bank of the Euphrates; I will now speak of what he did in
Greater Armenia. When the Roman Emperor Theodosius obtained the
kingdom of Arsaces, as I explained before, he built a castle on one of its
hills, very liable to capture, which he called Theodosiopolis. This was taken
by Cabades, the king of Persia, when he passed it as he was marching
straight upon Amida. Not long afterwards the Roman Emperor Anastasius
built a city there, enclosing within its walls the hill upon which Theodosius
had placed his castle. Although he named the city after himself, yet he was
not able to abolish the name of Theodosius, its former founder; for though
the things in common use among mankind are constantly changing, yet it is
not easy to alter their former names. The wall of Theodosiopolis was of a
sufficient width, but was not raised to a proportional height, for it was only
about thirty feet high, and therefore was very liable to capture by an enemy
skilled in sieges, such as the Persians. It was weak in other respects also, for
it was not defended by any outwork or ditch; moreover, some high ground
close to the city overhung the wall. These defects the Emperor Justinian
remedied in the following manner; in the first place he dug a very deep
trench all round it, like the bed of a torrent among precipitous mountains:
next, he cut up the overhanging hill into a mass of inaccessible precipices
and pathless ravines; moreover, in order to make the wall very high, and

unassailable by an enemy, he employed the same device as at the city of
Dara. He contracted the battlements to the smallest size through which it
was possible to shoot at the besiegers, laid stones over them so as to make
another story round the entire circuit, and skilfully placed a second set of
battlements upon it, enclosing the whole place within an outwork like that
of the city of Dara, and making each tower into a strong castle. He
established in this place all the forces of Armenia, with their general, and
rendered the Armenians so strong that they no longer feared the attacks of
the Persians.
At Bizana the Emperor did nothing of this sort; for this place is situated
upon flat country, surrounded by wide plains fit for the manœuvres of
cavalry, and full of putrid pools of stagnant water; so that it was very easily
stormed by an enemy, and was very unhealthy for its inhabitants; for these
reasons, he neglected this place, and built a city elsewhere to which he gave
his own name. It is a fine city and altogether impregnable, and stands in a
place called Tzumina, distant three miles from Bizana, in a very healthy and
airy position on high ground.
VI. These were the acts of the Emperor Justinian in Armenia. At this
point of my narrative it appears convenient to describe what he did among
the tribes of the Tzani, since they dwell next to the Armenians. In ancient
times the Tzani were independent and without any rulers, living after the
manner of wild beasts, regarding and worshipping as gods the woods and
birds and other animals. They spent all their lives in lofty and thickly
wooded mountains, and never cultivated the ground, but supported
themselves by plundering and brigandage; for they themselves were
unacquainted with agriculture, and their country, when it is not covered
with precipitous mountains, is hilly: and the surface of these hills is not
earthy, or capable of growing crops even if it were cultivated, but rough and
hard, and altogether sterile. It is not possible to irrigate the ground, to reap a
crop, or to find a meadow anywhere; and even the trees, with which the
land of the Tzani is covered, bear no fruit, because for the most part there is
no regular succession of seasons, and the land is not at one time subjected
to cold and wet, and at another made fertile by the warmth of the sun, but is
desolated by perpetual winter and covered by eternal snows. For this reason
the Tzani, in ancient times, remained independent; but during the reign of
our Emperor Justinian they were conquered by the Romans, under the

command of Tzita; and, perceiving that resistance was impossible, at once
submitted in a body, preferring an easy servitude to a dangerous freedom.
They at once all changed their religion to the true faith, became Christians,
and embraced a more civilized mode of life, renouncing brigandage, and
serving in the Roman army, which was constantly at war with their
enemies. However, the Emperor Justinian, fearing that the Tzani might at
some time revert to their former wild mode of life, devised the following
expedients.
The whole country of the Tzani is difficult, and quite impassable for
horsemen, being everywhere surrounded with precipices and woods, as I
said before; so that it was impossible for the Tzani to mix with their
neighbours, but they lived by themselves in a savage manner, like wild
beasts. He therefore cut down all the trees which hindered the making of
roads, and levelled the rough ground, rendering it easily passable for
horsemen, and thus made it possible for them to mix with the rest of
mankind, and hold intercourse with their neighbours. Next he built a church
for them in a place called Schamalinichon, in order that they might perform
divine service, partake of the holy mysteries, gain the favour of God by
prayers, perform the other duties of religion, and feel themselves to be
human beings. He built forts in every part of the country, garrisoned them
with regular Roman soldiers, and thus enabled the Tzani to mix without
restraint with the rest of mankind. I shall now describe the parts of Tzania
in which he built these forts.
There is there a place where the three frontiers of the Roman Empire, of
Persian Armenia, and of the Tzani join; here he constructed a new and very
powerful fort, named Oronon, which he made the chief guarantee of peace
to the country; for at that point the Romans first entered Tzania. Here he
established a garrison under a general with the title of Duke. At a place
distant two days’ journey from Oronon, on the frontier of the Ocenite Tzani
—for the Tzani are divided into many tribes—there was a fortress built in
ancient times, which long before this had fallen into ruin by neglect, and
was named Charton. The Emperor Justinian restored this, and placed in it a
large garrison to keep the province in order. On the east of this place is a
precipitous ravine stretching towards the north. Here he built a new fort
named Barchon. Beyond this, at the skirts of the mountain, are stables
where the Ocenite Tzani used to keep their cattle, not in order to plough the

land,—for the Tzani, as I said before, are altogether idle, and know nothing
of husbandry, and have no ploughed land, or other operations of farming,—
but for a constant supply of milk and meat. Beyond the skirts of the
mountain, to the westward of the place upon the plain, which is called
Cena, stands the fort of Sisilisson, which was of ancient construction, but
by length of time had fallen into ruin, and was restored by the Emperor
Justinian, who established in it, as in all the others, a sufficient garrison of
Roman soldiers. On the left, as one goes from thence in a northerly
direction, is a place which the natives call the Ditch of Longinus; for in
ancient times Longinus, a Roman general of the Isaurian nation, pitched his
camp there during a campaign against the Tzani. Here our Emperor built a
fort, named Burgum Noes, a day’s journey distant from Sisilisson, which,
like the fort at Sisilisson described above, our Emperor very strongly
fortified. Beyond this is the frontier of the Coxylini Tzani, where he placed
two forts named Schimalinichon and Tzanzakon. Here he placed another
officer with a garrison.
VII. These were the works of the Emperor Justinian among the Tzani. In
the country beyond them, on the banks of the Euxine Sea, is a city called
Trapezus.[64] As there was a scarcity of water at this place, the Emperor
Justinian constructed an aqueduct, called by the name of the Martyr
Eugenius, by which he relieved the wants of the inhabitants. Both here and
at Amasea[65] he restored the greater part of the churches, which had
become ruinous by lapse of time. Beyond the frontier of the city of
Trapezus is a place named Rhizeum,[66] which he in person restored and
surrounded with fortifications magnificent beyond description and belief;
for the city is second to none of those on the Persian frontier in size and
strength.
He also built a fort in Lazica, named Losorium, and fortified the passes in
that country, which are named the Clisuræ, in order to shut out the enemy
from the country of the Lazi.[67] He also restored an ancient and ruinous
church of the Christian Lazi, and founded a noble city, named Petra,[68]
which the Lazi by their own negligence allowed to fall into the hands of the
Persians, when Chosroes came thither with a great army; but the Romans
conquered the Persians in battle, killed some of them, took the rest
prisoners, and razed the city to the ground, that the Persians might not be

able to return thither and do any more mischief—all of which has been
described in my ‘History of the Wars’—where also is a description of how,
on the Continent opposite the territory of the Lazi, as one goes towards the
Mæotic Lake,[69] the Romans destroyed two forts, named Sebastopolis[70]
and Pityous, because they heard that Chosroes meditated sending an army
to occupy them. Now, however, the Emperor Justinian entirely rebuilt
Sebastopolis, which before was only a small fort, making it impregnable by
the strength of its walls and other defences, and ornamenting it with streets
and buildings, so as to render it one of the first of cities, both for size and
beauty.
Moreover, finding that the walls of the cities of Bosporus and Cherson,
which are situated upon the sea-shore in that region, beyond the Mæotic
Lake and the Tauri and the Tauroscythi, on the frontier of the Roman
Empire, had quite fallen into ruin, he restored them to a condition of great
beauty and strength. In the same region he built the fort of Alustus, and one
in the country of the Gorzubiti. He especially strengthened the fortifications
of Bosporus, which, in ancient times, had fallen into the power of the
barbarians, and which he captured from the Huns and annexed to the
Roman Empire. There is here a country by the sea-shore, named Doru,
which has been long inhabited by those Goths, who would not follow
Theoderic on his expedition to Italy, but of their own accord remained
there, and have been in alliance with the Romans down to my own time,
joining the Roman armies when they march against the enemy, at the
pleasure of the Emperor; their numbers are about three thousand; they are
excellent warriors, industrious husbandmen, and most hospitable to
strangers. Their country, Doru, is situated on high ground, yet is not rough
or sterile, but good soil, producing the best of crops. The Emperor built no
city or fort anywhere in this country, as its inhabitants cannot endure to be
confined within walls, but love to dwell in the open country. He did,
however, fortify with long walls the passes by which an enemy could enter
the country, and thus freed the Goths from foreign invasion. These were his
works in this quarter.
There is a maritime town of the Thracians on the borders of the Euxine
Sea, named Anchialus,[71] which it would be more proper to mention in my
description of Thrace; since, however, the course of my narrative has led
me to speak of the works of our Emperor on the shores of the Euxine Sea, it

will be well at this point to describe the buildings which he erected at
Anchialus. At this place, fountains of warm water, which spring up not far
from the city, supply the inhabitants with natural baths. This place was
neglected and left unfortified by the former Emperors, although so many
tribes of barbarians dwell in the neighbourhood of it, so that the sick
persons, who resorted to it, could not enjoy its benefits without considerable
danger; however, the Emperor Justinian has now fortified it, and enabled
them to be healed in safety. These were the fortifications built in the East, in
Armenia, in the country of the Tzani, and on the shores of the Euxine Sea,
by the Emperor Justinian. Let us now proceed from this region to the
buildings which he has constructed in the rest of Europe.

BOOK IV.

I. I count it a toilsome and perilous task, to cross a great ocean in a crazy
vessel; and it is the same thing to describe the buildings of the Emperor
Justinian in a feeble narrative; for this Emperor, one may say, showed
greatness of mind in all that he did, and in his buildings performed works
surpassing description. In Europe especially, wishing to construct works on
a scale worthy of the need which existed for them, his buildings are
difficult, nay, almost impossible to describe, being worthy of their position
in the neighbourhood of the river Danube and the barbarian tribes beyond it,
whose invasions they are intended to repel; for along its banks dwell the
nations of the Huns and the Goths, and the empire is threatened by the
tribes of the Tauri and the Scythians, the Sclavonians and the rest, whom
the ancient historians call the ‘dwellers in waggons’ or Sauromatæ, and all
the other wild tribes which either inhabit or roam through that region. With
all these tribes, ever eager for war, Justinian was forced to contend, so that
he could neglect no point, but was forced to construct a chain of
innumerable fortresses, establish in them numberless garrisons of soldiers,
and do everything else in his power to hold in check a foe, with whom
neither truce nor intercourse could be held; for these enemies were
accustomed to make war without any pretext or declaration, and not to
terminate it by any treaty, or cease fighting after a time, but to take up arms
without any cause only to lay them down when compelled by main force.
However, let us proceed to what remains of our description; for when a
work is begun, it is better to bring it to an end in any fashion whatever,
rather than to give it up and leave it unfinished; besides which, we might
reasonably be blamed if our Emperor could construct such works, and we
were to shrink from the labour of describing them. Now that I am about to
enumerate the buildings of this our Emperor in Europe, it is worth while
before doing so to make a few remarks about the country.
From what is called the Adriatic Sea a branch extends straight into the
continent, apart from the rest of the sea, so as to divide the country and
form the Ionian Gulf, having on its right bank the Epirotes and the other
nations in that quarter, and on the left the Calabrians. Compressed into a
long and narrow inlet, it embraces almost the whole of the continent. Above

this sea and running over against it, the river Danube forms the land of
Europe into a peninsula. Here our Emperor constructed many admirable
works; for he fortified the whole of Europe so securely as to render it
inaccessible to the barbarians who dwell beyond the river Danube.
I ought, however, to begin with the native country of the Emperor, which
must occupy the first place in my narrative, as it does in all other respects;
for it alone may rejoice and pride itself upon the glory of having bred and
furnished the Romans with an Emperor, whose works are so great that they
can neither be described in language nor set down in writing.
In the country of the European Dardani, who dwell beyond the frontier of
the citizens of Epidamnus, near the fort called Bederiana, is a place named
Tauresium, from whence came the Emperor Justinian, the Founder of the
Universe.[72] This place he hastily fortified in a quadrangular form, placing
a tower at each angle, and gave it from its shape the name of Tetrapyrgia, or
the ‘Four Towers.’ Close to this place he built a most noble city, which he
named Justiniana Prima (this word in the Latin language means ‘First’),
thus repaying his debt to the country which bred him, though this duty
ought to have been shared by all the Romans, since this place furnished a
preserver for them all alike. Here he constructed an aqueduct and supplied
the city with a perpetual flow of water, and erected many other works,
magnificent and surpassing all description, worthy of the founder of the
city; it is not easy to enumerate the churches, and it is impossible for
language to describe the dwellings of the magistrates, the size of the
porticos, the beauty of the market-places, the fountains, the streets, the
baths, and the shops. In a word, the city is great, populous, flourishing, and
worthy to be the metropolis of the whole country, to which dignity it has
been raised. In addition to this, it is the seat of the Archbishop of Illyria, all
the other cities yielding to it as being the greatest in size; so that it in turn
reflects glory upon the Emperor; for the city prides itself upon the Emperor
which it has bred, while the Emperor glories in having constructed the city.
Let the above description of it suffice; for to describe it all, in exact detail,
is impossible, because all language must fall short of a city worthy of such
an Emperor.
Besides this, he entirely rebuilt the fort of Bederiana, and rendered it
much stronger than before. There was an ancient city in the country of the

Dardani, named Ulpiana. He demolished the greater part of the wall of this
place, which was very unsafe and altogether useless, and brought it to its
present magnificent appearance, decorated it with many other beautiful
buildings, and gave it the name of Justiniana Secunda. (Secunda in the
Latin language signifies ‘Second.’) He also built a new city in its
neighbourhood, which he named Justinopolis, after the name of his uncle
Justin. He restored the walls of Sardica, Naïsopolis, Germana and Pantalia,
which he found dilapidated by age, so as to make them secure and
impregnable. Between these cities he built three small towns, Cratiscara,
Quimedaba, and Rumisiana. Thus he restored these cities from their
foundations; and, wishing to render the river Danube a very strong bulwark
to them and to the whole of Europe, he covered the whole course of the
river with numerous forts, as I shall shortly afterwards describe, and
established on all parts of its banks garrisons of soldiers, sufficient to
restrain the barbarians from crossing the river in that quarter. When,
however, he had completed all these works, remembering the insecurity of
all human designs, and reflecting that, should the enemy succeed in passing
the river by any means, they would ravage the unguarded country, carry off
all the inhabitants for slaves, and plunder all their property, he did not leave
them to trust to the forts along the course of the river alone for their
protection, but gave them means of defence of their own; for he constructed
such a number of fortifications in these regions, that every field either
possesses a castle or is near to some walled place, both here and in New and
Old Epirus. Here also he built the city of Justinianopolis, which formerly
was called Adrianopolis.
He restored Nicopolis, Photica and Phœnice; the latter towns, Photica
and Phœnice, being situated upon low ground, suffered from inundations;
wherefore the Emperor Justinian, perceiving that it was impossible to build
walls for them upon a firm foundation, made no alteration in either of them,
but built forts near them, which he placed upon strong and precipitous
ground. In this country there was an ancient city, abundantly supplied with
water, and deriving its name from its position, for it was formerly named
Eurœa. Not far from this city of Eurœa is a lake, in the midst of which rises
an island containing a hill; the lake reaches round this island so far as only
just to allow access to it. The Emperor transferred the inhabitants of Eurœa
to this place, built a city for them, and strongly fortified it.

II. After our survey of the whole of Epirus we pass over Ætolia and
Acarnania, and come to the Crissæan Gulf, the Isthmus of Corinth, and the
other parts of Greece. Here the Emperor’s foresight was most especially
displayed, and one may marvel at the numerous walled cities with which he
fortified the Roman Empire. Amongst the rest he paid especial care at the
pass of Thermopylæ. In the first place he raised its walls to a great height,
for the mountains in this place were easy to be taken by an enemy, and were
fortified by what was more like a hedgerow than a wall. He placed double
battlements upon all these walls, and also upon the fort, which had been
built there in an equally careless manner by the ancients, giving it a
sufficient height, and double bulwarks. Besides all this, as the place was
entirely without water, he contrived a reservoir for rain-water, and also
carefully fortified many paths up the mountain which had formerly been left
unguarded.
One may well wonder how the Persian King spent so long a time here,
and only found one path, and that, too, one which was betrayed to him by
Greek traitors, when there are many unfortified roads in the place along
which one could almost drive a waggon; for the sea, which washes the base
of the mountains, has widened the mouths of most of the paths leading up
from thence, and as the ground was full of glens and impassable ravines, it
appeared to the ancients that what was thus divided by nature could not be
continuously enclosed by fortifications, so that they lazily sacrificed their
safety in their reluctance to embark upon so difficult a work, and trusted to
chance, resting all their hopes of safety against the invasion of the
barbarians on their probable ignorance of the roads; for men who despair of
accomplishing difficult tasks always imagine that what they have found so
hard, will not easily be effected by others; so that it cannot be disputed that
the Emperor Justinian showed greater care and foresight than anyone else
who has ever lived, since he was not prevented, even by the sea which
washes and breaks upon these mountains, from laying firm foundations on
the very beach and watery shore, and making the most contrary elements
serve his purpose, and yield to him, subdued by human art. However, not
even after having connected these mountain thickets and glens, and having
joined the sea to the mountain, and enclosed the whole of Greece with his
fortifications, did our Emperor relax his zeal on behalf of his subjects, but
he also built many forts within this wall, taking a just view of the chances

of human life, which render no place secure or impregnable; so that if by
any mischance it should happen that these walls should at any time be
taken, the garrison might find a refuge in these forts. Moreover, he
established everywhere granaries and reservoirs of water in secure
positions, and placed nearly 2,000 soldiers to garrison the works, which was
never done by any emperor at any former time; for these walls remained
unguarded formerly, even down to my own time, and if the enemy assaulted
them, some of the peasants in the neighbourhood, adopting a military life
on the spur of the moment, used to act as garrison, and, from their want of
experience, risked the capture of them and of the whole of Greece, by
which parsimony this country was for a long time exposed to the attack of
the barbarians.[73]
Thus did the Emperor Justinian strengthen the fortifications of
Thermopylæ. He also with great care built walls round the cities which lie
in the country beyond it—Saccus, Hypata, Coracii, Unnum, Baleæ and
Leontarium. At Heraclea he did as follows: as one goes from Illyria to
Greece, two mountains stand close to one another for a long distance,
forming a narrow pass between them, of the kind called Clisuræ. In the
midst runs a fountain, which in the summer-time pours a clear and
drinkable stream down from the mountains which stand around, and forms
a tiny rivulet; but in rainy seasons there rises a very deep and violent
torrent, which collects its waters from the ravines among the cliffs. By this
path the barbarians were able to gain an easy passage to Thermopylæ and
the neighbouring parts of Greece. On either side of the path there were in
ancient times two ancient fortresses, one being the city of Heraclea, which I
mentioned before, and the other that of Myropole, standing at a little
distance from it. The Emperor Justinian restored both these fortresses,
which had long been in ruins, and built a very strong wall across the pass,
joining it to the mountains on either side, so that he closed the passage
against the barbarians, and forced the torrent first to form a lake within this
wall, and then to flow over it and continue its course.
He secured all the cities of Greece which lie within the walls of
Thermopylæ, restoring the fortifications of all of them, for they had long
ago fallen into decay—at Corinth in consequence of violent earthquakes,
and at Athens, Platæa, and the towns in Bœotia having fallen into decay
through age, as no one had taken any care of them; he, however, left no

place assailable or unguarded, for in his watchful care for his subjects he
bethought him that the barbarians, should they reach the country about
Thermopylæ, would despair of success as soon as they learned that they
would gain nothing by forcing the works there, since all the rest of Greece
was fortified, and they would have to undertake the siege of each individual
city; for a deferred hope does not encourage men to endure labour, nor are
they eager for gain which is far distant, but give up their hopes of future
advantage to avoid present discomfort.
Having effected this, the Emperor Justinian, learning that all the cities in
Peloponnesus were unwalled, and reflecting that much time would be
wasted if he attended to the security of each one, securely fortified the
whole isthmus with a wall, since the existing wall was mostly in ruins.
Upon this wall he built forts and established garrisons in them, and in this
manner rendered the whole country of Peloponnesus safe from the enemy,
even though any misfortune should befall the fortifications at Thermopylæ.
III. Diocletianopolis in Thessaly was in ancient times a flourishing city,
but latterly was ruined by the incursions of the barbarians, and had long
been without inhabitants. There is a lake near it, which is called Castoria, in
the midst of which is an island surrounded by water, with only one narrow
passage, not wider than fifteen feet, leading to it through the lake. On this
island stands a very lofty mountain, which overhangs the lake on one side
and the island on the other; wherefore our Emperor decided against the site
of Diocletianopolis, because it was obviously exposed to attack, and had
long before suffered the misfortunes which I had mentioned, but built a
very strong city on the island, to which he naturally gave his own name.
Besides this, he removed the walls of Echinæum, Thebes, Pharsalus, and all
the other cities of Thessaly, amongst which are Demetrias, Metropolis,
Gomphi, and Tricattus, and securely fortified them, for their walls were
decayed by age and could easily be taken by an enemy.
Now that we have come to Thessaly, let us proceed to Mount Pelion and
the river Peneus. The Peneus flows in a gentle stream past Mount Pelion,
and in its course adorns the city of Larissa, for Phthia no longer exists, but
has perished through age. The river flows with a quiet stream as far as the
sea, and the neighbouring country is rich in fruits of all kinds, and in sweet
waters, which the inhabitants were never able to enjoy, as they were in

