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Title: The Stock-Feeder's Manual

Author: Sir Charles Alexander Cameron

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PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, "VICTOR EMMANUEL,"
THE PROPERTY OF LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE,
Was awarded the First Prize in his Section (there being sixteen competitors), at the Show of the Royal
Agricultural Society, held at Belfast, in August, 1861. Calved June 24, 1860; sire, Prince Duke the
Second (16,731); dam, Turfoida, by Earl of Dublin (10,178); gd., Rosina, by Gray Friar (9,172); ggd.,
Hinda, by Little John (4,232).

THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL.

THE
CHEMISTRY OF FOOD
IN RELATION TO THE
BREEDING AND FEEDING
OF
LIVE STOCK.
BY CHARLES A. CAMERON, Ph.D., M.D.,
Licentiate of the King and Queen's College of Physicians in Ireland; Honorary Corresponding Member of the
New York State Agricultural Society; Member of the Agricultural Society of Belgium; Professor of Hygiene or
Political Medicine in the Royal College of Surgeons; Professor of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in
Steevens' Hospital and Medical College; Lecturer on Chemistry in the Ledwich School of Medicine; Analyst to
the City of Dublin; Chemist to the County of Kildare Agricultural Society, the Queen's County Agricultural
Society, c.; Member of the International Jury of the Paris Exhibition, 1867; Editor of the "Agricultural Review;"
one of the Editors of the "Irish Farmer's Gazette;" Author of the "Chemistry of Agriculture," "Sugar and the
Sugar Duties," &c. &c.

LONDON AND NEW YORK:
CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN.
1868.
[All rights reserved.]

LONDON
CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS,
LUDGATE HILL, E. C.

THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE
Dedicated
TO
THE RIGHT HONORABLE
THE LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, F.R.S.,
President of the Royal Irish Academy, &c. &c. &c.,

ONE OF THE MOST ENLIGHTENED AND LIBERAL PROMOTERS OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS.

THE AUTHOR IS UNDER MANY OBLIGATIONS TO HIS LORDSHIP, FOR WHICH HE CAN MAKE NO RETURN
SAVE THIS PUBLIC ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF HIS INDEBTEDNESS.

PREFACE.
Some papers on the Chemistry of Food, read before the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland
and the Athy Farmers' Club, and a few articles on the Management of Live Stock, published in
the Weekly Agricultural Review, constitute the basis of this Work. It describes the nature of the
food used by the domesticated animals, explains the composition of the animal tissues, and
treats generally upon the important subject of nutrition. The most recent analyses of all the kinds
of food usually consumed by the animals of the farm are fully stated; and the nutritive values of
those substances are in most instances given. Some information is afforded relative to the breeds
and breeding of live stock; and a division of the Work is wholly devoted to the consideration of
the economic production of "meat, milk, and butter."
Within the last twenty years the processes of chemical analysis have been so much improved,
that the composition of organic bodies is now determined with great accuracy. The analyses of
foods made from twenty to fifty years ago, possess now but little value. In this Work the
analyses of vegetables quoted are chiefly those recently performed by the distinguished Scotch
chemist, Dr. Thomas Anderson, and by Dr. Voelcker. The Author believes that in no other Work
of moderate size are there so many analyses of food substances given, and ventures to hope that
the success of this Work may fully justify the belief that a "handy" book containing such
information as that above mentioned, is much required by stock feeders.

102, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin,
April, 1868.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction: History of Agriculture—Agricultural Statistics—Imports of Live
Stock
1
PART I. ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.

Section I. Animal and Vegetable Life. Functions of Plants. Animal Life.—Section
II. Composition of Organic Substances. Elements of Organic Bodies.
Proximate Composition of Organic Substances.—Section III. Use of Fat in
the Animal Economy. Fatty Food necessary in Cold Climates. Fat
Equivalents.—Section IV. Relation between the Composition of an Animal
and that of its Food. Tables of Experimental Results.—Section V. Relation
between the quantity of Food consumed by an Animal and the Increase of
its Weight, or of the Amount of its Work. Weights of Foods necessary to
sustain a Man's Life for twenty-four hours. Value of Manure.
8
PART II. ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.

Section I. The Breeding of Stock.—Section II. The Breeds of Stock. The Form of
Animals. Breeds of the Ox. Shorthorns. Devons. Herefords. Ayrshires. Polled
Cattle. Kyloes. Long-horned. Kerrys. Alderneys. Sheep. The Leicester.
Lincoln. Cotswold. Cheviot. Southdown. Shropshire. Blackfaced. Breeds of
the Pig. Berkshire. Yorkshire. Breeds of the Horse. Clydesdales. Suffolk
Punch. Hunters and Racers.
47
PART III. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.

Section I. The Ox. Breeding Cows. Wintering of Young Stock. Shelter of Stock.
Milch Cows. Stall Feeding. Cost of Maintaining Animals. Cooking and
Bruising Food. Value for Feeding Purposes of various Foods. Bedding Cattle.
—Section II. The Sheep. Breeding Ewes. Yeaning. Rearing of Lambs. Sheep
Feeding. Sheep Dips.—Section III. The Pig. Young Pigs. Store Pigs.
Fattening Pigs.—Section IV. The Horse. Foals. Dietaries for the Horse.
74
PART IV. MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.
112
Section I. Meat. Quality of Meat. Is very Fat Meat Unwholesome? Diseased Meat.
—Section II. Milk. Composition of Milk of Different Animals. Yield of

Milk. Preserved Milk.—Section III. Butter. History of Butter. Irish Butter.
Composition of Butter. The Butter Manufacture.

PART V. ON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.

Section I. The Money Value of Food Substances.—Section II. Proximate
Constituents of Vegetables. Starch. Sugar. Inulin. Gum. Pectin. Cellulose.
Oils and Fats. Stearin. Margarin. Olein. Palmitin. Albumen. Fibrin. Legumin.
—Section III. Green Food. The Grasses. Schrœder Brome. Tussac Grass.
The Clovers. Leguminous Plants—Vetch, Sainfoin, &c. The Yellow Lupine.
Rib Grass Plantain. Ergot in Grasses. Holcus Saccharatus. Green Rye.
Buckwheat. Rape. Mustard. Comfrey. Chicory. Yarrow. Melons and
Marrows. Cabbage. Furze.—Section IV. Straw and Hay. Straw. Anderson's,
Voelcker's, and Cameron's Analyses of Straws. Feeding Experiments with
Straw. Relative Values of Straw and Oil-cake. Hay. Composition of the Hay
of different Grasses. Over-ripening of Hay. Damaged Hay and Straw.—
Section V. Roots and Tubers. Turnips. Swedish. White Globe. Aberdeen
Yellow. Purple-top. Norfolk Bell. Greystone. Turnip Tops. Analyses of
Turnips. Mangel Wurtzel. Chemistry of the Mangel. Stripping Leaves off the
Mangel. Beet-root. Parsnip. Carrot. Kohl-rabi. Analyses of Kohl-rabi. Radish.
The Radish as a Field Crop. Composition of Radish. Jerusalem Artichoke:
Advantages of Cultivating it. Analysis of Jerusalem Artichoke. Potato:
Analyses of six varieties. Feeding Value of Potatoes.—Section VI. Seeds.
Wheat. Analyses of Wheat, Flour, Bran, and Husks. Over-ripening of Grain.
Wheat a Costly Food. Analyses of Barley, Oat Grain, Indian Corn, Rye, Rice,
Rice-dust, and Buckwheat. Malted Corn. Voelcker's Analyses of Malt and
Barley. Experiments of Thompson, Lawes, &c., with Malt. Malt Combings.
Leguminous Seeds. Beans. Composition of Common Beans, Foreign Beans,
Peas. Lentils and Winter Tares. Oil Seeds. Rape Seeds. Experiments with
Rapeseed. Flax Bolls. Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Hemp-seed, and
Cotton-seed. Fenugreek Seed.—Section VII. Oil-cakes and other Artificial
Foods. Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Cotton-seed, and Poppy-seed
Cake. Linseed-cake. Adulteration of Linseed-cake. Rape-cake. Feeding
Experiments with Rape-cake. Adulterations of Rape-cake. Cotton-seed Cake.
Analyses of Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake. Palm-nut Meal: its Composition
and Nutritive Properties. Locust, or Carob Bean: its Composition. Dates.
Brewers' Dregs and Distillery Wash. Molasses and Treacle.—Section VIII.
Condimental Food. Lawes' Experiments with Thorley's Food. Analyses of
Condimental Food. Formula for a Tonic Food.—Section IX. Tables of the
Analyses of the Ashes of Plants.
147

APPENDIX. Agricultural Statistics. Numbers of Live Stock in the United
Kingdom. Value of the Agriculture Products of Great Britain.
254

The
CHEMISTRY OF FOOD.

INTRODUCTION.
When Virgil composed his immortal "Bucolics," and Varro indited his profound Essays on
Agriculture, the inhabitants of the British Islands were almost completely ignorant of the art of
cultivating the soil. The rude spoils torn from the carcasses of savage animals protected the
bodies of their hardly less savage victors; and the produce of the chase served almost
exclusively to nourish the hardy frames of the ancient Celtic hunters. In early ages wild beasts
abounded in the numerous and extensive forests of Britain and Ireland; but men were few, for
the conditions under which the maintenance of a dense population is possible did not then exist.
As civilisation progressed, men rapidly multiplied, and the demand for food increased. The
pursuit of game became merely the pastime of the rich; and tame sheep and oxen furnished meat
to the lowly as well as to the great. Nor were the fruits of the earth neglected; for during the
latter days of the dominion of the Romans, England raised large quantities of corn. Gradually
the food of the people, which at first was almost purely animal, became chiefly vegetable. The
shepherds, who had supplanted the hunters, became less numerous than the tillers of land; and
the era of tillage husbandry began.
At present the great mass of the rural population of these countries subsist almost exclusively
upon vegetable aliment—a diet which poverty, and not inclination, prescribes for them. Were
the flesh of animals the staple food of the British peasantry, their numbers would not be nearly
so large as they now are, for a given area of land is capable of sustaining a far larger number of
vegetarians than of meat eaters. The Chinese are by no means averse to animal food, but they
are so numerous, that they are in general obliged to content themselves on a purely vegetable
diet.
In the manufacturing districts of Great Britain, there are several millions of people whose
condition in relation to food is somewhat different from that of the small farmer and agricultural
laborer. The artizans employed in our great industries are comparatively well paid for their toil;
and the results of their labor place within their reach a fair share of animal food. This section of
the population is rapidly increasing, and consequently is daily augmenting the demand for meat.
The rural population is certainly not increasing; rather the reverse. Less manual labor is now
expended in the operations of agriculture, and even horses are retiring before the advance of the
steam plough. The only great purely vegetable-feeding class is diminishing, and the upper, the
middle, and the artizan classes—the beef and mutton eating sections of society—are rapidly
increasing. It is clear, then, that we are threatened with a revival of the pastoral age, and that in
one way, at least, we are returning to the condition of our ancestors, whose staple food consisted
of beef, mutton, and pork.
And here two questions arise. How long shall we be able to supply the increasing demand for
meat? How long shall we be able to compete with the foreign feeders? These are momentous
queries for the British farmer, and I trust they may be solved in a satisfactory manner. At any
time during the present century the foreign or colonial grower of wheat could have undersold
the British producer of that article, were the latter not protected by a tariff; but cattle could not,
as a general rule, be imported into Great Britain at a cheaper rate than they could be produced at
home. Were there no corn imported, it is certain that the price of bread would be greater than it

is now, even if the grain harvests had been better than they have been for some years past. A bad
cereal harvest in England raises the price of flour, but only to a small and strictly limited extent,
because, practically, there is no limit to the amount of bread-stuffs procurable from abroad.
When, on the contrary, the turnip crop fails, or that excessive drought greatly curtails the yield
of grass, the price of meat and butter increases greatly, and is but slightly modified by the
importation of foreign stock.
Hitherto the difficulty of transit has been so great that we have only derived supplies of live
stock from countries situated at a short distance, such as Holstein and Holland. Vast herds of
cattle are fed with but little expense in America, and myriads of sheep are maintained cheaply in
Australia; but the immense distances which intervene between our country and those remote and
sparsely populated regions have, hitherto, prevented the superabundant supply of animal food
produced therein from being available to the teeming population of the British Isles. Should,
however, any cheap mode of conveying live stock, or even their flesh, from those and similarly
circumstanced countries be devised, it might render the production of meat in Britain a far less
profitable occupation than it is now. That we are increasing the area from whence we draw our
supplies of live stock is evident from the fact, that within the last two years enormous numbers
of horned stock have been imported from Spain. In that extensive country there are noble breeds
of the ox; and it would appear that very large numbers of animals could be annually exported,
without depriving the inhabitants of a due supply of bovine meat. As Spain is not very distant, it
is likely that this traffic will be increased, and that in a short time we shall be as well supplied
with Spanish beef as we are now provided with French flour. Meat is at present dear, and is
likely to continue so for some time; but still it is evident that, sooner or later, the British feeders
will come into keen competition with the foreign producer of meat, and that the price of their
commodity will consequently fall. The mere probability of such a state of things, were there no
other reason, should induce the feeder to devote increased attention to the improvement of his
stock, and to discover more economical methods of feeding them. There is still much to be
learned relative to the precise nutritive values of the various feeding stuffs. The proper modes of
cooking, or otherwise preparing, food, are still to be satisfactorily determined; and there are
many very important questions in relation to the breeding of stock yet unanswered.
It is but fair to admit that the farmer is earnestly endeavouring to improve his art, and that he
is willing, nay anxious, to obtain the co-operation of scientific men, in order to increase his
knowledge of the theory as well as the practice of his ancient calling. Indeed, he not only admits
the utility of science in agriculture, but often places an undue degree of value upon the theories
of the chemist, of the botanist, and of the geologist. This is encouraging to the men of science;
but, on the other hand, they must admit that by far the greater portion of the sum of human
knowledge has been derived from the experience and observation of men utterly unacquainted
with science, in the ordinary signification of that term. This portion of our knowledge is also, in
its practical application, the most valuable. In the most important branch of industry—
agriculture—the labors of the purely scientific man have as yet borne but scant fruit; whilst the
unaided efforts of the husbandman have reclaimed from sterility extensive tracts, and caused
them to "blossom as the rose." That practical men should have done so much, and scientific men
so little, for agriculture, may easily be explained. Countless millions of men, during many
thousands of years, have incessantly been occupied in improving the processes of mechanical
agriculture, which, as an art, has consequently been brought to a high degree of perfection: but
scientific agriculture is a creation of almost our own time, and the number of its cultivators is,
and always has been, very small; all its theories cannot, therefore, justly claim that degree of

confidence which, as a rule, is only reposed in the opinions founded on the experience of
practical workers in the field and in the feeding-house. Still, the farmer has derived a great
amount of useful information from the chemist and physiologist; and they alone can explain to
him the causes of the various phenomena which the different branches of his art present. There
was a time when it was the fashion of the man of science to look down with contempt, from the
lofty pedestal on which he placed himself, upon the lessons of practical experience read to him
by the cultivator of the soil; whilst at the same time the farmer treated as foolish visionaries
those who applied the teachings of science to the improvement of their art. But this time has
happily passed away. The scientific man no longer despises the knowledge of the mere farmers,
but turns to good account the information derivable from their experience; whilst the farmer, on
the other side, has ceased to speak in contemptuous terms of mere "book learning." It is to this
happy combination of the theorist with the practical man that the recent remarkable advance in
agriculture is chiefly due; and to it we may confidently look for improvement in the economic
production of meat and butter, and for the enlargement of our knowledge of the relative value of
food substances.

STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Enumerated, 1866. Estimated, 1865.
Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs.
England 3,307,034 15,124,541 2,066,299 3,422,165 18,691,088 2,363,724
Wales 541,401 1,668,663 191,604 — — —
Islands 17,700 57,685 22,887 — — —
Scotland 937,411 5,255,077 219,716 974,437 5,683,168 146,354
Ireland 3,493,414 3,688,742 1,299,893 3,493,414 3,688,742 1,299,893
Total 8,316,960 25,794,708 3,800,399 7,890,016 28,062,998 3,809,971

STATEMENT OF THE POPULATION AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND VARIOUS
FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ACCORDING TO THE LATEST RETURNS.
Date of Cattle.
Population
Returns
Countries. according Sheep. Pigs.
of Live
to Latest Returns. Cows. Other Cattle. Total.
Stock.
United
1865–66 29,070,932 3,286,308 5,030,652 8,316,960 25,795,708 3,802,399
Kingdom
Russia 1859–63 74,139,394 ... ... 25,444,000 45,130,800 10,097,000
Denmark
1861 1,662,734 756,834 361,940 1,118,774 1,751,950 300,928
Proper
Sleswig 1861 421,486 217,751 172,250 390,001 362,219 87,867
Holstein 1861 561,831 198,310 92,062 290,372 165,344 82,398
Sweden 1860 3,859,728 1,112,944 803,714 1,916,658 1,644,156 457,981
Prussia 1862 18,491,220 3,382,703 2,251,797 5,634,500 17,428,017 2,709,709
Hanover 1861 1,880,070 ... ... 949,179 2,211,927 554,056
Saxony 1861 2,225,240 411,563 226,897 638,460 371,986 270,462
Wurtemburg 1861 1,720,708 466,758 490,414 957,172 683,842 216,965
Grand Duchy
1861 1,429,199 348,418 273,068 621,486 177,322 307,198
of Baden
" Hesse 1863 853,315 187,442 129,211 316,653 231,787 195,596
" Nassau 1864 468,311 116,421 84,224 200,645 152,584 65,979

" Mecklenb.
1857 539,258 197,622 69,215 266,837 1,198,450 157,522
Schwerin
" Oldenburg 1852 279,637 ... ... 219,843 295,322 87,336
Holland 1864 3,618,459 943,214 390,673 1,333,887 930,136 294,636
Belgium 1856 4,529,461 ... ... 1,257,649 583,485 458,418
France 1862 37,386,313 5,781,465 8,415,895 14,197,360 33,281,592 5,246,403
Spain 1865 15,658,531 ... ... 2,904,598 22,054,967 4,264,817
Austria 1863 36,267,648 6,353,086 7,904,030 14,257,116 16,964,236 8,151,608
Bavaria 1863 4,807,440 1,530,626 1,655,356 3,185,882 2,058,638 926,522
United States 1860 31,445,080 8,728,862 8,182,813 16,911,475 23,317,756 32,555,267

NUMBERS OF THE LIVE STOCK IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN DURING THE ELEVEN MONTHS ENDED
31st NOVEMBER, 1867.
Bullocks, bulls, and cows 150,518
Calves 20,720
Sheep and lambs 504,514
Pigs 45,566
————
721,318
AMOUNT OF ANIMAL FOOD IMPORTED DURING SAME PERIOD.
Bacon and hams cwts. 452,132
Salt beef " 163,638
Salt pork " 123,257
Butter " 1,000,095
Lard " 213,599
Cheese " 798,267
Eggs 373,042,000

I am indebted to Professor Ferguson, Chief of the Veterinary Department of the Irish Privy
Council Office, for the following statement:—

RETURN OF HORNED CATTLE EXPORTED FROM THE SEVERAL IRISH PORTS AT WHICH VETERINARY
INSPECTORS HAVE BEEN APPOINTED, AND CERTIFIED AS FREE FROM DISEASE, FROM THE 18th OF
NOVEMBER, 1866, TO THE 16th OF NOVEMBER, 1867 (52 WEEKS).
Fat Stock 187,483
Store Stock 317,331
Breeding and Dairy Stock 36,599
————
Total 541,413
————
————

PART I.
ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.

SECTION I.

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE.

Functions of Plants.—It is the primary function of plants to convert the inorganic matter of
the soil and air into organised structures of a highly complex nature. The food of plants is purely
mineral, and consists chiefly of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Water is composed of the
elements oxygen and hydrogen; carbonic acid is a compound of oxygen and carbon; and
ammonia is formed of hydrogen and nitrogen. These four substances are termed the organic
elements, because they form by far the larger portion—sometimes the whole—of organic
bodies. The combustible portion of plants and animals is composed of the organic elements; the
incombustible part is made up of potassium, sodium, and the various other elements enumerated
in another page. The organic elements are furnished chiefly by the atmosphere, and the
incombustible matters are supplied by the soil.
Water in the state of vapor forms, according to the temperature and other conditions of the
atmosphere, from a half per cent. to four and a half per cent. of the weight of that fluid—about
1·25 per cent. being the average; carbonic acid exists in it to the extent of 1⁄2000th; and ammonia
forms a minute portion of it—according to Dr. Angus Smith, one grain weight in 412·42 cubic
feet of air (of a town), or 0·000453 per cent. It is remarkable that the most abundant constituents
of atmospheric air—oxygen and nitrogen—are not assimilable by plants, although these
elements enter largely into the composition of vegetable substances. In the soil, also, the part
which ministers to the wants of vegetables is relatively quite insignificant in amount.
Plants are unendowed with organs of locomotion, their food must therefore be within easy
reach. Every breeze wafts gaseous nutriment to their expanded leaves, and their rootlets ramify
throughout the soil in search of appropriate mineral aliment. But no matter how abundant, or
however easy of reach may be the food of plants, the vegetable organism is incapable of
partaking of it unless under the influence of light. Exposed to this potent stimulus, the plant
collects the gaseous carbonic acid and the vaporous water, solidifies them, decomposes them,
and combines their elements into new and organised forms. In effecting these changes—in
conferring vitality upon the atoms of lifeless matter—the plant acts merely as the mechanism,
the light is the force. As the work performed by the steam-engine is proportionate to the amount
of force developed by the combustion of the fuel beneath its boiler, so is the rapidity of the
elaboration of organic substances by plants proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which
they are exposed. It is an axiom that matter is indestructible; we may alter its form as often as
we please, but we cannot destroy a particle of it. It is the same with force: we may convert one

kind of it into another—heat into light, or magnetism into electricity—but our power ends there;
we can only cause force, or motion, to pass from one of its conditions to another, but its quantity
can never be diminished by the power of man.
The principle of the Conservation of the Forces gives us a clear explanation of the fact that
animals can obtain their food only through the medium of the vegetable kingdom. Plants are
stationary mechanisms; they have no need to develop motive power, as animals have, in moving
themselves from place to place. Their temperature is, we may say, the same as that of the
medium in which they exist. Such beings as plants do not, therefore, require the expenditure of
force to maintain their vitality; on the contrary, their mechanisms are, for a beneficent purpose,
constructed for the accumulation of force. The growing plant absorbs, together with carbonic
acid, water, and ammonia, a proportionate amount of light, heat, and the various other subtile
forces which have their abiding place in the sun-beam—

"That golden chain,
Whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and main."

Co-incidentally with the conversion of the mineral constituents of the food of plants into
organised structures—albumen, fibre, and such like substances—the light, and the heat, and the
various other forces likewise suffer a change. Although the precise nature of the new force into
which they are converted is still a mystery—one, too, which may never be revealed to us—still
we know sufficient of it to satisfy us that it can only exist in connection with organic or
organised structures. It is owing to its presence that the elements of these structures (the natural
state of which is mineral) are bound together in what may be aptly designated a constrained
state; or, as Liebig aptly expresses it, like the matter in a bent spring. So long as the organic
structure retains its form, it will be a reservoir of latent force—which will manifest itself in
some form during the recoil of the atoms of the matter forming the structure to their original
mineral, or statical condition: so the bent spring, when the pressure is removed, returns to its
original straight form.
Animal Life.—The chief manifestation of the life of a plant is the accumulation of force; very
different are the functions of animal life. It is only by the continuous expenditure of force that
the vitality of animals is preserved; the heat of a man's body, his power of locomotion, the
performance of his daily toil, even his very faculty of thought, are all dependent upon, and to a
great extent proportionate to, the amount of organised matter disorganised in his body. It is by
the conversion of this organised matter into its original mineral state of water, carbonic acid, and
ammonia, that the force originally expended in arranging, through the agency of plants, its
atoms, is again restored, chiefly in the form of heat and animal motive power.
Animals, as a class, are completely dependent upon vegetables for their existence. There is
every reason to believe that the most lowly organised beings in the scale of animal life, even
those of so simple a structure as to have been long regarded as vegetables or as plant-animals,
are incapable of organising mineral matter. The so-called vegetative life of animals—for I
believe the term to be exceedingly inexact—is applied to their growth, that is, to the increase in
their weight. This increase takes place by their power of reorganising, or of assimilating to the
nature of their own organisms, certain of the substances elaborated by plants, and destined to
become food for animals.

SECTION II.

COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

Elements of Organic Bodies.—The number of distinct kinds of substances—each
distinguishable from all the others by the peculiarity of its properties, taken as a whole—is
exceedingly great, yet all these substances are resolvable into a very small number of bodies. As
an illustration, I shall take a well-known substance, common green copperas, or, as the chemists
term it, protosulphate of iron. By submitting this compound to the process termed chemical
analysis, two other kinds of matter may be obtained from it, namely, oxide of iron and oil of
vitrol, or sulphuric acid. If we continued this process—if we submitted the acid and the oxide to
analysis—we could separate the former into sulphur and oxygen, and the latter into iron and
oxygen. Now, by these means we could demonstrate the compound nature of copperas; we
could prove that it was proximately composed of sulphuric acid and oxide of iron; and,
ultimately, of iron, sulphur, and oxygen.
Iron, sulphur, and oxygen, are elementary, or simple bodies. They cannot be decomposed;
they cannot be analysed. Torture them as we will in our crucibles; expose them as we please to
the highest temperature of a wind furnace, or to the more intense heat evolved by a powerful
galvanic battery; subject them to the influence of any agent, or force, or process we may choose,
and still they will yield nothing but iron, sulphur, and oxygen: hence these undecomposable
bodies are regarded as elements, or simple substances. So far as our knowledge extends, there
are about sixty-six of these undecomposable bodies, of which about one half occurs in but
exceedingly minute quantities, and a considerable number of the others exists in comparatively
small amounts. As by far the greater proportion of compounds is made up of two or more of
about a dozen elementary bodies, it would at first sight appear as if the distinct kinds of
compounds which exist, or which may be called into existence by the chemist, must be limited
to, at most, a realisable number; but the fact is there is no practical limit to the variety of
substances which may be artificially formed. Every difference in the mode of the arrangement
of the constituent atoms of a compound, causes its metamorphosis into another kind of
substance. To prove that the number of these changes is bounded by no narrow limits, I need but
refer to the rules of Permutation, which demonstrate that twelve letters of the alphabet may be
arranged in no fewer than 479,000,000 different ways.1 The elements are the letters of Nature's
alphabet, their compounds are the words of the language of Creation. The combinations of
sounds and of signs which express the ideas and sensations of man may be limited to millions;
but numberless are the hieroglyphs by which the Divine wisdom and beneficence is inscribed on
the pages of the magnificent volume of Nature.
Of the sixty-six elementary bodies, not more than a dozen occur commonly in animal and
vegetable substances; these are Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus,
Chlorine, Silicium, Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Iron. In addition to these,
Iodine, and sometimes Bromine, are found in plants which grow in or near the sea; and the
former element has also been detected in some of the lower animals, and in land plants.
Manganese, Lithium, Cæsium, Rubidium, and a few others of the simple bodies, occasionally
occur in plants and animals, but I believe their presence therein is always accidental.

Proximate Composition of Animal Substances.—The differences between vegetable and
animal substances are often more apparent than real. Indeed many of the more important of
these substances are almost identical in composition. The albumen which coagulates when the
juices of vegetables are boiled, is identical with the albumen of the white of eggs; the fibrine of
wheat is in no respect chemically different from the fibrine, or clot, of the blood; and, lastly, the
legumine, or vegetable caseine, of peas is almost indistinguishable from the curd of milk, or
animal caseine. But not only has chemical research demonstrated the identity of the albumen,
fibrine, and caseine of vegetables with three of the more important constituents of animals, it
has gone a step further, and proved that they differ from each other in but a few unimportant
respects. They are unquestionably convertible into each other2 within the animal organism; and
their functions, as elements of nutrition, are almost, if not quite, identical.
Exclusive of the blood, which contains the elements of every part of the body, the animal
organism is composed of three distinct classes of substances—namely, nitrogenous, non-
nitrogenous, and mineral. All of these constituents, or substances capable of being converted
into them, must exist in the food. Certain articles, for example, milk, contains all of them; but in
others, for instance, butter, only one of these substances is found. The nitrogenous part of the
body embraces the muscles, or lean flesh, the gelatine of the bones, and the skin and its
appendages—such as hair and horns; the non-nitrogenous constituents are its fat and oil; and its
mineral matter is found chiefly in the bony framework. These constituents are not, however,
isolated: the mineral matter, no doubt, accumulates in certain parts, but in small quantities it is
found in every portion of the body; and although the fat forms a distinct tissue, the muscles of
the leanest animal are never free from a sensible proportion of it.
Albumen, fibrine, and caseine are the principal nitrogenous constituents of food, and as they
are employed in the reparation of the nitrogenous tissues of the animal body, they have been
termed flesh-formers.
The fat and oil of animals are derived either from vegetable oil and fat, or from some such
substance as starch or sugar. The constituents of food which form fat are termed fat-formers, and
sometimes heat-givers or respiratory elements, from the notion that their slow combustion in the
animal body is the chief cause of its high temperature.
The mineral elements of the body are furnished principally by the varieties of food which
contain nitrogen. The whey of milk is rich in them; but they do not exist in pure butter, in starch,
or in sugar.
Fat is a much more abundant constituent of the animal body than is generally supposed, That
this substance should constitute the greater portion of the weight of an obese pig seems probable
enough; but few are aware that even in a lean sheep there is 50 per cent. more fat than lean.
For a very accurate knowledge of the relative proportions of the fatty, nitrogenous, and
mineral constituents of the carcasses of animals used as human food, we are indebted to Messrs.
Lawes and Gilbert. Before these investigators turned their attention to this subject, it had
scarcely attracted the notice of scientific men; but a notion appears to have been current,
amongst non-scientific people, at least, that in all, save the fattest animals, the lean flesh greatly
preponderated over the fat. That this idea was unsustained by a foundation of fact, has been
clearly proved by the results of an investigation3 undertaken a few years ago by Messrs. Lawes
and Gilbert—an investigation which I cannot avoid characterising as one of the most laborious

and apparently trustworthy on record. The mere statement of the results of this inquiry occupies
187 pages of one of the huge volumes of the Transactions of the Royal Society—a fact which
best indicates the immensity of the labour which these gentlemen imposed upon themselves, and
which, independently of their other and numerous contributions to scientific agriculture, entitles
their names to most honourable mention in the annals of science.
I shall now briefly advert to a few of the more important facts established by Lawes and
Gilbert. From a large number of oxen, sheep, and pigs, on which feeding experiments were
being conducted, ten individuals were selected. These were, a fat calf, a half-fat ox, a
moderately fat ox, a fat lamb, a store sheep, a half-fat old sheep, a fat sheep, a very fat sheep, a
store pig, and a fat pig. These animals were killed, and the different organs and parts of their
bodies were separately weighed and analysed. The results were, that, with the exception of the
calf, all the animals contained, respectively, more fat than lean. The fat ox and the fat lamb
contained each three times as much fat as lean flesh, and the proportion of the fatty matters to
the nitrogenous constituents of the carcass of the very fat sheep was as 4 to 1. In the pig the fat
greatly preponderated over the lean; the store pig containing three times as much, and the fat pig
five times as much fat as lean.
That part of the animal which is consumed as food by man, is termed the carcass by the
butcher, and contains by far the greater portion of the fat of the animal. The offal, in the
language of the butcher, constitutes those parts which are not commonly consumed as human
food, at least by the well-to-do classes. In calves, oxen, lambs, and sheep, the offal embraces the
skin, the feet, and the head, and all the internal organs, excepting the kidneys and their fatty
envelope. The offal of the pig is made up of all the internal organs, excepting the kidneys and
kidney fat. It is the relative proportion of fat in the carcasses analysed by Lawes and Gilbert that
I have stated; but as the nitrogenous matters occur in greatest quantity in the offal, it is
necessary that the relative proportions of the constituents of the body, taken as a whole, should
be considered. On an average, then, it will be found that a fat fully-grown animal will contain 49
per cent. of water, 33 per cent. of dry fat, 13 per cent. of dry nitrogenous matter—muscles
separated from fat, hide, &c.—and 3 per cent. of mineral matter. In a lean animal the average
proportions of the various constituents will be 54 per cent. of water, 25½ per cent. dry fat, 17
per cent. of dry nitrogenous substances, and 3½ per cent. of mineral matter. In the following
table these proportions are set forth.

SUMMARY OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEN ANIMALS—SHOWING THE PER-CENTAGES OF MINERAL
MATTER, DRY NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS, FAT, TOTAL DRY SUBSTANCE, AND WATER.
1st. In Fresh Carcass. 2nd. In Fresh Offal (equal Sum of Parts, excluding Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). 3rd. In Entire
Animal (Fasted Live-weight, including therefore the weight of Contents of Stomachs and Intestines).

Description Per cent. in Carcass. Per cent. in Offal. Per cent. in Entire Animal.
of Animal. A. B. C. D. E. A. B. C. D. E. A. B. C. D. F. E.
Fat calf 4·48 16·6 16·6 37·7 62·3 3·41 17·1 14·6 35·1 64·9 3·80 15·2 14·8 33·8 3·17 63·8
Half-fat ox 5·56 17·8 22·6 46·0 54·0 4·05 20·6 15·7 40·4 59·6 4·66 16·6 19·1 40·3 8·19 51·5
Fat ox 4·56 15·0 34·8 54·4 45·6 3·40 17·5 26·3 47·2 52·8 3·92 14·5 30·1 48·5 5·98 45·5
Fat lamb 3·63 10·9 36·9 51·4 48·6 2·45 18·9 20·1 41·5 58·5 2·94 12·3 28·5 43·7 8·54 47·8
Store
4·36 14·5 23·8 42·7 57·3 2·19 18·0 16·1 36·3 63·7 3·16 14·8 18·7 36·7 6·00 57·3
sheep
Half-fat
4·13 14·9 31·3 50·3 49·7 2·72 17·7 18·5 38·9 61·1 3·17 14·0 23·5 40·7 9·05 50·2
old sheep

Fat sheep 3·45 11·5 45·4 60·3 39·7 2·32 16·1 26·4 44·8 55·2 2·81 12·2 35·6 50·6 6·02 43·4
Extra fat
2·77 9·1 55·1 67·0 33·0 3·64 16·8 34·5 54·9 45·1 2·90 10·9 45·8 59·6 5·18 35·2
sheep
Store pig 2·57 14·0 28·1 44·7 55·3 3·07 14·0 15·0 32·1 67·9 2·67 13·7 23·3 39·7 5·22 55·1
Fat pig 1·40 10·5 49·5 61·4 38·6 2·97 14·8 22·8 40·6 59·4 1·65 10·9 42·2 54·7 3·97 41·3
Means of
3·69 13·5 34·4 51·6 48·4 3·02 17·2 21·0 41·2 58·8 3·17 13·5 28·2 44·9 6·13 49·0
all
Means of
8 of the
half-fat,
3·75 13·3 36·5 53·6 46·4 3·12 17·4 22·4 42·9 57·1 3·23 13·3 29·9 46·4 6·26 47·3
fat, and
very fat
animals
Means of
6 of the
fat, and 3·38 12·3 39·7 55·4 44·6 3·03 16·9 24·1 44·0 56·0 3·00 12·7 32·8 48·5 5·48 46·0
very fat
animals
A.—Mineral matter. D.—Dry substance.
KEY: B.—Dry nitrogenous compounds. E.—Water.
C.—Fat. F.—Contents of viscera.

SECTION III.

USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY.

As fat forms so large a portion of the body, it is evident that the part it plays in the animal
economy must be a most important one. The general opinion which prevails amongst scientific
men as to its physiological functions was originated by the celebrated Liebig. According to his
theory, the food of animals includes two distinct kinds of substances—plastic4 and non-plastic.
The plastic materials are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a little sulphur
and phosphorus. Albumen, fibrine, and casein are plastic elements of nutrition; they form the
lean flesh, or muscles, the membranes, and cartilages, the gelatine of the bones, the skin, the
hair, and, in short, every part of the body which contains nitrogen. The non-plastic elements of
nutrition include fat, oil, starch, sugar, gum, and certain constituents of fruits, such as pectine.
All non-plastic substances—and of each kind there are numerous varieties—are capable of
conversion, in the animal mechanism, into fat and oil. The non-plastic food substances do not
contain nitrogen, hence they are commonly termed non-nitrogenous elements. The oily and fatty
matters contain a large proportion of carbon, their next most abundant component is hydrogen,
and they contain but little oxygen. Unlike the plastic elements, they are—except the fats of the
brain and nervous tissue—altogether destitute of sulphur and phosphorus. The starchy,
saccharine, and gummy substances are composed of the same elements as the fatty bodies, but
they contain a higher proportion of oxygen. According to Liebig, fat is used in the animal
economy as a source of internal heat. We all know that it is a most combustible body, and that
during its inflammation the most intense heat is developed. It is less evident, but not less true,
that heat is evolved during its slow oxidation, or decay.

The more rapidly a body burns, the greater is the amount of heat evolved by it in a given time;
but the total amount of heat developed by a specific weight of the body is the same, whether the
combustion takes place rapidly or slowly. An experiment performed with phosphorus illustrates
the case perfectly. If we burned two pieces of equal weight, the one in oxygen, the other in
atmospheric air, we should find that the former would emit a light five times as brilliant as that
evolved by the latter, for the simple reason that its combustion would be five times as rapid. The
white, vapor-like matter into which phosphorus is converted by its combustion, is termed
phosphoric acid. It is composed of phosphorus and oxygen. In forming an ounce of this
compound, by the direct oxidation, or combustion of phosphorus, the amount of force, either as
heat, or as heat and light, evolved is precisely the same, whether the time expended in the
process be a minute or a month.5 If, in the experiment I have described, we were to substitute
two pieces of fat for the fragments of phosphorus, the results would be precisely similar. The fat
burned in oxygen gas would emit intense light and heat; but the total amount of these forces
evolved would be neither greater nor less than that developed during the slower and therefore
less brilliant combustion of the fat in ordinary atmospheric air. Now, as we can demonstrate that
an ounce of fat will emit a certain amount of heat, if burned within a minute of time, and that
neither a larger nor a smaller amount will be developed if the combustion of the fat extend over
a period of five minutes, I think we may fairly assume that the amount of heat evolved by the
complete oxidation of a specific quantity of fat is constant under all conditions, except, as I have
already explained, at high temperatures, when a portion of the heat is converted into light.
In the animal organism fat is burned. The process of combustion no doubt is a very slow one,
but still the total amount of heat evolved is just the same as if the fat were consumed in a
furnace. When the fat constituting a candle is burned, what becomes of it? Its elements, carbon
and hydrogen (we may disregard its small amount of oxygen) combine with the oxygen of the
air, and form carbonic acid gas and water. What becomes of the fat consumed within the animal
body? It also is converted into carbonic acid gas and water. It is not difficult to prove these
statements to be facts. A candle will not burn in atmospheric air which has been deprived of its
oxygen, because there is no substance present with which the elements of the taper can combine,
consequently the process of combustion cannot go on. Now, a man may in one respect be
compared with this taper. He is partly made up of fat; that fat is consumed by the oxygen of the
air, and the heat developed thereby keeps the body warm. In the process of respiration oxygen is
introduced into the lungs, and from thence, by means of the blood vessels, is conveyed
throughout every part of the body. In some way, at present not thoroughly understood, the
elements of the fat combine with the oxygen, and are converted into carbonic acid gas and
water, which are exhaled from the lungs and from the surface of the body.
Fat is a constituent of both animals and plants. The animal derives a portion of its fat directly
from the vegetable; but it possesses the power of forming this substance from other organic
bodies, such, for example, as starch. Plants elaborate fat directly from the minerals—carbonic
acid gas, and water.
I have already explained that the growth of plants is, cæteris paribus, directly proportionate to
the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed. Not less certainly is the force which
constitutes the sun-beam expended in grouping mineral atoms into organic forms, than is the
heat which converts water into steam. But in neither case is the force destroyed. When the
vaporous steam is condensed into the liquid water, all the heat is restored, and becomes

palpable. By the ultimate decomposition of vegetable substances all the force expended on their
production is liberated, and, in some form, becomes manifest.
When the fat formed in the mechanisms of plants is decomposed in the animal organism, two
results follow:—The atoms of the fat are re-converted to their original mineral, or statical
conditions of carbonic acid gas and water; and the force which maintained them in their organic
state is set free as heat, and its equivalent, motive power.
One of the most useful instruments which the ingenuity of man has devised, is the
Thermometer. It is so familiarly known that I need not describe it. This instrument does not
enable us to estimate the actual quantity of heat contained in a substance, but it indicates the
proportion of that subtile element which is sensible—that is recognisable by the sense of touch.
The dusky Hindu, clad in his single cotton garment, and the Laplander in his suit of fur, are
placed under the most opposite conditions in relation to the heat of the sun—the Indian is
exposed during the whole year to Sol's most ardent beams, whilst but a scant share of its genial
rays goes to warm the body of the Laplander. Now, if we placed the bulb of a thermometer
beneath the tongue of a Hindu, we would find the mercury to stand at 98 degrees on Fahrenheit's
scale, and if we repeated the experiment on a Laplander, we would obtain an identical result.
Numerous experiments of this nature have been made on individuals in most parts of the world,
and the results have proved that the temperature of the blood of man is 98 degrees Fahrenheit,
whether he be in India or at Nova Zembla, on the steppes of Russia, or the elevated plateaus of
America. This invariability6 of the temperature of the bodies of men and of all other warm-
blooded animals, appears the more wonderful when it it is considered that the range of the
temperature of the medium in which they exist exceeds 200 degrees Fahrenheit. In India, the
mercury in the thermometer has been observed to stand at 145 degrees in the direct sunlight, and
at 120 degrees in the shade. In high latitudes the temperature is sometimes so low as 100
degrees below zero. A Russian army, in an expedition to China, in 1839, was exposed for
several successive days to a temperature of 42 degrees below zero, and suffered severely in
consequence.
The facts which I have cited clearly prove that the animal body possesses the power of
generating, or, to speak more correctly, liberating heat, either from portions of its own
mechanism or from substances placed within that mechanism.
At one time it was the general belief amongst physiologists that one portion of the food
consumed by an animal was employed in repairing the waste of its body, and the remaining part
was burned as fuel, evolving heat just in the same way as if it had been consumed in a furnace.
It was this theory that led to the classification of food into flesh-formers, and heat-givers. It is
now doubted if any portion of the food be really burned in this way; and I, for one, think it far
more probable that, before its conversion into carbonic acid gas and water (whereby, according
to this theory, it develops the heat which keeps the body warm), it first becomes assimilated, that
is, becomes an integral part of the animal body—blood, fat, muscle. Perhaps we would be nearer
the truth if we were to assume that heat is evolved during the decomposition of both the
nitrogenous and fatty constituents of the body.
The constantly recurring contractions of the muscles must alone be a source of much heat.
The development of animal motive power is said to be strictly proportionate to the amount of
muscular tissue decomposed. As the nitrogen of the latter is almost completely excreted under
the form of urea, the quantity of the latter daily eliminated from the body of an animal is a

measure of the decomposed muscular tissue, and consequently of the amount of muscular power
generated in the animal organism.7 The correspondence between the amount of the motive
power of an animal, and the quantity of effete nitrogen excreted from the body, is limited to
laboring men and to the lower animals. Strange as it may appear, it is an incontrovertible fact
that men whose pursuits require the constant exercise of the intellectual faculties—lawyers,
writers, statesmen, students, scientific men, and other brain-workers—excrete more urea than do
men engaged in the most physically laborious occupations. An activity of thoughts and ideas
involves a corresponding destruction of the tissues, and these require, for their reparation, the
consumption of food. Here, then, we have a physical meaning for the common expression
—"food for thought."
That the amount of heat developed in the animal organism, is proportionate to the quantity of
fatty matters (or of substances capable of forming them) supplied to it in the shape of food, is a
proposition which admits of easy demonstration. The natives of warm regions do not require the
generation of much heat within their bodies, because the temperature of the medium in which
they exist is generally as high as, or higher than, that of their blood. But as they must consume
food for the purpose of repairing the waste of their nitrogenous tissues, and as every kind of
food contains heat-producing elements, an excess of heat is developed within their bodies,
which, if allowed to accumulate, would speedily produce fatal results. The means by which
nature removes this superabundant heat are admirably simple, as indeed all its contrivances are.
The skin is permeated with millions of pores, and through these openings a large quantity of
vapor is given off, and carries with it the surplus heat. The pores are the orifices of minute
convoluted tubes which lie beneath the skin, and when straightened measure each about the
tenth of an inch, or, according to a writer in the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review
(1859, page 349), the one-fifteenth of an inch in length. According to Erasmus Wilson, the
number of these tubes which open into every square inch of the surface of the body is 2,800.
The total number of square inches on the surface of an average sized man is 2,500, consequently
the surface of his body is drained by not less than twenty-eight miles of tubing, furnished with
7,000,000 openings. The cooling of the body, by the evaporation of water from it, admits of
explanation by well-known natural laws. Water, in the state of vapor, occupies a space 1,700
fold greater than it does in its liquid condition. It is heat which causes its vaporous form, but it
ceases to be heat when it has accomplished this change in the condition of the liquid; for,
suffering itself an alteration, it passes into another form of force—mechanical, or motive power.
The heat generated within the body is absorbed by the liquid water, the conversion of the latter
into vapor follows, and both the heat and the water, in their altered forms, escape through the
pores.
Fatty food necessary in cold climates.—As a grave objection against the chemical theory of
heat, it has been urged that rice—the pabulum of hundreds of millions of the inhabitants of
tropical regions—contains an exceedingly high proportion of heat-giving substances. I have,
however, great doubt as to rice ever forming the exclusive food of those people, without their
health being impaired in consequence of the deficiency in that substance of the plastic elements
of nutrition. Indeed I believe it is a great mistake to assert that the natives of India live almost
exclusively on rice. This article, no doubt, forms a large proportion of their food, but it is
supplemented with pulse (the produce of leguminous plants), which is rich in flesh-forming
materials, also with dried fish, butter, and various kinds of vegetable and animal food rich in
nitrogen. The innutritious nature of rice is clearly shown by its chemical composition, and so

large a quantity of it must the Hindu consume in order to repair the waste of his body, that his
stomach sometimes acquires prodigious dimensions; hence the term "pot-bellied," so often
applied to the Indian ryot. I doubt very much, however, if the stomach of the Hindu, large as it
is, could accommodate a quantity of rice, the combustion of which would produce a very
excessive development of heat. This substance, when cooked, contains a high proportion of
water, the evaporation of which carries off a large amount of the heat generated by the
combustion of its respiratory constituents. The amount of motive power developed by the Hindu
is small as compared with that which the European is capable of exerting; hence he has less
necessity for a highly nitrogenous diet. On the whole, then, I am disposed to think that the food
of the natives of tropical climates contains sufficient nitrogenous matters to effectually build up
and keep in repair their bodies; it also appears clear to me that the amount of heat developed in
their bodies is not excessive, and that it is readily disposed of in converting the water, which
enters so largely into their diet, into vapor. The proportion of plastic to non-plastic elements in
the diet of the Hindu and of the well-fed European, is probably as follows:—

Non nitrogenous
Nitrogenous.
(calculated as starch.)
Hindu 1 to 9
European 1 to 8

This statement does not quite correspond with Liebig's, who estimates the proportion of
nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous substances in rice as 10 to 123, in beef as ten to seventeen, and
in veal as ten to one. The results of Lawes and Gilbert's investigations, already alluded to, have,
however, dispelled the illusion that the plastic constituents of flesh exceed its non-plastic. In the
potato, which at one time constituted more of the food of the Irish peasantry than rice does that
of the Hindu, the proportion of plastic to non-plastic materials is as 10 to 110. The results of
some analyses of the food grains consumed in the Presidency of Madras, made by Professor
Mayer, of the University of Madras, clearly prove that the food of the inhabitants of that part of
India is of a far more highly nitrogenous character than is generally supposed. That the Hindu,
who subsists exclusively on rice, exhibits all the symptoms of deficient nutrition, is a fact to
which numerous competent observers have testified.
A slight consideration of the facts which I have mentioned leads to the conclusion that the
food of the inhabitants of very cold regions is required to produce a large amount of heat.
Melons, rice, and other watery vegetable productions, however delicious to the palate of the
Hindu, would be rejected with disgust by the Esquimaux, whilst the train oil, blubber, and putrid
seal's flesh which the children of the icy North consider highly palatable, would excite the
loathing of the East Indian. On this subject I may appositely quote the following remarks by Dr.
Kane, the Arctic explorer:—"Our journeys have taught us the wisdom of the Esquimaux
appetite, and there are few among us who do not relish a slice of raw blubber, or a chunk of
frozen walrus beef. The liver of a walrus (awuktanuk), eaten with little slices of his fat—of a
verity it is a delicious morsel. Fire would seem to spoil the curt, pithy expression of vitality
which belongs to its uncooked juices. Charles Lamb's roast pig was nothing to awuktanuk. I
wonder that raw beef is not eaten at home. Deprived of extraneous fibre, it is neither indigestible
nor difficult to masticate. With acids and condiments, it makes a salad which an educated palate
cannot help relishing; and as a powerful and condensed heat-making and anti-scorbutic food, it

has no rival. I make this last broad assertion after carefully considering its truth. The natives of
South Greenland prepare themselves for a long journey, by a course of frozen seal. At Upper
Navik they do the same with the narwhal, which is thought more heat-making than the seal;
while the bear, to use their own expression, is 'stronger travel than all.' In Smith's Sound, where
the use of raw meat seems almost inevitable from the modes of living of the people, walrus
holds the first rank. Certainly this pachyderm (Cetacean?) whose finely condensed tissue and
delicately permeating fat (oh! call it not blubber) assimilate it to the ox, is beyond all others, and
is the best fuel a man can swallow." The gastronomic capabilities of the Esquimaux and of other
northern races, and their fondness for fatty food, are exhibited in a sufficiently strong light in the
following statements:—
Captain Parry weighed and presented to an Esquimaux lad the following articles:—

lb. oz.
Frozen seahorse flesh 4 4
Wild seahorse flesh 4 4
Bread and bread dust 1 12
Rich gravy soup 1 4
Water 10 0
Strong grog 1 tumbler.
Raw spirits 3 wine glasses.