continual expectation of an attack from the barbarians; for there was no
strong place anywhere in these regions to which they could fly for refuge,
but the walls of Larissa and Cæsarea were so ruinous that they were almost
open towns. The Emperor Justinian, by rebuilding the walls of both these
cities very strongly, enabled the country to enjoy true prosperity. Not far
from hence rise precipitous mountains covered with lofty trees. These
mountains were the home of the Centaurs; and in this country the battle of
the Centaurs with the Lapithæ took place, as the ancient myths declare,
which inform us that in old times there dwelt there a monstrous race
combining the forms of two creatures. Antiquity gives some warrant for this
fable by the name of a fort in these mountains, which down to my own time
was named Centauropolis, whose ruinous walls the Emperor Justinian
restored and strengthened, together with those of Eurymene in the same
country, which had fallen into the same condition.
Now, that I may leave no part of Greece undescribed, we must proceed to
the island of Eubœa, which stands close to Athens and Marathon. This
island of Eubœa lies in the sea, in front of Greece, and seems to me as
though it had once formed a part of the mainland, and had afterwards been
separated from it by a strait, for an arm of the sea flows past the mainland
there, in the neighbourhood of the city of Chalcis, ebbing and flowing in a
narrow channel, confined between banks which reduce it to the size of a
rivulet. This strait is called the Euripus. Such is the island of Eubœa. A
single beam laid across the strait forms a bridge, which the inhabitants lay
across at their pleasure, and then appear to be dwellers on the continent, and
walk on foot to the land beyond the strait; but when they remove it, they
cross the strait in boats, and again become islanders: so that whether they
proceed on foot or on shipboard depends upon the laying down or taking up
of a single piece of wood....
The country within this is named (the Peninsula of) Pallene. In ancient
times the inhabitants built a wall across the isthmus, which joined the sea at
each end, and built there a city, which in former times was called Potidæa,
and now Casandria; however, time so ruined all these buildings that when,
not long ago, the Huns overran these regions, they captured this cross-wall
and city as though in sport, though they never have conducted a siege since
the world began. This event, however, gave the Emperor Justinian an
opportunity of displaying his goodness and magnanimity: for as he was

always wont to repair all the misfortunes which befell him by his own
foresight, he turned the most terrible disasters into a source of good fortune
by the magnificent works by which he repaired. So here he fortified the city
of Pallene, which is the bulwark of the whole country, and the wall across
the isthmus, so as to render them quite impregnable and able to defy all
attacks. These were his works in Macedonia.
Not far from the city of Thessalonica flows the river Rhechius, which
passes through a fertile and rich country, and empties itself into the sea at
that place. This river flows with a gentle current: its waters are calm and
sweet. The neighbouring country is low-lying, well-watered, and forms rich
pasture; but was sadly exposed to the inroads of the barbarians, having no
fort or place of strength of any kind for a distance of forty miles; wherefore
the Emperor built a strong fort on the banks of the river Rhechius where it
joins the sea—an entirely new work, to which he gave the name of
Artemisium.
IV. It is my duty to mention the other strong places in this part of Europe.
I am quite sure that if I were to recount this list of the fortresses in this
country, to men dwelling in a distant region and belonging to another
nation, without any facts to guarantee the truth of my story, the number of
the works would make it appear altogether fabulous and incredible; as it is,
however, they are to be seen at no great distance, and great numbers of the
inhabitants of that region are present in our city; wherefore, with the
confidence which springs from truth, I shall not hesitate to give a list of the
works of the Emperor Justinian in the above-mentioned countries, both in
restoring ruinous fortifications and in building new ones. It will be most
convenient to put them all in the form of a list, so that my narrative may not
be confused by the insertion of their names.

These are the new forts built by the Emperor Justinian in New Epirus:[74]

Sceminites, Martis,
Ulpiansus, Gynæcomytes,
Episterba, Speretium,
Argus, Aven,
Aona, Streden,
Stephaniacum, Deuphracus,
St. Sabinus, Labellus,
Aliula, Epileum,

Dyrlachin, Piscinæ,
Patana, Cithinas,
Gemenus, Dolebin,
Bacuste, Hedonia,
Alistrus, Titiana,
Irene, Ulibula,
Epiduta, Brebate,
Bacusta, Thesaurus.

These places were restored:

St. Stephen, Tithra,
Cethreon, Brebeta,
Apis, Bupus,
Peleum, Endyni,
Come, Dionysus,
Pacue, Ptochium,
Scidreonpolis, Tyrcanus,
Antipagræ, Capaza,
Pupsalus, Cilicæ,
Gabræum, Argyas,
Dionaa, Therma,
Clementiana, Amantia,
Illyrin, Paretium.

These are the new forts built in Old Epirus:

Parmus, Xeropotoes,
Olbus, Europa,
Cionin, Chimæra,
Marciana, Helega,
Algus, Homonœa,
Cimenus, Adanum.

These places were rebuilt:

Murciara, Two forts dedicated to
Castina, St. Donatus, in the
Genysius, territory of Justinianopolis
Percus, and Photice,
Marmarata, Symphygium,
Listria, Pronathidum,
Petroniana, Hedones,
Carmina, Castellum,
St. Sabinus, Bulibas,
Also a reservoir in the fort of Come, Palyrus,
Martius, Trana,
Pezium, Posidon,
Onalus, Colophonia.

In Macedonia:

Candida, Melichisa,
Colobona, Pascas,
The Basilica of Amyntas, Aulon,
Bolbus, Gentianum,
Brigizes, Priniana,
Opas, Thesteum,
Pleurum, Cyrrhi,
Caminus, Gurasson,
Therma, Cumarciana,
Bogas, Limnederium,
Neapolis, Bupoodin,
Calarnus, Babas,
Museum, Cyriana,
Acremba, Pelecum,
Adrianium, Lages,
Edana, Cratæa,
Siclæ, Fasciæ,
Nymphium, Placidiana,
Metizus, Hynea,
Argicianum, Limnaæ,
Bazinus, Option,
Cassopas, Charadrus,
Parthion, Cassopes.

These forts were rebuilt in Thessaly:

Alcon,
Cercinei,
Lossonus,
Scidreus,
Gerontica,
Phracellan.
Perbyla,

The following new forts were built in Dardania:

Laberium, Acrenza,
Castimum, Terias,
Rabestum, Drullus,
Castellium, Victoriæ.

These were rebuilt:

Cesiana, Priscopera,
Tezule, Miletes,
Usiana, Dardapara,
Besiana, Cesuna,
Mascas, Veriniana,
Liste, Lasbarus,
Celliriana, Castellobretara,
Zysbaës, Edetzio,

Genzana, Dinius,
Petrizen, Cecola,
Eutychiana, Emastus,
Mulato, Castelona,
Belas, Capomalva,
Cattarus, Seretus,
Cattaricus, Potchium,
Pentza, Quino,
Cattapheterus, Berzana,
Debanus, Bessaiana,
Cubinus, Arsa,
Getmaza, Blezo,
Victoriana, Labutza,
Azeta, Quinti,
Durbulie, Bermerium,
Suricum, Catrasema,
Cusines, Rotun,
Tuttiana, Cobenciles,
Ballesina, Marcellina,
Bella, Primoniana,
Catrelates, Pamylinus,
Casyella, Aria.
Mariana,

These in the country of the city of Sardica:

Scupium,
Struas,
Stenes,
Protiana,
Marcipetra,
Maccunniana,
Briparum,
Scopentziana.
Romaniana,

In the country of Cabentza, Balbæ was built, and the following were repaired:

Byrsia, Vineus,
Stamazo, Trisciana,
Clesbestita, Parnusta,
Duiana, Tzimes,
Turicla, Bidzo,
Medeca, Stenocorta,
Peplabius, Danedebæ,
Cunæ, Ardia.

In * * * these were restored:

Bugarma,
Borbrega,
Betzas,
Turus.
Bregedaba,

These were rebuilt:

Salebries,
Bottes,
Arcunes,
Bitzimaeas,
Duries,
Badziania,
Buteries,
Banes,
Barbaries,
Bimerus,
Arbatias,
Tusudeaas,
Cuzusura,
Scuanes,
Etæries,
Scentudies,
Itaberies,
Scares,
Tugurias,
Lignius,
Bemaste,
Itadeba.
Stramentias,

In the country of the city Germanae, Scaplizo was built, and the following were rebuilt:

Germas, Scinzeries,
Candaras, Riginocastellum,
Rolligeras, Suagogmense.

These in the country of the city of Pauta (Pantalia?):

Tarporum,
Blepus,
Sobastas,
Zespuries.
Cherdusceras,

These in the region of Scassetana:

Alarum,
Balausum,
Magomias,
Butis.
Luconanta,

In the country of the city of * * * these new forts were built:

Calventia, Arsaza,
Pharanores, Viculea,
Stranbasta, Castellium,
Aldanes, Groffes,
Barachthestes, Garces,
Sarmates, Pistes,
Arsena, Dusmanes,
Brarcedum, Bratzista,
Eraria, Holodoris,
Bercadium, Cassia,
Sabinibries, Grandetum,
Timiana, Urbriana,
Candilar, Nogeto,
Gurbicum, Mediana,
Lautzones, Tiuncana,
Duliares, Castengium.

These were rebuilt:

Hercula,
Millareca,
The fort of Mucianus,
Debrera,
Burdopes,
Chesdupara.
Calys,

These in the country of Remesiana:

Brittura, Cumudeba,
Subaras, Deurias,
Lamponiana, Lutzolo,
Stronges, Repordenes,
Dalmatas, Spelunca,
Primiana, Scumbro,
Frerraria, Britaro,
Topera, Tulcoburgo,
Tomes, Longiana,
Cuas, Lupofantana,
Tzerzenuzas, Dardapara,
Stenes, Burdomina,
Aeadaba, Grinciapana,
Deutreba, Graccus,
Pretzuries, Drasimarca.

In the country of Aquiena there was built the new fort of Timathachion, and the following were
rebuilt:

Peteres, Castellonovo,
Sculcoburgo, Florentiana,
Vindimiola, Romyliana,
Braiola, Sceptecasas,

Arganocilum, Argentares,
Auriliana, Potes,
Gembro, Amuloselotes,
Clemades, Timalciolum,
Turribas, Meridio,
Gribo, Meriopontede,
Chalarus, Tredetitilius,
Tzutrato, Bræola,
Mutzipara, Motrees,
Stendas, Vicanovo,
Scaripara, Quartiana,
Odriuzo, Julioballæ,
Cipipene, Pontzas,
Trasiana, Zanes.

V. Thus did the Emperor Justinian fortify the whole Illyrian continent. I
shall now set forth the manner in which he strengthened the bank of the
river Ister, which men also call the Danube, with fortifications and garrisons
of soldiers. The Roman Emperors in ancient times, wishing to prevent the
barbarians who dwelt beyond the Danube from crossing it, occupied the
whole shore of this river with fortresses, which they built not only on the
right bank, but in some places also on the further bank of the river. These
fortresses were not constructed so as to be inaccessible to assailants, but just
sufficient not to leave that bank of the river without defenders; for the
barbarians in that region did not understand siege operations. Most of these
strong places consisted only of one tower, and were consequently called
towers, and very few men were stationed in them. This was at that time
sufficient to overawe the barbarian tribes, so that they made no attacks upon
the Romans; but in later times Attila invaded the country with a great army,
razed all these fortresses to the ground without difficulty, and laid waste the
greater part of the Roman territory, without meeting with any resistance.
The Emperor Justinian rebuilt the demolished forts, not in their original
form, but in the most powerful manner of fortification, and in addition to
them built many others. In this manner he entirely restored the security of
the Roman Empire, which had been altogether lost. I shall now set forth the
manner in which all this was effected.
The river Danube, flowing from the mountains of the Celts, who are now
known as the Gauls, encloses a great tract of country, for the most part
entirely desert, but in some places inhabited by barbarians, who dwell like
savages, without any intercourse with the rest of mankind. On reaching

Dacia, it first begins to divide the barbarians who dwell on its left bank
from the Roman territory on the right bank. For this reason the Romans call
this part of Dacia ‘Ripensis’; for in the Latin language a bank is called ripa.
The first city which they built on this bank was named Singedon, which in
process of time the barbarians captured, razed to the ground, and rendered
entirely desolate. Most of the other fortresses were reduced to the same
condition; but the Emperor Justinian rebuilt it entirely, surrounded it with a
strong wall, and again made it a noble and admirable city. He built a new
fort of great strength, distant eight miles from the city of Singedon,[75]
which from that circumstance is called Octavum. Beyond it there was an
ancient city named Viminacium, which the Emperor entirely rebuilt; for it
had long before been razed to the ground.
VI. Proceeding onward from the city of Viminacium, three fortresses
stand on the bank of the Danube, named Picnus, Cupus, and Novæ, which
formerly derived their name from a single tower built in each place; now,
however, the Emperor Justinian added so many houses and fortifications to
each of these, that they came to be regarded as considerable cities. On the
further bank, opposite Novæ, stood in ancient times a ruinous tower named
Litorata, which the ancients called Lederata. This place was made by our
Emperor into a large and very strong fort. After Novæ are the forts of
Cantabazates, Smornes, Campses, Tanatas, Vernes, and Ducepratum, and
many more on the further bank, all of which he rebuilt from the
foundations. After this comes Caput-bovis, the work of the Roman Emperor
Trajan, and beyond it an ancient fort named Zanes, all of which he enclosed
with strong fortifications, and rendered them impregnable bulwarks of the
empire. Not far from Zanes is a fort named Pontes, where a stream leaves
the river, encloses a small portion of the bank, and then rejoining its true
channel, unites itself to the main river. It does this not by nature, but
compelled by human art. I will now describe why it was that the place was
named Pontes, and that the Danube was forced to flow round this place.
The Roman Emperor Trajan, a spirited and energetic man, appears to
have been irritated at the thought that the boundary of his empire was fixed
by the river Danube.[76] He was anxious, therefore, to throw a bridge across
it, in order that he might pass it without its offering any obstacle when he
marched against the barbarians beyond it. How he built this bridge I shall
take no pains to describe, but shall let that be told by Apollodorus of

Damascus, the chief architect of the entire work. No advantage accrued
from it to the Romans, and the bridge subsequently was destroyed by the
stream of the Danube and by age. Trajan built two forts on either bank of
the river, and called that on the further side Theodora and that on the Dacian
bank Pontem, from the name of the bridge; for the Romans call a bridge
pons in Latin. Since after this the river became impassable for ships at this
place, owing to the ruins and foundations of the bridge, they forced the river
to adopt a new channel and perform a circuit in order to afford them a
passage beyond it. Both these forts fell into ruins through age and the
assaults of the barbarians; but the Emperor Justinian rebuilt the fort Pontem,
on the right bank of the river, with new and powerful fortifications, and thus
secured Illyria. As for that on the opposite bank, named Theodora, he
thought it unnecessary to bestow any care upon it, since it was exposed to
the attacks of the barbarians in that region; but he built all the new
fortifications which stand on the bank below Pontem at this day, which are
named Mareburgus, Susiana, Armata, Timena, Theodoropolis, Stiliburgus,
and Halicaniburgus. There is a small city near this place, named Ad Aquas,
some small part of whose fortifications, which had become unsafe, were
restored by the Emperor. Beyond it he built Bergonovore, and Laccobergus,
and the fort named Dorticum, which he made into the existing strong
fortification. He altered the solitary tower named Judæus into what may be
called, and really is, a most beautiful fort. He rebuilt Bergus Altus, which
formerly was deserted and altogether uninhabited, and also enclosed with a
wall another place named Gombes. He rebuilt the fortifications of Crispas,
which had become ruinous from age, and built Longiniana and Ponteserium
in an admirable manner. At Bononia and Novum he rebuilt the bastions
which had become ruinous. He rebuilt all the ruinous parts of the city of
Ratiaria; and in many other places he either enlarged small fortifications or
reduced over-large ones to a convenient form, in order that neither their
smallness nor their excessive size might expose them to the attacks of the
enemy; as, for example, he turned Mocatiana from a single tower into the
more complete fort which it is at this day, whilst at Almus he reduced the
space enclosed by the walls, which formerly was very great, thus enabling it
to defy the attacks of the enemy. In many places he altered a solitary tower,
an object of contempt to an invader, into a strong fort, as at Tricesa and
Putedis. He magnificently restored the ruinous walls of Cebrus. He built a
new fort in Bigrane, and another one near to it, in a place where formerly

stood a single tower named Onos. Not far from this there remained only the
foundations of a city, which in former times had been named Augusta, but
which now, possessing its ancient name, but having been altogether rebuilt
by the Emperor Justinian, is well peopled. He rebuilt the ruined
fortifications of Aëdabe, restored the city of Variana, which had long been
in ruins, and fortified Valeriana, which before had possessed no defences.
Besides these, he paid attention to and enclosed with strong fortifications
other places not on the bank of the river, but standing at a distance from it,
named Castramartis, Zetnocortum, and Iscum. He took great pains to
enclose with a wall and otherwise fortify an old fort on the bank of the
river, named the Fort of the Huns. Not far from the Fort of the Huns is a
place where a fort stands on each bank of the Danube, the one in Illyria
named Palatiolum, while that on the opposite bank was named Sicibida.
These, which had become ruinous through age, were restored by the
Emperor Justinian, who thereby checked the inroads of the barbarians in
that quarter, and beyond them rebuilt an ancient fort, now known as Utos.
On the extreme frontier of Illyria he built a fort named Lapidaria, and
altered a solitary tower, named Lucernariaburgum, into a fort worthy of
admiration. The above were the works of the Emperor Justinian in Illyria;
he did not, however, merely strengthen this country with fortifications, but
placed in each of them garrisons of regular soldiers, and thus checked the
incursions of the barbarians.
VII. Hitherto I have described the fortifications of Illyria along the river
Danube. We must now pass into those which the Emperor Justinian built
along its shores in Thrace; for it appears convenient to me first to describe
the whole of this bank, and then to proceed to the description of his works
in the inland country. Let us then first proceed to the country of the
Mysians,[77] whom the poets speak of as fighting hand to hand; for their
country is conterminous with that of Illyria. After Lucernariaburgum, the
Emperor Justinian built the new fort of Securisca, and beyond it restored the
ruinous part of Cyntodemus. Beyond this he built an entirely new city,
which, after the name of the Empress, he called Theodoropolis. He renewed
the ruinous part of the forts which are named Iatron and Tigas, and added a
tower to that of Maxentius, of which he thought it stood in need. He built
the new fort of Cynton. Beyond this is the fortification of Transmarisca,
opposite to which, on the further side of the river, the Roman Emperor

Constantine once built with great care a fort named Daphne, thinking it
advisable that at this place the river should be guarded on both sides. This
in process of time was entirely destroyed by the barbarians, but was rebuilt
from its foundations by the Emperor Justinian. Beyond Transmarisca, he
took suitable pains to restore the fortresses of Altinum and that called
Candidiana, which long ago had been destroyed by the same enemies.
There are three forts in succession along the bank of the Danube, named
Saltopyrgus, Dorostolus, and Sycidaba, in each of which the Emperor
repaired with great care such parts as had become ruinous. He bestowed
similar pains upon Quesoris, which lies beyond the bank of the river, and
enlarged and greatly extended Palmatis, which stands in a narrow pass,
although it was not near the bank of the river. Close to this he built a new
fort, named Adina, because the Sclavonian barbarians were wont to conceal
themselves there and lie in ambush, so as to render it impossible for
travellers to proceed through that country. He also built the fort of Tilicion
and the outwork on the left of it.
Thus was the bank of the Danube and its neighbourhood fortified in
Mysia.[78] I shall now proceed to Scythia, where the first fort is that named
after St. Cyrillus, the ruinous parts of which were most carefully rebuilt by
the Emperor Justinian. Beyond this was an ancient fortress named Ulmiton,
but as the Sclavonian barbarians had for a long time infested that region,
and made their habitation there, it had become quite deserted, and nothing
remained of it except its name. He therefore rebuilt it from its foundations,
and rendered that part of the country safe from the attacks of the
Sclavonians. Next to this is the city of Ibida, whose walls had become very
ruinous, but which he, without any delay, rebuilt and rendered very strong.
He built a new fort beyond it named Ægistum, and restored another fort in
the furthest part of Scythia named Almyris, whose walls had for the greater
part fallen into decay, as he did to all the other fortifications in this part of
Europe.
VIII. I have described above the buildings constructed by the Emperor
Justinian among the Dardanians, Epirotes, Macedonians, and the other
tribes of the Illyrians, as well as those in Greece and along the river Ister.
Let us now proceed to Thrace, taking as the best foundation for our
narrative the neighbourhood of Byzantium, since that city surpasses all

others in Thrace, both in strength and situation, for it overhangs Europe like
a citadel, and guards also the sea which divides it from Asia. I have
described above his works, both churches and other buildings, within and
without the walls of Constantinople; I am now about to speak of what lies
beyond them.
There is a fort in the suburbs of the city, which from its form is called the
‘round fort.’ The road which leads from it to Rhegium passes for the most
part over uneven ground, and in rainy seasons used to become swampy and
difficult for travellers; now, however, our Emperor has paved it with large
stones, and made it easy to traverse. In length this road reaches as far as
Rhegium; its width is such that two waggons going in opposite directions
can pass without difficulty. The stones of which it is formed are very hard;
one would imagine them to be millstones. They are of enormous size, so
that each of them covers a large extent of ground, and stands up to a great
height. They form so smooth and level a surface that they do not seem to be
joined, or carefully let into one another, but to have grown together. Such is
this road. There is a lake close to Rhegium, into which rivers flowing from
the higher ground discharge their waters. This lake reaches as far as the sea,
so that there is but one very narrow bank between them, both washed on
either side by their several waters; when, however, they approach most
nearly to one another, they restrain their currents and turn them back, as
though they had there placed boundaries for themselves. At one point they
join one another, leaving a channel between them, of which it is hard to say
to which water it belongs, for the water of the sea does not always flow into
the lake, nor does the lake always discharge its waters into the sea; but after
much rain, and with a southerly wind, the water of the channel appears to
flow out of the lake; though if the wind blows from the north, the sea
appears to wash into the lake. In this place the sea forms an immense extent
of shoal-water, with only one narrow channel leading through them into
deep water. This channel is so narrow that it is called the ‘Ant.’ The channel
which, as I have said before, joins the lake to the sea, used in former times
to be crossed by a wooden bridge, though with great danger to the
passengers, who often fell into the water together with the beams of the
bridge; now, however, the Emperor Justinian has raised the bridge upon
high arches of stone, and rendered the passage safe.

Beyond Rhegium there is a city named Athyra, whose inhabitants he
relieved from the distress from which he found them suffering from want of
water, by building a reservoir there, in which the excess of their water might
be stored up, and supplied to them in time of need; he also restored the
ruinous part of their wall.
Beyond Athyra there is a place which the natives call Episcopia. The
Emperor Justinian perceiving that this place lay exposed to the attacks of
the enemy, more especially as there was no strong place, but the country
was entirely unguarded, built a fort there, the towers of which he
constructed, not in the usual manner, but as follows. From the ‘curtain’ wall
projects a building, narrow at first, but very wide at the outer end, upon
which each of the towers is built. It is not possible for an enemy to
approach near to this wall, since they come between these towers, and are
overwhelmed by the cross-fire which the garrison easily pour upon their
heads. He placed the gates, not in the usual manner, between two towers,
but obliquely in a small projection of the wall, so that they are not seen by
the enemy, but are hidden behind the wall. This work was performed for the
Emperor by Theodorus Silentiarius, a very clever man. Thus was this fort
constructed. We must now proceed to make some mention of the ‘long
walls.’
IX. The sea which proceeds from the ocean and Spain, with Europe on its
left hand, flows in the same easterly direction as far as Thrace, but there
divides into two portions, one of which proceeds towards the east, while
another makes a short bend and terminates in the Euxine Sea. When it
reaches Byzantium, it winds round the city on its eastern side, as though
round a goal, and continues its course in a much more oblique direction,
proceeding by a strait which turns the upper and lower parts of Thrace into
an isthmus; not that the sea there is divided into two parts, as is the case in
other isthmuses, but it circles round in a singular manner and embraces
Thrace on both sides, and more especially the whole suburbs of Byzantium.
These suburbs the inhabitants have built over and adorned, not merely for
their use, but with an arrogant and boundless luxury, and with all the license
which is produced by wealth. Here they have stored much furniture, and
preserved many works of art. Whenever, therefore, the barbarians suddenly
invade the Roman Empire, these places suffer far more damage than the
rest, and are in fact utterly ruined. The Emperor Anastasius, wishing to

prevent this, built long walls[79] at a place no less than forty miles from
Byzantium, joining the two seas where they were distant two days’ journey
from one another. Having constructed these works, he supposed that all
within them had been made secure; they were, however, the cause of still
greater disasters, for it was not possible either to build so enormous a work
firmly, or to guard it with proper care; while when the enemy made
themselves masters of one part of the long wall, they conquered the
remainder of the garrison without difficulty, assailed the rest of the people
unexpectedly, and did more mischief than can easily be described.
Our Emperor, however, having rebuilt the ruinous part of these walls, and
strengthened their weak points so as to assist their defenders, devised the
following plan also. He stopped up all the passages leading from one tower
to another, and arranged one single means of ascent from the ground, within
the walls of each, so that the garrison could, if necessary, block up this
passage and defy an enemy, even though he had made his way within the
wall, since each tower is sufficient within itself for the defence of its
garrison. Within these walls he made the most complete provision for
safety, both by the buildings which I have mentioned above, and by
restoring the most ruinous part of the wall of the city of Selybria.[80] These
were the works of the Emperor Justinian at the ‘long walls.’

The well-known city of Heraclea,[81] our neighbour on the sea-coast,
which formerly, under the name of Perinthus, was the first city in Europe,
and now is second to Constantinople alone, not long ago was reduced to
great straits by want of water; not that the country near it was waterless, or
that those who built the city in ancient times had neglected to supply it with
water—for Europe abounds with fountains, and the ancients took care to
make aqueducts—but time, as usual, destroyed the fabric of the aqueduct
either through contempt for the age of the building, or encouraged to ruin it
by the carelessness of the citizens of Heraclea. This led to Heraclea being
left almost without inhabitants; while time produced the same effect upon
the palace there, which was a very magnificent building. However, the
Emperor Justinian did not neglect this city, but in a truly royal manner
furnished it with sweet and transparent waters, and did not allow the palace
to lose its ancient reputation, for he restored the whole of it.

A day’s journey from Heraclea is a place by the seaside named
Rhædestus, conveniently situated for the navigation of the Hellespont, with
a good harbour where merchant-ships can moor and discharge their cargoes
in quiet water, and when reloaded can again put to sea without difficulty. It
is, however, exposed to attacks of barbarians if they should make a sudden
incursion into that country, being neither fortified nor placed on difficult
ground; for this reason it was neglected by merchants, who disregarded it
through fear of this danger. Now, however, the Emperor Justinian has not
only rendered the place itself secure, but has also provided for the safety of
all those who dwell in the neighbourhood by building a city at Rhædestus,
with a strong wall and of very remarkable size, in which, on an invasion of
the barbarians, all the people of the neighbourhood can take refuge and save
their lives and property.

X. Thus did the Emperor Justinian at Rhædestus;[82] I now proceed to his
works in the Chersonesus. The Chersonesus projects beyond that part of
Thrace, for it runs out into the sea and appears as though it proceeded as far
as Asia, and was joined on to it. Its shore forms a promontory near the city
of Elæus,[83] thus dividing the sea into two parts, while it itself is separated
from the rest of the mainland by the water which runs into a recess forming
what is called the Black Gulf; the rest of it almost forms an island, from
which shape it derives its name, for it is called Chersonesus because it is
only prevented by a narrow isthmus from being altogether an island. Across
this isthmus the ancients carelessly built a wall which could be scaled with
ladders, making it as low and narrow as though they thought they were
building a dry stone wall round an out-of-the-way garden. In addition to this
they built low and mean works, of the kind called moles, projecting into the
sea on either side of the isthmus, and thus fortified the space between the
wall and the sea, but in such a manner as not to repel invaders but to invite
them to make an attack, so contemptible and easily captured was their
fortification. Imagining, however, that they had erected an impassable
barrier against the enemy, they did not think it necessary to build any strong
place within this wall, for there was no fort or any other place of strength in
the Chersonesus, though it extends for a distance of nearly three days’
journey. Quite lately the enemy invaded Thrace, made an attempt upon the
passage by the seashore, frightened away its guards, forced their way in as
if in sport, and gained the other side of the wall without any difficulty.

The Emperor Justinian therefore, in his great care for the safety of his
subjects, did as follows: First, he utterly destroyed the ancient wall so that
no vestige of it was left. He then built a second wall upon the same site, of
considerable width and height; above the battlements of this he built a
vaulted roof like a portico to shelter the defenders, while a second range of
battlements resting upon these vaults doubled the defensive power of this
work against an enemy. After this, at each end of the wall, on the very beach
of the sea, he built two of the projecting works named moles, reaching a
long way into the water, connected with the wall, and equalling it in height.
He also cleaned out the ditch outside the wall and excavated it to a great
width and depth; moreover, he placed a garrison of soldiers within these
long walls sufficient to hold them against all the barbarians who might
attack the Chersonesus. After having made this part so strong and secure, he
nevertheless built additional fortifications in the interior, so that if, which
God forbid, any disaster should befall the ‘long wall,’ the people of
Chersonesus would nevertheless be safe; for he enclosed the city of
Aphrodisias, which before had been for the greater part defenceless, with a
very strong wall, and supplied with walls and inhabitants the city of Ciberis,
building there baths, hospices, numerous houses, and all that is necessary
for a magnificent city. He likewise most securely fortified Callipolis,[84]
which had been left without walls by the ancients, through their trust in the
‘long wall.’ Here he built storehouses for corn and wine sufficient to supply
all the wants of the garrison of the Chersonesus.[85]
Opposite Abydos is an ancient city named Sestos, which also in former
times was uncared-for and possessed no defences. It was overhung by a
very steep hill, upon which he built a fort which is quite inaccessible, and
impossible to be taken by an enemy. Not far from Sestos is Elæus, where a
precipitous rock rises from the sea, raising its summit high in the air and
forming a natural fortification. Upon this also the Emperor built a fort,
which is difficult to pass by and altogether impregnable; moreover, he built
a fort at Thescus, on the other side of the ‘long wall,’ fortifying it with an
exceedingly strong wall. Thus did he provide in all quarters for the safety of
the inhabitants of the Chersonesus.

XI. Beyond Chersonesus is the city of Ænus,[86] which takes its name
from that of its founder; for Æneas was, according to tradition, the son of

Anchises. The wall of this place was easy of capture from its lowness, since
it did not reach to the necessary height, while it lay completely exposed in
the neighbourhood of the sea, where it was washed by the waves. However,
the Emperor Justinian raised its walls to such a height that not only they
could not be taken, but could not even be assaulted; and, by bringing them
down to the seashore and strengthening them in every quarter, rendered
Ænus altogether impregnable. Thus he provided for the safety of the city;
but the country remained exposed to the incursions of the barbarians,
because the (mountains of) Rhodope had been from ancient times deficient
in fortifications. In the interior was a village named Bellurus, in wealth and
population equal to a city, but always exposed to the plundering attacks of
barbarians, on account of its being defenceless, as was also a large extent of
country round about it: this place our Emperor made into a city, fortified,
and rendered worthy of himself; moreover he also restored with great care
all the fortifications which were wanting or had become ruinous in the other
cities in the Rhodope Mountains. Among these were Trajanopolis and
Maximianopolis, whose walls he rebuilt where they were defective. These
were his works in this quarter.
In this country Anastasiopolis was already furnished with walls, but,
though lying near the sea, had an undefended sea-beach, so that it often
happened that the barbarian Huns seized the vessels which lay there
helpless, and extended their ravages to the neighbouring islands. The
Emperor Justinian enclosed the whole sea-beach with a fortification, and
thus provided for the safety both of the ships and of the islanders. He also
constructed a very lofty aqueduct leading to the city from the mountains in
the neighbourhood. There is in Rhodope an ancient city named Toperus,
which is almost surrounded by a river, and lies at the foot of a lofty hill,
from which it had not long before been captured by the barbarian
Sclavonians; but Justinian raised its wall to so great a height that it rises
above this hill as much as it formerly fell short of it. He built a vaulted
portico along the wall, so that the garrison could defend the city in safety
against besiegers, and formed each of its towers into a strong castle. He also
strengthened it by enclosing the part between the river and the city-wall by
a cross-wall. These were the works of the Emperor Justinian in this quarter.
I will now describe the other fortifications which he built in the rest of
Thrace, and in what is now called Mount Hæmus. First, he carefully built

up what was wanting or ruinous at Philippopolis and Plotinopolis, which
were very weakly fortified, although they stood in the neighbourhood of
many tribes of barbarians. He also established numberless forts throughout
the whole of Thrace, by means of which the country, which had formerly
been exposed to the inroads of the enemy, was entirely preserved from their
ravages; the names of these forts, as far as my memory goes, are as follows.
In Europe:

Lydicæ, Elaeae.

In Rhodope the following new forts:

Caseera, Cuscabri,
Theodoropolis, Cusculus,
Thrasi, Thracian Bospara,
Thudanelanæ, Vesiparum,
Mundepa, Capisturia,
Tharsandala, Veripara,
Denizus, Isgipera,
Toparum, Ozorme,
Dalatarba, Vereiaros,
Bre, Tamonbari,
Scemnas, Ditch of Gesilas,
Carasthyra, Cherœnum,
Pinzus, Probini,
Tuleus, St. Theodorus,
Arzon, Burdepto,
Castrazarba, Rhacule,
Zositersum, St. Julianus,
Bergisum, Tzitaëtus,
Dingium, Velastyras,
Sacissus, Getrinas,
Cyrtuxura, Bredas,
Potamocastellum, Verus,
Isdicaea, Thocyodis,
Emporium, Via,
Taurocephalaeum, Anagonclias,
Velaidipara, Suras,
Scitaces, Anthipari,
Bepara, Dordas,
Pusinum, Sarmathon,
Hymanparubri, Clisura,
Scariotasalucra, Hylasianae,
Augustas, Thrasarichi,
Urdaus, Bæca,
St. Trajanus, Chrysanthus,
Dertallus, Marcerota,

Solvani, Zdebrin,
Vascum, S. Theodorus,
Zincyra, Asgarzus,
Hæmimonti, Burtudgizi,
Zemarchi, Taurocomum,
Cerioparorum, Nice,
Casibonorum, Cavotumba,
Unci, Dixas,
Antoninum, Getistraus,
Debre, Tzyidon,
Probini, Tzonpolegon,
Carberus, Basibunum,
Esimonti, Anchialus,
Asgizus, Marcianum,
Dalatarba, Cyridana,
Theodoropolis, Beculi.

The following are the other forts in Thrace on the Euxine Sea and river
Danube, and also in the interior of the country.
On the river Danube:

Mysias,
Justinianopolis,
Erculente,
Therma,
Scatrina,
Gemellomuntes,
Appiara,
Asilba,
Exentaprista,
Cuscana,
Deoniana,
Cuscum,
Limo,
Fossatum,
Odyssus,
Bisdina,
Bidigis,
Marcianopolis,
Arina,
Scythias,
Nicopolis,
Grapso,
Zicideba,
Nono,
Poliscastellum,
Trosmes,
Cistidizus,
Naisduno,
Basternas,
Rhesidina,
Metalla,
Constantiana,
Veripara,
Callatis,
Spadizus,
Bassidina,
Marcerota,
Beledina,
Bodas,
Abrittus,
Zisnudeba,
Rubusta,
Turules,
Diniscarta,
Monteregine,
Tigra,
Becis,
Scedeba,
Altina,
Novas.
Maurovalle,

In the interior:

Copustorus, Gratiana,
Virginazo, Preidis,
Tillito, Argamo,
Ancyriana, Paulimandra,
Murideba, Tzasclis,
Itzes, Fair Theodora,
Castellonovo, Tomis,
Padisara, Creas,
Bismapha, Catassi,
Valentiniana, Nisconis,
Zaldapa, Novejustiniana,
Axiopa, Presidio,
Carso, Ergamia.

And others beyond number.

BOOK V.

I. The works of Justinian in the whole of Europe have been as far as
possible described by me in the former portion of this book; we must now
proceed to the description of the remainder of his works in Asia. I think that
I have described above the fortifications of cities and forts, and the other
buildings erected by him in the East, from the Median frontier as far as the
city of Palmyra in Phœnicia, on the borders of Lebanon. I shall now speak
of his works in the remainder of Asia and Libya, describing both the
manner in which he repaired the roads, which were difficult and dangerous,
in some places steep and overhung by rocky mountains, in others bordering
upon rivers which drowned travellers, and also how he repaired all that was
defective in the cities, beginning at the following point.

Before the city of Ephesus[87] there is some high ground, not formed of
earth or capable of producing fruit, but altogether hard and rocky. Here the
inhabitants at former times had built a church, dedicated to St. John the
Apostle, surnamed the Divine. This Apostle was named the Divine because
he has written about God in a manner surpassing the nature of man. This
church, which was small and ruinous through age, the Emperor Justinian
razed to the ground, and rebuilt of such size and beauty, that, in short, it
resembles and in all respects vies with the church dedicated by him to the
Apostles in the imperial city, which I have described above.
This was the work of our Emperor in Ephesus. In the island of Tenedos I
will presently describe the work which he constructed for the advantage of
the imperial city and all seafarers, after making the following prefatory
remarks. The sea as far as the Hellespont is contained in a narrow strait; for
the two continents there approach nearest to one another, forming the
beginning of the strait near Sestos and Abydos. Ships bound for
Constantinople consequently anchor when they reach this place, because
they are unable to proceed any further unless the wind blows from the
south. When, therefore, the fleet of corn-ships sail thither from Alexandria,
if it meets with a favourable wind, the merchants in a very short time moor
their ships in the harbours of Byzantium, and as soon as they have unloaded
them, depart at once, in order that they may all make this voyage for a
second or even a third time before the winter, while those of them who

choose take in some other merchandise for the return voyage. If, however,
the wind blows against them at the Hellespont, both the corn and the ships
become injured by delay. Reflecting upon these things, the Emperor
Justinian has clearly proved that nothing is impossible for man, even when
he has to contend with the greatest difficulties; for he built granaries on the
island of Tenedos, which is close to the strait, of a sufficient size to contain
the freight of the whole fleet, being in width no less than ninety feet, in
length two hundred and eighty, and of great height. After the Emperor had
constructed these, when those who were conveying the public supply of
corn were detained by contrary winds at this point, they used to unload their
cargo into the granary, and, disregarding the northerly and westerly winds
and all the other winds which were unfavourable for them, would prepare
for another voyage. They therefore at once sailed home, while afterwards,
whenever it became convenient to sail from Tenedos to Byzantium, the corn
was conveyed from Tenedos thither in other ships by persons appointed to
perform this duty.

II. In Bithynia there is a city[88] named after Helena, the mother of the
Emperor Constantine, in which they say that Helena was born, and which in
former times was an inconsiderable village. The Emperor Constantine, out
of filial duty, gave this place its name and the dignity of a city, but built
nothing there on an imperial or magnificent scale; for the place remained in
its former condition in respect of its buildings, but merely had the glory of
being called a city, and prided itself on being named after Helena, to whom
it had given birth. However, the Emperor of our own age, as though wishing
to put away the reproach of the founder of the empire, first supplied this
city, which he found suffering from want of water, with a magnificent
aqueduct, and furnished the inhabitants beyond their expectation with
enough water not only to drink, but also to wash in, and to use for all the
other luxuries of life, as they were now supplied with water in abundance;
in addition to this he built for them a new public bath, and restored another
which had fallen into ruins and been neglected through the want of water
which I have mentioned, so that it had all fallen to the ground. He also built
churches, palaces, porticos, and dwellings for the magistrates, and supplied
all the other needs of a flourishing city.
Close by this city flows a river, which the natives from its form call
Draco (the snake); for it winds in curves on either hand, often proceeding in

opposite directions, bending its waters round in a crooked course, and
flowing now to the right hand and now to the left; so that travellers coming
to the city were obliged to cross it more than twenty times.[89] Many of
them thus perished through the river suddenly rising in flood; besides
which, a thick wood and masses of reeds, which encumbered its outfall into
the sea, made it a source of trouble to the country; indeed, not very long
ago, after much rain, it overflowed its banks and inundated a great part of
the country, doing irreparable damage; for it swept away many fields,
uprooted vines, olives, and numberless fruit-trees of all kinds, and also the
houses which stood outside the walls of the city, besides doing other
important damage to the inhabitants. The Emperor Justinian, out of pity for
them, devised the following plan: he cleared away the woods, and cut down
all the reeds, so as to enable the river to discharge itself freely into the sea,
so that it would no longer be forced to overflow its banks. He also cut
through the mountains which stand in that country, and made a carriage-
road through places which formerly had been rough and precipitous. By this
means he rendered it unnecessary for the greater part of the inhabitants to
cross the river at all, whilst he threw two bridges of great width across it, so
that henceforth they could pass over it without danger.

III. The excellent works which he constructed at Nicæa,[90] in Bithynia,
are worthy of mention. In the first place, he restored the whole of the
aqueduct, which had entirely fallen into ruin and become useless, and thus
furnished the city with an abundant supply of water. Next he built churches
and convents both for women and men. He carefully restored the whole of
the palace there, some part of which was in ruins, and likewise a bath in the
place which is called the ‘Couriers’ Lodgings,‘ and which had long been
ruinous. Close to this city, on the west side, a torrent is wont to rush down,
making the road in that direction entirely impassable. The ancients had
constructed a bridge here, which in the course of time became unable to
withstand the rush of the torrent, as it was not kept in proper repair, so that
it yielded to the force of the stream, and was swept away, leaving no trace
on the spot where it formerly stood. The Emperor Justinian built another
bridge here, of such height and width that the former one seemed to bear no
proportion to it whatever, which rises high above the torrent when at its
fullest, and affords a safe passage to travellers.