This large quantity of food, which the lad did not consider excessive, was consumed by him
within twenty-four hours. According to Captain Cochrane a reindeer suffices but for one repast
for three Yakutis, and five of them will devour at a sitting a calf weighing 200 lbs. Mr. Hooper,
one of the officers of the Plover, in his narrative of their residence on the shores of Arctic
America, states that "one of the ladies who visited them was presented, as a jest, with a small
tallow candle, called a purser's dip. It was, notwithstanding, a very pleasant joke to the damsel,
who deliberately munched it up with evident relish, and finally drew the wick between her set
teeth to clean off any remaining morsels of fat."
The partiality for certain kinds of food, and disgust at other varieties, which particular races
of men exhibit, is an instinct which they cannot avoid obeying. Instead of exciting our disgust,
as it too frequently does, it should exalt our admiration of the infinite wisdom of the Creator,
who by simply adapting man's desire for particular kinds of food to the external conditions
under which he is placed, enables him to occupy and "subdue the earth" from the Equator to the
Poles.
The food of human beings and of the lower animals who inhabit cold countries is nearly
exclusively composed of animal substances. The flesh, fat, and oil of animals occupy less space
than do the corresponding elements of vegetables; consequently the nutriment they afford is
more concentrated, and a larger quantity can be stowed away without inconvenience in the
stomach. The heat-forming constituents of these substances constitute not only the chief part of
their bulk, but they are also capable of evolving a greater amount of heat than any other of the
respiratory elements. One pound of dry fat will develop as much heat as two and a half pounds
of dry starch, and the fattest flesh includes four times as much plastic materials as rice. The diet
of people all over the world, unless under circumstances which prevent the gratification of the
natural appetite, establishes the intimate relation which subsists between cold and food. The

appetite of man is at a minimum at the Equator, and at a maximum within the Arctic circle. The
statements as to the voracity of Hottentots and Bosjesmans, recorded in the narratives of
travellers, do not in the slightest degree affect the general rule that more is eaten in cold climates
than in hot regions. These are mere records of gluttony, and it would not be difficult to find
parallel cases in our own country. Gluttony is an abnormal appetite, and the greater part of the
food devoured under its unnatural, and generally unhealthy stimulus is not applied to the wants
of the body.
The bodies of animals are heated masses of matter, and are subject to the ordinary laws of
radiation. Every substance radiates its heat, and receives in return a portion of that emitted from
surrounding bodies. If two bodies of unequal temperature be placed near each other, the warmer
of the two will radiate a portion of its heat to the colder, and will receive some of the heat of the
latter in return; but as the warmer body will emit more heat than it will receive, the result will
be, that after a time, the length of which will depend on the nature of the bodies, both will
acquire the same temperature. In very warm climates the bodies of animals derive from the sun,
and from the heated bodies surrounding them, more heat than they give in return; and were it
not for their internal cooling apparatus, which I have described, the heat so absorbed would
prove fatal. In every climate, on the contrary, where the temperature is lower than 98°, or "blood
heat," the bodies of animals lose more heat by radiation than they receive by the same means.
The philosophy of the clothing of men and the sheltering of the lower animals is now evident. It
is not only necessary that heat should be developed within the body, but also that its wasteful
expenditure should be prevented. The latter is effected by interposing between the warm body
and the cold air some substances (such as fur or wool) which do not readily permit the
transmission of heat—non-conductors as they are termed. The close down of the eider duck is
destined to protect its bosom from the chilling influence of the icy waters of the North Polar
Sea, and the quadrupeds of the dreary Arctic Circle are sheltered by thick fur coverings from the
piercing blasts of its long winter.
Fat Equivalents.—Whilst it is quite certain that neither nerves nor muscles can be elaborated
exclusively out of fat, starch, sugar, or any other non-nitrogenous substance, it is almost equally
clear that fat may be formed out of nitrogenous tissue. The quantity of fat, however, which is
produced in the animal mechanism, from purely nitrogenous food appears to be relatively very
small. No animal is capable of subsisting solely on muscle-forming materials, no matter how
abundantly supplied. The food of the Carnivora contains a large proportion of fat, and the
nutriment of the Herbivora is largely made up of starch and other fat-formers. Dogs, geese, and
other animals fed exclusively upon albumen or white of egg rapidly decreased in weight, and
after presenting all the symptoms of starvation, died in three or four weeks.8 The fat of the
bodies of the Carnivora is almost entirely formed—and probably with little if any alteration—
from the fatty constituents of their food. Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, derive nearly all
their fat from starch, sugar, gum, cellulose, and other non-nitrogenous, but not fatty, materials.
Although starch is convertible into fat, it is not to be understood that a pound weight of one of
these bodies is equivalent to an equal quantity of the other. During the conversion of starch into
fat, the greater number of its constituent atoms is converted into water and carbonic acid gas.
The greater number of the more important metamorphoses of organised matter, which take place
in the animal organum, is the result of either oxidation or fermentation: in the conversion of
starch or sugar into fat or oil, both of these processes, it is stated, take place; a portion of the
hydrogen is converted by oxidation into water, and by fermentation carbonic acid gas is formed,

which removes both oxygen and carbon. Perhaps in the formation of fat fermentation is alone
employed—a portion of the oxygen being removed as water, and another portion as carbonic
acid. The chief difference between the ultimate composition of starch and fat is, that the latter
contains a much larger proportion of hydrogen and carbon. The knowledge of the exact quantity
of starch required for the formation of a given amount of fat is of importance in enabling us to
estimate the relative feeding value of both substances. Certain difficulties stand in the way of
our acquiring an accurate knowledge on this point. Not only are there several distinct kinds of
fat, but the precise formula, or atomic constitution of each, is as yet veiled in doubt. There are
three fats which occur in man and the domesticated animals, and in vegetables. These are
stearine, margarine, and oleine. The relative proportions of these vary in each animal: thus, in
man and in the goose margarine is the most abundant fat, whilst oleine9 exists in the pig in a
greater proportion than in man, the sheep, or the ox. The composition of the animal fats does
not, however, vary much; and this fact, together with other considerations, have led chemists to
assume that two-and-a-half parts of starch are required for the production of one part of the
mixed fats of the different animals. Grape sugar and the pectine bodies—substances which form
a large proportion of the food of the Herbivora—contain more oxygen and hydrogen than exist
in starch, and, consequently, are not capable of forming so large an amount of fat as an equal
weight of starch. We may assume, then, that 2·50 parts of starch, 2·75 parts of sugar, or 3 parts
of the pectine bodies, are equivalent to 1 part of fat.

SECTION IV.

RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD.

I have already stated that the results of the admirable investigations of Lawes and Gilbert
prove that the non-nitrogenous constituents of the carcasses of oxen, sheep, and pigs exceed in
weight their nitrogenous elements. This fact is suggestive of many important questions. What
relation is there between the composition of an animal and that of its food? Should an animal
whose body contains three times as much fat as lean flesh, be supplied with food containing
three times as much fat-formers as flesh-formers? To these questions there is some difficulty in
replying. There is a relationship between the composition of the body of an animal and that of
its food; but the relationship varies so greatly that it is impossible to determine with any degree
of accuracy the quantity of fat-formers which is required to produce a given weight of fat in
animals, taken in globo. If, however, we deal with a particular animal placed under certain
conditions, it is then possible to ascertain the amount of fat which a given weight of non-plastic
food will produce. For the greater part of our knowledge on this point, as on so many others, in
the feeding of stock, we are indebted to Lawes and Gilbert. In the case of sheep fed upon
fattening food these inquirers found that every 100 lbs. of dry10 non-nitrogenous substances
consumed by them produced, on an average, an increase of 10 lbs. in the weight of their fat. In
the case of pigs, also, supplied with food, the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters
appropriated to the animal's increase was double that so applied in the bodies of the sheep. As
the food supplied to these animals contained but a very small proportion of ready-formed fat, it
was inferred that four-fifths of the fat of the increase was derived from the sugar, starch,
cellulose, and pectine bodies.

These tables exhibit in a condensed form the results of one of the elaborate series of
experiments in relation to this point carried out by Lawes and Gilbert:—

ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN INCREASE, FOR 100 PARTS OF EACH
CONSUMED IN FOOD BY FATTENING SHEEP.

Amount of each Class in
General Particulars of the Experiments. Increase for 100 of the
same consumed in Food.
Description of Fattening Food.
Breed. A. Duration. Given ad B. C. D. E.
Given in limited quantity.
libitum.
Class I.
wks. dys.
Swedish
Cotswolds 46 19 5 Oilcake and clover chaff. 3·98 4·43 11·6 9·60
turnips.
Leicesters 40 20 0 " " 3·15 3·39 12·0 9·48
Cross-bred
40 20 0 " " 3·24 3·60 11·6 9·31
wethers
Cross-bred ewes 40 20 0 " " 3·25 3·60 11·8 9·40
Hants Downs 40 26 0 " " 3·40 4·28 10·3 8·49
Sussex Downs 40 26 0 " " 3·30 4·16 10·3 8·44
Means 3·39 3·91 11·3 9·12
Class III.—(Series 1.)
Swedish
5 13 6 Oilcake. 4·16 4·01 11·1 9·33
Hants Downs turnips.
5 13 6 Oats. " 5·73 7·07 10·0 9·45
5 13 6 Clover chaff. " 3·98 7·44 9·0 8·49
Means 4·62 6·17 10·0 9·09
Class IV.—(Series 2.)
5 19 1 Oilcake. Clover chaff. 1·69 2·20 6·3 5·07
Hants Downs 5 19 1 Linseed. " 1·81 2·32 6·2 5·19
5 19 1 Barley. " 1·75 2·82 5·7 5·00
5 19 1 Malt. " 1·46 2·17 5·3 4·61
Means 1·68 2·38 5·9 4·97
Class V.—(Series 4.)
4 10 0 Barley ground. Mangolds. 3·80 5·65 9·8 8·91
5 10 0 Malt, ground, & malt dust. " 4·04 6·18 10·4 9·49
Hants Downs 4 10 0 Barley ground and steeped. " 3·72 6·35 8·9 8·28
Malt, ground and steeped, &
4 10 0 " 2·95 4·34 9·3 8·23
malt dust.
5 10 0 Malt, ground, & malt dust. " 3·46 5·46 9·1 8·25
Means 3·59 5·60 9·5 8·63
Means of all 3·27 4·41 9·4 8·06
A.—No. of Animals.
D.—Non-nitrogenous substance.
KEY: B.—Mineral matter (ash).11 E.—Total dry substance.
C.—Nitrogenous compounds (dry).

ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN INCREASE, FOR 100 OF EACH CONSUMED
IN FOOD, BY FATTENING PIGS.

Amount of each Class in
General Particulars of the Experiments. Increase for 100 of the
same consumed in Food.

Duration. Description of Fattening Food.
A. B. C. D. E. F.
(weeks) Given in limited quantity. Given ad libitum.

The Analysed "Fat Pig."12
Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil-meal 2, and barley-meal 3
1 10 2·66 7·76 17·6 14·9 405
parts, ad libitum.
Series I.
3 8 None. Bean & lentil-meal. 0·68 4·88 25·3 17·5 621
3 " Indian-meal. " 1·86 6·39 23·7 17·9 477
3 " Indian-meal and bran. " 0·33 5·02 21·1 16·1 362
3 " None. Indian meal. 2·09 9·28 20·9 18·6 300
3 " Bean and lentil-meal. " 0·99 9·18 20·9 18·4 324
3 " Bran. " 2·35 12·10 20·3 18·7 300
3 " Bean, lentil-meal, and bran. " 2·71 10·03 21·3 18·5 307
3 " Bean, lentil-meal, Indian-meal, bran, ad libitum. 0·22 5·65 21·1 16·8 362
Means 0·74 7·82 21·8 17·8 382
Series II.
3 8 None. Bean & lentil-meal. 3·20 3·12 26·5 18·2 801
3 " Barley-meal. " 0·16 4·65 19·2 14·7 575
3 " Bran. " 0·16 3·99 21·2 15·2 547
3 " Barley-meal and bran. " 0·75 4·57 20·1 15·6 514
3 " None. Barley-meal. 0·56 10·09 18·5 16·9 574
3 " Bean and lentil-meal. " 0·53 6·57 21·1 17·5 620
3 " Bran. " 0·49 9·79 18·9 16·9 506
3 " Bean, lentil-meal, and bran. " 4·33 4·49 22·7 18·0 578
Mixture of bran 1, barley-meal 2, and bean lentil-meal 3 parts,
6 " 0·27 5·65 20·4 16·1 495
ad libitum.
Mixture of bran 1, bean lentil-meal 2, barley-meal 3 parts, ad
6 " 1·58 8·10 21·1 17·6 515
libitum.
Means 0·59 6·10 21·0 1 6·7 572
Series III.
Bran & Indian-meal. (equal
4 8 Dried Cod Fish. 1·06 5·06 24·3 18·1 315
parts).
4 " " Indian-meal. 0·26 8·16 25·6 20·9 352
Means 0·66 6·61 24·9 19·5 333
Series IV.
3 10 Lentil-meal & bran. Sugar. 3·07 9·30 19·4 16·9
3 " " Starch. 3·18 9·36 19·4 16·9
3 " " Sugar & starch. 4·06 10·78 17·7 16·1
3 " Lentils, bran, sugar, starch, ad libitum. 4·80 9·96 18·7 16·5
Means 3·78 9·85 18·8 16·6
Means of all 0·58 7·34 21·2 17·3 472
A.—No. of Animals. D.—Non-nitrogenous substance.
KEY: B.—Mineral matter (ash). E.—Total dry substance.
C.—Nitrogenous compounds (dry). F.—Fat.

The larger appropriation of the non-nitrogenous constituents of its food by the pig, as
compared with the sheep, must not be attributed solely to its greater tendency to fatten, but
partly to the far more digestible nature of the food supplied to it.

SECTION V.

RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL, AND THE INCREASE IN ITS
WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK.

The manifestations of that wondrous and mysterious principle, life, are completely dependent
upon the decomposition of organised matter. Not an effort of the mind, not a motion of the body,
can be accomplished without involving the destruction of a portion of the tissues. In a general
sense we may regard the fat of the animal to be its store of fuel, and its lean flesh to be the
source of its motive power. As the evolution of heat within the body is proportionate to the
quantity of fat consumed, so also is the amount of force developed in the animal mechanism in a
direct ratio to the proportion of flesh decomposed. The quantity of fat burned in the body is
estimated by the amount of carbonic acid gas expired from the lungs and perspired through the
skin; the proportion of flesh disorganised is ascertained by the quantity of urea eliminated in the
liquid egesta. The amount of urea excreted daily by a man is influenced by the activity of his
mind, as well as by that of his body. A man engaged in physical labor wears out more of his
body than one who does no work; and a man occupied in a pursuit involving intense mental
application, consumes a greater proportion of his tissue than the man who works only with his
body.13 In each of these cases, there is a different amount of tissue disorganised, and
consequently a demand for different amounts of food, with which to repair the waste. But all the
food consumed by a man is not devoted to the reparation of the tissue worn out in the operations
of thinking and working. A human being whose mind is a perfect blank, and who performs no
bodily work, excretes a large quantity of urea, the representative of an equivalent amount of
worn-out flesh. In fact the greater part of the food consumed by a man serves merely to sustain
the functions of the body—the circulation of the blood—the action of the heart—the movements
of the muscles concerned in respiration—in a word, the various motions of the body which are
independent of the will. According to Professor Haughton, about three-fourths of the food of a
working man of 150 lbs. weight, are used in merely keeping him alive, the remaining fourth is
expended in the production of mechanical force, constituting his daily toil.
In the nutrition of the lower animals, as in that of man, the amount of food made use of by a
particular individual depends upon its age, its weight, the amount of work it performs, and
probably its temper. As three-fourths of the weight of the food of a laboring man are expended
in merely keeping him alive, it is obvious that the withholding of the remaining fourth would
render him incapable of working. An amount of food which adequately maintains the vital and
mechanical powers of three men, serves merely to keep four alive. It is the same with the horse,
the ox, and every other animal useful to man: each makes use of a certain amount of food, for its
own purposes; all that is consumed beyond that is applied for the benefit of its owner. Let us
take the case of two of our most useful quadrupeds—the horse and the ox. The horse is used as
an immediate source of motive power. For this purpose food is supplied to it, the greater portion
of which is consumed in keeping the animal alive, and the rest for the development of its motive
power. Abundance of food is as necessary to the natural mechanism, the horse, as fuel is to the

artificial mechanism, the steam-engine. In each case the amount of force developed is, within
certain limits, proportionate to the quantity of vegetable or altered vegetable matter consumed.
The greater portion of the ox's food is also consumed in keeping its body alive, and the rest,
instead of being expended in the development of motive power, accumulates as surplus stores of
flesh, which in due time are applied to the purpose of repairing the organisms of men. It is
evident then, that the greater sufferer from the deficient supply of food to animals is their owner.
That they cannot be taught to fast is a fact which does not appear very patent to some minds.
The man who sought by gradually reducing the daily quantum of his horse's provender to
accustom it to work without eating, was justly punished for his ignorant cruelty. The day before
the horse's allowance was to be reduced to pure water, and when its owner's hope appeared
certain of speedy realisation, the animal died. There are men who act almost as foolishly as the
parsimonious horse owner in this fable did; and who are as properly punished as he was. Such
men are to be found in the farmers who overstock their sheep pastures, and whose "lean kine"
are the laughing stock of their more intelligent neighbours.
The weight of a working full-grown horse does not vary from day to day, as the weight of its
egesta is equal to that of its food. The desideratum in the case of the working animal is that its
food should be as thoroughly decomposed as possible, and the force pent up in it liberated
within the animal's body: as an ox, on the contrary, increases in weight from day to day, it is
desirable that as little as possible of its food should be disorganised. The wasteful expenditure of
the animal's fat may be obviated by shelter, and the application of artificial heat: the retardation
of the destruction of its flesh is even more under our control; for, as active muscular exertion
involves the decomposition of tissue, we have merely to diminish the activity of the motions
which cause this waste. This, in practice, is effected by stall-feeding. Confined within the
narrow boundaries of the stall, the muscular action of the animal is reduced to a minimum, or
limited to those uncontrollable actions which are conditions in the maintenance of animal life.
The proportion of the food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, which is consumed in maintaining their
vital functions, has not been accurately ascertained; probably, as in the case of man, it is strictly
proportionate to the animal's weight. We can determine the amount of plastic food consumed by
an animal during a given period: we can ascertain the increase (if any) in the weight of its body;
and finally, we can weigh and analyse its egesta. With these data it is comparatively easy to
ascertain the quantity of food which produced the increase in the animal's weight; but they do
not enable us to determine the amount expended in keeping it alive, because the egesta might be
largely made up of unappropriated food—organised matter which had done no work in the
animal body. When we come to know the precise quantity of nitrogen, in a purely, or nearly
pure, mineral form14 excreted by an animal, then we shall be in a position to estimate the
proportion of its food expended in sustaining the essential vital processes which continuously go
on in its body. But although we are in ignorance as to the precise quantity of flesh-formers
expended in keeping the animal alive, we know pretty accurately the amount which is consumed
in producing a given weight of its flesh, or rather in causing a certain increase in its weight. This
knowledge is the result of numerous investigations, of which by far the most valuable are those
of Lawes and Gilbert. These experimenters found that fattening pigs stored up about 7½ per
cent. of the plastic materials of their food, whilst sheep accumulated somewhat less than 5 per
cent. That is, 92½ out of every 100 lbs. weight of the nitrogenous food of the pig, and 95 out of
every 100 lbs. of that of the sheep, are eliminated in the excretions of those animals.

It appears from the results of Lawes and Gilbert's experiments, that pigs store up in their
increase about 20 per cent., sheep 12 per cent., and oxen 8 per cent. of their (dry) food. The
relative increase of the fatty, nitrogenous, and mineral constituents whilst fattening, are shown
in this table.

Estimated per cent. in Increase whilst Fattening.
Cases.
Mineral matter (ash.) Nitrogenous matter (dry). Fat (dry). Total dry substance.
Average of 98 oxen 1·47 7·69 66·2 75·4
Average of 348 sheep 1·80 7·13 70·4 79·53
Average of 80 pigs 0·44 6·44 71·5 78·40

The quantity of food consumed daily by an animal is, as might be expected, proportionate to
the weight of its body. The pig consumes, for every 100 lbs. of its weight, from 26 to 30 lbs. of
food, the sheep 15 lbs., and the ox 12 to 13 lbs. These figures and the statements which I have
made relative to the proportions of fat and plastic elements in the animals' bodies, apply to them
in their fattening state, and when the food is of a highly nutritious character. The calf and the
young pig will make use—to cause their increase—of a larger portion of nitrogenous matters.
The sheep, however, being early brought to maturity, will, even when very young, store up the
plastic and non-plastic constituents of its food, in nearly the same relative proportions that I
have mentioned.
As it is the food taken into the body that produces heat and motion, it might at first sight
appear an easy matter to determine the amount of heat or of motion which a given weight of a
particular kind of food is capable of producing within the animal mechanism. But this
performance is not so easy a task as it appears to be. In the first place, all of the food may not be
perfectly oxidised, though thoroughly disorganised within the body; secondly, as animals rarely
subsist on one kind of food, it is difficult, when they are supplied with mixed aliments, to
determine which of them is the most perfectly decomposed. But though the difficulties which I
have mentioned, and many others, render the task of determining the nutritive values of food
substances difficult, the problem is by no means insoluble, and, in fact, is in a fair way of being
solved. Professor Frankland, in a paper published in the number of the Philosophical Magazine
for September, 1866, determines the relative alimental value of foods by ascertaining the
quantity of heat evolved by each when burned in oxygen gas. From the results of these
researches he has constructed a table, showing the amount of food necessary to keep a man alive
for twenty-four hours. The following figures, which I select from this table, are of interest to the
stock-feeder:—

Weight necessary to sustain a man's life
for twenty-four hours.
Kinds of Food. Ounces.
Potatoes 13·4
Apples 20·7
Oatmeal 3·4
Flour 3·5
Pea Meal 3·5
Bread 6·4

Milk 21·2
Carrots 25·6
Cabbage 31·8
Butter 1·8
Lump Sugar 3·9

These figures show the relative calefacient, or heat-producing powers of the different foods
named outside the body; but there is some doubt as to their having the same relative values
when burned within the body. The woody fibre of the carrots and cabbages is very combustible
in the coal furnace, but it is very doubtful if more than 20 or 30 per cent. of this substance is
ever burned in the animal furnace. However, such inquiries as those carried out by Frankland
possess great value; and tables constructed upon their results cannot fail to be useful in the
drawing up of dietary scales, whether for man or for the inferior animals.
I may here remark, that in my opinion the nutritive value of food admits of being very
accurately determined by the adoption of the following method:—
1. The animal experimented upon to be supplied daily with a weighed quantity of food, the
composition and calefacient value of which had been accurately determined. 2. The gases,
vapors, and liquid and solid egesta thrown off from its body to be collected, analysed, and the
calefacient15 value of the combustible portion of them to be determined. 3. The increase (if any)
of the weight of the animal to be ascertained. 4. The difference between the amount of heat
evolvable by the foods before being consumed, and that actually obtained by the combustion of
the egesta into which they were ultimately converted, would be the amount actually set free and
rendered available within the body. The calculations would be somewhat affected by an increase
in the weight of the animal's body; but it would not be difficult to keep the weight stationary, or
nearly so, and there are other ways of getting over such a difficulty. An experiment such as this
would be a costly one, and could not be properly conducted unless by the aid of an apparatus
similar to that employed by Pettenkofer in his experiments on respiration. This apparatus, which
was made at the expense of the King of Bavaria, cost nearly £600.
Value of Manure.—It is a complication in the question of the economic feeding of the farm
animals that the value of their manure must be taken into account. Of the three classes of food
constituents, two—the mineral and nitrogenous—are recoverable in the animal's body and
manure; the non-nitrogenous is partly recoverable in the fat. I shall take the case of a sheep,
which will consume weekly per 100 lbs. of its weight, 12 lbs. of fat-formers, and 3 lbs. of flesh-
formers. Twelve per cent. of the fat-formers will be retained in the increase, but the rest will be
expended in keeping the animal warm, and the products of its combustion—carbonic acid and
water—will be useless to the farmer. It is, therefore, desirable to diminish as much as possible
the combustion of fatty matter in the animal's body; and this is effected, as I have already
explained, by keeping it in a warm place. Of the flesh-forming substance only five per cent. is
retained in the increase, the rest is partly consumed in carrying on the movements of the animal
—partly expelled from its body unaltered, or but slightly altered, in composition. The solid
excrement of the animal contains all the undigested food; but of this only the mineral and
nitrogenous constituents are valuable as manure. The nitrogen of the plastic materials which are
expended in maintaining the functions of the body is eliminated from the lungs, through the
skin, and by the kidneys—perhaps also, but certainly only to a small extent, by the rectum.

The food consumed by an animal is disposed of in the following way:—A portion passes
unchanged, or but slightly altered, through the body; another part is assimilated and
subsequently disorganised and ejected; the rest is converted into the carcass of the animal at the
time of its death. The undigested food and aliment which had undergone conversion into flesh
and other tissues, and subsequent disorganisation, constitute the excrements, or manure, of the
animal. The richer in nitrogen and phosphoric acid the food is, the more valuable will be the
manure; so that the money value of a feeding stuff is not determinable merely by the amount of
flesh which it makes, but also, and to a great extent, by the value of the manure into which it is
ultimately converted.
Corn and oil-cakes are powerful fertilisers of the soil; but the three principles which
constitute their manurial value—namely, nitrogen (ammonia), phosphoric acid, and potash—are
purchasable at far lower prices in guano and other manures. Nevertheless, many farmers believe
that the most economical way to produce good manure is to feed their stock with concentrated
aliment, in order to greatly increase the value of their excreta. They consider that a pound's
worth of oil-cake, or of corn, will produce at least a pound's worth of meat, and that the manure
will be had for nothing, or, rather, will be the profit of the business. The richer food is in
nitrogen and phosphoric acid, the more valuable will be the manure it yields. It follows,
therefore, that if two kinds of feeding stuff produce equal amounts of meat, that the preference
should be given to that which contains the more nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Mr. Lawes, who
has thrown light upon this point, as well as upon so many others, has made careful estimates of
the value of the manure produced from different foods. They are given in the following table:—

TABLE
Showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on the
consumption of one ton of different articles of food; each
supposed to be of good quality of its kind.
Estimated Money
Value of the Manure
Description of Food.
from One Ton
of each Food.
1. Decorticated cotton-seed cake £6 10 0
2. Rape-cake 4 18 0
3. Linseed-cake 4 12 0
4. Malt-dust 4 5 0
5. Lentils 3 17 0
6. Linseed 3 13 0
7. Tares 3 13 6
8. Beans 3 13 6
9. Peas 3 2 6
10. Locust beans 1 2 (?)6
11. Oats 1 14 6
12. Wheat 1 13 0
13. Indian corn 1 11 6
14. Malt 1 11 6
15. Barley 1 9 6
16. Clover-hay 2 5 0
17. Meadow-hay 1 10 0
18. Oat-straw 0 13 6

19. Wheat-straw 0 12 6
20. Barley-straw 0 10 6
21. Potatoes 0 7 0
22. Mangolds 0 5 0
23. Swedish turnips 0 4 3
24. Common turnips 0 4 0
25. Carrots 0 4 0

All the saline matter contained in the food is either converted into flesh, or is recoverable in
the form of manure, but a portion of its nitrogen appears to be lost by respiration and
perspiration. Reiset states that 100 parts of the nitrogen of food given to sheep upon which he
experimented, were disposed of as follows:—

Recovered in the excreta 58·3
Recovered in the meat, tallow, and skin 13·7
Lost in respiration 28·0
———
100·00

Haughton's experiments, performed upon men, gave results which proved that no portion of
the nitrogen of their food was lost by perspiration or by respiration. Barral, on the contrary,
asserts that nitrogen is given off from the bodies of both man and the inferior animals.
Boussingault states that horses, sheep, and pigs exhale nitrogen. A cow, giving milk, on which
he had experimented, lost 15 per cent. of the nitrogen of its food by perspiration. The amount of
nitrogen which Reiset states that sheep exhale is exceedingly great, and it is difficult to
reconcile his results with those obtained by Voit, Bischoff, Regnault, Pettenkofer, and Haughton.
Of course, men and sheep are widely different animals; but still it is unlikely that all the
nitrogen of the food of man should be recoverable in his egesta, whilst nearly a third of the
nitrogen of the food of the sheep should be dissipated as gas. I think further experiments are
necessary before this point can be regarded as settled; and it is probable that it will yet be found
that all, or nearly all, of the nitrogen of the food of animals is recoverable in their egesta.
Regarding, then, an animal as a mechanism by which meat is to be "manufactured," five
economic points in relation to it demand the feeder's attention: these are—the first cost of the
mechanism, the expense of maintaining the mechanism in working order, the price of the raw
materials intended for conversion into meat, the value of the meat, and the value of the manure.
In proportion to the attention given to these points, will be the feeder's profits; but they are, to
some extent, affected by the climatic, geographic, and other conditions under which the farm is
placed.

(1) If the elements were only capable of combining with each other in simple ratios, the number of their
combinations would be as limited as that of the letters of the alphabet; but as one, two, or more atoms
of oxygen can combine with one, two, or more atoms of other elements, we can assign no limits to the
number of possible combinations. There are hundreds of distinct substances formed of but two
elements, namely, hydrogen and carbon.
(2) In a paper by Professor Sullivan, of Dublin, the conversion of one of these substances into another outside
the animal mechanism, is almost incontrovertibly proved.
(3) Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of the Animals Fed and Slaughtered as Human Food.
By John Bennet Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S., and Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D., F.C.S. Philosophical

Transactions of the Royal Society. Part II., 1860.
(4) From the Greek plasso, "to form." Plastic materials are sometimes termed formative elements; both terms
imply the belief that they are capable of giving shape, or form, not only to themselves, but also to
other kinds of matter not possessed of formative power.
(5) The slow conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric acid takes place in the animal organism; its gradual
oxidation in the open air gives rise only to an imperfectly oxidised body—phosphorous acid. But the
latter fact does not invalidate the general proposition, that the heat emitted by a substance undergoing
the process of oxidation is proportionate to the amount of oxygen with which it combines, and is not
influenced by the length of time occupied by the process, further than this, that if the oxidation be very
rapidly effected, a portion of the heat will be converted into an equivalent amount of light.
(6) This statement is not absolutely correct, but the range of variation is confined within such narrow limits as
to be quite insignificant.
(7) Doubt has recently been thrown on the truth of this belief by Frankland, Fick, and Wislicenus.
(8) The results of Savory's experiments on rats appear to prove that animals can live on food destitute of fat,
sugar, starch, or any other fat-forming substance. I think, however, that animals could hardly thrive on
purely nitrogenous food. The conclusions which certain late writers, who object to Liebig's theory of
animal heat, have deduced from Savory's investigations, appear to me to be quite unfounded.
(9) So termed because it is the basis of the common oils; the fluid portion of fat is composed of oleine.
(10) The term dry is applied to the solid constituents of the food. Thus, a pig fed with 100 lbs. of potatoes
would be said to have been supplied with 25 lbs. of dry potatoes, because water forms 75 per cent. of
the weight of those tubers.
(11) The amounts of "mineral matter" are too high, owing to the adventitious matters (dirt) retained by the
wool.
(12) This pig was completely analysed by Lawes and Gilbert.
(13) The results of recent and accurately conducted investigations prove that men engaged in occupations
requiring the highest exercise of the intellectual faculties, require more nutritious food, and even a
greater quantity of nutriment, than the hardest worked laborers, such as paviours, and navvies. I have
been assured by an extensive manufacturer, that on promoting his workmen to situations of greater
responsibility but less physically laborious than those previously filled by them, he found that they
required more food and that, too, of a better quality. This change in their appetite was not the result of
increased wages, which in most cases remained the same—the decrease in the amount of labour
exacted being considered in most cases a sufficient equivalent for the increased responsibility thrown
upon them.
(14) As ammonia, urea, uric acid, or hippuric acid; all of which are nearly or perfectly mineralised substances.
(15) The excrements of animals are capable of evolving, by combustion, enormous amounts of heat.

PART II.
ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.

SECTION I.

THE BREEDING OF STOCK.

Cross Breeding.—For many years past feeders have zealously occupied themselves in the
improvement of their stock, and the result of their labors is observable in the marked superiority
of the breeds of the present day over their ancestors in the last century. The improvement of
animals designed as food for man is effected by keeping them on a liberal dietary, by selecting
only the best individuals for sires and dams, and by combining the excellencies of two or more
varieties of a species in one breed. A species consists of a number of animals which exhibit so
many points of resemblance, that they are regarded by the great majority of naturalists to be the
descendants of a single pair. If we except the believers in the hypotheses relative to the origin of
existing varieties of animals and plants, propounded by Lamarck, Darwin, and other naturalists
of the "advanced school," there is a general belief in the immutability of species. The
individuals of an existing species, say dogs, can never acquire the peculiar features of another
species; nor can their descendants, if we except hybrids, ever become animals in which the
characteristics of the dog tribe are irrecognisable. By various influences, such as, for example,
differences in food and climate, and domestication, a species may be split into varieties, or
breeds, all of which, however, retain the more important characteristics of the primordial type.
There appears to be no limit to the varieties of dogs, yet one can perceive by a glance that there
is no specific difference between the huge Mont St. Bernard dog and the diminutive poodle, or
between the sparse greyhound and the burly mastiff. All the varieties of our domestic fowl have
been traced to a common origin—the wild Indian fowl (Gallus bankiva). Even Darwin admits
that all the existing kinds of horses are, in all probability, the descendants of an original stock;
and it is generally agreed that the scores of varieties of pigeons own a common ancestor in the
rock pigeon (Columba livia).
As certain individuals are grouped by naturalists into species, so particular species, which in
habits and general appearance resemble each other, are arranged under the head of genus. The
horse, the ass, and the zebra are formed on nearly the same anatomical plan; they are therefore
classed together, and designated the genus Equus, a term derived from the Latin word equus, a
horse—that animal being regarded as the type, or perfect member of the group. Thus the horse,
in the nomenclature of the naturalist, is termed Equus caballus; the ass, Equus asinus; and the
zebra, Equus zebra. By a further extension of this principle of classification, very closely allied
genera are united under the term of family.
The different varieties of the same species breed, as might be anticipated, freely together; but
it frequently happens that two individuals of different species pair, and produce an animal which
inherits some of the properties of each of its progenitors. These half-breeds are termed hybrids,

or mules, and we have familiar examples of them in the common mule and the jennet. As a
general rule, animals exhibit a disinclination to breed with other than members of their own
species; and although the interference of man may overcome this natural repugnance, he can
only effect the fruitful congress of individuals belonging to closely allied species, being
members of the same genus. Hybrids in the genus Equus are very common. A cross has been
produced between the he-goat and the ewe; the camel and the dromedary have bred together;
and Buffon succeeded in producing a hybrid in which three animals were represented—namely,
the bison, the zebu, and the ox. On the other hand, attempts to effect a cross between animals
belonging to different families have generally failed; nor is it at all probable that a cross will
ever be produced between the pig and the sheep, between the horse and the cow, or, most
unlikely of all, between the dog and the cat.
It is the general belief that hybrids are sterile, or, at least, that they are incapable of
propagation inter se. This may be true with respect to the hybrids of species not very closely
allied; but that there are exceptions to the rule is quite clear from Roux's experiments with hares
and rabbits. This gentleman, who is, or was, the president of a French agricultural society, but
who makes no profession of scientific knowledge, has succeeded, after several failures, in
producing a fruitful cross between the rabbit and the hare. This hybrid has received the name of
leporide (from the Latin leporinus, pertaining to a hare), and it is different from former crosses,
in being five parts hare, and three parts rabbit. M. Roux has bred this hybrid during the last
eighteen years, and has not observed the slightest appearance of decay of race manifest itself up
to the present, so that, for all practical purposes, the leporide may be regarded as an addition to
the distinct species of animals. The leporide fattens rapidly, and with but little expenditure of
food. Sold at the age of four months, it realises, in France, a price four times greater than that
commanded by a rabbit of the same age; and at a year old it weighs on an average ten pounds,
and sometimes as much as sixteen pounds. It breeds at four months, continues thirty days in
gestation, and yearly produces five or six litters of from five to eight young. To produce this
hybrid is by no means difficult. A leveret, just old enough to dispense with the maternal
nutriment, should be placed with a few doe rabbits of his own age, apart from other animals. He
will soon become familiar with the does, and when they attain the age of puberty, all the rabbits
save one or two should be removed. Speedily those left with the hare will become with young,
upon which they should be removed, and replaced by others. After this the hare should be kept
in a hutch by himself, and a doe left with him at night only. As the hare is naturally a very shy
animal, it will only breed when perfect quietness prevails. The half-bred produced in the first
instance should now be put to the hare, and a cross, three parts hare, and one part rabbit,
obtained. The permanent breed should then be obtained by crossing the quadroon doe leporide,
if I may use the term, with the half-bred buck.
I have directed attention to the production of the leporide because I believe that the problems
in relation to it, which have been solved by M. Roux, have an important bearing upon the
breeding of animals of greater importance than hares and rabbits. Here we find a race of animals
produced by the fusion of two species, which naturally exist in a state of mutual enmity, and
which differ in many important respects. The hare and the rabbit are respectively of but little
value as food, at least they are of no importance to the feeder; yet a cross between them turns
out to be an excellent meat-producing animal, which may be reared with considerable profit to
the feeder. It is thus clearly shown that two kinds of animals, neither of which is of great utility,
may give rise to an excellent cross, if their blood, so to speak, be blended in proper proportions.
A half-bred animal may be less valuable than its parents, but a quadroon may greatly excel its

progenitors. The goat and sheep are so closely related that they are classed by naturalists under
one head—Capridæ. Some kinds of sheep have hair like goats, and certain varieties of goats
have fleeces that closely resemble those on the sheep. There are sheep with horns, and goats
without those striking appendages. The Cape of Good Hope goat might easily be mistaken for a
sheep. It would seem, judging by the results of Roux's experiments, that there is no great
difficulty in the way of obtaining a cross between the sheep and the goat. I do not mean an
ordinary half-breed, but a prolific hybrid similar to the leporide. Of course, it is impossible, a
priori, to say whether or not such a hybrid race, supposing it produceable, would be valuable;
but as goats can find a subsistence on mountains where sheep would starve, it is possible that an
animal, essentially a sheep, but with a streak of goat blood in it, could be profitably kept on very
poor uplands. Whether a race of what we might term caprides be formed or not we have derived
most suggestive information from M. Roux's experiments, which I hope may be turned to
account in what is by far the most important field of enquiry, the judicious crossing of varieties
of the same species.
It is a quæstio vexata whether or not the parents generally exercise different influences upon
the shape and size of their offspring. Mr. Spooner supports the supposition—a very popular one
—that the sire gives shape to the external organs, whilst the dam affects the internal
organisation. I have considerable doubt as to the probability of this theory. The children who
spring from the union of a white man with a negress possess physical and intellectual qualities
which are nearly if not quite the mean of their parents; but the offspring of parents, both of the
same race—be it Caucasian, Mongolian, or Indian—frequently conform, intellectually and
corporeally, to either of their progenitors. Thus, of the children of a tall, thin, dark man, and a
short, fat, fair woman, some will be like their father, and the others will resemble their mother,
or, perhaps, all may "take after" either parent. Sometimes a child appears to be in every respect
unlike its parents, and occasionally the likeness of an ancestor appears in a descendant, in whom
no resemblance to his immediate progenitors can be detected. It is highly probable that both
parents exercise, under most circumstances, a joint influence upon the qualities of their
offspring, but that one of them may produce so much greater an effect that the influence of the
other is not recognisable, except perhaps to a very close observer. But I doubt very much that
any particular organ of the offspring is, as a rule, more liable to the influence of the sire than of
the dam, or vice versâ; and the breeder who believes that the sire alone is concerned in
moulding the external form of the offspring, and who consequently pays no attention to this
point in the dam, will often find himself out in his reckonings. In order to be certain of a
satisfactory result, the dam should in every respect be equal to the sire. In practice, however, this
is not always the case, for as sires are so few as compared with the number of dams, the greatest
efforts have been directed towards the improvement of the former.
There is, or ought to be, a familiar maxim with breeders, that "like begets like, or the likeness
of an ancestor." This is a "wise saw," of which there are many "modern instances:" the
excellencies or defects of sire or dam are certain to be transmitted through several generations,
though they may not appear in all. As a general rule, good animals will produce a good, and
defective animals a defective, offspring, but it sometimes happens that a bull or cow, of the best
blood, is decidedly inferior, whilst really good animals are occasionally the produce of parents
of "low degree." If the defects or excellencies of animals were ineradicable there would be no
need for the science of breeding; but by the continual selection of only the most superior
animals for breeding purposes the defects of a species gradually disappear, and the good
qualities are alone transmitted. As, however, animals that are used as food for man are to some

extent in an abnormal condition, the points which may be excellencies in that state, would not
have been such in the original condition of the animal. We find, therefore, that the improved
breeds of oxen and sheep exhibit some tendency to revert to their original condition, and it is
only by close attention to the diet, breeding, and general management of these animals that this
tendency can be successfully resisted. Sometimes, however, an animal of even the best breed
will "return to nature," or will acquire some undesirable quality; such an animal should be
rejected for breeding purposes, for its defects would in all probability be transmitted to its
descendants, near or remote. A case, which admirably illustrates this point, is recorded in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1813, and it is sufficiently interesting to be mentioned here:—
Seth Wright, who possessed a small farm on the Charles River, about sixteen miles from Boston, had a small
flock, consisting of fifteen ewes and one ram. One of these ewes, in 1791, produced a singular-shaped male
lamb. Wright was advised to kill his former ram and keep this new one in place of it; the consequence was, the
formation of a new breed of sheep, which gradually spread over a considerable part of New England, but the
introduction of the Merino has nearly destroyed them again. This new variety was called the Otter, or "Ankon"
breed. They are remarkable for the shortness of their legs, and the crookedness of their forelegs, like an elbow.
They are much more feeble and much smaller than the common sheep, and less able to break over low fences;
and this was the reason of their being continued and propagated.

Here we have an instance of an animal propagating a defect through a great number of
descendants, though it had not acquired it from its own ancestors. It is, however, probable that
occasionally a male descendant of this short-legged ram possessed considerably longer organs
of locomotion than the founder of his breed; and, consequently, if selected for breeding purposes
might become the founder of a long-legged variety, in which, however, a couple of pairs of
short-legs would occasionally present themselves. I have a notion that the higher animals are in
the scale of being, the greater is their tendency to transmit their acquired good or bad habits to
their posterity. Dogs are, perhaps, the most intelligent of the inferior animals, and it is well
known that they transmit to their offspring their acquired as well as their natural habits. I doubt
very much that those most stupid of creatures, guinea-pigs, possess this property in any sensible
degree; or, indeed, that like the canine tribe, they can be readily made to acquire artificial
peculiarities: but there once flourished a "learned pig," and it would be worth inquiring whether
or not its descendants, like the descendants of the trained setter, and pointer, were at all
benefited by the education of their ancestor. I shall conclude this part of my subject in the words
of Professor Tanner: "In all cases where the breed has been carefully preserved pure, great
benefit will result from doing so. The character of a breed becomes more and more concentrated
and confirmed in a pedigree animal, and this character is rendered more fully hereditary in
proportion to the number of generations through which it has been transmitted. By the aid of
pedigree, purity of blood may be insured, and a systematic plan adopted by which we can
perpetuate distinct families, and thereby obtain a change of blood without its being a cross. It is
evident that any one adopting a systematic arrangement will be able to do this more effectually
than another without this aid. This is the more important when the number of families is small,
as is the case with Devons and Herefords, especially the former. The individual animals from
which the Devons are descended are very limited in number, and in a few hands; but, with some
honourable exceptions, little attention is given to this point. The importance is rendered evident
by the decreasing size of the breed, the number of barren heifers, and the increased delicacy of
constitution shown in the stock of many breeders of that district who are not particular in this
respect. The contrast between such herds, and those in which more care and judgment are
exercised, renders the advantages of attention to pedigree very evident; for here the strength of
constitution is retained, together with many of the advantages of this valuable breed."

SECTION II.

THE BREEDS OF STOCK.

The nature of the animal determines, as I have already stated, the proportion of its food
carried off in its increase; but this point is also greatly influenced by its variety, or breed.
Certain breeds which have for a long period been kept on bulky food, and obliged to roam in
quest of it, appear to have acquired a normal tendency to leanness. No doubt, if they were
supplied with highly nutritious food for many successive generations, these breeds might
eventually exhibit as great a tendency to fatten as they now do to remain in a lean condition. As
it is, the horned cattle of Kerry, Wales, and some other regions, rarely become fat, no matter
how abundantly they may be supplied with fattening food. On the other hand, the Herefords, but
more especially the Shorthorns, exhibit a natural disposition to obesity, and such animals alone
should be stall-fed. It is noteworthy that animals which are naturally disposed to yield
abundance of milk are often the best adapted for fattening; but it would appear that the
continuous use of highly fattening food, and the observance of the various other conditions in
the forcing system, diminish the activity of the lacteal secretion, and increase the tendency to
fatness in the races of the bovine tribe. The Shorthorns were at one time famous for their
milking capabilities, but latterly their galactophoric reputation has greatly declined. Still I am
disposed to believe, that if some of those animals were placed under conditions favorable to the
improvement of dairy stock, herds of Shorthorn milch cows could be obtained which would vie
in their own line with the famous fat-disposed oxen of the same breed.
In sheep the tendency to early maturity and to fatten is greatly influenced by the breed. The
Leicester, even when kept on inferior pasture, fattens so rapidly that in eighteen months it is fit
for the butcher; whilst the Merino, though supplied with excellent herbage, must be preserved
for nearly four years before it is ready for the shambles. The crossing of good herds has resulted
in the development of numerous varieties, all remarkable for their aptitude to fatten and to arrive
early at maturity. The Leicester—itself supposed to be a cross—has greatly improved the
Lincoln, and the Hampshire and Southdown have produced an excellent cross. Of course, each
breed and cross has its admirers; indeed, the differences of opinion which prevail in relation to
the relative merits of the Lincoln and the Leicester—the Southdown and the Shropshiredown—
the Dorset and the Somerset—occasionally culminate into newspaper controversies of an
exceedingly ascerb character. There is no doubt but that particular breeds of sheep thrive in
localities and under conditions which are inimical to other varieties; but still it is equally evident
that, cæteris paribus, one kind of sheep will store up in its increase a larger proportion of its
food than another kind, and will arrive earlier at maturity. It is the knowledge of this fact which
has led to the great estimation in which are held some half-dozen out of the numerous breeds
and cross-breeds of that animal. In 1861 an interesting experiment was made by the Parlington
Farmers' Club with the object of testing the relative merits of several varieties of sheep. The
results are shown in the tables:—

TABLE I.

Weights gained during the time of
Live Weight of Feeding from the 11th November, 1861,
Description of Weight of Weight
Six Wethers when Weight Weight to 14th February, 1862.
Class of Mutton when of
Shorn, 26th of Wool. of Pelts.
Sheep. slaughtered. Tallow. In Live
Feburary, 1862. In Mutton. In Wool.
Weight.
st. lb. st. lb. lb. lb. lb. st. lb. st. lb. lb. oz.
Cross from
85 3 53 1 106 43 85 13 7 8 6 14 5
the Teeswater
North Sheep 83 12 53 12 96 43½ 83 12 11 8 3 14 8
Lincolns 92 1 59 12 105 66 103 16 1 10 7 22 0
South Downs 71 0 47 7 97¼ 28 65¾ 11 13 8 0 9 5
Shropshire
85 6 53 1 103 42½ 91 15 11 9 12 14 3
Downs
Leicesters 80 9 53 4 90½ 44 78½ 14 10 9 10 14 11
Cotswolds 76 5 47 6 79 54 90 12 6 7 11 18 0

TABLE II.