SECTION and
PLAN OF THE CISTERN OF IMBAHER OR BATHS OF ANTONINUS.
Reduced from Texier’s Asia Minor. G.A.

At Nicomedia[91] he rebuilt the Baths of Antoninus, the most important
part of which had fallen down, and from the vastness of its size seemed
unlikely ever to be rebuilt. The great river which is now called the Sangaris,
[92]
which runs with an exceedingly swift current, is of great depth in the
middle, and of width like a sea, and had never been spanned by a bridge
since the creation; however, by lashing a number of boats together, and
connecting them with each other like mat-work, foot-passengers ventured to
cross it, as once the army of Medes crossed the Hellespont, fearing the
wrath of Xerxes. This, however, they did not accomplish without danger,
for the river often swept away all the boats, together with their fastenings,
and made it impossible for travellers to cross it. Now, however, the Emperor
Justinian has attempted to build a bridge over it. The work is begun, and he
has already expended much labour upon it; so that I am sure that before
long he will accomplish it, for I know that Heaven assists him in all his
works, so that up to this time none of his projects have remained
unaccomplished, although in many cases he at first seemed to be
undertaking impossibilities.
There is a road in Bithynia leading thence into Phrygia, upon which in
the winter season innumerable men and animals used to perish; for the
ground, being soft, not only after great rains, or the melting of great
quantities of snow, but even after slight showers, became deep, impassable
mud, and turned the road into a swamp, in which travellers were frequently
swallowed up. He, however, together with the Empress Theodora, with
magnificent generosity, removed this source of danger to travellers; for they
raised the thoroughfare safely upon enormous stones for a distance of half a
day’s journey for a lightly-equipped traveller, and enabled passengers to
proceed along a firm road. These were the works of the Emperor Justinian
in this quarter.
In Bithynia there are springs of warm water in the place called Pythia.
These springs are made use of by many persons, especially the inhabitants
of Byzantium, for pleasure, and above all for the healing of those suffering
from disease. Here he displayed a truly imperial magnificence; for he built a

palace, which had not existed before, and public baths supplied
with the warm water. He also brought hither drinking water by
an aqueduct from distant fountains, and relieved the place from
the drought from which it had formerly suffered. Besides this,
he rebuilt on a larger and much more magnificent scale the
Church of the Archangel and the infirmary for the sick.
IV. There is a river in Galatia which the inhabitants call the
Siberis,[93] near the place called Sycæ, and about ten miles from
the city of Juliopolis, on the eastern side. This river often rose
suddenly to a great height and swept away many of the
travellers along that road. The Emperor Justinian, grieved at
hearing this, put a stop to these disasters for the future by
spanning the river with a powerful bridge, capable of
withstanding the force of a flooded river. He also formed the
eastern abutment of the bridge into a projecting wall, of the
form technically known as a bulwark. He also built a church for
travellers on the western side of it, which might serve as a
refuge for them in times of storm. The river, which flows past
the western side of this city of Juliopolis, used to shake and
injure its walls; however, our Emperor restrained it by building
an embankment parallel to the city wall for a distance of not less
than five hundred feet. By this means he preserved the
fortifications of the city from being washed away.
The following were his works in Cappadocia. There has been
there since ancient times a very large and populous city named
BRIDGE Cæsarea, which was surrounded by a wall of such excessive
ACROSS extent as to render it weak and altogether indefensible, because
THE
RIVER it enclosed a large space which was not necessary for the city,
SANGARI and was exposed to attack by its useless length; for there are
S. lofty hills, not near to one another, but at a considerable
Reduced from
Texier’s Asia distance, which the founder of the city was anxious to enclose
Minor within its walls, lest they should be used to attack it from, so
that thus, under the pretext of safety, he really exposed it to
great danger, by enclosing many fields and gardens, besides crags and high
pasture-land, on which the inhabitants did not subsequently build any
houses, but left it in its former condition, the few houses upon it remaining

solitary and isolated to the present day. The garrison was not sufficient to
guard such a great extent of wall, nor were the inhabitants able to keep it in
repair, so that they lived in terror of attack, just as though they had no walls
at all. However, the Emperor Justinian pulled down the unnecessary part of
the wall, concentrated the city within a really efficient rampart, and made
the place impregnable to all assailants, strengthening it with a sufficient
garrison. Thus did he provide for the safety of the people of Cæsarea in
Cappadocia.
There was in Cappadocia a fortress named Mocesus, standing on level
ground, whose wall was so decayed that some part of it had already fallen,
and the rest was like to fall. The Emperor Justinian demolished this fort,
and built a new and very great wall to the westward of the old fort, on a
lofty spot inaccessible to any assailants. Here he built many churches,
hospices, public baths, and everything else which belongs to a flourishing
city; so that this place came to be regarded as the metropolis, which is the
name given by the Romans to the first city of a nation. These were his
works in Cappadocia.
V. Along the road leading from the city of Antiochia, now called
Theopolis, towards Cilicia, is a suburb named Platanon. Not far from this
city was an ancient path, confined in a narrow glen between two mountains,
which had been for the greater part washed away by the rains, so as to
render it dangerous to travellers proceeding along it. When the Emperor
Justinian heard of this, he spent much pains and thought upon it, and at
once discovered a remedy for this evil; for at a vast expense he cut down
and overcame the difficulties of the mountains in that region for a great
distance, so that, beyond everyone’s hope and expectation, he made a level
and wide carriage-road over what had formerly been precipice, clearly
proving that by wise plans and lavish expenditure men can overcome all
obstacles. These were his works in that quarter.

There is in Cilicia a city named Mopsuestia,[94] the work, it is said, of the
celebrated ancient prophet (Mopsus). Beside this runs the river Pyramus,
which is an ornament to the city, but is only traversed by one bridge. In the
course of ages the greater part of this bridge became ruinous, so that it
continually threatened to fall, and all who crossed it did so with the fear of
death before their eyes. Thus, a work devised by the ancients for men’s

safety had, through the negligence of those in charge of it, become a source
of danger and terror; however, our Emperor carefully restored all the
ruinous parts of the bridge, so as to afford security to those who crossed it,
and enabled the city again to take a pride in the river unalloyed with fear.
Beyond this is the city of Adana, round the eastern side of which runs a
river named Sarus,[95] which rises in the mountains of Armenia. The Sarus
is a navigable river, and is nowhere fordable on foot. Here in ancient times
there had been constructed a large and admirable bridge, in the following
manner. In the river were built many piers, formed of large stones of great
thickness, extending across the whole width of the river, and rising high
above its surface. Above the two central ones rise two lofty arches. These
piers, standing in the water, and having to withstand the force of a strong
current, had in the course of ages become for the most part ruinous, so that
at no distant time it appeared probable that the whole bridge would fall into
the river, and every man who crossed it prayed that it might only just hold
together until he had done so. However, the Emperor Justinian dug a new
channel for the river, into which he diverted its stream for a time, removed
the water from the above-mentioned piers, promptly removed the ruinous
portions of them, and rebuilt them, after which he turned the river back
again into the channel which is called its bed. These were his proceedings
here.

The river Cydnus[96] runs through the midst of the city of Tarsus, and
appears to have done no injury to it at any time except once, when it caused
great destruction in the following manner: the season was spring-time, and
a south wind, which suddenly began to blow with great strength, melted all
the snow with which in winter-time the Tarsus Mountains are almost
entirely covered. In consequence of this streams of water ran down from
every part of those mountains, all the ravines poured down torrents, and
numerous springs inundated all the skirts of the Tarsus range. The river
Cydnus, swollen high by these waters which were poured into it by its
tributaries, and by heavy rains which afterwards fell, overflowed and
entirely washed away all the suburbs of Tarsus on the southern side, poured
furiously into the city, sweeping away the bridges, which were of slight
construction, inundated all the streets and market-places, and even rose as
high as the upper stories of the houses. For a night and a day the city
remained in this danger and distress, after which the river gradually retired

and returned to its usual bed. When the Emperor Justinian heard of this, he
devised the following plan. In the first place, he prepared a second channel
for the river outside the city, in order that it might there divide its stream,
and might only pour half its waters upon the city of Tarsus: next, he built
the bridges very much wider, and rendered them too strong to be swept
away by the flooded Cydnus. Thus he enabled the inhabitants of the city to
dwell in it without alarms or dangers for the future.

Plan OF ES SAKHRA.
(Dome of the Rock)
From the O.S. Plan of Jerusalem 1864-5.

Plan of EL AKSA.

VI. These were the works of the Emperor Justinian in Cilicia. At
Jerusalem he built a church in honour of the Virgin,[97] to which no other
can be compared. The inhabitants call it the ‘new church.’ I shall describe
what it is like, prefacing my account by the remark that this city stands for
the most part upon hilly ground, which hills are not formed of earth, but are
rough and precipitous, so as to make the paths up and down them as steep
as ladders. All the rest of the buildings in the city stand in one place, being
either built upon the hills, or upon flat and open ground; but this church
alone stands in a different position; for the Emperor Justinian ordered it to
be built upon the highest of the hills, explaining of what size he wished it to
be, both in width and in length. The hill was not of sufficient size to enable
the work to be carried out according to the Emperor’s orders, but a fourth
part of the church, that towards the south wind and the rising sun, in which
the priests perform the sacred mysteries, was left with no ground upon
which to rest. Accordingly those in charge of this work devised the
following expedient: they laid foundations at the extremity of the flat
ground, and constructed a building rising to the same height as the hill.
When it reached the summit, they placed vaults upon the walls and joined
this building to the other foundations of the church; so that this church in

one place is built upon a firm rock, and in another place is suspended in the
air—for the power of the Emperor has added another portion to the
(original) hill. The stones of this substruction are not of the size of those
which we are accustomed to see: for the builders of this work, having to
contend with the nature of the ground, and being forced to raise a building
equal in size to a mountain, scorned the ordinary practices of building, and
betook themselves to strange and altogether unknown methods. They cut
blocks of stone of enormous size out of the mountains which rise to vast
heights in the neighbourhood of the city, cunningly squared them, and
brought them thither in the following manner: they built waggons of the
same size as these stones, and placed one stone upon each waggon. These
waggons were dragged by picked oxen, chosen by the Emperor, forty of
them dragging each waggon with its stone. Since it was impossible for the
roads leading into the city to take these waggons upon them, they made a
passage for them by cutting deeply into the mountains, and thus formed the
church of the great length which it was the Emperor’s pleasure that it
should have. After they had built it of a proportional width they were not
able to put a roof upon it. While they were inspecting every grove and place
which they heard was planted with tall trees, they discovered a thick wood,
producing cedars of enormous height, with which they made the roof of the
church, of a height proportional to its length and width. These were the
works[98] which the Emperor Justinian constructed by human power and art,
though assisted by his pious confidence, which in its turn reflected honour
upon himself, and helped him to carry out his design. This church required
to be surrounded on every side with columns, such as in beauty would be
worthy of the main building, and of a size capable of supporting the weight
which would be laid upon them. However, the place, from its inland
situation at a distance from the sea, and its being entirely surrounded by the
precipitous mountains which I have mentioned, rendered it impossible for
the builders of the foundation to bring columns thither from elsewhere.
While, however, the Emperor was grieving at this difficulty, God pointed
out in the nearest mountains a bed of stone of a kind suitable for this
purpose, which either had existed there in former times and been concealed,
or was then created. Either story is credible to those who regard God as the
cause of it: for we, measuring everything by our human strength, think that
many things belong to the region of the impossible, while for God nothing
whatever is difficult or impossible. The church, then, is supported by a great

number of columns brought from this place, of very great size, and of a
colour which resembles flame, which stand, some above, some below, and
some round the porticos which encircle the entire church, except on the side
turned towards the east. Of these columns, the two which stand before the
door of the church are of very unusual size, and probably second to no
columns in the whole world. Beyond them is another portico, named the
Narthex (reed), I suppose because it is narrow; after this is a court of square
shape supported by columns of equal size; from this lead interior doors of
such grandeur as to show those passing them what a spectacle they are
about to meet with. Beyond this is a wonderful porch, and an arch
supported on two columns at a great height. Proceeding further, there stand
two semicircles, opposite to one another, on each side of the way to the
church; while on either side of the other road are two hospices—the work of
the Emperor Justinian—one of which is destined for the reception of
strangers, while the other is an infirmary for the sick poor. The Emperor
Justinian also endowed this Church of the Virgin with large revenues. Such
were the works of the Emperor Justinian in Jerusalem.

Ruins of Church on Mt. Gerizim.
From a plan by Capt. Wilson RE
Quarterly Statement April 1883.

VII. There is a city in Palestine named Neapolis, which is overhung by a
lofty mountain named Gerizim.[99] This mountain was originally held by the
Samaritans, who ascended it at all seasons in order to pray, not that they had
ever built a church there, but worshipped and reverenced the summit of the
mountain above everything else. Jesus, the Son of God, when in the flesh,
went amongst these people, and held a conversation with one of the women
of the country. When she inquired of Him about the mountain, He told her
that in future times the Samaritans should not worship in this mountain, but
that the true worshippers should worship Himself there, alluding to the
Christians. In process of time this prophecy came to pass, for it was not
possible that the true God should lie. It came to pass in the following
manner. In the reign of the Emperor Zeno, the Samaritans suddenly
collected together, and fell upon the Christians in Neapolis, who were
keeping the feast called Pentecost in their church, and killed many of them,

while they struck with their swords the Bishop, by name Terebinthius—
whom they found standing before the holy table, engaged in celebrating the
sacrament—so as, amongst other wounds, to cut off the fingers from his
hands, while they insulted the holy mysteries in a manner fit indeed for
Samaritans to do, but not fit for us to speak of. This priest shortly
afterwards came to Byzantium, into the presence of the then Emperor, to
whom he showed what he himself had suffered, described what had taken
place, and begged the Emperor to avenge what had been done, reminding
him of the prophecy of Christ. The Emperor Zeno, much moved at what had
taken place, without delay inflicted a full measure of punishment upon
those who had been guilty of this outrage. He drove the Samaritans out of
Mount Gerizim, handed it over to the Christians, and built upon the summit
a church which he dedicated to the Virgin, which he enclosed with what
was indeed called a wall, but which in truth was a dry stone fence. He
placed a sufficient number of soldiers as a garrison in the city below, but in
the church and its fortification not more than ten. The Samaritans, enraged
at these proceedings, were filled with anger, and remained sulky and
dissatisfied, though, through fear of the Emperor, they kept silence. In
process of time, however, in the reign of Anastasius, the following event
took place. Some of the Samaritans, at the instigation of a woman, climbed
unexpectedly up the steep face of the mountain, for the road which leads up
it from the city was strictly guarded, so that it was impossible for them to
ascend by it. Falling suddenly upon the church, they killed the guards who
were posted there, and called with a loud voice upon the Samaritans in the
city to join them. They, however, fearing the soldiers, were not at all willing
to join the conspirators; and not long afterwards the governor of the
province (he was named Procopius, of the city of Edessa, an eloquent man)
captured those who had been guilty of this outrage, and put them to death.
Yet even then the Emperor did not bestow any attention or care upon the
fortification; but in our own time the Emperor Justinian, although he has for
the most part converted the Samaritans to a better religion, and rendered
them Christians, yet, leaving the old wall round the church upon Gerizim in
its former condition of loose stones, as I described before, he enclosed it
within a second wall, and rendered it altogether impregnable. In this place
he also rebuilt five Christian churches which had been burned by the
Samaritans. These were his works in this country.

VIII. In the country which was formerly called Arabia, but which now is
known as the Third Province of Palestine, a desert tract extends for a great
distance, entirely barren of fruits, of water, and of all good things. A
precipitous and savagely wild mountain, named Sina, stands close to the
Red Sea. It is not necessary at this point in my narrative for me to give a
description of these regions, since in my ‘History of the Wars’ I have given
an exact account of the whole of the country near the Red Sea and the so-
called Arabian Gulf, and of the tribes of the Auxomite Ethiopians, and the
Homerite Saracens. There also I have described how the Emperor Justinian
added the palm-grove[100] to the Roman Empire. I therefore omit to speak
of this, that I may not incur the charge of want of taste. In this Mount
Sina[101] dwell monks, whose life is but a careful study of death, and who
therefore enjoy without fear the solitude which is dear to them. Since these
monks have no desires, but are superior to all human passions, and as they
possess nothing and spend no care upon their persons, nor seek for pleasure
from anything else whatever, the Emperor Justinian built a church for them,
which he dedicated to the Virgin, that they might therein spend their life in
continual prayer and service of God. He did not build this church on the
summit of the mountain, but a long way below it; for it is not possible for a
man to pass the night upon the peak, because at night continuous
thunderings and other yet more terrible divine manifestations take place,
which overpower men’s strength and reason. Here it was that Moses is said
to have received the Law from God, and to have brought it away. At the
foot of the mountain our Emperor also built a very strong fort, and placed in
it a very considerable garrison of soldiers, in order that the barbarian
Saracens might not from that point, the country being, as I have said, a
desert, secretly invade Palestine. This is what he did here; but what he did
in the monasteries, both here and in the remainder of the East, I will now
briefly enumerate.
IX, In Jerusalem he restored the following monasteries: that of St.
Thalelæus, St. Gregorius, and St. Panteleemon in the desert of Jordan; the
hospice at Jericho;[102] the church of the Virgin at Jericho; the church of the
Iberians at Jerusalem; the church of the Lazi in the desert of Jerusalem; the
church of St. Mary in the Mount of Olives; the church of the well of St.
Elisæus;[103] the church of Siletheus; the church of the Abbot Romanus. He

restored the wall of Bethlehem, and the church of the Abbot Joannes at
Bethlehem.

CHURCH AT BETHLEHEM.[104]

He built cisterns and reservoirs as follows: in the monastery of St.
Samuel, a wall and a cistern; in the monastery of the Abbot Zacharia, a
cistern; in the monastery of Susanna, a cistern; in the monastery of
Aphelius, a cistern; in the monastery of St. John beside the Jordan, a
cistern;[105] in the monastery of St. Sergius in the mountain named
Cisseron, a cistern; the wall of Tiberias;[106] the poor-house at Bostra in
Phœnicia; the house of the Virgin at Porphyreon;[107] the monastery of St.
Phoca in the mount; the house of St. Sergius in Ptolemaïs;[108] the house of
St. Leontius at Damascus. In the suburbs of Apamea[109] he restored the
poor-house of St. Romanus; he built the wall of St. Marox; he restored the
church of Daphne[110] in the suburbs of Theopolis; at Laodicea[111] he
restored the church of St. John; in Mesopotamia he restored the monastery

of St. John, and the monasteries of Thelphrache, Zebinus, Theodotus,
Joannes, Sarmathe, Cyrene, Begadacum, and the monastery at Apadnæ, in
Isauria.[112] He rebuilt the bath and poor-house of the city of Cyricum; the
poor-house of St. Conon, and the aqueduct of the same saint in Cyprus; the
house of SS. Cosmas and Damianus in Pamphylia; and the poor-house of
St. Michael in the seaport which is called the naval arsenal of the city of
Perga, in Pamphylia.

BOOK VI.

I. The above were the works of Justinian in those regions. What he did at
Alexandria was as follows. The river Nile does not flow as far as
Alexandria, but, after reaching the city which is named Chæreum,[113]
proceeds to the left, leaving the country about Alexandria. In consequence
this the ancients, in order that the city might not be entirely cut off from the
river, dug a deep channel from Chæreum, and succeeded in making a small
part of the stream of the river Nile run through it, by which, as by other
channels, it discharges its waters into the lake Maria. This channel was
nowhere navigable for large ships, but men at Chæreum transfer Egyptian
corn from them to boats named diaremata, and so bring it to the city, which
they can reach by the river which flows through this channel. They store up
the corn in the place which the Alexandrians call Phiale. Since it often
happened that when the populace rose in revolt, the corn in this place was
destroyed, the Emperor Justinian enclosed it with a wall, and prevented any
attacks being made upon the corn. These were the works of the Emperor
Justinian in this place. However, since the course of our narrative has
brought us into Egypt, a country which borders upon Libya, let us describe
his works in that country also, since this Emperor found the whole of Libya
in the possession of barbarians, and annexed it to the Roman Empire.
The river Nile, which flows from the Indies into Egypt, divides that land
into two portions down to the sea. The land, which is divided by the river, is
divided also in name; for the country on the right bank of the river is named
Asia, as far as the river Phasìs in Colchis, which divides the land of Asia
from that of Europe, or indeed to the Cimmerian straits and the river Tanais;
for geographers are at issue upon this point, which I have mentioned in the
description of the Euxine Sea in my ‘History of the Wars.’ The country on
the left bank of the Nile is called Libya as far as the main ocean, which
divides the two continents in the West by interposing an arm between them,
which forms our (Mediterranean) Sea. The whole of Libya is divided into
various provinces, called, probably, after the name of their inhabitants; but
the name of Libya at the present day is applied only to the territory of
Pentapolis,[114] which extends from the frontier at Alexandria as far as the
city of Cyrene. In it there is a city, situated at a distance of two days’

journey from Alexandria, named Taphosiris,[115] in which it is said that the
Egyptian god Osiris is buried. In this city the Emperor Justinian constructed
magistrates’ houses, public baths, and other buildings.
II. The greater part of this country of Libya is desert, and was almost
entirely neglected: yet our Emperor in his watchful care took measures to
prevent its incurring any damage from invasion by the neighbouring Moors,
for he built two forts and established garrisons in them. One of these forts is
named Paratonium, and the other Antipyrgum, which stands near
Pentapolis. Pentapolis is distant from Alexandria eight days’ journey for a
lightly-equipped traveller. In this country of Pentapolis the Emperor
Justinian likewise very strongly fortified the city Teuchria,[116] and rebuilt
from its foundations the wall[117] of Berenice,[118] where he also built a
public bath for the use of the citizens; moreover, on the southern frontier of
Pentapolis he fortified two monasteries, named Agriolodes and Dinarthion,
by which he restrained the barbarians in that quarter from making sudden
and unexpected inroads on the Roman territory.

There is in this country a city, named Ptolemaïs,[119] which in former
times was flourishing and populous, but in process of time became almost
deserted through want of water; for the greater part of the inhabitants long
ago suffered from drought so much that they left it and dispersed in various
directions. Now, however, our Emperor has rebuilt the aqueduct which
supplied the city with water, and restored it to its former appearance of
prosperity.[120] The furthest city of Pentapolis upon the western frontier is
that of Borium,[121] where mountains, standing close together, seem to form
a barrier which shuts out the enemy from invading the country. The
Emperor, finding this city unwalled, enclosed it with a very strong rampart,
thus rendering it and the whole of the country round it quite secure for the
future.
There are two cities, both of which pass under the same name, being both
called Augila.[122] They stand at a distance of about four days’ journey from
Borium for a lightly equipped traveller, on the southern side of it. They are
old cities, and the habits of their citizens are old-fashioned: for all of them,
even in my own time, practised the rites of polytheism. Here in ancient
times were temples dedicated to Ammon, and to Alexander of Macedon, to

whom the inhabitants used to offer sacrifice down to the reign of Justinian,
and there was in them a large number of persons called Slaves of the
Temple: now, however, our Emperor, who not only provides for the security
of the bodies of his subjects, but is also careful to save their souls, took all
necessary measures for the benefit of those who dwelt here, making liberal
provisions for them in all respects, and above all teaching them the true
religion, so that he made them all Christians in a body, and turned them
from their pagan ancestral customs. He also built for them a temple of the
Virgin, to serve as a fortress for the safety of the city and of the true
religion. These were his works in this quarter.
The city of Borium, lying near the Moorish barbarians, has remained free
from imposts down to this time, nor have any gatherers of tribute or taxes
visited it since the creation. From ancient times Jews dwelt close to it, and
had an ancient temple which they greatly respected and reverenced, as it
had, according to tradition, been built by Solomon the King of the Hebrew
nation. However, the Emperor Justinian compelled them all to desert their
ancestral religion and become Christians, while he turned this temple into a
church.
III. Beyond this lie what are called the Great Syrtes. I will explain what
their appearance is, and why they have received this name. The shore in this
quarter, divided by the inroads of the sea, and washed away by the beating
of the waves, seems to retire and to withdraw itself inland, so as to form an
immense crescent-shaped gulf. The distance across the mouth of this gulf is
forty stadia, while the perimeter of the crescent extends to a distance of six
days’ journey. The sea forms this gulf by pressing against the mainland; and
when a ship is once forced by the wind or the waves within the horns of the
crescent, it is thenceforth impossible for it to retrace its course, but it seems
dragged along, and always forced further forward. It was, I imagine, from
this destruction of ships that the ancients called the place Syrtes. Nor can
ships float as far as the shore, for the greater part of the gulf is full of
sunken rocks, which make it impossible for ships to float there, so that they
are wrecked in the shallows. The crews of these ships can only escape, if
they escape at all, in small boats, and reach the land with very great danger.
Here is the frontier of the region named Tripolis. In it dwell Moorish
barbarians of Phœnician origin. Here is also a city named Cidama, inhabited
by Moors who have long been on terms of friendship with the Romans, and

all of whom, by the persuasion of the Emperor Justinian, voluntarily
adopted the Christian faith. These Moors are now called Pacati, because
they always are at peace with the Romans; for the Romans in the Latin
language call peace pacem. Tripolis is distant from Pentapolis a journey of
twenty days’ journey for a lightly equipped traveller.

IV. Beyond this is the city of Leptis Magna,[123] which in ancient times
was great and populous, but since has become almost entirely deserted,
having through neglect been mostly buried with sand. Our Emperor rebuilt
its walls from the foundation, not, however, enclosing so great an extent as
formerly, but much less, in order that the city might not again be exposed to
danger, either from human enemies or from the sand, by its great size. He
left the buried part of the city as it was, covered with heaps of sand, and
fortified the rest in the strongest manner. Here he built an admirable church,
dedicated to the Virgin, besides four others. In addition to this, he also
rebuilt the ruinous palace which formerly existed here, the work of the
Emperor Severus the elder, who was born in this place, and left this palace
as a memorial of his good fortune.
Having arrived at this part of my narrative, I cannot pass over the great
event which took place at Leptis Magna in our time. When Justinian had
already come to the throne, and before he had begun the war against the
Vandals, the Moorish barbarians called Leucathæ overpowered the Vandals,
who were then masters of Libya, and reduced Leptis Magna to an utter
desert. Being encamped with their generals upon some hilly ground not far
from Leptis Magna, they suddenly beheld a flame of fire in the midst of the
city. Supposing that the enemy had entered it, they rushed hurriedly to
attack them; but finding no one there, they laid the matter before their
prophets, who, interpreting what had taken place, foretold that at no distant
time Leptis Magna would be inhabited. Not long afterwards the army of the
Emperor arrived, conquered the Vandals and Moors in battle, and gained
possession of Tripolis and the rest of Libya. I now return from this
digression to my narrative.
In this city the Emperor Justinian built public baths, rebuilt the walls
from their foundations, and gave both the baths and all other public
buildings an appearance worthy of a city. Moreover, he induced the
neighbouring barbarians, named Gadabitani, who up to this time were

entirely given up to the Greek form of paganism, to become zealous
Christians, as they are at this day. He also fortified the city of Sabaratha, in
which he built a most notable church.

In the further part of this country there are two cities, named Tacapa[124]
and Girgis, between which lies the lesser Syrtis. Here every day a
wonderful phenomenon takes place. The sea, pent up in a narrow place,
forms there a crescent-shaped gulf, such as I described in the other Syrtis.
Here the sea flows into the mainland for a distance of more than eight days’
journey for a lightly equipped traveller, and towards evening retires again,
leaving the shore there dry, like any other sea-beach. Sailors bound for this
land, which at times becomes sea, sail in the ordinary manner as far as they
are able in the day-time, but towards nightfall prepare to pass the night on
dry land. They carry long poles on purpose, and as soon as they suspect that
the waters are about to ebb, they take these poles in their hands, and without
any hesitation leap out of the ship. At first they swim, but afterwards, when
the water does not reach above their faces, they stand on their feet, and
sticking the points of their poles into the ground, which by this time is, or
shortly will be, dry, they fix them upright underneath their ship, supporting
it on either side, that it may not be damaged by falling to one side or the
other. Early on the following morning the land is again covered by the
waves of the sea, which raises the ships and causes them to float; then the
sailors take up their poles and sail on again. This proceeding never varies,
but this interchange of the elements takes place every day.
V. After Tripolis and the Syrtis, let us proceed to the rest of Libya. We
must begin with Carthage, which is the largest and most important of the
cities in this country, prefacing our description by observing that when
Genseric and the Vandals possessed Africa, there occurred to them a
destructive idea worthy of barbarians; for they imagined that they would be
better off if all the towns in this country had no walls, so that the Romans
might not occupy any of them to their disadvantage. They accordingly at
once pulled down all the walls to their very foundation; for all barbarians,
as a rule, most quickly devise and most promptly execute any plans which
they form for the injury of the Romans. The walls of Carthage and some
few other places alone were left, which they did not care to keep in repair,
but allowed to be ruined by age. However, the Emperor Justinian, against
the advice of all men, who shrank in terror from the enterprise, and only led

on and assisted by God, sent Belisarius with an army to Libya, took
Gelimer, and destroyed the power of the Vandals, killing many of them and
making the rest prisoners of war, as I have recounted in my ‘History of the
Wars.’ He rebuilt all the ruined fortifications in Libya, and himself built
many new ones.

First of all, he gave his attention to Carthage,[125] which now, as is right,
is named Justiniana. He rebuilt the whole of its ruined walls, and dug a
trench encircling it, which did not previously exist; he also built churches,
one dedicated to the Virgin, which is in the palace, and one outside the
palace dedicated to St. Prima, one of the local saints. He built porticos on
both sides of what is called the Maritime market-place, and a noble public
bath, which he named the Baths of Theodora, after the name of the
Empress. He also built a monastery on the sea-shore within the walls, close
to the harbour, named Mandracium, which he enclosed with a strong wall
and formed into an impregnable fort.
These were the works of Justinian at New Carthage. In the country near
it, which is called the Proconsulate, there was an unwalled city named
Baga,[126] which was liable to be taken by barbarians, not only if they
marched especially to attack it, but even if they passed near it. This place
the Emperor Justinian enclosed with a strong wall, thus raising it to the rank
of a city, and one, too, which was capable of affording security to its
citizens, who, having met with such favour, named the city Theodorias, in
honour of the Empress. He also built a fort in this country, named Tucca.

VI. In Byzacium is a city by the sea side, named Adrumetus,[127] which
in ancient times was great and populous, so that it had the name and repute
of being the chief city in this country, because it was the first in size and in
prosperity. The Vandals demolished the walls of this city, that the Romans
might not be able, to hold it against them, so that it was exposed to the
attacks of the Moors, who ravage that country; however, the Libyan
inhabitants provided for their own safety as far as they were able, by piling
up the ruins of their walls and joining their houses to one another, by which
means they were able to offer a precarious resistance to their assailants.
Their safety, however, hung by a thread, and was very uncertain, as they
were at war with the Moors and neglected by the Vandals. When, however,
the Emperor Justinian, in the course of the war, became master of Libya, he

built a wall of considerable size round this city, established in it a sufficient
garrison of soldiers, and enabled the inhabitants to be confident of safety
and to disregard all their foes. For this reason they call it Justiniana to the
present day, thus repaying their debt of gratitude to the Emperor, and
showing their loyalty towards him by the adoption of his name, for they had
no other means of repaying the kindness of the Emperor, as he wished for
no other return than this. On the shore of Byzacium there is another place
named Caputvada[128] by its inhabitants. It was at this place that the
Emperor’s army first landed when it proceeded against Gelimer and the
Vandals. Here, also, that marvellous and ineffable gift was bestowed by
God upon the Emperor, which I have described in my ‘History of the Wars.’
The country being altogether waterless, the Roman army suffered greatly
from thirst, whereupon the earth, which formerly had always been dry, sent
forth a fountain at the place where the soldiers had formed their camp. For
when they dug, the water burst forth, and the land, divesting itself of its
natural barrenness, changed its nature and became moist with sweet water.
Here, therefore, they encamped and passed the night, and marching forth in
battle array the next day, to cut the matter short, gained possession of Libya.
The Emperor Justinian therefore, in order to erect a perpetual memorial of
this gift of God, who when He pleases can make the most difficult things
easy, at once determined to form this place into a city, with a strong wall,
and adorned with everything else worthy of a city. The Emperor’s wish was
fulfilled. The wall and city were built, and the fortunes of this open field
were suddenly altered. The rustics, throwing away the plough, dwell as
citizens, and no longer live a country, but a town life; for they meet together
there daily, deliberate upon their own affairs, buy and sell in the market
with one another, and perform all the other functions which distinguish the
inhabitants of a city.
These were his works on the seashore of Byzacium. In the interior, on the
frontier which borders on the barbarian Moors, very strong fortresses are
built to hold them in check, in consequence of which they are no longer
able to overrun the empire, for he enclosed each of the cities upon that
frontier, which are named Mamma, Telepta, and Cululius, with very strong
walls, built a fort which the inhabitants name Aumetera, and established in
them trustworthy garrisons of soldiers.

VII. In the same manner he ensured the safety of the country of Numidia
by fortifications and garrisons of soldiers. I shall now enumerate each of
these in detail. There is a mountain in Numidia called Aurasius,[129] the like
of which does not exist anywhere else in the world. In the first place, it is
lofty and precipitous, and extends for a distance of about three days’
journey; it is also inaccessible, all the ascents to it being barred by
precipices. When, however, one has reached the top, the ground is a rich
soil, smooth, and with easy roads, fair pastures, parks planted with trees and
all kinds of herbs. Fountains spring out from the crags; there are quiet
pools, rushing rivers with masses of broken water, and, what is strangest of
all, the crops and fruit-trees on this mountain produce twice as much as any
other part of Libya. Such is the mountain of Aurasium, which was
originally held by the Vandals, whom the Moors dispossessed, and dwelt
there until the Emperor Justinian drove them out and annexed it to the
Roman Empire. To prevent the barbarians returning thither and doing
mischief, he fortified the cities in the neighbourhood of this mountain,
which he found deserted and without walls; and having, besides them, built
two forts, and established there a sufficient garrison of soldiers, he left the
barbarians of that country no hope of making a successful attack upon
Aurasius. He also built impregnable fortifications in the remainder of
Numidia. These were his works in this country.
There is a city in the island of Sardo, which is now called Sardinia, which
the Romans call the Fort of Trajan; this Justinian enclosed with a wall,
which it did not formerly possess.
Near Gades, by one of the pillars of Hercules, on the right hand, on the
shore of Libya, was once a fort named Septon,[130] which had been built by
the Romans in ancient times, but had been neglected by the Vandals and had
perished through age. This place our Emperor Justinian made strong by a
wall and a garrison. In it also he built a noble church dedicated to the
Virgin, thus dedicating to her the beginning of the empire, and rendering
this fort impregnable to all mankind in that quarter.
So much for this. No one can any longer doubt, but it is now clear to all
mankind that the Emperor Justinian strengthened the empire, not only with
fortifications, but also with garrisons, from the eastern frontier to the setting
sun, which are the limits of the Roman dominion. Such of the buildings of

Justinian as I have been able to discover, either by having seen them myself,
or by hearing them described by those who have seen them, I have as far as
I am able described in this work; but I am well aware that I have omitted to
speak of many others, which have either escaped my notice by their great
number or remain altogether unknown to me; so that anyone who turns his
attention to searching them all out and describing them in a book will have
the advantage of having performed a useful work, and will gain for himself
the reputation of a man of taste.

APPENDIX I.
Procopius’s description of Justinian’s work at Constantinople is so full
and detailed that it would appear to be complete. But it omits one church
built by the Emperor, viz., that of the Saviour, to which was attached the
Monastery of the Chora, now known as the Mosque Kahireh, or Kahriyeh.
The history of this church is thus given in Ducange:
‘Chora seu Χώρα monasterium ita appellatum, condiderat Justinianus et
cum præ vetustate concidisset aliud a fundamentis extruxit Alexii
Imperatoris socrus Andronici Ducæ conjux.
‘Denique cum ruinam rursum minaretur, illud reædificavit Theodorus
Metochita Magnus Logotheta, imperante Andronico Palæologo Seniore.
‘Hæc omnia sic narrat Nicephorus Gregoras, lib. ix.: “Divertit e regione
et in vicinia (domus suæ) in sacro scilicet Choræ Monasterio, quod ipse
magnis ante sumptibus vetustate ruinosum instauravat. Exstructum enim
olim fuerat a Justiniano Imperatore forma oblonga: deinde cum vetustate
usque ad ima concidisset, aliud a fundamentis templum, ea qua nunc forma
cernitur, Alexii Comneni Imperatoris socrus condidit sed cum rursus ruinam
minitaretur, hic medio templo excepto, omnia liberali manu pene
instauravit. Metochitam hujus monasterii instauratorem rursus prædicat, lib.
viii.”’—Ducange, iv., p. 126.
An inscription over the south door of the church states that the monastery
was outside the walls of Constantine; that the church was rebuilt by
Justinian; again, from its foundations, in the time of Alexis Komnenos; and
again rebuilt by Theodore the Metochite.

SKETCH PLAN

The well-known antiquary, Mons. Texier, describes it thus in a detailed
MS. account of ‘Constantinople,’ fol. n. d., in the library of the R. Institute
of Architects:
‘Kahrije, corruption du Grec της χωρας.
‘Le premier fondateur de cette église fut Justinian; et Theodore
Metochite, grand chancelier des Autels d’Andronice Paléologue n’en fut
que le rénovateur. Le cloître est souvent cité dans les auteurs Byzantines
comme lieu d’exil pour les religieux, et au dernier temps de l’empire on
conserva dans l’église le portrait célèbre de la Madone qui avait été peint
par St. Luke.’ A description of it is also given in Salzenberg’s ‘Alt-
Christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinopel’ (Berlin, 1854), p. 36.
The latest account is given by the Rev. Charles G. Curtis, in the
‘Encyclopædia Britannica,’ 9th edition, s.v. ‘Constantinople:’

‘The monastery to which this church of the Saviour belonged was Μονὴ
τῆς χώρας, or, as we say, “in the fields.” This was an ancient establishment,
and its church, the oldest church in the city, dates from the third century.
‘A gem of beauty still, even in its decay, rich with mosaic of the
fourteenth century, of a style purer and more refined than that which is more
often seen and admired at Ravenna and Palermo. In this church alternately
with the Hodegetria was kept the Holy Robe of the Virgin, which was wont
to be carried in procession when the walls were threatened.’ The sketch-
plan engraved was made by T. H. L. in 1884. An elevation of the exterior is
given in C. Daly’s ‘Revue’ (1840), p. 13. (L.)

APPENDIX II.
Church of the Virgin, Jerusalem:
The description by Procopius of this church is very detailed; but the great
alterations and destruction of buildings throughout the Harem area since his
time make it extremely difficult to arrive at a correct understanding of his
account, or to identify any portion of the church with existing buildings. It
is usually supposed to have occupied the site of the present Mosque El
Aksa, the entrances to which the Duc de Vogüé believes to be remains of
Justinian’s church.
The questions as to the church are involved, to a considerable extent,
with those relating to the date and authorship of the Dome of the Rock,
which has usually been assigned to the Caleph Abd-el-Melek; but the late
Mr. Fergusson, whose great architectural knowledge is undisputed,
maintained that it was no other than Constantine’s Church of the Holy
Sepulchre, and that the church described by Procopius was not on the site of
El Aksa, but at the eastern angle of the temple area, and now utterly
destroyed.
The subject, already sufficiently complicated, has been rendered still
more so by a theory brought forward in 1882, by the well-known Professor
Sepp, to the effect that the Dome of the Rock was not constructed by
Constantine nor by Abd-el-Melek, but by Justinian.
The question is much more difficult to decide than may at first sight
appear; and I confess that after having, for some years past, carefully
collected the various documents on the subject, including the valuable
translations published by my friend the late Professor Palmer, of Arabic
historians, and having subsequently visited Jerusalem and studied the
subject on the spot, with the kind assistance of Dr. Chaplin and others, I
find that there are so many points to be cleared up, that I should not like to
offer a definite opinion on the several disputed points until after another
visit, which I hope to make shortly, to Jerusalem. My present views, so far
as I may venture to put them forward, are in accordance with those of De

Vogüé, Sir C. Warren and Captain Conder, viz., that the Dome of the Rock
was built by Abd-el-Melek. (L.)