Value of Food
Value of the
Value of the preceding Mutton and Wool deducted from
Food Food,
so gained. Value of the Value of Mutton
Description of consumed Calculating
Mutton and and Wool,
Sheep. during time Turnips at 6s.
Wool. showing real
of feeding. 8d., and Cake at
Price of the Mutton. Price of the Wool. value of the
£10 10s. per ton.
different sheep.
p. Swd. Lnd.
p. lb.
lb. Tnp. Cke.
d. £ s. d. d. £ s. d. st. lb. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d.
Teeswater,
6 2 19 0 18 1 1 6 978 300 3 8 10½ 4 0 6 0 11 7
Cross
North
6 2 17 6 17½ 1 1 1¾ 914 300 3 6 2½ 3 18 7¾ 0 12 5
Shropshire
Lincolnshire16 5¾ 3 10 5¼ 18 1 13 0 936 363 3 13 0¼ 5 3 5¼ 1 10 5
Southdowns 6½ 3 0 8 17 0 13 2½ 684 300 2 16 7½ 3 13 10½ 0 17 3
Shropshire 6¼ 3 11 10½ 17½ 1 0 7¾ 924 300 3 6 7¾ 4 12 6¼ 1 5 10
Leicester 5¾ 3 5 2 18 1 2 0 877 300 3 4 8 4 7 2 1 2 6
Cotswolds 6 2 14 6 18 1 7 0 926 300 3 6 8½ 4 1 6 0 14 9½

These results, taken with the customary grain of salt, tell well for the improved Lincoln; they
also clearly show the aptitude to fatten, without much loss in offal, of the Leicester;17 and they
commend to the lover of good mutton the Shropshire and South-Downs.
In the sixteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Mr.
Lawes gives some valuable information relative to the comparative fattening qualities of
different breeds of sheep. The following table, on this author's authority, shows the average food
consumed in producing 100 lbs. increase in live weight:—

Breed. Oil Cake. Clover. Swedes.
Sussex 297¼ 285½ 3·835¾
Hampshire 291½ 261¼ 3·966¾
Cross-bred Wethers 264½ 251¾ 3·725¼

Do. Ewes 263½ 250¼ 3·671
Leicesters 263¾ 251¼ 3·761
Cotswolds 253½ 216¾ 3·557½

Some breeds are profitably kept in certain localities, where other kinds would not pay so well:
for example, the Devons, according to Mr. Smith, are better adapted than larger breeds for
"converting the produce of cold and hilly pastures into meat." It is remarkable that nearly all the
best existing breeds of oxen and sheep are crosses. Major Rudd states that the dam of Hubback,
the famous founder of pure improved Shorthorns, owed her propensity to fatten to an admixture
of Kyloe blood, and also that the sire of Hubback had a stain of Alderney, or Normandy blood.
Although the Rudd account of the ancestry of Hubback is not accepted by all the historians of
this splendid breed of cattle, there is no doubt but that the breed owes its origin as much to
judicious crossing as to careful selection of sires and dams. It must not, however, be imagined
that there are no good pure races of stock. There is a perfectly pure, but now scarce, tribe of
Kerry oxen, admirably adapted to poor uplands. The excellent Southdown sheep, though in
every respect immensely superior to their ancestors in the last century, have not attained to their
present superior state by crossing. The high value placed by breeders upon good sires and dams
in the approved breeds of stock is shown by the large sums which they frequently realise at
sales, or when the former are let out for service. Bakewell received in one season for the use of a
ram 400 guineas each from two breeders, and they did not retain the animal during the whole
season. Several hundred guineas have lately been more than once paid for a celebrated tup.
Colonel Towneley's Shorthorn bull, Master Butterfly, was, not long since, disposed of to an
Australian buyer for £1,260. At the sale of Mr. Bates's stock in 1850, a stock of Shorthorns,
including calves, brought on the average £116 5s. per head. At the Earl Ducie's sale in 1852, a
three year old cow—Duchess—realised 700 guineas.
The color of an animal is, to some extent, a criterion of the purity of its breed. Roan is a
favourite hue with the breeders of Shorthorns. There have been celebrated sires and dams of that
breed perfectly white; but that color, or rather absence of color, is now somewhat unpopular,
partly from the idea that it is a sign of weakness of constitution—a notion for which there
appears to me to be no foundation in fact. The slightest spot of black, or even a very dark shade,
is regarded to be a blemish of the most serious kind when observed on the pelt of a Shorthorn.
The Herefords are partly white, partly red; the Devon possesses in general a deep red hue; the
Suffolks are usually of a dun or faint reddish tint; the Ayrshires are commonly spotted white and
red; and the Kerrys are seen in every shade between a jet black and a deep red. Uniformity in
color would be most desirable in the case of each variety, and this object could easily be attained
if breeders devoted some attention to it.
The Form of Animals.—The functions of an animal are arranged by Bichat, an eminent
physiologist, into two classes—those relating to its nutrition, and those exhibited by its
muscular and mental systems. The first class of functions comprise the vegetative, or organic
life of the animal, and the second class constitute its relative life. Adopting this arrangement, we
may say, then, that those animals in which the vegetative life is far more energetic than the
relative life are best suited for the purposes of the feeder. In tigers, wolves, and dogs the relative
life predominates over the vegetative; the muscles are almost constantly in a high degree of
tension, and the processes of nutrition are in constant requisition to supply the waste of muscle.
On the other hand, in oxen, sheep, and pigs, at least when in a state of domesticity, the muscles
are not highly developed; they do not largely tax the vegetative processes, and, consequently,

the substances elaborated under the influence of the vegetative life rapidly increase. The form of
an animal is therefore mainly determined by the activity of its relative life. In a greyhound, the
nervous power of which is highly developed, the muscles are large and well-knit, the stomach,
intended for the reception of concentrated nutriment only, is small, and the lungs are
exceedingly capacious. In such an animal the arrangements for the rapid expenditure of nervous
power must be perfect. It is not merely necessary that its muscles should be large and powerful,
its lungs must also admit of deep inspirations of oxygen, whereby the motive power wielded by
these muscles may be rapidly generated. Now, an animal exactly opposite in organisation to the
greyhound would, according to theory, be just the kind to select for the production of meat. The
greyhound and the horse expend all their food in the production of motive power; the ox and the
sheep, being endowed with but a feeble muscular organisation, use a smaller proportion of their
food for carrying on the functions of their relative life, consequently, the weight of their bodies
is augmented by the surplus nutriment. It is clear, then, that an animal of a lymphatic
temperament, an indolent disposition, a low degree of nervous power, and a tendency to rapid
growth, is the beau ideal of a "meat-manufacturing machine." Now, as the larger the lungs of an
animal are, the greater is its capacity for "burning," or consuming its tissues, one might suppose
that small lungs would be a desideratum in an ox, or other animal destined for the shambles.
This appears to be Liebig's opinion, for in one of his books he states that "a narrow chest (small
lungs) is considered by experienced agriculturists a sure sign, in pigs, for example, of easy
fattening; and the same remark applies to cows, in reference to the produce of milk—that is, of
butter." On this subject Professor Tanner makes the following remarks, in his excellent Essay on
Breeding and Rearing Cattle:18—"In our high-bred animals we find a small liver and a small
lung, accompanied with a gentle and peaceful disposition. Now, these conditions, which are so
desirable for producing fat, are equally favorable for yielding butter. The diminished organs
economise the consumption of the carbonaceous matters in the blood, hence, more remains for
conversion into fat, but equally prepared for yielding cream, if the tendency of the animal is
equally favorable to the same." One would imagine, from the foregoing passage, that Mr. Tanner
and Baron Liebig coincided in believing small lungs necessary to rapid fattening; but in another
part of his essay, Tanner thus describes one of the points indicative of a tendency to fatten early:
—"The chest should be bold and prominent, wide and deep, furnished with a deep but not
coarse dewlap." On comparing the two passages which I have quoted from Tanner's essay, a
contradiction is apparent. Mr. Bowly, Major Rudd, and other eminent breeders and feeders,
appear to regard a capacious chest as the best sign of a fattening property which an animal could
show. Lawes and Gilbert have recorded the weights of the viscera of a number of animals
which, though supplied with equal quantities of the same kind of food, attained to different
degrees of fatness. On carefully scrutinising these records, I failed to perceive any constant
relation between the weight of their lungs and their tendency to fatten rapidly. Some animals
with large lungs converted a larger proportion of their food into meat than others with smaller
respiratory organs, and vice versâ. In a state of nature, there is no doubt but that the lungs of the
ox and of the sheep are moderately large; and it is evident that in their case, as well as in that of
man, over-feeding and confinement tend to diminish their muscular energy, and, of course, to
decrease the capacity of the lungs. That such a practice does not tend to the improvement of the
health of an animal is perfectly evident, but then the perfect ox of nature is very different from
the perfect ox of man. The latter is a wide departure from the original type of its species: any
marked development of its nervous system is undesirable; and it is valuable in proportion as its
purely vegetative functions are most strongly manifested. A young bullock, therefore, of this
kind would, no doubt, be the most economical kind to rear, provided that it was perfectly

healthy, and capable of assimilating the liberal amount of food supplied to it. But it rarely
happens that a young animal with a weakly chest turns out other than a scrofulous or otherwise
diseased adult. On the whole, then, I am disposed to believe that whilst naturally small-lunged
species may be more prone to fatten than large-chested ones, it is not the case that small-chested
individuals fatten more rapidly than larger lunged individuals of the same kind.
The conditions under which oxen, sheep, and pigs have been so long maintained in civilised
countries, must have diminished the capacity of their chests in relation to other parts of their
bodies; and it may be fairly doubted if any good could result by reducing to still smaller
dimensions those most important organs. Probably the lungs and hearts of the improved breeds
of stock are already too small, and that it is only the individuals which are least affected in this
respect that answer to Mr. Bowly's description of a fat-disposed beast. Whether or not small
lungs are desirable in a bullock or milch cow, it is certain that a ram or a bull should be
possessed of a capacious chest, for otherwise he will have but little vigour, and will be likely to
produce a weakly offspring. A sire should be a perfectly developed animal in every respect—
sound lungs and heart, and not over fat. It is sufficient that it belongs to a good fattening breed;
but to produce offspring with a tendency to fatness and early maturity, it is not necessary that the
sire should himself be obese. It is to be regretted that so many sires of the Shorthorns and other
improved varieties should be used for breeding purposes, when their hearts and lungs have
become, by over-feeding the animals, unfitted for the proper discharge of their function. The
progeny of such sires must naturally inherit the acquired taint of their diseased progenitors, and
prove weakly and unhealthy animals.
With respect to the general outline structure of a bull, he should have a small, well-set head,
rounded ribs, straight legs, small bones, and sound internal organs. The following are considered
to be the best points in a Shorthorn bull:—A short and moderately small head, with tapering
muzzle and broad forehead, furnished with short, white, curved, graceful looking horns; bright,
yet mild, large eyes, placed in prominent orbits; dilated nostrils, and flesh-colored nose, and
long, thin ears. The neck should be broad, deep, and muscular, sloping in a graceful line from
the shoulder to the head. The chest should be wide, deep, projecting, but level in front. The
shoulders should be oblique, the blades well set in towards the ribs. The forelegs should be
stout, muscular above the knee, and slender below it; the hind legs should be slender to the
hock, and from thence increase in thickness to the buttocks, which should be well developed.
The carcass should be well rounded at each side, but level on the back and on the belly. There
should be no hollows between the shoulder and the ribs, the line from the highest part of the
shoulder to the insertion of the tail should be a perfect level. The flank should be full, the loins
broad, and the tail finely formed and only partially covered with hair. The skin is a prime point:
it must be covered with hair of a roan, or other fashionable color, and communicate to the hand
of the experienced feeler, a peculiar sensation, which it is impossible to describe. With regard to
this point, I cannot do better than quote the words of an experienced "handler":—
"A nice or good judge of cattle or sheep, with a slight touch of the fingers upon the fatting
points of the animal—viz., the hips, rump, ribs, flanks, breast, twist, shoulder score, &c. will
know immediately whether it will make fat or not, and in which part it will be the fattest. I have
often wished to convey in language that idea or sensation we acquire by the touch or feel of our
fingers, which enables us to form a judgment when we are handling an animal intended to be
fatted, but I have as often found myself unequal to that wish. It is very easy to know where an
animal is fattest which is already made fat, because we can evidently feel a substance or

quantity of fat—all those parts which are denominated the fatting points; but the difficulty is to
explain how we know or distinguish animals, in a lean state, which will make fat and which will
not—or rather, which will make fat in such points or parts, and not in others—which a person of
judgment (in practice) can tell, as it were, instantaneously. I say in practice, because I believe
that the best judges out of practice are not able to judge with precision—at least, I am not. We
say this beast touches nicely upon its ribs, hips, &c., &c., because we find a mellow, pleasant
feel on those parts; but we do not say soft, because there are some of this same sort of animals
which have a soft, loose handle, of which we do not approve, because, though soft and loose,
have not the mellow feel above mentioned. For though they both handle soft and loose, yet we
know that the one will make fat and the other will not; and in this lies the difficulty of the
explanation. We clearly find a particular kindliness or pleasantness in the feel of the one much
superior to the other, by which we immediately conclude that this will make fat, and the other
not so fat; and in this a person of judgment, and in practice, is very seldom mistaken."
In many respects the good points in a Shorthorn cow resemble those in the male of that breed,
but in others there is considerable difference. As I have described in prose the excellencies
which a bull should possess, I will now give a poetical summary of the good points of a cow of
that breed, extracted from the Journal of Agriculture, and composed evidently by an excellent
breeder and poet, Mr. Carr:—

The following features constitute, I trow,
The beau ideal of a short-horn cow:—
Frame massive, round, deep-barrell'd, and straight-back'd;
Hind quarters level, lengthy, and well pack'd;
Thighs wide, flesh'd inwards, plumb almost to hock;
Twist deep, conjoining thighs in one square block;
Loin broad and flat, thick flesh'd, and free from dip;
Back ribs "well home," arch'd even with the hip;
Hips flush with back, soft-cushion'd, not too wide;
Flanks full and deep, well forward on the side;
Fore ribs well-flesh'd, and rounded like a drum;
Fore flanks that even with the elbow come;
Crop "barrell'd" flush with shoulders and with side;
Girth large and round—not deep alone, but wide;
Shoulders sloped back, thick cover'd wide at chine;
Points snug, well-flesh'd, to dew-lap tapering fine;
Neck vein fill'd up to well-clothed shoulder-point;
Arm full above, turn'd in at elbow-joint;
Legs short and straight, fine boned 'neath hock and knee;
Belly cylindrical, from drooping free;
Chest wide between the legs, with downward sweep;
Brisket round, massive, prominent, and deep;
Neck fine at head, fast thickening towards its base;
Head small, scope wide, fine muzzle and dish'd face;
Eyes prominent and bright, yet soft and mild;
Horns waxy, clear, of medium size, unfiled;
Tail fine, neat hung, rectangular with back;
Hide soft, substantial, yielding, but not slack;
Hair furry, fine, thick set, of colour smart;
Udder well forward, with teats wide apart.
These points proportion'd well delight the eye
Of grazier, dairyman, and passer-by;
And these to more fastidious minds convey
Appearance stylish, feminine, and gay.

Breeds of the Ox.—The Shorthorned cattle are now generally regarded as the most valuable breed in these
countries. They are the descendants of a short-horned breed of cattle which existed for centuries in the north-
east of England. They were not held in much estimation, their flesh being coarse; but the cows of this breed
yielded abundance of milk. In the eighteenth century this breed, it is said, was greatly improved by a large
infusion of blood from Dutch Shorthorns: but it is very doubtful that any such event took place, for during
that period the importation of cattle into Great Britain was prohibited by very stringent laws. The present race
of Shorthorns owe most of their valuable qualities to the brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, of the county
of Durham. The former was the more successful breeder, and established the celebrated breed of Ketton
Shorthorns. His whole process appears to have consisted in the careful selection of parents, and in "close"
breeding. He must, however, have been an admirable judge of the good points of the ox, for beginning with
animals not worth more on an average than £10 each, he produced in less than a quarter of a century a stock
worth on the average £150 each. The most famous bull of Charles Colling's was Comet. The sale of this
animal realised the handsome sum of 1,000 guineas. The bull Hubback is said by many writers to have been
the great improver of Shorthorn blood. He was bought by Robert Colling for the trifling sum of £8; but
although this animal was kept by both Collings for three years, there is good reason to believe that they made
but little use of him. It would appear, indeed, that to the cows first used by the Collings—Lady Maynard, and
young Strawberry—many of the good qualities of this breed are traceable. Shorthorns are now to be found in

almost every part of the United Kingdom, capable of maintaining heavy stock. In Ireland the breed has been
greatly improved, and it is gradually supplanting most of the other varieties.
Shorthorn males have a short, wide head, covered very often with short curly hair; the muzzle is taper; the
ear rather long and narrow; the eye large, and bright, and mild. The shape is symmetrical, the carcass deep,
the back level, ribs spreading out widely, and the limbs fine. The color is a mixture of red and white,
sometimes a rich roan. The females are not so large in the head, which tapers more, and the neck is much
thinner.
The Devons are not so large as the Shorthorns. Their shape is symmetrical; fine head, horns of medium
size, often tapering gracefully; rich red or orange red color; fore-quarters rather oblique. The meat of this
breed is much esteemed: they yield excellent milk, but in rather limited quantity; and the bullocks answer the
plough much better than many other kinds do. These animals arrive early at maturity.
The Herefords are a rather small-boned breed; their horns are medium sized, straight or slightly curved
upwards; their color is dark red; neat shoulders, thin thighs, and wide sirloin. They fatten well, but are not
generally kept on dairy farms. In many respects they resemble the Devons.
The Ayrshires have a tapering head, fine neck, and large, bony, but not coarse carcass; flat ribs; short and
rather ugly horns; their skin is soft, and covered with hair, which is usually red and white in spots. The
Ayrshire cows are invaluable for dairy purposes.
The Polled Angus, Polled Aberdeens, and Polled Galloways are very large cattle, with big heads,
unfurnished with horns. Their color is in general a decided black, but occasionally it exhibits a mixture of
black and white. Their flesh is in general not of the best quality, but some of their crosses with Shorthorns
yield excellent meat, and at an early age, too.
The Kyloes are a breed peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. They are rather rough, but very picturesque
animals, covered with long, shaggy hair. Their horns are rather long, and curve upwards. Their hair is
differently colored—red, yellow, dun, and black, the latter being the prevailing hue. No variety of the ox
yields a sweeter meat than the Kyloes, and other mountain breeds of these countries. The animals, however,
arrive slowly to maturity, and in this respect there is great room for improvement. These mountain-bred
animals are now transferred in large numbers to lowland tillage farms, where the fattening process is more
expeditiously performed. There are excellent crosses between Shorthorn bulls and Highland cows.
Longhorned Cattle are rapidly advancing towards extinction. At one time they were the chief breed kept
by most farmers. In general they may be regarded as an inferior variety, being slow feeders, and producing
rather coarse beef. They are, however, capable of great improvement, as instanced in the case of Bakewell's
celebrated Longhorn herds.
The Kerrys are a diminutive breed, peculiar to Ireland. They have small heads, fine necks, fine horns of
medium length, and curved upwards near their summits. They have a soft skin; the hair is generally black,
interspersed with a few white streaks; sometimes their color is red, and occasionally brown. They are a very
hardy race, being indigenous to mountains. Their flesh is very good, more especially if the animals have been
kept on fattening food. The Kerrys are good milch cows.
The Alderneys are a small race of oxen with deer-like faces. They exhibit various shades of red, white,
brown, and roan. No cows yield better milk, or larger quantities of that fluid.
Sheep.—The different breeds of sheep are classified under three heads—viz., Long-woolled, Short-woolled,
and Middle-woolled.
The Leicester is, perhaps, the most celebrated breed of sheep reared in these countries. It was immensely
improved by Bakewell about a century ago, and the breed is often termed the Dishley, after the name of
Bakewell's residence. This sheep has a wide, clean head, broad forehead, fine eyes, long, thin ears, thick neck,
round body, deep chest, straight, broad back, high ribs, and muscular thighs. The wool is long, very thick, and
fine. At from fifteen to eighteen months old, the Leicester weighs from 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter; but a fat

animal often weighs from 38 to 40 lbs. per quarter. The fleece weighs from 6 to 8 lbs. This breed is well
adapted for Ireland. It is reared on very poor land: but in order to maintain its good quality, this sheep requires
abundance of food, and also good shelter during the winter.
The Lincoln is distinguished for its large bones and strong muscles. Originally a gaunt and ugly animal, it
has of late years been much improved. Indeed, the prices lately realised by Lincoln sheep are extremely high.
The Lincoln has a long, white face, long body, and thick legs. The wool is long, thick, and moderately fine.
The flesh of the Lincoln is lean, owing to its great muscular development. At fifteen months old it yields
about 30 lbs. weight per quarter. It is said that a Lincoln wether has attained the weight of 304½ lbs. The
average weight of the wool of a hogget is 9½ lbs.
The Cotswold breed arose in the Cotswold hills, in Gloucestershire. In this variety the skeleton is large, the
chest capacious, the back broad and straight, and the ribs well arched. It has good quarters, and a finely-
arched neck. It is distinguished by a large tuft of wool—"fore-top," on the forehead. It fattens early, and
produces about 25 lbs. per quarter when fifteen months old, and 40 lbs. when two years old. The wool is
rather coarse; its yield is about 8 lbs.
The Cheviot has a long body, long face, long legs, and long ears. The chest projects slightly, and is rather
narrow. The forehead is bare of wool; the legs and face are white, sometimes approaching to a dun shade.
Weight from 70 to 80 lbs.; weight of fleece, from 3 to 4 lbs. The wool is of excellent quality, and is used
largely in the manufacture of tweeds. The Cheviot is a mountain sheep, and, as might be expected, its flesh is
well flavored. There are several crosses of the Cheviot with the Leicester, the Southdown, and the Shropshire.
The Southdown is generally regarded as the best breed for wool reared in these countries. It is indigenous
to the chalk hills of Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, and Dorsetshire. It has a small head; its back is broad and
straight; the ribs spring out at nearly right angles from the vertebræ. It is rather light in the fore-quarters, and
full in the hind quarters. Its chest is pretty deep; its face and legs are grey or brown. The wool of the
Southdown is short, and extremely fine; the fleece weighs about 3 lbs. This sheep arrives early at maturity. It
weighs at 15 months old about 80 lbs. The flesh is very well flavored.
The Shropshire is said to combine in itself the good qualities of the Southdown, the Cotswold, and the
Leicester. It resembles the Southdown more than any other breed, having the same grey, or brownish grey
hue, and a similar shape. It is, however, larger than the Southdown, and yields a larger quantity of wool. This
breed is becoming a great favorite in both England and Ireland.
The Black-Faced sheep is peculiar to Scotland. It is equipped with horns, has a bold long face, and
possesses a tuft of wool on its forehead; its limbs are strong, and its body is somewhat long. The wool of this
breed is very coarse, the fleece weighs about 3½ lbs. The average weight of this sheep is 75 lbs., the quality
of the mutton is excellent, but it is long before it becomes matured. There are several other breeds of the
sheep, but they are of far less importance than those which I have described.
Breeds of the Pig.—There are several breeds of this useful animal, of which those known as Berkshire and
Yorkshire appear to be the greatest favorites. The Berkshire is black or dusky brown, very rarely reddish
brown. It has a very small head. Its sides are extremely deep, and its legs very short. There are several sub-
varieties of the Yorkshire. This breed is white, has a compact body, and very broad sides. The head is very
small, somewhat like that of the Berkshire. Both Berkshire and Yorkshire pigs attain to the enormous weight
of 1,000 lbs. The old Irish "racer" pig is the least profitable kind to keep, but fortunately it is, as a pure breed,
nearly extinct.
Breeds of the Horse.—There are a great many breeds of horses. The Shetland pony is so small, that many
specimens are no larger than a Newfoundland dog; on the other hand, Clydesdale horses sometimes attain to
almost elephantine proportions. There is a wide difference between the bull-like Suffolk Punch and the
greyhound-like racer. The English and Irish racer is said to owe its origin to a cross between the old English
light-legged breed and the Arabian. The most valuable kind of carriage horse is the joint product of the
draught-horse and the racer. The dray-horse of these countries has a large share of Flemish blood in him. The
best horses for agricultural purposes are unquestionably the Clydesdale and the Suffolk Punch. The latter is

perhaps to be preferred in most instances, especially on light lands. Very light and feeble horses are the most
expensive variety on almost any kind of farm; for whilst they consume nearly as much food as the most
powerful animals, and are therefore nearly as costly, they are incapable of effectively performing their work.
A large proportion of the farm horses used by the small farmers of Ireland are totally unsuited for tillage
purposes. On the other hand, there is no need to employ horses equal in size to the ponderous creatures that
draw brewers' carts. Moderate sized horses, with well rounded, compact bodies, and muscular but not too
heavy limbs, are the kind best adapted for farm purposes. In Ireland, where there are not fewer than 600,000
horses, a considerable infusion of blood from Clydesdales and Suffolk Punches is much required.
Hunters and Racers.—There is a strong tendency in the human mind to look with a regretful feeling to the
past, and to compare it to the disadvantage of the present. It is a general belief with most people that the old
time was the best time; that the seasons were more genial formerly; that provisions were cheaper and more
abundant; that men were taller, and stouter, and healthier; that, in a word, everything was better in the days of
yore than it is now, and that degeneracy and effeteness are the prevailing characteristics of our age.
Philosophers, statists, and political economists tell us that all this regret for the "good old time" is mis-spent
sympathy; for that we are in every respect superior—in physique, health, morals, and wealth—to our
ancestors. On the whole, I rather incline myself to this comfortable philosophy; but we must admit that we
have not progressed in all things since the times of our fathers.
In a work entitled "A Comparative View of the Form and Character of the English Racer and Saddle Horse
during the Last and Present Centuries," published by Hookham, of Old Bond Street, London, it is proved very
clearly that the English race-horse has sadly degenerated. The author very properly traces the cause of its
decay to the avarice of the turfites: they look upon the noble animal as a mere gambling machine; and they
sacrifice all its other qualities to the excessive development of that one which is likely to put money in their
pockets. Formerly, gentlemen kept horses for their own sakes—for their admiration and enjoyment of one of
the most beautiful, docile, and useful of animals. They were incessant in their efforts to develop into
perfection all the really valuable points in the animal; and the result was, that the English and Irish racer of
the last century was unmatched for strength, speed, and endurance. Models of this splendid race of horses are
seldom to be found at the present time; but there are, perhaps, sporting men living who saw them in the
celebrated Mambrino, Sweet Briar, and Sweet William. Those horses possessed compact bodies, capacious
lungs, strong loins, large joints, and enormous masses of muscular tissue on the shoulder-blades and arms.
They were good weight-carrying hunters as well as racers, and they could carry eight stones over a six miles
heat, or twelve stones over a four miles one. The Irish horses, at least, were capable of safely carrying thirteen
stones over what would now be considered a very ugly ditch, and could get over a long steeplechase in a style
which would astonish the owners of the modern "weeds." Since the distance to be traversed by competing
horses has been reduced from the old-fashioned three heats of four miles each to a single run of a mile or two,
and also since the weight imposed upon the animals has been reduced to six or seven stones, from ten to
twelve, the anatomical structure of the race-horse has undergone a remarkable and serious alteration. The
back has become very long, the sides flat, the loins weak, the limbs long and very thin; and this alteration in
structure has been attended by weakness of constitution and a remarkable tendency to disease. The modern
horse has attained to a remarkable degree of rapidity of locomotion, but it has been at the expense of its vigor,
endurance, and health; it can run with great velocity for a short distance, but in a four-mile heat, and mounted
by a man of average weight, a mediocre horse of the style of the middle of the last century would come to the
post long before the winner of the last St. Leger.
The decay of the breed of horses in this country is a serious matter, and the attention of all who are
interested in the preservation of this animal should be earnestly and promptly directed towards discovering
the means of regeneration. My remarks are directed towards racers and hunters. The quality of speed which
they possess has been developed to an extent which is incompatible with the development of equally essential
properties. Encouragement should be given to the production of weight-carrying hunters; steeple-chasing
should be restored to its old state, when only a powerful horse had a chance of success. The quality of speed
should be promoted in the animal up to a certain point; but when the development of this attribute begins to
cause a loss of strength and endurance, it is high time to check it. There are a few horses at present which are
strong and moderately fast: why should not steeple-chasing be of the kind which would call this style of
animal into competition? Only a "weed" can now enter with any probability of success at a race of this kind;

and when he has won it, of what use is he as a good hunter? What we want are good, stout, healthy horses,
capable of carrying, in good style, twelve stones weight over a rough country; and the object of steeple-
chasing should be the production of such a race of horses.

(16) Improved by Leicester blood.
(17) The object of the first breeders of the Leicester was to produce a sheep which would yield a great carcass, and small
offal weight. So far as the results of these experiments go, I think the idea of the founder of this breed has been
realised.
(18) "Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland," for July, 1860.

PART III.
ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.

SECTION I.

THE OX.

Breeding Cows.—The period of gestation in the cow is about nine months. The earliest time at which it is
at all safe to breed from these animals is when they are one year and eight months old. Shorthorns breed early,
whilst the mountain varieties are seldom in calf before they are three years old. The practice of very early
breeding, though approved of by some extensive rearers of stock, is not to be commended for sound
physiological reasons. Cows calve at all times of the year; but the most favorable time is near the end of
winter, or in early spring. The cows should at this time be in fair condition—neither too fat nor too lean.
Parturition should take place in a roomy, covered place, provided with abundance of clean litter. If such a
place be not available, a nice paddock close to the house must answer. After having given birth to the calf, the
cow should receive an oatmeal drink, or some warm and nutritious mash, and afterwards be liberally fed. The
cow is usually allowed to run dry four or five weeks before calving: this period should not be curtailed; on the
contrary, it would be better to extend it to six weeks, so as not to allow her condition to become too poor.
The Wintering of Young Stock.—There are certain localities wherein the rearing of young stock is one of the
easiest tasks which devolve upon the farmer. Well-drained and shady fields, yielding abundance of sound
herbage, and through which streams of pure water unceasingly flow, are just the proper locale for
economically feeding young animals. But there are districts in which those favorable conditions do not exist;
yet they are not better adapted to other uses. It is only the feeders of young stock in wet, moory, sandy, or
undrained, heavy soils who really have cause for anxiety and incessant watchfulness. In rearing a calf the
great object is to cause a rapid and uninterrupted increase in the weight of its body. At first the food of the
animal should be furnished solely from the maternal founts; but at an early stage of its existence—about the
third or fourth week—other food may wholly, or in part, be substituted for the natural aliment. It is important
that no great interval should elapse between the hours of feeding. The digestive apparatus of the young animal
is small, and its powers of assimilation are very energetic. The food with which it is supplied should,
therefore, be given in moderate quantities, and very frequently. This is, in fact, what takes place when the calf
is allowed free access to its dam; for the instant it feels a desire for aliment, the supply is at once available. Of
course, there may be objections to this plan on the score of economy; but as a general rule, too much liberality
cannot be exercised in feeding growing animals; and there is nothing more certain than that the calf which is
illiberally fed will never be developed into a valuable, matured animal. When carefully tended from their
birth, comfortably housed in winter, and abundantly supplied with nutritious food, it is sometimes wonderful
the rapid progress which young stock make. Mr. Wright mentions a remarkable case of early maturity, which
occurred in his own herd. A young steer, one year old, exhibited all the development of an animal twice its
age. This bullock had been suckled for three months, whereby it had not only kept its calf-flesh, but gained
and retained a step in advance. Its weight when only a year old was no less than 50 stones; and as the price of
beef at the time was 8s. 9d. per stone, live weight, the carcass of the animal was worth £21 17s. 6d. Mr.
Wright offers this fact as a suggestive one to "those farmers who think of bringing up their calves on old milk,
or who would otherwise stint their growth."
Supposing, then, that we have young stock which had been liberally treated when in their "baby" state, how
are we to most economically maintain them throughout the winter? In the first place, they should be kept in
warm sheds, and well sheltered from both rain and wind. Some authorities contend that exercise is necessary
to young stock, and deny that a proper development of the muscles (lean flesh) can take place if they are

cooped up like fattening turkeys during the winter. There is some truth in this opinion; and if the animals be
designed for breeding or dairy purposes, their freedom of motion should only be partially restrained. On the
other hand, if they be intended for an early introduction to the shambles, the less exercise they get the greater
will be the profit on their keep. I have known cases where animals were closely housed for seven months, and
yet their health did not appear to suffer in the slightest degree. In fact, so predominant are the vegetative
functions of the ruminants over their nervous attributes, that the only essential conditions of their existence
are adequate supplies of good air and food. That the health of these animals does occasionally suffer when the
motions of their bodies are reduced to a minimum is quite true; but in most of these instances the real cause is,
not the want of exercise, but the want of pure air. The greatest care should, therefore, be taken in the
ventilation of the places where stock, whether old or young, are kept; and no economy of space or heat will
compensate for the want of wholesome air. Under the fallacious idea that exposure to cold renders young
stock hardy, many farmers turn them out to eat straw in the open fields in frosty weather. Treatment of this
kind, instead of being productive of good, almost invariably lays the foundation of disease, which will
manifest itself at some stage of the animal's growth. There are a few favored localities, such as those to which
I have already alluded, where yearlings may be occasionally allowed a turn through the fields in winter; but
on cold clays, wet moors, and sandy soils the young stock should never be permitted to leave their sheds or
courts from the time they are housed till late in the spring.
Young stock are best fed on good meadow hay and turnips, with a moderate supplement of oil-cake; this,
however, is expensive feeding in many farms, and a little filling-in may be done with cheaper or more easily
obtainable stuffs. A mixture of cut chaff, with pulped mangels, is a good substitute for the more costly hay;
and particularly in the case of animals intended for breeding or for the dairy. The roots should be pulped, and
allowed to remain until, owing to a slight fermentation, they become warm. This change takes place in from
twenty-four hours to sixty hours, according to the temperature; but the fermentation should not be carried
farther than the earliest stage. The heated pulp should then be thoroughly mixed with the chaff, and the
compound, after an hour or two, will be ready for use. A little chopped hay—no matter if inferior or slightly
mildewed—may be substituted for the chaff, and turnips employed instead of the mangels, but the latter are
the more desirable roots.
Until lately, the use of oil-cake was confined to fattening animals, but latterly it is freely given to calves,
even when they are only a month old; and there is no doubt but that it is a suitable and economical food for
store stock. It is, however, sometimes given in excess: from half a pound to two and a half pounds daily will
be sufficient for animals under one year; and this addition to their food will be found to exercise a beneficial
influence on them when they are placed in stalls for finishing. The experience of several eminent breeders has
proved that fattening beasts, which had in their youth a supply of oil-cake, or its equivalent, invariably store
up a larger portion of their food than those which had been reared on hay and roots only.
Mr. George Stodart, of Cultercullen, an Aberdeenshire farmer, describes, in the Irish Farmer's Gazette, his
method of rearing calves:—
I occupy (says Mr. Stodart) a farm of 380 acres. I usually rear twenty-four calves yearly, and buy in sixteen one-year-olds. I
generally breed from cross cows (the same as mentioned above), served by a pure Shorthorn bull. When the calves are dropped I
put two calves to suck one cow for six months. In autumn, spring calves are put into the house upon turnips and straw, with
about 1 lb. of oil-cake per day to each, until they are put out to grass in spring following, at which time they are one year old.
Then, of course, they have grass in summer, and at the approach of winter they are again housed upon turnips and straw, which
bring them to be two years old in spring. Now they are sent out to the best grass, and again brought into the house at the
beginning of September, and fed on turnips and straw until the end of November or middle of December, when they usually fetch
from £25 to £32 a-head. This year (1864), however, they will average £32. a-head. Before selling I give each 3½ lbs. of oil-cake
per day for six weeks, and during this time they have swede turnips; at other times yellow. We give as much turnips at all times
as they can eat.

Mr. Bowick, in his excellent paper on the rearing of calves, published in the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society, gives the following information on this subject:—
We consider it desirable to allow the calf to remain with its dam for the first three or four days after calving.
Not much trouble is generally experienced in getting it to take to the pail. We find it better to miss the evening's meal, and next
morning a very little attention induces the majority of them to partake of what is set before them. At most the guidance of the
fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two.

As regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a moderately bred Shorthorn calf in a thriving condition, we have found
the following allowance to come pretty near the mark, although the appetite of calves varies, both in individuals and at different
times with the same animal:—
1st week with the dam; or 4 quarts per day, at two meals.
2nd to 4th week, 5 to 6 quarts per day, at two meals.
4th to 6th week, 6 to 7 quarts per day, at two meals.
And the quantity need not, during the ensuing six weeks (after which it is weaned), exceed a couple of gallons per day. This
implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only, and that no other feeding liquids are employed. But, in addition to the above, the
calf will, towards the fourth week, begin to eat a little green hay; and in a week or two later, some sliced roots, or meal, or finely
crushed cake, mixed with hay-chaff; and, if really good, creditable beasts are wanted—such as will realise £25 a-head from the
butcher when turned two and a half years old—a little cake or meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment. In
fact, we doubt not but 1 lb. of cake per day to the calf will make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any period of after
life. As regards meal, if that is given with the chaff, we prefer oatmeal, or barley-meal, or wheaten flour, but not the meal of
beans or pease. Others may see it differently, but we believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock. For roots, the
best we know of is the carrot, grated and mixed with the chaff, or sliced thin with a knife and given alone. It is also, of all roots,
the one which we find them most fond of, and which they will most readily take to. As soon as they can eat them freely, an
immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made.
In most articles it holds good in the end that "the best is the cheapest." So with the rearing of calves; the best class of food, or
that above referred to, is found to give the greatest ultimate satisfaction. But practically the question often is, how to rear good
calves with comparatively little new milk, a condition which circumstances often render almost imperative; for where dairy
produce, in any other form, is the chief object, the calves stand in a secondary position, and are treated accordingly. But let us
ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such circumstances also? We believe that this may be, and often is done. We
manage to turn out from twenty-five to thirty calves annually—such as will pass muster anywhere—and never use at any one
time more than six gallons of new milk daily. For this purpose, as well as to obtain a regular supply of milk for other purposes,
the calves are allowed to come at different periods, extending from October to May. Hence the calf-house has generally a
succession of occupants throughout the season; and as one lot are ready to be removed, and placed loose in a small hovel, with
yard attached, others fill their places. We begin with new milk from the pail, which is continued for a fortnight after leaving the
cow. Then skim-milk—boiled, and allowed to cool to the natural warmth—is substituted to the extent of one-third of the
allowance. In another week the new milk is reduced to half, and at the same time, not before, boiled linseed is added to the
mess.19 As soon as they take freely to this food, the new milk may be replaced with that from the dairy, and the calf is
encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots and the other dry foods named.

Mr. Murray, of Overstone, thus states the expense of rearing the calf until it is two years old, when, after
the weaning process is completed, it is turned out to grass:—
During the summer they have the run of a grass paddock during the day, but return regularly to their yards at night; the following
winter they are kept in larger yards, and which contain a greater number of animals. Their bill of fare for this winter is 2 lbs. of
oil-cake, half a bushel of cut roots, with cut chaff ad libitum. The chaff has a small quantity of flour or pollard mixed with it, is
moistened with water, and the whole mass turned over; this is done the day previous to using it. By this means they eat the chaff
with more relish, and moistening it prevents the flour being wasted. They are put to grass the following summer, generally from
the 15th to the 20th of May, or as soon as the pastures are in a state to receive them; they remain there on second-rate land till
about the end of October, when they are brought home and tied up in the stalls. The daily allowance is then 4 lbs. linseed-cake, 4
lbs. flour—¾ bean, ¼ barley—1 bushel of cut roots with cut chaff; the flour and chaff is mixed as already described. At about the
end of December the quantity of cake is increased to 8 lbs., and the flour to 6 lbs.; this they continue to receive till they are sold
to the butcher during the months of March and April, when they weigh, on an average, 90 stones of 8 lbs. per bullock, and under
two years and six months old. At this season of the year beef generally makes 5s. per stone—we often make 9s.—but taking that
as an average would make the value of each beast £22 10s. The cost of keeping to this age will be as follows:—

£ s. d.
One calf 2 0 0
Milk, &c., nine weeks 1 5 0
Cake, grass, &c., forty-three weeks, at 1s. 6d. 3 4 6
Second year, November till May, cake, flour, roots, &c., 2s. 6d. per week, for twenty-six weeks 3 5 0
May till November, grass, twenty-six weeks, at 2s. 6d. 3 5 0
Third year, November till April, twenty weeks, at 8s. 8 0 0
————
£20 19 6
Which leaves a gain to each animal of £1 10s. 6d., besides the manure.

Shelter of Stock.—The great diminution of temperature, and the falling off in the supply of herbage, that are
coincident with the close of the autumn, render it necessary to remove our cattle from the open fields, and
provide them with some sort of shelter during the winter months and early part of the spring.

The particular period at which this change of quarters takes place of course varies, and is, in fact, altogether
dependent upon the character of the season. There are some years in which there is, so to speak, a kind of
relapse of the summer, November being bright and warm, instead of, as is usually the case, cold and foggy. In
such a year there is some herbage to be picked up until the very end of December. On the other hand, the
latter part of October is often very wet, and October frosts are by no means uncommon. Tempestuous, biting
winds in November, or torrents of rain, or both, tell severely upon the poor animals in the fields, even where
there is abundance of herbage; and hence, should such weather take place at the latter part of October, the true
economy would be to remove the animals at once to sheltered places.
Nothing lowers the temperature of the surface so rapidly as a cold wind. Captain Parry, one of the explorers
of the Arctic regions, states that his men, when well clothed, suffered no inconvenience on exposure to the
low temperature of 55 degrees below zero, provided the air was perfectly calm; but the slightest breeze, when
the air was at this temperature, caused the painful sensation produced by intense cold. I could adduce the
experience of many practical men in favor of the plan of affording shelter to animals, but more especially to
those kept in situations much exposed to winds. Mr. Nesbit relates a case bearing on this point:—A farmer in
Dorsetshire put up twenty or thirty sheep, under the protection of a series of upright double hurdles lined with
straw, having as a sort of roof, or lean-to, a single hurdle, also lined with straw. A like number of sheep, of the
same weight, were fed in the open field, without shelter of any kind. Each set was fed with turnips ad libitum.
The result was, that those without shelter increased in weight 1 lb. per week for each sheep, whilst those
under shelter, although they consumed less food, increased respectively 3 lbs. per week.
As a general rule, the latter part of October, or early in November, is the time for the removal of live stock
from the pastures to the shelter of the farmstead. In England and Scotland the transference is seldom delayed
after these dates; but in Ireland it is no uncommon thing to see the animals grazing very much later in the year
—a circumstance which the lateness and mildness of our climate account for. But whatever the date may be,
the importance of such shelter is universally recognised, even by those who most neglect it and are least
acquainted with the principles upon which its necessity depends. The more important of these principles have
already been explained, but they may be here summarised as follows:—
1. A certain amount of warmth is an indispensable condition for the maintenance of the life of animals.
2. The internal heat of the bodies of animals is supplied by the chemical combination which takes place
between the oxygen of the atmospheric air which they inspire and certain of the constituents (carbon and
hydrogen) of the food which they consume, or, to speak more accurately, of the tissues of their bodies, which
are formed out of their food. It is very much in the same way in which our houses are heated by the burning
of coal, turf, or wood in their fire-places, since the heat derived in the latter case is obtained from a similar
source as in the former one—namely, by the union of the oxygen of the air with the carbon and hydrogen of
the fuel. The only real difference between the two kinds of combustion is, that in respiration the process is
conducted with an extreme degree of slowness, whilst in the ordinary fire the combinations take place rapidly,
and the heat being evolved in a much shorter time is proportionately the more intense.
3. The temperature of the external parts of the animal body varies with the nature and quantity of the food
supplied to it, and also depends upon the state of the weather and the character of the protection afforded to it.
The colder the air, the greater will be the quantity of food required, and the more complete the shelter. In
other words, a diminution of temperature, no matter how caused, will necessitate an increased amount of food
and more perfect shelter, in order to maintain at the proper degree of heat the fluids of the body. It is only the
external parts of the body that become cold: so long as the animal is in health its blood always maintains the
same degree of temperature; but in cold weather the blood is subjected to a greater cooling power than it is in
warm weather, and this cooling power it can only resist by taxing more extensively the heat-producing
resources of the body.
4. Exposure to wet, even in warm weather, will tend to reduce the temperature of the body, since the
conversion of water into vapor can only be effected at the expense of heat, which heat must be in great part
extracted from the body of the animal itself.

5. No possible increase of food, however nutritious it may be, can suffice to keep up the due warmth and
healthy condition of the animal frame in winter, if shelter from cold and rain be not simultaneously effected.
On the contrary, an animal well protected from the winter blasts will require much less food than if it were
placed in an exposed position. The reason of this is, that the amount of food which an animal exposed to great
cold consumes to maintain the temperature of its body would, under opposite conditions, be stored up in the
form of permanent "increase"—beef or mutton for the butcher, in fact.
The fat-forming constituents of the food of stock are in no case converted into permanent fat, except when
they exceed in quantity the amount required to keep up the internal heat of the animal; but when this is
constantly reduced by exposure to a wintry temperature, the food becomes insufficient for even that purpose,
no matter how much aliment is given. What, then, must not be the condition of the unfortunate animals whose
fate it is to be the property of a farmer who neither shelters them from the weather nor provides them with a
sufficient quantity of nourishing food!
Milch Cows.—When dairy-farming is conducted on pure pastures, the cows are altogether dependent upon
the grasses; and in winter, the animals suffer much from scarcity of food. This is the very worst system of
cow-keeping, but it is prevalent amongst many small farmers in Ireland, and is to be met with even in
England and Scotland. I am strongly of opinion that it would be far more economical to keep cows (and other
cattle) altogether in the house, and feed them with cut grass, than to allow them to remain out altogether in the
field. There are several disadvantages resulting from the depasturing of cows. In the warm weather, the
animals are greatly annoyed by the attacks of flies: there is a considerable waste of muscle, caused by the
movements of the animals whilst in search of their food; and the excrements of the animals and their
footmarks injure a large portion of the grass. It may be somewhat troublesome and expensive to cut the grass,
and convey it from the field to the house; but the labor and the cost will be more than repaid by the greatly-
increased yield of food. A grass-field, mowed, will produce from 20 to 30 per cent. more food than it would if
it were trampled upon and soiled by cattle. Exercise for an hour or two in the cool of the evening, or early in
the morning (during the hot weather), will be quite sufficient to keep the animals in health. This may be taken
in a field, better in a paddock, best of all in a roomy yard. When cattle are supplied with cut grass, or clover,
care should be taken not to give it to them when very wet, for otherwise there is danger of the excessively
moist herbage producing the hoove. Neither should large quantities of the green food be given to them—the
supply should be "little and often." Should the food be too succulent, the addition of a little straw will correct
its laxative effects. When the stock is about passing from the winter keep to summer food, the transition
should be gradual; a well-made compound of straw or hay with grass (natural or artificial) is much relished by
cows. A supply of good water is absolutely necessary; but sufficient attention to this important point is seldom
given. Cooked food is well adapted for milch cows. Mangels, kohl-rabi, and cabbages are each of them better
food than turnips, as the latter is apt to impart a disagreeable flavour to the butter. Three feeds in the day is a
sufficient number for cows. The first meal should be early in the morning, and may consist of roots, mixed
with straw or hay. Some feeders prefer using dry fodder, or cooked food of some kind, and not raw roots. The
second meal is given at mid-day, and the third in the evening. The daily allowance of roots varies from 2 to 8
stones, depending upon the quantities of other foods used. Mr. Horsfall's diet is as follows:—Hay, 9 lbs.; rape-
cake, 6 lbs.; malt-combs, 1 lb.; bran, 1 lb.; roots, 28 lbs. These substances are mixed and cooked, and the
animals receive them in a warm state. In addition to this food, Mr. Horsfall's cows get bean-meal—a cow in
full milk 2 lbs., others from ½ lb. to 1½ lbs.; cost per week per cow, 8s. 7d.20 Mr. Alcock, of Skipton, feeds
his cows as follows:—Raw mangels, 20 lbs.; carob beans, 3 lbs.; bran and malt-combs, 1¾ lbs.; bean-meal,
3½ lbs.; rape-cake, 3 lbs.; per diem. A steamed mixture of wheat and bean straws and shells of oats ad
libitum. Oats, to the extent of 2 or 3 lbs. daily, are an excellent food for cows.
An important point in dairy economics is the feeding of the cows at regular intervals. If the usual time for
the feed be allowed to pass, the animals are almost certain to become very uneasy—to worry; and every
feeder knows, or ought to know, that a fretting beast will neither fatten nor yield milk satisfactorily. The cow-
house ought to be kept as clean as possible; and the excreta, therefore, should be removed several times a day.
Mr. Harvey, of Glasgow, has probably one of the largest dairies in the world. His cow byres, 56 yards long,
and from 12 to 24 feet wide—according as one or two rows of cows are to be accommodated—stand closely
packed, the whole surface of the ground being thus covered by a kind of roof. From 900 to 1,000 cows are

constantly in milk. They are fed during winter partly on steamed turnips (7 tons being steamed daily in order
to give one meal daily to 900 cows), partly on coarse hay, of which, as of straw, they get between 20 and 30
lbs. a day each. They are also fed on draff, of which they receive half a bushel daily each; on Indian corn
meal, of which they have 3 lbs. daily each; and on pot-ale, of which they receive three times a day nearly as
much as they will consume, i.e., from 6 to 10 gallons daily. During the summer they are let out, a byreful at a
time, for half a day to grass, and on coming in receive their spent malt and still liquor, and hay in addition.
They are managed, cleaned, and fed by two men to each byre holding about 100 cows. The milking is done
three times a day, by women who take charge of 13 cows in full milk, or double that number in half milk,
apiece. Between 4 and 5 o'clock a.m. (taking the winter management), the byres are cleaned out, and the cows
receive a "big shovelful" of draff apiece, and half their steamed turnips and meal, and a "half stoupful,"
(probably 2 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked very early. At 7 they receive their fodder-straw or hay. At 10
they get a "full stoupful" (probably 3 or 4 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked at noon. At 2 p.m., or
thereabouts, they are foddered again, and at 4 p.m. receive the same food as at the morning meal. They are
again milked at 5 to 6, cleaned out and left till morning. The average produce is stated to be 2 gallons a day
per cow.
Mrs. Scott, of Weekston, Peebles, who keeps one of the best managed dairy farms in the United Kingdom,
thus conducts her operations in the winter:—At 6 o'clock in the morning the cows are well wiped or scrubbed,
have their bedding removed, and receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. of straw. At 8 o'clock the cows are milked, and
Mrs. Scott examines each to ascertain whether or not the milk-maid has left any fluid in the udder—and woe
betide the careless maid if her work has been carelessly done! At 10 o'clock a barrowful of turnips is divided
amongst three cows, and when these roots are not available, a quantity of peas or bean meal, with a pint of
cold water, takes their place. At 1 o'clock the cows are allowed out to be watered, and during their absence
from the byre it is thoroughly cleansed and ventilated. When the state of the weather prevents the cows from
being turned out, they receive twice a day a handful of oatmeal diffused throughout three pints of water—a
handful of salt being given in the first of these drinks. When the cows return to the byre, they receive each
about 4 or 5 lbs. of straw, and at 4 or 5 o'clock an evening meal of turnips equal to their morning feed. At 8
o'clock a "windling" of meadow hay is given to each pair of cows, the quantity being always regulated
according to the requirements of each cow. The cows upon calving receive, in addition to this allowance of
hay, half a pailful of boiled turnips, mixed with a quart of peas or bean-meal. This mess is given in a
lukewarm state. Mrs. Scott's system may be thus epitomised: Regularity in feeding; sufficient but not
excessive food; regularity in milking; and minute attention to cleanliness and ventilation.
Stall-feeding.—What becomes of the 90 per cent. of the weight of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the
food of the sheep, and of the 80 per cent. of that of the nutriment of the pig, which they consume but do not
store up? I have already partly answered this question. This portion of the food is chiefly expended in the
production of the heat with which the high temperature of the animal's body is maintained. Part of it, no
doubt, passes unchanged through its body, either owing to its indigestibility, or to its being given in excess.
The quantity of non-nitrogenous matters consumed by a man is influenced greatly by the temperature of the
air which he habitually breathes, and by the nature of the artificial covering of his body; there may be other
conditions at present unknown to us, but these are amongst the chief ones. Now, as there is sufficient reason
to lead us to believe that the consumption of carbonaceous food by the lower animals is influenced in the
same way by the temperature of the medium in which they exist, the question naturally suggests itself, would
it not be cheaper to maintain the heat of the animal by burning the carbon of cheap coal or turf outside its
body, than by consuming the carbon of costly fat within it? The answer to this question is not so simple as at
first sight it appears to be. We must not consider that, because 10 lbs. weight of carbon, as coal, costs but a
penny, whilst an equal weight of the same element in starch costs twenty pence, heat may be furnished to a
fattening animal twenty times cheaper by the combustion of coal than by that of starch. No doubt the amount
of heat evolved by the conversion of a pound-weight of carbon into carbonic acid is the same, whether it be a
constituent of starch or of coal; but the application of the heat so produced is less under our control in the
latter case. All the heat evolved during the combustion of the starch within the animal's body is made use of;
whilst a very large proportion of that developed by the combustion of coal in a furnace cannot in practice be
applied to the purpose of heating the animal's body.

It is only the handiwork of the Creator which is perfect, and no machine constructed by the skill of man, for
the direction of force, can rival that wondrous heat-producing, force-directing mechanism—the animal
organism. According to Dumas, the combustion of about 2½ lbs. of carbon in a steam-engine is required to
generate sufficient force to convey a man from the level of the sea to the summit of Mont Blanc; but a man
will ascend the mountain in two days, and burn in his mechanism only half a pound of carbon. There is no
machine in which heat and force are more completely made available than the animal organism; and were it
not—thanks to the influence of antediluvian sunshine—that the carbon of fuel in these countries is so very
much cheaper than the carbon of food, there is no doubt but that the cheapest mode of keeping an animal
warm would be to allow it to burn its carbon within its body. As the matter stands, however, there is no
question as to the advisability of keeping fattening animals in a warm place. If the temperature of the stall be
equal to that of the animal's body there will be less food consumed in the increase of its fat; because less of
the fat-forming materials will be expended in the production of heat. In this sense, therefore, heat is an
equivalent to food, but only within certain limits; because heat is developed in large quantity within the
animal body independently of the temperature of the air. There is, therefore, no object to be attained by
having the stalls heated beyond 70 or 80 degrees. Indeed, it is to be questioned whether or not stalls
artificially heated are ever properly ventilated. If they be not, the health of the animal will suffer, and its
appetite—so essential a point in fattening stock—will become impaired. We may conclude—firstly, that
animals, when fattening, should be kept at a temperature not under 70 degrees nor above 90 degrees
Fahrenheit; secondly, that the mode of heating must be such that there is as little wasteful combustion of fuel
as is possible under the circumstances; and, lastly, that no motives of economy of fuel should prevent the
feeding places from being thoroughly ventilated.
Stall-feeding is not so extensively carried on in Ireland as it is in Great Britain. There is a general
impression that it does not pay in the former country; but if such be the case, it is simply owing to the want of
skill on the part of the Irish feeders.
The cattle intended for stall-feeding should be removed (if out) from the field in October, and put into the
house, or court, or crib, or hammel, as the case may be. They are fed upon roots, straw, hay, grain, and
artificial food. The greatest skill is required in their treatment. It is a nice point to determine which foods are
the most economical, and also to ascertain in what foods excessive proportions of certain nutritive elements
exist. Sufficient food should be given; but any approach to waste should be avoided. Three feeds a day are
usually given, and should be supplied at the same hours each day. For about two weeks the animals are
furnished with white turnips ad libitum; but after the expiration of that time they receive Swedish turnips,
straw, and grain, or oil-cake. Late in the season mangels will replace turnips. Almost every extensive feeder
now uses oil-cakes in large quantities; but when oats are low in price, they will in general be found a cheap
equivalent for a large proportion of the oil-cake. Different feeders have different dietaries, and the nature of
the aliments supplied to fattening stock depends very much upon the market prices of food-stuffs, and the
locality in which the feeding-house is situated. The following dietaries are but examples of the methods of
feeding adopted in different districts and by different persons:—
Mr. McCombie, of Tillyfour, fattens from 300 to 400 beasts annually, and obtained for them in 1861 £35
per head. He never exceeds 4 lbs. of oil-cake per diem, nor 2 lbs. of bruised oats, for each beast. He gives as
much turnip and straw as they can consume. He realises £12 per acre in feeding on Aberdeen and Swedish
turnips.
"For fatting cattle," says Mr. Edmonds, of Cirencester, "I should recommend two parts hay and one part
straw, or in forward animals three parts hay and one part straw cut in chaff. Those of average size will eat
somewhere about five bushels per day, with 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. oil-cake, and half a peck of mixed meal, barley
and peas, or beans, and, if cheap, a proportion of wheat also, to be increased to one peck per day in a month
or six weeks after they have come to stall, the oil-cake and meal to be boiled in water for half-an-hour or
three-quarters, and thrown in the form of rich soup over the chaff, and well mixed, to which add a little salt."
Colonel M'Douall, of Logan, Wigtonshire, gives 3 lbs. of bean-meal and 3 lbs. of cut straw cooked
together, and 84 lbs. of Swedish turnips.