INDEX.
A.
Abbot Romanus, Church of the, 147
Abbot Joannes, Church of the, 148
Abbot Zacharia, Monastery of, 148
Aborrhas, River, 54, 55, 57
Abydos, 121, 128
Acacius, Church of, 22
Acarnania, 93
Ad Aquas, 111
Adana, 137
Adina, 113
Adriatic Sea, 90
Adrianopolis, 93
Adrumetus, 163
Aëdabe, 112
Ægean Sea, 24
Ægistum, 114
Ænus, 121, 122
Ætolia, 93
Agriolodes, Monastery of, 155
El Aksa, 140
Alexandria, 128, 152, 153
Almus, 111
Almyris, 114
Albinum, 113
Alustus, 88
Amasea, 86
Amida, 40, 51, 53, 73, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82
Ammodius, 45
Anaplus, 24, 29, 30, 31
Anastasiopolis, 122

Anchialus, 89
Annucas, 57
Antiphorus, 59
Antipyrgum, 154
Antiochia, 68, 69, 70, 71, 136
Ant, the, 116
Antoninus, Baths of, 131, 132
Apadnæ, Monastery of, 151
Apadnæ, 53
Apamea, 151
Aphelius, Monastery of, 148
Apostles, Church of, 20
Artaleson, 80
Archangel, Temple of the, 33
Arcadius, 15
Arcadius, Baths of, 36
Arcon, 81
Argyronium, 33
Armenia, Lesser, 81
Armenia, 28, 73, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 89
Armenia, Greater, 74, 75, 79, 82
Armata, 111
Arxanes, 77
Asia, 25
Asthianene, 79
Atachæ, 53
Athyra, 116
Athens, 96, 98
Augusta, 112
Augila, 156
Augustæum, 13, 34
Aumetera, 165
Aurasius, Mount, 165

B.
Baga, 162

Baiberdon, 81
Baleæ, 96
Banasymeon, 53
Bara, 53
Barchon, 86
Barbalissus, 65
Batnæ, 61
Bederiana, 91, 92
Begadacum, Monastery of, 151
Belabitis, 76
Bellurus, 122
Bergonovore, 111
Bergus Altus, 111
Berenice, 154
Bethlehem, 148
Bidamas, 57
Bigrane, 111
Bismideon, 57
Bithynia, 129, 133, 134
Bizana, 81, 83, 84
Blachernæ, 16, 26
Black Gulf, 119
Bœotia, 96
Bononia, 111
Borium, 156, 157
Bosporus, 88
Bostra, in Phœnicia, 150
Brochi, 29
Byrthum, 53
Byzantium, 15, 16, 18, 20, 24, 26, 29, 31, 33, 38, 114, 117, 123, 129, 134, 145
Byzacium, 163, 164

C.
Cæsarea, 98, 135
Callipolis, 121
Callinicum, 57, 61, 64

Campses, 109
Candidiana, 113
Cantabazates, 109
Cappadocia, 135, 136
Caputvada, 164
Caput-bovis, 109
Carrhæ, 57, 61
Carthage, 161
Cassandria, 99
Castoria, Lake, 97
Castramartis, 112
Cebres, 111
Centauropolis, 98
Cena, 86
Ceras, Gulf of, 24
Chæreum, 152
Chalcis, 71, 72, 98
Chalce, The Palace of, 34, 35
Cherson, 88
Chora, Church of, 40
Chersonesus, 119, 120, 121
Ciberis, 121
Cidama, 158
Cilicia, 136, 138
Cimmerian Straits, 153
Ciphæ, Fort, 53
Circesium, 55, 57
Citharizon, 77, 79
Clisuræ, 79, 87, 96
Colonia, 81
Commagene, 61
Constantinople, 13, 34, 37, 40, 115, 118, 128
Constantina, 54
Corinth, 96
Coracii, 96

Corzane, 79
Corde, 45
Couriers’ Lodgings, 131
Cratiscara, 92
Crissæan Gulf, 93
Crispas, 111
Cucarizon, 81
Cululius, 165
Cupus, 109
Cydnus, River, 137, 138
Cyntodemus, 113
Cynton, 113
Cyprus, 151
Cyricum, 151
Cyrene, Monastery of, 151
Cyrus, 71, 72
Cyrene, City of, 153

D.
Dabanæ, 53
Dacia, 108, 109
Damascus, 110
Danube, River, 89, 91, 92, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114
Daphne, 113, 151
Dardani, 92
Daras, a village, 40, 41, 42, 43, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 83
Dausaron, 57
Demetrias, 97
Deuteron, 17
Dimarthion, Monastery of, 155
Diocletianopolis, 97
Ditch of Germanus, 81
Ditch of Longinus, 86
Dorostolus, 113
Doru, 88
Dorticum, 111

Draco, River, 130
Ducepratum, 109

E.
Echinæum, 97
Edessa, 57, 58, 59, 60, 145
Elæus, 119, 121
Ephesus, 127, 128
Epirus, 93
Epidamnus, 91
Episcopia, 116
Eryma, 112
Eubœa, Island, 98
Euphratesia, 65, 67
Euphrates, River, 53, 56, 61, 63, 64, 65, 75, 81, 82
Euripus, Strait of, 99
Europus, 65
Eurœa, 93
Eutropius, 39
Euxine Sea, 24, 29, 32, 86, 89, 153

F.
Forum of Constantine, 34, 35
Forty Martyrs, 81
Fort of the Emperors, 53
Fountain, The, 16
Forts, Lists of, 100-107, 123-126

G.
Gabula, 65
Gades, 166
Galatia, 134
Gerizim, 143, 144, 145, 146
Germana, 92
Girgis, 160
Golden Gate, 17, 33
Gomphi, 97

Gombes, 111
Greece, 93, 96, 98
Great Syrtes, 157

H.
Halicaniburgus, 111
Hebdomon, 23, 31
Hellespont, 119, 128, 133
Helena, 129
Hemerius, 65
Hera, Temple of, 17
Heraclea, 96, 118, 119
Hieriphthon, Fort, 53
Hieron, 33
Hiereum, 17
or
Heræum, 38, 39
Hierapolis, 66
Horn, The, 29
Hormisdas, 18, 34
House of Ares, 35
Huns, Fort of the, 112
Hypata, 96

I.
Iatron, 113
Iberians, Church of, 147
Ibida, 114
Illyria, 96, 110, 112, 113
Illyrisis, 79
Ionian Gulf, 90
Irene, Church of, 14, 27
Isauria, 151
Iscum, 112
Isidorus, 15
Isthmus of Corinth, 93

Ister, River, 108, 114
Italy, 36, 67, 88

J.
Jecundiana, 38
Jerusalem, 147
Jericho, Hospice at, 147
Joannes, Monastery of, 151
Jordan, Desert of, 147
Judæus, 111
Julian, Port, 23
Juliopolis, 134
Justinopolis, 92, 93
Justiniana Prima, 91
Justiniana Secunda, 92
Justiniana (Carthage), 162, 163

K.
King’s Palace, 18

L.
Laccobergus, 111
Laodicea, 151
Lapidaria, 112
Larissa, 98
Lazi, Church of the, 147
Lazica, 87
Lebanon, 73
Lederata, 109
Leontarium, 96
Leptis Magna, 158, 159
Libya, 36, 67, 127, 152, 153, 159, 161, 166
Litorata, 109
Longiniana, 111
Losorium, 87
Lucernariaburgum, 112
Lutararizon, 81

Lurnes, 53
Lysiormum, 81

M.
Macedon, 74, 99, 102
Mæotic Lake, 87, 88
Magne Kahireh, Church of, 168, 169
Magdalathum, Fort, 57
Mamma, 165
Mandracium (Harbour), 162
Marathon, 98
Mareburgus, 111
Maria, Lake, 152
Martyr Anthimus, Church of, 27
Martyr Eugenius (Aqueduct), 86
Martyr Menas, Church of, 33
Martyr Menæus, Church of, 33
Martyr Mocius, Church of, 23
Martyropolis, 51, 77, 78, 79
Martyr St. Pantelëemon, Church, 32
Martyr Thecla, Church of, 23
Martyr Thyssus, Church of, 23
Maxentius, 113
Maximianopolis, 122
Melitene, 28, 82
Mesopotamia, 53, 57, 61, 76
Metropolis, 97
Mocesus, 135
Mochadius, 33
Mocatiana, 111
Mopsuestia, 136
Mount Hæmus, 123
Mount Pelion, 98
Myropole, 96
Mysia, 114

N.
Naïsopolis, 92
Neapolis, 143, 144
Neocæsarea, 65, 67
New Epirus, 93, 100
Nicæa in Bithynia, 130
Nicomedia, 131
Nicopolis, 81, 93
Nile, River, 152, 153
Novæ, 109
Novum, 111
Numidia, 165
Nymphius, River, 77

O.
Octavum, 108
Old Epirus, 23
Onopnictes, 70
Onos, 111
Orocassias, 69, 70
Oronon, 85
Orontes, River, 68, 69
Osrhoëne, 61, 80

P.
Palmyra, 127
Pallene, Peninsula of, 99
Palestine, 72, 143, 147
Palmatis, 113
Palatiolum, 112
Pamphylia, 152
Pantalia, 92
Paratonium, 154
Peloponnesus, 97
Pentacomia, 65
Pentapolis, 153, 154, 155, 156

Peneus, River, 98
Persian Armenia, 85
Perga, 152
Persia, 51, 52
Perinthus, 118
Petra, 87
Petrius, 81
Pharsalus, 97
Phœnice, 93
Phœnicia, 73
Phasis in Colchis, River, 153
Phison, 79
Phiale, 152
Philippopolis, 123
Philæ, 57
Photica, 93
Phrygia, 133
Phthia, 98
Picnus, 109
Pityous, 87
Platanon, 136
Platæa, 96
Plotinopolis, 123
Pontem, 110
Pontes, 109, 110
Ponteserium, 111
Potidæa, 99
Ptolemais, 155
Proochthus, 29
Propontis, 36
Putedin, 111
Pyramus, River, 136
Pyramids, the, 40
Pythia, 134

Q.

Quesoris, 113
Quimedaba, 92

R.
Ratiaria, 111
Rhabdium, 51, 52
Rhœdestus, 119
Rhasis, 53
Rhegium, 115
Rhesias, 23
Rhecius, River, 99, 100
Rhipalthæ, 53
Rhizeum, 87
Rhodope Mountains, 122, 123
Ripensis, 109
Roman Empire, 29, 43, 54, 56, 85, 88, 94, 117, 146, 152
Rumisiana, 92

S.
Sabaratha, 160
Saccus, 96
Sakhra, es (Dome of the Rock), 139
Saltopyrgus, Fort, 11
Sangaris, River, 133
Saphchæ, 79
Sarmathe, Monastery of, 151
Sardica, 92
Sardo, Island (Sardinia), 166
Sarus, River, 137
Satala, 80
Sauræ, 53
Schamalinichon, 85, 86
Scirtus, River, 58
Scythia, 114
Sebastia, 81
Sebastopolis, 87, 88

Securisca, 113
Selybria, 118
Semiramis at Babylon, 10
Sergius and Bacchus, SS., 14, 18, 19
Sergiopolis, 65
Sergius, 65
Sestos, 121, 128
Siberis, River, 134
Sicibida, 112
Siletheus, Church of, 147
Sinæ, 53
Singedon, 109
Sinai, Mount (close to Red Sea), 146
Siphris, 53
Sisilisson, 86
Sisauranum, Fort, 52
Smargdis, 53
Smornes, 109
Sophanene, 77, 78, 79
St. Agathonicus, Church of, 23
Stauris, 70
St. Anne, Church of, 17
Stadium, 40
St. Bartholomew, Church of, 45, 51
SS. Cosmas and Damianus in Pamphylia, House of, 151
SS. Cosmas and Damianus, Church of, 26
St. Conon, Poor-house of, 151
St. Cyrillus, 114
St. Elisæus, Church of the Well of, 147
St. George the Martyr, Church of, 81
St. Gregorius, 147
Stiliburgus, 111
St. John, Church of, 151
St. John, Monastery of, 149, 151
St. John the Baptist, Church of, 30

St. James, Church of, 33
St. John the Apostle, Church of, 127
St. Laurentius the Martyr, Church of, 26
St. Leontius, House of, 150
St. Marox, 151
St. Michael the Archangel, Church to (Antioch), 71
St. Michael, Poor-house of, 152
St. Michael the Archangel, at Byzantium, Church of, 17, 29, 31, 134
St. Mary, Church of, 147
Stork, the, 33
St. Phoca, Monastery of, 150
St. Plato the Martyr, Church of, 23
SS. Priscus and Nicolaus, Church of, 26
SS. Peter and Paul, 18
St. Pantelëemon, 147
St. Romanus, Poor-house of, 151
St. Sergius, Monastery of, 149
St. Samuel, Monastery of, 148
St. Sophia, Church of, 4, 11, 14, 15, 21, 34, 51
St. Theodorus, Church of, 23
St. Theodota, 23
St. Tryphon, Church of, 33
St. Thalelæus, 147
Suri, 64
Susanna, Monastery of, 148
Susiana, 111
Sycæ, 25, 134
Sycidaba, 113
Syria, 71, 72, 73
Syrtis the Lesser, 160, 161

T.
Tacapa, 160
Tanatas, 109
Tanaïs, River, 153
Taphosiris, 153

Tarsus, 137
Tauri, 88
Tauroscythi, 88
Tauresium, 91
Telepta, 165
Tenedos, Island of, 128, 129
Tetrapyrgia, or the Four Towers, 91
Teuchria, 154
Thannurium, 57
Theodotus, Monastery of, 151
Thelphrache, Monastery of, 151
Thescus, 121
Theopolis, 68, 136, 151
Theodosiopolis, 47, 79, 81, 82, 83
Thermopylæ, 94, 95, 96, 97
Thessalonica, 99
Thebes, 97
Theodosiopolis, 47, 54, 57
Themeres, 57
Theodora, 110
Theodora, Baths of, 162
Theodoropolis, City, 113
Theodoropolis, Fort, 111
Thiolla, 57
Thrace, 89, 112, 114, 117, 119, 120
Tigas, 113
Tigris, River, 74
Tilicion, 114
Timena, 111
Toperus, 123
Trajanopolis, 122
Transmarisca, 113
Trapezus, 86, 87
Tripolis, 157, 159, 161
Tricattus, 97

Tricesa, Fort, 111
Tucca, 163
Tzanzakon, 86
Tzumina, 84

U.
Ulmiton, 114
Ulpiana, 92
Unnum, 96
Utos, 112

V.
Valeriana, 112
Variana, 112
Vernes, 109
Viminacium, 109
Virgin, at Porphyreon, House of the, 150
Virgin, at Jericho, Church of the, 147
Virgin, Church of the, 143
Virgin Mary, Church of, 15, 16, 26, 31

W.
Watchtower, 44

Z.
Zamarthas, 57
Zanes, 109
Zebinus, Monastery of, 151
Zenobia, 62, 63, 64
Zetnocortum, 112
Zeugma, 67
Zeuxippus, Baths of, 34

THE END.
BILLING & SONS, PRINTERS, GUILDFORD.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] ‘A new era for Christian architecture commenced with his reign. The
historian Procopius has simplified, in the different provinces of his Eastern
empire, the task to those who would search for vestiges of buildings erected by
this Prince. Anthemius was selected by him as his architect, and the Church of
St. Sophia became the type of all the Greek churches from the sixth century. The
basilica was, until his time, the type of the Christian church. Anthemius
abandoned this form. The chief feature of the church was the dome, the form of
the oblong nave being abandoned.’—Texier and Pullan, ‘Byzantine
Architecture’ (fol., London, 1864), p. 20. (L.)
[2] There is a pun in the original upon παιδιά and παιδέια. Cf. Gibbon, ch. xl.
(S.)
[3] ‘Taken altogether, there is no building erected during the first thirteen
centuries after the Christian era which, as an interior, is either so beautiful or so
worthy of attentive study as this.’—Fergusson, ‘Handbook of Architecture’
(8vo., London, 1855), p. 951. (L.)
In addition to Procopius, the erection of St. Sophia has been described by
Agathias, and at much greater length by Paulus Silentiarius, and the three
descriptions have been compared and analyzed in the ‘Corpus Historiæ
Byzantinæ,’ s.v. Paulus Silentiarius. (L.)
A full description of St. Sophia with plans, sections, and detailed drawings of
the mosaics, sculpture, etc., is given by Salzenburg in his splendid work ‘Alt
Christliche von Constantinopel’ (Berlin, 1854). (L.)
[4] ‘The solid piles which sustained the cupola were composed of huge blocks
of freestone, hewn into squares and triangles, fortified by circles of iron, and
firmly cemented by the infusion of lead and quicklime.’—Gibbon, ch. xl. (S.)
[5] ‘Nine western doors open into the vestibule, and from thence into the
narthex or exterior portico. That portico was the humble station of the penitents.
The nave, or body of the church, was filled by the congregation of the faithful;
but the two sexes were prudently distinguished, and the upper and lower
galleries were allotted for the more private devotion of the women.’—Gibbon,
ch. xl. (S.)
[6] Λώρους. I am unacquainted with the precise meaning of this word.
Ducange, in his ‘Glossary,’ describes ΛΩΡΟΣ as ‘Fornix,’ ‘arcus,’ Ἁψίς, quoting
Procopius. But this gives no definite information; nor, after consulting with
several well-known authorities on this subject, can I find that the application of
the term is now known. It is not alluded to either in Britton’s ‘Dictionary,’ or
Willis’s ‘Nomenclature of the Middle Ages.’ From the context and Ducange’s
use of the word ἅψις, I presume that λῶρος is applied to the great arch forming
the opening of an apse. (L.)
[7] Hom. Il., xxii. 27. (S.)
[8] ‘St. Irene templum a Constantino M. extructum—tres sacras ædes.
Deiparæ scilicet, St. Theodori et St. Irenes, eidem magnæ ecclesiæ unitas fuisse,
neque proprium clerum habuisse, qui in iis sacra ministeria perageret.‘ ‘Unde
cum Sophianæ ædis appendix fuerit, intra ejusdem septa ædificata dicitur.’

‘Denique concussa est ipsa ædes eo terræ motu qui accidit Leone Isauro
regnante. Hodie intra septum regium includi.’—Ducange, ‘Byzantinæ Historiæ
Scriptoribus Constantinopolis Christiana’ (Venice, fol., 1729), lib. iv., p. 102.
Rebuilt, in part at all events, by Justinian late in his reign, but in a style
entirely different from that of St. Sophia or SS. Sergius and Bacchus, being
oblong on plan, with aisles and an apse at the east end. This apse was cleared in
1881. Mr. Edwin Freshfield, who visited the church at that time, states that he
‘found that it was filled with marble benches, or steps, somewhat similar to the
Church of Torcello, near Venice. There is no doubt that they formed part of the
original arrangement of the church, and that this was due to its being the
Patriarchal church.’—Athenæum, 15th August, 1885. (L.)
[9] Ædes sacræ Deiparæ dicatæ. Deiparæ Blachernarum. Ædem vero
Deiparæ Blachernianam a Pulcheria Augusta primum ædificatam scribunt
passim scriptores Byzantini. Hanc postmodum de novo instauravit Justinus
senior (V. Procopius de Ædifs., lib. i., c. iii.). Denique solo tenus incensum
fuisse sub Romano Diogene, restauratum postmodum, novis ornamentis et nova
ædificiorum accessione auxit mire Andronicus senior.—Ducange, lib. iv., pp, 55,
56. (L.)
[10] ‘Deuterum, Δεύτερον, locus et tractus urbis ita appellatus occurrit sæpe
apud scriptores Byzantinos qui in eo ædes sacras Stæ. Annas, Sti. Georgii, St.
Pauli et SS. Notariorum extitisse narrant.—Procopius scribens haud procul a St.
Annæ æde in Deutero aliam ædificasse Justinianum Zoæ Martyri, ad ultimam
urbis plateam.—Porro Deuterum dictum fuisse, quod secundo milliari a vetere
Byzantio dissitum esset.’—Ducange, lib. ii., p. 133. (L.)
[11] ‘Templum quod Αρχαγγέδον et τὰ Στείρου appellatum fuit, id nominis
sortitum eit, a Patricia quadam sterili, Leone M. Impr. Quum autem esset
parvum oratorium ampliorem ædem ibi excitavit Judinianus M. quam terræ
motu collapsam instauravit Basilius Macedo, qui insuper ablatam ex Strategio
Phialam æream illuc transposuit. Observat porro Maltratus in margine Procopii
περὶ τοῦ ναοῦ τοῦ αὐτομάτου ἐν τῷ Σενατορίῳ—unde colligitur regionem in qua
hæc ædes extructa fuit senatorii nomine donatam.’—Ducange, lib. iv., p. 66. (S.)
[12] ‘Assumptus ille in Hormisdas SS. Sergii et Bacchi Monasterio quod
Palatio adjacet.’—Ducange, lib. iv., p. 93.
[13] ‘Juxta Hormisdæ palatium, ubi priusquam imperium adeptus esset
habitabat Justinianus. Hormisdæ monasterium nuncupatur. Quippe ad Hormisdæ
palatium, quod Imperator factus magno Palatio adjunxit, bina excitavit templa,
quæ a latere cohærebant, et vestibulorum porticus, atria et propylea communia
habebant. Cumque pari invicem decore ac magnitudine essent, in hoc tamen
differebant, quod hujus directa esset longitudo, illius vero columnæ in
semicirculum dispositæ essent fere omnes, priorem ædem SS. Petro et SS.
Paulo, alteram SS. Sergio et Baccho dicavit.’—Ducange, lib. iv., p. 93. (L.)
One of the most interesting buildings in Constantinople. It is rightly called the
Little Agia Sofia, as it was the first essay of Justinian, before he became
Emperor, in the style of which the Great Church was to be the glory. I make no
doubt that Anthemius of Tralles was the architect, and the building has in it
many of the peculiarities of the Church Agia Sofia. It is further interesting as

having furnished the model for the Church of St. Vitale at Ravenna, some of the
details in the latter church being also copied from the Kutchuk Agia Sofia. This
church was dedicated to SS. Sergius and Bacchus.—Mr. Edwin Freshfield, in
Athenæum, August 15, 1885, p. 217. (L.)
[14] νἁρθηξ = a reed. (S.)
[15] ‘Sanctorum apostolorum templum, omnium quæ in urbe extiterunt, post
Sophianum celeberrimum et pulcherrimum extruxit Constantinus Magnus, ut in
eo Imperatores Christiani post obitum humarentur.’—V. Eusebius, lib. iv., de
Vita Consti., c. 58; Ducange, lib. iv., p. 71.
Constantine erected it. The walls were covered with marble from pavement to
roof; the nave was ceiled, and the dome, as well as the roof, was covered with
plates of brass. Constantine caused his tomb to be erected in the centre of the
church. It was damaged by an earthquake soon after its erection, but was
repaired by Justinian.—Texier and Pullan, p. 12.
In 1038 a.d., the Church of the Apostles suffered terribly in an earthquake,
and was pulled down by Mohammed II.—Texier and Pullan, ‘Byzantine
Architecture,’ fol. 1864, p. 161. (L.)
[16] ‘S. Acacii qui martyrium passus est Byzantii sub Diocletiano, ædem
ædificavit in Heptascalo Constantinus Magnus. Ædis situm eundem designant
Menæa, ad 4 Junii. Ecclesiam S. Acacii conditam quidem a Constantino Magno,
sed illius nomen ædi primum imposuisse Justinianum. Justinianus autem hanc a
fundamentis instauravit, disjecta priore æde. Denique cum rursum ruinam
minaretur de novo instauratum est a Basilio Macedone.’—Ducange, lib. iv., pp.
80, 81. (L.)
[17] ‘S. Platonis ædes ab Anastasio Dicoro primum ædificata est, qui in eam
decem columnas sculptas ex Thessalonica intulit, quarum duæ in Chalceno a
Lacapeno postea translatæ sunt. De novo instauratam a Justiniano. At cum
postmodum illius tectum laboraret, novum confecit, murosque quibus
incumbebat, firmiores reddidit Basilius Macedo.’—Ducange, lib. iv., p. 92.
[18] ‘S. Mocii Martyris templum, a Constantino Magno ædificatum. Codinus
ait non de novo ædificatam fuisse a Constantino sed cum fanum esset deorum,
illud expurgasse, dejectes simulacris ac idolis.’—Ducange, lib. iv., p. 89.
[19] This church is on the same plan as that of Myra.—V. Fergusson, p. 966.
(L.)
[20] ‘S. Agathonici templum forma dromica ædificatum a Constantino
Magno. Deinde in Angustiorem formam excitatum a Justiniano. Patriarches
sedisse, coronatosque Imperatores quatuor, tandemque in Magno Palatio, cui
adjacebat, inclusum sub Tiberio Mauricii socero.’—Ducange, lib. iv., p. 81. (L.)
[21] Κέρας = horn. (S.)
[22] Συκαί = fig-trees. (S.)
[23] The very ancient church at Ratisbon, known as the ‘Alter Dom,’ or
‘Stephan’s Kirchlein,’ is believed to have been originally built without windows.