According to the researches of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, an ox weighing 1,400 lbs. ought to gain 20 lbs.
weekly when fed under cover with 8 lbs. of crushed oil-cake, 13 lbs. of chopped clover hay, and 47 lbs. of
turnips. The chemical constituents (in a dried state) of this allowance are as follows:—

Ounces.
Fat-formers, or heat givers 232
Flesh-formers 55
Mineral matter 29

Cost of Maintaining Animals.—The animal mechanism, which exhibits the least tendency to fatten, is the
most costly to keep in repair, in relation to the work performed by it. If, for example, a sheep store up in its
increase one-fifth of its food, then the remaining four-fifths are expended in preserving it alive, and their cost
represents, so to speak, the expense of preserving the animal's body in repair. If another sheep store up only
one-tenth of its food, then the cost of its maintenance may be said to be double that of the animal which
retains the larger proportion of its nutriment in the form of flesh. Of course in both cases the value of the
manure will to a great extent compensate for the cost of the food expended in merely keeping the animal
alive; but that does not affect the proposition, that the less food expended by an animal in carrying on its vital
functions the more valuable is it as a "meat-manufacturing machine." From the moment it is brought into the
world until it is "ripe" for the shambles, an animal should steadily increase in weight: every week that it does
not store up a portion of its food in permanent increase is the loss of a week's food to the feeder; for all the
fodder consumed during that time by the animal is, so to speak, devoted to its own private purposes. Sheep
overcrowded on pastures, milch cows on "short commons," calves kept on bulky innutritious food, are all so
many sources of positive loss to the feeder—and as many proofs that he who aspires to be a successful
producer of meat, must, in one respect at least, be a devout believer in the doctrine of Progressive
Development.
Cooking and Bruising Food.—The cooking, or the otherwise preparing, of the food of the domesticated
animals is a subject which until recently was completely ignored by the vast majority of stock feeders. It is
now, however, beginning to attract a fair amount of attention; and no doubt ere long the best modes of treating
the food of cattle will be discovered.
As might be expected from our limited experience of the subject, there exists considerable difference of
opinion relative to the proper method of cooking cattle food; and there are many very extensive feeders who
object to the plan altogether, and contend that as the food of the inferior animals is naturally supplied to them
in a raw condition, it would be quite unnatural to give it to them in a cooked state.
Whatever difference of opinion there may be with regard to the propriety of cooking the food of stock, we
believe there ought not to be a doubt as to the desirability of mechanically treating the harder kinds of feeding
stuff. It is quite evident that a horse fed upon hard grains of oats and wiry fibres of uncut hay or straw must
expend no inconsiderable proportion of his motive power in the process of mastication. After a hard day's
work of eight or ten hours he has before him the laborious task of reducing to a pulp from 12 lbs. to 20 lbs.
weight of exceedingly hard and tough vegetable matter; and as this operation is carried on during the hours
which should be devoted to rest, the repose of the animal is to some extent interfered with. Indeed, it not
unfrequently happens that a horse, after a hard day's work, is too tired to chew his food properly; he
consequently bolts his oats, a large proportion of which, as a matter of course, passes unchanged through the
animal's body.
In order to render fully effective the motive power of the horse, it is absolutely necessary to pay attention to
the condition, as well as to the quantity and quality of his nutriment. The force wasted by a horse in the
comminution of his food, when composed of whole oats and uncut hay and straw, cannot, at the lowest
estimate, be less than that which he expends in an hour of ordinary work, such as, for example, in ploughing.
The preparation of his food by means of water or steam power, or even by animal motive power, would
economise by at least 50 per cent. the labor expended in its mastication; and this would be equivalent to
nearly half a day's work in each week, and, consequently, a clear gain of so much labor to the owner of the
animal. In the present time of water-power and steam-power corn-mills, one man is able to grind the flour

necessary for the support of several thousand men; in early ages the labor of one person in the grinding of
wheat served but to supply the wants of twenty others. In both cases machinery was employed for reducing
the grain to flour; but in the one case, the mechanisms employed were more than a hundred times more
effective than in the other. But even the most imperfect flour mill is by far a more economical system of
comminuting corn than the jaws of animals; and if every man were obliged, as the horse is, to grind his corn
by means of his teeth alone, he would find his powers for the performance of other kinds of labor
considerably lessened.
It has been urged as an objection to the use of bruised oats by horses, that they exercise in that state a
laxative influence upon the animal's bowels. I doubt very much that such is frequently the case, when the
animal is fed only upon oats and hay and straw; but even if the oats produce such an effect, the addition of a
small proportion of beans—the binding properties of which are well known—will obviate the disadvantage.
The desirability of mechanically acting upon soft food is not so apparent as the necessity for the bruising of
oats is. Roots are so easily masticable that if they are rendered more so there is danger of their being so
hastily swallowed as to escape thorough insalivation, which is so necessary to ensure perfect digestion. To
guard against this danger, perhaps the best way would be to give pulped mangels and turnips mixed with cut
straw; a mixture which could not easily be bolted. Mr. Charles Lawrence, of Cirencester, who is a great
advocate for the cooking of food, and has frequently published his experience of the benefits derivable
therefrom, thus describes his method of combining pulped roots with dry fodder:—
We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, they consume per head per diem three bushels of chaff, mixed with
just half a cwt. of pulped roots, exclusive of cakes of corn; that is to say, rather more than two bushels of chaff are mixed with
the roots, and given at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &c., at the middle-day feed,
thus:—We use the steaming apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which the steam is
generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming food for pigs,
and on the right with a large wooden tub, lined with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thick soup.
Adjoining this is a slate tank, of sufficient size to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid
chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed down firmly; and this process is repeated until the slate tank is full, when it is
covered down for an hour or two before feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the chaff, which has become
softened and prepared for ready digestion.

Mr. Wright, near Dunbar, gives the following account of an experiment with pulped roots and straw and
oil-cake. It appears to prove the superiority of mixed foods over the same foods consumed separately:—
Two lots of year-old cattle were fed; the one in the usual way—sliced turnips and straw, ad libitum—the others with the minced
turnips, mixed with cut straw. The first lot consumed daily 84 lbs. sliced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, ½ lb. bean-meal,
broken small and mixed with a little salt, and what straw they liked. The second lot ate, each, daily, 50 lbs. minced turnips, 1 lb.
oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, ½ lb. bean-meal, and a little salt, the whole being mixed with double the bulk of cut straw or wheat
chaff. In spring, the lot of cattle which had the mixed food were in good condition, and equally well grown as others, though they
had consumed in five months two tons less of roots apiece. The reporter does not advise the mincing process to be commenced
when cattle are very forward in condition, as any change of food requires a certain time to accustom the animals to it, and in the
meantime fat cattle are apt to fall off in condition. It ought to be begun when they are young and lean.

Mr. Duckham, of Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire, says:—
The advantages of pulping roots for cattle are—1st, Economy of food; for the roots being pulped and mixed with the chaff, either
from threshing or cut hay or straw, the whole is consumed without waste, the animals not being able to separate the chaff from
the pulped roots, as is the case when the roots are merely sliced by the common cutter, neither do they waste the fodder as when
given without being cut.
2. The use of ordinary hay or straw. After being mixed with the pulp for about twelve hours, fermentation commences, and this
soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable, and animals eat with avidity that which they would otherwise reject. This
fermentation softens the straw, makes it more palatable, and puts it in a state to assimilate more readily with the other food. In
this respect I think the pulper of great value, particularly upon corn farms where large crops of straw are grown, and where there
is a limited acreage of pasture, as by its use the pastures may be grazed, the expensive process of haymaking reduced, and,
consequently, an increased number of cattle kept. I keep one-third more, giving the young stock a small quantity of oil-cake,
which I mix with the chaff, &c.
3. Choking is utterly impossible, and I have only had one case of hoove in three years, and that occurred when the mixture had
not fermented.
4. There is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and pulped roots for fattening animals, as thereby they cannot separate
it, and the moisture from the fermentation softens the meal and ensures its thorough digestion, whereas, when given in a dry state
without any mixture, frequently a great portion passes away in the manure.

On the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantity of plough-land, Mr. Corner, of
Woodlands, Holford, Bridgewater, thus speaks:—
My plan is, first commencing with the grazing beasts, to cut about an equal quantity of hay and straw and mix with a sufficient
quantity of roots (mostly mangel) to well moisten the chaff; and as the beasts advance in condition, I lessen the straw and
increase the hay, and in their further progress I mix—in addition to all hay, chaff, and roots—from 6 to 10 lb. per day to each
bullock of barley and bean-meal, according to its size—and I have them large sometimes. I sold last week for the London market
a lot of Devon oxen of very prime quality, averaging in weight upwards of 100 stone imperial each.
For my horses, cows, yearlings, and oxen—the latter to be kept in a thriving condition, and turned to grass, and kept through the
summer for Christmas, 1860—I cut nearly all straw, with a very small quantity of hay, and this the offal of the rick. These also
have as many pulped roots as will moisten the chaff, except the horses, and to them I give, along with bruised oats, just enough
roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition. To the two or three-year-old beasts I give some long straw and a part chaff, and
the offal (if any) of the food of the above lots of stock.
My farm is but a small one—under 200 acres. My predecessor always mowed nearly all the pastures for hay, which is about half
the farm, and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts, and kept but very few sheep. Since my occupation I scarcely ever exceed
ten acres of meadow with one field of seeds for hay. I keep from 250 to 300 large-size Leicester sheep, and graze from 20 to 25
large-size beasts a year, with other breeding stock in proportion.
I consider the pulping of roots is better for fatting pigs than anything else. My plan is to have a large two-hogshead vat as near
the pulping machine as possible, so as to fill it with a malt shovel as it comes from the machine; at the same time I keep a lad
sprinkling meal (either barley or Indian corn) with the roots; and this is all done in fifteen or twenty minutes. It is then ready for
use, to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting beasts. I never could fatten a pig with profit until I used pulped
roots.

Although the practice of cooking food has been advocated by several eminent feeders, it has been
condemned by others. Mr. Lawes is not favorable to the cooking of food unless when it is scarce. The results
of Colonel M'Douall's experiments go to prove that cattle can be more economically kept upon a mixture of
raw and cooked foods than upon either raw or cooked fodder given separately. One meal of cooked food and
two feeds of raw turnips gave better results than three feeds of raw turnips; whilst two cooked feeds and a raw
one resulted in a loss.
The fermentation of food, if not the best, is certainly the cheapest mode of preparing it. If the process be
not pushed too far the loss of nutriment sustained is inconsiderable. When a mixture of straw and roots is
fermented, the hard fibres of the latter are, to a great extent, broken up, and the nutrient particles which they
envelop are fully exposed to the action of the solvent juices of the stomach.
A great advantage in cooking or fermenting food is that the most rubbishy materials can be used up.
Indeed, as a general rule, the better soft food is, the less the necessity for cooking it; but washed out hay and
hard, over-ripened straw are of but little value, except when cooked and given in combination with some
agreeably-flavored substance.

VALUE FOR FEEDING PURPOSES OF VARIOUS FOODS.21
Cost. 100 LBS. CONTAIN.
Oil, Value of
Phosphoric Net
Material. Per Starch, Starch, Nitrogen. Potash. Nitrogen, Deduct
Acid. Value
Per ton. 100 Oil. Sugar, &c., Phosphoric Nitrogen for
for
lbs. &c. computed Acid, and perspiration.
Weight. Value. Weight. Value. Weight. Value. Manure.
as Oil. Potash.
£ s. d. s. d. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. d. lbs. d. lbs. d. s. d. d. s. d.
Meadow-
hay
4 0 0 3 7 2·68 39·75 24·63 1·48 10·62 0·90 1·35 1·50 4·50 1 4½ 21⁄12 1 2¼
Wheat-
1 15 0 1 7 0·50 32·0 18·50 0·42 3·0 0·14 0·21 0·65 2·16 0 5 ½ 0 5
straw
Swedish
4 10 0 4 0 2·0 60·0 35·0 2·40 17·28 0·80 1·20 2·25 6·75 2 1¼ 3½ 1 9¾
Turnips
Oil-cake 9 6 8 8 4 12·0 38·0 33·0 5·0 36·0 2·25 3·37 1·75 5·25 3 8½ 7¼ 3 1¾
Beans 9 6 8 8 4 2·0 42·0 25·30 4·45 32·0 0·86 1·29 1·11 3·33 3 0½ 6½ 2 6
Indian
9 6 8 8 4 7·0 60·0 40·0 2·25 16·20 0·19 0·28 0·17 0·51 1 5 3¼ 1 1¾
Meal
Carob, or 9 6 8 8 4 6·76 57·0 35·0 0·64 3·75 No analysis of ash. say 5¾ — 0 5
Locust

Bean

Bedding Cattle.—Instead of wasting straw in bedding cattle, it would be much better to pass it through
their bodies. If straw must be used for litter, let it be employed as economically as possible. Good substitutes,
wholly or in part, for straw bedding may be found in sawdust, ashes, tan and ferns. Leaves of trees if
procurable in quantity constitute an excellent litter.

SECTION II.

THE SHEEP.

The management of sheep varies greatly—depending upon the breeds of the animal, the localities in which
they are reared and fattened, and various economic conditions. The tupping season varies of course with the
country: in Ireland it commences about the middle of September and lasts for two months; in England and
parts of Scotland, the season is about a month earlier. The best kinds of sheep admit of being very early put to
breed. Both ram and ewe are ready for this purpose when about fifteen months old. One ram is sufficient for
about 80 ewes. The breeding flock should be in a sound, healthy condition, and the ram ought to be as near
perfection as possible. The condition of the sire ought to be good, but at the same time it is not desirable to
have him over fat. The more striking indications of good health in the sheep are dry eyes, red gums, sound
teeth, smooth, oily skin, and regular rumination. The color of the excreta should be natural.
Breeding Ewes.—After the tupping season, which generally lasts for a month, the sheep are usually put on
a pasture, which need not be very rich. In cold situations ample shelter should be afforded to the breeding
flocks; and in severe weather they should, if possible, be removed to sheds. When snow covers the ground,
the animals must be supplied with turnips, or cooked food of some kind. At such time a little oil-cake will be
found very useful.
Yeaning.—In March the yeaning season sets in; and as this time approaches, the food of the animals should
be improved, and the greatest care must be taken of them. The shepherd should be unceasing in his
watchfulness, frequently examining every individual animal. The lambing, if possible, ought to take place in
sheds, or some covered place.
Rearing of Lambs.—Delicate lambs require great care. Very weak ones often require to be hand fed. Should
a mother die, her offspring may be placed with another ewe; on the other hand, should a lamb perish, its
mother may be appointed to rear one of another ewe's twins (if such be available). The ram lambs, not
intended for breeding purposes, are subjected to a necessary mutilation when they are about three weeks old.
If this operation be performed later, there is great danger that fatal inflammatory action may set in; on the
other hand, a lamb much younger than three weeks is hardly strong enough to bear the pain of the operation.
The tails of the lambs are shortened about the same time; but it would be better in the case of the rams not to
perform both operations on the same day. These operations are best performed during moist or cloudy
weather; if they must be done on frosty or stormy days, the lambs should be kept under shelter for two or
three days, as otherwise the cold might induce inflammation. The lambs remain with their mothers for about
four months, after which they are weaned, and put upon a good pasture. When the herbage is poor, oil-cake,
say ¼ lb. daily, or some other nutritious food, should be used to supplement it. During the summer and part of
the autumn the young stock, as a rule, subsist upon grass; but many flock-masters give them other kinds of
food in addition. As winter approaches, the young sheep on tillage farms receive soft turnips, and sometimes a
little hay or straw. The allowance of oil-cake may be increased to ½ lb., or if corn be cheap, it may be
substituted for the oil-cake. After Christmas Swedish turnips are used.
Mr. Mechi gives the following information on the subject of rearing lambs during a season when roots are
scarce:—
Two hundred lambs, which cost 22s. 6d. each on September 12th, were kept on leas and stubble until November 3rd, then on
turnips until December 19th, when fifty of them were drafted to another flock getting a little cotton-cake. On the 3rd of February

fatting commenced with linseed-cake in addition to cut Swedes. On the 7th of April the fifty tegs were put on rye with mangels,
and they were sold on the 4th of May at 61s. each.
The remaining 150 lambs were wintered as stores at little cost, on inferior turnips uncut; they were put on rye from March 8th till
May 4th, when they were valued at 48s. each.
The district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock, that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes
exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average. But in Essex, on six adjoining farms, including that from which I write, the
number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands ever carried before. This has been effected by the extension of
a system of management often practised on heavy land, that of eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal allowance of
straw, chaff, and grain; which happily were good in quality, as well as plentiful and low in price in 1864.
By these means we were enabled last winter to keep 1,500 sheep on about 650 acres of arable, and 350 acres of dry upland
pasture—chiefly park surrounding a mansion. The arable land does not very well bear folding in winter, as a preparation for
spring corn. Neither climate nor soil are favorable to turnips, and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting Nature, our crops of
turnips, rape, or Swedes, are never first-rate, and sometimes very bad. Strong stubbles, good beans, clover-seed, and mangel, are
the specialities of the locality, and they indicate heavy land, corn-growing, and yard-feeding. Sheep have been generally
"conspicuous by their absence," though even the heavy-land farmer is glad to winter a yard of them instead of cattle, that he may
keep some, at least, of the stock that pays best.
In the autumn of 1864 our root crops consisted of some white turnips and rape, eaten by the ewes in September, and of a very
bad crop of mangel, the whole of which was reserved for the ewes at lambing-time. In this predicament we wintered about 1,000
half-bred lambs, more than 400 ewes, and some fatting sheep. All, except the fatting sheep, were folded on the stubbles, and
allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour for each flock. The freshest grass was reserved for the ewes, and a very meagre
bite remained for the lambs; in fact, except for a few weeks in autumn, the parks afforded them little or nothing except exercise
and water.
The flocks were divided between three separate farms, and their food was prepared at the respective homesteads. The treatment
was in every respect similar; we shall therefore only notice in detail the management at one farm.
The following details are taken from our "Live Stock Book:"—

EXTRACTS FROM STOCK BOOK.
Lambs.
Payments. Remarks.
November 4th, 1864.
£ s. d.
Total cost of keeping 352 lambs for
352 lambs, cost at date, 30s. 9½d. each 542 2 3
24 weeks, £298 4s. 3d.
Cost of keeping 24 weeks to April 21, 1865:— Cost per head, 16s. 11d.
Corn and cake, as per granary book 245 16 9 Cost, food only, 14s. 11d.
Value of the manure, reckoned at
Cutting 25 tons of chaff, at 6s. 7 13 0 one-fifth the cost of the corn and
cake, £49 3s. 4d.
Grinding 96 qrs. 6 bshls. of corn, at 9d. 3 12 6
Cost of the lambs, per head, £2 7s.
Attendance, at 19s. 10d. per week 23 16 0
8d.
Horse labor, at 6s. per week 7 4 0
Coal, 3s. 2d. per week 3 16 0 Value of manure, per head, 2s. 10d.
No charge made for the straw-chaff
Use of 21 troughs, at 3d. each per month 1 11 6
eaten on the land.
Use of 180 hurdles, at 1d. each per month 410 0
1½ cwt. of rock salt 0 4 6
————
————
£840 6 6

The tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in April; they were, however, put on grass and clover, and were fattened in
the summer.
September 29th.—352 lambs in the parks, on a little cotton-cake and some oats, until November 4th, when they were folded on a
wheat stubble. Gave them 5 bushels of meal daily, mixed with 468 lb. of straw chaff. Cost 3½d. each per week for meal.
December 20th.—Increased the food to 6½ bushels of meal and 1 bushel of oil-cake.
December 18th.—

lb.
2¾ bushels of maize crushed and boiled 143
4½ bushels of mixed meal 200
1 bushel of oil-cake 50
——
393
——
——

Cost 5½d. per week for corn and cake; chaff, 2¼ lb. each, between these and the ewes, the lambs eating rather less than 2 lb.
each.
Eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the 352 lambs per week.
January 23rd.—The food was increased to 7½ bushels of meal, 2 bushels of oil-cake, and 2 bushels of rape-cake.

Mixture of Corn. Cost per stone (14 lb.)
s. d.
Wheat 4 parts. Wheat 1 0
Barley 4" Barley 0 10
Oats 2" Oats 1 0
Maize 4" Maize 0 10
Oil-cake 1 4¼
Rape-cake 0 9

Sheep Feeding.—In Ireland sheep are often exclusively fed on grass; but in most cases the addition of other
food is desirable, and more especially is it necessary during winter. When confined to roots, sheep, on an
average, consume about 26 lbs. daily, unless when under shelter, which diminishes the quantity by from five
to ten per cent. Some sheep on which Dr. Voelcker experimented were fed as follows:—

lbs. ounces.
Mangel wurtzel 19 8
Chopped clover hay 1 3⁄
10
Linseed cake 0 8
4 ⁄100
———————
Total 20 15 38⁄100

On this diet four sheep were maintained from the 22nd of March until the 10th of May, a period of forty-
seven days. The weights were as follows:—

22nd Mar. 10th May. Gain.
No. 1 153 170½ 17½
No. 2 134 151½ 17½
No. 3 170 187 17½
No. 4 136 155 19

This experiment shows that the sheep can increase in weight on a daily allowance of food, much less than
is usually given to them; but it will be found that growing sheep will usually consume a greater quantity of
food than that used by Dr. Voelcker's fattening animals.
Sheep washing is performed before the animal is shorn. It is a process which should never be neglected, as
dirty wool is certain to bring a less price than the same quality would if clean. After being washed, sheep
should be kept in dry pasture for about ten days in order to allow the loss of yolk removed by the washing to
be repaired; they will then be in proper condition for the shearer.

Sheep Dips are used for the purpose of removing parasites from the animal's skin. They often contain
arsenic, or bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), which are very objectionable ingredients. The
glycerine sheep dip, prepared by Messrs. Hendrick and Guerin, of London, is a safe mixture, as it is free from
mineral poisons, whilst the tar substances which it includes, act as a powerful cleanser of the skin, without
injuriously affecting the yolk of the wool.

SECTION III.

THE PIG.

In the breeding of pigs, as in the breeding of other kinds of stock, great care should be taken in the selection
of both sire and dam. A good pig should have a small head, short nose, plump cheek, a compact body, short
neck, and thin but very hairy skin, and short legs. The black breed is considered to be more hardy than the
white; and pure—all black or all white—colors as a rule indicate the purest blood.
The sow should not be bred from until she is a year old, and the boar especially should not be employed at
an earlier age. Although one boar is sometimes left with forty pigs and even a greater number, he will not be
able to serve more than a dozen about the same time, if vigorous progeny be expected. The sow's regular
period of gestation is 113 days; she can have two litters a year, and in each there are from five to fourteen
young. Moderate sized litters are the best, the young of very numerous ones being often weakly. The best time
to rear young pigs is during the warm or mild parts of the year.
During gestation the sow should be liberally fed, but not with excessive amounts. The food at this time
should rather excel in quality than in quantity; but so soon as she begins to nurse, her allowance must be
increased, and may be rendered more stimulating. For a week or so before farrowing, the sow ought to be
kept alone. Its sty should not be too small—not less than 8 or 10 feet square—for pigs require good air in
abundance as well as other animals.
The straw used for litter should neither be too abundant nor too long; in the latter case some of the young
might be covered by it, and escaping the notice of the sow, might unconsciously be crushed by the latter. If
the young are very feeble, it may become necessary to hand-feed them. Some sows eat their young: and when
they have this habit, the better plan is to cease breeding from them; for it appears to be incurable. After
parturition some bran and liquid or semi-liquid food should be given to the sow.
Young Pigs subsist exclusively on their mother's milk but for a short time. In two or three weeks they may
receive skimmed or butter-milk from the dairy. At a month old such of them as are not designed for breeding
purposes may be subjected to the usual mutilations; and at from five to six weeks old the young are weaned,
and converted into stores.
Store Pigs, when young, are best fed upon skimmed milk, oatmeal, and potatoes, in a cooked state. When
they are approaching three months old, they may be supplied with raw food, if the weather be warm; but in
winter, cooked and warm food will be found the more economical. Cabbages, roots, potatoes, and all kinds of
grain that are cheap are used in pig feeding. The number of meals varies from six or seven in the case of very
young animals, to three in the case of those nearly ready for fattening. Store pigs should be allowed a few
hours' exercise daily in a paddock, or field, or at least in a large yard.
The dietaries of store pigs vary greatly, for these animals being omnivorous readily eat almost every kind
of food. Mr. Baldwin, of Bredon House, near Birmingham, an extensive pig breeder, gave (in 1862) stores the
following allowance:—At three months old, a quart of peas, Egyptian beans, or Indian corn. He considered
English beans to be too heating for young pigs. The animals were allowed the run of a grass field. On this diet
the stores were kept until they were eight months old (increasing at the average rate of five pounds per week),
after which they were allowed an extra half-pint of corn. He calculated the weekly cost as follows:—Dry
food, 1s.; grass, 2d.; man's time, 1d.; total, 1s. 3d. These results yielded a profit of 1s. per week per pig, pork
being at the time 6d. per lb. Some feeders give young store pigs half-a-pint of peas, mixed with pulped

mangel, and the quantum of peas is gradually increased to one pint per diem. All kinds of food-refuse from
the house are welcomed by the pig. Skins, dripping, damaged potatoes, cabbage, &c., may be given to them;
but they should not be altogether substituted for the ordinary food-stuffs. Coal-dust, cinders, mortar rubbish,
and similar substances are often swallowed by pigs, and sometimes even given to them by the feeder. In
certain cases Lawes and Gilbert found that superphosphate of lime was a useful addition to the food of pigs. A
little salt should invariably be given, more especially if mangels (which are rich in salt) do not enter into the
animals' dietary.
Fattening Pigs.—For some time before store pigs are put up to be fattened, the quality and quantity of their
food should be increased, for it is not economy to put a rather lean animal suddenly upon a very fattening
diet. The sty should be well supplied with clean litter, and should be darkened. Three feeds per diem will be a
sufficient number, and the remains (if any) of one should be removed from the trough before the fresh feed is
put into it. The feeding trough (which should be made of iron) should be so constructed that the animals
cannot place their fore feet in it. The pig is naturally a clean animal, and therefore it should be washed
occasionally, as there is every reason to believe that such a procedure will tend to promote the animal's health.
It should be supplied with clean water.
In Stephen's "Book of the Farm," it is stated that two pecks of steamed potatoes, and 9 lbs. of barley-meal,
given every day to a pig weighing from 24 to 28 stones, will fatten it perfectly in nine weeks. Barley-meal is
largely used in England as food for pigs. It is given generally in the form of a thin paste, and in large
quantities. Lawes and Gilbert found that 1 cwt. of barley-meal given to pigs increased their weight by 22½
lbs. Indian meal is fully equal, if it is not superior to barley-meal, as food for pigs; and for this purpose it is
far more extensively employed in Ireland. Every kind of grain given to pigs should be ground and cooked. In
Scotland pigs are often fattened solely on from 28 to 35 lbs. of barley-meal weekly, and mangels or turnips ad
libitum. Pollard is a good food for pigs, being rich in muscle-forming materials; it is a good addition to very
fatty or starchy food. A mixture of pollard and palm-nut meal is an excellent fattening food. Potatoes are now
so dear, that they are seldom—unless the very worst and diseased kinds—used in pig feeding. They should
never be given raw. The more inferior feeding-stuffs should be used up first in the fattening of pigs, and the
more valuable and concentrated kinds during the latter part of the process.

SECTION IV.

THE HORSE.

The horse is subject to many diseases, not a few of which arise from the defective state of his stable. The
best kinds of stables are large and lofty, well ventilated and drained, smoothly paved, and well provided with
means for admitting the direct sunlight. The walls should be whitewashed occasionally, and for disinfecting
and general sanitary purposes, four ounces of chloride of lime (bleaching powder) mixed with each bucket of
whitewash, will be found extremely useful.
Farm horses are kept in stalls, which should not be less than six feet wide, and (exclusive of rack and rere
passage) 10 feet long. For hunters and thorough-breds, loose boxes are now generally used.
The mare commences to breed at four years, and the period of gestation is 340 days. She may be worked
until within a fortnight of the time at which parturition is expected to occur. After foaling, the mare should be
turned into a grass field (unless the weather is severe) and kept there idly for three or four weeks.
Foals are kept with their mothers until they are about five or six months old: after weaning, their food must
be tender and nutritious—well bruised oats, cut hay, bean or oatmeal mashes; carrots are very suitable.
Working horses are fed chiefly upon oats and hay, which undoubtedly are the best foods for these animals,
both being rich in muscle-forming materials. Bruised oats are far more economical than the whole grains: and
if the animals eat too rapidly, that habit is easily overcome by mixing chopped straw or hay with the grain.

According to Playfair, a horse not working can subsist and remain in fair condition on a daily allowance of
12 lbs. of hay and 5 lbs. of oats. According to the same authority, a working horse should receive 14 lbs. of
hay, 12 lbs. of oats, and 2 lbs. of beans.
Beans are a very concentrated food, rich in flesh-formers, and are, therefore, well adapted for sustaining
hard-working horses. They are rather binding; but this property is easily neutralised by combining the beans
with some laxative food. Turnips, carrots, furze, and various other foods are given to the horse, often in large
quantities. The following are some among the many dietaries on which this animal is kept:—
Professor Low's formula is, 30 to 35 lbs. of a mixture of equal parts of chopped straw, chopped hay, bruised
grain, and steamed potatoes.
The daily rations of horses of the London Omnibus Company, are 16 lbs. of bruised oats, 7½ lbs. of cut
hay, and 2½ lbs. of chopped straw.
Stage coach-horses in the United States receive daily about 19 lbs. of Indian meal and 13 lbs. of cut hay.
Mr. Robertson, of Clandeboye, near Belfast, gives the following information on the subject of horse-
keeping:—
The year we divide into three periods—October, November to May inclusive, June to September inclusive. During the first
period, the horses get about 18 lb. of chaff and 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans; "10½ oats and 1½ beans" per head per day.
During the second period they get about 15 lb. of hay chaff, 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans, and about 3 gallons of boiled
turnips per head per day. During the third period they were turned out to graze during the night. In the day time, whilst in the
stable, each animal is allowed about 50 lb. of cut clover, and about 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans per day. The feeding is all
under the charge of one person. He uses his own discretion in feeding the animals, though he is not allowed to exceed the
quantities named. The horses to which I allude are the same on which the experiments commenced two years ago—six cart
horses, one cart pony, and one riding horse. From Sept. 1, 1865, to and including August 31, 1866, the cost of maintaining these
horses in good working condition; keeping the carts, harness, &c., in repair; shoeing, c., was as follows:—

Oats, 14 tons, at 16s. per cwt. £112 0 0
Beans, 2 tons, at 18s. per cwt. 18 0 0
Hay, 13 tons, at 30s. per ton 19 10 0
Green Clover 15 0 0
Turnips 5 0 0
Night grazing 18 0 0
Engine, cutting chaff, crushing oats, &c. 7 4 0
Attendance 26 0 0
Blacksmith 12 0 0
Saddler 12 0 0
Carpenter 10 0 0
Five per cent. interest on value, £110 5 10 0
Depreciation in value 10 per cent. 11 0 0
——————
£271 4 0
Deduct cost of riding horse 35 0 0
——————
£236 4 0

£33 11s. 10d. per head; if we suppose the available working days to be 300, allowing 13 for wet days, holidays, &c., the daily
cost will be 2s. 2½d.; to this if we add 1s. 8d., the wages of the driver, we shall have a total of 3s. 10½d. as the cost of a horse,
cart, and driver per day. I would only add, in conclusion, that the horses are kept in good working condition; and, as a proof of
their good health under this system, I may state that during the past two years we have not had occasion to require the services of
a veterinary surgeon.

Musty hay or straw should not be given to horses. Furze is said to be a heating food; but it is very
nutritious, and when young, may be given as part of the food of the horse.
Boiled turnips and mangels are often given in winter; but they are not sufficiently nutritious to constitute a
substantial portion of the animal's diet. Oil-cake is occasionally given to horses; but seldom in larger
quantities than 1½ lbs. per diem. On the whole, experience is in favor of occasionally giving cooked food to

horses; and the practice meets with the full approval of the veterinarian. To most kinds of food for horses, the
addition of one or two ounces of salt is necessary.
In the Agricultural Gazette for November 25, 1865, the following instructive tables are given:—

STABLE FEEDING DURING AUTUMN.
No. Name and Address of Authorities. Hay. Oats. Beans. Clover, &c. Weekly Cost.
lb. lb. lb. s. d.
1 W. Gater, Botley 168 63* 32* ... 12 0
2 W. C. Spooner 112 84 24 ... 11 0
3 T. Aitken, Spalding. ... 37½ ... ad lib. 7 6?
4 T. Aitken, Spalding. ... 37½ 35 ad lib. 10 0?
5 T. P. Dods, Hexham. ... 105 ... ad lib. 10 6?
6 T. P. Dods, Hexham. ad lib. 105 ... ... 10 6?
Straw ad lib.
7 A. Ruston, I. of Ely. ad lib. ½ 84 10 ½ Bran. 9 0
1⁄ bush.
3
24 lb.
8 A. Simpson, Beauly 168 70 14 10 0
Straw.
9 H. J. Wilson, Mansfield ... 52½ ... ad lib. 7 3?
10 H. J. Wilson, Mansfield 42 87½ ... ad lib. 9 0
In this table the asterisk (*) means that the grain is crushed or ground.

STABLE FEEDING DURING WINTER.
No. Name and Address. Hay. Oats. Beans. Roots. Sundries. Straw. Weekly Cost.
lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. s. d.
Professor Low—Elements of Potatoes
1 56* 56* ... ... 56* 6 6
Agriculture 56+
Turnips
2 H. Stephens—Book of the Farm 112 35 ... ... ... 6 0
112
Potatoes
3 J. Gibson, Woolmet—H. Soc. 1850 ... 84 ... 217+ 112 9 0
217+
Barley
4 —— Binnie, Seaton ... 70* 28* 42+ ad lib. 11 6
243+
5 —— Thomson, Hangingside ... 84 14 336 14 ad lib. 9 6
W. C. Spooner, Ag. Soc. Journ. vol.
6 ... 63 ... 42 ... 196 4 9
ix.
7 T. Aitken, Spalding, Lincolnshire ad lib. (2⁄3) 37 35 ... ... ad lib. (1⁄3) 9 0
8 G. W. Baker, Woburn, Bedfordshire ... 60* 20* ... ... ... 9 8
9 R. Baker, Writtle, Essex 70 42 ... ... ... 140 5 0
10 J. Coleman, Cirencester ... 84 16 ... ... ad lib. 7 3
11 T. P. Dods, Hexham ... 95 ... 56 ... ad lib. 8 0
Linseed
12 J. Cobban, Whitfield 84* 60* ... ... ad lib.* 7 3
3½
Swedes
13 S. Druce, jun., Ensham 112 52 ... ... 2 bu.* 7 0
70
14 C. Howard, Biddenham (2⁄3) 52 17 84 ... ad lib. 1⁄3* 8 6?
M. Wurzel
15 J. J. Mechi, Tiptree. 49* 70* ... ... ad lib.* 7 6
210
16 W. J. Pope, Bridport 2* 84 ... ... ... ad lib. 9 0?
Grains
17 S. Rich, Didmarton, Gloucestershire 168 63 ... ... ad lib. 10 8
2 bush.
18 H. E. Sadler, Lavant, Sussex 140 84 ... ... ... ... 9 9
Carrots
19 J. Morton, Whitfield Farm ... 126 ... ... ad lib. 10 9
350
Bran
20 E. H. Sandford, Dover 56 42 ... ... ad lib. 5 6
12

Tail Corn
21 A. Simpson, Beauly, N.B. ... 49 7 105 ad lib.* 5 6
21
Bran
22 H. J. Wilson, Mansfield 42 52½ ... ... ad lib. 6 6?
21
F. Sowerby, Aylesby, North
23 112 28 Cut Oat Sheaf. ... ad lib.* 8 0?
Lincolnshire
Where an asterisk (*) is attached to any item, it is to be understood that the corn has been bruised or ground, or the hay or straw has been cut
into chaff. Where a dagger (+) is appended, the article so marked has been boiled or steamed. A mark of interrogation (?) indicates that the
result so marked is uncertain, owing to some indefiniteness in the account given.

On feeding horses with pulped roots, Mr. Slater, of Weston Colville, Cambridgeshire, says:—
I give all my cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel, mixed with straw and corn-chaff. I begin in September, and continue
using them all winter and until late in the summer, nearly, if not quite, all the year round, beginning, however, with smaller
quantities, about a peck, and then half a bushel, the first week or two, as too many of the young-growing mangel would not suit
the stock. I believe pulped mangels, with chaff, are the best, cheapest, and most healthy food horses can eat. I always find my
horses miss them when I have none, late in the summer. I give them fresh ground every day. Young store beasts, colts, &c., do
well with them.

(19) Five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons of gruel, and suffice for five good-sized calves; considerable
allowance must, however, be made for differences of quality in the linseed, that from India not being gelatinous
enough, and therefore boiling hard, instead of "coming down kindly."
(20) "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xxxix.
(21) From Mr. Horsfall's Essay on Dairy Management, in "Journal of Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xviii., part i.

PART IV.
MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.

SECTION I.

MEAT.

No one ought to feel a greater interest in the subject of meat in all its branches than the stock feeder. Just in
proportion as this kind of food is agreeable to the taste, easily digestible, and rich in nutriment, will the
demand for it increase. The quality of meat is, in fact, a primary consideration with the producer of that
article; and he whose beef and mutton are the most tender and the best flavored will make the most profit.
Quality of Meat.—The flesh of herbivorous animals is composed of muscular and adipose (fatty) tissues.
The muscles consist of bundles of elastic fibres (fibrine), enclosed in an albuminous tissue formed of little
vessels, termed cells, and intimately commingled with water, and a mixture of albuminous, fatty, and saline
matters. The leanest flesh (muscles) contains fat, but the latter accumulates in certain parts of the body—often
to such an extent as to seriously interfere with the functions of life. The red color of flesh is due to a rather
large proportion of blood, which it contains in minute vessels; and the slight acidity of its juice is owing to the
presence of inosinic acid, and probably of several other acids. The agreeable odour of meat, when it is
subjected to the process of cooking, is developed from a complex substance termed osmazome.22 This
constituent varies in nature and quantity in the different animals—hence the variety in flavor and odour of
their flesh—and its amount increases with the age of the animal. The albumen of the muscles, and their fatty
and saline constituents, are digestible; but it is generally believed that the elastic fibres, and the horny cellular
tissue which binds them into bundles, are not assimilable. It is more certain that the crystalline substances
found in flesh, such as, for example, kreatine, are incapable of ministering to the nutrition of animals.
The composition of flesh varies very much—that of a very obese pig containing more than half its weight
of fat, whilst in some specimens of "jerked beef," imported from Monte Video, scarcely 5 per cent. of that
substance was found. The flesh of a fat ox has on an average the following composition:—

Per cent.
Water 45
Fatty substances 35
Lean flesh, or muscle 15
Mineral matters 5
————
Total 100

I have examined for Dr. Morgan several specimens of the corned beef recently prepared in South America,
by "Morgan's process." The following were the average results of three analyses:—

Per cent.
Water 40
Fatty matters 21
Lean, or muscular flesh 27
Mineral matters (chiefly common salt) 12
————
Total 100

It may not here be out of place to direct attention to the composition of a kind of animal food extensively
purchased by the poorer classes, and known under the term of slink veal. It is the flesh of calves that are killed
on the first day of their existence, and also, I have reason to believe, that of very immature animals—of calves
that have never breathed. The flesh is of a very loose texture naturally, and is still further puffed out by air,
which is usually supplied from the lungs of the operator. This kind of meat, though regarded as a delicacy by
some people, is not held in much estimation, otherwise its price would be higher than it is. It is at present sold
at about 4d. or 5d. per pound, sometimes even at a lower rate. Apart from the disgusting process of "blowing"
veal, so generally adopted, the use of this food is extremely objectionable, owing to its great tendency to
produce diarrhœa. To the truth of this assertion every physician who has studied the subject of dietetics can
testify. I have analysed a specimen of it (purchased from a person who admitted that it was part of a calf a day
old), and obtained the following results:—
100 parts contain—

Per cent.
Water 72·25
Fat 6·17
Lean flesh 18·46
Mineral matter 3·12
————
Total 100·00

I believe that a large portion of the lean flesh is indigestible; and altogether I may safely say of this kind of
meat that it is, especially during the prevalence of cholera, an unsafe article of diet. Of course these
observations do not apply to fed veal, the only kind which respectable butchers, as a rule, offer for sale.
Young meat is richer in soluble albumen and poorer in fibrine and fat than the matured flesh of the same
animal. The flesh of the goat contains hircic acid, which renders it almost uneatable, but this substance is
either altogether absent from, or present but in minute proportion in, the well-flavored meat of the kid. The
flesh of game contains abundance of osmazome, a substance which is somewhat deficient in that of the
domestic fowl.
Owing to the marked individuality which man exhibits in the selection of his food, and to the intimate
relationship subsisting between food and the organism it nourishes, it is impossible to arrange the alimental
substances in the strict order of their nutritive values. You can bring a horse to the water, but you cannot
compel him to drink it; you can swallow any kind of food you please, but you cannot force your stomach to
digest it. It is, therefore, vain to tell a man that a certain kind of food is shown by chemical analysis to be
nutritious, when his stomach tells him unmistakeably that it is poisonous, and refuses to digest it. In the
matter of dietetics Nature is a safer guide than the chemist. Many substances, when viewed only in the light
shed upon them by chemical analysis, appear to be rich in the elements of nutrition, yet when they are
introduced into the stomachs of certain individuals, they disarrange the digestive organs, and sometimes cause
the whole system to go out of order. Every day we see exemplified the truth of the proverb, that "one man's
meat is another man's poison." There are persons who relish and readily digest fat pork, and yet they cannot
eat a single egg with impunity; others enjoy and easily assimilate eggs, but their stomachs cannot tolerate a
particle of fat bacon.
It is not merely the composition of an aliment and its adaptability to the organism which determine its
nutritive value—its digestibility and flavor are points which affect it. There are few people in these countries
who are disposed to quarrel with beef; but no one would prefer the leg of an elderly milch cow to the sirloin
of a well-fed three-year-old bullock: yet if our selection were to be determined by the analysis of the two
kinds of beef, we would be just as likely to prefer the one as the other. No doubt the relative tenderness of
meats may be ascertained by experiments conducted outside the body; but tenderness is not in every case
synonymous with easy digestibility. Veal contains more soluble albumen, and is, consequently, far more
tender than beef; yet, as every one knows, it is less digestible. It is curious that maturity renders the flesh of
some animals more digestible, and that of others less digestible. Flavor has something to do with these

differences. Beef is richer than veal in the agreeably flavorous osmazome, and the flesh of the kid is destitute
of the disagreeable odour of the fully-developed goat. The superiority of wild-fowl over the domesticated
birds is solely owing to the finer flavor of their flesh.
The habits of animals, and the nature of their food, affect the quality of their flesh. Exercise increases the
amount of osmazome, and consequently renders the meat more savory. The mutton of Wicklow, Wales, and
other mountainous regions is remarkably sweet, because the animals that furnish it are almost as nimble as
goats, and skip from crag to crag in quest of their food. The fatty mutton, with pale muscle, which is so
abundant in our markets, is furnished by very young animals forced prematurely into full development. Those
animals have abundance of food placed within easy reach; their muscular activity is next to nil, and the result
is, that their flesh contains less than its natural proportion of savory ingredients. It is the same with all other
animals. The flesh of the tame rabbit is very insipid, whilst that of the wild variety is well flavored. Wild
fowls cooped up, and rapidly fattened, lose their characteristic flavor; and when the domesticated birds
become wild their flesh becomes less fatty, and acquires all the peculiarities of game. Ducks, whether wild or
tame, ordinarily yield goodly meat; but the flesh of some of those that feed on fish smacks strongly of cod-
liver oil. Birds which subsist partly on aromatic berries assimilate the odour as well as the nutriment of their
food. The flesh of grouse has very commonly a slight flavor of heather. Foster states that in Tahiti pigs are fed
upon fruit, which renders their fat very bland and their flesh like veal. Animals subjected to certain kinds of
mutilation fatten more rapidly than they do in their natural state. Capons increase in weight more rapidly than
cocks, poulards than hens, bullocks than bulls, and cows deprived of their ovaries than perfect cows. Why it is
that the flesh of mutilated animals should be fatter and more tender than that of whole animals, we know not;
we only know that such is the fact. The hunting of animals renders their flesh more tender; the cause assigned
is, that the great exertion of the muscles liquefies their fibrine, which is the toughest of their constituents. The
meat of animals brought very early to maturity is seldom so valuable as the naturally developed article. Lawes
and Gilbert state that portions of a sheep that had been fattened upon steeped barley and mangels, and which
gave a very rapid increase, yielded several per cent. less of cooked meat, and lost more, both in dripping and
by the evaporation of water, than the corresponding portions of a sheep which had been fed upon dry barley
and mangels, and which gave only about half the amount of gross increase within the same period of time.
Although the digestibility and flavor of meat (and of every other kind of food) affect its nutritive value,
these points are in general of far less importance than its composition. Potatoes are not so nutritious as peas,
because they contain a smaller amount of fat and flesh-formers; but they are more digestible. Fish contains
less solid matter than flesh, and is less nutritious, yet a cut of turbot will be, in general, more easily digested
than an equal weight of old beef. The fact is, that digestibility and flavor are only of great importance to
dyspeptic persons. In the healthy digestive organs a pound weight of (dry) food of inferior flavor and slow
digestibility will be just as useful as the same weight of well-flavored and easily assimilable aliment, provided
all other conditions be alike. If the food be eaten with a relish, and tolerated by the stomach, its digestibility
will not, except in extreme cases, affect in a very sensible degree its nutritiveness.
Were one question in animal nutrition satisfactorily answered, it would then be comparatively easy to
arrange aliments in the order of their nutritive value. That question is—What are the proper relative
proportions of the fat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of our food? It is constantly urged, that the food
of the Irish peasantry contains an excess of the fat-forming materials in relation to the muscle-forming
substances; and the remedy suggested is, that their staple article of food—potatoes—should be supplemented
with flesh, peas, and such like substances, in which, it is supposed, the elements of nutrition are more fairly
balanced. In potatoes, the proportion of fat-formers (calculated as fat) is about five times as much as that of
the flesh-formers; but these principles exist in the same relative proportions in the fat bacon with which the
potato-eater loves to supplement his bulky food. In bread we find the proportion of fat-formers to be only 2½
times as much as that of the flesh-formers, whilst, according to Lawes and Gilbert, the edible portion of the
carcass of a fat sheep contains 6½ times as much fat as nitrogenous (flesh-forming) compounds. It is evident,
then, that meat such as, for example, the beef recently imported from Monte Video, from which the fatty
elements of nutrition are almost completely absent, cannot be a suitable adjunct to a farinaceous food.
There is evidence to prove that in the animal food consumed by the population of these countries, the
proportion of fatty to nitrogenous matters is greater than in the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants, and but

little less than in potatoes. "It would appear to be unquestionable," say Lawes and Gilbert, "therefore, that the
influence of our staple animal foods, to supplement our otherwise mainly farinaceous diet, is, on the large
scale, to reduce, and not to increase, the relation of the assumed flesh-forming material to the more peculiarly
respiratory and fat-forming capacity, so to speak, of the food consumed." It must be remembered, too, that the
fat formers are ready formed in animal food, whereas they exist chiefly in the form of starch, gum, sugar, and
such-like substances in vegetables. According to theory, 2½ parts of starch are equivalent to, i.e., convertible
into, 1 part of fat; but it is not certain whether the force which effects this change is derivable from the 2½
parts of starch, or from the destruction of tissue, or of another portion of food. If there be a tax on the system
in order to convert starch into fat, it is evident that 2½ parts of starch, though convertible into, are not
equivalent in nutritive value to one part of fat.
It is quite certain that millions of healthy, vigorous men have subsisted for years exclusively on potatoes;
but it is no less clear that a diet of meat and potatoes enables the laborer to work harder and longer than if his
food were composed solely of potatoes. But we have seen that the relation between the flesh-forming and fat-
forming elements is nearly the same in both potatoes and meat; so that the superiority of a meat or mixed diet
cannot be chiefly owing, contrary to the generally received opinion, to a greater abundance of flesh-forming
materials. As the proportion of flesh-formers to fat-formers is so much greater in wheaten or oaten bread than
in potatoes, and as peas and other vegetables rich in nitrogenous compounds are practically found to be an
excellent supplement to potatoes, it is probable that the latter may be somewhat relatively deficient in flesh-
forming capacity. It is, however, in all probability the great bulk of a potato diet, and its total want of ready
formed fat, that render the addition to it of animal food so very desirable. The concentrated state in which the
ingredients of flesh exist, the intimate way in which they are intermixed, their agreeable flavor, and their (in
general) ready and almost complete digestibility, appear to be the principal points in which a meat diet excels
a vegetable regimen. There may be others, which, though less evident, are, perhaps, of equal importance. At
all events, the general experience of mankind testifies to the superiority of a mixed animal and vegetable diet
over a purely vegetable one.
Is very Fat Meat wholesome?—The enormous and rapidly increasing demand for meat which characterises
the food markets of these days, has reacted in a remarkable manner upon the nature of the animals that supply
it. Formerly the animals that furnished pork, mutton, and beef, were allowed to attain the age of three years
old and upwards before they were considered to be "ripe" for the butcher; but now sheep and pigs are
perfectly matured at the early age of one year, and two-year-old oxen furnish a large quota of the "roast beef
of old England." The so-called improvement of stock is simply the forcing of them into an unnatural degree of
fatness at an early age; and this end is attained by dexterous selection and crossing of breeds, by avoidance of
cold, by diminishing as much as possible their muscular activity, and lastly, and chiefly, by over-feeding them
with concentrated aliments.
Every one knows that a man so obese as to be unable to walk cannot be in a healthy state; yet many feeders
of stock look upon the monstrously fat bulls and cows of cattle show prize celebrity as normal types of the
bovine tribe. It requires but little argument to refute so fallacious a notion. No doubt it is desirable to
encourage the breeding of those varieties of animals which exhibit the greatest disposition to fatten, and to
arrive early at maturity; but the forcing of individual animals into an unnatural state of obesity, except for
purely experimental purposes, is a practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated. If breeders contented
themselves with handing over to the butcher their huge living blocks of fat, the matter would not perhaps be
very serious; but, unfortunately, it is too often the practice to turn them to account as sires and dams. Were I a
judge at a cattle show, I certainly should disqualify every extremely fat animal entered for competition
amongst the breeding stock. Unless parents are healthy and vigorous, their progeny are almost certain to be
unhealthy and weakly; and it is inconceivable that an extremely obese bull and an unnaturally fat cow could
be the progenitors of healthy offspring. We should by all means improve our live stock; but we should be
careful not to overdo the thing. If we must have gaily-decked ponderous bulls and cows at our fat cattle
exhibitions, let us condemn to speedy immolation those unhappy victims to a most absurd fashion; but in the
name of common sense let us leave the perpetuation of the species to individuals in a normal state, whose
muscles are not replaced by fat, whose hearts are not hypertrophied, and whose lungs are capable of
effectively performing the function of respiration.

Mr. Gant, in a small volume23 devoted wholly to the subject, describes the serious functional and structural
disarrangements which over-feeding produces in stock. He found the heart of a one-year old Southdown
wether, fattened according to the high-pressure system, to be little more than a mass of fat. In several other
young, but so-called "matured" sheep, he found more or less fatty degeneration of the heart, and extensively
spread disease of the liver and of the lungs. A four-year old Devon heifer, exhibited by the late Prince Consort
at a Smithfield show, was found to be in a highly diseased state. It was slaughtered, and of course its flesh
sold at a high price as "prize beef," but its internal organs came into Mr. Gant's possession. The substance of
both ventricles of the heart had undergone all but complete conversion into fat; one of its muscles was broken
up, and many of the fibres of the others were ruptured. In another animal the muscular fibres of the heart had
given way to so great an extent that if the thin lining membrane (endocardium) had burst, death would have
instantly ensued. The slightest exertion was likely to cause this catastrophe; but, fortunately enough in this
case, the animal was not capable of exertion, for though under three years of age, it weighed upwards of 200
stones: this animal had received for some time before its exhibition, the liberal allowance of 21 lbs. of oil-
cake (besides other food) per diem. "A pen of three pigs," says Mr. Gant, "belonging to his Royal Highness
the Prince Consort, happened to be placed in a favorable light for observation, and I particularly noticed their
condition. They lay helpless on their sides, with their noses propped up against each other's backs, as if
endeavouring to breathe more easily, but their respiration was loud, suffocating, and at long intervals. Then
you heard a short catching snore, which shook the whole body of the animal, and passed with the motion of a
wave over its fat surface, which, moreover, felt cold. I thought how much the heart under such circumstances
must be laboring to propel the blood through the lungs and throughout the body. The gold medal pigs of Mr.
Moreland were in a similar condition, if anything, worse; for they snored and gasped for breath, their mouths
being opened, as well as their nostrils dilated, at each inspiration. From a pig we only expect a grunt, but not a
snore. These animals, only twelve months and ten days old, were marked 'improved Chilton breed.' They, with
their fellows just mentioned, of eleven months and twenty-three days, had early come to grief. Three pigs of
the black breed were in a similar state, at seven months three weeks and five days, yet such animals 'the
judges highly commended.'"
Dr. Brinton denies the accuracy of several of Mr. Gant's statements relative to the structural changes in the
muscles of obese animals; but I do not think that he has succeeded in disproving the principal assertions made
by the latter.
There is conclusive evidence to prove that one of the effects of the present mode of fattening beasts is
disease of the internal organs of the animals; but it is by no means certain that the flesh of those diseased
animals is as unwholesome food as some writers assert it to be. The flesh of an over-fattened animal differs
from that of a lean, or moderately fat one, in containing an exceedingly high proportion of fat; but it has not
been proved that the fat of prize animals differs from the fat of lean kine, or that it is less wholesome or
nutritious. Be the flesh of those exceedingly fat animals unwholesome or not, there are thousands, ay, millions
of persons, to whom its greasy quality renders it peculiarly acceptable; and as for those who dislike fat—they
do not usually invest their money in the flesh of prize sheep or oxen. At the same time, it must not be
understood that all, or even a large proportion of fully matured stock is in a diseased state; though in most of
them the vital and muscular powers are undoubtedly exceedingly low.
There is no doubt but that sheep and oxen, from three to five years old, moderately fat, and fairly
exercising their locomotive powers, furnish the most savory, and, perhaps, the most nutritious meat: but if
such were the only kind of meat in demand, it may be fairly doubted that the supply would be equal to it. The
produce of meat in these countries has been rapidly increasing for many years past; and the weight of meat
annually supplied from a given area of land is now from 80 to 100 per cent. greater than it furnished thirty or
forty years ago. It is chiefly by means of the so-called forcing system that the produce of meat has been so
considerably increased. If this system were abandoned, the production would be greatly diminished, and the
consequently high price of the article would place it beyond the reach of the masses of the population.
Besides, it has not been proved that the flesh of the animals brought early to maturity is much inferior, except
somewhat in flavor, to the meat of three-year-old beasts. There is, no doubt, plenty of unwholesome meat
offered for sale, but it is that of animals which were affected by diseases as likely to attack the young as the
old. On the whole, then, we may say of the improved system of fattening stock, that it produces a maximum

amount of meat on a given area of land; that the meat so produced is, except in rare cases, perfectly
wholesome; that it is capable of supplying the ingredient—fat—which is almost wholly absent from a
vegetable diet; and, finally, that it places animal food within the reach of the working classes.
Diseased Meat.—The losses occasioned to stockowners by the diseases of live stock are far greater than is
generally supposed. It has been calculated that in the six years ending 1860, the value of the horned stock lost
by disease amounted to £25,934,650. Pleuro-pneumonia was the chief cause of these losses. Exclusive of the
enormous losses occasioned by the ravages of the rinderpest, the annual loss by disease in live stock in these
countries for some years past cannot be much under £6,000,000 sterling.
Whether it is owing to the somewhat abnormal condition under which the domesticated animals are placed,
or to causes which operate upon them when in a state of nature, it is certain that they are remarkably prone to
disease. It is extremely difficult to get a horse six years old that is not a roarer or a whistler, or "weak on his
pins," or in some way or other unsound. Oxen, sheep, and pigs have almost as many maladies afflicting them
as human flesh is heir to, notwithstanding the short period of life which they are permitted to enjoy.
It is a very serious question whether or not the flesh of animals that have been killed while they are in a
diseased condition is injurious to health. The opinions on this point are conflicting, but the majority of
medical men believe that the flesh of diseased animals is not wholesome. There are certain maladies which
obviously render meat unsaleable, by causing a sensible alteration in its quality. For example, blackleg in
cattle and measles in the porcine tribe render the flesh of these animals, as a general rule, unmarketable, or
nearly so. But there are very serious diseases—often proving rapidly fatal—which, whilst seriously affecting
certain internal organs, do not palpably deteriorate the quality of the flesh. In such cases are we to rely upon
the evidence of our mere senses in judging of the wholesomeness of the meat? If we find beef possessing a
good color and odour, and firm to the touch, and appearing to be in every respect healthy flesh, are we under
such circumstances to take it for granted that it must be healthy? This is a very important question, involving
as it does the interests of both the producers and consumers of animal food. If the flesh of all diseased animals
be unwholesome, a very large number of oxen now sold whilst laboring under pleuro-pneumonia should not
be sent into the market. This, of course, would be a heavy loss to the stockowner, but a still heavier one to the
meat consumer; because, if there were fewer animals for sale, the price of meat would ascend, in obedience to
the law of supply and demand. The whole question is, then, well worthy of being considered in the most
careful, unbiassed, and scientific manner; for at present it is in a state which is the reverse of being
satisfactory.
A large proportion of the animals conducted to the shambles is in a diseased condition. Professor Gamgee
estimates it at no less than one-fifth. Dr. Letheby, food analyst to the Corporation of London, condemns
weekly about 2,000 pounds weight of flesh; but as his jurisdiction is limited to the "City," which contains a
population of only about 114,000, the 2,000 pounds of diseased meat are probably only about 1-30th of the
quantity exposed for sale within the whole area of the metropolis. Making an estimate of the most moderate
kind, we may assume that 30,000 pounds weight of bad meat are weekly offered for sale in London—three
million pounds weight annually.
Many persons have been affected with dysentery and choleraic symptoms after partaking of butcher's meat
of apparently the most healthy kind. The meat has often been subjected to minute chemical and microscopical
examination, but no poison has been discovered. But these cases are becoming so frequent that they are
exciting uneasiness, and demand an exhaustive investigation. The unskilful persons who officiate in the
capacity of "clerks of the market" and inspectors of meat can only judge of the quality of flesh that is
obviously inferior to the eye, nose, or touch; but are there not cases where the flesh may appear to be good,
and yet contain some subtle malign principle? It is an ascertained fact that young or "slink" veal very
frequently gives rise to diarrhœa, more especially when that disease is epidemic. Dr. Parkes, in his celebrated
work on Hygiene, page 162 (second edition), states that "the flesh of the pig sometimes produced diarrhœa—
a fact I have had occasion to notice in a regiment in India, and which has often been noticed by others. The
flesh is, probably, affected by the unwholesome garbage on which the pig feeds." Menschell states that 44
persons were afflicted with anthrax after eating the flesh of oxen affected with carbuncular fever. Dr.
Kesteren, in the Medical Times for March, 1864, mentions a case where twelve persons were affected with

choleraic symptoms after the use of pork not obviously diseased. At Newtownards, county of Down, several
persons died after eating veal in which no poisonous matter of any kind could be detected. One instance has
come under my own notice where a man, two dogs, and a pig died after eating the flesh of an animal killed
whilst suffering from splenic apoplexy. Several butchers have lost their lives in consequence of the blood of
diseased animals being allowed to come in contact with abrasions or recently received wounds on their arms.
The flesh of over-driven animals is stated by Professor Gamgee to produce a most serious skin disease,
although the meat appeared to be perfectly healthy. The Belgian Academy of Medicine has decided that the
flesh of animals suffering from carbuncular fever is unwholesome, and its sale in that country is prohibited.
Many persons have died in Germany and a few in England from a disease produced by eating pork
containing a small internal parasite termed trichina spiralis. I have recently met with a case of trichiniasis in
the human subject. The body of the unfortunate person—who had been an inmate of the South Dublin Union
Workhouse—was found to contain thousands of the trichinæ. In Iceland a large proportion of the population
suffers from a parasitic disease traceable to the use of the flesh of sheep and cattle in which flukes abound.
Pleuro-pneumonia is in this country the disease which most frequently affects the ox. It is probable that
about 5 per cent. of these animals sold in Dublin are more or less affected by this malady. There are two forms
of pleuro-pneumonia—the sporadic, or indigenous, and the foreign, or contagious. It is the latter form which
has become the scourge of the ox tribe in this country, though unknown here until the year 1841, when it
appeared as an epizoötic, and carried off vast numbers of animals.
The contagious pleuro-pneumonia is an extremely severe inflammatory disease, and is produced—not in
the same way that common pleuro-pneumonia is, by exposure to excessive cold, &c.—but by a blood poison
received from an infected animal. In the congestive stage of the disease there is no structural alteration in the
organs of the animal, and if well bled its flesh might (probably) be safely eaten; but when a large portion of
the lungs becomes solidified, and rendered incapable of purifying the blood, is it not doubtful, to say the least,
that the blood or flesh is perfectly wholesome? The blood, during the life of the animal, is in a state of
fermentation; there is extreme fever, and the animal presents all the characteristic symptoms of acute disease.
On being killed, the flesh, if the disease be of a fortnight's duration, will usually be extremely dark, but in a
less advanced stage of the malady the flesh will generally present a healthy appearance. Is it really so? That is
the question which science has to determine. Going upon a broad principle, I can hardly conceive that so
serious a disease as pleuro-pneumonia does not injuriously affect the quality of the flesh. It is no argument to
say that thousands consume such flesh, and yet enjoy good health. Millions of people drink water and breathe
air that are extremely impure, and yet they do not speedily die. It is one thing to be poisonous, another to be
unwholesome. The flesh of animals killed whilst suffering from lung distemper is not directly poisonous, but
who can prove that it is not, like bad water, unwholesome?
As analyst to the city of Dublin, I am almost daily called upon to inspect meat suspected to be
unwholesome; and I have always condemned as being unfit for human food:—
1. Animals slaughtered at the time of bringing forth their young.
2. Oxen affected with pleuro-pneumonia, when pus is present in the lungs, or the flesh obviously affected; animals suffering
from murrain, black-quarter, and the different forms of anthrax.
3. Animals in an anæmic, or wasted condition.
4. Meat in a state of putrefaction.

During the present year about 20,000 pounds weight of meat have been seized and condemned in the city
of Dublin.

SECTION II.

MILK.

Milk is a peculiar fluid secreted by the females of all animals belonging to the class Mammalia; and, being
designed for the nourishment of their offspring, contains all the constituents which enter into the composition
of the animal body.
The milk of different animals varies very much in color, taste, and nutritive value. That of the cow is a little
heavier than water—its specific gravity being, on the average, about 1·030, water being 1·000. It is composed
of three constituents—namely, butter, curd, and whey—each of which is also composed of a number of
substances. These three constituents are of unequal weight, or specific gravity, and their separation is the chief
process carried on in the dairy. The butter is the lightest and the curd is the heaviest constituent.
The following table represents the composition of the milk of different animals:—

COMPOSITION OF THE MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.
1,000 PARTS CONTAIN—
Specific Gravity, or Density. Water. Solid Ingredients. Cheesy Matter. Sugar. Butter. Mineral Matter.
Woman 1032·67 889·08 110·92 39·30 43·68 26·66 1·30
Cow 1030 864·20 135·80 48·80 47·70 31·30 6·00
Goat 1033·53 844·90 155·10 35·14 36·91 56·87 6·18
Ewe 1040·98 832·32 167·68 69·78 39·43 51·31 7·16
Mare 1033·74 904·30 95·70 33·35 32·76 24·36 5·23
Ass 1034·57 890·12 109·88 35·65 50·46 18·53 5·24
Bitch 1041·62 772·08 227·92 116·88 15·29 87·95 7·80

Milk examined through a microscope is a colorless fluid, containing a large number of little vesicles, or
bags, filled with butter—a mixture of oily and fatty matters. When the milk stands for some time, the
globules, being lighter than the other constituents, ascend to the top, and, mixed with a certain proportion of
milk, are removed as cream. The curd is termed in scientific parlance casein, and is in fresh milk in a state of
solution—that is to say, is dissolved in milk in the same way that we dissolve sugar in water. When milk
becomes sour, either naturally or by the addition of rennet, it can no longer hold casein in solution, and the
curd consequently separates. Casein is the substance which forms the basis of cheese. The substance that
remains after the removal of the butter and cheese is called serum, or whey, and is composed of a sweetish
substance termed sugar of milk, and certain saline bodies, termed the ash, dissolved in water.
The butter and the sugar of milk are employed in the animal economy in the production of fat, and are what
have been styled by physiologists heat-producers and fat-formers. The casein resembles the gluten of wheat
in composition; it belongs to the class of food substances termed flesh-formers. The ash, or mineral part of the
milk, is chiefly employed in forming the bones of the young animals it is destined to nourish.
The quality of milk is influenced by the quantity and quality of the food given to the animal. The milk of
cows fed on distillery wash, turnip, and mangel tops, coarse herbage, and other kinds of inferior food, is
always of inferior quality. Hence it is of great importance that dairy stock be kept in good old pastures in
summer, and fed on Swedish turnips, mangel-wurtzel, and oil-cake during winter. It is true economy to supply
dairy cows with abundance of nutritious food; and it should be constantly borne in mind that the milk from
two well-fed cows will give more butter than can be obtained from the produce of three badly-fed animals.
The butter is the constituent of milk which is most affected by the nature and amount of the animal's food;
and butter is precisely the article which is of the greatest importance to the Irish dairy farmer, as the quantity
of cheese prepared in this country is inconsiderable. When, therefore, it is found that a cow pastured on
inferior land, or badly fed in the byre, yields a large supply of milk of a high specific quantity (which,
however, is rarely the case), it must not be concluded that the result is satisfactory; for if such milk be tested
by the lactometer it will certainly be found wanting in butter. The average composition of English milk,
according to Way, is:—

Water 87·02
Butter 3·23

Casein 4·48
Sugar of milk 4·67
Ash 0·60
———
100·00

In several analyses of milk published by Professor Voelcker, the highest proportion of butter is stated to be
7·62. In that of cows kept on poor and over-stocked pastures less than 2 per cent. was found. I have examined
in my capacity of Food Analyst to the City of Dublin several hundred samples of milk, in not one of which
have I found the proportion of butter to amount to more than 5·6 per cent. In no sample did I find a higher
per-centage of solid matter than 13·15, or (when pure) lower than 12·08. The quality of the food of the milch
cow exercises a great influence on the quality and yield of her milk. Aliments rich in fat and sugar favor the
production of butter, and augment the supply of milk. Locust-beans, malt, and molasses are good milk-
producing foods; but the chief condition in the production of milk rich in butter is simply that the animals
which yield it must be fed with abundance of nutritious food. Nor must it be supposed that the richness of
milk is due to the smallness of the yield, for whenever the quality of the secretion is inferior, it is almost
certain to be deficient in quantity. Those cows which give the richest milk, generally yield the largest quantity.
Yield of Milk.—According to Boussingault, a cow daily yields on the average 10·4 parts of milk per 1,000
parts of her weight. Morton, in his "Cyclopædia of Agriculture," p. 621, states that Mr. Young, a Scotch dairy
keeper, obtained 680 gallons per cow per annum. Voelcker found that some common dairy stock gave each of
them fifty-two pints of milk per diem, whilst three pedigree cows yielded respectively forty-nine pints.
Professor Wilson gives the following information on this point:—
Our principal dairy breeds are the Ayrshire, the Channel Islands, the Short-horn, the Suffolk, and the Kerry. Some published
returns of two dairies of Ayrshire cows give the annual milk produce per cow at 650 and 632 gallons respectively. Three returns
of dairies, consisting wholly of Short-horns, show a produce of 540 gallons, 630 gallons, and 765 gallons respectively, or an
average of 625 gallons per annum for each cow. In two dairies, where half-bred Short-horns were kept, the yield was 810 and
866 gallons respectively for each cow. In four dairies in Ireland, where pure Kerrys and crosses with Short-horns and Ayrshires
were kept, the annual produce per cow was returned at 500 gallons, 600 gallons, 675 gallons, and 740 gallons respectively; or an
average, on the four dairies, of 630 gallons per annum for each cow. A dairy of "pure Kerrys" gave an average of 488 gallons per
cow, and another of the larger Irish breed gave an average of 583 gallons per head per annum. In the great London dairies, now
well-nigh extinguished by the ravages of the cattle disease, these returns are greatly exceeded. The cows kept are large framed
Short-horns and Yorkshire crosses, which, by good feeding, bring the returns to nearly 1,000 gallons per annum for each cow
kept. The custom in these establishments is to dispose of a cow directly her milk falls below two gallons a-day, and buy another
in her place.
The following milk return of one of our best managed dairy farms (Frocester Court) shows the relative produce of cows in the
successive years of their milking. The first lot was bought in at two-years old; all the others at three years:—

No. of Cows. Year of Milk. Produce per head.
8 1st 317 gals.
15 1st 472 "
14 2nd 353 "
15 3rd 616 "
20 4th 665 "
18 5th 635 "
9 6th 708 "
15 Old 651 "

The maximum reliable milk produce that we have recorded was that of a single cow belonging to the keeper of the gaol at
Lewes, the details of which were authenticated by the Board of Agriculture. In eight consecutive years she gave 9,720 gallons, or
at the rate of more than 1,210 gallons per annum. In one year she milked 328 days, and gave 1,230 gallons, which yielded 540
lbs. of butter, or at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 22¾ lb. of milk. In the early part of the present year (1866) a return was published
of the produce of a cow in a Vermont (U.S.) dairy, which was stated to have given, in the previous year, a butter yield of 504 lbs.,
at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 20 lbs. of milk.24

Preserved Milk.—Various plans have been proposed to render milk more portable, and to preserve it sweet
for days and even months. Mr. Borden of Connecticut, United States, prepares a concentrated milk by boiling
the fluid down in vacuo, at a temperature under 140° Fahrenheit, mixing the resulting solid with sugar, and

rapidly placing the compound in tins, which are then hermetically sealed. It is said that solidified milk
prepared by this process remains sweet for many months. In France, solidified and concentrated milk are
largely prepared; and it is certain that London and other large towns will yet be supplied with milk rendered
portable and more stable, by the removal of a large proportion of its water. In many parts of Ireland pure milk
could be bought at from 7d. to 8d. per gallon. I do not despair to see factories established in such places for
the manufacture of preserved milk as a substitute for the dear and impure fluid sold under the name of milk in
London and other large cities. It is stated that solidified milk prepared in Switzerland is now sold in London.

SECTION III.

BUTTER.

History of Butter.—The very general use of butter as an article of food is demonstrated by the familiar
saying—"We should not quarrel with our bread and butter"; yet this article, now so commonly used
throughout the greater part of Europe, was either unknown or but imperfectly known to the ancients. In the
English translation of the Holy Scriptures the word butter does certainly frequently occur; but the Hebrew
original is chamea, which, according to the most eminent Biblical critics, signifies cream, or thick, sour milk.
In the 20th chapter of Job the following passage occurs:—"He shall not see the rivers, the floods, the brooks
of honey and butter." Now, we can conceive streams of thin cream, but we cannot imagine a river of butter.
The oldest mention of butter is found in the works of Herodotus. In the description of the Scythians given by
this ancient author, reference is made to their practice of violently shaking the milk of their mares, for the
purpose of causing a solid fatty matter to ascend to its surface, which, when removed from the milk, they
considered a delicious article of food. Hippocrates, who wrote a little later than Herodotus, describes, but in
clearer language, the manufacture of butter by the Scythians; he also alludes to the preparation of cheese by
the same people. The word, butter, does not occur in any of Aristotle's writings, and although mention is made
of it in the works of Anaxandrides, Plutarch, and Ælian, it is evident that they considered it only in the light of
a curious substance, employed partly as an article of food, partly as a medicinal salve, by certain barbarous
nations. About the second or third century, butter was but little known to the Greeks and Romans, and there is
no reason to believe that it was ever generally used as an article of food by the classic nations of antiquity; it
is noteworthy, that the inhabitants of the south of Europe even at the present time use butter in very small
quantities, which, indeed, is often sold for medicinal purposes in the apothecaries' shops in Italy, Spain, and
Portugal. From the foregoing statements it is evident that the butter manufacture can lay no claim to a classic
origin; but that it took its rise in the countries of savage, of semi-civilised, and barbarous nations. It is
probable that the Greeks were made acquainted with butter by the Thracians, Phrygians, and Scythians; and
that the knowledge of this substance was conveyed to Rome by visitors from Germany. During the middle
ages the practice of butter-making spread throughout Northern, Central, and Western Europe; but in many
parts the commodity was very scarce and highly valued, notwithstanding its being almost, if not quite, in a
semi-fluid state, instead of possessing the firm consistence of the butter of the present day.
Irish Butter.—Butter is produced in such large quantities in Ireland that, after the home demand has been
supplied, there remains a large excess—so considerable, indeed, as to constitute one of the more important of
our few commercial staples. The precise quantity of butter which, during late years, has been annually
exported from Ireland is unknown. The greater part of the commodity is sent to trans-Channel ports; and,
there being no duty on butter in the cross-Channel trade since 1826, we have no means of accurately
estimating the amount of our exports to Great Britain. If, however, we refer to the statistics of our commerce
for the period beginning in 1787, and ending in 1826, we shall find that the exportation of butter was
enormous, and that a large proportion of that commodity consumed by the army and navy was supplied from
the dairies of Ireland. During the three years ended on the 5th of January, 1826, the average annual amount of
butter exported was as follows:—

cwts.
To Great Britain 441,226

To foreign countries 51,637

Of late years the exportation to foreign and colonial countries has fallen off; still the export trade is very
considerable, probably amounting to 450,000 cwts. per annum. During the year 1867, the imports of foreign
butter into Great Britain amounted to 1,142,262 cwts.
I have quoted the above statistics for the purpose of demonstrating the great importance of the butter trade
to this country. Not only is a large proportion of the agricultural community pecuniarily interested in the
production of this article, but the exportation is the chief cause of the commercial prosperity of a city, which,
in point of population, ranks third in the kingdom. If butter, then, be an article of so much importance, it is
obvious that the greatest care should be taken in its preparation, and that the efforts of both scientific and
practical men should be directed towards the best mode of improving its quality. If the principles involved in
the production of butter were thoroughly understood, and generally known, I believe that such terms as
"seconds," "thirds," and "fourths," would speedily fall into disuse; that there would be only one kind of butter
sent into the market; and that the article would always be of the best quality, in other words, "firsts."
Composition of Butter.—The composition and quality of butter depend to a great extent upon the condition
of the milk or cream from which it is prepared, and on the skill and cleanliness of the dairy-maid. It consists
essentially of fatty and oily matters, but it is always found in combination with casein (cheesy matter) and
water. The following analyses, made by Mr. Way, late consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, shows its composition:—

INGREDIENTS PER CENT.
1. 2. 3.
Fatty matters 82·70 79·67 79·12
Casein 2·45 3·38 3·37
Water 14·85 16·95 17·51

No. 1 analysis shows the composition of a specimen obtained from the well-known Mr. Horsfall's dairy. It
was made from raw cream. The other specimens were the produce of a Devonshire dairy, and were prepared
from scalded cream. In several specimens of well-made and unsalted Irish butter which I have analysed, I
found the proportion of casein or cheesy matter never to exceed 1 per cent., whilst in the analysis above stated
the centesimal amount is on the average more than 3 per cent.
The fatty matter is composed of two substances—one, a solid, termed margarin; the other fluid, and styled
by chemists elaine. The solid fat is identical in composition with the solid fat of the human body. The elaine is
peculiar to milk, but it differs very slightly from olein, or fluid fat. The relative proportions of the fluid and
solid fats vary with the seasons. According to Braconnot, the solid fat forms in summer 40 per cent. of the
butter, but in winter the proportion rises to 65. This decrease in the proportion of the liquid fat in winter is the
cause of the greater hardness of the butter in that season, which is often incorrectly attributed solely to the
cold.
The cheesy and acid matters contained in butter are by no means essential; on the contrary, if it were quite
free from them, it might be retained with little or no salt for a very long period without becoming rancid. The
cheesy matter contains nitrogen; and nearly all the substances into which this element enters as a constituent
are remarkably prone to decomposition. Yeast, and ferments of every kind—gunpowder, fulminating silver,
chloride of nitrogen—and almost every explosive compound, contain this element. The cheesy matter is a
very nitrogenous body, and in presence of air and moisture not only rapidly decomposes, or decays, itself, but
induces by mere contact a like state of decomposition in other substances—such, for instance, as fat, sugar,
and starch, which naturally have no tendency to change their state. Bearing the foregoing facts in mind, it is
obvious that the chief precautions to be observed in the manufacture of butter are:—Firstly, to separate to as
great an extent as practicable the casein from the butter; and, secondly, as in practice a small portion of the
curd remains in the butter, to prevent it from undergoing any change—at least for a prolonged period. How
these desiderata may best be accomplished I shall now proceed to point out.

The Butter Manufacture.—The theory of the process of churning is very simple. By violently agitating the
milk or cream the little vesicles, or bags containing the butter, are broken, and, the fatty matter adhering,
lumps of butter are formed. The operation of churning also introduces atmospheric air into the milk, which,
aided by the high temperature to which the fluid is raised, converts a portion of the sweet sugar of milk into
the sour lactic acid. By the alteration produced in this way in the composition of the milk, it is no longer
capable of holding the casein in solution, and the curd therefore separates.
The churn and other vessels in which the milk is placed cannot be kept too clean. No amount of labor
bestowed on the scalding and scrubbing of the vessels is excessive. When wood is the material used in the
milk-pans the utmost care should be taken in cleaning them, as the porous nature of the material favors the
retention of small quantities of the milk. A simple washing will not suffice to clean such vessels. They must
be thoroughly scrubbed and afterwards well scalded with boiling water. Tin pans are preferable to wooden
ones, as they are more easily cleaned, but in their turn they are inferior to glass vessels, which ought to
supersede every other kind. Earthenware, lead, and zinc pans are in rather frequent use. The last-mentioned
material is easily acted upon by the lactic acid of the sour milk, and is, therefore, objectionable. It is a matter
of great importance that the dairy should not be situated near a pig-stye, sewer, or water-closet, the effluvia
from which would be likely to taint the milk. It is surprising how small a quantity of putrescent matter is
sufficient to taint a whole churn of milk; and as it has been demonstrated that the almost inappreciable
emanations from a cesspool are capable of conferring a bad flavor on milk, it is in the highest degree
important to remove from the churn and milk-pail every trace of the sour milk. I go further, it is even
desirable that no one whose hands have a tendency to perspire should be allowed to manipulate in the dairy;
and it should be constantly borne in mind that the dairy-maid's fingers and hot water should be on the most
intimate visiting terms.
Butter is made either from cream—sour and sweet—or from whole milk which has stood sufficiently long
to become distinctly sour. It is asserted by some makers that butter prepared from whole milk, or from scalded
cream, contains a large proportion of curd. If this be true—which I greatly doubt—it is a serious matter, for
such butter would speedily become rancid in consequence of the casein acting as a ferment. I believe that
experience points to an exactly opposite conclusion. From the results of careful inquiries I feel no hesitation
in asserting that the butter should not be made from the cream, but from the whole milk. When made from the
cream alone it is much more likely to acquire a bad taste, and is generally wanting in keeping qualities. I have
no doubt but that in the process of churning the whole milk there is a large amount of lactic acid formed, and
a much higher temperature attained, than in the churning of cream; consequently, the separation of caseous
matter must be more perfectly effected in the former than in the latter case. It is a mistake to think that there is
very little casein in cream: out of 7 or 8 lbs. of thick cream only a couple of pounds of butter are obtainable;
the rest is made up of water, casein, and sugar of milk. The yield of butter is greater when the whole milk is
churned than when the cream alone is operated upon, and, what is of great importance, the quality of the
butter is uniform during the whole year. The labor of churning whole milk is, of course, much greater than if
the cream alone were employed, but the increased yield and unvarying quality of the butter more than
compensate for the extra expenditure of labor.
The proper temperature of the milk or cream is a point of great practical importance. If the fluid be too
warm or too cold the buttery particles will only by great trouble be made to cohere; and the quality of the
butter is almost certain to be inferior. When the whole milk is operated on, the temperature should be from 55
to 60 degs. of Fahrenheit's thermometer; and if cream be employed the temperature should never exceed 55
degs. nor be lower than 50 degs. Hence it follows that in summer the dairy should be kept cooler, and in
winter warmer, than the atmosphere. The temperature of milk is raised or lowered as may be found necessary,
by the addition of hot or cold water—in performing which operations properly, a good thermometer is
indispensable; one should always be kept in the dairy, and should be so constructed as to admit of being
plunged into the milk. In some dairies the water, instead of being mixed with the milk, is put into a tub in
which the churn is placed. There is a good kind of churn, which consists of two cylinders, the one within the
other—the interval between them being intended for the reception of hot or cold water. The influence of
temperature upon the production of butter has been placed beyond all doubt by numerous carefully-conducted
experiments. Mr. Horsfall, a celebrated dairy farmer, in discussing this question, sums up as follows:—"By a
series of carefully-conducted experiments at varying temperatures, I am of opinion that a correct scale of the

comparative yield of butter at different temperatures might be arrived at; as thus: From a very low degree of
temperature little or no butter; from a temperature of about 38 degs., 16 oz. from 16 quarts of milk; ditto, 45
degs., 21 oz. from 16 quarts of milk; ditto, 55 degs., 26 to 27 oz. from 16 quarts of milk." This is a higher
yield of butter than, I suspect, most dairymen get: but Mr. Horsfall's cows being of the best kind for milking,
and well fed, the milk is, of course, rich in butter; and his experiments prove that even the richest milk will
not throw up its butter unless at a certain temperature.
In the churning of cream the motion should be slow at first until the cream is thoroughly broken up. In
churning milk the agitation should neither be violent nor irregular; about 40 or 50 motions of the plunger or
board per minute will be sufficient. In steam-worked churns the motion is often excessively rapid, and the
separation of the butter is effected in a few minutes; but the article obtained in this hasty way very quickly
becomes rancid, and must be disposed of at once. An hour's churning of sour cream appears in general to
produce good butter. Sweet cream and whole milk require a longer period—the latter about 3 hours—but in
any case prolonged churning is certain, by incorporating cheesy matter with the butter, to produce an inferior
article.
Sweet milk becomes sour, evolves a considerable quantity of gas during churning, and its temperature
ascends four or five degrees. Oxygen is unquestionably absorbed, and it is probable that a portion of the sugar
of milk is converted into acid products.
I have already stated that even the most carefully prepared butter contains a small proportion of casein and
sugar of milk. This casein is the good genius of the cheese-maker, but the evil genius of the butter
manufacturer. How? In this way:—When butter containing a notable proportion of casein and sugar of milk is
exposed to the air, the following changes take place: the casein passes into a state of fermentation, and acting
upon the sugar of milk, converts it, firstly into the bad-flavored lactic acid, and secondly into the bad odorous
butyric, capric, and caproic acids. The first of these compounds in a state of purity emits an odor resembling a
mixture of vinegar and rancid butter; the second possesses an odor resembling that of a goat—hence the name
capric; the third has an odor like that of perspiration. In addition to these acids, there is another
simultaneously generated—the caprylic, but it does not unpleasantly affect the olfactory nerve. The casein
also injuriously affects the fatty constituents of the butter; under its influence they absorb oxygen from the air,
and become converted into strong-smelling compounds. The washing of butter is intended to free it from the
casein and unaltered cream, and the more perfectly it is freed from those impurities the better will be its
flavor, and the longer it will remain without becoming rancid. Some people believe that too much water
injures the quality and lessens the quantity of butter. It cannot do the former, because the essential
constituents of butter are totally insoluble in water; it may do the latter, but, if it do, so much the better,
because the loss of weight represents the amount of impurities—milk, sugar of milk, &c.—removed.
I have already remarked that butter is so susceptible of taint that even a perspiring hand is sufficient to spoil
it; naturally cool hands should alone be allowed to come in contact with this delicate commodity, and the
hands should be made thoroughly clean by repeated washings with warm water and oatmeal—the use of soap
in the lavatory of the dairymaid being highly objectionable. Wooden spades are now being commonly made
use of in manipulating the butter, and there is no good reason why they should not come into universal use.
The yield of butter per cow is subject to great variation. Some breeds of the animal are remarkable as
milkers; such, for instance, as the Alderneys and Kerrys—indeed, I may say all the small varieties of the
bovine race. There are instances of cows yielding upwards of twenty pounds of butter per week, but these are
extraordinary cases. In Holland a good cow will produce, during the summer months, more than 180 lbs. of
butter. In these countries I think the average annual yield of a cow is not more than 170 lbs. It sometimes
happens that cows yield a large quantity of milk and a small amount of butter, but it far more frequently
occurs that the cow which gives most milk also yields most butter.
An estimate of the amount of butter contained in milk may be made by determining the amount of cream.
This may be effected by means of an instrument termed a lactometer, which is simply a glass tube about five
inches long, and graduated into a hundred parts. The specimen to be examined is poured into this tube up to
zero or 0, and allowed to stand for twelve hours in summer and sixteen or eighteen in winter. At the end of
that time the cream will have risen to the top, and its per-centage may be easily seen. In good milk the cream

will generally extend 11 to 15 degrees down from 0. This instrument, although very useful, is not reliable in
every case, especially in detecting the adulteration of milk.
I have already stated that the complete separation of the butter from the other constituents of the milk is
never accomplished in the dairy. Now although the proportion of curd in the butter is very small—rarely more
than two per cent. and often not a fourth of one per cent.—yet it is more than sufficient, under a certain
condition, to cause the butter to become speedily rancid. That condition is simply contact with the air. If the
curd, before it becomes dry and firm, is subjected to the influence of the air, it rapidly passes into a state of
fermentation, which is very soon communicated to the fatty and saccharine constituents of the butter
(substances not spontaneously liable to sudden changes in composition) and those peculiar compounds—
such, for example, as butyric and capric acids, are generated, which confer upon rancid butter its
characteristic and very disagreeable odor and flavor. The fermentation of the curd is prevented by
incorporating common salt with the butter, and by preventing, so far as possible, the access of air to the
vessels in which the article is placed. If fresh butter be placed in water—which apparently protects it from the
influence of the air—it will soon become rancid. The reason of this is, that water always contains air, which
differs in composition, though derived, from the atmosphere, by being very rich in oxygen. Now, it is
precisely this oxygen which effects those undesirable changes in the casein, or curd, to which I have so
repeatedly referred; hence its presence in a concentrated state in water causes that fluid to produce an
injurious effect on the butter placed in it. A saturated solution of salt contains very little air, and, so long as the
curd is immersed therein, it undergoes no change. The salt, too, acts as a decided preservative; for although it
was long considered to be capable of preserving animal matters, merely by virtue of its property of absorbing
water from them (the presence of water being a condition in the decomposition of organic matter), it has
lately been shown to possess very antiseptic properties.
The mixing of the salt with the butter is effected in the following manner:—The butter, after being well
washed, in order to free it from the butter-milk, is spread out in a tub, and the salt shaken over it; the butter is
then turned over on the salt by the lower part of the palm of the hand, and rubbed down until a uniform
mixture is attained. A good plan in salting is to mix in only one half of the quantity of salt, make up the butter
in lumps, and set them aside until the following day; a quantity of milk is certain to exude, which is to be
poured off, and then the rest of the salt may be incorporated with the butter.
According to butter-makers, the quality of the article is greatly dependent on the quality of the salt used in
preserving it. I think there is a good deal of truth in this belief, and I therefore recommend that only the very
best and driest salt should be used in the dairy. Common salt is essentially composed of the substance termed
by chemists chloride of sodium, but it often contains other saline matters (chloride of magnesium, &c.), some
of which have a tendency to absorb moisture from the air, and to dissolve in the water so obtained. These salts
are termed deliquescent, from the Latin deliquere, to melt down. When, therefore, common salt becomes
damp by mere exposure to the air, it is to be inferred that it contains impurities which, as they possess a very
bitter taste, would, if mixed with butter, confer a bad flavor upon it. The impurities of salt may be almost
completely removed by placing about a stone weight of it in any convenient vessel, pouring over it a quart of
boiling water, and mixing thoroughly the fluid and solid. In an hour or two the whole is to be thrown upon a
filter made of calico, when the water will pass through the filter, carrying with it all the impurities, and the
purified salt, in fine crystals, will remain upon the filter. The solution need not be thrown away: boiled down
to dryness it may be given as salt to cattle; or, if added in solution to the dung-heap, it will augment the
fertilising power of that manure.
The proportion of salt used in preserving butter varies greatly. When the butter is intended for immediate
use, I believe a quarter of an ounce of salt to the pound is quite sufficient; but when designed for the market,
about half an ounce of salt to the pound of butter will be sufficient. Irish butter at one time commanded the
highest price in the home and foreign markets, but latterly it has fallen greatly in public estimation; indeed, at
the present moment the price of Irish butter at London is nearly twenty shillings per cwt. under that of the
Dutch article. It is really painful to be obliged to admit that the Irish farmer is solely to blame for this
remarkable depreciation in the value of one of our best agricultural staples. In a word, by the stupid (and
recent) practice of putting into butter four times the quantity of salt necessary to its preservation, the Irish
dairy farmers—or at least the great majority of them—have completely ruined the reputation of Irish butter in

those very markets in which, at one time, the Cork brand on a firkin was sufficient to dispose of its contents at
the very highest price. It is a great mistake to think that the greater the quantity of salt which can be
incorporated with the butter, the greater will be the profit to the producer. No doubt, every pound of salt sold
as a constituent of butter realises a profit of two thousand per cent.; but then the addition of every pound of
that substance, after a certain quantity, to the cwt. of butter depreciates the value of the latter to such an extent
as to far more than neutralise the gain on the sale of salt at the price of butter. In the county of Carlow, less
salt is used in preserving butter than is the case in the county of Cork and the adjacent counties; the price,
therefore, which the Carlow commodity commands in the London market is higher than that of the Cork
butter: but in every part of Ireland the proportion of salt added to the butter is excessive.
The results of the analyses of butter supplied to the London market, made by the Lancet Analytical
Commission, showed that the proportion of salt varied from 0·30 to 8·24 per cent. The largest proportion of
salt found in fresh butter was 2·21 and the least 0·30. In salt butter the highest proportion of salt was 8·24 and
the lowest 1·53. The butter which contained most salt was also generally largely adulterated with water.
Indeed, in several samples the amount of this constituent reached so high as nearly 30 per cent. Nothing is
easier than the incorporation of water with salt butter. The butter is melted, and whilst cooling the salt and
water are added, and the mixture kept constantly stirred until quite cold. In this way nearly 50 per cent. of
water may be added to butter; but of course the quality of the article will be of the very worst kind.
A correspondent of the Lancet states that, on awakening about three o'clock in the morning at the house in
which he was lodging, he perceived a light below the door of his room; and apprehending a fire, he hurried
down stairs, and was not a little surprised to discover the whole family engaged in manipulating butter. He
was informed in a jocose way that they were making Epping butter! For this purpose they used inferior Irish
butter, which, by repeated washings, was freed from its excessive amount of salt; after which it was
frequently bathed in sweet milk, the addition of a little sugar being the concluding stroke in the process. This
"sweet fresh butter from Epping" was sold at a profit of 100 per cent. Our dairy farmers might take a hint
from this anecdote. Does it not prove that the mere removal of the salt added to Irish butter doubles the value
of the article?
It is as necessary to pay attention to the packing of butter as it is to its salting. If old firkins be employed,
great care should be taken in cleaning them, and if the staves be loose, the firkins should be steeped in hot
water, in order to cause the wood to swell, and thereby to bring the edges of the staves into close contact. New
firkins often communicate a disagreeable odour to the butter. In order to guard against this, it is the practice in
many parts to fill the firkins with very moist garden mould, which, after the lapse of a few days, is thrown
out, and the firkin thoroughly scrubbed with hot water, rinsed with the same fluid in a cold state, and finally
rubbed with salt, just before being used.
In packing the butter, the chief object to be kept in view is the exclusion of air. In order to accomplish this,
the lumps of butter should be pressed firmly together, and also against the bottom and sides of the vessel.
When the products of several churnings are placed in the same firkin, the surface of each churning should be
furrowed, so that the next layer may be mixed with it. A firkin should never be filled in a single operation.
About six inches of butter of each churning will be quite sufficient, and in a large dairy two or more firkins
can be gradually but simultaneously filled. I strongly recommend the removal of the pickle jar from the dairy.
When the layers of butter have been carried up to within an inch or so of the top of the firkin, the space
between the surface of the butter and the edge of the vessel should be filled with fine dry salt, instead of
pickle. A common mistake made is the holding over for too long a time of the butter: the sooner this article
can be disposed of the better, for it never improves by age.

(22) From two Greek words, signifying odour and soup.
(23) "A New Inquiry, fully illustrated by coloured engravings of the heart, lungs, &c., of the Diseased Prize Cattle lately exhibited
at the Smithfield Cattle Club, 1857." By Frederick James Gant, M.R.C.S. London, 1858.
(24) Professor John Wilson's Report of the Agricultural Exhibition, Aarhuus, 1867.

PART V.
ON THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.

SECTION I.

THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES.

The flesh-forming principles of food are, as I have already stated, almost identical with the principal nitrogenous
constituents of animals. Unlike the non-plastic substances, they are convertible into each other with little, if any,
loss either of matter or of force. Not many years since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of a food-
substance by its proportion of nitrogen; but this method—not yet quite abandoned—was based on erroneous
views, and yielded results very far from the truth. No doubt all the more concentrated and valuable kinds of food
are rich in nitrogenous principles; but there are other varieties, the nutritive value of which is very low, and yet
their proportion of nitrogen is very high. This point requires explanation. Both the plastic and the non-plastic
materials of food exist in two distinct states—in one of which they are easily digestible, and in the other either
altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almost useless. Thus, for example, the cellular tissue of plants,
when newly formed, is to a great extent digestible, whilst the old woody fibre is nearly, if not quite, incapable of
assimilation. Gelatine, which in raw bones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora, loses a large
proportion of its nutritive value on being subjected to the action of steam. Again, a portion of the nitrogen of young
succulent plants is in a form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated to the animal body. But,
independently of these strong objections to the method of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage
of flesh-formers, there are many other reasons which as clearly prove the fallacy of this rule. If we were, for
instance, to estimate the value of albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which were constructed
some years ago by Boussingault and other chemists, we would find one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four
pounds weight of oil-cake, or to twelve pounds weight of hay; yet, it is a fact that a horse would speedily die if
confined to a purely albuminous diet, whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefinite
period.
It is clear, then, from what I have stated, that neither the amount of flesh-formers, nor of fat-formers, contained
in a given quantity of a substance is a measure of its nutritive value; nevertheless it would be incorrect to infer
from this that the numerous analyses of feeding substances which have been made are valueless. On the contrary, I
am disposed to believe that the composition of these substances, when correctly stated by the chemist, enables the
physiologist to determine pretty accurately their relative alimentary value. Theory is certainly against the
assumption that food is valuable in proportion to its content of nitrogen; nor has practice less strongly disproved its
truth. An illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this matter more apparent. Every intelligent
agriculturist knows that guano contains nitrogen and phosphoric acid; both substances are indispensable to the
development of plants, and therefore it would be incorrect to estimate the manurial value of the guano in
proportion to the quantity of nitrogen it was capable of yielding. If the value of manures were determined only by
their per-centage of nitrogen—a mode by which certain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food—then
woollen rags would be worth more than bones, and bones would be more valuable than superphosphate of lime.
The truth is, that the analysis of feeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the condition in which
the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined. For example, the analysis of one manure may show it
to contain 40 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and three per cent. of ammonia, whilst, according to analysis, another
fertiliser may include 20 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and two per cent. of ammonia. Viewed by this light solely,
the first manure would be considered the more valuable of the two, whereas it might, in reality, be very much
inferior. If the phosphate of lime in the manure, containing 40 per cent. of that body, were derived from coprolites
or apatite, and its ammonia from horns, the former would be worth little or nothing, and the latter, by reason of its
exceedingly slow evolution from the horns, would possess a very low value. If, on the contrary, the phosphate of
lime, in the manure comparatively poor in phosphate, were a constituent of bones, and its ammonia ready formed
(say as sulphate of ammonia), then, its value, both commercial and manurial, would be far greater than the other.

In estimating the money value of an article of food, we should omit such considerations as the relative
adjustment of its flesh-formers and fat-formers, and its suitability to particular kinds of animals, as well as to
animals in a certain stage of development. The manure supplied to plants contains several elements indispensable
to vegetable nutrition; and, although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all these elements combined in the
one article, still he frequently buys each ingredient separately. Ammonia is one of these principles, and, whether it
be bought per se, or as a constituent of a compound manure, the price it commands is invariable. This principle
should prevail in the purchase of food: each constituent of which should have a certain value placed upon it; and
the sums of all the values of the constituents would then be the value of the article of food taken as a whole. There
are, no doubt, practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method of valuation from giving more than
approximatively correct results; but are there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correct estimation
of the value of a manure according to its analysis? There are several constituents of food, the money value of
which is easily determinable: these are sugar, starch, and fat. No matter what substance they are found in, the
nutritive value of each varies only within very narrow limits. The value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so
easily ascertained, as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetable structure in which these principles occur.
There is little doubt but that the cellulose and fibre of young grass, clover, and other succulent plants, are, for the
most part, digestible; and we should not be far astray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre
and cellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch. As to old hard fibre, we are not in a position to say
whether or not it possesses any nutrimental value worth taking into account. The estimation of the value of the
flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that of sugar, starch, pectine compounds, and fat. The nitrogenous
constituents of food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capable of being assimilated. In seeds—in
which vegetable substances attain their highest degree of development—they probably exist in the most digestible
form, whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems and leaves of succulent plants, is either in a purely mineral
state, or in so low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose of nutrition. But even plastic
materials, in a high degree of organisation, present many points of difference, which greatly affect their relative
alimental value; for example, many of them are naturally associated with substances possessing a disagreeable
flavor: and as their separation from these substances is often practically impossible, the animal that consumes both
will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as if they were endowed with a pleasant flavor. In seeds and other
perfectly matured vegetable structures, the flesh-formers may exist in different degrees of availability. The
nitrogen of the testa, or covering of the seeds, will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in their cotyledons.
The solubility of the flesh-formers—provided they be highly elaborated—is a very good criterion of their nutritive
power. In linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than in linseed-cake—the heat which is
generally employed in the extraction of oil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant cake less
soluble, and diminishing thereby their digestibility, as practice has proved.
From the considerations which I have now entered into, it is obvious that the chemical analysis of food
substances as generally performed, though of great utility, does not afford strictly accurate information as to their
commercial value, and still less reliable in relation to their nutritive power. At the same time, they as clearly
establish the feasibility of analyses being made whereby the money value of feeding-stuffs may be estimated with
tolerable exactitude. Let the chemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredients of food-
substances, and—if it be possible so to do with a degree of exactness that would render the results useful—place
on each a money value. This done, let the physiologist and the feeder combine the food in such proportions as they
may find best adapted to the nature, age, and condition of the animal to be fed.
It is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not, in consequence of our defective knowledge,
strictly determined by their nutritive value, for if such were the case, the feeder would merely have to adapt each to
the nature and condition of his stock. Even amongst practical men there prevails, unfortunately, great diversity of
opinion as to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of food substances; and I am quite certain that many
of these command higher prices than others which in no respect are inferior. It would lead me too far from my
immediate subject were I to enter minutely into the consideration of such questions as—whether an acre of grass
yields more or less nutriment than an acre of turnips? I shall merely describe the composition and properties of
grass and of turnips, and of the various other important food substances, and compare their nutritive power, so far
as comparisons are admissible; but I shall say but little on the subject of the various economic and other conditions
which affect the production of forage plants. When I shall have described the chemical nature and physical
condition of the various articles of food, and the results of actual feeding experiments made with them, the feeder
will then be in a position to determine which are the most economical to produce or to purchase.

SECTION II.

PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES.

The saccharine, or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundant of the proximate constituents of plants.
They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. I shall briefly describe the more important members of this
group of substances, namely, starch, sugar, inulin, gum, pectin, and cellulose.
Starch, or fecula, occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds, peas, &c., and still more abundantly in certain
monocotyledonous seeds, such as wheat and barley. It constitutes the great bulk of many tubers and roots—for
example, the potato and tapioca. It consists of flattened ovate granules, which vary in size according to the plant.
In the beetroot they are 1⁄3500 of an inch in diameter, whilst in tous les mois they are nearly 1⁄200 of an inch in
diameter. Most of the starch granules are marked by a series of concentric rings. Starch is heavier than water, and
is insoluble in that fluid when cold; neither is it dissolved by alcohol or ether. When heated in water having a
temperature of at least 140° Fahrenheit, it increases greatly in volume, and acquires a gelatinous consistence.
When the water is allowed to cool, a portion of the starch becomes insoluble, whilst another portion remains in
solution; the latter form of starch is sometimes termed amidin, from the French word for starch, amidon. When dry
starch is heated to 400° Fahr., it is converted, without any change in its composition, into a soluble gum-like
substance, termed dextrin, or British gum. On being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it is converted into a kind of
sugar; and the same effect is produced by fermentation—for example, in the germination of seeds. Fresh rice
contains 82, wheat 60, and potatoes 20 per cent. of starch. This substance constitutes a nutritious and easily
digestible food, but alone cannot support life. Arrowroot is only a pure form of starch.
Sugar occurs less abundantly in plants than starch. There are several varieties of this substance, of which the
kinds termed cane sugar (sucrose) and grape sugar (glucose), are only of importance to agriculturists. The former
enters largely into the composition of the sugar-cane, the beetroot, the sugar-maple, the sorgho grass, pumpkins,
carrots, and a great variety of other plants. Grape sugar is found in fruits, especially when dried—raisins and figs
—in malted corn, and in honey. In the sugar-cane there is 18 per cent., and in the beetroot 10 per cent. of sugar.

Cane sugar, when pure, consists of minute transparent crystals. It is 16⁄10 heavier than water, and is soluble in
one-third of its weight of that fluid. By long-continued boiling in water it is changed into uncrystallizable sugar, or
treacle, by which its flavor is altered, but its sweetening power increased.
Grape sugar crystallizes in very small cubes, of inferior color as compared with cane sugar crystals. It dissolves
in its own weight of water, being three times less soluble than sucrose. In sweetening power one part of cane sugar
is equal to 2½ parts of grape sugar; but there is probably little if any difference, between the nutritive power of the
two substances.
Inulin is a substance somewhat resembling starch. It does not occur in large quantities. It is met with in the roots
of the dandelion, chicory, and many other plants.
Gum is an abundant constituent of plants. The kind termed gum arabic, so largely employed in the arts, is a very
pure variety of this substance. Common gums are said to be essentially composed of a very weak acid—gummic,
or arabic acid—united with lime and potash. The solution of gum is very slightly acid, and has a mucilaginous,
ropy consistence: it is almost tasteless. Mucilage, or bassorin, is simply a modified form of gum, which, though
insoluble in water, forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid. It exudes from certain trees—the cherry for example
—and exists largely in linseed and other seeds. Gums are nutritious foods, but it is probable that they are not equal
in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar.
Vegetable jelly, or pectin, is almost universally diffused throughout the vegetable kingdom. It is owing to its
presence that the juices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing. It is soluble in water, but
prolonged boiling destroys its viscous property. Pectose is a modification of pectin; it is insoluble in water.
According to Fremy, the hardness of green fruits is due to the presence of pectose; which is also found in the
cellular tissue of turnips, carrots, and various other roots.