(S.)
[24] ‘St. Irene Martyris templum, ultra ædem S. Anthimi, ad ipsum Sinus
Ostium ædificavit Justinianus. Verum S. Irenes ædis Sycænæ, seu Sycis
proximæ, non fuit conditor Justinianus sed instaurator.’—Ducange, lib. iv., p.
103. (L.)
[25] Near the village of Kourou, Cheshmeh.—Murray’s ‘Guide to Turkey and
Asia Minor,’ etc., 1878, p. 106. (L.)
[26] ‘S. Michaelis templum in Anaplo ædificavit Constantinus Magnus. Cum
vero Anaplus proprie dicatur littus Bospori Europæanum, ut alibi indicatum,
locum distinctius designat Cedrenus, ἐν τῷ Ἀναπλῳ καὶ Σωσθενίῳ. Ædem S.
Michaelis Sosthenianam de novo et a fundamentis instauravit Justinianus
Magnus ut et alteram quam in opposito littore Asiatico ab eodem Constantino
Magno ædificatam narrat Nicephorus.’—Ducange, lib. iv., pp. 130, 131. (L.)
[27] ‘Joannis Baptistæ in Hebdomo templum excitavit Theodosius Magnus et
in eo nuper inventum, et in urbem allatum caput sancti Præcursoris reposuit
rotundo tecto Theodosius Magnus condidit. A Justiniano excitatam, seu potius
instauratam prodit Procopius. Denique hanc rursum instauravit Basilius Macedo.
Ea in latere ad solis ortum pertinente sita est, a Turcis maxima ex parte diruta,
ubi aliquot columnæ marmoreæ extremam rapinam metuentes supersunt, sed
paucæ ex multis ablatis. Quam, autem illa sumptuosa fuisset cum alia vestigia
indicant, tum cisterna Boni paulò supra eam sita, longa 300 passus, columnis et
concameratione spoliata, in qua nunc horti virent.’—Ducange, lib. iv., pp. 68,
69. Cisternam Boni. Cameris cylindricis tectam, extruxit Bonus Patricius et
Magister cui Heraclius Imp., contra Persas profecturus, urbis custodiam
commisit.’—Ducange, lib. i., p. 80. (L.)
[28] ‘Some ruins of this still remain near Fort Yousha, on the Asiatic shore of
the Bosphorus.’—Murray’s ‘Guide,’ p. 118. (L.)
[29] ‘SS. Menæ et Menæi Martyrum ædem excitavit in Hebdomo
Justinianus.’—Ducange, lib. iv., p. 88. (S.)
[30] ‘The finest marbles were taken from the Baths of Zeuxippus, and used by
Mahomet II. for building his Mosque, etc.’—V. Texier and Pullan, p. 161. (L.)
[31] ‘The dome of a spacious quadrangle was supported on massy pillars; the
pavement and walls encrusted with many coloured marbles—the emerald green
of Laconia, the fiery red, and the white Phrygian stone, intersected with veins of
a sea-green hue: the Mosaic paintings of the dome and sides represented the
glories of the African and Italian triumphs.’—Gibbon, ch. xl. (S.)
[32] ‘On the Asiatic shore of the Propontis, at a small distance to the east of
Chalcedon, the costly palace and gardens of Heræum were prepared for the
summer residence of Justinian, and more especially of Theodora.’—Gibbon, ch.
xl. (S.)
[33] Now Diarbekr, on the Tigris, about twelve miles from Nisebin.
[34] ‘Military architecture had a special character during the reign of
Justinian, and his successors departed but little from the principles laid down by

the engineers of his time. The walls were flanked with towers, usually round.
The most commanding part was occupied by a square redoubt defended at the
angles by towers. The gates were protected by an advanced work. The
fortifications of many towns in Mesopotamia, e.g. Edessa, date from the time of
Justinian, and are constructed on the same principle.’—Abridged from Texier
and Pullan, pp. 23, 24. (L.)
[35] ‘The fortifications of Dara were almost entirely rebuilt by the Emperor
Anastasius, a.d. 503. Hastily constructed, they fell into ruins in a few years.
Justinian rebuilt the town, a.d. 537. The line of its ramparts, which were built of
large blocks of limestone, can be traced throughout, certain portions being still
30 feet high.’—Abridged from Texier and Pullan, p. 53. (L.)
[36] ‘The fortifications of Dara,’ says Gibbon, ‘may represent the military
architecture of the age. The city was surrounded by two walls, and the interval
between them, of fifty paces, afforded a retreat to the cattle of the besieged. The
inner wall was a monument of strength and beauty: it measured sixty feet from
the ground, and the height of the towers was one hundred feet; the loopholes,
from whence an enemy might be annoyed with missile weapons, were small, but
numerous; the soldiers were placed along the rampart, under the shelter of
double galleries, and a third platform, spacious and secure, was raised on the
summit of the towers. The exterior wall seems to have been less lofty, but more
solid; and each tower was protected by a quadrangular bulwark. A hard rocky
soil resisted the tools of the miners, and on the south-east, where the ground was
more tractable, their approach was retarded by a new work, which advanced in
the shape of a half-moon. The double and treble ditches were filled with a stream
of water; and in the management of the river, the most skilful labour was
employed to supply the inhabitants, to distress the besiegers, and to prevent the
mischiefs of a natural or artificial inundation.’—Gibbon, ch. xl. (S.) See Note,
page 58.
[37] ‘The Church of Dara is in a perfect state of preservation owing to the
extreme solidity of its construction—a parallelogram 97·6 by 68·3. In the
interior, the nave, with the adjoining chapels, forms a perfect square. A building
adjoining, supposed to have been the baptistry, is ruined. Mr. Ainsworth says
there are seven or eight churches in the town.’—Texier and Pullan, p. 52.
[38] Rabdium, near Jezireh-ibn-Omar. A fine old castle. ‘This appears to be
the Rabdium of the Byzantines. The remains of an ancient bridge are seen
crossing the Tigris at a short distance.’—Chesney’s ‘Euphrates.’ (L.)
[39] Mejafarkîn, north-east of Diarbekr. (W.)
[40] Founded by Theodosius II. V. ‘De Bello Persico,’ i. 10.—Gibbon. (S.)
Now probably Ras el ‘Ain on the Khabûr. (W.)
[41] River Aborrhas. The Chaboras at the juncture of the Khabûr and the
Euphrates: the Chaboras of Ptolemy and Pliny and probably the Araxes of
Xenophon; now the Khabûr. (W.)
[42] ‘Circesium, the last Roman station on the Euphrates.’—Gibbon, ch. xl.
(S.) Now Kirkisiah at the juncture of the Khabûr and the Euphrates. (W.)

[43] ‘La fortification byzantine se composait de plusieurs parties qui
correspondent du vallum, agger, et mænium des fortifications Romaines. C’est le
τεῖχος, le mur ou la courtine, sur la face de laquelle s’élèvent les tours; en avant
de ce mur s’élève le mur du parapet, première defense de la courtine,
προτείχισμα. Ce mur est espacé (du τεῖχος) de la courtine d’un quart environ de
la hauteur totale. L’espace compris entre ces deux murs est le péribole
(περίβολος), le chemin couvert. Ce mot est appliqué aussi au chemin interieur de
l’agger qui longe le fossé (τάφρος). L’agger, qui se compose des terres du fossé,
est soutenu par un mur, quelquefois flanqué de tours, qui est le ἀντιτείχισμα, mur
de l’avant rempart. Les tours (πύργοι), sont appliquées a l’une et l’autre
murailles. La courtine est surmontée d’un parapet. C’est la partie du remparts
qui porte le nom de ἐπιτείχισμα, muraille supérieure: sur cette muraille sont
placés les creneaux, ἐπάλζεις, qui sont quelquefois réunis par un mur dans la
partie supérieure, et forment des espèces de barbacanes, θυρίδαι, pour lancer les
traits. Le creneau etait quelquefois surmonté d’un pyramidion, d’autres fois il
etait fendu par un encoche pour appuyer le trait.
‘On ne saurait doubter que la ville d’Edesse n’eut été munie d’un double
rempart; car ces deux parties, προτείχισμα et περίβολος, sont specialement
mentionnées par Procope dans la relation du siège d’Edesse. C’est la muraille
extérieure, ἑκτὸς τεῖχος, qui soutient l’agger, et par conséquent forme le chemin
couvert, ὁ μέγας περίβολος.’—Texier, ‘Monographe sur l’Edesse.’ (S.) It is now
Urfa. (W.)
[44] ‘The text (Procopius) is so conformable to the topography of the town,
that it would appear to have been written on the spot.
‘We do not find, near the banks of the river, any vestige of the hippodrome
mentioned by Procopius in “De Bello Persico,” book i., ch. xii. (L.) ‘A stranger
is struck by the imposing aspect of the ancient castle; the same which was
constructed by Justinian. Its form is that of a parallelogram, 400 by 200 yards,
defended by several square and two large semi-octagonal towers. The capitals of
the two Corinthian columns are surmounted by blocks of stone which show that
they were intended to have some further decoration—probably the statues of
Justinian and Theodora.—The diameter of each column is nearly two yards.’—
Texier and Pullan, pp. 181-184.
‘In Smith’s “Dict. of Geog.,” it is stated that as late as 1184, there were fifteen
large churches, which fell into the hands of the Saracens. It was deserted in
1285.
[45] Carrhæ (now Harran), a few miles south of Edessa.
[46] Callinicum, on the Euphrates, and marked on the map as ‘or
Nicephorium,’ at the junction with the river Bilecha (Bilek). (L.)
[47] ‘On voit que l’historien Grec donne indistinctement à cette place les
noms de Βάτνη au singulier, et Βάτναι au pluriel ... La table de Peutinger donne
le nom Batna. Ce qui m’a surtout frappé dans cette localité, ce sont les vastes
carrières qui ont dû fournir à une exploitation considerable. Une grande partie
des materiaux qui ont servi aux constructions d’Edesse en à sans doubte été
tirée.’—‘Edesse et ses Monuments,’ par Ch. Texier, Membre de l’Institut, Paris,
1859. (S.)

[48] ‘The ruins present the form of an acute triangle, having its base resting on
the river, whilst its sides climb the acclivity of a conical hill, and terminate at its
summit in a small Acropolis. It was defended by walls flanked by strong towers,
which, as well as the public and private buildings, were all constructed of fine
gypsum (which abounds along the Euphrates), and are as sharp and fresh as if
they had recently been built.’—‘Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition,’ p. 247,
by F. R. Chesney, London, 1868. 8vo. (L.)
[49] Suri (now Surieh), a few miles west of Callinicum. (W.)
[50] Is this the same as Tetrapyrgia, where St. Sergius was buried? (W.)
[51] Barbalissus (now Kala), at Balis, on the Euphrates. See Ant. Mart., ‘Itin.,’
xlvii. (W.)
[52] On the Euphrates, now probably Jerablûs, supposed by some to be the
site of Carchemish. (W.)
[53] Hierapolis (Bambych), formerly the capital of Euphratesia, on west of
Euphrates, between Antioch and Edessa. ‘Has no records of its ancient greatness
but its walls, which may be traced all round; cannot be less than three miles in
compass ... with towers of large square stone, extremely well built. A deep pit of
about 100 yards diameter seemed to have had great buildings all round it, with
the pillars and ruins of which it is now in part filled up, but not so much but that
there was still water in it. Here are a multitude of subterraneous aqueducts
brought to this city. You can ride nowhere about the city without seeing them.’—
Maundrell’s ‘Journey from Aleppo to Euphrates,’ Bohn’s edition, 8vo., p. 507,
1848. (L.)
Hierapolis (Bambij, or Membij). The whole place is now a mass of ruin, but
the outlines of a theatre and stadium can be traced. The lake is now represented
by a deep circular pool, said to be always full of water. There are several springs
in the ruins, and water was also supplied by ‘Kariz,’ or underground channels.
Formerly a centre of great commercial importance; our word ‘bombazine’ comes
from Bambya. (W. MS. notes, 1881.)
[54] Zeugma, on the right bank of the Euphrates, opposite Biredjik. (W.)
[55] Antiochia, now Antâkieh, founded by Seleucus Nicator. Having been
nearly ruined by an earthquake it was almost rebuilt by Justinian, and called by
him Theodopolis. In a.d. 1163, it is described by Benjamin of Tudela as a large
city very strongly fortified, ‘overlooked by a very high mountain; a wall
surrounds this height, on the summit of which is situated a well. The inspector of
the well distributes the water by subterranean aqueducts, and thus provides the
houses of the principal inhabitants of the city. The other side of the city is
surrounded by the river.’ A plan of the city is given under ‘Antioch’ in Smith’s
‘Dict. of Antiquities.’
‘The city (the modern Antakieh) covers but a small part of the ground
occupied by the ancient city, though it still contains fourteen mosques.
‘The population in 1836 was under 6,000.
‘The walls of the ancient city are comparatively perfect.

‘From the Acropolis the wall has been carried down the almost vertical face of
the cliff, and after crossing the valley, is made to ascend the opposite steep hill in
a zigzag and extraordinary manner.
‘At the steepest part of the hills these walls necessarily become a succession
of gigantic steps between the towers, which, at some places, are close to one
another.’—‘Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition,’ p. 189, by J. R. Chesney,
London, 1868. (L.)
[56] ‘Cyrus, dans la Syrie. Procope rapporte que celle ville fut fondée par les
Juifs. C’est la ville Cyrrhus de Ptolemée dont il fait la capitale de la
Cyrrhestique. Elle était à 2 journées d’Antioche. Ou la nomine aussi
Cyrrhus.’—‘Encyclopédie Méthodique,’ ‘Géographie Ancienne,’ Paris, 1787.
(L.) It is now Chorres, north-west of Aleppo. (W.)
[57] ‘Chalcis, between Beyrout and Damascus, where there are ruins of the
old city, surrounded by a prostrate wall. Two or three miserable hovels are now
the only representatives of a royal city.’—Porter’s (Murray’s) ‘Syria and
Palestine,’ 1875, p. 515. (L.) Is not the Northern Chalcis (now Kinnesrin), south-
west of Aleppo, intended? It is mentioned in ‘Itin.,’ Ant., also in Ant. Mart.,
‘Itin.’ (W.)
[58] ‘Martyropolis, near the River Nymphæus. Tradition says that it was
founded towards the end of the fifth century by Bishop Maroutha, who there
collected the relics of all the martyrs which could be found in Armenia, Persia
and Syria. It was the capital of Roman Armenia, now Miafarékyn.’—Smith’s
‘Dict. of Geography.’ (L.)
[59] Citharizon, now probably Pâlû on the Murad Chai. (W.)
[60] Q.y. Autararizon.
[61] ‘Sebastia (Sivas) regarded by Pliny as not belonging to Pontus, but to
Cappadocia. Its ancient name is unknown. Pompey increased it, and called it
Megalopolis. Its walls were restored by Justinian: (Procopius). There are ruins of
two castles of different epochs. One appears to have belonged to the kings of
Pontus, strengthened by Romans and rebuilt by Mohammedans.’—Ainsworth’s
‘Journey’ in Chesney, p. 529. (L.)
[62] Nicopolis now Shabhin Kara Hissar. (W.)
[63] Melitene now Malatia. (W.)
[64] Trapezus now Trebizond. (W.)
[65] Amasea (Amasia). ‘Hamilton found two Hellenic towers of beautiful
construction on the heights. But the greater part of the walls now standing are
Byzantine or Turkish. (See “Researches in Assyria,” vol. ii., p. 16.) Hamilton
explored a passage cut in the rock, about 300 feet, to a small pool of clear cold
water.’—Chesney, p. 535. The tombs described by Strabo remain. They are
supposed to have been built by Mithridates.
[66] Rhizeum now Rizeh, to the east of Trebizond. (W.)
[67] This country was known to the Greeks and Romans as Colchis.

[68] A town of the Lazi or Colchis, founded by a general of Justinian to keep
the Lazi in subjection. Taken by Chosroes, 541; retaken, 551, by Romans and
destroyed. See Procopius, B. Per. and Bel. Got., and Gibbon. Its ruins are now
called Oudjenar. (L.)
‘The sole vestige of Petra subsists in the writings of Procopius and
Agathias.’—Gibbon, ch. xiii. (S.)
[69] Sea of Azof. (W.)
[70] Formerly Dioscurias, on eastern shore of Black Sea. (W.)
[71] Now Anchialo in Eastern Roumelia. (W.)
[72] ‘Under the name of Justiniana Prima, the obscure village of Tauresium
became the seat of an archbishop and a præfect, whose jurisdiction extended
over seven warlike provinces of Illyricum; and the corrupt appellation of
Giustendil still indicates, about twenty miles south of Sophia, the residence of a
Turkish sanjak.’—Gibbon, ch. xl. (S.)
[73] ‘From the edge of the seashore, through the forests and valleys, and as far
as the summit of the Thessalian Mountains, a strong wall was continued, which
occupied every practical entrance. Instead of a hasty crowd of peasants, a
garrison of 2,000 soldiers was stationed along the rampart; granaries of corn and
reservoirs of water were provided for their use; and by a precaution that inspired
the cowardice which it foresaw, convenient fortresses were erected for their
retreat.’—Gibbon, ch. xl. (S.)
[74] ‘Six hundred of these forts were built or repaired by the Emperor; but it
seems reasonable to believe, that the far greater part of them consisted only of a
brick or stone tower, in the midst of a square or circular area, which was
surrounded by a wall and ditch, and afforded in a moment of danger some
protection to the peasants and cattle of its neighbouring villages.’—Gibbon, ch.
xl. (S.)
[75] Singidonum, now Belgrade. (W.)
[76] ‘Strabo speaks of the “Iron Gate” as the place where the Danube ends
and the Ister begins. Trajan’s bridge, of twenty or twenty-two stone piers with
wooden arches, was built, a.d. 103, just below the rapids of the “Iron Gate,”
which grind to powder the ice-blocks of winter, and save the piers from the
shock which might otherwise destroy them.’—Murray’s ‘Handbook of Southern
Germany.’ (S.)
[77] Procopius here confounds the Mœsians of Europe with the Mysians of
Asia Minor. The passage alluded to is in Homer’s ‘Iliad,’ ii. 604. (S.)
[78] Mœsia.
[79] ‘The “long wall,” as it was emphatically styled, was a work as
disgraceful in the object, as it was respectable in the execution.... At the distance
of only forty miles from the capital, Anastasius was constrained to establish a
last frontier; his long wall of sixty miles, from the Propontis to the Euxine,
proclaimed the impotence of his arms; and as the danger became more

imminent, new fortifications were added by the indefatigable prudence of
Justinian.’—Gibbon, ch. xl. (S.)
[80] Selybria, now Silibri, on Sea of Marmora. (W.)
[81] Heraclea, now Eregli, on Sea of Marmora. (W.)
[82] Rhædestus, now Rodosto, on Sea of Marmora. (W.)
[83] Elæus, near the south-east extremity of the Gallipoli promontory,
opposite the plain of Troy. (W.)
[84] Callipolis, now Gallipoli. The wall was about on the line of the Gallipoli
lines so well known during the Crimean War. (W.)
[85] ‘In an age of freedom and valour, the slightest rampart may prevent a
surprise; and Procopius appears insensible of the superiority of ancient times,
while he praises the solid construction and double parapet of a wall, whose long
arms stretched on either side into the sea; but whose strength was deemed
insufficient to guard the Chersonesus, if each city, and particularly Gallipoli and
Sestus, had not been secured by their peculiar fortifications.’—Gibbon, ch. xl.
(S.)
[86] Ænus, now Enos, at the mouth of the Maritza. (W.)
[87] ‘Considerable remains of a church were found on the hill at Ayasalouk.
This was perhaps St. John’s Church, and was in existence when the Council was
held in 431. The Greeks have built for themselves a small church over the site of
an ancient Greek church, which was possibly the Church of St. John, as that was
known to have been built on a hill.’—‘Ephesus,’ by J. T. Wood, and Society of
Biblical Archæology (London, 1878), p. 332 and ‘Discoveries,’ p. 164.
‘St. John’s, at Ephesus, has been destroyed to its foundation. It was in the
form of a cross, with a dome at the intersection.’—Texier and Pullan, p. 22. (L.)
[88] Leake, ‘Tour in Asia Minor,’ p. 10.
[89] See Leake’s ‘Tour in Asia Minor,’ p. 10.
[90] See Leake’s ‘Tour in Asia Minor,’ pp. 8, 10. (S.)
At the south end of the lake (Arcania), beautifully situated, stood the ruined
towers of the famous Nicæa. Seldom have I had a harder day’s work than in
attempting to see and comprehend this ruin of ruins.
‘The grandeur and peculiar beauty of the arts amongst the earlier Greeks
cannot be concealed even in the broken materials.
‘Some parts of the walls are entirely Roman; in others the Cross, etc., give the
date of the earlier Christians. On three of the towers in the walls of the city are
three similar inscriptions. The sign of the Cross is prefixed to all three: “The
Tower of Michael, the Great King, Emperor in Christ.”’—‘Travels in Asia
Minor,’ by Sir C. Fellows (London, 1852), pp. 83, 85.
‘A very small church still stands within the present town, which, from its
mosaic floor and ceiling, may probably be of the date of St. Mark’s at Venice, or