Cellulose is a fibrous or cellular tissue, allied in composition to starch. It is the most abundant constituent of
plants, and forms the very ground-work of the vegetable mechanism. Linen, cotton, and the pith of the elder and
other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose. Ligneous, or woody tissue (lignin) is indurated cellulose, hardened
by age. It is almost identical in composition with cellulose. Pure cellulose is white, colorless, tasteless, insoluble in
water, oil, alcohol, or ether. It is heavier than water. Sulphuric acid is capable of converting it into grape, or starch
sugar. In its fresh and succulent state cellulose is digestible and nutritious; but in the form of ligneous tissue it
opposes a very great resistance to the action of the digestive fluids. Digestible cellulose is probably equal in
nutritive power to starch.
Oils and fats occur abundantly in vegetables, more particularly in their seeds. In the seeds of many cruciferous
plants the proportion of fat and oil exceeds 35 per cent. The oils and fats termed fixed are those which possess the
greatest interest to agriculturists; the volatile oils being those which confer on certain plants their fragrant odour.
There are a great variety of vegetable oils, but the proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly stearin,
margarin, olein, and palmitin.
Stearin is a white crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether, but insoluble in water. There are
two or three modifications of this substance, but they do not essentially differ from each other. The melting point
varies from 130° to 160° Fahr. Stearin is the most abundant of the fats.
Margarin presents the appearance of pearly scales. It is the solid fat present in olive oil, and it is also met with in
a great variety of fats and oils. It melts at 116° Fahr.
Olein is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances. It resists an extreme degree of cold, without
solidifying. There are several modifications of this body—the olein of olive oil being somewhat different from that
of castor oil; the olein of linseed is sometimes termed linolien.
Palmitin.—This fat occurs in many plants, but as it makes up the great bulk of palm oil, it has been termed
palmitin. It is white, and may be obtained in feathery-like masses. Its melting point varies from 114° to 145°, there
being, according to Duffy, three modifications of this substance.
The fats and oils are lighter than water. They contain far more carbon and hydrogen, and less oxygen, than are
found in the sugars and starches. They all consist of acids (stearic, palmitic, &c.) united with glycerine. On being
boiled with potash or soda, the latter take the place of the glycerine, which is set free, and a soap is produced. The
fatty acids strongly resemble the fats. In nutritive power, one part of fat is equal to 2½ parts of starch or sugar.
The Albuminous substances contain, in addition to the elements found in starch, nitrogen, sulphur, and
phosphorus. Albumen, fibrin, and legumin constitute the three important members of the "Nitrogenous"
constituents of plants.
Albumen is an uncrystallizable substance. It is soluble in water, unless when heated to 140 deg. Fahr., at which
temperature it coagulates, i.e., becomes solid and insoluble. The gluten of wheat is composed chiefly of albumen,
and of bodies closely allied to that substance.
Fibrin, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow, solid body. It contains a little more oxygen than is found in
albumen. This substance is best known as a constituent of animals, and it does not appear to be abundant in plants.
The portion of the gluten of wheat-flour, which is insoluble in boiling alcohol, is considered by Liebig and Dumas
to be coagulated fibrin.
In the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants large quantities of a substance termed legumin are
found. It resembles the casein, or cheesy ingredient of milk; indeed, some chemists consider it to be identical in
composition with that substance. When pure, it is pearly white, insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in cold water
and in vinegar. The saline matters found in plants are always associated with the albuminous bodies; the latter,
therefore, form the bones as well as the muscles of animals.
A great many substances are found in plants, such as wax, mannite, "extractive matter," citric, malic, and other
acids, of the nutritive value of which very little is known. The substances described in this section constitute,
however, at least 95 per cent. of the weight of the vegetable matters used as food by live stock.

SECTION III.

GREEN FOOD.

The Grasses.—More than one-half the area of Great Britain and Ireland is under pasture; the grasses, therefore,
constitute the most important and abundant food used by live stock. The composition of the natural and artificial
grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soil on which they are grown, and by the climatic conditions
under which they are developed. Many of them are almost worthless, whilst others possess a high nutritive value.
Amongst the most useful natural grasses may be enumerated Italian rye-grass, Meadow barley, Annual Meadow-
grass, Crested dogstail-grass, Cocksfoot-grass, Timothy or Meadow catstail-grass, and Sweet vernal-grass.
Amongst grasses of medium quality I may mention common Oatlike-grass, Meadow foxtail grass, Smooth and
rough stalked Meadow-grass, and Waterwhorl-grass. There are very many grasses which are almost completely
innutritious, and which ought, under no circumstances, to be tolerated, although too often they make up the great
bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures. Such grasses are, the Meadow soft-grass, Creeping
soft-grass, False brome-grass, and Upright brome-grass. The rough-stalked Meadow-grass, though spoken
favorably of by some farmers, is hardly worthy of cultivation, and the same may be said of many of the grasses
which have a place in our meadows and pastures. (See "Analyses of Natural Grasses in a Fresh State, by Dr.
Voelcker," on next page.)
The Schræder brome is a perennial lately introduced into France. It is described as an exceedingly valuable
forage crop, and one which is admirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows. It would be desirable to give it a
trial in these countries. The composition (which is very peculiar) of this plant is stated to be as follows, when dry:
—

ANALYSIS OF SCHRÆDER BROME HAY.
Water 16·281
Nitrogenous matters 23·443
Fat 3·338
Starch gum, &c. 22·549
Cellulose (fibre) 19·843
Ashes 14·546
————
Total 100·000

ANALYSES OF NATURAL GRASSES IN A FRESH STATE, BY DR. VOELCKER.
Respiratory
Albuminous or Mineral
Fatty Principles: Woody Date of
Water. Flesh-forming Matter
Matters. Starch, Gum, Fibre. Collection.
Principles. or Ash.
Sugar.
Anthoxanthum odoratum—Sweet-scented vernal grass 80·35 2·00 ·67 8·54 7·15 1·24 May 25
Alopecurus pratensis—Meadow foxtail grass 80·20 2·44 ·52 8·59 6·70 1·55 June 1
Arrhenatherum avenaceum—Common oat-like grass 72·65 3·54 ·87 11·21 9·37 2·36 July 17
Avena flavescens—Yellow oat-like grass 60·40 2·96 1·04 18·66 14·22 2·72 June 29
Avena pubescens—Downy oat-grass 61·50 3·07 ·92 19·16 13·34 2·01 July 11
Briza media— Common quaking grass 51·85 2·93 1·45 22·60 17·00 4·17 June 29
Bromus erectus—Upright brome grass 59·57 3·78 1·35 33·19 2·11 " 23
Bromus mollis—Soft brome grass 76·62 4·05 ·47 9·04 8·46 1·36 May 8
Cynosurus cristatus—Crested dogstail grass 62·73 4·13 1·32 19·64 9·80 2·38 June 21
Dactylus glomerata—Cocksfoot grass 70·00 4·06 ·94 13·30 10·11 1·54 " 13
Ditto, seeds ripe 52·57 10·93 ·74 12·61 20·54 2·61 July 19
Festuca duriuscula—Hard fescue grass 69·33 3·70 1·02 12·46 11·83 1·66 June 13
Holcus lanatus—Soft meadow grass 69·70 3·49 1·02 11·92 11·94 1·93 " 29
Hordeum pratense—Meadow barley 58·85 4·59 ·94 20·05 13·03 2·54 July 11
Lolium perenne—Darnel grass 71·43 3·37 ·91 12·08 10·06 2·15 June 8
Lolium italicum—Italian rye-grass 75·61 2·45 ·80 14·11 4·82 2·21 " 13
Phleum pratense—Meadow catstail grass 57·21 4·86 1·50 22·85 11·32 2·26

Poa annua—Annual meadow grass 79·14 2·47 ·71 10·79 6·30 ·59 May 28
Poa pratensis—Smooth-stalked meadow grass 67·14 3·41 ·86 14·15 12·49 1·95 June 11
Poa trivialis—Rough-stalked ditto 73·60 2·58 ·97 10·54 10·11 2·20 " 18
Grass from water meadow 87·58 3·22 ·81 3·98 3·13 1·28 Apr. 30
Ditto, second crop 74·53 2·78 ·52 11·17 8·76 2·24 June 26
Annual rye-grass 69·00 2·96 ·69 12·89 12·47 1·99 "8
Most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower.

Tussac Grass (Dactylis cæspitus) is recommended as an excellent plant to grow on very poor, wet, or mossy
soils.25 It is an evergreen grass, somewhat resembling coltsfoot. It is relished by cattle.

ANALYSIS OF TUSSAC GRASS BY JOHNSTONE.
Lower part. Upper part.
Water 86·09 75·17
Flesh-formers 2·47 4·79
Sugar, gum, &c. 4·62 6·81
Woody fibre (with a little albumen) 5·68 11·86
Ash 1·14 1·37
———— ————
Total 100·00 100·00

The "artificial grasses" embrace the clovers, vetches, lucerne, and a few other plants, some of which are seldom
cultivated.

ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER, BY DR. ANDERSON.
Per-centage in the Fresh Clover. Per-centage in Dry Clover.
Dry Nitrogenised Nitrogenised
Water. Ash. Ash.
Substances. Substances. Matters.
Red clover—Trifolium pratense:
1. From English seed 85·30 14·70 1·30 2·31 8·90 15·87
2. From German seed (from the Rhine) 81·68 18·32 1·49 2·81 8·15 15·50
3. From French seed 83·51 16·49 1·95 2·25 11·82 13·56
4. From American seed 79·98 21·02 1·58 2·87 8·05 ...
5. From Dutch seed ... ... ... ... 8·82 12·43
Cowgrass—Trifolium medium:26
Variety, Duke of Norfolk 77·39 22·61 2·73 2·25 12·09 10·19
Variety, common 81·76 18·24 1·92 3·19 10·53 14·37
Crimson clover—Trifolium incarnatum:
From French seed 82·56 17·44 1·88 3·25 10·81 18·56
Yellow clover—Medicago lupulina:
From English seed 77·38 22·62 2·02 3·50 8·95 15·44
From French seed 78·60 21·40 1·75 2·94 8·18 13·69

Clover is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances. There are several varieties of this plant, of
which the Alsike Clover appears to be the most valuable, as it contains a high proportion of organic matter and
gives the largest acreable produce. The nature of the soil influences, to a great extent, the composition of this plant:
this no doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses of it made by Way, Voelcker, and
Anderson.
The composition of the Vetch, Sainfoin, and Lucerne, resembles very closely that of the Clover: indeed, it
appears to me that all these leguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage, but that the best adapted
for hay is the Clover. In the following table the composition of these plants is shown:—

ANALYSES OF CLOVER, BY DR. VOELCKER.
I. II. III. IV. V.
Red White Yellow Alsike Bokhara
Clover. Clover. Clover. Clover. Clover.

Water 80·64 83·65 77·57 76·67 81·30
Soluble in Water—
a. Organic substances 6·35 4·98 8·26 4·91 6·80
b. Inorganic substances 1·55 1·13 1·40 1·33 1·54
Insoluble in water—
a. Impure vegetable fibre 11·04 9·80 12·17 16·36 10·01
b. Inorganic matters (ash) 0·42 0·44 0·60 0·73 0·35
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

ANALYSES OF LUCERNE, SAINFOIN, AND VETCH.
I. II. III.
Lucerne. Sainfoin. Vetch.
Water 73·41 77·32 82·16
Soluble in Water
a. Organic substances 9·43 8·00 6·07
b. Inorganic substances 2·33 1·20 1·07
Insoluble in water
a. Impure vegetable fibre 14·08 12·95 10·23
b. Inorganic matters (ash) 0·75 0·53 0·47
100·00 100·00 100·00

The artificial grasses are, on the whole, more nutritious than the natural grasses; but I should explain that the
analyses of the natural grasses which I have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almost termed their wild
state: under the influence of good cultivation—when irrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate
manure—their analyses would indicate a higher nutritive value. The grasses, and more especially the so-called
artificial grasses, are more nutritious and digestible when young. In old clover the proportion of insoluble woody
fibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimental value of the plant.
The Lentils, the Birdsfoot, the Trefoil, and the Melilot are leguminous plants which occasionally are found as
constituents of forage crops. Lentils are extensively cultivated on the Continent, and are the only kind of these
plants the chemistry of which has been at all studied. The straw contains 7 per cent. of flesh-formers.
The Yellow Lupine is cultivated rather extensively in Germany, France, and Belgium, partly for feeding
purposes, partly to furnish a green manure. Its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man, and its stems
and leaves are given to cattle. An attempt was made a few years ago to introduce its cultivation, as a field crop,
into England, and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it. Mr. Kimber, who has cultivated
this crop, states that it is likely to prove valuable on light sandy soils, where the ordinary green fodder crops are
not easily cultivated. The produce per acre obtained in Mr. Kimber's trial was about nineteen tons. Cattle and sheep
relish the Yellow Lupine, but according to Mr. Kimber, pigs reject it. Professor Voelcker examined this plant, and
found that it resembled in composition the ordinary artificial grasses, except in one respect, namely, a remarkable
deficiency in sugar. Altogether, it is not so rich in nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants;
but as it can be cultivated on a very poor soil, and gives a good return, it is probable that the Yellow Lupine will
yet become a common crop in Britain. The following table exhibits the results of Dr. Voelcker's analysis.

COMPOSITION OF YELLOW LUPINES (CUT DOWN IN A GREEN STATE).
In natural state. Dried at 212°F.
Water 89·20
Oil ·37 3·42
* Soluble albuminous compounds 1·37 12·68
Soluble mineral (saline) substances ·61 5·64
† Insoluble albuminous compounds 1·01 9·35
Sugar, gum, bitter extractive matter, and digestible fibre 3·96 36·68
Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose) 3·29 30·48
Insoluble mineral matters ·19 1·75
——— ———
100·00 100·00
* Containing nitrogen ·22 2·03
† Containing nitrogen ·16 1·48

Rib grass plantain (Plantago lanceolata) is one of those plants, the value of which for forage purposes is
questionable. Many persons believe it to be a useful food. Its composition, which looks favorable, is as follows:—

Water 84·78
Albuminous matters 2·18
Fatty matters 0·56
Starch, gum, &c. 6·08
Woody fibre 5·10
Mineral matter 1·30

The grasses, natural and artificial, are occasionally affected by a formidable and well-known fungus, the ergot.
Italian rye-grass is the most liable to the ravages of this pest, and there are on record several cases in which
ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed upon it. Clover and the various leguminous plants appear more
liable to the ergot disease than the natural grasses (except rye-grass), but I have on several occasions noticed this
fungus on the spikelets of Hordeum pratense, Festuca pratense, and Bromus erectus. It has also been noticed that
rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquid manure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are
poisonously affected. Alderman Mechi states that in July, 1864, ten out of his thirty Shorthorn calves died in
consequence of eating the heads of Italian rye-grass, and that the survivors' health was seriously injured. He was
also unfortunate with his lambs, which, during the same month, were folded on Italian rye-grass. "Four days ago,"
writes the Alderman, "it was sewaged, having been prior to the former growth also guanoed. In four days it had
grown from four to five inches, was of an intense green, and pronounced to be, by sharp practical men, just the
food for lambs. Well, we put on our lambs, taking care to do so in the evenings after they had been well fed. My
bailiff accompanied them, and, within five minutes, turning accidentally round, he saw two of the lambs with their
heads in the air staggering (stomach staggers it is called) and frothing at the mouth. He immediately saw the
mischief, removed the lambs, and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited the Italian rye-grass that
they had just eaten, accompanied by frothy slime; others brought it up during the night. Some of them trembled,
gaped, and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done, such as rapid pulse, &c. Two or three of them
are rather queer to-day. I hope that Professor Simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is? If we mow
this grass, bring it home, and cut it into chaff, all which tends to heat or dry it, it becomes wholesome food. The
same remarks apply in degree to very succulent tares. If the Italian grass is brought home and given long and quite
fresh to the calves, it will kill them. It does not appear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings. The dry
weather has something to do with it. In wet weather the evil is much diminished, or disappears."
It is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremely rich in matters only semi-organised, and
perhaps abounded in the crude substances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated. Such rank grass as this
was should not be used until it has attained to a tolerably developed state: in mature plants the juices contain more
highly organised matters than are found in young vegetables.
The Sorghuo, or Holcus Saccharatus.—This plant, introduced to the notice of the British farmer but a few years
ago, is only grown in these countries in small quantities. It is very rich in sugar, and cattle relish it greatly. Its
composition, according to Dr. Voelcker, is as follows:—

Water 81·80
Albuminous matters 1·53
Insoluble ditto 0·66
Sugar 5·85
Wax and fatty matter 2·55
Mucilage, pectin, and digestible matters 2·59
Indigestible woody fibre 4·03
Mineral matter 0·99
———
100·00

The plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in September. It is found that the composition of the plant
is very different at different seasons.
Green Rye is employed as a forage crop, for which purpose it is well adapted. It is about equal in nutritive power
to clover. According to Dr. Voelcker its composition is as follows:—

Water 75·423
Flesh-formers 2·705
Fatty matter 0·892
Gum, pectin, sugar, &c. 9·134
Woody-fibre 10·488
Mineral matter 1·358
———
100·000

Buckwheat is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food for stock. Its composition, according to Einhof
and Crome, is as follows:—

Water 82·5
Nitrogenous compounds 0·2
Extractive matters 2·6
Starch, &c. 4·7
Cellulose 10·0
———
100·0

Rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding. Two varieties are cultivated in these countries—the
summer rape (Brassica Campestris oleifera) and winter rape (Brassica rapus). The great utility of rape arises from
the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a stolen crop; for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants
that might be substituted for it—cabbages, &c. This plant is very rich in oily matters, and has been found well
adapted both for the feeding of cattle and the fattening of sheep. Its composition, according to Voelcker, is shown
in this table:—

COMPOSITION OF GREEN RAPE.
Water 87·050
Flesh-formers 3·133
Fatty matters 0·649
Other respiratory substances 4·000
Woody fibre 3·560
Mineral matter (ash) 1·608
———
100·000

With respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring, Mr. Rham makes the following remarks:—
If the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off, but in general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring. In the end of March
and the beginning of April it will be a great help to the ewes and lambs. It will produce excellent food till it begins to be in flower,
when it should immediately be ploughed up. The ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop, which has taken nothing from it,
and has added much by the dung and urine of the sheep. Whatever be the succeeding crop, it cannot fail to be productive; and if the
land is not clean, the farmer must have neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the preceding summer, and in the early
part of spring. If the rape is fed off in time, it may be succeeded by barley or oats, with clover or grass seeds, or potatoes, if the soil is
not too wet. Thus no crop will be lost, and the rape will have been a clear addition to the produce of the land. Any crop which is taken
off the land in a green state, especially if it be fed off with sheep, may be repeated without risk of failure, provided the land be properly
tilled; but where cole or rape have produced seed, they cannot be profitably sown in less than five or six years after on the same land.
The cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils.

The Mustard Plant is occasionally used as food for sheep, for which purpose its composition shows it to be well
adapted. Voelcker's analysis proves it to be very rich, relatively, in muscle-forming elements and in mineral
matters; it might, therefore be with advantage combined with food relatively deficient in these principles.

COMPOSITION OF FRESH MUSTARD.
Water 86·30
Albuminous matters 2·87
Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, oil, &c.) 4·40
Woody fibre 4·39
Ash 2·04

———
100·00

The Prickly Comfrey has been recommended as a good forage plant. It yields an abundant crop—or rather crops,
for it may be cut several times in the year. The plant is a handsome one, and it might combine the useful with the
ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villa farms. Dr. Voelcker states its composition to be as follows:—

Water 88·400
Flesh-forming substances 2·712
Heat and fat-producing matters 6·898
Ash 1·990
———
100·000

Chicory is used as a forage crop on the Continent, and Professor John Wilson surmises that it may yet be
generally cultivated for this purpose in Great Britain. At present it is rarely grown except for the sake of its roots,
which are used as partial substitutes for, or adulterants of, coffee.

COMPOSITION OF CHICORY, ACCORDING TO ANDERSON.
Fresh roots. Fresh leaves.
Water 80·58 90·94
Nitrogenous matters 1·72 1·01
Non-nitrogenous substances 16·39 6·63
Ash 1·31 1·42
——— ———
100·00 100·00

Yarrow (Achillæa millefolium) is usually regarded as a weed, but sheep are very fond of it, and when they can
get it, never fail to eat it greedily. It possesses astringent properties. Some writers have recommended it as a good
crop for warrens and sands. Its composition, according to Way, is as follows:—

DRIED YARROW.
Albuminous matter 10·34
Fatty matters 2·51
Starch, gum, &c. 45·46
Woody fibre 32·69
Mineral matter 9·00
———
100·00

Melons and Marrows have been used, but to a very limited extent, as food for stock. Mr. Blundell advocates
their use in seasons of drought. He states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of both melons and
marrows. They are relished by horses, oxen, sheep, and pigs. Mr. Blundell's advocacy has not been attended with
much success, but it would be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial.
Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains:—

Water 92·98
Albuminous matters 1·53
Oil ·73
Sugar, gum, &c. 2·51
Fibre 1·65
Ash ·60
———
100·00

The Cabbage.—The composition of the Drumhead Cabbage has been studied by Dr. Anderson. He found a
larger proportion of nutriment in the outer leaves than in the "heart," and ascertained that the young plants were
richer in nutriment than those more advanced in age. His results show the desirability of cultivating the open-
leaved, rather than the compact varieties of this plant.

ANALYSIS OF THE CABBAGE.—BY DR. ANDERSON.
Outer leaves. Heart leaves.
Water 91·08 94·48
Compounds containing nitrogen 1·63 0·94
Compounds destitute of nitrogen, such as gum, sugar, fibre, &c. 5·06 4·08
Ash (mineral matter) 2·23 0·50
——— ———
100·00 100·00

According to Fromberg, the composition of the whole plant is as follows:—

Water 93·40
Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming compounds 1·75
Non-nitrogenous substances such as gum, sugar, &c. 4·05
Mineral matter 0·80
———
100·00

Dr. Voelcker, who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage, furnishes us with the following details of its
composition:—

COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE LEAVES (OUTSIDE GREEN LEAVES).
Water 83·72
Dry matter 16·28
———
100·00

The fresh and the dry matter consisted of:—

Fresh Dry matter.
Matter. Per cent.
* Protein compounds 1·65 10·19
Non-nitrogenous matter 13·38 82·10
Mineral matter 1·25 7·71
——— ———
16·28 100·00
* Containing nitrogen ·26 1·63

In the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the heart and inner leaves are shown:—

COMPOSITION OF HEART AND INNER LEAVES.
In natural state. Dry.
Water 89·42
Oil ·08 ·75
* Soluble protein compounds 1·19 11·24
Sugar, digestible fibres, &c. 7·01 66·25
Soluble mineral matter ·73 6·89
† Insoluble protein compounds ·31 2·93
Woody fibre 1·14 10·77
Insoluble mineral matter ·12 1·17
——— ———

100·00 100·00
* Containing nitrogen ·19 1·79
† Containing nitrogen ·05 ·47

If I were asked what plant I considered the most valuable for forage, I certainly should pronounce an opinion in
favor of cabbage. This crop yields a much greater return than that afforded by the Swedish turnip, and it is richer in
nutritive matter. Cabbages are greedily eaten by sheep and cattle, and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite
free from the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the food of the animal is chiefly composed of
turnips. If the cabbage admitted of storing, no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock.
Mr. John M'Laren, of Inchture, Scotland, gives in the "Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society of
Scotland for 1857," a report on the feeding value of cabbage, which is highly favorable to that plant:—
On the 1st December, 1855 (says the reporter), two lots of Leicester wethers, bred on the farm, and previously fed alike, each lot
containing ten sheep, were selected for the trial by competent judges, and weighed. Both lots were put into a field of well-sheltered old
lea, having a division between them. All the food was cut and given them in troughs, three times a day. They had also a constant
supply of hay in racks.
At the end of the trial, on the 1st of March, 1856, the sheep were all re-weighed, sent to the Edinburgh market, and sold same day, but
in their separate lots. As I had no opportunity of getting the dead weights, I requested Mr. Swan, the salesman, to give his opinion on
their respective qualities. This was to the effect that no difference existed in their market value, but that the sheep fed on turnips would
turn out the best quality of mutton, with most profit for the butcher. Both lots were sold at the same price, viz., 52s. 6d. During the
three months of trial, we found that each lot consumed about the same weight of food—viz., 8 tons 13 cwt. 47 lb. of cabbage, being at
the rate of 211⁄3 lbs. per day for each sheep, and 8 tons 10 cwt. 7 lb. Swedes, being at the rate of 209⁄10 lb. per day.

It will be seen, by referring to the table (see next page), that in this trial the Swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes
than the cabbage, making 11 st. 4 lb. of gain in weight, whilst the cabbage made 10 st. 9 lb. At the same time, 3 cwt. 40 lb. less food
were consumed; and taking the mutton gained at 6d. per lb., the Swedes consumed become worth 9s. 3¼d. per ton, while the gain on
the cabbage, at the same rate, makes them worth 8s. 7d. per ton. But from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the
other, the balance, at the prices, c., mentioned, is in favor of the cabbage by £1 15s. 11¾d. per acre.

These results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage; but the weight of the acreable crop of cabbages
stated in the table appears to be unusually great. So heavy a crop is rarely obtained.
Furze (Gorse, or Whins).—Notwithstanding the natural historical knowledge of Goldsmith, his poetical
description of the furze is far from accurate. This plant, instead of being "unprofitably gay," deserves to rank
amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use of the domestic animals. It grows and flourishes under
conditions which most injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and green crop. Prolonged drought in
spring and early summer not unfrequently renders the hay crop a scanty one; while autumn and winter frosts
change the nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesome matter. Under such
circumstances as these, the maintenance of cattle in good condition is very expensive, unless in places where a
supply of furze is available. This plant is rather improved than otherwise by exposure to a temperature which
would speedily destroy a mangel or a turnip; and, although it thrives best when abundantly supplied with rain, it
can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustaining much injury.

TABLE
Showing the Difference of Weight grown on an Acre of Cabbage and an Acre of Swedes, and the Value of each for Feeding.
No.
Weight Weight Value of Total Weight of Total
Of Value of Extra Cost Balan
of Ten of Ten Gain Food Weight Value of Free Value of
Sheep Kinds of Food on each favo
Sheep, Sheep, Gain. taking consumed in per Acre each Crop each Crop per
In Food. consumed Crop per Cabba
1st Dec., 1st Mar., Mutton at Three Months of each per Acre. Acre.
Each per Ton. Acre. Ac
1855. 1856. 6d. per lb. by each lot. Crop.
Lot.
st. lb. st. lb. st. lb. £ s. d. tons. cwt. lb. s. d. tons. cwt. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s.
10 Cabbage 90 10 101 5 10 9 3 14 6 8 13 47 8 7 42 14 18 6 6 4 10 11 13 15 7
1 15
10 Swedes 89 3 100 7 11 4 3 19 0 8 10 7 9 3¼ 26 12 12 6 7¼ 0 7 0 11 19 7¼

The furze is a member of the family Leguminosæ, which includes so many useful plants, such as, for example,
the pea, the bean, and the clovers. There are three varieties of it met with in this country—namely, the common
furze, Ulex europæus, the dwarf furze, Ulex nanus, and the Irish, or upright furze, Ulex strictus.
The common furze is a hardy shrub, and grows luxuriantly at an elevation far higher than the limits of cereal
cultivation. It flourishes on any kind of soil which is moderately dry, and heavy crops may easily be raised on

uplands almost incapable of producing grass. The dwarf furze is never cultivated, but as it grows at a still greater
elevation, and on a poorer soil than the larger varieties, it might be profitably cultivated on very high uplands. The
Irish furze yields a softer and less prickly food than the other kinds, but as it does not usually bear seed, and must
therefore be propagated by cuttings, its cultivation has hitherto been limited to but a few localities.
The produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to that of an acre of good meadow. The Rev. Mr.
Townsend of Aghada, county of Cork—the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation of this plant—
informed me that he had obtained so much as 14 tons per acre; a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is
well deserving of the attention of the farmer.
Furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock. Cattle, although they may at first appear not to relish its
prickly shoots, soon acquire a fondness for it. I have known several instances of herds being fed almost if not
entirely on the bruised plant, and to keep in good condition. The late Professor Murphy, of Cork, stated that on the
farm of Mr. Boulger, near Mallow, thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze, which they "devoured voraciously."
Each animal received daily from four to six stones of the crushed plant, to which were added a little turnip pulp
and a small quantity of oats. The milk and butter yielded by these cows were considered excellent. In a letter
addressed to me by a very intelligent feeder, Mr. John Walsh,27 of Stedalt, county of Dublin, the following remarks
in relation to this subject are made:—
I had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about sixty head, of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with my
machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass. The condition of these was so superior that I pointed out every one of them,
one after the other, out of the herd. The owner of the cattle had made the same observation; it was new to him but not to me.

Furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs, but I believe that it might with advantage enter into the dietary of those
animals. Some of my friends who have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects. Horses partly fed
upon this plant keep in good condition; it is usually given to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an
inch, but it would be better to give it to them finely bruised. A horse during the night will eat a much larger
quantity of coarsely cut furze than of the well bruised article, because he is obliged to expend a great deal of
muscular power in bruising the furze, and must, consequently, use an additional quantity of the food to make up
for the corresponding waste of tissue.
Until quite recently, the chemistry of the furze was very little studied. The analysis of this plant made many
years ago by Sprengel gave results which, in the present advanced condition of agricultural chemistry, are quite
valueless. The late Professor Johnston merely determined its amount of water, organic matter, and ash. I believe I
was the first to make a complete investigation into the composition of this plant according to the methods of
modern chemical analysis. I made two examinations. The first was of shoots cut on the 25th April, 1860, on the
lands of Mr. Walsh of Stedalt, near Balbriggan, in the county of Dublin. The shoots were, in great part, composed
of that year's growth, with a small proportion of the shoots of the previous year. They were very moist, and their
spines, or thorns, were rather soft. Their centesimal composition was as follows:—

Water 78·05
Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 2·18
Fat-forming principles (oil, starch, sugar, gum, &c.) 8·20
Woody fibre 10·17
Mineral matter (ash) 1·40
———
100·00

The second analysis was made of furze cut on the 15th August, 1862. The following were the results obtained:
—

Water 72·00
Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 3·21
Oil 1·18
Other fat-forming principles (starch, gum, &c.) 8·20
Woody fibre 13·33
Mineral matter 2·08
———
100·00

The specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room, so that it lost a little water whilst in my
possession, before it was subjected to analysis.
The sample cut in August contained a larger amount of nutriment than the specimen analysed in the spring; but
its constituents appeared to be much less soluble in water, and therefore, less digestible.
Professor Blyth, of the Queen's College, Cork, has more recently made a very elaborate analysis of furze, grown
in the county of Cork, which gave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived at by me—probably
because the specimens furnished to him were drier than mine.

ANALYSIS OF FRESH FURZE, BY DR. BLYTH.
100 parts contain:—
Matters readily soluble in water and easily digested.
* Albuminous, or flesh-forming compounds 1·68
Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements, viz., sugar, gum, &c. &c. 7·83
Ash 0·83
———
Total matters soluble in water 10·34
* Containing nitrogen 0·265
Matters insoluble in water.
Oil 2·14
† Albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds 2·83
Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements 1·00
Woody fibre 28·80
Ash 3·23
———
Total matters insoluble in water 38·00
Water, expelled at 212 51·50
———
99·48
Total nitrogen in plant 0·71
Total albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds 4·51
Total respiratory, or heat and fat-producing compounds 8·83
Total ash 4·06
The ash contains in 100 parts:—
Potash 20·00
Phosphoric acid 8·72
† Containing nitrogen 0·445

If the large per-centage of water be deducted, the dry, nutritive matters can then be more readily compared with
the amount of the same substances in other feeding articles:—

Composition of 100 parts of furze dried at 212°. Matters soluble in water in the dry furze.
* Albuminous compounds 3·47
Respiratory elements 16·15
Ash 1·71
———
Total matters soluble in water 21·33
* Containing nitrogen 0·546
Matters insoluble in water in the dry furze.
Oil 4·41
† Albuminous compounds 5·84
Respiratory elements 2·06
Woody fibre 59·38
Ash 6·66
———
Total matters insoluble in water 78·35
———

99·68
Total nitrogen in dry furze 1·46
Total albuminous compounds 9·13
Total respiratory elements 18·20
Total ash 8·36
† Containing nitrogen 0·917
Composition of ash per cent.
Potash 20·00
Phosphoric Acid. 8·72

The results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amount of nutriment equal to that found in dry
grass. The nature of its composition resembles, as might be expected, that of its allied plants, vetches, &c., and
therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount of ready formed fatty matter.

SECTION IV.

STRAW AND HAY.

Straw.—At the present time, when the attention of the farmer is becoming more and more devoted to the
production of meat, it is very desirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the various feeding
substances should be more extensive than it is. No doubt, most feeders are practically acquainted with the relative
value of corn and oil-cake—of Swedish turnips and white turnips; but their knowledge of the food equivalents of
many other substances is still very defective. For example, every farmer is not aware that Indian corn is a more
economical food than beans for fattening cattle, and less so for beasts of burthen. Locust-beans, oat-dust, malt-
combings, and many other articles, occasionally consumed by stock, have not, as yet, determinate places assigned
to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents.
The points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quite so simple as some farmers, more especially
those of the amateur class, appear to believe. There are many feeders who sell their half-finished cattle at a profit,
and yet they cannot, without loss, convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so much admired at
agricultural shows. The complete fattening of cattle is a losing business with some feeders, and a profitable one
with others. Stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which, perhaps more than any other, requires the
combination of "science with practice;" yet how few feeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the
composition of food substances, or who are agreed as to the feeding value, absolute or relative, of even such well-
known materials as oil-cake, straw, or oats! "It is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood
to be established for the different foods used for the maintenance of the animals. It is equally plain, when we
reflect on the different methods pursued for the preservation of the animals, that we are still far from having
attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend. Visit one hundred farms, taken by chance in different parts
of the country, and you will find in each, methods directly opposite—a totally peculiar manner of managing the
stalls; you will see, in short, that the conditions of food, of treatment, and of hygiene, remain not understood in
seven-eighths of rural farms."28
The straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a striking illustration of the erroneous opinions and practices
which prevail amongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of their calling. The German farmers
regard straw as the most valuable constituent of home-made fertilisers, and their leases in general prohibit their
selling off the straw produced on their farms. Yet chemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of
straw is perfectly insignificant, and that, as a constituent of stable manure, it is chiefly useful as an absorbent of the
liquid egesta of the animals littered upon it. As food for stock, straw was at one time regarded by our farmers as
almost perfectly innutritious; some even went so far as to declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever, and
even those who used it, did so more with the view of correcting the too watery nature of turnips, than with the
expectation of its being assimilated to the animal body. Within the last few years, however, straw has been largely
employed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders in England, who report so favorably upon it as
an economical feeding stuff, that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large section of the agricultural
public. Now, even without adopting the very high opinion which Mechi and Horsfall entertain relative to the
nutritive power of straw, I am altogether disposed to disagree with those who affirm that its application should be

restricted to manurial purposes. Unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw as litter,
that article should be used as food for stock, for which purpose it will be found, if of good quality, and given in a
proper state, a most economical kind of dry fodder—equal, if not superior to hay, when the prices of both articles
are considered.
The composition of straw is very different from that of grain. The former contains no starch, but it includes an
exceedingly high proportion of woody fibre; the latter is in great part composed of starch, and contains but an
insignificant amount of woody fibre. Dr. Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, and Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, have made a large
number of analyses of the straws of the cereal and leguminous plants, the results of which are of the highest
interest to the agriculturist. In the following tables the more important results of these investigations are given:—

ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. VOELCKER.

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10.
Wheat, just Oat, cut
Wheat, Barley, Barley, not Oat, cut Oat, over Flax
ripe and well when fairly Bean. Pea.
over ripe. dead ripe. too ripe. green. ripe. Chaff.
harvested. ripe.
Water 13·33 9·17 15·20 17·50 16·00 16·00 16·00 19·40 16·02 14·60
Albumen, and other protein
compounds:—
a. Soluble in water 1·28 0·06 0·68 5·51 2·62 1·29 1·51 3·96
b. Insoluble in water 1·65 2·06 3·75 }5·73 2·98 1·46 2·36 1·85 5·90 }4·75
Oil 1·74 0·65 1·36 1·17 1·57 1·05 1·25 1·02 2·34 2·82
Sugar, mucilage, extractive
matters, &c. (soluble in 4·26 3·46 2·24 16·04 10·57 3·19 4·18 8·32 8·72

}
water)
Digestible woody fibre and 71·44
cellulose
Indigestible fibre &c.
19·40

54·13
}82·26 5·97

66·54
26·34

24·86
30·17

31·78
27·75

41·82
2·75

65·58
17·74

42·79
18·56

43·12
Inorganic matter:—
a. Soluble 1·13 1·29 2·88 5·76 3·64 2·26 2·31 2·72 4·07
b. Insoluble 3·08 1·05 0·38 }4·52 0·94 2·71 4·08 1·40 2·21 3·36
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

⁂ This table contains in a condensed form all the results of Voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper published in the Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. xxii., part 2. 1862.

Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were analysed shortly after being cut, when they contained a high proportion of water. They have, therefore, been calculated to
contain 16 per cent. of moisture so as to arrive at accurate relative results.

ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. ANDERSON.
Oat from Oat from 850 Oat from Oat from
Wheat Barley
Wheat from East Barley from East Sandy Oat from Sea level, feet above Sea Mellhill, Kent
from from
Lothian. Lothian. Kent. East level, East Inchture, (White one
Kent. Kent.
Lothian. Lothian. Scotland. side.)
Water 10·62 10·93 11·15 11·44 11·15 11·10 11·70 10·95 12·60 11·28 11·70 10·55
Flesh-
formers—
Soluble 0·86 0·37 1·37 1·42 0·39 0·66 0·40 1·03 0·67 0·92 0·95 0·33
Insoluble 0·51 1·12 1·00 1·54 1·12 1·98 0·93 0·43 0·38 0·39 1·21 0·33
Oil 0·80 1·00 1·50 0·97 0·88 1·05 1·45 0·77 1·25 1·36 1·60 1·00
Respiratory
elements—
Soluble 2·68 6·68 5·26 3·22 6·11 4·56 10·12 6·90 7·16 7·42 12·01 6·23
Insoluble 44·88 36·43 38·79 35·56 38·38 27·95 33·52 34·77 24·28 29·55 23·35 30·95
Woody fibre 32·88 34·78 35·01 41·34 36·62 47·53 35·36 38·73 48·49 44·40 45·27 47·40
Ash 6·20 8·04 6·32 4·21 5·62 4·85 6·36 6·28 5·11 5·07 3·95 3·62
99·43 99·35 100·40 99·70 100·27 99·68 99·84 99·86 99·94 100·39 100·14 100·41

⁂ This table is compiled from Dr. Anderson's paper in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for March, 1862.

Many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recorded in these valuable tables. We learn from
them that straw is more nutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permitted to over-ripen, and that
green straw contains a far greater amount of nutriment than is found even in the ripe article. It appears also that the
least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips in its amount of flesh-forming principles, and
greatly exceeds them in its proportion of fat-forming elements. We further learn that in general the different kinds
of straw will be found to stand in the following order, the most nutritious occupying the highest, and the least
nutritious the lowest place:—

1. Pea-haulm.
2. Oat-straw.
3. Bean-straw with the pods.
4. Barley-straw.
5. Wheat-straw.
6. Bean-stalks without the pods.

It is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurate knowledge of the chemical composition of the
plants cultivated in Ireland. No doubt the analyses of English grown wheat, beans, mangels, and other plants, serve
to give us a general idea of the nature of those vegetables when produced in this country. But this kind of
information, though very important, must necessarily be defective, as differences in climate modify—often to a
considerable extent—the composition of almost every vegetable. Thus, the results of Anderson's analyses prove
Scotch oats to be superior, as a feeding stuff, to Scotch barley, whilst, according to Voelcker and the experience of
most English feeders, the barley of parts of England is superior to its oats. It follows, then, that whilst the results of
the analyses of straw, made by Voelcker and Anderson are of great interest to the Irish farmer, they would be still
more important to him had the straw to which they relate been the produce of Irish soil. In order, therefore, to
enable the Irish farmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw, we should put him in possession of a
more perfect knowledge of its composition than that which is derivable from the investigations to which I have
referred. The straws of the cereals—which alone are used here to any extent—should be analysed as carefully and
as frequently as those of Great Britain have been; and if such were done, I have no doubt but that the results would
indicate a decided difference in composition between the produce of the two countries. Some time ago I entered
upon what, at the time, I had intended should be a complete investigation into the composition of Irish straws; but
which want of time prevented me from making more than a partial one. The results are given in the following
tables:—

ANALYSES OF IRISH OAT-STRAW.
No. 1. Obtained in the Dublin Market.
From Co.
No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.
Wicklow.
Water 14·00 14·00 14·00 14·00
Flesh-forming principles—
a. Soluble in water 4·08 2·02 2·04 1·46
b. Insoluble in water 2·09 3·16 3·00 2·23
Oil 1·84 1·40 1·26 1·00
Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming matters 13·79 12·67 10·18 11·16
Woody fibre 59·96 61·79 65·45 65·29
Mineral matter 4·24 4·96 4·07 4·86
——— ——— ——— ———
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

All the specimens of oats, the analyses of which are given in the preceding table, are assumed to contain 14 per
cent. of water, in order the more correctly to compare their nutritive value. No. 1 contained 18·23 per cent. of
water; No. 2, 12·90; No. 3, 12·74; and No. 4, 12·08. Oat straw, before its removal from the field, often contains
nearly half its weight of water; but after being for some time stacked, the proportion of moisture rarely exceeds 14
per cent.

ANALYSES OF IRISH WHEAT-STRAW.

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Obtained in the Dublin Markets.
Green, changing
Ripe. Over Ripe.
to yellow. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6.
County Dublin. County Dublin.
County Kildare.
Water 13·00 13·15 12·14 10·88 11·22 12·12
Flesh-forming principles—
a. Soluble in water 1·25 0·98 0·44 0·06 0·42 0·30
b. Insoluble in water 1·26 1·40 1·41 1·90 1·00 1·76
Oil 1·22 1·13 1·14 0·90 1·17 1·08
Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming matters 4·18 3·98 3·88 4·08 3·89 4·30
Woody fibre 75·84 76·17 77·76 78·67 79·18 77·15
Mineral matter (ash) 3·25 3·19 3·23 3·51 3·12 3·29
——— ——— ——— ——— ——— ———
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

The results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrived at by Voelcker and Anderson. They
show that properly harvested Irish oat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of Scotland, and
somewhat less nutritive than those produced in England. They also show that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen,
by which a very large proportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogether lost, and a considerable part
of the remainder converted into an insoluble, and therefore less easily digestible state. Nor is there any advantage
to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after the upper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a
yellowish color; on the contrary, it also loses a portion—often a very considerable one—of its nitrogenous, or
flesh-forming constituents. It has been clearly proved that wheat cut when green, yields a greater amount of grain,
and of a better quality too, than when it is allowed to ripen fully; yet, how often do we not see fields of wheat in
this country allowed to remain unreaped for many days, and even weeks, after the crop has attained to its full
development!
The oat-straw obtained in the Dublin Market proved less valuable than the green straw which I selected myself
from a field of oats; but the discrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripe wheat-straw and
the straw of that plant purchased in Dublin. During visits which I have paid in harvest-time to the North of Ireland,
I noticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green, whereas wheat was almost invariably left standing for at
least a week after its perfect maturation, probably for the following reasons:—Firstly, because oats are more liable
to shed their seed; secondly, because there is a greater breadth of that crop to be reaped, which necessitates an
early beginning; and, lastly, because most farmers know that over-ripe oat-straw is worth but little for feeding
purposes, as compared with the greenish-yellow article.
As compared with white turnips, the nutritive value of oat-straw stands very high, for whilst the former contains
but little more than 1 per cent. of flesh-formers, and less than 5 per cent. of fat-formers, the latter includes about 4
per cent. of flesh-formers, and 13 per cent. of fat-formers. Again, whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is
only about 3 per cent., that substance constitutes no less than 60 per cent. of oat-straw. In comparison with hay—
taking into consideration the prices of both articles—oat-straw also stands high, as will be seen by comparing the
following analyses of common meadow hay with that of properly harvested straw:—

Meadow Hay. Oat Straw.
Water 14·61 14·00
Flesh-forming constituents 8·44 6·17
Respiratory and fatty matters 43·63 15·63
Woody fibre 27·16 59·96
Mineral matter (ash) 6·16 4·24
——— ———
100·00 100·00

Woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cereals as starch is of their seeds, and if the two
substances were equally digestible, straw would be a very valuable food—superior even to the potato. At one time
it was the general belief that woody fibre was incapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition of
animals, but the results of recent investigations prove that it is, to a certain extent, digestible. In the summer of
1859 two German chemists, Stöckhardt and Sussdorf, made a series of experiments, with the view of ascertaining

whether or not the cellulose29 of the food of the sheep is assimilated by that animal. The results of this inquiry are
of importance, seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind of cellulose—sclerogen, in fact—is capable
of being assimilated by the Ruminants. The animals selected were two wethers, aged respectively five and six
years. They were fed—firstly, upon hay alone; secondly, upon hay and rye-straw; thirdly upon hay and the sawdust
of poplar wood, which had been exhausted with lye (to induce the sheep to eat the sawdust, it was found necessary
to mix through it some rye-bran and a little salt); fourthly, hay and pine-wood sawdust, to which was added bran
and salt; fifthly, spruce sawdust, bran and salt; sixthly, hay, pulp of linen rags (from the paper-maker), and bran.
The experiments were carried on from July till November, excepting a short time, during which the animals were
turned out on pasture-land, to recover from the injurious effects of the fifth series of experiments—produced
probably by the resin of the spruce. The animals, together with their food, drink, and egesta, were weighed daily.
The amount of cellulose in the food was determined, and the proportion of that substance in the egesta was also
ascertained; and as there was a considerable discrepancy between the two amounts, it was evident that the
difference represented the weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals. In this way it was ascertained that
from 60 to 70 per cent. of the cellulose of hay, 40 to 60 per cent. of the cellulose of straw, 45 to 50 per cent. of the
cellulose of the poplar wood, 30 to 40 per cent. of the cellulose of the pine, and 80 per cent. of the cellulose of the
paper pulp was digested.
In stating the results of his analyses of the straws, Professor Voelcker sets down as "digestible" that portion of
the cellulose which he found to be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions; but he admits that the solvents in
the stomach might dissolve a larger amount. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt and Sussdorf prove that
80 per cent. of the cellulose of paper (the altered fibre of flax) is assimilable, and it is, therefore, not unreasonable
to infer that the cellulose of a more palatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible.
The facts which I have adduced clearly prove that the straws of the cereals possess a far higher nutritive power
than is commonly ascribed to them; that when properly harvested they contain from 20 to 40 per cent. of
undoubted nutriment; and lastly, that it is highly probable that their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great
extent assimilable.
The composition of cellulose is nearly, if not quite, identical with that of starch, and it may therefore be assumed
to be equal in nutritive power to that substance—that is, it will, if assimilated, be converted into four-tenths of its
weight of fat. Now as cellulose forms from six-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws, it is evident that if the
whole of this substance were digestible, straws would be an exceedingly valuable fattening food. When straw in an
unprepared state is consumed, there is no doubt but that a large proportion of its cellulose remains unappropriated
—nay more, it is equally certain that the hard woody fibre protects, by enveloping them, the soluble and easily
digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the gastric juice. I would, therefore, recommend that straw
should be either cooked or fermented before being made use of; in either of these states its constituents are far
more digestible than when the straw is merely cut, or even when it is in the form of chaff. An excellent mode of
treating straw is to reduce it to chaff, subject it to the action of steam, and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn.
Mr. Lawrence, of Cirencester, one of the most intelligent agriculturists in England, cooks his chaff, which he
largely employs, in the following manner:—"We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, they
consume, per head per diem, 3 bushels of chaff mixed with just half a hundred-weight of pulped roots, exclusive of
cake or corn; that is to say, rather more than 2 bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, and given at two feeds,
morning and evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &c., at the middle day feed, thus:—We use the
steaming apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which the steam is
generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming
food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub lined with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is
made into a thick soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain one feed for the entire lot of
bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid chaff, about one foot deep, upon which a few ladles of soup are thrown in a
boiling state; this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed down firm; and this
process is repeated until the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two before feeding time. The
soup is then found entirely absorbed by the chaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready digestion." A
cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots, moisten the mass with water, and allow it to remain until a slight
fermentation has set in. This process effectually softens and disintegrates, so to speak, the woody fibre, and sets
free the stores of nutritious matters which it envelopes. Some farmers who hold straw in high estimation, prefer
giving it just as it comes from the field; they base this practice on the belief that Ruminants require a bulky and
solid food, and that their digestive powers are quite sufficient to effect the solution of all the useful constituents of
the straw. It may be quite true that cattle, as asserted, can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can, but

that merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs. No doubt the food of the Ruminants should be
bulky; but I am quite sure that cooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire of those animals for
quantity in their food.
So far as I can learn, all the carefully conducted feeding experiments to test the value of straw which have been
made, have yielded results highly favorable to that article. Mr. Blundell, in a paper on "The Use and Abuse of
Straw," read before the Botley (Hampshire) Farmer's Club, states that in his experience he found straw to be more
economical than its equivalent of roots or oil-cake, in the feeding of all kinds of cattle:—
I find (says Mr. Blundell) that dairy cows, in the winter months, if fed on large quantities of roots, particularly mangels and carrots,
will refuse to eat straw almost entirely, and become very lean; but they will always eat a full portion of sweet, well-harvested straw,
when they get a small and moderate allowance of roots, say, for an ordinary-sized cow, 15 lbs. of mangel three times per day, the roots
being given whole, just in the state they come from the store heap. Again, calves and yearlings being fed with roots in the same way,
will eat a large quantity of straw, and when they have been kept under cover I have had them in first-rate condition for many years
past. Also, in fattening beasts, when they get a fair allowance of roots, say 65 to 70 lbs. per day, with from 3 to 4 lbs. of cake or meal in
admixture, they will eat straw with great avidity, and do well upon it, and make a profit. It is, however, often the case that bullocks
receive 100 lbs., or upwards, of roots per day, with a large quantity of cake or meal, often 10 or 12 lbs. per day; they will not then look
at straw, and are obliged to be fed with hay. The cost price of these quantities and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not
yield a profit; for although they may make meat a little faster, yet the proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost
of the feeding materials used.

Mr. Blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of his experiments, which prove that by the use of straw
there is to be obtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock:—

COST OF FEEDING AN OX PER WEEK WITH STRAW, ETC., ACCORDING TO MR. BLUNDELL.

s. d.
4 lbs. of oil-cake per day, or 38 lbs. per week, at £10 per ton 2 6
64 lbs. of roots ditto, or 4 cwt. ditto, at 13s. 4d. ditto 2 8
20 lbs. of straw feeding, or 1¼ cwt. ditto, at 30s. ditto 1 10½
20 lbs. of straw litter, or 1¼ cwt. ditto, at 15s. ditto 0 11
Attendance, &c., per week 0 1
————
8 0½
Deduct value of manure, per week 1 3½
————
6 9
Increased value of ox per week 10 0
Deduct cost of feeding 6 9
————
3 3

If we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded from an economic point of view, we shall find
that the theoretical deductions therefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments. Let us assume
that 100 parts of oat-straw contain on an average—

1 part of oil,
4 parts of flesh-formers,
10 parts of sugar, gum, and other fat-formers, and
30 parts of digestible fibre;

and if the price of the straw be 30s. per ton, we shall have at that cost the following quantities of digestible
substances:—

ONE TON OF OAT-STRAW, AT 30s., CONTAINS:—
lbs.
30 Oil 22·4
Flesh-forming principles 89·6
Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming substances 224·0
Digestible fibre 672·0
———

1,008·0
31 Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch 952·0
Add flesh-formers 89·6
———
Total amount of nutritive matter 1,041·6

We shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to the composition of linseed cake, which will
place the greater comparative value of straw in a clearer light.
A fair sample of linseed-cake contains, centesimally—

Flesh-formers 26
Oil 12
Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. 34
Woody fibre 6

ONE TON OF LINSEED CAKE, AT £11, CONTAINS:—
lbs.
Flesh-forming principles 582·4
Oil 268·8
Gum, sugar, and other fat-formers 761·6
Woody fibre 74·4
————
1,687·2
Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch 1,508·0
Add flesh-formers 582·4
————
Total amount of nutriment 2,090·4

These comparisons are very instructive and important. We learn from them that we pay £11 for 2,000 lbs. of
nutriment, when we purchase a ton of linseed-cake, whereas, when we invest 30s. in a ton of straw, we receive
1,000 lbs. of digestible aliment. It cannot be said that I have strained any points in favour of the straw; on the
contrary, I believe that when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested, its composition will be found
far superior to that detailed in the comparative analysis. It must be borne in mind, too, that I take no account of the
30 per cent. of the so-called indigestible woody fibre which straw contains, and which, I believe, is partly
assimilable under ordinary circumstances, and could be rendered nearly altogether digestible by proper treatment;
on the other hand, I have assumed that the woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible, although I believe
it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw.
It is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes, that they contain a large proportion of ready-formed
fatty matters which can, with but little alteration, be at once transmuted into animal fat. There are some individuals
of the genus Homo to whose stomachs fat, per se, is intolerable; nevertheless, as a general rule, fatty substances
exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion, and, either in a separate state, or intimately commingled
with other aliments, constitute a large proportion of the food of man. Digestion in the lower animals is, no doubt,
similarly promoted by mixing with the aliments which are to be subjected to that process, a due proportion of oily
or fatty matter. Straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-forming principles, and abounds in the fat-forming
elements—of which, however, the most valuable, oil, is the least abundant. Now, if we add to straw a due
proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil, the compound will possess in nicely adjusted
proportions all the elements of nutrition. Perhaps the best kind of food which we could employ for this purpose is
linseed meal. It contains about 24 per cent. of flesh-formers, 35 per cent. of a very bland oil, and 24 per cent. of
gum, sugar, and mucilage. Linseed-cake may be substituted for linseed-meal; but the meal, though its cost is 15 per
cent. greater, is, I believe, rather the better article of the two. Its flesh-formers are more soluble, and its oil thrice
more abundant and far more palatable than the same principles in most samples of oil-cake. An important point,
too, is, that linseed, unlike linseed-cake, is not liable to adulteration. As linseed possesses laxative properties it
cannot be largely employed; the addition, however, of bean-meal—the binding tendency of which is well known—
to a diet partly composed of linseed will neutralise, so to speak, the relaxing influence of the oily seed. If oil-cakes
be used as an adjunct to straw, rape-cake will be found more economical than linseed-cake. If it be free from

mustard, well steamed, and flavored with a little treacle, or a small quantity of locust-beans, it will be readily
consumed, and even relished, by dairy and fattening stock.
Hay.—There is no food substance more variable or more complex than hay, for under that term are included, not
only mixtures of grasses, but also of leguminous plants—clover, for example. The herbage of no two meadows is
exactly alike; and the composition of the meadow plants is so greatly modified by differences of climate, soil, and
mode of culture, that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extreme variability of hay.
The composition of the hay made from clover, lucerne, and various other kinds of artificial grasses, is shown in
the table—which is based on the results of Way's analyses:—

COMPOSITION OF THE HAY OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES.

Flesh-forming Fatty Respiratory Woody
Ash. Water.
Substances. Matters. Substances. Fiber.
Trifolium pratense—Red clover 18·79 3·06 37·06 16·46 7·97 16·6
Trifolium pratense perenne—Purple clover 15·98 3·41 35·35 21·63 6·96 "
Trifolium incarnatum—Crimson clover 13·83 3·11 31·25 26·99 8·15 "
Trifolium medium—Cowgrass 20·27 2·97 30·30 20·12 9·67 "
Do., second specimen 15·64 3·98 41·38 15·70 6·64 "
Trifolium procumbens—Hop trefoil 17·07 3·89 36·55 18·88 6·94 "
Trifolium repens—White trefoil 15·63 3·65 33·37 22·11 8·57 "
Vicia sativa—Common Vetch 19·68 2·55 32·87 22·82 5·42 "
Vicia sepium—Bush vetch 19·23 2·40 27·62 25·87 8·21 "
Onobrychis sativa—Sainfoin 15·38 2·51 38·30 20·59 6·56 "
Medicago sativa—Lucerne 10·63 2·30 33·47 28·51 8·42 "
Medicago lupulina—Yellow clover 20·50 3·38 27·76 22·66 9·03 "
Plantago lanceolata—Rib grass 11·91 3·06 33·58 27·56 7·23 "
Poterium sanguisorba—Burnet 13·96 3·34 39·50 19·89 6·64 "
Achillea millefolium—Millefoil 8·62 2·09 37·88 27·24 7·50 "
Mean 15·81 3·18 34·42 22·47 7·59 16·6

Very many analyses of hay have been made by British and Continental chemists, the results of which are of
great interest to the agriculturist. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses, which is shown in the tables
given in pages 158-9 will, if we reduce their per-centage of water to 16, give us an approximation to the
composition of hay. If the herbage, too, be sown in the proper time, and the hay-making process be skilfully
conducted, there will be but little difference, except in the amount of water, between the plants in their fresh and
dry state; but owing to inopportune wet weather, and carelessness in manipulation, excellent herbage is not
unfrequently converted into inferior hay.
According to Dr. Voelcker, the average composition of meadow-hay, as deduced from the results of twenty-five
analyses, is as follows:—

Water 14·61
Flesh-forming constituents 8·44
Respiratory and fatty matters 43·63
Woody fibre 27·16
Mineral matter (ash) 6·16
———
100·00

Dr. Anderson's analysis of meadow-hay, one year old, and of inferior quality, gave the following results:—

Water 13·13
Flesh-forming matters 4·00
Non-nitrogenous substances 77·61
Mineral matter 5·26
———
100·00

The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage of water-grass meadows is more nutritious than
that of dry meadows—results perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men.
It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting, is less nutritious than the first cutting; but
there appears to be no chemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved under equally favorable
conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the composition of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:—

Water 16·84
Flesh-forming principles 13·52
Non-nitrogenous matters 64·43
Mineral matter (ash) 5·21
———
100·00

I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season—not less necessary is it to mow before the
plants ripen fully, and even before they flower. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt, Hellreigel, and Wolff,
in relation to this point, are very interesting, and are well worthy of reproduction here.

RESULTS OF STÖCKHARDT'S AND HELLREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS.

Stem. Leaves.
Hay. Hay.
Water in Fresh Plant. Water in Fresh Plant.
Flesh-forming Matters. Ash. Flesh-forming Matters. Ash.
Clover cut on the 4th June, quite young 82·80 13·16 9·71 83·50 27·17 9·42
23rd " ready for cutting 81·72 12·72 9·00 82·68 27·69 9·00
9th July, beginning to flower 82·41 12·40 6·12 77·77 15·83 10·46
29th July, full flower 78·30 9·28 4·63 70·80 19·20 9·58
21st August, ripe 69·40 6·75 4·82 65·70 18·94 12·33

RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT.
Red Clover. Alsike Clover.
Beginning to flower, 11th June. Full flower, 25th June. Beginning to flower, 23rd June. Full flower, 29th June.
Fresh. Hay. Fresh. Hay. Fresh. Hay. Fresh. Hay.
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Water 83·07 16·66 76·41 10·66 86·98 16·66 82·60 16·66
Ash 1·43 7·04 1·67 5·90 1·12 7·17 1·45 6·94
Woody fibre 4·24 20·87 8·88 37·37 3·79 24·26 5·11 24·47
Nutritive substances 11·26 55·43 13·04 46·07 8·11 51·91 10·84 51·93

During the operation of converting the grass—"natural" or "artificial"—into hay, there is more or less loss of
nutritive matter sustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the wind, and other agencies.
But this unavoidable loss is trivial when compared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, by
allowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field. "Within the last three or four years," says Mr. Baldwin, of
the Glasnevin Albert Model Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of the thirty-two counties
of Ireland; and from careful consideration of the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line and
weighing-machine to assist our judgment, we have come to the conclusion that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of
Ireland is permitted to rot in field-cocks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on the outside of the cocks, is
too often only fit for manure. And the loss of aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture),
suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If we unite all these sources, the loss sustained
annually in this country is something serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it is not under 20 per
cent., or a fifth of the actual value of the crop." This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be an
exaggeration of the actual state of things.
Damaged Hay and Straw.—Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured as to be unfit for human food, are
generally given, and with apparently good results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturing machines," as
the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now generally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of

food; and vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the creation are rendered nutritious
and agreeable by being reorganised in the mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs.
Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and diseased potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is
not so patent whether or not the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseased state, is proper food for
those animals. This question is worthy of consideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseases which
most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould." These diseases are produced by the ravages of
minute and very low forms of vegetable life, termed by the botanists epiphytical fungi. The mildew (Puccinia
graminis) generally attacks the grasses when they are growing, and is more frequently met with on rich and
heavily manured soils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common occurrence, this pest often
destroys whole crops. On the other hand, in light, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts, the
mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (Aspergillis glaucus) attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and
without any regard to their origin—no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or the dryest, the
warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief condition in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the
hay or straw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at them in the rick, the mould is very likely to
make its appearance, and the well-known odor termed musty will speedily be developed.
Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded as parasites, such as, for example, the flax-
dodder, which feeds upon the healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to me that the tissues and
juices of the fodder-plants decay first, and then the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing
matter. Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi, it is more than probable that they convert the
decomposing substance of the straw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is not unlikely but
that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of
mouldy food. There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder in this state; and the question
arises, ought this odour to be destroyed or disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff? The
experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy provender is, that although cattle may be induced
to eat it, they never thrive upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason of this is obvious. The
nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is chiefly assimilated by the fungi. And as this constituent is the one
which contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremely deficient in straw and hay—more
particularly the former—it follows that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean flesh
(muscle).
In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible, for these animals require abundance of
flesh-forming materials—precisely those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder.
As large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present moment to be found in many
farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable, and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well to
consider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, the greater portion will be required for litter, and if
the whole of the damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If, however, there is more than
is necessary for the bedding of the stock, it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cooked
state. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenous part of the straw is soluble in warm water, so
that if the fodder be well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent as to leave the article
almost as wholesome as good straw, but not so nutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in
flesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact should be duly considered when the other items of
the animal's food are being weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich in muscle-forming
principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts to damaged fodder; but the latter should never constitute the
staple food, or be given unmixed with some sweet provender.
When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes, after steaming, nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind
of stuff the addition of a small amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay, Mr. Bowick
recommends the following mixture:—

Fenugreek (powdered) 112 parts.
Pimento 4 "
Aniseed 4 "
Caraways 4 "
Cummin 2 "

A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid kinds of fodder.
Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged hay, flavored with this compound, and
that their health was not thereby injured in the slightest degree.

SECTION V.

ROOTS AND TUBERS.

The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern systems of agriculture, has secured for
them a large share of the attention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their composition and relative nutritive
value is very extensive. As compared with most other articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, of
potatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain a high proportion of water, and are not very
nutritious; indeed, with the exception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. of solid matter, and some not
more than five per cent. They are, however, easily produced in great quantities, which compensates for their low
nutritive value. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately.
The Turnip.—There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differ from each other in the relative proportions
and total amount of their constituents, and even in different individuals of the same variety there is considerable
variation in composition; hence the difficulty which has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this
plant its relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great number of experiments, conducted both in the
laboratory and the feeding-house, it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the field. The
Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain a higher proportion of solid matter than the other
varieties, and they are firmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties of turnips, as deduced
from the results of the analyses of Anderson and Voelcker, is shown in the following table:—

ANALYSES OF TURNIPS.

Swedish White Aberdeen Purpletop Norfolk
Turnip. Globe. Yellows. Yellows. Bell.
Water 89·460 90·430 90·578 91·200 92·280
Albuminous, or flesh-forming substances 1·443 1·143 1·802 1·117 1·737
Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming substances (fat, gum, sugar,
5·932 5·457 4·622 4·436 2·962
&c.)
Woody fibre 2·542 2·342 2·349 2·607 2·000
Mineral matter (ash) 0·623 0·628 0·649 0·640 1·021
100·000 100·000 100·000 100·000 100·000

The Greystone Turnip is a variety which has only quite recently been introduced. It is stated to be an
uncommonly productive crop, usually yielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. greater than those obtained from
other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystone turnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is
not, after all, a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips.

DR. ANDERSON'S ANALYSIS OF THE GREYSTONE TURNIP.
No. 1. No. 2.
Grown on Clay. Grown on Sand.
Water 93·84 94·12
Oil 0·26 0·34
Soluble albuminous matters 0·35 0·56
Insoluble ditto 0·20 0·18
Soluble respiratory matters 2·99 2·32
Insoluble ditto (chiefly fibre) 1·73 1·85
Ash 0·63 0·63
——— ———
100·00 100·00

It was at one time the fashion—not yet become quite obsolete—to regard the proportion of nitrogen in the turnip
as the measure of the nutritive value of the bulb; but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown by several late
investigators, and more particularly by the results of one of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted
by Mr. Lawes. Many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficient in nutritive power—partly from a
deficiency in the other elements of nutrition—partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degree of
elaboration as to be incapable of assimilation by animals. The value of a food-substance does not merely depend
upon the amount and the relative proportion of its constituents, but also, and to a very great extent, upon their easy
assimilability. There is but little doubt that the nutritive matters contained in the Swedish turnip when the bulb is
fresh are very crude. By storing, certain chemical changes take place in the bulb, which render it more nutritious
and palatable. A large proportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root as pectin; but this substance,
if the bulb be preserved for a couple of months, becomes in great part converted into sugar, which is one of the
most palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food. By storing, too, the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive
amount of water, and become less bulky, which is unquestionably a desideratum. These facts suggest the necessity
for cultivating the earlier varieties of the turnip, for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop, left for
consumption in the field, ever, even under the most favorable circumstances, attains its perfect development. At the
same time it must not be forgotten that turnips fully matured in the field rather deteriorate than otherwise after a
few weeks' storage.
Many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between the specific gravity, or comparative weight of
the bulb, and its nutritive value; others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily be inferior in feeding
qualities to a small one; whilst not a few maintain that neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of its
feeding qualities. Dr. Anderson, who has specially investigated a portion of this subject, states that "the specific
gravity of the whole turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value, the proportion of air in the cells
being the determining element in such results; that there is no constant relation between the specific gravity of, and
the nitrogen compounds in, the bulb; and that such relation does exist between the specific gravity of the expressed
juice and the nitrogen compounds and solid constituents." Dr. Anderson allows, however, that the best varieties of
the turnip have the highest specific gravity; which admission—coupled with the fact admitted by all experimenters
that the heavy roots store best—lead me to adopt the opinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one
of the favorable indications of its nutritive value. With respect to size, I prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions; the
monsters that win the prizes at our agricultural shows—and which, in general, are forced—are inferior in feeding
qualities, are always spongy, and almost invariably rot when stored.
The composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature of the soil on which it is grown, but also by
that of the manure applied to it. The most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised on Peruvian guano are
watery, and do not keep well; but that with a mixture of Peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime, with
phospho-guano, or with farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano, the most nutritious and
firm bulbs are produced.
Turnip-tops have been analysed by Voelcker, with the following results:—

ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN—

White. Swedish.
Water 91·284 88·367
Nitrogen compounds 2·456 2·087
Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, &c.) 0·648 1·612
Ditto, as woody fibre 4·092 5·638
Mineral matter 1·520 2·296
——— ———
100·000 100·000

These figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are more valuable than their bulbs; but, in the absence of
any feeding experiments made to determine the point, we believe they are less so, as a very large proportion of the
solid matter in the tops of turnips is in too low a degree of elaboration to be assimilable. Their high proportions of
nitrogen and mineral matter constitute them, however, a very useful manure—nearly twice as valuable as the
bulbs; this fact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land.

The Mangel-wurtzel is one of the most valuable of our green crops. Its root is more nutritious than the turnip,
occupying a position in the scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip. Mangels, when
fresh, possess a somewhat acrid taste, and act as a laxative when given to stock; but after a few months' storing
they become sweet and palatable, and their scouring property completely disappears.
Although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of food which can be given to cattle, yet it is stated on
the best authority that sheep do not thrive upon it. Voelcker, who has investigated this subject, informs us that a lot
of sheep which he fed on a limited quantity of hay and an unlimited quantity of mangels, did not, during a period
of four months, increase in weight, whilst another lot of sheep supplied with a small quantity of hay, and Swedish
turnips ad libitum increased on an average 2½ lbs. weekly. I believe the experience of the greater number of
feeders agrees with the results of Dr. Voelcker's experiment.
The chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by Way and Ogston, Fromberg, Wolff,
Anderson, and Voelcker. According to the last-named chemist, its average composition is as follows:—

Water 87·78
Flesh-forming matters 1·54
Sugar 6·10
Gum, pectin, &c. 2·50
Woody fibre 1·12
Mineral matter (ash) 0·96
———
100·00

It is difficult to accurately determine by a comparative trial the relative feeding properties of mangels and
turnips, for the former are only in a fit state to be given to the animals when the latter are deteriorating. However,
by comparing the composition of the two substances, and the results obtained from numerous feeding experiments,
it would appear, that on the average 75 lbs. weight of mangels are equal to 100 lbs. weight of turnips. Of the
different varieties of the mangel the long yellow appears to be the most nutritious, and the long red the least so.
The leaves of the mangel—some of which are occasionally pulled and used for feeding purposes, during the
growth of the bulb—are an excellent feeding substance: their composition indicates a nutritive value but little
inferior to that of the root; but as their constituents cannot be in a highly elaborated condition, it is probable they
are not more than equal to half their weight of the bulbs.
One questio vexata of the many which at present occupy the attention of the agricultural world is, whether or not
the leaves of mangels may be removed with advantage during the latter part of the development of the plants. This
practice prevailed rather extensively a few years since, but latterly it has fallen somewhat into disuse.
Those who adopt this plan urge, as its advantages, that a large quantity of food is obtained at a time when it is
urgently needed, and that instead of the removal of the leaves exercising an injurious influence on the development
of the roots, the latter are actually increased in size.
In 1859 an experimental investigation was carried out at the Glasnevin Model Farm, with the view of throwing
new light on the question. The outside leaves were very gradually removed on different occasions—from the 12th
August to the 15th October. In this way five tons of leaves per statute acre were removed, and subsequently made
use of for feeding purposes. The experiment was conducted on a field of four acres, of which the produce of 12
drills, each 200 yards in length, was left untouched. The result was that the produce of the roots of the untouched
plants was only 40 tons 8 cwt. 6 qrs. per acre, whilst the roots of the plants which had been partly denuded of their
leaves weighed at the rate of 45 tons 1 cwt. This experiment afforded results which are apparently favorable to the
practice of stripping the leaves; but it is to be regretted that it was not rendered more complete by an analysis of
the roots, as a great bulk of roots does not necessarily imply a great weight of dry food, and it is just possible,
though not very probable, that the roots of the stripped mangels contained a larger proportion of water than those
of the untouched plants.
The results of the experiments of Buckman, and of Professor Wolff, of the Royal Agricultural College at
Hohenheim, are at direct variance with those obtained at Glasnevin. Both of these experimenters found that the
removal of the leaves occasioned a diminution in the produce of the roots to the amount of 20 per cent. Nor was

this the only loss, for it was found by the German professor that the roots of the untouched plants possessed a far
higher nutritive value than those of the stripped mangels.
When doctors differ, who is to decide? Here we have high authorities in the agricultural world at direct variance
on a matter of fact. The names of Buckman and Wolff are a sufficient guarantee that the experimental results which
they announce are trustworthy, and I can testify, from observation, that no field experiments could be more
carefully conducted than those carried out at the Albert Model Farm. We can only, then, under the circumstances,
admit that both Mr. Boyle, on the one side, and Professors Buckman and Wolff on the other, are correct in their
statements of fact; but as it is evident both cannot be right in the general inferences therefrom, it is desirable that
the subject should be still further investigated, and the truth be placed beyond doubt. It is a question which appears
so simple that one is at a loss to account for the discrepant opinions in relation to it which prevail. "Let nothing
induce the growers," says Mr. Paget, in a paper on the cultivation of the mangel, "to strip the leaves from the plant
before taking up the root. A series of careful experiments has convinced me that by so doing we borrow food at a
most usurious interest." "Although," says Mr. Boyle, "the practice of stripping has been followed for many years
on the farm without any perceptible injury to the crop, these results, showing so considerable an addition to the
crop from taking off the leaves, were hardly anticipated." It certainly does appear somewhat at variance with our
notion of the functions of the leaves of plants, that their partial removal could possibly cause an increase in the
weight of the roots; but granting such to be the fact, it is not altogether theoretically inexplicable. We know that
highly nitrogenous manure has a tendency to increase the development of the leaves of turnips at the expense of
the roots. Gardeners, too, not unfrequently remove some of the buds from their fruit trees, lest the excessive
development of foliage should retard or check the growth of the fruit. Theoretically an excessive development of
the leaves of the mangel may be inimical to the growth of the root. Probably, too, it may be urged, the outer leaves,
which soon become partially disorganised and incapable of elaborating mineral matter into vegetable products,
prevent the access of light to the more vigorous inner leaves. In conclusion, I may say of this subject that it is
worthy of further elucidation; and I would suggest to my readers, and more especially to the managers of the
various model farms, the desirability of fully testing the matter.
The White Beet is a congener of the mangel. It is largely grown on the continent as a sugar-producing plant, but
is seldom cultivated in these countries. It produces about 15 tons of roots per acre, and its roots on the average
contain—

Water 83·0
Sugar 10·0
Flesh-formers 2·5
Fat-formers 1·5
Fibre 2·0
Ash 1·0
———
100·0

This plant is deserving of more extensive growth in Great Britain.
The Parsnip is, after the potato, the most valuable of roots. It differs from the turnip and the mangel in
containing a high proportion of starch, and but little sugar; and its flesh-forming constituents are largely made up
of casein, instead of, as in the case of the turnip, albumen.
The average composition of the parsnip is as follows:—

Water 82·00
Flesh-forming principles 1·30
Fat-formers (starch, sugar, &c.) 7·75
Woody fibre 8·00
Mineral matter (ash) 0·95
———
100·00

The parsnip is extensively grown in many foreign countries, on account of its valuable feeding properties. As a
field-crop it is but little cultivated in Great Britain, and its use is—if we except the table—almost restricted to pigs.

Its food equivalent is about double that of the turnip; that is, one pound of parsnips is equal to two pounds of
turnips.
The Carrot bears a close resemblance to the parsnip, from which, however, it differs, containing no starch, and
being somewhat inferior in nutritive value. According to Voelcker, its average composition is as follows:—

Water 88·50
Flesh-formers 0·60
Fat-formers (including woody fibre) 10·18
Mineral matter (ash) 0·72
———
100·00

As carrots contain a high proportion of fat-forming matters, and a low per-centage of flesh-forming substances,
they are better adapted for fattening purposes. Dairy stock greedily eat them; and they are given with great
advantage to horses out of condition.
Kohl-Rabi.—This plant, though early introduced into the agriculture of these countries, has made but little
progress in the estimation of the farmer. It belongs to the order and genus which include the turnip, but differs
widely from that plant in its mode of growth. Its bulb—which is formed by an enormous development of the
overground stem—is, according to some authorities, less liable than the turnip to injury from frost. It is subject to
no diseases, save anbury and clubbing; and, owing to its position above the soil, it can be readily eaten off by
sheep. The bulbs store better than Swedes, and, according to some farmers, keep even better than mangels. With
respect to the flavor of this bulb, there is some difference of opinion. Professor Wilson, of Edinburgh, quotes
several eminent feeders to prove that "whether in the fold for sheep, in the yard for cattle, or in the stables for
horses, it will generally be preferred to the other descriptions of homegrown keep." Mr. Baldwin, on the contrary,
states that although good food for sheep, it is too hard-fleshed for old ewes, and that carrots are better food for
horses, and Swedish turnips for cattle.
An accurately conducted comparative trial to test the nutritive value of the Kohl-rabi, was conducted at the
Glasnevin Model Farm, under the direction of Mr. Baldwin. The experiment was commenced in January, 1863.
Four oxen were selected, and divided into two lots. Nos. 1 and 2 (Lot 1) were fed on Kohl-rabi, oil-cake, and hay,
and Nos. 3 and 4 (Lot 2) on Swedish turnips, oil-cake, and hay. As the animals supplied with the Kohl-rabi did not
appear to relish it, and as it was desirable to gradually accustom them to the change of food, the experiment did not
really commence till the 12th January. On that date the weights of the animals were as follows:—

cwt. st. cwt. st.
No. 1. 10 1 No. 3. 7 5
Lot 1. { No. 2. 7 4 Lot 2. { No. 4. 10 2
——— ———
17 5 17 7

The lots, therefore, counterpoised each other pretty fairly. From the 12th to the 28th January they received the
following quantities of food per diem:—

1. 2. 3. 4.
Roots stones 7½ 6 6 7½
Oil cake pounds 4½ 3 3 4½
Hay pounds 10½ 10½ 10½ 10½

The animals fed upon the Kohl-rabi evinced from the first a disinclination to it, but they nevertheless ate it
before their meal of oil-cake was supplied to them. On the morning of the 28th January they were put upon the
dietary shown in the table, and which induced them to eat the Kohl-rabi more quickly.

1. 2. 3. 4.

{ Cake, lbs. 1½ 1 1 1
Roots, Stones 3 2½ 2½ 3½2
At 6.30 a.m.

Roots, Stones 3 2½ 2½ 3½
At 12.30 a.m.
{ Cake, lbs. 1½ 1 1 1
At 6.30 p.m. {
Roots, Stones 3 2½ 2½ 3½
Cake, lbs. 1½ 1 1 1
At 9.30 p.m. Hay, lbs. 7 7 7 7

On the 11th February the cattle were again weighed, when their increase was found to be as follows:—

Weight on Weight on Increase
Jan. 12. Feb. 11. in 30 days.
cwt. st. cwt. st. st.

} Lot 1, fed on Kohl-rabi, &c. }
1 10 1 10 4 3
2 7 4 7 6 2
———
Total 5
———

} Lot 2, fed on Swedes, &c. }
3 7 5 8 3 6
4 10 2 10 7¼ 5½
———
Total 11½

The results of this experiment show that the animals fed upon Swedish turnips, hay, and oil-cake, increased in
weight at a rate more than 100 per cent. greater than the lot supplied with equal quantities of Kohl-rabi, hay, and
oil-cake. The superiority of the Swedish turnips was rendered more evident by the results of subsequent
experiments. Nos. 1 and 4 were not tried after the 11th February; but Nos. 2 and 3 were kept under experiment.
No. 2 was put on Swedes, and No. 3 on mangel-wurtzel, and after an interval of a fortnight No. 2 had increased
much more than they had done on Kohl-rabi.
Specimens of the Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips employed in this experiment were submitted to me for analysis
by Mr. Baldwin, and yielded the following results:—

Swedish
Kohl-rabi.
Turnip.
Water 87·62 88·84
Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 2·24 1·66
Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming principles 7·78 6·07
Woody fibre 1·34 2·73
Mineral matter (ash) 1·22 0·70
——— ———
100·00 100·00

These results show a slight superiority of the Kohl-rabi over the Swedish turnip; the great difference in their
nutritive power, as shown by Mr. Baldwin's experimental results, must therefore be due to the superior flavor and
digestibility of the turnip.
Dr. Anderson's analysis of Kohl-rabi afforded results more favorable to the highly nutritive character assigned
by some feeders to that bulb than those arrived at by me. The bulbs, it should however be remarked, were grown,
no doubt with great care, by Messrs. Lawson and Son, the well-known seedsmen:—

ANALYSIS OF KOHL-RABI, BY DR. ANDERSON.
Bulbs. Tops.
Water 86·74 86·68
Flesh-forming principles 2·75 2·37
Fat-forming principles 8·62 8·29

Woody fibre 0·77 1·21
Mineral matter 1·12 1·45
——— ———
100·00 100·00

The Radish is a plant which deserves a place amongst our field crops, though hitherto its cultivation has been
restricted to the garden. At one time its leaves were boiled and eaten, but in these latter days they are subjected to
neither of these processes. The root, however, in its raw state, is, as every one is aware, considered one of the
dainties of the table.
Many of those who devote themselves to the important study of dietetics, consider the use of raw vegetables to
be objectionable; but be their objections groundless, or the reverse, it is certain that a vegetable which, like the
radish, may be eaten raw with apparently good results, cannot be otherwise than a good article of food when
cooked. I once tried the experiment of eating matured radishes, not as a salad, but cooked like any other boiled
vegetable, and I must say that I found their flavor rather agreeable than otherwise. Boiled radishes—roots and tops
—form excellent feeding for pigs. How could it be otherwise? for what is good for the family of man must surely
be a luxury to the swine tribe. I have known horses to eat radishes greedily, and I am certain that they would prove
acceptable to all the animals of the farm. But it may be asked, why it is that I recommend the use of radishes as
food for stock, when there are already so many more nutritious roots at our disposal—turnips, mangels, and
potatoes. Simply for this reason:—Between the departure of the roots and the advent of the grasses, there is a kind
of interregnum.32 Now we want a good tuberous, bulbous, or tap-rooted plant to fill up this interregnum. Such a
plant we have in the radish. The root is certainly a small one, but then it grows so rapidly that a good supply can be
had within thirty days from the sowing of the seed, and a crop can be matured before the time for sowing turnips.
Two crops may be easily obtained from land under potatoes—one before the tops cover the ground, the other after
the tubers have been dug out. The yield of radishes, judging from the produce in the garden, would be at least six
tons of roots and three tons of tops. I would suggest, then, that the radish should at once get a fair chance as a
stolen crop. If it succeed as such, it will not be the first gift of the gardener to the husbandman. Was not the
mangel-wurtzel once known only as the produce of the garden?
The composition of the radish indicates a nutritive value less than that of the white turnip. I have analysed both
the root and the tops, and obtained the following results:—

ANALYSIS OF THE RADISH.
Root. Tops.
Water 95·09 94·30
Flesh-forming principles 0·52 0·75
Fat-formers (starch, gum, fat, &c.) 1·06 1·16
Woody fibre 2·22 2·36
Mineral matter (ash) 1·11 1·43
——— ———
100·00 100·00

The Jerusalem Artichoke has long been cultivated as a field-crop on the Continent, and in certain localities the
breadth occupied by it is very considerable. The French term the tuberous root of this plant poitre de terre, or topin
ambour; and although they expose it for sale in the markets, it is not much relished by our lively neighbours, who
are so remarkable for their cuisiniere. As food for cattle, however, the French agricultural writers state it to be
excellent. It is much relished by horses, dairy cows, and pigs; store horned-stock also eat it when seasoned with a
little salt, and appear to enjoy it amazingly when permitted to pull up the roots from the soil. The green tops are
also given to sheep and cattle, and, it is stated, are readily eaten by those animals.
The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus Tuberoses) differs from its half namesake, the common artichoke, and
resembles the potato in being valuable chiefly for its tubers. It is perennial, and attains on the Continent a height
varying from 7 to 10 feet. In this country its dimensions are less. The stem is erect, thick, coarse, and covered with
hairs. It is a native of Mexico, and although introduced 200 years ago into Europe, it can hardly be said to be
acclimatised, since it very seldom flowers, and never develops seed. The plant is therefore propagated by cuttings
from its tubers, each containing one or two eyes; or if the tubers be very small, which is often the case, a whole
one is planted. The tubers possess great vitality, and remain in the ground during the most severe frosts, without

sustaining the slightest injury. For this reason it is usual to devote a corner of the garden to the cultivation of the
Jerusalem artichoke; for, no matter how completely the crop may appear to have been removed from the soil,
portions of the tubers will remain and shoot up into plants during the following season. This peculiarity of the
plant it is likely may prove an obstacle to its having a place assigned to it in the rotation system.
The question now presents itself—What are the peculiar advantages which the crop possesses which should
commend it to the notice of the British farmer? I shall try to answer the question.
1st. No green crop (except furze) can be grown in so great a variety of soils; except marshy or wet lands, there is
no soil in which it refuses to grow.
2nd. It does not suffer from disease, is very little affected by the ravages of insects, is completely beyond the
influence of cold, and may remain either above or below ground for a long time without undergoing any injurious
changes in composition.
3rd. It gives a good return, when we consider that it requires very little manure, and but little labor in its
management.
At Bechelbronn, the farm of the celebrated Boussingault, the average yield is nearly eleven tons per acre, but
occasionally over fourteen tons is obtained. Donoil, a farmer of Bailiere, in the department of Haut-loire, states
that he fed sheep exclusively on the tops and tubers of this plant, and that he estimated his profits at £23 per
hectare (£9 3s. 4d. per acre). The soil was very inferior. Donoil terms it third-rate, and it does not appear to have
been manured even once during the fifteen years it was under Jerusalem artichoke. I fear our artificial manure
manufacturers will hardly look with a favorable eye on the advent of a crop into our agriculture which can get on
so well without the intervention of any fertilising agents. Indeed, several of the French writers state that little or no
manure is necessary for this plant. But this can hardly be the case; for it is evident that a crop which, according to
Way and Ogston, removes 35 lbs. of mineral matter per ton from the soil, or three times as much potash as turnips
do, must certainly be greatly benefited by the application of manure. And I have no doubt but that the Jerusalem
artichoke, if well manured and grown in moderately fertile soil, would produce a much heavier crop than our
Continental neighbors appear to get from it.
4th. The Jerusalem artichoke may be cultivated with advantage in places where ordinary root-crops either fail or
thrive badly. In such cases the ground should be permanently devoted to this crop. Kade gives an instance where a
piece of indifferent ground had for thirty-three years produced heavy crops of this plant, although during that time
neither manure nor labor had been applied to it. In Ireland the potato has been grown under similar circumstances.
The nutritive constituents of tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke bear a close resemblance in every respect, save
one, to those of the potato. Both contain about 75 per cent. of water, about 2 per cent. of flesh-forming substances,
and 20 per cent. of non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming and heat-giving elements. In one respect there is a great
difference—namely, that sugar makes up from 8 to 12 per cent. of the Jerusalem artichoke, whilst there is but a
small proportion of that substance in the potato.
The large quantity of sugar contained in this root is no doubt the cause of its remarkable keeping properties in
winter, and it also readily accounts for the avidity with which most of the domesticated animals eat it.
On the whole, then, I think that the facts I have brought forward relative to the advantages which the Jerusalem
artichoke presents as a farm crop, justify the recommendation that it should get a fair trial from the British farmer,
who is now so much interested in the production of suitable forage for stock.

COMPOSITION OF (DRY) JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE
Albuminous matters 4·6
Fatty matters 0·4
Starch, gum, &c. 19·8
Sugar 69·5
Fibre and ash 5·7
———
100·0

The Potato, regarded from every point of view, is by far the most important of the plants which are cultivated
for the sake of their roots. Its tubers form the chief—almost sole—pabulum of many millions of men, enter more
or less into the dietary of most civilised peoples, and constitute a large proportion of the food of the domesticated
animals. The great importance of this plant, arising from its enormous consumption, has caused its composition to
be very minutely studied by many British, Continental, and American chemists. With respect to its nutritive
properties, the least favorable results were obtained by the American chemists, Hardy and Henry, and the most by
the European chemists.
The flesh-forming principles vary from 1 per cent., as found by Hardy, to 2·41 per cent., the mean results of the
analyses of Krocker and Horsford. The proportion of starch in different varieties of the potato also varies, but not
to the same degree as the nitrogenous principles. In new potatoes, only 5 per cent. has been found; in ash-leaved
kidneys, 9·50 per cent.; and in different kinds of cups, from 15 to 24 per cent. The amount of starch is also
influenced by the soil, the manure, the climate, and the various other conditions under which the plant is
developed. The proportion of starch increases during the growth, and diminishes during the storage of the tubers.
Dr. Anderson is the most recent investigator into the composition of the potato; the chief results of his inquiries
are given in the following table:—

ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO BY DR. ANDERSON.

Regents. Dalmahoys. Skerry-blues. White Rocks. Orkney Reds. Flukes.
Water 76·32 75·91 76·60 75·93 78·57 74·41
Starch 12·21 12·58 11·79 12·77 10·85 12·55
Sugar, &c. 2·75 2·93 3·09 2·17 2·78 2·89
Flesh-formers
soluble 2·16 2·10 1·90 1·88 1·48 1·98
insoluble 0·21 0·15 0·16 0·24 0·21 0·20
Fibre 5·53 5·21 5·41 5·55 5·93 6·71
Ash 0·88 0·81 0·94 1·04 0·98 0·98
100·06 99·69 99·89 99·58 100·80 99·72

The potato is relatively deficient in flesh-forming matters, and contains the respiratory elements in exceedingly
high proportions; hence it is well adapted for fattening purposes, and in this respect is equal to double its weight of
the best kind of turnips. When used as food for man, it should be supplemented by some more fatty or nitrogenous
substance—such, for example, as flesh, oatmeal, or peas. Buttermilk, a fluid which is rich in nitrogen, is an
excellent supplement to potatoes, and compensates to a great extent for the deficiency of those tubers in muscle-
forming matters. If, then, the potato is destined to retain its place as the "national esculent" of the Irish, I trust their
national beverage may be—so far at least as the masses of the people are concerned—buttermilk, and not whiskey.
Potatoes so far diseased as to be unsuited for use as food for man, may be given with advantage to stock. They
may be used either in a raw or uncooked state, but the latter is the preferable form. Sheep do not like them at first,
but on being deprived of turnips they acquire a taste for them; on a daily allowance, composed of 1 lb. of oil-cake
or corn, and an unlimited quantity of potatoes, they fatten rapidly. Cattle thrive well on a diet composed of equal
parts of turnips and diseased potatoes, and do not require oil-cake. The evening feed of horses may advantageously
be composed of potatoes and turnips. If raw, the potatoes should be given in a very limited quantity—four or five
pounds; in the cooked state, however, they may be given in abundance, but the animals should not, after their meal,
be permitted to drink water for some hours. As a feeding substance, diseased potatoes, unless they be very much
injured, are equal to twice their weight of white turnips; it is certain that they do not injure the health or impair the
condition of the animals which feed upon them.

SECTION VI.

SEEDS.

In seeds the elements of nutrition exist not only in the most highly elaborated, but also in the most concentrated
state; hence their nutritive value is greater than that of any other class of food substances.

Wheat Grain is the most valuable of seeds, as it contains, in admirably adjusted proportions, the bone, the fat,
and the muscle-forming principles. In the form of bread, it has been, not inaptly, termed the "staff of life," for no
other grain is so well adapted, per se, for the sustenance of man; and many millions of human beings subsist
almost exclusively on it. The lower animals are in general fed upon the grain of oats, of barley, and of the
leguminous plants, and the use of wheat is almost completely restricted to the human family.
Wheat grain, by the processes of grinding and sifting, is resolvable into two distinct parts—bran and flour. In
twenty-four analyses made by Boussingault, the proportion of the bran was from 13·2 to 38·5 per cent. and that of
the flour from 61·5 to 86·8 per cent. The floury part is of very complex structure; it includes starch, gluten,
albumen, oil, gum, gummo-gelatinous matter, sugar,33 and various saline matters. The gluten and albumen
constitute the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles of flour, and make up from 16 to 20 per cent. of that
substance; the non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming elements, such as starch and gum, form from 74 to 82 per cent.
According to Payen, the proportion of gluten diminishes towards the centre of the seed, from which it follows that
the part of the grain nearest the husk is the most nutritious—so far at least as muscle-making is concerned. The
desire on the part of the public for very white bread has led to the fine dressing of Wheat-grain, and consequently
to the separation from that substance of a very large proportion of one of its most nutritious constituents. Crude
gluten may be obtained by kneading the dough of flour in a muslin bag under a small current of water; the starch,
or fecula, and the gum, are carried away by the water, and the gluten in an impure form remains as an elastic
viscous substance, which on drying becomes hard and brittle. It is to the gluten of flour that its property of
panification, or bread-making, is due. On the addition of a ferment, a portion of the starch is converted into sugar
and carbonic acid gas, and the latter causes the gluten to expand into the little cells, or vesicles, which confer upon
baked bread its light, spongy texture.

ANALYSES OF WHEAT.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Whole Grain. Flour. Bran. Husk.
Water 15·00 14·0 13 13·9
Flesh-formers 12·00 11·0 14 14·9
Fat-formers 68·50 73·5 55 55·8
Woody fibre 2·75 0·7 12 9·7
Mineral matter 1·75 0·8 6 5·7
——— ——— ——— ———
100·00 100·0 100 100·0

Nos. 1, 2, and 3.—The mean results of a great number of analyses.
No. 4.—By Millon.

Over-ripening of Grain.—The final act of vegetation is the production of seed, after the performance of which
function many plants, having accomplished their destined purpose, perish. The grasses (which include the cereals)
are annuals, or plants which have but a year's existence, consequently their development ceases so soon as they
have produced their seed. When wheat, oats, and the other cereals, attain to this final point in their growth, the
circulation of their sap ceases, their color changes from green to yellow, and they undergo certain changes which
destroy their power of assimilating mineral matter, and consequently render them no longer capable of increasing
their weight.
The proper time for cutting wheat and the other cereals is immediately after their grain has been fully matured.
When the green color of the straw just below the ears changes to yellow, the grain, be it ripe or unripe at the time,
cannot afterwards be more fully developed. This is rendered impossible in consequence of the disorganisation of
the upper part of the stem—indicated by, but not the result of, its altered hue—which cuts off the supply of sap to
the ears, and the latter do not possess the power of absorbing nutriment from the air.
When the vital processes which are incessantly going on in the growing plants are brought to a close, the purely
chemical forces come into operation. If the seed be perfectly matured and allowed to remain ungathered, it is
attacked in wet weather by the oxygen of the air, a portion of its carbon is burned off, some of its starch is
converted into sugar, and in extreme cases it germinates and becomes malty. But not only is the seed liable to
injury from the elements; it is also exposed to the ravages of the feathered tribe, and no matter how well a field of

corn may be watched, or how great the number of scarecrows erected in it, there is always a certain diurnal loss,
occasioned by the ravages of birds.
It is not only necessary that ripe corn should be cut as soon as possible, but it is sometimes desirable to reap it
before it becomes fully matured. When the grain is intended for consumption as food, the less bran it contains the
better. Now the bran, as is well known, forms the integument, or covering of the vital constituents of the seed; and
it is the last part of the organ to be perfected. The growth of the seed for several days before its perfect
development, is confined to the testa or covering. Now as this is the least valuable part of the article, its increase is
matter of but little moment; and when it is excessive it renders the grain less valuable in the eyes of the miller. That
the cutting of the grain before it is perfectly ripe is attended with a good result, is clearly proved by the results of
an experiment recorded in Johnston's "Agricultural Chemistry." A crop of wheat was selected; one-third was cut
twenty days before it was ripe; another third ten days afterwards; and the remaining portion when its grain had
been fully matured. The relative produce in grain of the three portions taken, as stated above, was as 1, 1·325, and
1·260. The following table exhibits the relative proportions of their constituents:—

In 100 parts of the grain cut at
20 days. 10 days. Dead ripe.
Flour 74·7 79·1 72·2
Sharps 7·2 5·5 11·0
Bran 17·5 13·2 16·0
——— ——— ———
99·4 97·8 99·2
The flour contained gluten 9·3 9·9 9·6

The results of this experiment, and of the general experience of intelligent growers, show that grain cut a week
or ten days before it is perfectly ripe contains more flour, and of a better quality, too, than is found in either ripe or
very unripe seed. But this is not the only advantage, for the straw of the green, or rather of the greenish-yellow
corn, is fully twice as valuable for feeding purposes as that of the over-ripe cereals. There is an extraordinary
decrease in the amount of the albuminous constituents of the stems of the cereals during the last two or three
weeks of their maturation, and as there is not a corresponding increase of those materials in the seed, they must be
evolved in some form or other from the plants.
There can be only one object attained by allowing the seed to fully ripen itself, and that is the insurance of its
more perfect adaptability to the purpose of reproduction. When the testa is thick it best protects the germ of the
future plant enclosed in it from the ordinary atmospheric influences until it is placed under the proper conditions
for its germination.
Wheat, a costly food.—It occasionally happens that the wheat harvest is so abundant, that many feeders give
large quantities of this grain to their stock. Now, as Indian corn is at least 25 per cent. cheaper than wheat, even
when the price of the latter is at its minimum, I believe that it is always more economical to sell the wheat raised on
the farm, and to purchase with the proceeds of its sale an equivalent of Indian corn, which is a more fattening kind
of food.
Bran is, with perhaps the exception of malt-dust, the most nutritious of the refuse portions of grains. It is usually
given to horses, and owing to its high proportion of nitrogen, is, perhaps, better expended in the bodies of those
hard-working animals, than in those of pigs and cows—animals that occasionally come in for a share of this
valuable feeding-stuff. It should be borne in mind that bran commonly acts as a slight laxative, and that it is less
digestible than flour, a large portion of it usually passing through the animal's body unchanged. This drawback to
the use of bran may be obviated by either cooking or fermenting the article, or by combining it with beans or some
other kind of binding food.

AVERAGE ANALYSES OF GRAIN.

Barley. Bere. Oats. Oatmeal. Indian Corn. Rice. Rye (Irish). Buckwheat.
Water 16·0 14·25 14·0 13·00 14·5 14·0 16·0 14·19
Flesh-formers 10·5 10·10 11·5 16·00 10·0 5·3 9·0 8·58
Fat-formers 67·0 64·60 64·5 68·00 69·0 78·5 66·0 51·91
Woody fibre 3·5 9·03 7·0 1·75 5·0 2·5 8·0 23·12

Mineral matter 3·0 2·02 3·0 1·25 1·5 0·7 1·0 2·20
100·0 100·00 100·0 100·00 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·00

Barley is inferior in composition to wheat. As a feeding stuff, the English farmers assign to it a higher, and the
Scotch farmers a lower, place than oats, which, perhaps, merely proves that in Scotland the oat thrives better than
the barley, and in England the barley better than the oat. Barley-meal is extensively used by the English feeders,
and with excellent results. Where barley-dust can be obtained it is a far cheaper feeding stuff than the meal. Barley
husks should never be given to animals unless in a cooked or fermented state.
Oat Grain is, perhaps, the most valuable of the concentrated foods which are given to fattening stock. When it is
cheap it will be found a more economical feeding stuff than linseed-cake, and, unlike that substance, can be used
without the fear of adulteration. Oats are equal to wheat in their amount of flesh-forming matters; but their very
high proportion of indigestible woody fibre detracts from their nutritive value. Oat-meal is more nutritious than
wheat-meal; and oat-flour, especially if finely dressed, greatly excels wheat-flour in its nutrimental properties,
because, unlike the latter, the finer it is the greater is its amount of flesh-formers. Bread made of oat-flour is very
heavy, and is far less palatable than the bread of wheat. Oat-meal has been found to contain nearly 20 per cent. of
nitrogenous matters. The white oat is more nutritious than the black, and the greatest amount of aliment is found in
the grain which has not been allowed to over-ripen in the field. Oat husk is very inferior to the bran of wheat.
Toppings are seldom worth the price at which they are sold.
Indian Corn has been highly extolled as a fattening food for stock, and its chemical composition would seem to
justify the high opinion which practical men have formed of its relative nutritive value. In the United States, the
feeding of horses on Indian corn and hay has been found very successful; but in these countries oats will be found
a more economical food. For fattening purposes Indian corn appears exceedingly well adapted, as it contains more
ready-formed fat—4·5 per cent.—than is found in most of the other grains, and, on an average, 70 per cent. of
starch. Pigs thrive well on this grain. The Galatz round yellow grain is somewhat superior to the American flat
yellow seed.
Rye is not extensively cultivated in this country, but on the Continent it is raised in large quantities. In the north
of Europe it forms a considerable proportion of the food of both man and the domesticated animals. In Holland it is
commonly consumed by horses, but in England there has always been a prejudice against the use of this grain as
food for the equine tribe. It has been highly recommended for dairy stock, five pounds of rye-meal, with a
sufficiency of cut straw, constituting, it is stated, a dietary on which cows yield a maximum supply of milk. Irish-
grown rye contains less starch, and more flesh-formers and oil, than the Black Sea grain.
Rice, although it forms the chief pabulum of nearly one-third of the human family, is the least nutritious of the
common food grains. Rice-dust, an article obtained in cleaning rice for European consumption, is said to promote
the flow of milk when given to cows. It is sold in large quantities in Liverpool, where, according to Voelcker, it
often commands a higher price than it is worth.
Buckwheat is chiefly used as a food for game and poultry.
Malted Corn.—During a late session of Parliament a Bill was passed to exempt from duty malt intended to be
used as food for cattle. As feeders may now become their own maltsters, it may be of some use to them to have
here a résumé of this Bill:—
1. Any person giving security and taking out a licence may make malt in a malt-house approved by the Excise for the purpose; and all
malt so made and mixed with linseed-cake or linseed-meal as directed, shall be free from duty.
2. The security required is a bond to Her Majesty, with sureties to the satisfaction of the Excise, not to take from any such malt-house
any malt except duly mixed with material prescribed by the Act.
3. The malt-house must be properly named upon its door.
4. All malt made in it shall be deposited in a store-room, and shall be conveyed to and from the room upon such notice as the officer of
Excise shall appoint.
5. The maltster shall provide secure rooms in his malt-house, to be approved in writing by the supervisor, for grinding the malt made
by him in such malt-house, and mixing and storing the same when mixed; and all such rooms shall be properly secured and kept
locked by the proper officer of Excise.
6. All malt before removal from the malt-house shall be ground and thoroughly mixed with one-tenth part at least of its weight of
ground linseed-cake or linseed-meal, and ground to such a degree of fineness and in such manner as the commissioners shall approve,
and mixed together in a quantity not less than forty bushels at a time in the presence of an officer of Excise.

7. The maltster shall keep account of the quantity of all malt mixed as aforesaid which he shall from time to time send out or deliver
from his malt-house, with the dates and addresses of the person for whom such mixed malt shall be so sent or delivered.
8. If any person shall attempt to separate any malt from any material with which the same shall have been mixed as aforesaid, or shall
use this malt for the brewing of beer or distilling of spirits, he shall forfeit the sum of £200.
9 and 10. The penalties of existing Acts are recited.
11. This Act shall continue and be in force for five years.