rather of the Byzantine age.
‘Without the walls is a Roman aqueduct, which still supplies the town with
water from the neighbouring mountain.’—Ibid., p. 87. (L.)
[91] Nicomedia, now Ismid. (W.)
[92] Sangaris, now Sakarieh River. The bridge is now some distance from the
river, which has changed its course. (W.)
[93] Leake’s ‘Tour in Asia Minor,’ pp. 79, 80. (S.)
[94] Leake’s, ‘Tour in Asia Minor,’ pp. 180, 217. (S.)
[95] Leake, p. 215. (S.)
[96] Ibid., p. 214.
[97] ‘The Virgin of Jerusalem might exult in the temple erected by her
imperial votary on a most ungrateful spot, which afforded neither ground nor
materials to the architect,’ etc., etc.—Gibbon, ch. xl. (S.)
[98] See Appendix II.
[99] The church is octagonal. On the east side is an apse; on the north the
main entrance. On five sides there are small chapels, and on the eighth probably
a sixth. There is an inner octagon, which gives the place some resemblance to
that of the Dome of the Rock. The only capital uncovered was of a debased
Corinthian order. The church is believed to have been built by Justinian circa
533.
Plans by Sir C. W. Wilson are given in the Quarterly Statement of the
Palestine Exploration Fund, 1873, p. 68.
The church is 70·0 inside east and west (inscribed circle of internal octagon).
East apse, 15·0 diameter; side chapels, 27·0 long inside, with apses 9·0 diameter.
Said by Procopius to have been erected by the Emperor Zeno, not earlier than
474, to the Blessed Virgin. He says also that Justinian, after 529, built the
external wall (9·0 thick) of the court, forming a fortress 180 by 230, with
chambers built against the wall inside. One is 11·9 by 14·4 internally (vide
Plan).—‘Palestine Exploration Memoirs,’ vol. ii., p. 189, 190. (L.)
[100] ‘The Vale of Palms by the shore of the Red Sea,’ Gibbon, ch. xlii.;
Stanley, ‘Sinai and Palestine,’ ed. 12, pp. 20, 85, 519. (S.)
[101] Full plans, details and descriptions of the fort and church built by
Justinian at the foot of J. Mûsa are given in the Ordnance Survey of Sinai. (W.)
[102] Tell es Sultân and Tellûl Abu el ‘Aleik (Roman). Many traces of ruins.
The buildings do not appear to have been large or of fine masonry. A pillar-shaft
nine inches in diameter, of marble, and fragments of cornices were found; also a
capital of the rude Ionic style common in Byzantine buildings, cut in limestone
and much weathered.

East and south-east there are extensive ruins on the way to Erîha—mounds,
small foundations, and portions of an aqueduct. They do not appear to be of any
great antiquity.
Jericho was inhabited in the fourth and fifth centuries, to which date the
buildings near the Tell are most probably to be ascribed.—See ‘Memoirs, Survey
of Western Palestine,’ vol. iii., pp. 173, 223. (L.)
[103] Well of St. Elisæus. May this be Elisha’s spring at ‘Ain es Sultan? (W.)
[104] The church is interesting as being the only basilica of Constantine left
standing in Palestine.
The atrium is destroyed, but the basilica, consisting of a nave and four aisles,
is almost intact, the original columns and the clerestory walls, with fragments of
glass mosaic (of twelfth century), remaining. The basilica measures 87 feet east
and west by 75 feet north and south.
At the east end is a transept with north and south apses and an east apse of
equal size. The floor of the transept is raised for a width equal to that of the
basilica nave (35 feet). The basilica is separated by a wall, erected by the Greeks
in 1842, from the transept.—‘Palestine Exploration Memoirs,’ vol. iii., pp. 83-
85.
Notwithstanding the slight notice of this city taken by Procopius, the part
taken by Justinian in its adornment is otherwise spoken of in a very striking
manner, and its celebrated basilica, usually stated, as above, to have been the
work of Constantine, has been assigned in part to Justinian. The eastern part is
almost certainly later than Constantine.
‘The choir, with its three apses, does not seem to be part of the original
arrangement, but to have been added by Justinian when he renovated—
Eutychius says rebuilt—the church.’—Fergusson’s ‘History’ (1867), vol. ii., p.
290.
Eutychius’ account is thus:
‘Jussit etiam Imperator legatum Ecclesiam Bethleemiticam quæ parva fuit
diruere, aliamq, amplam, magnam et pulchram fabricare, adeo ut non esset
Hierosolymis templum ipsâ pulchrius.
‘Perveniens ergo Legatus Hierosolyma, Nosocomium peregrinis condidit, et
Ecclesiam Elenæ perfecit, templaque quæ incenderant Samaritani instauravit,
nec non Monasteria quam plurima extruxit, dirutâque Ecclesiâ Bethleemiticâ
eaudem eo quo jam se habet modo ædificavit.
‘Cumque his omnibus absolutis ad Imperatorem reversus esset, ille, describe
mihi (inquit) quomodo Ecclesiam Bethleemiticam extruxisti. Quam cum ipsi
descripsisset, haud probavit Imperator descriptionem estam nec ullatinus ipsi
placuit, quaré valde ipsi iratus. Acceptos (inquit) nummos tibi ipsi congessisti,
ædificium autem extruxisti male compactum et Ecclesiam tenebrosam confecisti
nullatenus ex mente mea fabricatam, nec consilium meum secutus es. Capiteque
ipsum plecti jussit.’

Eutychius adds after Omar’s conquest:
‘Deinde Bethleem ad eam visendam prefectus cum adesset orationis tempus
intra Ecclesiam oravit ad arcum Australem.
‘Erat autem arcus totus opere tessellate variegatus. Scripsitque Omar
Patriarchæ syngrapham;—neque mutaretur in eo quiequam.’—Eutychius,
‘Pocock’s Translation’ (Oxford, 1658), vol. ii., pp. 159, 288.
[105] The splendid cistern of St. John on Jordan, mentioned by Procopius as
the work of Justinian, is still visible in an almost perfect condition. It is 30 feet
deep, supported on rows of piers.—‘Memoirs,’ vol. iii., p. 177.
[106] Tŭbariya (Tiberias). ‘There are the remains of a sea-wall, and of some
portions of a city-wall 12·0 thick; many traces of old buildings—at one place
foundations which appear to belong to a church.
‘Epiphanius, in the fourth century, says that it had long been inhabited,
exclusively by Jews. The Sanhedrim came to Tiberias in the middle of the
second century. Thence it became the central point of Jewish learning for several
centuries. (L.)
‘Justinian rebuilt the walls. These were thrown down by an earthquake in
1837.’—‘Palestine Exploration Memoirs,’ vol. i., p. 419.
‘The ruins of the ancient town of Tiberias. A great number of fine granite
columns are lying about; also remains of the sea-wall, with towers. Behind the
ruins the cliffs rise steeply, with traces of fortifications upon them.’—Palestine
Exploration Quarterly Statement, 1877, p. 121.
[107] ‘Le Khan dit de Nebi-Younés a été depuis longtemps identifié avec
Porphyreon.
‘Les dunes paraissent cacher des constructions antiques.
‘Quand je passai à Neby-Younés on venait d’ouvrir une de ces dunes, pour en
tirer des pierres de construction. On voyait éventrées de jolies chambres, peintes
présentant des animaux, des paons affrontés, sous de petits arceaux peints très
ornés rappelant la disposition des canons qu’on trouve en tête des beaux
évangeliaires Byzantins.
‘Il est évident qu’il y eut vers cet endroit une ville assez importante dont la
floraison paraît avoir eu lieu surtout à l’époque Chrétienne.’—‘Mission de
Phénicie dirigée,’ par M. Ernest Renan (Paris, Imprimerie Impériale, 1854), p.
510.
Khaifa, a small town at the foot of Mount Carmel. ‘Some have held Khaifa to
be Sycaminos, and others Porphyreon. There seems to be some grounds for its
identity with Sycaminos, but none for its being Porphyreon, nor Gath Hefer
(Josh. xix. 13), as Benjamin of Tudela has tried to prove.’—‘Journey in Syria
and Palestine in 1851-2,’ by C. W. M. Van de Velde (8vo., 1854), vol. i., p. 289.
‘All that is left of the ancient town of Porphyreon is a single granite column,
with a sarcophagus. A Phœnician site has been replaced by a few tamarisks

beside a Moslem well.’—Palestine Exploration Quarterly Statement, 1874, p.
199.
‘The Crusaders called Haifa (at the foot of Carmel) Porphyreon. The real town
of this name, which was derived from the purple of the Murex there caught, was
eight Roman miles from Sidon towards the north, and just south of the river
Tamyras (Nahr Damûr).’—Palestine Exploration Quarterly Statement, 1876, p.
188.
[108] Acre (Ptolemais). ‘There are many fragments of Crusading masonry in
the town. A small chapel near the sea, of this nature, has been identified with the
Church of St. Andrew. There are also remains of the Hospital of the Knights of
St. John and Church of St. John. Apian (given p. 163 of the ‘Memoirs’) dated
1291 contains notes of many churches and monasteries, but nothing referring to
St. Sergius’ house.’—‘Palestine Exploration Memoirs,’ vol. i., pp. 160-167.
[109] ‘A large city of Syria, on the Orontes, called Pella by Seleucus Nicator,
who fortified and enlarged it. In the Crusading times it bore the name of Tamieh
—now Kŭlat el Medîk. There are large remains of ancient ruins.’—Smith’s
‘Dictionary of Geography.’ (L.)
[110] This is the celebrated Daphne (now Beit El Ma), near Antioch
(Theopolia). (W.)
[111] ‘Dr. Robinson identifies the site of Tell Neby Mendeh with the Laodicea
of Lebanon (also called Laodicea Cabiosa, Καβιώσα), mentioned by Ptolemy
and Polybius—one of six towns founded circa 300 b.c. by Seleucus Nicator, in
honour of his mother Laodice. It was eighteen M. P. from Emesa (Homs) on the
road to Heliopolis (Baalbeck). (W.)
‘It is a great mound.
‘The principal ruins are on the flat ground east of the mill—the foundations of
a building called El Kamû’a, about 50 by 50 feet, with remains of a doorway in
the south-east corner. Some broken pillar-shafts lie near, and the walls appear to
have been ornamented with pilasters in low relief. The details appear to belong
to a late period of classic art.
‘These probably are the remains of the Laodicea of later times. This city was
the see of a bishop.’—Palestine Exploration Quarterly Statement, 1881, pp. 162,
167. (L.)
[112] Isauria. A district in Asia Minor to the south of Iconium. (W.)
[113] Now probably Karioon, about 15 miles from Alexandria. (L.)
[114] ‘Discoveries at Cyrene,’ by Capt. R. M. Smith, R.E., and Commander E.
A. Porcher, R.N. (fol., London, 1864). At page 6 a map of the coast is given, and
also a plan, to a small scale, of Ptolemeta, Apollonia, Teuchira and Ben Ghazi
(Berenice). The five cities (Pentapolis) of Cyrenaica were Apollonia, Barca,
Berenice or Hesperis, Cyrene and Teuchira.
[115] ‘A town in the Libyan Nome, west of the Delta, and about 25 miles
from Alexandria. There were probably several places of this name in Egypt, but

this appears to have been the most considerable, inasmuch as it was the place
where the prefect of Alexandria held the periodical census of the Libyan
Nome.’—Smith’s ‘Dictionary of Geography,’ 1857. (L.)
[116] ‘Tocra, the ancient Teuchria, afterwards called Arsinöe, which, although
totally deserted, is still completely enclosed, except on the sea or north side, by
walls of uncommon solidity and thickness, strengthened at intervals by
quadrangular towers, twenty-six in number, and is entered by two strong-built
gateways.... The walls were repaired by Justinian, in doing which blocks of stone
and marble have been introduced, many bearing Greek inscriptions, which
evidently formed part of much older buildings.’—Eng. Cycl., s.v. ‘Cyrene.’ (S.)
A plan of the remains of Taucra or Teuchira is given in Capt. Beechey’s
‘North Coast of Africa,’ p. 388 (4to., 1828). He states, p. 353, that the walls
repaired under the Emperor Justinian still remain in a state of perfection which
sufficiently proves the solidity of the work. A long account of the city and its
walls is given at p. 375, etc. Also in Smith and Porcher’s ‘Discoveries at Cyrene’
(1864), p. 64, where Justinian’s walls are particularly mentioned.
[117] ‘Scarcely a vestige of the wall remains.’—Eng. Cycl. s.v. ‘Bengazi.’
[118] Berenice, about 40 miles to south-west of Barca. Here the ancients
placed the gardens of the Hesperides—now Ben Ghazi. (Beechey, p. 314.)
Bengazi may be considered as occupying the site of the Berenice of the
Ptolemies and of the Hesperis of earlier times; but very few remains now appear
above ground to interest the sculptor, the architect or the antiquary.—J. Pennell’s
‘Herodotus’ (4to., London, 1800), p. 154.
Of the ancient city very few remains are now visible. ‘At the back of the
castle, some foundations may be seen cropping out, but the tomb of a saint
prevents any excavations being made.’—Smith and Porcher’s ‘Discoveries at
Cyrene’ (1864), p. 13.
‘Bengazi, the ancient Berenice, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Nothing now remains but its port, which is certainly the best on the coast of
Tripoli.’ ‘On the north there are still to be seen, beyond seamark, the foundations
of several large buildings, of stones 8 or 10 feet long and 3 broad, which, by
their own weight and being bound by strong cement, have preserved their
places.’—Lieut.-Col. Playfair, ‘Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce’ (4to., London,
1877.)
[119] Ptolemaïs (Ptolemeta), now Dolmeita. V. Beechey, p. 376. He gives, at
p. 338, etc., a plan of the city and environs, and also drawings of some of the
ruins. The city was something less than a mile in length from north to south, and
its breadth from east to west something more than three-quarters. Captain
Beechey describes the remains of the walls to the city and harbour, of two
theatres, an amphitheatre, and various buildings of more than ordinary
consequence. ‘Some of the shafts of small columns are spiral and formed of
coloured marbles, and may probably be attributed to the time of Justinian, when
the city revived under his politic munificence.’

Lieut.-Col. Playfair, ‘Footsteps of Bruce’ (1877), pp. 288, 289, gives a good
account also.
Smith and Porcher, pp. 64, 66, give drawings of ruins. ‘At a point nearly
opposite the centre of the east wall, the ravine is spanned by the arch of a bridge
still standing, which appears to have been built for an aqueduct which we could
trace distinctly for some distance from the city. Within the walls the aqueduct led
in the direction of enormous reservoirs near the centre of the city.’ Messrs. Smith
and Porcher describe them as consisting of six chambers, each chamber too feet
long and 20 broad, arched over. The repairs to the aqueduct and cisterns are
ascribed by Procopius to Justinian. (L.)
[120] ‘Several of the buildings are partly standing, such as a lofty gateway, an
amphitheatre, two theatres, a palace or large building, the inner court of which
still retains its tesselated pavement.’—Eng. Cycl. s.v. ‘Cyrene.’ (S.)
[121] ‘The exact position of this S. Borium it is difficult to determine.’—
Smith’s ‘Dictionary of Geography.’
[122] Augila (now Aujilah). ‘Its historical importance is considerable, and it is
one of those few places whose name has not undergone change since Herodotus
wrote.’—Rennell’s ‘Herodotus,’ pp. 568-613 (4to., 1800). (L.)
[123] Leptis Magna. ‘The city appears to have been comprehended within
little more than a square half-mile of ground. The actual remains are still
sufficient to be somewhat imposing; but they are for the most part so deeply
buried under the sand which ten centuries of neglect have allowed to accumulate
over them, that plans of them could not be obtained without very extensive
excavations. The style of the buildings is universally Roman.’ The walls and
fortifications, probably restored by Justinian, were finally demolished by the
Saracens. From that time the city appears to have been wholly abandoned and its
remains employed in the construction of Modern Tripoli.—‘North Coast of
Africa,’ by Beechey (4to., London, 1828), pp. 52, 54.
Lieut.-Col. Playfair, p. 283, describes the remains thus: ‘Libidah, the ancient
town of Leptis Magna, three days’ journey from Tripoli where there are a great
extent of ruins, but all in bad taste—chiefly done in the lime of Aurelian—
indeed very bad. It is said that in the time of Louis XIV. seven monstrous
columns of granite or marble were carried from this place into France.’ Bruce
also states that he saw several statues of good taste which had been deprived of
their heads. (L.)
[124] Tacape. ‘Gabes: this was the Epichus of Sylax and the Tacape of other
ancient geographers; where we have a heap of ruins with some beautiful granite
pillars still standing. These are all square and about 12 feet long, and such as I
have not met with in any other part of Africa.’—Shaw’s ‘Travels in Barbary,’ p.
113. (L.)
[125] Carthage. Shaw, p. 81, etc., of his ‘Travels in Barbary,’ describes the
remains of Carthage existing in his time (circa 1750), in particular the great
cistern (of which he gives a plan at p. 75), ‘which had very little suffered,’ and
‘the famous aqueduct, a great part whereof is still standing:’—‘We see—a long
range of its arches, all of them intact, 70 feet high, supported by columns 16 feet

square ... the channel being high and broad enough for an ordinary person to
walk in.’
Bruce says, ‘We passed ancient Carthage, of which little remains but the
cisterns, the aqueduct, and a magnificent flight of steps leading up to the Temple
of Esculapius.’ He gives (p. 130) a drawing of the aqueduct, which Col. Playfair
describes ‘as one of the greatest works the Romans ever executed in North
Africa.’ ‘It was destroyed by the Vandals, restored by Belisarius, the general of
Justinian. On the expulsion of the Byzantines it was once more cut off, restored
by the Arabs, again destroyed by the Spaniards, and finally restored by the
present Bey, Sidi Saduk, at a cost of 13,000,000 francs.’—Lieut.-Col. Playfair in
‘Footsteps of Bruce,’ p. 128.
[126] Baga. ‘The city of Beja or Bay-jah, which by the name and situation
should be the Vacca of Sallust, the Oppidum Vagense of Pliny, the ΒΑΓΑ of
Plutarch, and the Vaccensium ordo Splendissimus, as the title runs in an
imperfect inscription.’ ‘Bay-jah keeps up the character that Sallust gives his
Vacca of being a town of great trade.’ ‘The walls are raised out of the ancient
materials.’—Shaw’s ‘Travels in Barbary,’ p. 92.
‘The ancient city was surrounded by a wall, flanked by square towers—no
doubt this was originally constructed by the Byzantines—but were allowed by
the Arabs to fall into decay. The only part in a relative state of preservation is the
Kasba, a great part of which seems to me the original construction of Belisarius
or Solomon.’ It contains ‘a large and lofty hall, about 15 paces long and 10 wide,
with a vaulted roof supported on two square pillars.’—Lieut.-Col. Playfair, p.
234. (L.)
[127] Adrumetus. ‘Herkla—the Heraclea of the lower empire, the Justiniana
of the middle, and the Adrumetum of the earlier ages.‘ ‘It appears to have been
little more than a mile in circuit.’ ‘That part of the promontory which formed the
port seems to have been walled in quite down to the seashore; but the rest of it,
to a distance of a furlong from thence, does not discover the least traces of
ruins.’—Shaw’s ‘Travels in Barbary,’ pp. 105, 106. (L.)
[128] Ca-poudia, the Caput Veda of Procopius, the Ammonis Promontorium
of Strabo, and the Promontorium Brachodes of Ptolemy—a low narrow strip of
land which stretches itself a great way into the sea. Upon the very point of it we
have the ruins of the city that was built there by Justinian, where there is
likewise a high round watch-tower.’—Shaw’s ‘Travels in Barbary,’ p. 111. (L.)
[129] ‘Of the Vandals chosen by Belisarius, the far greater part, in the honours
of the Eastern service, forgot their country and religion. But a generous band of
four hundred obliged the mariners, when they were within sight of the Isle of
Lesbos, to alter their course: they touched at Peloponnesus, ran ashore on a
desert coast of Africa, and boldly erected on mount Aurasius the standard of
independence and revolt.’—Gibbon, ch. xliii. (S.)
Aurasius. The Auris Mountains. The inhabitants still retain some marked
peculiarities which distinguish them from the surrounding people. (W.)
[130] Septem or Ceuta.

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