Some samples of malt and barley examined in May, 1865, by Dr. Voelcker for the Central Anti-Malt Tax
Association, afforded the following results:—

Barley marked Malt marked
No. 1 No. 5. No. 7. No. 9. No. 14. No. 16.
Moisture 11·76 8·72 7·43 7·76 8·35 7·06
Sugar 3·75 4·29 5·48 7·85 9·46 9·86
Starch and dextrine 70·40 71·03 69·70 67·57 67·53 67·67
* Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) 7·75 8·44 8·81 9·37 8·60 8·31
Woody fibre (cellular) 4·46 5·22 6·38 5·38 4·14 5·11
Mineral matter (ash) 1·88 2·30 2·20 2·07 1·92 1·99
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00
* Containing nitrogen 1·24 1·35 1·41 1·50 1·38 1·33

A great deal has been said and written in favor of malt as a feeding stuff, but I greatly doubt its alleged decided
superiority over barley; and until the results of accurately conducted comparative experiments made with those
articles incontestably prove that superiority, I think it is somewhat a waste of nutriment to convert barley into malt
for feeding purposes. The gentlemen who verbally, or in writing, refer so favorably to malt, acknowledge, with one
or two exceptions, that their experience of the article is limited. Mr. John Hudson, of Brandon, states that he made
a comparative experiment, the results of which proved the superiority of malt. But, in fact, the only properly-
conducted experiments to determine the relative values of malt and barley were those made some years ago by Dr.
Thompson, of Glasgow, by the direction of the Government, and those recently performed by Mr. Lawes, both
producing results unfavorable to the malt. The issue of Dr. Thompson's investigations proved that milch cows fed
on barley yielded more milk and butter than when supplied with an equal weight of malt.
I do not deny the probability that malt, owing to its agreeable flavor and easy solubility, may be a somewhat
better feeding stuff than barley; and that, weight for weight, it may produce a somewhat greater increase in the
weight of the animals fed upon it: but although a pound-weight of malt may be better than a pound-weight of
barley, I am quite satisfied that a pound's worth of barley will put up more flesh than a pound's worth of malt.
Barley-seeds consist of water, starch, nitrogenous substances—such as gluten and albumen—fatty substances, and
saline matter. The amount of starch is considerable, being sometimes about 70 per cent. In the process of malting
(which is simply the germination of the seed under peculiar conditions), a portion of the starch is converted into
sugar and gum, the grain increases in size and becomes friable when dried, and the internal structure of the seed is
completely broken up. During these changes a partial decomposition of the solid matter of the seeds takes place,
and a large amount of nutriment is dissipated, chiefly in the form of carbonic acid gas. From the results of the
experience of the maltster, and of special experiments made by scientific men, it would appear that a ton of barley
will produce only 16 cwt. of malt. Allowance must, however, be made for the difference between the amount of
water contained in barley and in malt, the latter being much drier. According to Mr. E. Holden, the centesimal loss
sustained in malting may be stated thus:—

Water 6·00
Organic matter 12·52
Saline matter 0·48
———
100·00

Dr. Thompson34 sets down the loss of nutriment (exclusive of that occasioned by kiln-drying), as follows:—

Carried off by the steep 1·5

Dissipated on the floor 3·0
Roots separated by cleaning 3·0
Waste 0·5
———
8·0

We may say, then, that by the malting of barley we lose at least 2½ cwt. of solid nutriment out of every ton of
the article, and this loss falls heaviest on the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents of the grain. When there
are added to this loss the expense of carting the grain to and from the malt-house, and the maltster's charge for
operating upon it (I presume in this case that the feeder is not his own maltster), it will be found that two tons of
malt will cost the farmer nearly as much as three tons of barley; and he will then have to solve the problem—
Whether or not malt is 40 or 50 per cent. more valuable as a feeding-stuff than barley.
The difference in value between barley and malt is generally 14s. per barrel; but it is sometimes more or less,
according to the supply and demand. Barley, well malted, will lose on the average 25 per cent. of its weight, the
loss depending, to some extent, upon the degree to which the process is carried, and on the germinating properties
of the barley. Barley malted for roasters ought not to lose more than 21 per cent. of its original weight—53 lbs. to
the barrel. The heavier the barley the less it loses in malting; a barrel of 224 lbs., and value from 15s. to 16s., ought
to produce a barrel of malt of 196 lbs., value 29s. to 30s.
If we deduct from the cost of a barrel of malt the amount of duty at present levyable upon it, the price of the
article will be still nearly 50 per cent. greater than that of an equal weight of barley. The cheaper barley is the
greater will be the relative cost of malt. The maltster's charge for converting a barrel of barley into malt is about
4s.; so that if the price of the grain be so low as 12s. per barrel, which it sometimes is, the cost of malting it would
amount to 33 per cent. of its price. Then, the diminution in the weight of, and the cost of carting the grain, must be
taken into account; and when the whole expense attendant upon the process of malting is ascertained, it will be
found that I have not exaggerated in stating that a ton of malt costs as much as a ton and a half of barley.
If the consumer of malt germinate the seeds himself, he may probably, if he require large quantities of the
article, produce it at a somewhat cheaper rate than if he bought it from the maltster; but few persons who have the
slightest knowledge of the vexatious restrictions of the Inland Revenue authorities would be likely to place his
premises under the espionage of an excise officer.
As the superiority of malt over barley (if such be really the case) must be chiefly due to the looseness of its
texture, which allows the juices of the stomach to act readily upon it, barley in a cooked state might be found quite
as nutritious: It would not be fair to institute comparisons between dense hard barley-seeds and the easily soluble
malted grains. During the cooking of barley a portion of the starch is changed into sugar, but in this case with only
an inappreciable waste of nutriment. When the cooking process is continued for a few hours, a considerable
amount of sugar is formed, and the barley acquires a very sweet flavor.
When the malt for cattle question was under discussion, I made a little experiment in relation to it, the results of
which are perhaps of sufficient interest to mention:—Two pounds weight of barley-meal were moistened with
warm water; after standing for three hours more water was added, and sufficient heat applied to cause the fluid to
boil. After fifteen minutes' ebullition, a few ounces of the pasty-like mass which was produced were removed,
thoroughly dried, and on being submitted to analysis yielded six per cent. of sugar. The addition of a small quantity
of malt to barley undergoing the process of cooking will rapidly convert the starch into sugar.
Barley is naturally a well-flavored grain, and all kinds of stock eat it with avidity. It may be rendered still more
agreeable if properly cooked, and this process will, by disintegrating its hard, fibrous structure, set free its stores of
nutriment. I incline strongly to the opinion that barley, when well boiled, is almost, if not quite, as digestible as
malt.
A serious disadvantage in the use of malt is, that it must be consumed, it is said, in combination with 10 per
cent. of its weight of linseed-meal or cake. Now, malt is a very laxative food, and so is linseed; and if the diet of
stock were largely made up of these articles the animals would, sooner or later, suffer from diarrhœa. In such case,
then, the addition of bean-meal, or of some other binding food, would become necessary, and the compound of
malt, linseed, and bean-meal thereby formed would certainly prove anything but an economical diet.

Malt Combs.—I should mention that a portion of the nutriment which the barley loses in malting passes into the
radicles, or young roots, which project from the seeds, and are technically known by the term "combs,"
"combings," or "dust." At present these combs are separated from the malt, but if the latter be intended for feeding
purposes this separation is unnecessary, and in such case the barley will not be so much deteriorated. The combs,
which constitute about 4 per cent. of the weight of the malt, are sometimes employed as a feeding stuff. I have
made an analysis of malt-combings for the County of Kildare Agricultural Society, and have obtained the
following results:—

100 PARTS CONTAINED—
Water 8·42
* Flesh-forming (albuminous) substances 21·50
Digestible fat-forming substances (starch, sugar, gum, &c.) 53·47
Indigestible woody fibre 8·57
† Saline matter (ash) 8·04
———
100·00
* Yielding nitrogen 3·44
† Containing potash 1·35
Containing phosphoric acid 1·74

This article was sold as a manure at £3 6s. per ton—a sum for which it was not good value; but as a feeding
substance it was probably worth £4 or £5 per ton. Its composition indicates a high nutritive power; but it is
probable that its nitrogenous matters are partly in a low degree of elaboration, which greatly detracts from its
alimental value.
In conclusion, then, I would urge the following points upon the attention of the farmer:—
1st. Before using malt for feeding purposes, wait until you learn the general results of the experience of other
farmers with that article. The manufacture of malt for feeding purposes is rapidly on the decline, instead of, as had
been anticipated, on the increase.
2nd. Should you experiment with barley and malt, use equal money's worth of each, and employ the barley in a
cooked state.
3rd. Use malt-combings as a feeding stuff, and not as a manure. They are good value for at least £3 10s. per ton.
4th. Bear in mind that a ton of barley contains more saline matter than an equal weight of malt; consequently,
that stock fed upon barley will produce a manure richer in potash and phosphates than those supplied with malt.

Leguminous Seeds.—The seeds of the bean, of the pea, and of several other leguminous
plants, are largely made use of as food for both man and the domesticated animals. They all
closely resemble each other in composition, but in that respect differ considerably from the
grains of the Cerealiæ, for whilst the latter contain on an average 12 per cent. of flesh-formers,
beans and peas contain 24 per cent. The flesh-forming constituent of the leguminous seeds is not
gluten, as in the grain of the cereals, but a substance termed legumin, which so closely resembles
the cheesy matter of milk that it has also received the name of vegetable casein. Indeed, the
Chinese make a factitious cheese out of peas, which it is difficult to discriminate from the article
of animal origin.
Beans are used as fattening food for cattle, for which purpose they should be ground into
meal, as otherwise a large proportion of their substance would pass through the animal's body
unchanged. It is not good economy to give a fattening bullock more than 3 or 4 lbs. weight per
diem; a larger proportion is apt to induce constipation. The very small proportion of ready-
formed fat, the moderate amount of starch, and the exceedingly high per-centage of flesh-
formers which beans contain, prove that they are better adapted as food for beasts of burthen
than for the fattening of stock. Oats, Indian corn, or oil-cake, will be found to produce a greater
increase of meat than equal money's worth of beans or peas, and I would therefore recommend
the restriction of leguminous seeds, under ordinary circumstances, to horses and bulls. It has
been stated, on good authority, that when oats are given whole to horses, a large proportion
passes unchanged through the animal's body, but that on the addition of beans, the oats are
thoroughly digested.

COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS.
Common Foreign Winter Tares
Peas. Lentils.
Beans. Beans. (foreign).
Water 13·0 14·5 14·0 13·0 15·5
Flesh-formers 25·5 23·0 23·5 24·0 26·5
Fat-formers 48·5 48·7 50·0 50·5 47·5
Woody fibre 10·0 10·0 10·0 10·0 9·0
Mineral matter 3·0 3·8 2·5 2·5 1·5
100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0

Oil Seeds.—The seeds of a great variety of plants, such as the flax, hemp, rape, mustard,
cotton, and sunflower, are exceedingly rich in oil, some of them containing nearly half their
weight of that substance. Of these oil-seeds there are many which might with advantage be
employed as fattening, food, although one only—linseed—has come into general use for that
purpose.
Rape-seeds closely resemble linseeds in composition, but they are considerably cheaper. They
contain an acrid substance, but the large proportion of oil with which it is associated almost
completely disguises its unpleasant flavor.
Linseed is one of the most valuable kinds of food which could be given to fattening animals.
Its exceedingly high proportion of ready-formed fatty matter, the great comparative solubility of
its constituents, and its mild and agreeable flavor, constitute it an article superior to linseed cake.
The laxative properties of linseed are very decided; it should therefore be given only in moderate
quantities. As peas and beans exercise, as I have already stated, a relaxing influence upon the

bowels, a mixture of linseed and peas or beans would be an excellent compound, the laxative
influence of the one being corrected by the binding tendency of the other. Linseed being one of
the most concentrated feeding stuffs in use, it will be found an excellent addition to bulky food,
such as chaff and turnips. Linseed oil has been used as a fattening food, but there is nothing to be
gained by expressing seeds for the purpose of using their oil as a feeding material. When hay is
scarce, and straw abundant, the latter may be made almost as nutritious as the former by mixing
it with linseed, and steaming the compound. A stone of linseed and two cwt. of oat-straw chaff,
when properly cooked, constitute a most economical and nutritious food.
Mr. Horne, who experimented with linseed two or three years ago, obtained results highly
favorable to the nutritive value of that article. Six bullocks were selected, and each animal
placed in a separate box. They were fed with cut roots—at first Swedes, then mangels and
Swedes, and lastly, mangels alone: in addition, there were supplied to each 6 lbs. rough meadow-
hay reduced to chaff, and 5 lbs. oil-cake, or value to that amount. They were divided into three
lots, two in each. Lot 1 had 5 lbs. oil-cake for each animal; lot 2, barley and wheat-meal, equal in
value to the 5 lbs. oil-cake; and lot 3, an equal money's worth of bruised linseed. The oil-cake
cost £10 16s. per ton, the mixture of barley and wheat £8 15s. per ton, and the bruised linseed
£13 per ton. The experiment lasted 112 days, and at its close the results, which proved very
favorable to the bruised linseed, were as follows:—

Increase in
live weight.
Lot 1. Oil-cake 637 lbs.
Lot 2. Wheat and barley meal 667 lbs.
Lot 3. Bruised linseed 718 lbs.

During the 112 days each bullock consumed 5 cwt. oil-cake (or an equivalent amount of
linseed or wheat and barley), 6 cwt. hay, and 90 cwt. of roots. The average increase in each
animal's weight was 337 lbs. = 224 lbs. dead weight. The economic features of this experiment
are best shown in the following figures:—

FOOD CONSUMED.
£ s. d.
5 cwt. oil-cake, at 10s. 6d. per cwt. 2 12 6
6 cwt. hay, at 3s. per cwt. 0 18 0
16 weeks' attendance, at 6d. per week 0 8 0
————————
£3 18 6
————————
Gained 16 stones per week, at 8s. per stone 6 8 0
————————
Balance to pay for 90 cwt. of roots 2 9 6

The manure obtained afforded a good profit.
The seed-pods, or, as they are termed, the bolls of the flax, have been recommended as an
excellent feeding stuff. They are not so nutritious as linseed, but they are cheaper, and when
produced on the farm must be an economical food. Mr. Charley, an intelligent stock-feeder in the

county of Antrim, and an eminent authority in every subject in relation to flax, strongly
recommends the use of flax-bolls. He says:—
The cost of rippling is considerable; but I believe, for every £1 expended, on an average a return is realised of £2,
particularly on a farmstead where many horses and cattle are regularly kept. The flax-bolls contain much more
nourishment than the linseed-cake from which the oil has, of course, been expressed, and they form a most
valuable addition to the warm food prepared during winter for the animals just named. I believe they have also a
highly beneficial effect in warding off internal disease, owing, no doubt, to the soothing and slightly purgative
properties of the oil contained in the seed. The change made in the appearance of the animals receiving some of
the bolls in their steamed food is very apparent after a few weeks' trial; and the smoothness and sleekness of their
shining coats plainly show the benefit derived. Is it not surprising, with this fact before our eyes, that many
agriculturists—indeed, I fear the majority—persist in the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-
place with its valuable freight of seed unremoved, and plunge the sheaves under water, losing thereby, in the most
wanton manner, rich feeding materials, worth from £1 to £3 per statute acre?

In the following table, the composition of all the more important oil-seeds is given:—

COMPOSITION OF OIL-SEEDS, ACCORDING TO DR. ANDERSON.

Linseed. Rape-seed. Hemp-seed. Cotton-seed (decorticated).
Water 7·50 7·13 6·47 6·57
Oil 34·00 36·81 31·84 31·24
Albuminous compounds (Flesh-formers) 24·44 21·50 22·60 31·86
Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. 18·73 14·12
Woody-fibre }30·73 6·86 }32·72 7·30
Mineral matter (ash) 3·33 8·97 6·37 8·91
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

Fenugreek-seed is used very extensively in the preparation of "Condimental food." It is often
given to horses out of condition. Sheep have been liberally supplied with this food, which,
however, it is stated, communicates a disagreeable flavor to the mutton. It contains, according to
Voelcker, the following:—

Water 11·994
Flesh-formers 26·665
Starch, gum, and pectin 37·111
Sugar 2·220
Fatty and oily matters 8·320
Woody fibre 10·820
Inorganic matter 2·870
———
100·000

SECTION VII.

OIL-CAKES, AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS.

Oil-seeds, on being subjected to considerable pressure, part with a large proportion of their
oil, the remaining part of that fluid, together with the various other ingredients of the seeds,
constitute the substances so well known to agriculturists under the name of oil-cakes. These

cakes contain a larger proportion of ready-formed fatty matter than is found in any other feeding
stuff, and an amount of flesh-forming principles far greater than that yielded by corn, or even by
beans; the manure, too, which is produced by the cattle fed upon some of them, is often good
value for nearly half the sum expended on the food.
The principal kinds of oil-cake employed for feeding purposes are the following:—Linseed-
cake, Rape-cake, and cotton-seed cake. Poppy cake is not much in use. Their average
composition, deduced from the results of numerous analyses made by Voelcker, Anderson, and
myself, are shown in the following table:—

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF OIL-CAKES.
Linseed Cake, Rape Decorticated Poppy
English. Cake. Cottonseed Cake. Cake.
Water 12 11 9 12
Flesh-forming principles 28 30 38 32
Oil 10 11 13 6
Gum, mucilage, &c. 34 30 23 30
Woody fibre 10 10 9 9
Mineral matter (ash) 6 8 8 1
100 100 100 100

Linseed Cake.—Within the last quarter of a century great attention has been given to the
feeding of stock, and the effects are observable in the improved quality and greatly increased
weight of the animals. In the year 1839 the average weight of the horned beasts from Ireland
sold in the London market was only 650 lbs., whereas at the present time their average weight is
about 740 lbs. This remarkable advance in the production of meat is in great part due to the
cattle being more liberally supplied with food, and that, too, of a more concentrated nature. The
practice of feeding animals destined for the shambles exclusively on roots containing 90 and
even 95 per cent. of water, which once prevailed so generally in this country, is now limited to
the farmsteads of a few old-fashioned feeders; and the necessity for the admixture of highly-
nutritious aliment with the bulky substances which form the staple food of stock is almost
universally recognised.
Of concentrated foods used for fattening stock, none stands higher in the estimation of the
farmer than linseed-cake, although it appears to me that the price of the article is somewhat too
high in relation to its amount of nutriment, and that corn, if its price be moderate, is a more
economical food. Straw, turnips, and mangels form the bone and sinew of the animals, and
enable them to carry on the vital operations which are essential to their existence. Oil-cake and
similar foods are supplemental, and contribute directly to the animal's increase, so that their
nutritive value appears to be greater than it really is. If an animal were fed exclusively upon oil-
cake, the greater part of it would be appropriated to the reparation of the waste of the body, and
the rest would be converted into permanent flesh—the animal's "increase." The addition of straw
would produce a still further increase in the animal's weight—an increase which would be
directly proportionate to the amount of straw consumed. Thus it will be seen that, whatever the
staple food may be, it will have to sustain the life of the animal, and will be principally expended
for that purpose, whereas the supplemental food will be chiefly, if not entirely, made use of in
increasing the weight of flesh. To me it appears manifestly incorrect to consider, as feeders
practically do, the value of linseed-cake to be seven or eight times greater than that of oat-straw,

and twenty times greater than that of roots. Let us assume the case of an animal fed upon roots,
straw, and oil-cake. Seventy-five per cent. of its food, say, is expended in repairing the waste of
its body, and 25 per cent. is stored up in its increase. Now, if the three kinds of food contributed
proportionately to the reparation of the body and to its increase, the roots and straw would be
found to possess a far higher nutritive value, in relation to the oil-cake, than is usually ascribed
to them.
But it may be asked why straw, if it be relatively a much more economical feeding stuff than
oil-cake, is not employed to the complete exclusion of the latter. I have already given an answer
to such a question, namely, that animals thrive better on a diet composed partly of bulky, partly
of concentrated aliments. This much, however, is certain, that animals can be profitably fed upon
roots and straw, whilst it is equally certain that to feed them upon oil-cake alone (assuming them
to thrive upon such a diet) would entail a very heavy loss upon the feeder. At the same time it
must be admitted that the oil of the linseed-cake exercises in all probability a beneficial
influence on the digestion of the animal, so that the nutritive value of the article may be
somewhat higher than its mere composition would indicate.
The quantity of oil-cake given to fattening stock varies from 2 lbs. to 14 lbs. per diem. I
believe there is no greater mistake made by feeders than that of giving excessive quantities of
this substance to stock. If their object in so doing be to enrich their manure-heap, they would
find it far more economical to add the cake directly to the manure—or rather of adding rape-cake
to it, for this variety of cake is fully as valuable for manurial purposes as the linseed-cake, and is
nearly 50 per cent. cheaper. A larger quantity of oil-cake than 7 lbs. daily should not be given to
even the largest-sized milch cows or fattening bullocks. If a larger amount be employed, it will
pass unchanged through the animal's body. Young cattle may with advantage be supplied with
from 1 to 3 lbs., according to their size, and from ½ to 1 lb. will be a sufficient quantity for
sheep. Intelligent feeders have remarked, that cattle which had been always supplied with a
moderate allowance of this food fattened more readily upon it, during their finishing stage, than
did stock which had not been accustomed to its use.
Adulteration of Linseed Cake.—The great drawback to the use of linseed-cake is the liability
of the article to be adulterated. The sophistication is sometimes of a harmless nature, if we
except its injurious effect on the farmer's pocket; but not unfrequently the substances added to
the cakes possess properties which completely unfit them to be used as food. Amongst the
injurious substances found in linseed and linseed-cake I may mention the seeds of the purging-
flax, darnel, spurry, corn-cockle, curcus-beans, and castor-oil beans. Several of these seeds are
highly drastic purgatives, and they have been known to cause intense inflammation of the
bowels of animals fed upon oil-cake, of which they composed but a small proportion. Amongst
the adulterations of linseed-cake, which lower its nutritive value without imparting to it any
injurious properties, are the seeds of the cereals and the grasses, bran, and flax-straw. Little black
seeds belonging to various species of Polygonum, are very often present in even good cakes;
they are very indigestible, but otherwise are not injurious. Rape-cake is stated to be occasionally
used as adulterant of the more costly linseed, but I have never met with an admixture of the two
articles.
The only way in which a correct estimate of the value of linseed-cake can be arrived at is by a
combined microscopical and chemical analysis; but as the feeder is not always disposed to incur
the cost of this process, he should make himself acquainted with the characteristic of the genuine

cake, in order to be able to discriminate, as far as possible, between it and the sophisticated
article. I will indicate a few of the more prominent features of cake of excellent quality, and
point out a few simple and easily-performed tests, which may serve to detect the existence of
gross adulteration. Good cake is hard, of a reddish-brown color, uniform in appearance, and
possesses a rather pleasant flavor and odour. The adulterated cake is commonly of a greyish hue,
and has a disagreeable odour. A weighed quantity of the cake—say 100 grains—in the state of
powder should be formed into a paste with an ounce of water; if it be good, the paste will be
light colored, moderately stiff, and endowed with a pleasant odour and flavor. If the paste be
thin, the presence of bran, or of grass seeds, is probable. The latter are easily seen through a
magnifying-glass; indeed, most of them are readily recognisable by the unassisted eye: they may,
therefore, be picked out, and their weight determined. Sand—a frequent adulterant—may be
detected by mixing a small weighed quantity of the powdered cake with about twelve times its
weight of water, allowing the mixture to stand for half an hour, and collecting and weighing the
sand which will be found at the bottom of the vessel employed. If there be bran present it will be
found lying on the sand, and its structure is sufficiently distinct to admit of its detection by a
mere glance. There are a great variety of linseed-cakes in the market, of which the home-made
article is the best. On the Continent the oil-seeds are subjected to the action of heat in order to
obtain from them a greater yield of oil. Their cakes, therefore, contain less oil, and their flesh-
forming principles are less soluble, in comparison with British linseed-cake. Next to our home-
made oil-cakes, the American is the best. Indeed, I have met with some American cakes which
were equal to the best English.
Rape Cake.—The use of rape-cake was limited almost completely to the fertilising of the soil
until the late Mr. Pusey, in a paper published in the tenth volume of the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, advocated its employment as a substitute for the more costly
linseed-cake. The recommendation of this distinguished agriculturist has not been disregarded;
and since his time the use of this cake as a feeding stuff has been steadily on the increase, and at
the present time its annual consumption is not far short of 50,000 tons.
In relation to the nutritive value of rape-cake there exists considerable diversity of opinion.
Certain feeders assert that animals fed upon it go out of condition; others, whilst admitting that
stock thrive upon it, maintain the economic superiority of linseed-cake; whilst a third set believe
rape-cake to be the most economical of feeding-stuffs. How are we to account for these great
differences of opinion—not amongst theorists, be it observed, but amongst practical men? It is
not difficult to explain them away satisfactorily. Rape-cake and linseed-cake are about equally
rich in muscle and fat-forming principles; and, supposing both to be equally well-flavored, there
can be no doubt but that one is just as nourishing as the other. But it so happens that a large
proportion of the rape-cake which comes into the British market possesses a flavor which
renders it very disagreeable to animals. One variety—namely, the East Indian—is almost
poisonous, whilst the very best kind is slightly inferior to linseed-cake. Now, if an experiment
with a very inferior kind of rape-cake and a good variety of linseed-cake were tried, who can
doubt but that the results would be very unfavorable to the former article? Mr. Callan,35 of
Rathfarnham, county Dublin; Mr. Bird,36 of Renton Barns, and some other feeders, who found
rape-cake to be worse than useless, experimented, in all probability, with an adulterated article,
for they do not appear to have had the cake analysed. On the other hand, those whose experience
with rape-cake has proved favorable, must have employed the article in a genuine state, fresh,
and moderately well-flavored. It is noteworthy that amongst the advocates for the use of rape-
cake as a substitute—partly or entirely—for the more costly linseed-cake, are to be found the

most successful feeders in England and Scotland. Horsfall, Mechi, Lawrence, Bond, Hope, and
many other feeders of equal celebrity, have assigned to rape-cake the highest place, in an
economic point of view, amongst the concentrated feeding stuffs. Mr. Mechi says:—"I invariably
give to all my animals as much rape-cake as they choose to eat, however abundant their roots or
green food may be. It pays in many ways, and not to do this is a great pecuniary mistake. Even
when fed on green rape, they will eat rape-cake abundantly. My cattle are now under cover,
eating the steamed chaff, rape-cake, malt-combs, and bran, all mixed together in strict
accordance with the proportions named by Mr. Horsfall in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society, vol. xviii., p. 150,37 which I find by far the most profitable mode of feeding bullocks
and cows." Mr. Hope, of Edinburgh, states that rape-cake is the best substitute for turnips, and
that, excepting cases where spurious kinds had been used, he never knew bullocks or milch cows
to refuse it. This gentleman states that it is best given in combination with locust-beans, or a
mixture of locust-beans and Indian corn; and suggests the proportions set down in the tables as
the best adapted for lean cattle; but I think about two-thirds of the quantities would be quite
sufficient.

Feed
Per week.
per week.
lbs. s. d.
Rape-cake at £5 15s. per ton 8 2 10½
Do. do. 10 3 7
Mixture of two-thirds rape-cake and one-third locust-beans £6 8 3 0
Do. do. 10 3 9
Rape-cake, locust-beans, and Indian Corn in equal proportions 8 3 2½
Do. do. 10 3 11¼

An intelligent Scotch dairy farmer bears the following testimony in favor of this cake:—
I have tried pease-meal, bean-meal, oat-meal, and linseed-cake, and after carefully noting the results, I consider
rape-cake, weight for weight, at least equal to any of them for milch cows; and if I give the same money value for
each, I get at least one-third more produce, and the butter is always of a very superior quality. Two years ago, I
took some of my best oats (41 lbs. per bushel), and ground them for the cows, and although I was at about one-
third more expense, I lost fully one-third of the produce that I had by using rape-cake. I always dissolve it by
pouring boiling water on it, and give each cow 6 lbs. daily. I have tried a larger quantity, and found I was fully
repaid for the extra expense. I generally use it the most of the summer, but always during the spring months. A
number of my neighbours who have tried it all agree that it is the best and cheapest feed for milch cows they have
used.—North British Agriculturist, Edinburgh, February 29, 1860.

The best kinds of rape-cake come from Germany and Denmark. When neither too old nor too
fresh, and of a pale-green color, these foreign cakes are tolerably well-flavored, and are but
slightly inferior to good linseed-cake. Most varieties of this cake, however, contain a small
proportion of acrid matter, which often renders them more or less distasteful to stock, more
particularly to cattle. This substance may be rendered quite innocuous by steaming or boiling the
cake; either of these processes will also, according to Mr. Lawrence, destroy the disagreeable
flavor which mustard-seed—a frequent adulterant of rape-cake—confers upon that article.
Molasses or treacle is an excellent adjunct to the cake, as it serves in a great measure to correct
its somewhat unpleasant flavor. Carob, or locust-beans, answer, perhaps better, the same
purpose. It is better, as a general rule, to give less rape-cake than linseed-cake, unless the pale-
green kind to which I have referred is obtainable; that variety may be largely employed. The
animals should be gradually accustomed to its use. At first, in the case of bullocks, they should

get only 1 lb. per diem, and the quantity should be gradually increased to about 4 lbs.; but I
would not advise, under any circumstances, a larger daily allowance than 5 lbs. Given in
moderate amounts, it will, supposing it to be of fair quality, be found to give a better return in
meat than almost any other kind of concentrated food; and, what is of great importance, it will
not injuriously affect the animal's health. "Our experience of the use of rape-cake," says Mr.
Lawrence, "thus used (cooked), extends over a period of ten years of feeding from 20 to 24
bullocks annually. We have not had a single death during that period, and the animals have been
remarkably free from any kind of ailment."
Rape-cake of good quality possesses a dark-green color (the greener the better), and when
broken exhibits a mottled aspect—yellowish and dark-brown spots. Sometimes a tolerably good
specimen has a brownish color; but the German and Danish cakes are always of a greenish hue.
The odor is stronger than that of linseed-cake, and differs but little from that of rape-oil. The
only serious adulteration of rape-cake is the addition to it of mustard-seed—sometimes
accidentally—less frequently, as I believe, intentionally. This sophistication admits of easy
detection. Scrape into small particles about half an ounce of the cake, add six times its weight of
water, form the solid and liquid into a paste, and allow the mixture to stand for a few hours. If
the cake contain mustard the characteristic odor of that substance will be evolved, and its
intensity will afford a rough indication of the amount of the adulterant. As some specimens of
genuine rape-cake possess a somewhat pungent odor, care must be taken not to confound it with
that of mustard; but, indeed, it is not difficult to discriminate the latter. The paste of rape-cake
which contains an injurious proportion of mustard, has a very pungent flavor. Rape-cake
improves somewhat if kept for say six months; but old cake is worse than the fresh article.
Cottonseed Cake is one of the most valuable feeding stuffs that have come into use of late
years. Its chemical composition shows it to be about equal to that of the best linseed-cake, and as
its price is much lower than that of the latter, it may be fairly considered a more economical
food. These remarks apply only to the shelled, or decorticated seed-cake, for the article prepared
from the whole seed is of very inferior composition, and should never be employed. The use of
the cake made from the whole seed has proved fatal in many instances, not from its possessing
any poisonous quality, but in consequence of its hard, indigestible husk, accumulating in, and
inflaming, the animal's bowels.
The composition of this cake varies somewhat. The following analysis of a sample from one
of the Western States of North America, imported by Messrs. G. Seagrave and Co., of Liverpool,
was made by me:—

COMPOSITION OF DECORTICATED COTTON-SEED CAKE.
Water 8·20
Oil 10·16
Albuminous, or flesh forming principles 40·25
Gum, sugar, &c. 21·10
Fibre 9·23
Ash (mineral matter) 11·06
———
100·00

In some specimens so much as 16 per cent. of oil has been found. The purchaser of cotton-
seed cake should be certain that it is not old and mouldy, which is frequently the case. The
recently prepared cake has a very yellow color, which becomes fainter as the cake becomes
older. Freshness is a very desirable quality in nearly every kind of cake. I have known animals to
have a greater relish for, and thrive better upon, home-made linseed-cake than upon cake of
foreign manufacture of superior composition, but of greater age.
Palm-nut Meal, or Cake is a very valuable fattening food. It is extremely rich in ready-formed
fatty matters, but at the same time it is not very deficient in albuminous substances. Its strong
flavor is rather a drawback to its use in the case of all the farm animals, except pigs. This
difficulty may, however, be got over by using the cake in moderate quantities, and by combining
it with other food possessed of a good flavor. Reports of practical trials made with this food
appear to have almost uniformly given very favorable results. This food is only three or four
years in use. The first samples that came into my hand were richer in fatty matters than those
which I have recently examined. The average results of eight analyses made from 1864 to 1866
were as follows:—

100 PARTS CONTAINED—
Water 7·48
Albuminous matters 17·26
Fatty substances 21·59
Gum, sugar, &c. 32·14
Fibre 17·18
Mineral matter 4·35
———
100·00

This year I have not found more than 17 per cent. of fat in any sample of palm-nut cake. One
specimen which I analysed for Mr. J. G. Alexander, seed merchant, of Dublin, had the following
composition:—

Water 9·24
Albuminous matters 19·28
Fatty matters 9·36
Gum, starch, fibre, &c. 53·22
Mineral matters 8·90
———
100·00

But although inferior samples are occasionally met with, I may say of palm-nut cake that on
the whole it is a food which deserves to be largely used, and which at its present price is the
most economical source of fat. To milch-cows and fattening cattle about 3 lbs. per diem may be
given; ¼ lb. will be sufficient for young sheep, whilst pigs may be very liberally supplied with
this food.
The Locust, or Carob Bean, is now largely used by the stock-feeder. It is extremely rich in
sugar, and is therefore an excellent fattening and milk-producing food. It is used largely in the
preparation of the sweet kinds of artificial food for cattle. It is not well adapted for young

animals, owing to its deficiency of albuminous matters. The following analysis shows the
average composition of this food:—

Water 14
Sugar 50
Albuminous matters 8
Oil 1
Gum, &c. 20
Woody fibre 5
Ash 2
———
100

Dates have been used, but only in very small quantities, as cattle food. Their composition is
not constant, some samples being greatly inferior in nutritive power to others; they are rich in
sugar, and if they were obtained in sufficient quantities they might, like carob-beans, come into
general use with the stock-feeder. They contain about 2 per cent. of flesh-formers, 10 per cent. of
fat-formers (chiefly sugar), and 2 per cent. of mineral matter.
Distillery and brewery dregs (or wash) are chiefly used by dairymen. According to Dr.
Anderson, an imperial gallon (700,000 grains) of distillery wash (from a distillery near
Edinburgh) contained 4,130 grains of organic matter, and 276 grains of mineral substances. He
considers that 15 gallons of this stuff were equal in nutritive materials to 100 pounds of turnips.
The following is the centesimal composition of brewery wash:—

Water 75·85
Albuminous matters 0·62
Gummy matters 1·06
Other organic matter (husks, &c.) 21·28
Mineral matters 1·19
———
100·00

Molasses constitute a very fattening food, sometimes, but not often, given to stock. Treacle
and molasses are composed of non-crystallisable sugar, cane-sugar, water, and saline and other
impurities. The composition of average specimens of molasses, as imported, is as follows:—

Cane-sugar 50
Non-crystallisable sugar and grape-sugar 25
Water, saline matter, and organic impurities 25
———
100

If admitted duty free, molasses would be a much more economical food than it now is, but at
its present price it must be regarded as a mere flavoring food.
Mr. T. Cooke Burroughs, a West Suffolk feeder, who used treacle in 1864, gives the following
mode of mixing it with other food:—

My plan has been (and is still carried on) to give to each bullock per day (divided into three meals) one pint of
treacle dissolved in two gallons of water, and sprinkled, by means of a garden water-pot, over four bushels of cut
chaff (two-thirds straw and one-third hay) amongst which a quarter of a peck of meal (barley and wheat) is
mixed, the animals also having free access to water. The cost of the treacle and meal together is about 3s. per
bullock per week. My bullocks (two-year old Shorthorns) have grown and thrived upon the above diet to my
utmost satisfaction; and even during the present dry and warm weather they evince no lingering after roots or
grass. I am well aware that the use of treacle for neat stock is no new discovery of my own, as I learnt the system
while on a visit to a friend in Norfolk, where some graziers have used it in combination with roots during many
years past. Perhaps flax-seed (linseed) boiled into a jelly and used in a similar way, may be a more profitable
"substitute for roots" than treacle; but the preparation of it is attended with more expense and trouble.

SECTION VIII.

CONDIMENTAL FOOD.

Although every farmer may not have used, there are few who have not heard of "Thorley's
Condimental Food for Cattle." This nostrum is a compound of some of the ordinary foods with
certain well-known aromatic and carminative substances. It possesses a very agreeable flavor,
and it is therefore much relished by horses, and indeed by every kind of stock. The price of this
compound was at first so much as £60 per ton; but owing to competition, and perhaps to the
attacks made upon the enormously high price of this article, it is now to be obtained at prices
varying from £12 to £24 per ton.
The inventor of condimental food, and the numerous fabricators of that compound, claim for it
merits of no ordinary nature. Its use, they assert, not only maintains the animals fed upon it in
excellent health, but it also exercises so remarkable an action upon the adipose tissues that fat
accumulates to an immense extent. Moreover, it is said that an animal supplied with a very
moderate daily modicum of this wonderful compound, will consume less of its ordinary food,
though rapidly becoming fat.
Now, if these assertions were perfectly, or even approximatively, true, Mr. Thorley would be
well deserving of a niche in the temple of fame, and stock-feeders would ever regard him as a
benefactor to his own and the bovine species; but I fear that Mr. Thorley's imagination
outstripped his reason when he described in such glowing terms the wonderful virtues of his
tonic food.
Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, than whom there is no more accurate experimenter in
agricultural practice, states that he made many careful trials with Thorley's food, and that he
never found it to exercise the slightest influence upon the nutrition of the animals fed upon it. In
his report upon this subject, Mr. Lawes, after describing the experiments which he made, sums
up as follows:—
There is nothing therefore in the above results to recommend the use of Thorley's condiment with inferior
fattening food, to those who feed pigs for profit. In fact, the following balance-sheet of the experiment shows
that, in fattening for twelve weeks, there was a balance of £1 10s. 11d. in favor of the lot fed without Thorley's
food, notwithstanding that one of the pigs in that lot did badly throughout the experiment, as above stated.

LOT 1.—WITH BARLEY-MEAL AND BRAN.

£ s. d.
4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each 8 6 0

1,860¾ lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding 8 7 8¾
1,024¾ lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt. 2 10 3¾
——————
19 4 0½
88 stone 5 lbs. of pork sold at 4s. 4d. per stone, sinking the offal 19 4 0½

LOT 2.—WITH BARLEY-MEAL, BRAN, AND THORLEY'S FOOD.
£ s. d.
4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each 8 6 0
1,862¾ lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding 8 7 10¼
1,020¾ lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt. 2 10 1½
105 lbs. Thorley's food at 40s. per cwt. 1 17 6
——————
21 1 5¾
90 stone 1 lb. pork sold at 4s. 4d. per stone, sinking the offal 19 10 6½
——————
1 10 11¼

The results of these experiments with pigs, in which Thorley's condiment was used with
inferior fattening food, may be summed up as follows:—
1. The addition of Thorley's condimental food increased the amount of food consumed by a given weight of
animal within a given time.
2. When Thorley's condiment was given it required more food to produce a given amount of increase in live-
weight.
3. In fattening for twelve weeks there was a difference of £1 10s. 11d. on the lot of 4 pigs in favor of barley-meal
and bran alone, over barley-meal, bran, and Thorley's food in addition.

At a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, held some time ago,
the subject of the nutrimental value of condimental cattle food was discussed. As there is
scarcely any kind of quackery, from spirit manifestations to Holloway's pills, that has not got its
believers, there were, as might have been anticipated, some voices raised at this meeting in favor
of Thorley's food; but the sense of the meeting was decidedly against it. Professor Simonds
pronounced it to be worthless.
Although the greater number of equine proprietors and feeders of stock are too sensible to
throw their money away in the purchase of those costly foods, still there are by no means an
insignificant number who employ it, under the idea that it preserves the health of the animals;
these stuffs are also highly appreciated by many grooms and herds. Now, for the information of
all believers, I may state that there is no mystery whatever in the nature of condimental cattle
foods. They consist in substance of such matters as linseed-cake, Indian corn, rice, bean-meal,
locust-beans, and malt-combings. These substances are flavored by the addition of turmeric-root,
ginger, coriander-seed, carraway-seed, fenugreek-seed, aniseed, liquorice, and similar
substances. In addition to the nutritive and flavorous articles employed in the manufacture of
these foods, purely medicinal substances are also made use of with the idea that they would
prove useful in maintaining the health and stimulating the appetite of the animals. These
medicinal ingredients constitute but a small proportion of the compound, although they add
considerably to the cost of manufacture. The following is a formula for a condimental food,
which in every respect will be found fully equal, if not superior, to the ordinary high-priced
articles.

cwt. qrs. lbs.
Linseed-meal, or cake 7 0 0
Locust beans (ground) 8 0 0
Indian corn 4 1 0
Powdered turmeric 0 1 4
Ginger 0 0 3
Fenugreek-seed 0 0 2
Gentian 0 0 10
Cream of tartar 0 0 2
Sulphur 0 0 20
Common salt 0 0 10
Coriander-seed 0 0 5
————————
One ton.

A ton of condimental food manufactured according to this formula will cost only about the
same amount as an equal weight of linseed, and will produce an effect fully equal to that of the
food which at one time was sold at £60 per ton.
Whatever may be the medicinal virtues of these foods, or however appropriate the term
"condimental" which has been applied to them, it is quite certain that their whilom designation
"concentrated" was a misnomer. Their composition shows that they possess a degree of nutritive
power considerably below that of linseed-cake, and but little, if at all, superior to that of Indian
corn.
The following analytical statement, which I published some years ago, will give an insight
into the nature of these articles:—

ANALYSES OF CONDIMENTAL FOOD.

Thorley's. Bradley's.
Water 12·00 12·09
Nitrogenous, or flesh forming principles 14·92 10·36
Oil 6·08 5·80
Gum, sugar, mucilage, &c. 56·86 60·21
Woody fibre 5·46 5·32
Mineral matter (ash) 4·68 6·22
——— ———
100·00 100·00

As a ton of linseed-cake contains a greater amount of nutriment than an equal quantity of
condimental food, the latter should be clearly proved to possess very valuable specific virtues, in
order to induce the feeder to use it extensively. Cattle and horses out of condition may be
benefited by its carminative and tonic properties; but if they are, it surely must be a bad practice
to feed healthy animals upon a substance which is a remedy in disease. It is asserted, and
probably with some degree of truth, that when dainty, over-fed stock loathe their food, they are
induced to eat greedily by mixing the "condimental" with their ordinary food. If such really be
the case, let the feeder compound the article himself, and effect thereby a saving of perhaps 50 or
80 per cent. in the cost of it. A good condimental food, rich in actual nutriment, and pleasantly

flavored, is no doubt a compound which might be used with advantage; but it should be sold at a
moderate and fair price.

(25) See Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1852.
(26) Zig-zag clover, or Marl grass? Cowgrass is Trifolium pratense perenne.
(27) This gentleman has invented an exceedingly simple but effective furze-bruiser, which I hope soon to see
in general use.
(28) H. Le Docte, in Journal de la Société Centrale d'Agriculture de Belgique.
(29) Cellulose is the term applied to the chemical substance which forms woody fibre. The latter is made up of
very minute spindle-shaped tubes. In young and succulent plants these tubes are often lined with layers
of soft cellulose. In many plants—such as trees—in a certain stage of development, the substance
lining the cells is very hard, and is termed lignin, or sclerogen. This substance is merely a modification
of cellulose; and both resemble in composition sugar and starch so closely that, by heating them with
sulphuric acid, they may be converted into sugar.
(30) One part of oil is equal to 2½ parts of starch—that is, 2½ parts of starch are expended in the production of
1 part of fat.
(31) No difference is here assumed between the nutritive value of sugar and starch.
(32) Unless when Kohl-rabi is cultivated, for the bulbs of this plant may be preserved in good condition up to
June. I have advocated the cultivation of the radish as a food crop in the "Agricultural Review" for
1861.
(33) According to some chemists, sugar does not exist in ripe grain, but is produced in it, during the process of
analysis, by the action of the re-agents employed and the influence of the air.
(34) Report to Government on feeding cattle with Malt, 1844.
(35) Monthly Agricultural Review, Dublin, February, 1859.
(36) Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, October, 1858.
(37) 3 lbs. of rape-cake, ¾ lb. malt combs, ¾ lb. bran, steamed together with a sufficient quantity of straw.

SECTION IX.—ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS.

(Extracted from the Author's "Chemistry of Agriculture.")

Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the substance in its natural or
undried state; the remaining numbers refer to 100 parts when dried.

Flax. White Turnip Mangel
Rape Kidney Potatoes Hop
Peas. Turnip Bulb Cucumber. Wurtzel
Seed. Stalk. Seed. Beans. (tubers). Flowers.
Seed. (Swede). Seed.
Potash 25·18 34·96 32·55 43·09 36·83 21·91 39·82 47·52 16·08 35·15 19·41
Soda ... ... 2·51 ... 18·40 1·23 10·86 ... 6·86 5·77 0·70
Lime 12·91 15·87 9·45 4·77 7·75 17·40 12·75 6·31 13·42 2·14 14·15
Magnesia 11·39 3·68 16·23 8·06 6·33 8·74 4·68 4·26 15·22 2·69 5·34
Sesquioxide
0·62 4·84 0·38 ... 2·24 1·95 0·89 ... 0·40 1·79 2·41
of Iron
" of
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Manganese

Sulphuric
0·53 4·99 1·43 0·44 3·96 7·10 13·15 4·60 3·64 3·29 8·28
Acid
Muriatic
0·11 ... ... 1·96 ... ... 3·68 ... ... ... 2·26
Acid
Carbonic
2·20 13·39 ... ... ... 0·82 ... ... 13·85 17·14 11·01
Acid
Phosphoric
45·95 8·48 35·99 40·56 11·60 40·17 6·69 18·03 13·35 20·70 14·64
Acid
Silica 1·11 5·60 1·46 0·79 4·09 0·67 7·05 7·12 1·86 3·00 18·56
Chloride of
... 7·65 ... ... ... ... ... 4·19 ... 1·84 ...
Potassium
Chloride of
... 0·54 ... ... 2·80 ... ... 9·06 15·30 6·49 2·95
Sodium
Total 100·00 100·00 100·00 99·67 100·00 99·99 99·57 100·09 99·98 100·00 99·71
Per-centage
4·51 5·00 3·05 5·21 0·68 3·98 7·60 0·63 6·58 6·05
of Ash
* *

The number marked with an asterisk refers to 100 parts of the substance in its natural or
undried state; the remaining numbers refer to 100 parts when dried.

Husks Rye. Grasses (in flower).
Hopeton Potato
of
Cauliflowers. Oats Oats Hay. Bromus Lolium Annual Avena
Potato Grain. Straw.
(Grain). (Grain). erectus. perenne. Ryegrass. flavesceus.
Oats.
Potash 34·39 20·65 2·23 31·76 17·36 20·80 20·33 24·67 28·99 36·06
Soda 14·79 ... }31·56 8·97 4·45 0·31 10·85 ... ... 0·87 0·73
Lime 2·96 10·28 5·32 4·30 2·92 9·06 8·24 10·38 9·64 6·82 7·98
Magnesia 2·38 7·82 8·69 2·35 10·13 2·41 4·01 4·99 2·85 2·59 3·07
Sesquioxide
1·69 3·85 0·88 0·32 0·82 1·36 1·83 0·26 0·21 0·28 2·40
of Iron
" of
... 0·42 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Manganese
Sulphuric
11·16 ... ... 4·30 1·46 0·83 2·11 5·46 5·20 3·45 4·00
Acid
Muriatic
... ... ... ... ... 0·46 ... ... ... ... ...
Acid
Carbonic
... ... ... ... ... ... 0·68 0·55 0·49 ... ...
Acid
Phosphoric
27·85 50·44 49·19 0·66 47·29 3·82 15·43 7·53 8·73 10·07 9·31
Acid
Silica 1·92 4·40 1·87 74·18 0·17 64·50 30·01 38·48 27·13 41·79 35·20
Chloride of
... 1·03 ... ... ... ... ... 10·63 13·80 ... ...
Potassium
Chloride of
2·86 ... 0·35 2·39 ... ... 5·09 1·38 7·25 5·11 1·25
Sodium
Total 100·00 98·89 97·86 99·70 100·00 100·11 99·05 99·99 99·97 99·97 100·00
Per-
centage of 0·71 2·22 2·30 2·60 5·21 7·54 6·45 5·20
Ash
*

Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the substance in its natural or
undried state; the remaining numbers refer to 100 parts when dried.

Kohl-rabi, from
Broccoli. Cow Cabbage. Wheat Wheat. Barley.
chalk soil.
(Grain).
Root. Leaves. Leaves. Stalk. Leaves. Tuber. Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw.
Potash 47·16 22·10 40·86 40·93 9·31 36·27 29·51 25·92 10·78 32·02 14·37
Soda ... 7·55 2·43 4·05 ... 2·84 10·61 ... ... 1·21 0·28
Lime 4·70 28·44 15·01 10·61 30·31 10·20 0·99 3·80 2·44 3·39 8·50
Magnesia 3·93 3·43 2·39 3·85 3·62 2·36 10·60 12·27 3·23 10·99 1·70
Sesquioxide of
... ... 0·77 0·41 5·50 0·38 ... 1·12 0·54 0·15 0·20
Iron
" of Manganese ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Sulphuric Acid 10·35 16·10 7·27 11·11 10·63 11·43 0·09 ... 1·77 ... 2·22
Muriatic Acid ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Carbonic Acid ... ... 16·68 6·33 8·97 10·24 ... 4·43 6·01 0·48 1·25
Phosphoric Acid 25·83 19·81 12·52 19·57 9·43 13·46 47·55 43·44 3·69 29·92 4·22
Silica 1·81 2·83 1·66 1·04 9·57 0·82 0·11 7·16 64·84 21·12 62·89
Chloride of
6·22 ... ... ... 5·99 ... ... 1·03 3·96 ... ...
Potassium
Chloride of
a trace ... ... 2·08 6·66 11·90 0·54 ... 0·42 0·72 4·37
Sodium
Total 100·00 100·26 99·99 99·98 99·99 99·90 100·00 99·17 99·68 100·00 100·00
Per-centage of
1·01 1·70 0·70 1·24 18·54 8·09 2·32 1·645 5·252 2·22 5·49
Ash
* * * *

APPENDIX.
Whilst this Work was passing through the press, a valuable Report on Agricultural Statistics
was issued by the Board of Trade. The following statistics, collected from this Report, are here
given, because they modify the statements made in page 5:—

POPULATION, AREA, ACREAGE UNDER CROPS, etc., AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK, IN THE UNITED
KINGDOM IN 1867.
Channel Islands Total for
Isle of
England. Wales. Scotland. Ireland. Guernsey, United
Man. Jersey.
&c. Kingdom
Population (1866) 20,276,494 1,187,103 3,136,057 5,571,971 52,469 55,613 35,365 30,315,072
Area (in Statute Acres) 32,590,397 4,734,486 19,639,377 20,322,641 180,000 28,717 17,967 77,513,585
Under Corn Crops 7,399,347 521,404 1,364,029 2,115,137 27,039 2,827 2,157 11,431,940
" Green Crops 2,691,734 138,387 668,042 1,432,252 12,670 5,636 3,075 4,951,796
" Bare Fallow 753,210 86,257 83,091 26,191 1,990 2,550 709 953,998
" Grass—Clover,
2,478,117 300,756 1,211,101 1,658,451 26,884 3,250 874 5,679,433
&c., Under Rotation
Permanent Pasture,
not broken up in 9,545,675 1,472,359 1,053,285 10,057,072 15,915 6,092 6,143 22,156,541
Rotation38
Per-centage of
Acreage:39—
Under Corn Crops 32·3 20·7 31·1 13·6 32·0 13·9 16·7 25·1
" Green Crops 11·7 5·5 15·3 9·2 15·0 27·6 23·7 10·9
" Bare Fallow 3·3 3·4 1·9 ·2 2·4 12·5 5·5 2·1
" Grass—Clover,
10·8 11·9 27·7 10·7 31·8 16·0 6·7 12·4
&c., under Rotation
Permanent Pasture40 41·6 58·5 24·0 64·7 18·8 30·0 47·4 48·7
Number of Cattle 3,469,026 544,538 979,470 3,702,378 18,672 10,081 7,308 8,731,473
" of Sheep 19,798,337 2,227,161 6,893,603 4,826,015 70,958 529 1,348 33,817,951
" of Pigs 2,548,755 229,917 188,307 1,233,893 7,706 5,804 6,718 4,221,100
Number of Live Stock
to every 100 Acres
under Crops, Fallow,
and Grass:—
Cattle 15·1 21·6 22·4 23·8 22·1 49·5 56·4 19·2
Sheep 86·3 88·4 157·4 31·1 84·0 2·6 10·4 74·3
Pigs 11·1 9·1 4·3 7·9 9·1 28·5 51·8 9·3

(38) Exclusive of heath or mountain land.
(39) The per-centage of acreage is exclusive of Hops in Great Britain, and Flax in Ireland.
(40) Including under Flax, 253,105 acres.

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